    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

                               Coastal Zone
                               Information
                                 Center

                                 IDENTIFICATION OF CRITICAL NATURAL RESOURCES
                                PARTICULARLY VULNERABLE TO OIL SPILLS

    JAN_ 8 1998

                                                 OCS Task 7.6

                                                   Prepared by

                              New York State Department of Environmntal Conservation
                                  Division of Land Resources and Forest Management
                                       Outer Continental Shelf Study Program
                                                   50 Wolf Road
                                               Albany, New York 12233

                                          U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
                                          COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
                                          2234 SOUTH HOBSON  AVENUE
                                          CHARLESTON   SC 29405-2413

                             The preparation of this report was financially aided
                            through a Federal Grant from the Office of Coastal Zone
                          Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                           under the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended,
                                             Grant #04-5-158-50002

                                             Property of CSC Library

                 HC                This report was prepared for the New York
                 107                       State Department of State
                  N7
                 .134
                 1977                              June, 1977

                                                          COASTAL 10 N E
                                                          INFORMATION CENTER

                                                           TABLE OF CONWNTS
                                                                                                          Page No.-

                                                                                                              1-7
                           Introduction

                                                                                                              8-10
                           Tidal Marshlands and Coastal Bays

                           A.   Oysters                                                                     10-12
                                                                                                            12-15
                           B.   Hard-shell Clam                                                             15-17
                           C.   Soft-shell Clam                                                             17-19
                           D.   Bay Scallops                                                                19-21
                           E.   Winter Flounder
                                                                                                            21-22
                           F.   Mallards                                                                    23-24
                           G.   Black Duck

                                                                                                            25-26
                           Exposed Shorelines                                                               26-28
                           A. Surf Clam                                                                     28-.30
                           B. Striped Bass                                                                    31
                     IV.   Offshore Region

                           A.   Plankton-Based, Pelagic                                                       32
                                1.  American Lobster                                                        32-35
                                2.  Butterfish                                                              35-37
                                3.  Atlantic IvLenhaden                                                     37-39
                                4.  Atlantic Mackeral                                                       39-40
                                5.  Silver Hake                                                             41-42
                           B.   Offshore Bottom                                                               42
                                1. summer Flounder                                                          43-45
                                2. Scup
                                3.  Yellowtail Flounder                                                     47-49

                      V.   Biological Sensitivity of Critical Natural Resources to                          50-56
                           Petroleum Contamination                                                          56-59
                           A. Benthic Invertebrates                                                         59-61
                           B. Fish                                                                          61-63
                           C. Birds

                     VI.   Estimates of SpilisThat May Impact Critical Natural Resources                    64-65
                           A.   Oil Spill Statistics                                                        .65-66
                           B.   Oil Spill Models                                                            66z-67
                           C.   Size and Distribution of Oil Spills That May Impact                         68-70
                                New York State
                           D.   Predicting Where Oil Spills Will Be Transported                             70-71
                           E.   Limi tati ons                                                                 72

                    VII.   Estimate of the Sensitivity of the Shellfish and Fishing                         73-76
                           Industries to Petroleum Contamination

                     Foot-notes                                                                             77-79

                      References                                                                            80-84

                                               List-of Figures

                   la Mid and North Atlantic OCS Lease Areas

                   2b Tidal I'Vetlands and Coastal Bays

                   2.  Exposed Shorelines

                  .3.  Offshore Region

                   4.  Oyster Distribution

                   5.  Hard Clam Distribution

                   6.  Soft Clam Distribution

                   7.  Bay Scallop Distribution

                   8.  Winter Flounder Distribution

                   9.  Mallard Distribution

                  10.  Black Duck Distribution

                  11.  Surf Clam Distribution

                  12.  Striped Bass Distribution

                  13a  Lobster Distribution-Inshore

                  l3b  Lobster Distribution on the Continental Shelf

                  14.  Butterfish Distribution

                  15.  Atlantic Menhaden Distribution

                  16.  Atlantic Mackeral Distribution

                  17.  Silver Hake Distribution

                  18.  Summer Flounder Distribution

                  19.  Scup Distribution

                  20.  Yellowtail Flounder Distribution

      Ad

                                                 List of Tables

                  1. Toxicity of Soluble Aromatics

                  2. Effects of Oil on Organisms

                  3. Effects of Oil on Selected Species

                  4. New York Commercial Landings, 1976

                  5. Spawning Behavior

                  6. h1id-Atlantic Oil Spill Frequency Statistics by Potential Sources

                  7. North Atlantic Oil Spill Frequency Statistics by Potential Sources

                  8. Probability of Impacting Long Island Shore

                                                  -1-

          I I IV                                       I

                                        I.   INTRODUCTION

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                                                                                   MID AND NORTH ATLANTIC OCS
                                                                                            LEASE AREAS
                   VA.
                                                                                   Lease Sale #40 call for nomin-
                   NC                                                                 ations area
                                                                                   Lease Sale #42 call for nondn-
                   360                                                                                                          3E
                                                                                      ations area
                                                                                   Lease Sale #49 call for nomin-
                                                                                      ations area
                                                                                   Tract selections, Lease Sales #40
                                                                                      and #42

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                                                       -3-

                        The purpose of Task 7.6, Identification of Critical Natural Resources

                   Particularly Vulnerable to Oil Spills, is to provide fundamental resource

                   data which will be used to determine management prcgrams and legislation,

                   to designate permissible and prohibitive uses and to define Geographical

                   Areas of Particular Concern (GAPC). GAPC's have been defined, in the Coastal

                   Zone Management Act of 1972, as areas of greater significance to the State

                   than the remaining parts of the coastal zone. The GAPC's may face pressure,

                   such as vulnerability to oil spills in the case of OCS developmnt, which

                   demand the attention of, or exceed the capabilities of the State's existing

                   planning and regulatory powers. The critical natural resources identified

                   in Task 7.6 may be designated as GAPC's based on a review of coastal zone

                   resources and uses and upon consideration of certain factors included in the

                   State-established criteria:

                        (1)  areas of unique, scarce, fragile or vulnerable natural habitat,
                             physical feature, historic significance, cultural value and
                             scientific importance

                        (2)  areas of high natural productivity or essential habitat for
                             living resources, including fish, wildlife, and the various
                             trophic levels in the food web., critical to their well being;
                             and

                        (3)  areas of substantial recreational value or opportunity.

                        The critical natural resources in New York State, relevant to Outer

                   Continental Shelf exploration and development, are located in three different

                   habitats: tidal wetlands and coastal bays, exposed shorelines, and the offshore

                   region (Figures1b, 2 and 3). The life history characteristics of the key species
                   in each of these habitats are summnrized according to the following organization:

                        (1)  distribution and niche preference
                        (2)  reproduction
                        (3)  fecundity and larval life
                             growth and longevity
                        (4)
                        (5)  migration characteristics
                        (6)  food
                        (7)  predation
                        (8)  competition
                        (9)  responses to the environment

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                                                                                                                                                                                         EXPOSED SHORELINES
                                                                                                                                                                             This habitat is defined to extend
                                                                                                                                                                             from the intertidal area to a depth
                                                                                                                                                                             of 20 meters and includes two dis-
                                                                                                                                                                             tinct habitats: sandy shores and
                                                                                                                                                                             rocky shores. The rocky shore
                                                                                                                                                                             habitat is not found in New York
                                                                                                                                                                             State coastal waters.

                                                                                                                                                                             0ource: The Research Institute
                    CN,

         Scale IL 830,000
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       0                 10             20              Ml

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                                                                                                                                                                      OFFSHORE REGION
                                                           i p: i!! n: i. ....... Hmn
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                                                                                                                                                    bottom types lying under more than
                                                           M                                                                                        20m of water to the edge of -the
                                                                                                                                                    Continental Shelf
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                                                                          740                                     72c                                                 700                      680

                                                           0        50        100        150
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                        The recreational and/or commercial harvests in both volume and value,
                   are estimated for each species. The most significant component of Task 7.6
                   evaluates the biological sensitivity of the critical natural resources to
                   petroleum contamination and estimates the sensitivity of the fishing

                   industry to petroleum.

                       The major focus of this report is the resources found in the offshore

                  region. As a sub-part of this task, the Nassau Suffolk Regional Planning

                  Board undertook a similar study that foe-used primarily on the resources of

                  the bays and the nearshore coastal zone. Much of the inform tion contained

                  in the NSRPB report will not be repeated here. A comprehensive assessment

                  of the vulnerability of all the critical reso-urces important to New York State

                  should include both reports.

          I , ,@;, .,                                -8-
          I
          I
          I I
          I
          I
          I
          I                                                           ..
          I                        II. TIDAL WETLANDS AND CO.ASTAL BAYS
          I
     I    I
          I
          I
          .I
          I
          I
          I
          .I
          I                         I

                                                      -9-
                      Tidal wetlands should be viewed as highly developed, natural, productive

                 living resources. The New York State Legislature recognized,the values of

                 wetlands in 1973 through passage of the Tidal Wetlands Act, which established

                 a regulatory program to preserve and protect tidal wetlands. The law provides

                 a broad definition of tidal wetlands that includes coastal salt marshes and

                 regularly flooded salt marshes as well as coastal s  hoals, bars and mud flats.

                 Coastal fresh marshes and the littoral zone (waters up to six feet deep) are

                 also protected under the-law.
                      Coastal wetlands have six natural functions:

                      1)  They serve as storage areas for tidal surges and upland runoff..

                      2)  They serve as a natural buffer, reducing the impact of storm tides
                          and waves on the adjacent higher areas.

                      3)  They have a sedimentation function - water moving across wetlands
                          constantly stirs up the surface materials - vegetation acts as a
                          ,filter causing sedimentation.

                      4)  The marsh and shoal areas in particular may serve, beneficially,
                          as a biological and chemical basin where deposited organic and
                          inorganic materials are oxidized, decomposed, and digested while
                          being converted into nutrients.

                      5)  There is orimary nutrient production f?,om. wetlands' vegetation
                          with subsaquent- mechanical and chemical decomposition.

                      6)  They serve as fish and wildlife habita-@'-, functions. This includes
                          breeding. nesting, resting, feeding, and preaator-esca-pe functions
                          for various fish and wildlife species.

                      Huihan uses of the wetlands may or nay not alter the we  tland environment.

                 No alteration -uses include providing nursery ar,@as for fisheries; offering

                 unique and valued open space and aesthetic qualities; providing a wide range.

                 of active and passive recreation; and providing a wide range of opportunity

                 as outdoor laboratories and living classrooms. Transportation, residential,

                 commercial, industrial, resource extraction, and waste disposal uses would

                 involve altering the wetland environment.

                      Coastal bays are influenced considerably by freshwater influxes from

                 river outflow, groundwater seepage, or runoff. Consequently these bays are

                 Marked by a salinity gradient that fluctuates in position and steepness idth

                                                          _10-

                   season and freshwater runoff. The     influence of freshwater runoff as well as

                   the overall shallowness of estuarine waters also causes wide temperature

                   fluctuations and often a down estuary gradient of decreasing temperature

                   occurs in the spring and summer. The semi-enclosed nature of most estuarine

                   waters combined with a constant renewal of nutrients from both fresh and sea

                   water causes estuarine waters to be highly fertile.

                        The benthic invertebrates, fish and waterfowl considered regular inhabitants

                   of tidal wetlands and coastal bays are oysters (Crass'ostrea virginica),
                   hard-shell clam (1-lercen-aria mercenaria), soft-shell clams (ita arenaria),
                   bay scallops (Acquipecten irradians), winter flourider      Pseudo pleuronectes-ameri-
                   canus), mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and black ducks (Anas rubrias). The
                   bay scallops, oysters, and clams occupy sandy and mud bottoms which are often

                   exposed at low-tide. Winter flounder spawn in the shallow backwaters (2 to 5

                   meter water depths) of bays and estuaries, inhabiting inshore areas to water

                   depths of 36 Lietars. The mallards and black ducks inhabit fresh and salt

                   ponds, marshes and bays.

                   Oysters (Crassosturea virginica)

                         The American oyster (Crassostrea'-@rilrginica) is one of the most important

                   shellfish resources in the western hemisphere. 'I"he greatest abundance occurs

                   in shallow water, frequently estuarine conditions, lower tidal zone to about

                   J 8 meters (Fig-Lu e 4) .. Oysters 'inhabit areas with awide annual range of tem-
                   perature and salinity. Rocky or semi-hard bottoms and constantly renewed'.

                   seawater are needed for flourishing comiriunities. On Lo:ng Island the principal

                   oyster fisheries ard located in Long Island Sound, Great South Bay, and the

                   Peconic Bays. In 1976, commercial landings of oysters in Ne,;r York were 862
                   metric tons, @.-rorth $4.8 million at the dock.1

                         The oyster reproduces in swrmer spawning in response to seasonal changes,

                   primarily in temperature. On Long Island the spawning season usually extends from

                   late June to late August. The average female oyster _@-eleases over 50 million

                   eggs per year, however less than a dozen,of these reach maturity.        Oyster

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                                                                                                                                   late June to 1

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              Scale 1: 830,000
              0      T        20       30      40 Km
              I           .  -1       it       A
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                                                      -12-

                   eggs are shed in the water and are disseminated by currents. Behavioral.

                   responses to salinity and light allowlarvae to return to their approximate

                   area of origin by way of the currents. The actual length of larval life

                   depends on the termerature, development proceeding faster at higher temper-

                   atures.

                       Oy sters are a sedentary species, i.e. they do not display any type of

                   migratory behavior. Oyster larvae and adults feed on microscopic diatoms,

                   flagellates and other nannoplankton filtered from the water.

                       In high salinity areas oysters are plagued by a  number of predators,

                   mainly starfish and oyster drills. There are also many species which cohabit

                   with oysters, afew of them can be harmful without feeding directly on them.

                   Mud worms bore into oyster shells causing the oyster to expend energy in avoiding

                   the predator that would otherwise go -to growth.

                       As estuarine organisms, oysters must usually be tolerant to higher levels

                   of turbidity than marine species. However it has been found that increased

                                                          2
                   turbidity does have detriirental effects. As little as 0.1 gram of silt per

                   liter of seawater reduced the pun@)ing rate, hence the feeding rate, oil adult
                   oysters by about 57 percent@ The effects of o-*-l drilling fluids on adult 0y.3ters

                   was tested in the Gulf of I'Leiico and they were found to have a profound effect

                   on survival. Fluid concentrations over 200 pp!!i caused a'50 percent mortality
                   in a week.4 The oyster's economic value and sensi-tivity to pollution mak e inclu-

                   sion of-the oyster on the list of valued species mandatory.

               B.  Hard-shell Clam (Marcenaria mercenaria)
                        The hard clam is' found from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Yucatan. It
                   is abundant on sandy or muddy bottoms in estuaries and protected areas of the

                   inter-tidal zones (Figure 5).

                        The hard clam -fishery accounts for 50 percent of the value of all cormercial

                   fis hery resources landed in New York State. Production from hard clam areas

                   on Long Island has varied drastically over the years, peaking for several years,

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   A

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                                                                                       . . . . . . .. . . . . . . .

                    \-j      L_/-,
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   HARD C

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           EM DistLri

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             Spawning occurs from
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             August with highest
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             late June* to mid-Jul

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             Source: Nassau-Suff
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Planning Bo

                                       SCOIS 1: 830,000

                                                                to                          20                             30                          40 Km
                                                                              4               1   -------------           a
                                   0                                           10                                   20                                      %If

                                                       -14-

                   and then gradually declining to a-Imost nothing. In 1975, the hard clam

                   fishery accounted for 58.5 percent of all hard clams harvested in the United

                   States. Commercial landings of hard clams  in 1976, amounted to 3,628 metric

                   tons valued at $18 million at the dock and an estimated $130 million retail.

                        Spawning occurs from June to mid-August with the highest intensity

                   occurring from late June to mid-July. Several million eggs are produced by

                   each female, but the number fertilized is unknown. The hard clam has a

                   pelagic larval stage called a veliger whose growth rate is greatly dependent

                   on geographical location. Clams become sexually mature at different ages;

                   maturity is a function of size rather than age. Growth occurs only during

                   the summer months beginning around May 1 when the water temperature reaches

                   9.40C.

                        The hard clam feeds on particulate matter consisting of detritus, bacteria,

                   and plankton by means of ciliary mechanisms on the gills and labial palps.

                   The hard clam is a sessile organism which does not exhibit population migration.

                   Spawning takes place in the region of the adult habitat.

                        Adult clams are preyed upon by starfish, crabs, snails, striped bass,

                   and black duck. The heaviest predation of clam-, occurs in the very early

                   stages, in the pelagic and recently set clams. Clams live in competition

                   with other burrowing ciliary feeding species which include bay scallops,

                   surf clams, and soft-shell clams.

                        Claim may perish from a variety of physical and biological causes.

                   Environmental factors such as ch anges in water temperature or salinity may

                   retard growth or kill larvae. Water currents may carry larvae miles away

                   from the beaches of origin to areas unsuitable for settlement. Plankton-

                   feeding fish and other animals take a heavy toll of bivalve larvae.

                        Most waterborne pollutants are not toxic to hard clams although they

                   will render them unmarketable. This is particularly true of the pathogens in

                   domestic sewage. The feeding habits and physiology of hard clams cause them

                  to"retain a variety of materials and concentrate them.  Claim also concentrate

                  heavy metals, pesticides,. organic compounds, and petroleum products. New York

                  State has the authority to.close shellfish waters to harvest because of pollution.

                  Some of these substances are known to make claro unfit for human consumption.

                  Petroleum would be easily detected by the consumer by tasting or smelling the

                  clam meats. Petroleum products, even in low non-lethal concentrations may

                  impair reproducti on, alter physiology or induce a variety of tumors in clams.
              C.  Soft-shell Clam 0...@,a arenaria)

                       The soft-shell clam is abundant throughout the New York region, living

                  in nearly all kinds of cohesive sediments. Populations of greatest abundance..

                  occur in estuaries and protected areas of the intertidal zone (Figure 6).

                  Stable bottom conditions, long daily inundation by tides, and rapid tidal

                  currents are best suitable to the soft-shell clam's existence. In 1976,

                  commercial landincs of soft-shell clams in New York State were 21 metric tons,
                  valued at $61,406 dockside.6  However ther e is great potential for a larger

                  harvest in the coastal bays of Long Island.

                       Spawning anel fertilization take place in the water above or near the

                  clam beds. The spavining season varies according to latitude and  geographic

                  differences in water temperatures, in the Long Island area it extends from

                  mid-April to mid-June. The soft-shell clam is sexually mature @_qd capable

                  of spawning at one year of age. A 6 to 8 millimeter clam is capable of pro-

                  ducing about three mill-ion eggs a year. Clam larvae are carried by currents,

                                             ts 10 to 14 days depending on teriVeratures.
                  the free-swiirniing stage lasL.

                       The soft-shell clam is a non-migratory species. The bulls- of its food

                  consists of microscopic plants and animals, clunps of bacteria and decomposing

                  fragments of large organism .

                       Predators include diving ducks, boring snails, horseshoe crabs, winter

                  flounder, and other bottom feeding fish. The most serious corm-etitor of the
                  soft-shell'clam is the blue mussel. There may also be some competition from

                                                                                                                                                Li  t4
                                                                                                                                            0

                                                                        V""

                                                                                         N
                                                                                     0

                                                                          N4

                                                                                                                                                     En

                                                                                                                                             Spawnin
                                                                                                                                             April t

                                                                                                                                             Source:

                Scale 1: 830,000

                0      10      20       30      40 Km
                V       .. q    I      it                          -
                0           00        20          ml

                                                        -17-

                   polychaetes because the soft-shell,clam is frequently absent when polychaetes

                   are present in great numbers.

                        Soft-shell clams,! like hard clams, can be rendered unmarketable by water-

                   borne pollutants specifically oil and dispersing agents. Tainting may occur

                   with the ingestion of hydrocarbon compounds. Soft-shell clams are tolerant

                   of changes in temperature and salinity, but changes in habitat such as shifting

                   sands, smothering silt and too rapid currents are detrimental.

               D.  Bay Scallops (Aequipecten irradians)

                        Bay scallops inhabit a protected mud bottom which is only subject to

                   low currents (Figure 7). It is both an intertidal and subtidal species.

                   The current high production areas of bay scallops on Long Island occur in the

                   Peconic Bays. There are potential high production areas located in Gardiners

                   Bay, Shinnecock BaYy the outer edges of South Oyster Bay,_Great South Bay

                   and 1-floriches Bay. New York commearcial landings of bay scallops in 1976 were
                   199 metric tons, valued at $816,000 dockside.7

                        The bay scallop spawns in early summer., spawning is usually initiated by

                   a slight rise in temperature. Although there is no definite information on

                   fecundity (fertility), as in other large bivalves with pelagic larvae, eggs

                   probably number in the millions. Bay scallops mature at about two years of

                   age, 50 to 90 mm in size.

                        Scallops do not migrate substantial distances despite an ability to   move

                   locally on the bottom. Bay scallops are filter feeders which feed chiefly

                   on detritus.

                        Known predators of bay scallops are starfish, cod and wolf fish. Surf

                   clams and ocean quahogs are often found in the same habitat as scallops and

                   might be classed as competitors since they feed on the same food supply as

                   bay scallops altiiough there has been no evidence that such competition is

                   serious. Sand dollars could also be considered serious competitors for

                   both space and food.

                                                                                                                                  4,1

                                                                                                                                                       0
                                                                                           ,1'Y- 'li@",A
                                                                                                                         L

                                                                                           0    N

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                                                                                                                                                         loll

                                                                                                        02

          -j

                                                                                                                                                       Spawning
                                                                                                                                                       summer

                                                                                                                                                       Source:

                      1: 830,000

              0        10       20        30       40 KM

              0             10          20

                                                           -19-

                          Bay scallops may also become tainted by     large concentrations   of hydro-

                    carbons. The dependence of scallops on eelgrass (Zostera) during         larval

                    stages permits them only to recover from pollution after eelgrass        does.

                E.  Winter Flounder (Pseudopleuronectes americanus)

                          Winter flounder is a shallow water flatfish, which occurs      in inshore

                    fishing grounds to water depths of 36 meters, over soft, muddy       to moderately

                    hard bottoms. The winter flounder occurs abundantly where temperatures are
                    11.7-15.60C, but can tolerate a much wider range ('OOC-18')C). They are tolerant

                    of lowered salinity and will penetrate into brackish water (Figure 8).

                          Winter flounder is an important commercial and     recreational fish in

                    New York State. In 1976, cormrcial landings of winter flounder were 323
                    metric tons, valued at $144,000 at the dock.     8  Data for recreational catches

                    of winter flounder, Maine through New York, indicate recreational catches of
                    winter flounder in the North Atlantic Region of 11,197 metric tons in         1970.9

                          Fish spawn in shallow waters from January to May, eggs sink to the bottom

                    and adhere in clusters. Spawning often occurs in water as shallow as 2 to

                    5-meters. Individual females produce an average of 50,000 eggs annually.

                    Young and larval stages of-winter flounder occur in.the inshore

                    littoral zone during the spring and summer. The rate of larval         growth is

                    temperature dependent, fishes from different populations grow to different

                    sizes.

                          Winter flounder is considered a nonmigratory species although low winter

                    temperatures cause adults to shift to deeper water offshore. Young flounders,

                    2.5 to 11 cm long, feed chiefly on isopod crustaceans. The adult is limited

                    by its small mouth to a diet of amphipods, isopods, marine worms, small clams,

                    small eggs, shrimp and scavenged material.

                          The winter flounder is an important food item of the harbor seal, harp

                    seal, and summer flounder. The little skate and ocean pont are competitors

                    for food.

                                                                                         00                6 80
                              7 G. 0             740                72                  7                                      66'

                                                                                     MAINE             A
                                                                                                        . . . . . . . . . .          C
                                                                                                      Ja*
                 -440                                                                                                              44
                                                        :VERMONT'

                                                                                         ............ .
                                                                                       X -;-:@-X
                                                                   NEW
                                                                  HAMPSHI
                                                                            RE

                                  NEW YORK

                                                                                  ............

                                                                                      2
                                                              MASS.
                   42R.-                                                                                                             4

                                                                        R.I.                                   Ia.
                                                                                                                               K
                                                            CONN.
                                                                                  .. .......

                                                                                        .. ...........

                                                                                                          X
                        PENN.
                                                                                        -%%N
                                                                                                              R;x-X-@

                                      N.j.

                   400
                                                                                          16                                         4C

                   MD

                                         fiff:

                                       N
                              DEL.

                   380                W                                                                                              38

                               x Mi i i@:*.

                           J.

                           M

                           K2

                           NO
                   VA.
                                                                                               WINTER FLOUNDER
                   NC

                                                                                              General Distribution
                   5bo                                                                                                               36
                              I. . . . . . . . . . .
                              .......... .....                                        spawning occurs from January
                                                                                      to May, in either bays and
                                                                                      estuaries or on Georges Bank
                                                                                      in water 56 to 73 meters deep

                                                                                      Source: The Research Institute
                                                                                                  of the Gulf of Maine

                     76"                    740                    720                   70'0                   6

                                  0     5.0.  109   150 Km                                 Scale 1:5,000,000             Figure 8

                                                           -21-

                         The eggs and larvae of winter flounder are considered to be more sensitive

                    to petroleum and petroleum products than adults. Some tainting of fish may

                    also result. Winter flounder may sometimes perish by the thousands in very

                    hot spills of summer weather, if they are trapped in shallow enclosed bays.

               F.   Mallards (Anas platyrlh@chos)

                         Mallards inhabit all types of freshwater as well as salt marshes and bays,

                    feeding in shallow waters and along shores. In the New York area large Popu-

                    lations of mallards are present in South Oyster Bay, Great- South Bay, Hempstead

                    Bay, Jamaica Bay, and Moriches Bay (Figure 9). Wintering population numbeis

                    of mallards, in the region from Northern New Jersey to Maine, were 9,491 in

                    1973.    However, populations of mallards have been increasing. It is a prime

                    game species. in New York State.

                         Mallards.usually nest on the ground near water, well hidden among vegeta-

                    tion. Clutch, ,size ranaes from five to fourteen eggs. The incubation period

                    usually lasts  26 days  and the fledging period between 50 and 60 days.

                         The mallard exhibits a definite migration pattern in some areas of New York

                    State. A mallar(L's diet. is 90 p@-xrcent vegetarle, consisting of water.plants, seeds,

                    acorns, grains as viell as.inse  ct grasshoppers, and    s.mall aquatic animals.'

                         Predators include mamrals, reptiles and human beings. Adult mortality

                    can result from lead poisoning, disease, oiling, predation,. and parasitism.

                    Eggs are particularly vulnerable to oil spills, it can result in egg-shell

                    thinning.

                         If a marsh or estuaryvrere to be impacted by oil when large concentrations

                    of migratory duck (mallards or black duckb) are present in spring and.fall,

                    the resulting mortalities could produce a noticeable population reduction

                    for the species in-macted. 'I'vIallards may cause additional problems when they

                    move back into marshes which, have been impacted.

                             7
                               0                                                        0
                              6                740                72                 70                 680                66c'

                                                                                  MAINE

                   440
                                                      *VERMONT                                                               Y@

                                                                 NEW
                                 NEW YORK                       HAMPSHIRE

                                                            M ASS.
                  42q.--                                                                                                        42

                                                                     R..
                                                          CONN.                                                            -1

                       PE NN.

                                     N.J.

                  0.0                                                                                                           40

                  M D                                                      30 M

                                                                                                    50(30

                             DEL

                                A01

                                                                                                                                38

                          X

                  VA.                                                                         MALLARDS
                 NC                                                                          Distribution
                                                                                                                               .3 6'
                  360
                                      0                                           Breeding occurs from late
                                      0
                                     n"                                           March to early July. Mallards
                                                                                  inhabit all areas of the east
                               41                                                 coast from New York and the
                             00                                                   coast of Connecticut to Virginia

                                                                                  Source: The Research Institute
                                                                                             of the Gulf of Maine

                   76u                   740                    720                  700                   680
                                 0     5.0   1010 150 Km                               SC1316 1:5,000,000            Figure 9
                                                    inomi

                  Black Duck (Anas rubriRes)

                     The black duck is the most common duck of Long island's estuarine areas.
                  It gathers in marshes, estuaries, mud flats and protected salt water-(Figure 10).

                  Wintering population numbe rs of black duck in-the North Atlantic Region were
                  78,651 in 1973. 11

                       The black duck nests at the edges of ma rshes, where eight to ten eggs

                  are laid. The primary breeding grounds for black  duck in New York.State is.

                  Jamaica Bay.  The black duck exhibits an incubation period of'27 days and a

                  fledging period of between 55 and 60 days.

                       In New York State the black duck is an abundant migratory an d mid-wintar

                  visitor, occurring in flocks even on  the ocean in severe winter weather.

                  The black diet is 75 percent vegetable and 25 percent animal, including

                  pond weeds, grains, rice and even seaweEd in winter. Black duck also feed

                  on mussels, snails, barnacles, sand fleas, shrimp, crayfish and a few fish

                  and their eggs.

                       The major pradators of black dudc are crows, mammals, snakes, turtles,

                  and human beings. Adult mortality results from predation, disease, lead poi--

                  soning, oiling or parasitism.

                       The black diick is very vulnerable to oil spills because it spends must of

                  its tire in the vater. The ducks are often found in small flocks; those flocl@s

                  in an oil spill zzea would probably suffer a high mortality. Aquatic birds

                  are among
                            the MOL!t vulnerable to organisms to oil spills. Spilled. petroleum
                  and petroleum products can adversely affec t aquatic birds through external

                  exposure to surface film , internal exposure by feeding and preening, and loss

                  of habitats or food'supplies.

                                                                                                       6 a                 616`,,,-@
                             760               740                72                700
                                                                                 MAINE                                        4
                 -440
                                                     @'VERMONT
                                                                 NEW
                                                                HAMPSHIRE

                                 NEW YORK

                                                            MASS.

                                                                                                                               4:
                                                                                   IA

                                                          C 0 N N.

                                        N,
                       PENN.

                                     N.J.

                     0                                                                                                         4(

                            Ile
                                                                         000 M
                  M D

                            !DEL"

                  . . . . . . . . . . .                                                                                        36

                                                                                           BIACK DUCK
                  IVA.                                                                     Ilistribution

                                                                                   Breeding occurs from early
                  NC
                                                                                   April to late June. Black                   3E
                  360                 .0                                           ducks inhabit all areas of
                                      0                                            the east coast from Maine
                                      a
                                                                                   to Florida

                                                                                   Source- The Research Institute
                                                                                              of the Gulf of Maine

                    7                    740                    720                  700                  6180
                                0     50    100   150 Km                               Scale 1:5,000,000        Figure 10

                                                         -25-

                                        III. EXOSED SHORELINES

                                                 -26-                    COASTAL ZONE
          I _@ @ -,                                                      INFORMATION CENTER
                  Exposed shorelines can be considered the near-shor e environment. An

             exposed shoreline is defined to extend from the intertidal area to a depth of

             20 meters and includes two distinct habitats: sandy shores and rocky shores.

             The exposed, sandy shore habitat includes those areas of unconsolidated sedi-

             ments ranging from cobbles through shingle to fine sand, found from the inter-

             tidal to a depth of 20 meters. The rocky shore habitat includes all shores

             washed by saline waters from the top of the zone wetted by spray to a depth

             of 20 meters with a rock substrate ranging from solid outcrops of bedrock to

             broken boulder beaches.

                  In New York State the sandy shore habitat occurs around the perimeter of

             Long Island and Staten Island in the ocean region. The rocky shore habitat

             is not found in New York State coastal waters. The benthic invertebrates and

             fishes considered major components of the sandy shore habitat are the surf

             clam (Spisula solidissima) and the striped bass (lVbrone saxatilis).

         A.  Surf Clam (Spisula tolidissima)

                  The surf clam is an important shellfish resource occurring in Long Island

             Sound and Atlantic Ocean waters on sand bottoms from low water level to depths

             of 72 meters (Figure 11). Animals are usually found only in sand buried 2'to 20

             cm below the surface. Surf clams may cone to the surface and perform leaps

             of several feet when under stress of crowding orpredator attack.

                  In 1976, commercial landings of surf clam in New York State were 1,567
             metric tons, worth $1.1 million dockside.12 The surf clam is second in volume

             landed among New York State shellfish resources. The volume of landings could

             be increased if water quality standards were i mproved enough to permit the

             harvest of clams off the Rockaways.

                  Surf clams occurring off Long Island spawn from May to 1,ate July when the

             temperatures reach about 150C. The female releases about one million eggs

             annually. Larvae are pelagic, surf clams reach commercial size, 125 mm in about

             5 to 6 years. Growth continues throughout the life span of a surf clam, they can
             attain a- maximum size of 197 mm off Long' Island.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               M                                      ...........
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                                                                    411
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      -iM M.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      ..........
                                                                  f
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                                           JI

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                                                                                                                                                                      . . . . . . . . . . .
                                                                                                 x                                                     - - - - - - - - - - - -

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      SURF

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         last

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Spawning                   occ
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             Jul@ to Augus

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             Source: Nass
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          Plan

                             Scale 1: 030,000

                            0                10              20                30               40 Km

                           0                          10                    20                     Im I

                                                         -28-

                         The surf clam is distributed by current dispersal of pelagic larvae.

                    Large numbers of the surf clam sometimes appear on shore following storms.

                    The surf clam is a filter feeder, lying near the.sediment surface; extending

                    short fused siphons into the water. Surf clams feed on suspended particulate

                    matter and plankton.

                         Predators include moon snails, in shallow water and boring snails in

                    deeper water. Smaller clams provide food for haddock, cod, and diving ducks.

                    Competitors include the hard cl am and the gem shell. The surf clam's association

                    with the intertidal surf area of sandy beaches makes juveniles and adults vul-

                    nerable to oil pollution and cleaning agents.

                B.  Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis)

                         The striped bass is a large, anadromous, migrating fish which spends its

                    entire life in coastal waters. In the New York area the striped bass prefers

                    surf-swept beaches, or shallow bays and estuaries (Figure 12). Striped bass

                    is a valuable commercial and sport fish. Recreational catches of striped bass

                    in the North Atlantic Region (Maine through New York) were 20,795 metric tons
                    in.1970.13 In 1976, commercial landings of striped bass in New York State
                    were 314 metric tons, valued at $422,000 at the docks.14

                         Striped bass spawn in estuaries near the head of the tide in the spring -

                    late April and early May. The Hudson River is the primary striped bass spawning

                    si te in the North Atlantic Region. This site contributes to the essentially

                    non-migratory stock of bass in Long Island Sound and the New York Bight.

                    The fecundity (fertility) of a large bass is estimated at between 80,000 and

                    2,200,000 eggs. Eggs are semi-buoyant and sink in quiet water, but are readily

                    spread by water currents. Fry (juveniles) reside in rivers and estuaries for

                    about one year. All males are sexually mature by their third year, females

                    by theirsixth year. Striped bass grow to a great size, fish of 50 to 60 pounds

                    (127-130 cm) are not exceptional.

                                                                                                                                   00
                                          76                         .740                          72                           7                           680                           66c'

                                                                                                                            MAINE

                          440                                                                                                                                                                  4 4'
                                                                                 'VERMONT

                                                                                                  NEW
                                                                                               'HAMPSHIRE

                                                 NEW YORK

                                                                                                                    ........... .....
                                                                                          M A SS.

                                                                                                                                                                                                42

                                                                                                                          ............
                                                                                                        R.I.
                                                                                       CONN.

                                                                                                   ...........
                                                                                                                                             OF
                                  PENN.
                                                                                                              0-0.

                                                       N.j.
                                                                                          . . . . . . . . . .
                                                                      1*----.@.@ . . . . . .. . . . . . ..

                          400                                                  0
                                                                                                                                    16                                                          4C

                          MD)                                                                                        M
                             D

                                                             ...........

                                                            K,
                                          DEL

                                                       'n

                          360
                                                 ..... . . . . ..
                                               . . . . . .. . . . .
                                                                                                                                                                                                36

                                       xk
                                                                                                                                         S-
                                                                                                                                           IRIPED BASS
                          VA  . . . . . . . . . . ."
                                                                                                                                      General Distribution
                          NC
                                       111-1 . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .2                                                   Spawning occurs from March
                          36                                                                                                                                                                    3E
                                                                                                                             to July, Hudson River is
                                                                                                                             only spawning site in the
                                                                                                                             area.

                                                                                                                             Source: The Research Institute
                                                                                                                                               of the Gulf of Maine

                               .. ........

                               60                             740                                720                              700                             680
                                                0i        50       1010    15 10 KM                                                 Scale 1:5,000,000                     Figure 12
                                                             'In              1rn M i

                                                       -30-

                        In the North Atlantic Region the striped bass population is migratory,

                   except for some stock located in Long Island Sound and the New York Bight.

                   Bass move up the coast-in the spring when the water temperatu--es are about

                   80C and return in the fall when the temperatures again reach 80C. Striped

                   bass are voracious feeders, eating principally fishes and invertebrates, both

                   planktonic and benthic. Adults in the sea feed on small fish, squid, crab

                   lobster, and sea Worms. Fry feed on miscellaneous freshwater.and marine

                   invertebrates.

                        Man is probably the most serious predator of striped bass. Seals are

                   also known to eat bass that are not too large. There is the potential

                   for a very serious impact if an oil spill hit a migratory group during   the

                   spawning season. A minor threat exists during the rest of the year when

                   the population is less densely congregated. Although relatively tolerant

                   of temperature and salinity changes, eggs and young are susceptible to

                   pollution in estuaries throughout the year.

                                  -31-

                                          IV. OFFSHORE REGION

                                                      -32-

                       The offshore region  of New York State is comprised of two distinct habitats:

                   plankton-based pelagic, offshore, and offshore bottom. The plankton-based

                   pelagic habitat iacludes the saline water column from t.he.shore to the edge

                   of the Continental Shelf. The offshore bottom habitat consists of all bottom

                   types lying under more than 20 m of water to the edge of the continental shelf.

                       The biota of the plankton-based pelagic, offshore includes of American
                   lobster (Homarus americanus), butterfish,(Peprillus triacanthus), Atlantic
                   menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus), Atlantic mackeral (Scomber scombrus), and

                   silver hake (Merluccuis bilinearis). Lobsters prefer a habitat with irregular

                   bottoms which provide crevices in which to hide, although they frequently

                   occur in sand or mud in which they make or find burrows. The fish species

                   migrate from inshore to offshore areas depending on the season.

              A.   Plankton-i3ased Pelagic
              1.   American Lobster (Hom arus ame ri c anus

                       There are two major populations of lobsters: the inshore, or coastal lobsters,

                   and the offshore Continental Shelf lobsters (f.LL-Tures 13a and b). In the New-York

                   area, the inshore lobsters support a commrcial lobster fishery, and a sport fis'lliery
                   for lobster exists in some portions of Long Island Sound. Lobsters are-found
                   from Labrador to Cape Hatteras inhabiting a na?.-row band extending from the
                   tide zone to a depth of 183 meters. Theirentire life is spent in relatively
                   shallow inshore areas..,Commercial landings of lobsters in New York for 1976
                   were 270 metric tons. Landings were valued at $1.3 million at the dock,. Dound
                   for pound the most valuable American fishery.15
                       The lobster breeds during July and August. The number of eggs produced
                   by asingle female depends on her age and size: a -one-pound lobster produces
                   about 10 thousand, a large 18-pound lobster about 130 t ousand, about 35
                                          C.1                             th

                   percent of the eggs are lost during the incubation period. Larvae are cast

                   into the sea when hatched and are temporarily pelagic. They swim near the

                                                                                                                                                                                                                   A-C,  C

                                                                                                                                                                                                                 01@
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              W

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  B.y
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                                                                                                                                        -q,(

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              L

                                                                                                                                                                                                                       ..... . . . . . . . .

                                                                  110

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    A@ERICAN LOBSTER                                          I

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 Distributio

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Spawning season extend
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              July thro@gh August

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Source: Nassau-Suffol
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         Planning Boar

                    Scale 1: e30,000

                  0                10               20                30              40 Km

                  0                         10                     20                    m I

                       7160                                            0           618b             6160
                                      740            72             70

                                                                                                        >

                                                                  MAINE

               -440
                                                                                                       44@
                                                                                 OliMi
                                             VERMONT

                                                                              ..... .....
                                                                            v.
                                                                         a-0.
                                                     NEW
                                                                       .... ..... .... ....
                                                    HAMPSHIRE
                                                                     Air
                           NEW YORK
                                                                    ;llki-
                                                                    Vit

                                                 MASS.
                                                                      R                                42
                                                                                        0-@
                                                        R.i
                                                                                     . . . . . . . . . . . .
                                               CONN.

                                                          16
                   P E N N.
                                                                      ...........

                              N.J.                  lion ..............
                                                                              01.
                                                                            -it
                                                  �010
                                                                     it
                                                                   m
                400                                                                                    4C
                                         .0 A*!'.-'--.---

                                        .. .. .......
                                                             00 m
                                      43
                MD

                                         0

                                 lB.A.. ni.l.-i
                        DEL.

                380               t,                                                                    38
                           .Af

                            n

                                                                      ALIERIcAN LOBSTER
                                                                      CONTINENTAL SHELF
                VA.

                                                                             Distribution
                NC
                      0
                       a
                       N
                         . . . . . . . . . .
                                                                  Spawning Season extends
                                                                                                        3E
                -360
                                0
                                                                  from July through August

                                                                  Source: The Research Institute
                                                                           of the Gulf of Maine

                       11,

                                                      0                                 80
                 76u              740               72                700               61
                           0    50   100 150 Km                        Scale 1@5,000,000     Figure 13b
                                           Inn kii

                                                       -35-

                    surface from 3 to 5 weeks, when they sink and are transformed into minature

                    adults. Lobsters do not reach sexual maturity for at least 5 years. Inshore

                    lobsters undergo limited migrations, moving randomly a few miles at the most.

                    Continental Shelf lobsters travel greater distances, mean distances travelled

                    varied from 28 to 80 miles. Ndgrations show a seasonal tendency, with onshore

                    movements predominant in spring and early summer. Lobsters are generally

                    scavengers feeding on fish, alive or*dead, and invertebrates that come within

                    their reach.

                         The lobster competes with other bottom carnivores and scavengers for

                    food, and with certain burrowing crabs and fish for space. Lobsters are

                    extremely territorial andaggressive int-raspecific competition is significant.

                    The cod, next to man, is a lobster's most destructive enemy.

                         Larvae, young and adults are vulnerable to oil pollution and cleaning

                    agents along the shore. Lethal threshold concentrations for lobster larvae

                    of crude oil emulsified in sea water ranged from .03 ml per liter to .002

                    ml per liter at 20-210C. Concentrations of .01 ml per liter caused death in
                    9 days, and .006 ml per liter inhibited development.16

                2.  Butterfish (Peprillus triacanthus)

                         The butterfish is a small, pelagic which travels in small bands or loose

                    schools. Butterfish are seldom found in waters -deeper than 27 to 54 meters

                    during the summer and prefer sandy bottoms. They often come inshore into

                    sheltered bays and estuaries (Figure 14). In 1976, commercial landings
                    of butterfish in New York State were 435 metric tons, worth $274,000 dockside. 17

                         Butterfish spawn from June through August peaking in July. Spawning

                    occurs a few riles from the shore, the fish return to coastal waters when

                    they are spent. Both eggs and larvae are pelagic and it is probable that

                    development can only proceed in comparatively warm water. At one year of age

                    butterfish are approximately 119 millimeters in length and reach sexual

                    maturity by age two.

                                                 7
                                                      0                                                                                                                                    80
                                                   6                               740                              72-                                700                              6                                 6 6

                                                                                                                                                 MAINE

                            -440                                                                                                                                                                                                 44
                                                                                               ,VERMONT

                                                                                              4L
                                                                                                                   NEW
                                                                                                                 HAMPSH.IRE
                                                         NEW YORK

                                                                                                          M A SS.

                                                                                                                                                                                                              '5itifflin . ....  4,2

                                                                                                                                                              Wis.
                                                                                                                                                                  &
                                                                                                                                                                                                       a ti.
                                                                                                      CONN.

                                                                                                                                                          0
                                                                                                                                                                              ill: .               . .. .... .
                                                                                                                   ... ... .. ......

                                                                                                                                                          ........ --- ---- .....
                                       P E NN.

                                                                                                                                                          .... ..      .. ...
                                                                                                         "I"'r; 115 @R`

                                                                                                                                                                             -Mlli
                                                                                                                      .... .....
                                                                                                                     Till-
                                                                                                                                                          R,
                                                                                                                                                              ailt.."l-tt' . ........
                                                                N.J.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 4C
                              400

                                                                                 -tlliin
                              MD

                                                                               -Mi

                                                                           .... ..... . ..
                                                            on . . . . . . . . . . . .1.;:1iT?:1T=`ti1'ii--.-
                                                 DEL.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 36
                                                          W iltlilt.
                                                                 t
                              380                       ...... .... HIM..

                                               M.       i
                              >

                                                                                                                                                                    BUTTERFISH

                                                                                                                                                                                                        ibution
                                                                                                                                                          Summer and Fall Distr
                              VA.
                                                                                                                                                          Winter Distribution
                              NC
                                                                                                                                                  Spawning occurs from J
                                           1110'k. .                                                                                                                                                 une
                              360                                   0                                                                             to August, peaking in                             July,                        36
                                                                                                                                                  within a few miles from shore

                                                                                                                                                  Source: The Research Institute
                                                                                                                                                                      of the Gulf of Maine

                                 7                                      740                                      720                                    700                                   680

                                                       0         50         1CO       150 KM
                                                                                          I                                                               Scale 1;5,000,000                               Figure 14
                                                                                         Inn M i

                                                        -37-

                        The butterfish exhibits a seasonal migration pattern, moving   inshore

                   in the spring and offshore in the fall to wintering grounds located at the

                   edge of the Continental Shelf. Butterfish feed on small fish, squid, amphipods,

                   shrimp and annelid worms.

                        Schools of small butterfish probably serve as forage for larger,,predaceous

                   fishes. An oil spill in butterfish spawning grounds could be fatal to eggs

                   and larvae. Tainting of flesh could also result from exposure to petroleum

                   products.

                            Menhaden (Brevoortia tyrannus)
               3.  Atlantic 2

                        The Atlantic menhaden is a large schooling, pelagic fish generally occurring

                   offshore. The menhaden is one of the most important.commercial fishes of

                   North America (Figure 15). In 1976, commercial landings of Atlantic menhaden
                   in New York State totalled 460 metric tons, worth $43,000 at the dock.18

                        Spawning occurs at different times but is most intense in the ocean off

                   New York from May to September. Depending upon length, fecundity has been

                   estimated to range between 38,000 and 631,000 eggs per female. Eggs are

                   pelagic and float. Shortly after hatching, juveniles congregate in estuarine

                   nursery grounds where they stay for nearly a year before returning to the

                   surface layers of the open ocean. Sexual maturity is reached in the third

                   summer oflife (about 9 inches long), and somelf-ish attain an age of 8-9

                   years. Some may spawn twice annually.

                        Menhaden demonstrate a cyclical migration pattern, moving northward

                   in the spring and early summer and southward in the fall. As the fish grow

                   older they migrate farther northward. Menhaden are plankton feeders filtering

                   microscopic organisms particularly diatoms from the water.

                        The Atlantic menhaden, swimming in schools of closely ranked individuals,

                   helpless to protect itself, is the prey of every predaceous animal..     They

                   are preyed upon whales, porpci-ses, sharks, bluefish, co4 and silver hake.

                   Menhaden have little competition for food with other fishes because of its

                     760          740            720         700          6180

                                                           MAINE

             -440                                                                         44
                                       'VERMONT                           00

                                                -NEW   %
                        NEW YORK              HAMPSHIRE

                                            M ASS.                       ---

                                                  Rj
                                          CONN.

                                                     . . ... . . .

                                                 ..... ... ..
                 PENN.                          .. ..... . .. ....
                                                                   IF

                                               0.;
                                          . ... .... ....
                           N.J.       .. ............

              400                                                                          4(

              MD
                                                                            4-

                      DE L.

              380                                                                          3e

                                                          ATLANTIC MENHADEN
              VA.
                                                            Spawning areas
              NC                                            Summer distribution

                                                                                           3E
              360
                                                           Spawning occurs from May
                            a                              to September, peaking in
                                                           September

                                                           Source: nie Research Institute
                     11, 00                                        of the Gulf of Ikine

                76"            740             720            700            61 80
                        0i   5.0 10.015.0 Km                   Scale 1:5,000,000  Figure 15
                                      ('n OA i

                                                      -39-

                   unique type of feeding. The prolonged (up to 1 year) estuarine life of

                   the juveniles is the most susceptible stage to pollution.

               4.  Atlantic Mackerel (Scomber sconbrus)

                        The Atlantic mackerel is a swift moving pelagic fish of the open sea,

                   usually found in schools. The depth range of the mackerel is from the surface

                   down to 180 meters. Mackerel are most abundant within the inner half of

                   continental shelf during the fishing season, although their normal range does

                   not extend oceanward beyond the upper part of the continental slope (Figure 16).

                   New York commercial landings of mackerel totaled 109 tons in 1975, worth $40,000
                   at the dock.19

                        Mackerel spawn from April to July with peak spawning occurring between

                   May and June. As schools are highly mobile and the eggs ripen in successive

                   batches, spawning can occur over a wide area and over a long period of time.

                   The Atlantic mackerel is moderately prolific, the average size female produces

                   between 400,000 and 500,000 eggs. Both the eggs and larvae are planktonic

                   (passively floating or weakly swiming). Growth is rapid until the third

                   summ r, when both sexes reach sexual maturity.

                        Mackerel migrations are tied in with the movements of the entire population

                   in response to seasonal changes in water temperature. In the late fall they

                   withdraw from the coast to spend the winter in the deeper, warmer water of the

                   outer Continental Shelf. The diet of mackerel usually includes copepod

                   eggs and larvae, various minute crustacea, and small fish larvae. They are

                   capable of both selective feeding and filter feeding on plankton.

                        The mackerel falls easy prey to all the larger predaceous sea animals:

                   whales, porpoises, sharks, striped bass and bluefish. Young mackerel are

                   preyed on by squid, cod, and seabirds.

                   Silver Hake (1,,1erluccius bi linearis)

                        The silver hake is a swift swimming, wandering fish, independent of depth

                   within wide limits, and of the sea floor (Figure 17). Sometimes they swim

                                                                                                                                                0
                                                                                        7                         7100                                                 66L'
                                     760                      740-                       420                                                6
                                                                                                                                                                               >

                                                                                                               MAINE
                                                                                                                                                                               >
                     -440                                                                              1                                                                     449
                                                                                                                            @R!
                                                                        -VERMONT'

                                                                                       NEW
                                                                                   @HAMPSHIRE
                                           NEW YORK

                                                                                 MASS.
                       4 2q.                                                                                                                                                  42

                                                                                                                      . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....
                                                                             CONN.

                             PENN.

                                                                                                                 V

                                                N.J.,

                       40  \0                                                                                                                                                 4e

                       MD                                                                            00 M

                                     DEL.

                       380                                                                                                                                                    38 0-

                      N

                       VA.                                                                                              ATLANTIC MACKERhl
                                                                                                                    Summer Distribution
                       NC                                                                                           Viinter Distribution

                      -360                          0                                                             pawning occurs from                 April
                                                   0                                                             S
                                                                                                                 to July, peaking in A/lay and
                                                                                                                 June, wherever they happen
                                                                                                                 to be

                                      011                                                                        source: The Research Institute
                                                                                                                                 of the Gulf of Maine

                           7 Gv                         740                            720                            700                         660
                                           0        5.0     10.0    15,0 Km                                             Scale 1:5,000,000                    Figure 16

                                                0                                                     r
                            76                74                 7420               700               a 80               66'
                                                                                                                              >
                                                                                 MAINE                                        0

               -440                                                                                                           449
                                                      VERMONT                                        Zoo

                                                                NEW         %
                                NEW YORK                       HAMPSHIRE

                                                           M A SS.

                                                                    R I
                                                         CONN.
                      P ENN.                                                                                            1W.
                                    N.J..

                 40@\                                                                                                         4CP

                  MD

                                                             H-4,

                                               .... .... ..
                            DEL

                                         .... ... .....

                                                                                                                              3
                                         . . . . . . . ......

                                      y"i,ma qr.
                                          w;.

                                                                                        SILVER HAKE
                  VA.
                                                                                       Spawning Areas
                  NC                                                                   Autumn Distribution

                                                                                                                                0
                                                                                                                              36
                                   A
                  36                         0                                    Spawning occurs from May
                                                                                  to September, peaking in
                                  ..............                                  July and August

                                                                                  Source: The Research Institute
                                                                                             of the Gulf of Maine

                                         740                   720                   700                  6180-
                  . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
                                0     5.0   100  150 Km                               Scale 1;5,000,000            Figure 17'

                                                    -42-

               ?

                 close to the bottom, sometimes in the upper levels of the water, their vertical

                 movements being governed chiefly by their pursuit of prey. In 1976, commercial

                 landings of silver hake in New York State were 1,155 metric tons, worth
                 $290,000 at the docks. 20

                      The spawning season for silver hake extends from July through September,

                 egg production is at its height in July and August. Spawning occurs anywhere

                 between the surface and the bottom. Eggs of the silver hake may be spawned in low

                 temperatures, although a comparatively.warm surface layer is necessary for their

                 later development. Both eggs and-larvae are pelagic, drifting with the surface

                 currents. Growth varies,with location and females grow faster than males.

                      Lbst of the silver hake migrate from the inshore waters in the late

                 autumn, presumably to warmer offshore wintering grounds, and return in the

                 spring. Silver hake prey on herring and any of the other smaller schooling

                 fish such as young mackerel, menhaden, alewives, and silversides. Juveniles

                 feed on squid, shrimp, crabs, and clams.

                      Silver hake is preyed upon by larger fishes, particularly dogfish, and

                 marine mammals. Red hake is a potential competitor of silver hake, although

                 the diet of the red hake is different enough. not to cause competition for

                 food. Spilled oil or other hazardous substances could seriously iniure the

                 pelagic eggs, larvae, and adults when they are located in thesurface waters.

            B.   Offshore Bottom

                      Many of the species present on the offshore bottom also exist in other

                 habitats. The hard clams, soft shell clams, bay scallops, and winter flounder

                 occupy both tidal wetlands and coastal bays, and the offshore bottom. However,

                 these species are not significant components of the offshore bottom, they

                 were described earlier as principal inhabitants of tidal wetlands and coastal

                 hays. The principal biota of the offshore bottom consists of summ r flounder

                 (Paralicht'hys dentatus), scup (Stenotomus chrysops), and yellowtail flounder

                 (Limanda ferruginea).

                                                        -43-

               1. Summer Flounder (Paralichthys dentatus)

                         The summer flounder is a warm water flatfish that occurs most abundantly

                    in moderate depths (18-32 meters) off New York during the summer, but winter

                    in deeper waters off the Continental Shelf (Figure 18). During the summer

                    months, summer flounder are common along the coast, off Sandy Hook, New Jersey

                    and in Long Island bays, where they may be taken by sportsmen fishing from

                    the shore. In 1976, commercial landings of summer flounder in New York State
                    were 1,454 metric tons, valued at $1.5 million dockside.   21    Recreational

                    catches of su    r flounder for the North Atlantic Region (which includes New
                    York) were 5,267 metric tons in 1970.  22

                         Spawning occurs in late fall to early spring, normally in early September

                    off New York. Year to year variations in the location of peaks in egg abun-

                    dance suggest that bottom temperature may determine spawning ground locations.

                    Summer flounder are dependent upon coastal bays (nearshore.areas) as nursery

                    areas. The small size and pelagic habitat of summer flounder eggs suggest

                    that it is a high fecundity species, eggs per female probably number in the

                    tens of thousands. First maturity for both sexes usually occurs at approximately

                    one year of age. Juveniles attain lengths of 21-24 cm at the end of the first

                    year.

                         The sum r flounder exhibits a seasonal inshore-offshore migration,

                    appearing inshore in May and moving to deeper, warmer waters in October.

                    The summer flounder is a predaceous fish, very fierce and active in pursuit

                    of prey. The diet of a summer flounder consists of various species of

                    smaller fish, squid, crab, shrimp, small-shelled mollusks, worms and sand

                    dollars. Summer flounder located    in Great South Bay feed mainly an sand

                    shrimp and winter flounder.

                         Summer flounder are preyed upon by marine mammals. Man can be considered

                    a major predator since summer flounder catches contribute significantly-to New

                    York State recreational and commercial landings.

                                                                               680
           A.         760           740            72            700                          6 6

                                                               MAINE
              -440                        .VERMONT                            ZOO4               44

                                                  NEW      %
                          NEW YORK               HAMPSHIRE

                                              MASS,                           ----
                                                                                                 42

                                             CONN

                                                    ...........
                                                                     Mir
                  PENN.
                                                                   ..... . . . . .

                             N.j.

              400
                                                                                                 4d

                                    i Mi.
                                                            M
              MD
                 'j
                                                                             '000

                      DEL.

              3 0
                                                                                                 38

                     .
                      ':K:
                     . . . .. . . . .
                                                                SUMVIER FLOLT14DER
              vA.
                    X001                                     May to October distribution
              N                                             October to MaY distribution
                                     0
               -360
                                                                                                  38,
                               0
                                                               Spawning occurs from
                                                               September to February,
                                                               within 46 km of shore

                                                               Source: The Research Institute
                                                                       of the Gulf of Tdaine
                 0

                760              740              720             700              680
               0. 4,@                             I             -- I                I     - .
                              510  10.0 150 K,                     Scale 1;5,000,000   Figure 18

                                                       -45-

                        Juvenile.--flounders, occurring in inshore areas, are most susceptible to

                   pollution from oil and dispersing agents. Growth in juvenile flounders is

                   influenced by salinity, optimum growth occurring in the lower reaches of

                   estuaries.

              2.   Scup (Stenotomus chrysops)

                        The scuo occurs inshore in schools during the summer and offshore to

                   depth of 126 meters during the winter. Scup are widely distributed along

                   the Atlantic Coast although they prefer smooth or rocky bottoms and have

                   relatively narrow temperature and salinity requirements (Figure 19). The

                   scup is a valuable commercial and sport fish south of Cape Cod; the most

                   important sport fish in tidal areas of New York. Recreational catches of scup

                   in the North Atlantic Region for 1970 were 1,041 metric tons. Commercial

                   landings of scup in New York State for 1976 were 1119 metric tons, worth

                                        24
                   $580,000 at the dock.    Data gathered by the New York State Department of

                   Environmental Conservation indicates that the scup constitutes between 30

                   and 45 percent of the recreational catches in nearshore waters of eastern
                   Long Island. 25

                        Spawning takes place in inshore areas from.May to August, peaking in

                   June. They spavim in inshore areas: estuaries and bays, primarily south of

                   Cape Cod. The shallow waters adjacent to wetlands serve as nursery areas.

                   Scup eggs and larvae have been observed in Long Islan d Sound, Peconic Bay,

                   and Gardiner's Bay. Eggs are buoyant and disseminated by current. Both -

                   sexes of scup reach sexual maturity at two years of age. Scup reach the minimum

                   size limit required of a commercial catch, 17.8 centimeters, by 22 years of age.

                        Scup exhibit a seasonal migration pattern. They winter depths of 82

                   to 137 meters offshore, returning in May to inshore areas (from shore to 37

                   meters). Scup are largely bottom feeders, preying upon invertebrates such

                   as amphipods, marine worms and young squid.

                      760            740           727             700          680            ro 6
                                                                                                   >

                                                                MAINE

              -440                                                                                 4q
                                          'VERMONT                              ZOO

                                                   NEW
                          NEW YORK                HAMPSHIRE

                                               M A SS.

                                                   _7

                                             CONN.

                  PENN.

                             N.j.                                     n

               400                                                  16                            4e-

                                                  . . . . . . . . . ......
               MD
                                                         000 M

                                                                              5(300
                      IDE                .4

              'j
                                  o
                 0
             @ @3
                                                                                                  38

                                 . . . . . . . . . . . .

                                                                        SCUP

               VA.                                              MSummer distribution
                                                                              U
                                N
               NC                                               MWinter distribution
                            ...........
               360                                              Spawning occurs from May
                           . . . . . . ..........                                                  362-
                                                                to August, peaking during
                                                                May to Mid-July, in estuaries,
                                                                bays, and inshore waters

                         ..... . . . . . . . . . .
                                                                Source: The Research Institute
                                                                         of the Gulf of Maine
             M >D

                 0

                                740               720              700              80
             L . . . . . . . . . . . . .                                           6

                              50  100  150 Km
                              . I      .                            Scale 1:5,000,000   Figure 19
                                r)

                                                      -47-

                       The major predators of scup are marine mammals and man. The species

                  availability of scup fluctuates widely due to natural causes, therefore

                  scup would be most vulnerable to detrimental environmental changes and heavy

                  fishing pressure during years when general populations have already been

                  reduced to low levels by natural causes. The low population levels have

                  probably been a result of poor spawning success.
                  Yellowtail Flounder (Limanda. ferruginea)'

                       The yellowtail flounder is a shallow water flatfish which occurs on the

                  continental shelf., The center of distribution of yellowtail flounder extends

                  from Montauk Point to southern Massachusetts Bay and Georges Bank, in water

                  between 10 and 72 meters deep. Almost any sandy bottom or mixture of sand

                  and mud suits them (Figure 20). Commercial concentrations of yellowtail

                  flounder usually occur in water between 46 to 64 meters deep. During 1976,

                  New York State commercial landings of yellowtail flounder totaled 279 metric
                  tons, valued at $168,000 dockside.26

                       The yellowtail flounder has a protracted spawning seasoning, spawning

                  wherever it is abundant from March through August. The onset of spawning

                  activities in any population is probably loosely associated with spring

                  warming of shelf waters, yellowtail spawning is relatively insensitive to

                  temperature between 1 and 120C. In any mature female (3 or 4 years old)

                  not all eggs ripen simultaneously, rather smallbatches of egg s ripen throughout

                  the spawning season. Both eggs and larvae of yellowtail flounder are pelagic,

                  drifting with the currents. The yellowtail grows to a length of about 12

                  centimeters by the time it is one year old.

                       The yellowtail flounder is a stationary species, there is no reason to

                  suppose that it travels about much after it once takes to the bottom. However,

                  yellowtail flounder have been described, in Massachusetts Bay, as inhabiting

                  the deep water in summer, and approaching the shores in winter, as do various

                  other ground fishes that tend to avoid high temperatures.

                                                                                                    6130               66"
                           76                740                72                700

                                                                               MAINE
               -440                                 !VERMONT                                           14,                4 4'
                                                               NEW
                                                              HAMPSHIRE

                               NEW YORK

                                                                               g-,-%

                                                                                                                       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

                                                          M A SS.
                                                                                                                           42

                                                                                                            IN
                                                                                                       . ......... .....
                                                                   R.1,
                                                                                                    OR
                                                                                    x.
                                                                                                    Mr.
                                                        CONN.
                                                                                                      .... .....
                                                                                                         =-M:i.  UN
                                                                                                         Mi
                                      N,
                                                                                                             .. ......................... ..........
                                                                                                    ....... . .............
                                                                                           dr
                      PENN.

                                                                                                        ...   .... ...... ...
                                   N.J.
                                                                           R
                                                                          1-.-      Ut@ -W

                -400                                                                   t
                                                                                                                           4

                                                                           M
                 MD

                            DE L.

                 380                                                                                                         0
                                                                                                                           38.

                 VA.
                 NC                           0IV                                  YELLOViTAIL FLOUNDER
                                                                                                                             0
                -360                                                                                                       36-
                                                                                         Distribution

                                                                                Spawning occurs wherever
                                                                                the species is abundant
                                                                                from March through August

                                                                                Source: The Research Institute
                                                                                          of the Gulf of Maine

                   760                   74'0                 720                  700-                  680

                  0            0     50    100  150
                                        I                                            Scale 1:5,000,000          Figure 20

                                                      -49-

                       Yellowtail flounder are a stationary species, spending the entire year

                  on their normal grounds. The yellowtail flounder feeds chiefly on the

                  smaller crustaceans such as amphipods, shrimps and mysids, small shellfish,

                  and worms. Yellowtail are also known to eat small fish, bu@ as one of the

                  more sluggish flatfishes they probably do not catch fish too often.

                       Predators of yellowtail flounder include the larger predaceous fish,

                  marine mammals, and man. Toxic effects on yellowtail flounder may result

                  through the incorporation of petroleum derived hydrocarbons into the food

                  chain.

                                                      -50-

                              V. BIOLOGICAL SENSITIVITY OF CRITICAL NATURAL

                                     RESOURCES TO PETROLEUM CONTAMINATION

                                                      -51-

                       Pollution of the marine environment by oil is a worldwide problem of

                   growing concem to many nations. The impact of oil on the marine environment

                   is governed by physical, chemical, an d biological factors in addition to

                   the inherent complexity of crude oil and refined products. Biological damage

                   caused by a spill is affected by the type of oil spilled (Table 1), dose

                   of oil, physiography of the spill area, weather conditions at the time of the

                   spill, biota of the area, season of the spill, previous exposure of the area

                   to oil, exposure to other pollutants, and treatment of the spill.

                       The effects of oil pollution on different organisms in various habitats

                   may vary from no effeettoresponses of avoidance and decreased activity and

                   nonadaptive responses of physiological stress and panic (Table 2). Lethal

                   toxicity can occur when hydrocarbons interfere directly with cellular and

                   subeellular processes, particularly membrane activities. Sublethal effects

                   may also involve cellular and physiological effects, although these effects

                   do not produce immediate death. They can however, ultimately affect survival

                   of individual organisms, local population dynamics, and the dynamic equilibrium

                   of biotic communities. Sublethal effects could also include disrupted or

                   abnormal behavior, higher susceptibility to disease, reduced photosynthesis,

                   and reduced fertility.

                       What kills one species may have little or no effect on another. indi-

                   viduals within a species may also be affected differently, certain life stages

                   i.e. eggs, hatches larvae, and newly molted individuals may have varying

                   sensitivity to similar pollution levels (Table 3).

                       The potential damage, which could occur to benthic invertebrates, fish and

                   waterfowl, resulting from pollution.by crude oil and oil fractions include:

                       (1) Direct lethal toxicity of organisms through coating and
                           asphyxiation.

                       (2) Direct lethal toxicity through contact poisoning of organisms.

                       (3) Direct lethal toxicity through exposure to the water-soluble
                           toxic components of oil at same distance in space and time
                           from the accident.

                                                                 Table 1
                                                         Toxicity of Soluble Aromatics*                                                (P

                                                         Estimated ConcentrationEstimated Amount (ppm) of Petrolewn
                       Class of Organisms                 (ppm) of Soluble Aro-     Substances Containing Equivalent
                                                         ,Yflatics Causing Toxicity    Amount of Solli)le Aromatics

                                                                                      #2 Fuel Oil          Fresh Crude
                       Finfish                                     5-50-.                  25-250             104-10  5

                       Larvae (all species)                     0.1-1.0                   01. 5-5             10 2_103

                       Pelagic crustaceans                         1-10                     5-50              103_104

                       Bivalves (clam , scallops,                  5-50                    25-250             104-105
                          oysters)

                       Benthic crustaceans (lobsters)              1-10                   0.1-10              103-104

                                                                                                                 3-104
                       Other benthic invertebrates                 -1-10                    5-50              10
                          (worn-is, etc.)

                       Flora                                      1.0-100                  50-500             104-105

                             *United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Coastal Effects
                              of Offshore Energy Systems, Volume II:. Working Papers

                                                      -53-

                                                'Tab le 2

                                        Effects of Oil on Organisms

                   Oil Fraction                                              Response
                 Causing Response          Effect               Cellular Physiological Behavior

                 Lower boiling          direct lethal               X           X
                   aromatics            toxicity

                 Lower boiling          sublethal                               X           X
                   aromatics            effects

                 Residual               coating                                 X           X
                                        with oil

                 Possibly all           Incorporation of             X          X
                   fractions            oil into food webs

                 Residual               Changes in                              X           X
                                        Habitat

                     Moore, S.F. "Towards a model of the effects of oil on marine organ-
                           isms," Background papers for a workshop on inputs, fates, and
                           effects of petroleum in the marine environment (Airlie,Virginia:
                           I
                           May 21-23, 1973)' pp. 635-653.

                                                                                 Table 3
                                                                    Effects of OU on Selected Species

                                                                                                     Time of Year                     Nature of Effects
         Major Species                Location                       Life Cycle Sensitivity         Most Vulnerable                 Caused by Oil Spills

       American oyster           estuaries, lower tdal zone
                                                                    @ai-vae 6U@gub, disrupts        late June to late         turbidity (0.1 gram of silt per.
                                 to about 18 meters                 feeding, vulnerable in all      August                    liter of seawater) reduced the feeding
                                                                    stages as a sedentary                                     rate in adults by 47%; 5-50ppm oil
                                                                    species                                                   toxic, 200ppm has caused a 50% mor-
                                                                                                                              tality in one week

       Hard-shell clam           estuariesi protected areas         vulnerable in all stages        entire year               tainting of flesh, 10 to 100 ppm
                                 of. intertidal zone                as a sedentary species                                    lethal, disruption of habitat

       Soft-shell clam           estuaries and protected areas      vulnerable in all stages        entire year               changes in habitat such as shifting
                                 of the intertidal zone             as a sedentary species                                    sands, smothering silt and   Ltoo rapid
                                                                                                                              currents are det-rimental; tainting
                                                                                                                              can occur, 10-100.ppm lethal

      Bay scallops               intertidal and subtidal            vulnerable in all stages        entire year               oil concentrations reduces respira-
                                                                    as a sedentary species                                    tion, 10-100 ppm lethal, tainting
      Surf clam                  on sand bottoms from 1vi,          juveitiles aad adults           entire year               10-100 ppm lethal, tainting can occur,
                                 water level to 72 meter                                                                      cleansing agents and could concentrate
                                 water depths                                                                                 oil througli food chain as a filter
                                                                                                                              feeder

      American lobster           relatively shallow inshore         larvae young a nd adults are    July and August           concentrations of .01 ml per liter
                                 areas from tide zone to depths     vulnerable to oil pollution                               caused death in 9 days and .006 ml
                                 of 183 meters                      and cleaning agents along                                 per liter inhibited development;
                                                                    the shore                                                 100 ppm lethal to all larval stages

      Butterfish                 seldorn found in waters deeper     eggs and lhrvae                 June through August       concentrations in excess of 0;1 ppm
                                 than 27 to 54 m, often come                                                                  lethal to eggs and larvae, tainting
                                 inshore into sheltered bays                                                                  of flesh
                                 and estuaries

      Winter Flounder            inshore fishing grounds to         eggs and larvae                 January to May            tainting, concentrations in excess
                                 water depths of 36m                                                                          of 0.1 ppm could be lethal to eggs
                                                                                                                              and larvae, may perish in the thous-
                                                                                                                              ands if trapped in shallow enclosed
                                                                                                                              bays during hot weather

                  OEM M M M                                            M M                                M M M

       Major aecies                        Location                                                                                         Natuxe of Effects
                                                                          Life Cycle Sensitivity_         Time of Year                   Caused by OCS Operations

       Striped Bass                surf swept beaches, or shallow       eggs and young migratory         late April and early       concentrations in excess of 0.1 ppm
                                   bays and estuaries                   groilp during spawning season    May                        in estuaries would be lethal to eggs,
                                                                                                                                    a year class could be wiped out if
                                                                                                                                    a spill hit a migratory group during
                                                                                                                                    spawning season

       Atlantic menhaden           offshore, estuarine nursery          juveniles up to one year         May to September           concentrate oil through food supply,
                                   grounds                              of age                                                      possible tainting of   .flesh, concen-
                                                                                                                                    tration of 500 ppb. or higher delay
                                                                                                                                    embryonic development

       Atlantic mackerel           inner half of continental shelf,     eggs and larvae, feeding         April to July              through food supply, can cause taint-
                                   depth range from surface down        behavior                                                    ing of flesh, concentrations in exces4
                                   to 180m                                                                                          of 0.1 ppm lethal to larvae

       Silver hake                 coastal  waters, wide depth          eggs, larvae, adults             July through Septem-       concentrations in excess of 0.1 ppm
                                   limits                                                                ber                        would be lethal to eggs and larvae
                                                                                                                                    located in surface waters tainting of
                                                                                                                                    flesh

       Summer flounder             most abundant in moderate            juveniles                        early September            larvae are extremely vulnerable to oil
                                   depths (18-32 meters)                                                                            spills - concentrations in excess of
                                                                                                                                    0.1 ppm are lethal, disrupts physio-
                                                                                                                                    logical activity

       Scup                        inshore in schools in   summer,      entire life cycle,               May to August              concentrations.in excess of 0.1 ppm
                                   offshore to 126 meter   depths       most vulnerable as                                          lethal to larvae and young, tainting
                                   in win-ter                           eggs and larvae                                             of flesh

       Yellowtail flounder         water between 10 and 72m deep        eggs and larvae, feeding         March through August       disruption of physiological activity
                                                                        behavior                                                    depressed respiration rates, tainting
                                                                                                                                    of flesh, incorporation of petroleum
                                                                                                                                    derived hydrocarbons into food chain

       Mallard                     onthe ground and near marshes        entire life cycle, feeding       Late Idarch to early       incorporation of' petroleum derived
                                   and along ponds and streams          behavior                         July                       hydrocarbons into food chain, loss of
                                                                                                                                    bouyancy, overexposure
       Black Duck                  fresh-water marshes, coastal         entire life cycle, feeding       early April to late        loss of bouyancy, overexposure, incor-
                                   salt marshes, and along the          behavior                         June                       poration of petroleum derived hydro-
                                   shores of lakes, ponds, and                                                                      carbons into food chain
                                   s trewng

                                                      -56-

                      (4)   Destruction of the generally more sensitive juvenile forms
                            of organisms. (Table 4)

                      (5)   Destruction of the food source of higher species.

                      (6)   Incorporation of sublethal amounts of oil and oil products
                            into organisms (resulting in reduced resistance to infection
                            and other stresses - the principal cause of death in birds
                            surviving immediate exposure to oil).

                      (7)   Incorporation of carcinogenic and potentially mutagenic
                            chemicals into marine organisms.

                      (8)   Low-level effects that may interrupt any of numerous events
                            (such as prey location, predator avoidance, mate location or
                            sexual stimuli and homing behavior) necessary for the propaga-
                            tion of marine species and for the survival of those species
                            higher in the marine food web.

                 Benthic Invertebrates

                      Benthic invertebrates are the group of organism most directly affected

                 by spilled oil.   The extreme vulnerability of the benthic community is due

                 to the fact that a large fraction of its inhabitants are sessile. For this

                 reason, such organisms are often used as indicator species. Oil and oil

                 derivatives can affect benthic invertebrates directly by internal or external

                 exposure, or indirectly by habitat alteration. Direct external exposure

                 occurs either when oil is deposited upon the substrate by sin-king (as a

                 result of tidal or wave action) or when soluble oil fractions go into solution.

                 Direct internal exposure occurs when oil is ingested, and oil soaked sediments

                 would affect filter feeders and detritus feeders. Habitat feeders could

                 alter the community structure by favoring certain species and discriminating

                 against others.

                      The concentrations of soluble aromatics -which cause toxicity have been

                 estimated by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The acute toxicity

                 sensitivity for the larvae of all benthic invertebrates is 0.1 to   1 part

                 per million (ppm),1 to 10 ppm for lobsters, and 5-50 ppm for mollusks (scallops,
                 oysters, clams). 27

                      The American lobster (Homarus americanus) would be most sensitive to oil

                 during the larval stages. A larvae exposed to 1.0 ppm of unweathered crude

                                                                         blENj=
                                                                   S ING =B'hAV

                    Species                    Spawning Season                Spawning  Peak                         Spawning Location.

           Shellfish

              American oyster                June to Late August            Late June -  Mid-July             Intertidal or estuarine areas

              Hard clam                      June to Mid-August             Late June -  Mid-July             Sandy or muddy bottom between
                                                                                                              tides and in shallow water.

              Soft clam                      Mid-April to Mid-June                   May                      In water above clam beds (inter-
                                                                                                              tidal or subtidal areas)

              Bay scallops                   Early summer                            July                     Protected mud bottom, subtidal
                                                                                                              and intertidal areas

              Surf clam                      May to Late July                     Mid-July                    On sand bottom from low water
                                                                                                              level to depths of 72 meters

              American lobster               July and August                         July                     Relatively shallow inshore
                                                                                                              areas

           Finfish

              Striped bass                   March -to July                 Late April to Early May           Estuaries

              Butterfish                     June through August                     July                     Few miles from shore

              Atlantic mer-diaden            May -to September                     September                  Ocean waters

              Atlantic mackerel              April to July                        May and June                111herever fish happen to be when
                                                                                                              eggs are ripe

              Silver hake                    July through September              July and August              Water shallower tUan 90 m

              Summer flounder                September to Novenber                  October                   At the bottom in deeper water

              scup                           May to August                           June                     Inshore areas: estuaries and
                                                                                                              bays south of Cape Cod

              Yellow-tail flounder           March through August                 April and May               Wherever species is abundant,
                                                                                                              46 to 64 m deep over sand
                                                                                                              bottom
              Winter flounder                January to May                          March                    Backwaters of bays and estuaries,,
                                                                                                              Georges Bank in water 46 to 73 m

               Species                     Spawning Season            Spawning Peak                  Spawning,Location
        Birds
            Black Duck                 Early April to Late June              May                  Marshland, lakes, ponds,
                                                                                                  stream, scrub fields, and
                                                                                                  open woodland
            Mallard                     Late March to Early July    Late April through May        On the ground in and near
                                                                                                  marshes and along ponds and
                                                                                                  streams

                                                                                                                                  OQL

                                                   -59-
                 A

                oil in seawater, appears generally lethargic, active motions are minimal,

                feeding depressed and animals often appear dead. Exposure to crude oil causes

                larval lobsters normally blue to turn a red color. This sharply reddened

                coloration makes the larvae visually apparent and easy prey to other foraging

                carnivores.,

                     One possible long term effect of oil pollution is that shellfish of

                comercial value will incorporate hydrocarbons into  their body tissues,

                either by direct ingestion or by consumption of plankton exposed to the

                pollutant. The major adverse effect is that the animal becomes tainted with

                an objectionable taste or smell. In general, the.detectable levels of petro-

                leum hydrocarbons are retained for only short periods of time, with the

                possible exception of oysters and mussels.

                     Oysters that had been transferred to clean sea water after an oil spill

                still contained oil concentrations more than six months later. Oil con-

                taminated sediments are a source of further tainting of future generations

                of shellfish.

                     Large concentrations of oil, 10 to 100 parts per million, are lethal to

                shellfish. Death would occur either by smothering or by the growth of tumors

                on the gonads. Petroleum also interferes with pheremones, the chemicals by

                which animals communicate, by either interfering with their reception or by

                mimicking them directly.

                Fish

                     Fish are probably less vulnerable to oil spills than other marine

                organisms because they simply move away from the areas contaminated by oil.

                However most laboratory evidence indicates that fish are susceptible to the

                toxic effects of oil and to many of the chemical dispersants used to clean-UP

                after oil spills.

                                                    -60-

                      Tile exact effects of oil activities on fish populations are not clear

                 at this point, but will undoubtedly vary from species to species. Light,

                 refined petroleum products in shallow confined areas, are potentially more

                 damaging to crude oil or heavy oil in deeper, open areas. Potential adverse

                 impacts on fish populations include:

                      (1)  Eggs and larvae die in spawning and nursery areas from
                           exposure to concentrations of hydrocarbons in excess of
                           0.1 ppm.

                      (2)  Adults die or fail to reach spawning grounds if the spill
                           occurs in a critical, narrow or shallow waterway. Anadromous
                           fish homing to an estuary are particularly vulnerable to this
                           situation.

                           A local breeding population is lost due to contaminated
                           spawning grounds or nursery areas.

                      (4)  Fecundity and spawning behavior is changed.

                      (5)  Local food species of adults, juveniles, fry, or larvae are
                           affected.

                      The most harmful effects of oil spills on fish fauna seem to occur

                 during the egg and larval stages. They are extremely sensitive to high

                 boiling point hydrocarbons and are the least mobile stages in the life cycle

                 of any fish species. There has been concern that larval fishes, which often

                 concentrate at the ocean surface, may be adversely affected by floating oil,

                 either through toxicity or entrapment. Numerous deaths among the egg and

                 larval stages could cause serious consequences for adult populations over

                 the long run, and such consequences may be difficult to detect. The finfish

                 resources most potentially vulnerable to oil spills are striped bass, summer

                 and winter flounder.

                      The sublethal effects from oil pollution, especially from the chronic

                 low-level discharge of oil into the marine environment, are the least known

                 and potentially the most dangerous to fish. Sublethal effects are often

                 subtle and may not be known until damage to the population is widespread.

                  Feeding, reproduction, and social behavior have been shown to be disrupted

                  by soluble aromatic derivatives as low as 10-100 parts per billion. Inter-

                  ference with predator'detection of prey is also possible. Fish nutrition

                  may be altered by physiological/behavioral effects, blocking taste receptors,

                  and mimicking natural chemical messengers which attract predators to their

                  prey. The tainting of fish flesh is an important problem for comercial and

                  recreational fish species.

                  Birds

                       The effects of oil on birds, especially pelagic seabirds, has been the

                  forue of numerous research efforts during the last forty years. A number of

                  relevant conclusions can be draTvm for the purpose of impact assessment from

                  these efforts:

                       (1)  Seabirds constitute one of our most abundant,.widely distributed
                            but least understood biological resource. Their populations
                            range in the hundred of mill-ions.

                       (2)  In general, seabirds are: long-lived; have a very low reproductive
                            potentlLal; are geographically isolated from man and most predators
                            (requi:ring only a low 'level of annual replacements); have relatively
                            rest-ricted rances; nest in colonies along the coast or on islands;
                            frequently concentrate in hugh flocks during various seasons, and
                            take- a long time to recover from severe population depletion.

                       (3)  Losses of birds to oil spills are highest during the vdnter months
                            when the species are abundant along the coast and concentrated on
                            winter@_ng grounds.

                        The damage to bird populations is the most direct and obvious effect

                  of oil spills. Oil spills pose a considerable potential threat to bird
                  populations in Baltimore Canyon and George's Bank. Atlantic coastal habita-ts

                  support thousands bf species of birds providing wintering, breeding, and
                                                                 CD

                  feeding grounds.

                       Spilled oil  or petroleum products cw-i adversely affect aquatic birds

                  through external  exposure to surface oil films, internal exposure by feeding

                  and preening and.loss of habitats or food supplies. The primary effect of

                  direct contact of avifauna with oil is the destruction of the water repellancy and

                                                      -62-

                  insulation properties of the plumage. In lightly oiled birds, buoyancy

                  is lost and insulation is reduced. Many of these birds die of exposure or

                  starvation, others are suspected of draoming at sea. Death by exposure is

                  a result of the loss of vital body heat through oil-impregnated feathers.

                  Starvation results from*the oil-induced mortality of food items or the inability

                  of ci2edbirds to search for food.

                       Waterfowl mortality, due to oil sp ills, can also occur during nesting

                  season. Brooding adult birds can transfer oil from their feathers to the

                  surfaces of their eggs. Oil does not allow respiratory gases to pass through

                  pores in the egg, and subsequent hatching success may be significantly reduced.

                       Internal exposure of aquatic birds to oil occurs when the oil is ingested,

                  either with contaminated food or during preening (cleaning of the plumage
                  with the bill). Indirect effects of spilled oil on birds are those induced

                  by habitat alteration, especially the loss of food supply. Spilled oil may

                  destroy vegetation or invertebrates in traditional feeding grounds. This

                  loss of potenti%l food organisms may reduce survival of Ydntering, nesting.

                  or migrating populations long after most oil has been removed.

                      The habitat preferences and behavior of certain species increases or

                  cLecreases its relative susceptibility to fouling by oil. A br-ief and general

                  ranking in orde:- of susceptibility is:

                      (1) diving ducks -- auks, some ducks, grebes, loons, pelicans and comorants,
                      (2) geese, some ducks, and pelagic phalaropes
                      (3) shore birds
                      (4) gull's, terns, cranes, and herons

                      It should be noted that the main damage caused by oil to birds occurs in

                  the early stages of the spill, while oil is still on the surface and before

                  it comes ashore. It is thus, urgent that action be taken as quickly as possible

                  to assess the situation and initiate preventive efforts to (1) protect unoiled

                  bird concentrations by the strategic placement of booms, disperml of slicks

                                                      -63-

                   and deterrent techniques; (2) birds censuses by species in the area, including

                   the number oiled (live and dead) a-ad unoiled. Quick action can often reduce

                   mortality by directing attention to nesting, feeding or roosting areas,

                   sanctuaries and bird concentrations so that priority may be given to protecting

                   them.

                                                     -64-

                                     VI. ESTIMATES OF SPILLS THAT MAY
                                     UAPACT CRITICAL NATURAL RESOURCES

                                                        .-65-

                      Perhaps the most detrimental aspect of OCS development is the Potential

                 for oil spills both in the offshore region and, more inportantly, the probability
                 for spills.rea@hlng shore and impacting the environmental and economic     resources

                 of the State.  Again, the major focus of this report is on the offshore region.

                 The NSRPB study should be utilized to determine oil spill effects on the ne'arshore,

                 resources.

                      Since 1969 and the Santa Barbara incident, there has been an increasing

                 awar eness of oil spills and their detrimental effects. In fact, much of the

                 technology for oil spill cleanup was developed after 1969

                      However, the recent rash of tanker accidents including the Argo !@-!erchant

                 have highlighted the fact that oil spill containment equipment cannot operate

                 under various adverse weather conditions such as increased wave heights (greater
                 than five feet), high winds, and strong currents. Thus, oil spills on the high

                 seas in hazard6us waters must run the course of nature. Efforts to contain

                 and clean-up spills in these areas can be considered to achieve minimal results.

            A. Oil S-jill Statistics

                      To accurately assess the range and frequenzy of oil spills in the Mid-

                 Atlantic and the i-orth Atlantic, there must be a base on which to make -pro-

                 jections.

                      The best knowa oil spill statistics are cozpiled by the U.S. Coast      Guard

                 although other individual agencies compile their (Y@vm statist-ics,   Offshore oil

                 pipeline data, for example, is compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey of the

                 Department of the Interior. Additionally, the Office of Pipe-line Safety and

                 Operation of the Department of Transportation also keeps its o,.,,,n statistics.

                      Unfortimately, the -records of these three agencies do not agree, leading

                 to the inescapable conclusion that either reporting or    investigation of these
                 incidents is faulty.32

                      It should be noted, however, that the statistics compiled by these Md

                 other agencies are based on reporting. Thus, if an operator does not report

                                                       -66-

                a spill, the incident may not be recorded. Secondly,    the statistics, especially

                for offshore operations, are obviously historical and   are compiled from the exDer-

                iences of other U.S. leasing areas. These experiences, whereclimatic

                conditions are much less severe, may not be relevant to the harsh weather

                conditions to be encountered in the frontier OCS areas of the lad-Atlantic and

                North Atlantic.

                  Further, to predict the numbers and volumes of spills, many researchers

                have utilized volume production figures as averages to determine the kinds

                and extent of spills. However, the size and probability of spills is a much
                more accurate way to describe spills rather  than volume production.33

            B. Oil Spill 1,16dels

                     In the past few years, at least seven oil spill models that pertain to Long Islan

                have been developed to predict where an oil spill will travel given a hypothetical

                spi 11 location. Most notable of these are the United States Coast Guard Model and

                the U.S. Geological Survey oil spill risk model, both developed to provide a

                basis for determining where spills would goin the event of spills both near

                Uo sl@Lore and on the Continental Shelf %here drilling will occur. The USGS

                model has been extensively utilized by the Bureau of Land -Management in writing

                the environmental impact statements for the Balt.imore Canyon and the Georges
                Bank. 34,35

                     -Other models and drift card studies have been developed to illustrate more sue-

                cinctly the relationship between oil-spills in the lease areas and possible impacts

                on Long Island. Most significant of these works are a series of reports dcne for
                the Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board by Devanrey and Stewart.36,37,38

                     Taken together, these models and drift card studies provide.tools i;ihich

                can be used to reach hypothetical conclusions about spills. There are extensive

                limitations to these mdels, and total reliance on them is up-warranted. it

                                                      -67-

                 should be remembered that the models (seven in all: MIT, (1) Stewart, Devanney,

                 and Briggs, 1974, and (2) Devanney and Stewart, 1974; Coast Guard, (1) Lessauer

                 and Bacon, 1975 and (2) Miller, Bacon and Lessauer, 1975, Hardy et al. 1975;

                 Brookhaven National Laboratory Model; U.S.G.S., Smith, Slack and Davis, 1976)

                 are theoretical mathematical models. All these models are simplified, one

                 dimensional, wind-driven systems. They assume that the water column is homo-

                 geneous and do not consider other important oceanographic factors such as mixing,

                 long shore pressure gradients, long shore drift, density differences, upwelling,

                 or settling out in the water column. These factors are important to predict

                 the fate of oil spills close to shore and the impacts of spills on the upwealing
                 system.39

                   At present, the most extensively used is the USGS model that is the basis

                 for predictionand transport of spills and environmental impacts for the Depart-

                 ment of Interior (Bureau of Land Management), environmental inp4,ct statements.

                 However, the analyses that are utilized consider the amount of undiscovered ,

                 economically recoverable resources in the specific lease sale only. For exam-

                 ple, the Mid-Atlantic analyses which appeared in the Final Environmental Impact
                 Statement40 were based on a resource find of 1.4 bill-ion barrels over the life

                 of the field. For the North Atlantic area, a maximum find of 650 million barrels

                 of oil was used as the basis for analysis. The analyses also dealt with spills

                 within the lease areas only. Thus, a pipeline spill or a tanker spill closer

                 to shore was not included in the analyses.

                     To accurately assess the potential for oil spills and possible impact

                 upon the resources of New York State, a combination of the forementioned

                 studies must be utilized to predict (1) spills originating and transported

                 from the lease areas and (2) spills originating and transported outside of

                 t
                 he lease areas.

                                                       -68-

            C. Si  ze and Distribution of Oil Spills-that Mlay Impact New York State

                      Reliance on historical, reported data may not be applicable to the frontier

                 Atlantic OCS regions. Because of the differing estimates of the size and dis-

                 tribution of spills based on both historical and mathematical probabilities for

                 a given resource find, a statement of the absolute numbers and distributions

                 of future spills is not feasible.

                      For purposes of evaluating environmental impacts of possible spills, a

                 high find scenario would dictate the worst environmental conditions, assuming

                 that there is oil found in the b1id-Atlantic and further assuming that tankers

                 would be utilized in the North Atlantic to transport oil from the Georges Bank

                 to refineries in the New York/New Jersey Port Area:

                                                    Hi gh Find

                                  Mjid Atlantic                2.6 billion barrelsa
                                  North Atlantic               0.9 billion barrelsb

                  aassumes pipelines for transport to shore'
                  bassumes tankere from platforms to Port of.New York and   New Jersey

                      The scenario nuffbers under discussion are greater than those estimated

                 by the Bureau of :,and 1VIanagement for the individual lease sales for Sale 40

                 and 42.  The indi-%,--idual lease sale figures are based on somewhat lower resource

                 finds, and the statistics and impacts derived for the environmental impact

                 statenL-nt reflect these lower finds. In this analysis of inTpacts, the deriva-

                 tion of new spill probability statistics for the scenario figures did not

                 seem productive given the hypothetical nature of existing spill models, the

                 descrepancies of various sloill data, and the time required for reevaluating

                 and hypothesizing new data for these purposes. Consequently a wide variety
                                  CM

                 of*already available data have been employed as conservative estimates of the

                 numbers and distr ibution of spills.that could result given OCS development.

                                                          -69-

                                 th                                      ISGS oil spill risk analy-
                      Based on   ' e I-Iid-Atlantic and North Atlantic L
                 ses, 41,42 the  following tables will be used as the basis for discussion:

                                                   Table 5
                                                 Mid-Atlantic(a)
                                  Oil spill Frequency Statistics by Potential Sources

                                                           Expected number of spills     Probability of at
                                                            during the production life least one spill
                                                             of the lease area (mean)      occurrence

                A. Spills greater than 1,000     bbls
                     in size

                         Platforms                                        2.3                  .9
                         Pipelines                                        2.5                  .92
                         Tankers                                          3.3                  .96
                         Platforms  and Pipelines                         4.8                  .99
                         Platforms  and Tankers                           5.6                  .99

                B. Spills 50 to 1,000 bbis in size
                         J!Latforms and Pipelines                        1,7.8                 .99
                         Platforms and Tankers                                 Not Available
                (a)Figures, based on esti-mated economically recoverable resources of 1.4 billion
                     bbls.

                                                    Table 6
                                                North Atlantic(b)
                               Oil Spill Frequency Statistics by Potential Source

                                                        Lxpected nu-TI)er of spills Probability of at
                                                        during the production life least one spill
                                                         of the lea@@e area (rnean)      occurrence

                A. Spills greater than 1,000 bbls
                    in size

                         Platform                                    1.14                     .65
                         Pipelines                                   1.26                     .69
                         Tankers                                     1.69                     .81
                         Platform, b- &Tid Pinelines                 2.40                     .91
                         P 1 at f oi-,--s and Tankers                2.83                     .93

                B. Spills 50-1000    bbls in size

                         Platforms and Pi-oelines                    8.93                     .99
                         Platform   and Tankers                      13.2                     .99
                (b)
                   Figures based on estimated econoTucally recoverable       resources of 0.65 billion
                   bb1s.

                                                     -70-

                     The expected number of spills is given as the mean or,50% value. Based

                on the statistical distribution, the following are derived:

                                                AU d-Atlanti c

                     - 70% chance that there will be between 2 and 7 spills greater than
                       1,000 bbls given platforms and pipelines

                     - 50% change that there will be 18 spills of 50-1,000 bbls

                                               North Atlantic

                     - 81% chance that there will be between 1 and 4 spills

                     - 50% chance that there will be 13 spills of 50-1,000 bbls.

                     Because the find scenario is larger than the recoverable resources on which

                the statistics are based (2.6 vs. 1.4 billion and 0.9 vs. 0.65 billion), the high

                numbers for spills greater than 1,000 bbls will be chosen for discussion purposes;

                i.e., seven spills in the Zd-Atlantic'and four spills in the North Atlantic.

            D.  Predicting Where Oil Spills Will be Transported

                     Assuming that there will be a number of large spills on the Atlantic OGS

                in the Georges Bank and the Baltimore Canyon, the obvious question is what

                will be the impact of these spills? Although there will be a number of smaller

                spills, the spills greater than 1,000 barrels will produce the greatest problems.

                These smaller spills should not be discounted, but they will occur on the Con-

                tinental Shelf in deep water where they can be actively dispersed by wave and

                wind action.

                     From the numerous studies and models developed to date, it appears that the

                probability of New York State's coasts being adversely impacted by a large

                spill from the present leasing area is small. However, it should be noted

                that these purely -hypothetical mathematical models are based primarily on

                wind direction. If spills occur outside the lease area, for example in the

                Nantucket to Ambrose traffic lane, the chances of a spill reaching Long Island

                are greatly increased.

                                                        -71-

                      The following table is a  synopsis  of data and impacts on Long Island

                on the seven previously mentioned oil spill trajectory models and studies:

                                                     Table 7
                                      Probability of Impacting Long Island Shore

                Stewar t, Devanney, and Briggs, 1974            25100 - spring
                                                                 8% other seasons

                Lessauer and Bacon, 1975                        Spill impacts the shore in 4-8
                                                                days

                h1iller, Bacon and Lessauer, 1975            When summer high pressure remains
                                                             stationary for 4-5 days then spill.
                                                             comes ashore

                                                             When winter storm stalls and   becomes
                                                             stationary south of spill sites,
                                                             there is a high chance of spill
                                                             impacting shore

                Devanney and Stewart, 1974                   Spills south of 400 N latitude:
                                                                less than 10% probability of
                                                                impact in winter; less than 50%
                                                                probability of impact in summer

                Hardy et al.  1975                           In winter months, 0% probability
                                                                                  A
                                                             of a spill stranding on Long Island
                                                             if more than 10 miles offshore

                                                             In simuner there is greater than 0%
                                                             probability of a spill stranding
                                                             on Long Island within 60 days if the
                                                             spill is within 30 miles offshore

                Brookhaven National Laboratory               Probability of impact is very low
                                                             if thr-- spill is greater than 15
                                                             miles offshore

                Smith, Slack and Davis, 1976                 70% probability of 7 major spills
                                                             -10% probability of spill impacting shore
                                                                                                 CM
                                                             90% probability of pipeline spill impact-
                                                                 ing IAid-Atlantic shore

                      The reason for the presentation of this data is to highlight the di'screp-

                ancies between and among the various studies and the problems in comparing

                and constrasting the results of each. Different researchers used different

                release points or points of di@scharges. Thus a truly accurdte de,scription

                of the time and distance to shore is not feasible.

                                                      -72-

            E. Limitations

                     Based on the previous discussion amd the extent of oil spill data, OCS

                operations can be expected to result in both major and minor spills that will

                affect both the offshore and the nearshore regions.

                     According to the statistics, one could expect seven large spills (greater

                than 1,000 barrels),from the Mid-Atlantic lease area and four from the North

                Atlantic.

                     Previous discussions by coastal zone managers of oil spill dangers center

                on the impacts should oil reach shore. Obviously, this is where the worst envir-

                onmental and economic effects will occur. However, one must not discount the

                fact that major spills in the offshor e regions could devastate a year class

                of finfish resulting in losses to New York fisherman.

                     As discussed previously, the oil spill models are two dimensional and,

                therefore, do not take into account the mixing phenomenon md gradual introduc-

                tion of oil into sediments and perhaps the food chain. Thus an accurate appraisal

                of the quantitative and qualitative effects of a major spill in the ocean cannot

                be made. While recognizing that spills may not be transported to shore, one

                cannot assume that because a spill has "disappeared" from the surface, it no

                longer poses a threat to the marine environment.

                     Catastrophic occurrences such as the Argo Merchant can provide first class

                environmental laboratories on both the effects of spills and transport. Pres-

                ently, the USGS is still tracking the Argo I&rchant spill by satellite giving

                scientists real time data on the movement and transport of oil in the Atlantic

                OCS. Thus the real time data can be utilized as a correlation with the theoreti-

                cal data on which the model is based.

                     In providing this test, the model may be substantially improved to enhance

                its predictive capability.

                                                     -73-

                          VII. ESTIMATE OF THE SENSITIVITY OF THE SHELLFISH
                             AND FISHING INDUSTRIES TO PETROLEUM CONTAMINATION

                                                     -74-

                     The fishing industry could be adversely affected by a major oil spill.

                An oil spill, whether from a tanker, pipeline or platform, could have a devas-

                tating impact on fish, dhellfish, and the entire marine environment. Damages

                to the marine environment could include:

                     (1) death of organisms through coating andasplV-xiation;

                     (2)  death of organisms through poisoning and long-term exposure
                          to toxic materials;

                     (3)  destruction of food sources for species higher in the food
                          chain;

                     (4)  incorporation of small amounts of oil and oil products into
                          organisms which could result in reduced resistance to infec-
                          tion and other stresses; and

                     (5)  introduction of carcinogenic chemicals into marine organism .

                     In addition to killing some organisms outright, oil pollution could cause

                tainting of commercial species of fish and shellfish (Table 8), and could foul

                fishing gear. Adult finfish, not killed outright, may suffer long-term declines

                if food webs are interrupted or resistance to disease and environmental stress

                lowered. Larval and juvenile fish killed in great numbers would result in greatly

                reduced yields several years after the spill, particularly for species which

                are currently overfished. Oil spills may also impact selected species through

                genetic damage, disruption of normal physiological processes, and pathobiological

                conditions.

                     Several of the commercial fish species important to New York State are

                schooling fish which exhibit seasonal migration patterns. If an oil spill

                occurred during these migrations, be it an oil or tanker spill or even a platform

                spill, an entire year class of a fish species could be eliminated. Butterfish,

                scup and Atlantic menhaden could be adversely affected as they are schooling

                fish that exhibit seasonal migration patterns, moving inshore in the spring and

                offshore in the fall to wintering grounds located at the edge of the Continental

                Shelf.

                                                        -75-

                                                     Table 8
                                       New York Commercial  Landings, 1976*

                       Species                      Landings                Wholesale Value
                                                Rank       Tons            Tq-n        Dollars

                 Finfish

                   Summer flounder                 1        1,603           1        $ 1,499,781

                   Silver hake                     2        1,273           4            289,655

                   Scup                            3        1,238           2            579,588

                   Butterfish                      4         480            5            273,954

                   Striped bass                    5         347            3            422,136

                   Yellowtsil flounder             6         295            6            168,068

                   Atlantic @nackeral              7         225            8              39,517

                   Winter flounder                 8         178            7            143,941

                  Shellfish

                   Hard clam                       1        4,515           1          18,120,265

                   Surf clam                       2        1,728           4          1,089,204

                   American oyster                 3         951            2          4,763,957

                   American lobster                4         297            3          1,338,484

                   Bay scallop                     5         219            5            816,372

                   Soft clam                       6           24           6              61,406

                         Mational Marine Fisheries Service, New York Landings,
                          Annual Summary 1976, Current Fisheries Statistics No. 7212,
                          Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, MJIFS,
                          April 21, 1977.

                                                     -76-

                     The tainting of commercial species of fish, clams, and oysters by oil

                has frequently been reported, resulting in unsaleable catches. Tainting may

                be quite persistent, the noticeable taint lasting several months.

                     A short term impact on sport-fishing opportunities could be caused by a

                spill affecting shoreline piers, jetties, groins, and nearshore artificial

                fishing reefs. The loss of opportunities would primarily be caused by the

                dispersion of the fish-population concentrations, leading to lower success rates

                which could discourage participation. The most severe impacts would occur if

                the artificial reefs along the western end of Long Island were affected. Thirty-

                three percent of the more than eight million persons who participated in salt-

                water fishing in the Mid-Atlantic region in 1973-1974 were residents of New York

                State. Additionally, participation may decrease as a result of a boat fisherman's

                reluctance to use his vessel in areas that might potentially soil the craft and

                gear.

                     One observation that emerges from examination of oil spills and fisheries

                is that while there is reasonable evidence for localized effects, there is as

                yet -little specific evidence of widespread damage to major fisheries resource

                populations resulting from oil spills. There is some evidence that other factors,

                such as long-term shifts in geographic distribution, repeated year class successes

                or failures, and overfishing, may cause pronounced changes in fisheries.

                                                            -77-

                                                       Footnotes

                        'National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), New York Landings, Annual
                   Summary 1976, Current Fisheries Statistics No. 7212 (Washington: U.S. Dept.
                   of Commerce, NOAA, NMFS, April 21, 1977) p. 2.
                        2The Research Institute of the Gulf of Maine, (TRIGOM), A Socio-Economic
                   and Environmental Inventory of the North Atlantic Region, Vol. I, Book 3 (South
                   Portland, Maine: The Research Institute of the Gulf of Maine, November, 1974),
                   p. 10-58.
                        3Ibid., p. 10-58.
                        4Ibid., p. 10-59.
                        5NMFS, New York Landings, Annual Summary 1976, p. 2.
                        6Ibid., p. 2.
                        7Ibid., p. 2.
                        8Ibid., p. 2.
                        9J.L. McHugh and Anne D. Williams, Historical Statistics of the Fisheries
                   of the New York Bight Area.(Albany, New York: New York Sea Grant Institute,
                   July, 1976), p. 54.
                       10TRIGOM, A Socio-Economic and Environmental Inventory of the North Atlantic
                   Region, p. 13-53.
                       1lIbid., p. 13-53.
                       12NMFS, New York Landings, Annual Summary 1976, p. 2.
                       13McHugh and Williams, Historical Statistics of the Fisheries of the New
                   York Bight Area, p. 54.
                       14NMFS, New York Landings, Annual Summary 1976, p. 2.
                       15Ibid., p. 2.
                       16Congress for the United States, Office of Technology Assessment, Working
                   Papers for Coastal Effects of Offshore Energy Systems, Vol. II (Washington:
                   Superintendent of Documents, November, 1976), p. C-10.
                       17NMFS, New York Landings, Annual Summary 1976, p. 2,
                       18Ibid., p. 2.
                       19Ibid., p. 2.
                       20Ibid., p. 2
                       2lIbid., p. 2.

                                                         -78-

                      22McHugh and Williams, Historical   Statistics of the Fisheries of the
                 New York Bight Area, p. 54.
                      23,bid., P. 54.
                      24,TIFS, New York Landings, Annual Summary 1976, p. 2.
                      25Division of Marine and Coastal Resources, New York State Department of
                 Environmental Conservation (Stony Brook, New York:      Region I Office New York
                 State Department of Environmental Conservation).
                      26N1j1FS, New York Landings, Annual Summary 1976,  p. 2.
                      27COuncil on Environmental Quality, OCS Oil and    Gas - An Environmental
                 Assessment, vol. 1. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
                 1974) p. 109.
                      28American Petroleum Institute, Proceedings, 1977 Oil Spill Conference
                 (Washington, D.C.: American Petroleum Institute, March 8-10, 1977-7, p. @7j.
                      29United States Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Coastal Effects
                 of Offshore Energy Systems, Volume II: Working Papers (Washington, D.C.:
                 U.S. Government Printing Office, November, 1976), Table C-7.
                      30Lynwood S. Smith, Introductory AnatonW and Biology of_Selected Fish
                 and Shellfish, (Seattle, Washington: College of Fisheries, University of
                 Washington, 1973).
                      31Don E. Kash and Irvin L. White, Energy Under the Oceans., (Norman, OK;
                 Oklahoma Press, 1973) pp. 128-129.
                      32American Petroleum Institute, Proceedings 1977 Oil Spill Conference,
                 p. 95.
                      33Council on Environmental Quality, OCS Oil and Gas - An Environmental
                 Assessment, Volume 1 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,
                 April, 1974),  pp. 87-98.
                      34Richard A. Smith, James R. Slack, and Robert K. Davis, An Oil Spill
                 Risk Analysis  for the ItLd-Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Lease Area,
                 (Reston, Va.: U.S. Geological Survey, June 1976).
                      35Richard A. Smith, James R. Slack, and Robert K. Davis, An Oil Spill
                 Risk Analysis_ for the North Atlantic Outer Continental Shelf Lease Area,
                 (Reston, Va.: U.S. Geological Survey, 1976).
                      36j.W. Devanney III, and Robert J. Stewart, Long Island Spill Trajectory
                 Study, (Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nassau Suffolk Regional Planning Board, February 28,
                 1974).
                      37j.W. Devanney III, and Robert J. Stewart, Probabilistic Trajectory Assess-
                 ments for Offshore Oil Spills Impacting Long Island, (Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nassau-
                 Suffolk Regional Planning Board, November 15, 1974).

                                                    -79-

                   38J.W. Devanney III, and Robert J. Stewart, The Likelihood of Spills
               Reaching Long Island from Hypothetical Offshore Finds Over the Development's
               Life, (Hauppauge, N.Y.: Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board, June 1975).
                   39L. Castiglione, NYS Department of State, AL-morandum to Greg Sovas,
               NYS Department of Environmental Conservation, Additional Comments on OGS
               Oil Spill Trajectory Models, (Albany, NY: NYS Department of State, July 1,
               1976).
                   40United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Final
               Environmental Statement, Proposed 1976 Outer Continental Shelf Oil and Gas
               Lease Sale Offshore the ALd-Atlantic States, (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government
               Printing Office,'1976).
                   4lRichard A. Smith et al., An_Oil Spill Risk Analysis for the lad-Atlantic
               Outer Continental Shelf Lease Area.
                   42Richard A. Smith et al., An Oil Spill Risk Analysis for the North Atlantic
               Outer Continental Shelf Lease Area.

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