[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]






                                                                       Hudson-"River
                             New York's Coastal Program
                                                                                                                    r77 0
                NEW 'YORK STATE DEPARTMENT OF S7TATE
         Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization   Significant                                  -i laal
                                                                       Habitats:'
                                                                       A Guide to the Functions, Values
                                                                       and Protection of the River's
                                                                       Natural Resources











                                                                                      COASTAL ZONE

                                                                               INFORMATION CENTER








                                     HC
                                     107
                                     Al 15
                                    -@,H83
                                     1990











                                                                                                                 Mario M. Cuomo, Governor
                                                                                                          Gail S. Shaffer, Secretary of State














                   The New York State Department
                   of State is a diverse agency which
                   combines modern activities with
                   historic responsibilities. Twelve
                   different program areas reflect the
                   growing role of the agency and its
                   unique ability to act as liaison
                   between state government and the
                   public, and provide a variety of
                   services to New Yorkers. New
                   York's Coastal Program is housed
                   in the Department of State. It
                   oversees the state's 3,200 miles of
                   coast, balancing protection of
                   coastal resources with careful
                   waterfront development.

                   If you would like additional
                   information on New York's
                   Coastal Program, please write:

                   Secretary of State Gail S. Shaffer
                   NYS Department of State
                   162 Washington Avenue
                   Albany, New York 12231










         rA I
                       HUDSON RIVER SIGNIFICANT TIDAL HABITATSy
                                           A Guide to the Functions, Values, and Protection
                                                               of the River's Natural Resources



                                                                                        Prepared By.

                                                                  New York State Department of State
                    U . S . DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA            Division of Coastal Resources and
                    COASTAL SEROCEtS CENTER                                   Waterfront Revitalization
                    2234 SOUTH HOE',@ON AVENUE
                    CHARLESTON    SC 29405-2413                                                   and

                                                                             The Nature Conservancy
                       property Of CSC Library
                                                                                         March 1990













                                                                        @,'@U, -A
                                                                                              M
                                                                                              5177













        'For a/1 of its pastoral beauty, however, the Hudson is. essentially an urban river, dominated by man, his history and
        his industry. Like all rivers, the Hudson constantly strives to purify itself, but its future destiny for good or ill
        depends entirely upon the good will of man...'

        William F. Gekle in
        The Lower Reaches of the Hudson River
        Wyvern House, Poughkeepsie, New York, 1982








































        Inside cover photograph: View to the south over Constitution Marsh (A. Lillyquist/DOS)




                                                                   ii









                                                                   FOREWORD

            This guide presents the results of a special study of the tidal portion of the Hudson River between New York City and
            Troy. The purpose of this guide is twofold. First, it is hoped that the information it contains will highlight the unique
            character of the Hudson River Estuary and increase the reader's awareness and understanding of the important natural
            resource values provided by the system. Secondly, it is hoped that those individuals and the various government
            agencies and private organizations concerned with future use and protection of the Hudson River's natural resources
            will take note of the guidelines and recommendations contained in the guide. These and other management actions will
            need to be taken to ensure the future protection of the Hudson River's natural values.

            This guide relies heavily on previously completed documents, studies and maps, as well as field observations based on
            a number of visits to the River's tidal habitats. The guide builds directly on information developed by the Department
            of Environmental Conservation for designation of significant coastal fish and wildlife habitats under the State's Coastal
            Management Program. Most importantly, it incorporates the insights of individuals familiar with the River's natural
            resources, as well as the problems that affect and are threatening these resources. The guide should be of practical use
            to public officials, the residents of the River Valley, public agencies, and private organizations in making tangible progress
            towards more enlightened use and protection of the River's natural resources.

            The Hudson River is trying to cleanse itself. Beginning with the colonial period, years of exploitation and abuse led to
            the loss of eagles from the Hudson Valley, a decline in fish stocks, widespread pollution and contamination of sediments,
            and the transformation of some parts of the River into an open cesspool during the dry summer months. One of the
            significant observations that emerged from this study Is that people seem to have forgotten that the River reached this
            low point in its natural history less than twenty years ago. Today, eagles are returning, fish stocks are rebounding,
            pollution, although still ubiquitous, has declined, and with it, most of the unpleasant summer cesspools have disappeared.

            Improvements in the River are, however, accompanied by new threats to its natural resources. Our growing population
            is once again drawn to the River: waterfront condominiums are claiming the Riverfront and driving real estate prices
            beyond the reach of public ownership, pleasure boats now fill many tidal creeks, and marina basins are being
            constructed in tidal shallows. Still, the Hudson River has not been subjected to the same level of frantic and intense
            development that typifies other sections of New York's coast. Opportunities remain to plan for a balance between use
            and protection of the River's resources. We already have substantial experience in using the River's resources; in
            another twenty years, we should be able to claim that we also have experience in protecting these resources. This guide
            is intended to help provide the initial steps that will eventually justify such a claim.

            This guide is the second in a series of natural resource studies initiated by the New York State Department of State
            through its Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization. As the agency responsible for administering the
            State's Coastal Management Program, the Department of State is actively involved in the protection of New York's
            coastal resources from the marine environment of Long Island Sound and Peconic Bay, to the freshwaters of Lakes Erie
            and Ontario.










                                                            ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


              This guide is the result of a joint effort by the New York State Department of State, Division of Coastal Resources and
              Waterfront Revitalization (DOS) and The Nature Conservancy (TNC). Preparation of the guide was funded in part by the
              Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, with a grant
              provided under the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, as amended. The Nature Conservancys field work for
              preparation of this guide was partially funded by the Zoos, Botanical Gardens and Aquariums Program, which is
              administered by the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation for the Natural Heritage Trust.
              Additional funding was provided by the Conservancy's Lower Hudson and Eastern New York Chapters, New York Field
              Office, and the Rodney Johnson Stewardship Endowment.

              An early draft of this guide was prepared by Nick Salafsky (TNQ under the direction of project leaders Tom Hart (DOS)
              and Amy Lester (TNC). Nick was called upon to conduct literature reviews, interviews of people knowledgeable of the
              River, field investigations and photo-documentation of the River's tidal habitats, and to prepare maps, graphics, and initial
              drafts of this guide, all in an unreasonably short period of time. Few people could have done as well as he did at these
              tasks.

              The final guide was written and prepared by Tom Hart. Preparation of the Hudson River Habitat Maps was completed
              with the assistance of Nancy Nugent (DOS). Many versions of this guide were reviewed and edited by Kevin Cross
              (DOS). Computer support was provided by William Cross (DOS), who made printing this guide possible.

              Support and technical assistance were provided by the staff of The Nature Conservancy, NY Field Office. Special thanks
              are extended to Betsy Blair (Hudson River Estuarine Research Reserve), Bridget Barclay (Clearwater, Inc.), and Robert
              Zaremba (TNC) for providing extensive and comprehensive comments on draft materials. In addition, the following
              provided advice on writing the guide or commented on a draft of the document: Tom Rawinski (TNC), Carol Reschke
              (TNC/Natural Heritage), Nancy Beard (New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, (DEC)), Bryan Swift
              (DEC), Bob Brandt (DEC), John Ozard (DEC), Paul Neth (DEC), Ken Wich (DEC), Michael Chezick (Fish and Wildlife
              Service), Mario Del Vicario (Environmental Protection Agency), Len Houston (Army Corps of Engineers), and Michael
              Ludwig (National Marine Fisheries Service). Original mapping and evaluation of the State's significant coastal fish and
              wildlife habitats was provided by the Department of Enviornmental Conservation's Significant Habitat Unit.

              The following are acknowledged for granting permission to use copyrighted materials:

              Boyce Thompson Institute for Figure 3 taken from An Atlas of the Biological Resources of the Hudson River Estuary
              (Ithaca: Boyce Thompson Institute, 1977).

              Clearwater, Inc. for Figure 22 taken from A Panoramic View of the Hudson (Poughkeepsie: Clearwater, Inc., 1979)

              E. Kiviat for Figure 24 taken from Exotic Plants with Identified Detrimental Impacts on Wildlife Habitats in New York State
              (Ithaca: The Wildlife Society, 1987)

              R. Malecki for Figure 26 taken from Exotic Plants with Identified Detrimental Impacts on Wildlife Habitats in New York
              State (Ithaca: The Wildlife Society, 1987)

              W. Odum, T. Smith, J. Hoover, and C. McIvor for Figure I I taken from The Ecology of Tidal Freshwater Marshes of
              the United States East Coast A Community Profile (Washington: USF&W, 1984)

              S. Rohmann and N. Lilienthal for Figures 17 and 28 taken from Tracing a River's Toxic Pollution: A Case Study of the
              Hudson, Phase 11 (New York: Inform, 1987). ,

              R. Tiner for Figures 2 and 4 taken from A Field Guide to Coastal Welland Plants of the Northeastern United States
              (Amherst: U. of Mass. Press, 1987).

              Also acknowledged for their contributions are: Anne Williams, previously of The Nature Conservancy, Eastern New York
              Chapter, who provided the base map of the Hudson River that appears In the Introduction and Chapter 6; and, Kate
              Hubbs (TNC), Alan Lillyquist (DOS), Nancy Nugent (DOS), Harry Dodson (Dodson Associates) and Steven Stanne
              (Clearwater) who contributed photos as credited.


                                                                           IV










                                                                CONTENTS


               Foreword    .......................................................                              iii
               Acknowledgements      ..............................................                             IV
               Contents   .......................................................                               v
               List of Figures  ..................................................                              vi

               Introduction   ....................................................                              1


               Chapter 1 Ecological Community Descriptions        ..........................                    3
                1.1  General Environmental Characteristics      ............................                    4
                1.2  Ecological Communities      .......................................                        6
                1.3  Deepwater    .................................................                             6
                1.4  Shallows, Mudflats, and Shore     ..................................                       8
                1.5  Tidal Marsh   ................................................                          12
                1.6  Tidal Swamp     ...............................................                         16
                1.7  Freshwater Creek and Upland Forest       .............................                  17
                FURTHER READING        .............................................                         18


               Chapter 2 Biology of Rare and Important Species        .........................              19
                2.1 Rare Animal and Plant Species        ..................................                  20
                2.2 Important Species     ............................................                       25
                FURTHER READING        .............................................                         32


               Chapter 3 The River as an Ecosystem        .................................                  33
                3.1 Community Interdependence         ....................................                   34
                3.2 Ecosystem Cycles      ............................................                       34
                3.3 Seasonal Cycles      .............................................                       36
                3.4 Long-Term Ecological Processes        .................................                  36
                FURTHER READING        .............................................                         37


               Chapter 4 Human Interactions with the River Ecosystem         ....................            39
                4.1  Chronology of Hudson River Use        ................................                  40
                4.2  Water Use and Management         ....................................                   41
                4.3  Pollutants and Water Quality     ....................................                   45
                4.4  Transportation .... ...........................................                         50
                4.5  Shoreline Development       .......................................                     54
                4.6  Use of Living Resources     ........................................                    61

               Chapter 5 Existing Responsibilities for Resource Management         ................          65
                5.1 Legislative Background     .........................................                     66
                5.2 Government Agencies        .........................................                     70
                5.3 Private Not-for-Profit Organizations     ................................                73

               Chapter 6 Site Specific Information    ....................................                   75
                KEY TO SITE SPECIFIC INFORMATION             ...............................                 77
                Normans Kill    ...................................................                          79
                Papscanee Marsh and Creek         .......................................                    81
                .Shad and Schermerhom Islands       .....................................                    83
                Schodack and Houghtaling Islands and Schodack Creek           ...................            85
                Coeymans Creek      ................................................                         87
                Hannacroix Creek      ...............................................                        89


                                                                       v










                   Mill Creek Wetlands    ..............................................                          91
                   Stuyvesant Marshes    ......................           I........................               93
                   Coxsackie Creek      ................................................                          95
                   Coxsackie Island Backwater      ........................................                       97
                   Stockport Creek and Flats      ........................................                        99
                   Vosburgh Swamp and Middle Ground Flats           ............................                 101
                   Roger's Island   ..................................................                           103
                   Catskill Creek  ..................................................                            105
                   Ramshorn Marsh      ...............................................                           107
                   Inbocht Bay and Duck Cove       .......................................                       109
                   Roeliff-Jansen Kill  ...............................................                          ill
                   Smith's Landing Cementon       ........................................                       113
                   Germantown/Clermont Flats       .......................................                       115
                   Esopus Estuary     ................................................                           117
                   North and South Tivoli Bays     .......................................                       119
                   Mudder Kill   ...................................................                             121
                   The Flats  .....................................................                              123
                   Rondout Creek     .................................................                           125
                   Kingston Deepwater     .............................................                          127
                   Vanderburgh Cove and Shallows        ....................................                     129
                   Esopus Meadows       ...............................................                          131
                   Poughkeepsie Deepwater       .........................................                        133
                   Crum Elbow Marsh      ..............................................                          135
                   Wappinger Creek     ...............................................                           137
                   Fishkill Creek  ..................................................                            139
                   Moodna Creek     .................................................                            141
                   Hudson River Miles 44-56     .........................................                        143
                   Constitution Marsh    ..............................................                          145
                   Iona Island Marsh    ...............................................                          147
                   Camp Smith Marsh and Annsville Creek         ..............................                   149
                   Haverstraw Bay    ................................................                            151
                   Croton River and Bay     ............................................                         153
                   Plermont Marsh     ................................................                           155


                 Chapter 7 The Future of the River       ...................................                     157



                 APPENDICES


                   APPENDIX A: PLANT SPECIES REFERENCED IN THE TEXT                    ...............           162
                   APPENDIX B: ANIMAL SPECIES REFERENCED IN THE TEXT                     ..............          165
                   APPENDIX C-. AGENCIES AND ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN
                                   PROTECTION OF THE HUDSON RIVER'S RESOURCES                      .......       169
                   APPENDIX D: BIBLIOGRAPHY           .....................................                      177














                                                                          A









                                                                 LIST OF FIGURES



       Figure 1:     The Hudson, from Troy to New York City          ..........................................                            1
       Figure 2:     Generalized salinity and current patterns for the Hudson        Estuary (from Tiner,   1987)  ............            4
       Figure 3:     The Hudson River's watershed (from Boyce Thompson,             1977)   ............. .............                    5
       Figure 4:     Hydrological zonation in the estuary (from Tiner, 1987)        .................................                      6
       Figure 5:     A deepwater area near Germantown (N. Salafsky/TNC)              ...............................                       8
       Figure 6:     Shallows at Esopus Estuary (N. Salafsky/TNC)          ......................................                          9
       Figure 7:     Mudflats interspersed within lower marsh (N. Salafsky/TNC)           ............................                  10
       Figure 8:     Rocky shore at Stuyvesant Marshes (N. Salafsky/TNC)           ................................ .                   10
       Figure 9:     Mudflat showing thick substrate and surface patterns created by flowing water (Salafsky/TNC) . .                   11
       Figure 10:    Broad-leaved plants of the lower marsh at Roger's Island (N. Salafsky/TNC)              ................           12
       Figure  11:   Spatterdock, a common broad-leaved plant of the lower marsh (from Odum et al.,                1984)    ......     .13
       Figure  12:   Three-square bulrush stand at Stockport Middle Ground (N. Salafsky/TNC)                .................           14
       Figure 13:    Grassy upper marsh at Stockport (N. Salafsky/TNC)            ..................................                    14
       Figure 14:    Lower marsh extending along channel at West Flats (N. Salafsky/TNC)               ....................             15
       Figure 15:    Swamp forest at Roger's Island (N. Salafsky)        .......................................                        16
       Figure  16:   Tidal Creek with upland forest in the background (N. Salafsky/TNC)             .....................               17
       Figure 17:    Location of dischargers holding SPDES permits in the early 1980's (from Inform, 1985)              ........        46
       Figure  18:   Oil tank farms are often located adjacent to valuable habitat (N. Salafsky/TNC)          ..............            49
       Figure  19:   Tugboat and barge near The Flats above Kingston (N. Salafsky/TNC)               ....................               51
       Figure 20.    Dredge fill encroachment into wetlands at Roeliff-Jansen Kill (N. Salafsky/TNC)          ..............            52
       Figure 21:    Bulkhead retaining dredge material at Shad and Schermerhorn Islands (N. Salafsky/TNC)                  .....       55
       Figure 22:    The effects of diking and disposal on the Hudson River shoreline between Albany
                     and New Baltimore (from Clearwater, 1979)         ........................................                         55
       Figure 23.,   Railroad tracks fronting cove at Stockport (N. Salafsky)       ...............................                     56
       Figure 24:    Water chestnut C[rapa natans) (from Kiviat, 1987)        ....................................                      59
       Figure 25:    Continuous cover of water chestnut over open water at Fishkill Creek (N. Salafsky)             ...........         59
       Figure 26:    Purple loosestrife (LAhrum salicaria (from Malecki, 1987)         ..............................                   60
       Figure 27:    Common Reed stand below Rip Van Winkle Bridge (N. Salafsky/TNC)                  ....................              61
       Figure 28:    DEC water use classifications along the Hudson River (From Rohmann and                Lilienthal, 1984) ...        68
       Figure 29:    Norman's Kill looking east from Route 32. Photo by Bryan Swift/DEC               ....................              79
       Figure 30:    Wetland and shallows in backwater area at Papscanee Marsh              ..........................                  81
       Figure 31:    At the mouth of the Binnen Kill, looking north       ......................................                        83
       Figure 32:    Looking across Schodack Creek at Schodack Island              ................................                     85
       Figure 33:    Bulkhead across backwater north of marina near Coeymans Creek. Photo by Bryan Swift/DEC.                           87
       Figure 34:    Hannacroix Creek below Route 144. Photo by Bryan Swift/DEC                 ........................                89
       Figure 35:    Mill Creek and swamp forest above the railroad bridge. Photo by Bryan Swift/DEC                  .........         91
       Figure 36:    Creek mouth at Stuyvesant Marshes          .............................................                           93
       Figure 37:    Tidal portion of Coxsackie Creek, looking east        ......................................                       95
       Figure 38:    Northern island shoreline showing sandy beach and upper marsh              ........................                97
       Figure 39:    Shallows and Stockport Middle Ground from a small tidal creek mouth               ...................              99
       Figure 40:    High marsh and tidal channel in Vosburgh Swamp, looking east             ..........................               101
       Figure 41:    Roger's Island backwater, looking north        ..........................................                         103
       Figure 42:    Catskill Creek, looking west     ...................................................                              105
       Figure 43:    Shore-parallel bands of low marsh, flats, and shallows at Ramshorn Marsh, looking northeast . . .                 107
       Figure 44:    View across Inbocht Bay to the south        ............................................                          109
       Figure 45:    Roeliff-Jansen Kill looking east from footbridge     ......................................                       111
       Figure 46:    Tidal cove showing lower and upper marsh at Smith's Landing            ..........................                 113
       Figure 47:    Marsh area north of the Esopus Creek mouth          .......................................                       117

                                                                             vii










     Figure 48:  Tivoli North Bay. Photo by Bryan Sw1ft/DEC      .......................................                  119
     Figure 49:  View of The Flats looking north. Photo by Nancy Nugent/DOS         .........................             123
     Figure 50:  Near the mouth of Rondout Creek, looking west. Photo by Nancy Nugent/DOS             ............        125
     Figure 51:  The Kingston Deepwater area from Norrie Point. Photo by Nancy Nugent/DOS            ............         127
     Figure 52:  Aerial view of Vanderburg Cove looking east. Photo by Harry Dodson/Dodson Associates            ....     129
     Figure 53:  Esopus Meadows looking south. Photo by Nancy Nugent/DOS             ........................             131
     Figure 54:  View to north of the Poughkeepsie Deepwater area. Photo by Steve Stanne/Clearwater           ......      133
     Figure 55:  Aerial view of Crum Elbow Marsh looking east. Photo by Harry Dodson/Dodson Associates . . .              135
     Figure 56:  Wappinger Creek looking east    ..................................................                       137
     Figure 57:  Fishkill Creek channel with water chestnut and adjacent low and high marsh     . ..............          139
     Figure 58:  Shallows, low, and high marsh at Moodna Creek. Photo by Bryan Swift/DEC           ..............         141
     Figure 59:  View to north from West Point. Photo by Steve Stanne/Clearwater        ......................            143
     Figure 60:  View to south over Constitution Marsh. Photo by Bryan Swift/DEC        ......................            145
     Figure 61:  High marsh and flats behind Iona Island viewed to the southwest     ........................             147
     Figure 62:  Aerial view of Camp Smith and Annsville Creek to the northeast.
                 Photo by Harry Dodson/Dodson Associates         .......................................                  149
     Figure 63:  Anchored gill nets in Haverstraw Bay. Photo by Steve Stanne/Clearwater       ..........     .......      151
     Figure 64:  Croton River from Quaker Bridge. Photo by Bryan Swift/DEC         ..........................             153
     Figure 65:  Northeast view over Piermont Marsh     .............................................                     155










































                                                                    viii









           INTRODUCIRON

           Among tidal estuaries of the northeastern United States,
           the Hudson River is of great importance for both                    HUDSON RIV
           ecological and economic reasons. Although the River has                  FROM TROY TO                      RENSSELA
           undergone centuries of interaction with surrounding
           human populations, it has sustained less ecological                     NEW YORK CITY
           damage than many other rivers in the region, which have
           been dammed, diverted, and otherwise altered.
           Accordingly, the Hudson supports many tidally-dependent
           plant and animal communities that at one time were much
           more abundant in the Northeast and even the world. The
           Hudson is a major component of the ocean ecosystem                           G R E E N E
           along the Atlantic seaboard, supplying nutrients to and                                         ......     COLUMBIA
           supporting a rich variety of estuarine life. As a spawning                                                           JI-Y
           and nursery ground for ocean fish in the rich Atlantic
           fishery, the Hudson River estuary is rivaled only by
           Chesapeake Bay, which, in recent years, has suffered
           severe declines in some of its fish populations.

           In economic terms, the Hudson has been among the most
           important commercial rivers in the United States. The
           prosperity of New York State and the nation has been
           linked to the Hudson principally as a means of                                                      D U T CE S S
                                                                                                                              01
           transportation and for the natural resources of the River
           and its surrounding valley. Ultimately, the large human
           population that now depends upon the River will best be
                                                                                                                              io
           able to maintain this prosperity by forming a new
           partnership with the River.                                       S U ILL IVAN                                     I CI-1

           Purpose of Titis Natural Resources Guide
                                                                                                                  U
                                                                                 0 R  N  E
           The purpose of this natural resources guide is to help
           facilitate this partnership with the River by providing
           information to illustrate values of the Hudson's natural
           resources and to propose measures that may be helpful
           in protecting these natural values.     Much of what is                                               W STCHESTER
           contained in this guide builds on efforts of the State's
           Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Program, which is                               R 0 C K L A N 0
                                                                     e
           administered by the Department of State through th
           State's Coastal Management Program. Most of the natural
           areas described in Chapter 6 are State-designated
           significant coastal habitats.      Additional information
           documenting recognized natural values of these areas is
           available in narrative form at the Departments of
           Environmental Conservation and State and at town and                     INDEX
           county clerks' offices. The New York Natural Heritage
           Program, a joint effort,of the Department of Environmental                                                  NASSAU
           Conservation and The Nature Conservancy, is an addi-
           tional source of ecological information on the Hudson                                           NEW YORK CITY
           River.

           This guide describes the Significant Coastal Fish and
           Wildlife Habitats of the Hudson River from Troy to the New       Figure 1: The Hudson, from Troy to New York City
           York City municipal boundary (see Figure 1), excluding
           the portion of the Hudson between New York and New









         2                                          Hudson River Significant Tidal Habitats

         Jersey. The geographic coverage of this guide does not             Stmeture of the Guide
         imply that habitats in the excluded portion of the Hudson
         and New York - New Jersey Harbor are any less important            The guide has four parts, each of which presents a
         than those found in upper portions of the estuary. In fact,        different perspective of the River.
         these lower estuary habitats are currently the subject of
         substantial attention. The value of the habitats in the New        The Natural Ecosystem
         York City area, in conjunction with the variety of large-          The first three chapters provide an overview of the River
         scale development proposals being considered for these             as a natural ecosystem. Chapter 1: Ecological Community
         areas, presents an entirely different set of management            DescrIptions, examines the ecology of tidal communities,
         issues and requirements. The value of these habitats, and          looking at both biological and physical components of the
         the potential threats to their continued viability, more than      system. For each community type, individual components
         justify the need for a separate guide to their values and          are described and a summary of the community is
         management.                                                        provided. Chapter 2: Biology of Rare and Important
                                                                            Species, presents plant and animal species of interest
         This guide is an ecological primer containing general and          from commercial or conservation perspectives and briefly
         site specific information about tidal habitats of the River,       describes significant aspects of their life cycles, habitat
         which can be used by local authorities and others                  requirements, and Hudson River populations. Chapter 3:
         interested in planning for the future of "their' section of the    The RIver as an Ecosystem, views the River from an
         River. Through its use, those who have limited scientific          ecosystem perspective, synthesizing habitat and species
         backgrounds will be better able to understand the                  information from previous chapters into a larger picture.
         complex nature of the River ecosystem and actively
         participate in management decisions concerning the River.          Human Impacts on the River
         The broad scope of this guide, coupled with the detailed           The next two chapters present an overview of human
         habitat information it contains, also makes it a convenient        activities along the River. Chapter 4: Human Interactions
         reference source for professionals in many fields who are          with the River Ecosystem, examines effects of past and
         concerned with protection and management of the River's            present human activities on River habitats. Chapter 5:
         resources.                                                         Existing Responsibilities for Resource Management, looks
                                                                            at public agencies and private organizations that are
         Efforts have been made to make the content of the guide            concerned with human use of the River.
         both useful to the professional and interesting to the
         casual reader. While no attempt has ben made to avoid              Significant Tidal Habitats
         presenting complex ecological information, most scientific         Chapter 6: Site Specific Information, constitutes most of
         terms are explained upon their first use. English units of         the guide and examines 39 significant habitat sites along
         measurement and common species names are used                      the River. Information provided for each site includes a
         throughout. More importantly, concepts and hypotheses              description of important biological and cultural features
         that have not been scientifically validated are deliberately       and a map identifying locations of examples of these
         presented in an effort to spur interest in alternative ways        features. Ecological explanations for components of each
         of thinking about and protecting the River.                        site are not provided; the reader may refer to introductory
                                                                            explanations in Chapters 1-5 or use the Further Readings
         Historically, effective protection and management of the           sections that appear in each chapter to locate more
         Hudson's natural resources has been difficult; few people          detailed information.
         recognize its resource values and even fewer understand
         what protection can be provided. It is the rare individual         The Future of the Hudson River
         who has both a sufficient grasp of underlying ecological           A recurring concept encountered during the preparation
         relationships and the ability to explain convincingly the          of this guide is the complexity of the River ecosystem; the
         need for specific habitat protection measures. Although            interwoven character of its human and natural
         many important texts have been written about the Hudson            components suggests that there are no easy solutions to
         River, this guide was designed specifically to fill the need       the problems caused by their interactions that will satisfy
         for an ecologically-oriented approach to protecting the            all involved parties. These issues are briefly discussed in
         natural resources of the River.        As such, this guide         Chapter 7, The Future of the River, where a philosophy for
         emphasizes functions of ecological components of the               making progress toward the goal of ensuring the future
         habitats as they relate to the overall River system.               value of the Hudson River's tidal habitats is presented.












              Chapter I


              ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITY DESCRIMONS


              This chapter describes ecological community types found along tidal portions of the Hudson River.
              The first section summarizes general environmental characteristics of the River ecosystem.
              Subsequent sections describe plant composition, animals, physical environment, and identification
              of the tidal communities, including:

              ï¿½ Deepwater
              ï¿½ Shallows, Mudflats, and Shore
              ï¿½ Tidal Marsh
              ï¿½ Tidal Swamp
              ï¿½ Freshwater Creek and Upland Forest









         4                                     Chapter 1: Ecological Community Descriptions

         1.1 General Environmental Characteristics                                                    SUMMER
         Areas along the atlantic coast of the U.S. that have
         freshwater tidal wetlands and littoral zones comparable to
         those in the Hudson River range from Massachusetts to
         Georgia. These sites have a major influx of freshwater
         and a daily tidal pattern that Is enhanced by constriction
         of upper portions of the estuary (Odurn et al., 1984). In
         the Hudson estuary, the dominant environmental feature                                  7-adal           Estu
         is a four-foot-high tidal flow. The full cycle of this flow,             Nonridal River River  Oligohaline Mewhaline Polyhaline
         which occurs roughly twice a day, creates a complex                                     <0.5 PPt 0-5-5ppt S-18ppt 19-30 ppt
         intermixing of water and nutrients from the River, its
         tributaries, and the ocean. Other important environmental
         factors affecting tidal habitats in the Hudson River are
         regional climatology and underlying geology.                                                  SPRING

         Hydrology
         Although energy of the tidal flow in the Hudson is derived
         from ocean tides, not all of the tidal portion of the River,
         which extends from the Battery in Manhattan to the federal
         dam at Troy, is saltwater. A salinity gradient exists within
         the estuary with salt levels ranging from greater than 30
         parts per thousand (ppt) at Manhattan to less than 0.5 ppt               Nomidal River Tidal Riv7       Estuary
         at Troy (Figure 2). As described in the Boyce Thompson
         Institute's Atlas of the Biolooical Resources of the Hudson
         EstugM (1977), water from the River and ocean mix in a                        Mixingzonc         - Downstream current (ebbing ride and
         region known as the "salt front." Because of its lower                        Salt water            nontidal river flow)
         density, freshwater floats above saltwater, creating an                                          -  Upstream current (rising ride)
         underlying salt wedge. Tides observed in freshwater                           Fmh w2Ter
         portions of the estuary are a result of oceanic tidal energy
         which forces this salt wedge upriver and reverses direction        Figure 2: Generalized salinity and current patterns
         of the River's flow. Along with affecting the Rivers flow,         for the Hudson Estuary (from Tiner, 1987).
         tides create friction between the layers of freshwater and
         saltwater, producing internal waves that result in an            divided into three hydrological zones: a subtidal zone that
         oscillatory mixing of water. Turbulence created by these         is inundated permanently; a regularly flooded zone that is
         movements, in combination with salinity gradients, creates       submerged twice daily; and an irregularly flooded zone
         a "nutrient trap" which retains water-borne nutrients within     that is under water only occasionally during the course of
         the estuary and greatly enhances the River's productivity.       the year (Figure 4). These hydrological zones provide, in
                                                                          part, the physical basis for the ecological communities
         In addition to daily tidal movements, the salt front also        described in this chapter.
         moves north and south with the seasons. During spring
         snowmelt, large volumes of freshwater may push the salt          Climate
         front south as far as the Tappan Zee Bridge; during              Climate in the estuarine portion of the River is the product
         summer low water flow, brackish water has been recorded          of coastal and inland weather systems. The Hudson River
         as far north as Poughkeepsie. The volume of freshwater           Valley has moderately cold winters and warm, humid
         entering the system depends on hydrological patterns of          summers. Kiviat (1978) lists the average precipitation in
         the entire 13,030-square-mile Hudson Valley watershed            Dutchess County (near the mid-point of the estuary) at
         (Figure 3), which are determined by precipitation,               40.1 inches annually, distributed fairly evenly throughout
         groundwater flow, and dams (Malcolm Pirnle, Inc., 1983).         the year. The average growing season in Dutchess
         In comparison with the tidal flow observed in the River          County is 155 days, and average air temperatures are 23 -
         (both upstream and downstream), freshwater flow (net             29 OF in January and 71 - 73 OF in July. In general, the
         downstream flow) accounts for less than 10% of the total         River moderates the climate of adjacent shore areas,
         flow. The differences in tidal and freshwater flow volumes       which are cooler in summer and warmer in winter than
         dramatically illustrate the dominance of tides in the            surrounding uplands.
         Hudson estuary.                                                  Geology
         Seasonal variations in amounts of freshwater input and           Productivity of the Hudson is related to the nature of rock
         heights of tides determine the degree of flooding of             and soil formations in the surrounding watershed and on
         habitats in and along the River. The estuary may be              the geologic forces that formed the estuary. Today's









                                                        Overview of the River Ecosystem                                               5

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             Figure 3: The Hudson River's watershed     (from Boyce Thompson,     1977)
             Hudson Estuary had its origins in the last glaciation, when    waters to flood the  deep valley.   Rising sea level and
             the Wisconsin ice sheet deepened the River through             erosion-based sedimentation have resulted in today's
             physical scouring (with the advance of ice) and by water       Hudson Estuary (Boyce Thompson, 1977).
             flow from the combined Great Lakes and Champlain
             basins. The Lower Hudson Valley and Long Island Sound          Bedrock exposed by glaciers consists of Ordovician
             became a freshwater lake, impounded by large glacial           shales and sandstones (with minor amounts of
             moraines left behind by the waning ice age. The estuary        conglomerate, mudstone, limestone, and slate) in upper
             was created when the morainal dam at Verrazano Narrows         portions of the estuary; and Ordovician gnelsses, marbles,
             was breached nearly 13,000 years ago, allowing ocean           schists, sandstones, and shales in more southern regions









          6                                      Chapter 1: Ecological Community Descriptions






                                                                                      Extreme high spring rides
                                                                                      and storm tides
                                                                                                       ..........................
                                                  ........                                     Mean high tide
                         Upland                                                      . .. . ........... . ...........
                                                                                                           Mean low tide
                                          Irregularly Flooded Zone
                                                                                 Regularly
                                                                              Flooded Zone              Subtidal Zone

                   Figure 4: Hydrological zonation in the estuary (from Tiner, 1987)

          (NYS Museum and Science Service, 1970; Malcolm Pirnie,              inventory and classification efforts of the New York Natural
          Inc., 1983). These rocks are resistant to erosion and               Heritage Program. Examples of important animals and
          provide little nutrient input to the River (Odum et al., 1984).     plants that live in each community are discussed, followed
          However, many nutrients are provided from surrounding               by a description of the environmental conditions charac-
          lands, which are covered with a variety of fertile soils            teristic of the community. Each section concludes with a
          resulting from deposition of glacial till and outwash and           summary to facilitate identification of the community on
          accumulated alluvial (river) and lacustrine (lake)                  the River.
          sediments.
                                                                              L3 Deepwater
          1.2 Ecological Communities                                          The deepwater community includes sections of the River
          In the following sections, a number of distinct ecological          with water depths greater than six feet at low tide.
          communities are described, each with its own. particular            Deepwater community is equivalent to the tidal river
          floral and faunal components, and environmental                     community recognized by the New York Natural Heritage
          characteristics. In this guide, the term "community" is             Program (Reschke, 1988).
          defined as an assemblage of populations living in an
          environment and interacting with one another to form a              Plants of the Deepwater Community
          distinctive living system (Whittaker, 1975; Reschke,1988),
          These living systems or communities occur repeatedly                The only vegetation growing in deepwater community is
          throughout the River ecosystem and can be identified by             phytoplankton in upper layers of the water column. Light
          characteristic plant or animal species or by the physical           generally does not penetrate deep enough to support
          environment that they tend to occupy.                               photosynthesis of rooted plants in this community.

          The community is an. essential concept in the science of            Animals of the Deepwater Community
          ecology; however, it also imposes an artificial structure on
          a complex natural system. Applying the concept of                   The deepwater community supports abundant animal life
          community to the real world is often thwarted by natural            which is sustained by organic material originating in the,
          variability and the surprises that are always inherent in           watershed and adjacent productive areas. The animals of
          dealing with living systems. For example, locating an               the deepwater community can be grouped in three
          exact boundary between communities is often difficult               different categories based on their roles in the ecosystem.
          because communities form a gradient from the bottom of
          the River to the upland shore. Plants that dominate one             Benthic Invertebrates
          area are often found in a subsidiary role in adjacent areas,        Bottom-dwelling or benthic animals, as their name implies,
          and animals readily travel back and forth between areas.            live in or on the bottom of the River where they feed on
          Nonetheless, dividing the ecosystem into communities is             organic detritus and other animals.              The benthic
          a useful way to understand the functional relationships             community can be subdivided based on sizes of
          among different parts of the Hudson River ecosystem.                component organisms. Common microbenthic animals
                                                                              include hydras, amoebas, foraminifera, and bacteria
          Each of the following sections first describes a community          (Odum et al., 1984). Macrobenthic animals can be further
          according to the physical environment that it tends to              divided into three functional groups, based on their body
          occupy. Equivalent community names are provided to                  shapes and modes of living. One group is composed of
          correlate the information in this guide with the State-wide         wormlike animals that burrow in the mud, including









                                                                         Deepwater                                                              7

             rhynchocoels, roundworms, bristleworms, water                       Fish-eating Predators
             earthworms, and leeches (Boyce Thompson Institute,                  The last group of animals included in the deepwater
             1977). Another group is composed largely of hard-                   community are those that prey on fish living in the
             shelled mollusks that feed either on suspended materials            deepwater community. These predators do not live in
             filtered from the water (clams and mussels) or on residue           deepwater but depend on it as a source of food. Raptors
             scraped from exposed surfaces (snails). The third major             (e.g. bald eagles and ospreys) capture fish near the
             group of macrobenthic invertebrates is comprised of                 water's surface; diving birds (cormorants, loons and fish-
             arthropods, which includes insect, barnacle, shrimp,                eating ducks) descend after their prey; and humans
             isopod, amphi-pod, and crab species (Boyce Thompson                 employ a variety of techniques to land their catch.
             Institute, 1977).
                                                                                 PtWcal EnWronment Characteristics
             Local distributions of these species reflect differing
             patterns of salinity, currents, oxygen levels, and                  A complex physical environment with many factors
             temperatures. Compared with marine and non-tidal areas,             affecting animal distributions is associated with the
             there is a low diversity of microhabitats in freshwater tidal       deepwater community.
             systems, which is accompanied by lower species diversity.
             Nonetheless, studies in various estuaries have found                Hydrological Features
             between 49 and 69 macrobenthic species in tidal areas               Water flow in deepwater is largely controlled by tides,
             (Koss et al., 1974, and Diaz, 1977 in Odum et al., 1984).           although it is also affected by seasonal floods, storms, and
             Adult forms of most benthic species are indicators of               winds.    Factors that influence animal distributions in
             environmental conditions in the River, since their limited          deepwater habitat are depth, light, turbidity, temperature,
             motility prevents them from moving away from pollutants.            salinity, and oxygen, nutrient, and pollutant levels.
             If the environment changes beyond an animal's physio-
             logical tolerance, it dies.                                         Turbidity refers to the amount of suspended sediment in
                                                                                 water. Turbid water clogs gills and digestive organs of fish
             Fish                                                                and other aquatic organisms, discouraging their use of
             Fish communities within tidal waters of the Hudson can be           these areas. Many animals are restricted to a certain
             subdivided into five groups based on utilization of different       temperature range. Warm water contains less dissolved
             portions of the River for various parts of their lifecycles         oxygen than cold water, preventing use by species with
             (Boyce Thompson Institute, 1977; Odum et al., 1984).                higher oxygen demands. Salinity also affects which
             Resident freshwater fish (e.g. perch, catfish, shiners, bass,       animals can be found in sections of the River. Many
             and sunfish) spend their entire lives In freshwater of the          species are restricted to either the brackish or freshwater
             upper estuary, while resident estuarine species (e.g.               portions of the River, and even anadromous fish, which
             hogchokers, banded killifish, mummichogs, and bay                   migrate from one environment to another, often have to
             anchovies) spend their lives in brackish waters of the              wait at the salt front while adjusting to new salinity levels.
             lower estuary. Both types generally inhabit shallow areas           Deep troughs contain pockets of higher salinity, denser
             of the River and its tributaries and are discussed further in       water, which may account for the occasional presence of
             the "shallows, mudflats, and shore communities" section.            marine species far north of the salt front.

             Anadromous fish are species that spend most of their                Oxygen, nutrient, and pollutant levels also affect animals'
             adult lives in the ocean and return to fresh water only to          use of deepwater. The amount of dissolved oxygen in
             spawn. After eggs hatch, larvae and juveniles feed and              water is dependent on a number of factors, including
             grow in "nursery grounds" in the estuary before returning           water temperature, and the degree to which water is
             to the ocean to complete their life cycles. Examples of             mixed with the atmosphere. Nutrient loads can also affect
             anadromous fish that can be found in the Hudson                     oxygen content.       When a limiting nutrient becomes
             deepwater community include American shad, blueback                 available, algae undergo a population explosion, resulting
             herring, alewife, striped bass, Atlantic tomcod, and                in "blooms". Dead and dying algae provide the food
             Atlantic and shortnose sturgeons (see Chapter 2 for more            source which drives a secondary population explosion of
             detailed information about individual species).                     "decomposer bacteria."          During the decomposition
             Catadromous fish are species that live in freshwater and            process, the bacteria consume dissolved oxygen in the
             migrate to the ocean to spawn; the only example from the            water, killing many animals that are sensitive to low
             Hudson River is the American eel. Finally, marine fish are          oxygen levels. Finally, concentrations of pollutants can
             ocean species that live primarily in saltwater but will, on         affect water quality to the extent that reproductive
             occasion, use the estuary as a feeding or nursery ground.           capabilities of some animals are hindered. The effects of
             Examples of marine fish found in the Hudson include                 pollutants are most notable on the fish-eating predators at
             menhaden, American goosefish, bluefish, weakfish, and               the top of the food chain such as ospreys, eagles and
             sculpins (Boyce Thompson Institute, 1977).                          even humans.









          8                                       Chapter 1: Ecological Community Descriptions

          Geological Features.
          Bottom sediments of deepwater
          areas vary from rocky or gravelly
          substrates to layers of sand, silt,
          and fine muck.          Sources of
          sediment include        runoff from
          tributary streams,          riverbank
          erosion, airborne particles, and
          human activities. As the lowest
          level in the drainage basin,
          deepwater areas are subject to
          heavy accumulations of sediment,
          although this is limited in some
          places by the flushing action Of
          tidal currents.       The type of
          substrate found at any given site
          is important in determining types
          of benthic animals that can live
          there, as well as its suitability as a
          spawning ground for various fish.
          Sedimentation processes are also
          important in limiting toxic
          chemical distribution and effects MOM
          by sequestering toxins in the             Figure 5: A deepwater area near Germantown (N. Salafsky/TNC)
          bottom sediments.

          Deepwater Idenfification                                              Plarft of the Shallows, Mmfflats, and Shore

          The deepwater community is located at or near the center              Shallows
          of the River, wherever water is greater than 6 feet deep at           Shallows support plants adapted to an aquatic environ-
          low tide (Figure 5). Because of the expense and difficulty            ment either directly in the River, or in its tributary streams.
          of remote methods of investigation and measurement,                   Most vascular plants in this zone are rooted in the bottom
          relatively little is known about this portion of the River,           and are exposed to air only during periods of low tide, if
          including bottom contours, sedimentation rates and                    at all (Figure 6).      Representative freshwater species
          patterns, sediment flow, and salt front dynamics. Most of             include waterweed, water celery (tapegrass), naiads,
          the animal use information is based on research sampling              various pondweeds, and the exotic Eurasian water-milfoil
          programs associated with the utilities'. power plants or              and water chestnut (Tiner, 1987; Reschke, 1988). These
          through commercial fishery statistics.                                plants characteristically have long narrow leaves that
                                                                                completely shade the bottom of the River or creek and
          1.4 ShaHows, Mudflats, and                 Shore                      tend to move with the currents, so that they point in the
          Shallows, mudflats, and shore communities include                     direction of the water flow. In more brackish sections,
          sections of the River located near low tide mark. These               common plants include widgeon grass, water celery, sago
          communities are roughly equivalent to the brackish and                pondweed, and horned pondweed (Reschke, 1988).
          freshwater types of subtidal aquatic bed, intertidal mudflat,
          and intertidal shore communities recognized by the New                In addition to vascular plants rooted in the bottom,
          York Natural Heritage Program (Reschke, 1988).                        numerous smaller plants are free-floating, either in the
                                                                                water column or on its surface. Surface plants are usually
          Shallows are always below low tide mark; mudfiats are                 duckweeds or waterchestnut. Plants in the water column
          barely exposed at low tide; and the shore is a zone largely           are largely single-celled or multi-cellular colonies of
          exposed at low tide but inundated at high tide. These                 phytoplankton, including species of green and blue-green
          three communities are found not only along the River                  algae, diatoms, and dinoflagellates (Odum et al., 1984).
          proper, but also extend along tidal portions of tributary             These single-celled plants are usually not visible to the
          streams and marsh drainage channels. In general, each                 naked eye but are an important component of the
          of these areas supports distinct plant and animal                     ecosystem since their photosynthetic activity supports a
          populations.                                                          portion of the food web within the River.










                                                           Shallows, Mudflats, and Shore                                                 9








                                                        10


                                                                                  . . . . .... . .... .. . .. ... ..... . .. ... . ... . ... . ....


                                                                                 1W      XW_


                                                                '7@











                                Figure 6: Shallows at Esopus Estuary (N. SalafskylTNC)

             Mudflats
             Mudflats support plants adapted to being submerged for          Animals of the Shallows, Modfials, and Shore
             most of the day, then briefly exposed at low tide when
             they are typically found encrusted in mud. In general,          Calm waters in shallows and mudflats support a wide
             these plants thrive on large, level, open areas, although       range of feeding and breeding animals. The drier and less
             they can be found in narrow strips between shallows and         protected shore supports fewer aquatic species, but it is
             lower marshes or interspersed among plants of lower             an important area for terrestrial organisms.
             marshes (Figure 7). Common mudflats species form small
             rosettes a few inches high and include strap-leaf               Feeding
             arrowhead, mud-plantain, grass-leaf arrowhead, and              Abundant aquatic plants and phytoplankton in shallow
             goldenclub (Reschke, 1988). More brackish - mudflats            waters form the basis of a complex food web linking many
             contain spongy arrowhead, strap-leaf arrowhead,                 animal species. Many animals that feed on phytoplankton
             mudwort, and tapegrass. In addition to vascular species,        and detritus from vascular plants are microscopic animals,
             mudflats support significant numbers of periphyton              collectively termed zooplankton. Numbers and species of
             (attached algae) and bacteria that grow on mud or               zooplankton vary greatly with the seasons and include
             surfaces of vascular plants. One New Jersey study found         many types of copepods, rotifers, cladocerans, amphi-
             84 species of periphyton'(exclusive of diatoms) present in      pods, and mysids (Odum et al., 1984). Larger animals
             the mudflats sediment (WhIgham et al., 1980 in Odum et          that feed on aquatic plants include some duck, turtle, and
             al., 1984). Bacteria of the mudflats play an important          mammalian species.
             ecological role by breaking down rich organic matter
             produced in adjacent marshes or the watershed.                  Zooplankton are the direct food source for many free-
                                                                             swimming fish and fish larvae, which, in turn, are
             Shore                                                           consumed by other species. Many adult fish in shallow
             Shore  areas are found along rocky or,gravelly banks            water are full4lme River residents, including shiners, carp,
             where extensive marshes or swamps are absent.                   white catfish, suckers, white and yellow perch, bass,
             Vegetation along the shore is sparse, and the substrate         surifishes, and darters in freshwater regions; and bay
             is exposed to air for most of the tidal cycle (Figure 8).       anchovies, killifish, silversides, winter flounder, and
             Plants in this community are adapted to an exposed,             hogchokers in more brackish sections (Boyce Thompson,
             harsh environment that is subject to waves, ice-scour and       1977). Many anadromous fish described in the section on
             upland erosion. Common plants include water-hemp,               the deepwater community feed extensively in shallows
             smartweed, cardinal flower, and Pennsylvania bittercress        while preparing to return to the ocean.           All three
             (Reschke, 1988). Various types of attached algae grow           categories of benthic animals previously described for the
             on rocks along the shore.                                       deepwater community also live and feed in shallows.










         10                                Chapter 1: Ecological Community Descriptions






















                          Figure 7:  Mudflats interspersed within lower marsh (N. SalafskylTNC)



























                                                                        V



                          Figure 8: Rocky shore at Stuyvasant Marshes (N. SalafskWTNC)









                                                            Shallows, Mudflats, and Shore

           Many bird species at the top of
           the food chain feed in shallows
           and mudflats. Great blue and
           green herons, great egrets, and
           least and American bitterns feed
           on small fish, frogs, crayfish, and
           even small mammals. Floating                                    Z,
           and diving waterfowl that feed on
           aquatic plants or small fish and
           animals of mudflats and shallows
           include swans, cormorants,
           grebes, gannets, Canada geese,
           brant, dabbling and diving ducks,
           mergansers, and gallinules; king
           and Virginia rails-, kildeer; semi-
           palmated, lesser golden, and
           black-bellied plovers; and a host
           of different sandpipers which feed
           on seeds, insects, and aquatic                           F
           invertebrates inhabiting mudflats,
           shallows, and marshes (Odum et
           al., 1984; Peterson, 1980).

           Breeding                                 Figure 9:   Mudflat showing thick substrate and surface patterns created by
           Since mudflats and shore                 flowing water (N. SalafskylTNC).
           alternate between being wet and
           dry, and provide little cover, they are not used              for   water levels in shallows and alternately expose and
           breeding by many animals. Shallows, however, are a                  inundate mudflats and shore areas, depositing and
           primary spawning ground for many fish and aquatic                   removing nutrients. This tidal pattern extends to shallows
           species. Golden and spottail shiners, silvery minnows,              and mudflats along tributary streams where each stream
           tessellated darters, tidewater silversides, and white and           acts as a miniature of the River. Tidal ebb flow starts at
           yellow perch use shallows of the River and its tributary            the tributary mouth and slowly moves upstream, resulting
           streams for spawning (Boyce Thompson Institute, 1977;               in a lag of up to several hours between low tide at the
           Odum et al., 1984; Smith, 1985). These fish require clear           River and low tide at the upstream limit of tidal flow in the
           waters and fast-moving currents to provide adequate                 tributary. The degree of influence of tidal flow in a stream
           oxygen levels for their eggs and larvae.                   Many     also depends on the volume of water entering from the
           anadromous fish spawn in creeks and shallows. Shallows              stream's watershed. As in the River itself, tidal waters
           also serve as nursery grounds for the majority of newly             reach further upstream in summer than in spring, during
           hatched larvae and juveniles of both resident and                   snow melt. The dynamic nature of the River's hydrology
           anadromous fish.                                                    plays an important role in determining which plants and
                                                                               animals are able to survive in shallows and mudflats.
           Shallows are also important breeding areas for a wide
           range of invertebrate species. Many species of craneflies,          Geological Features
           mosquitoes, midges, flies, dragonflies, caddisfiles, beetles,       Substrates of shallows and mudflats generally consist of
           and bugs undergo a larval or nymph phase in the water.              thick layers of mud containing many organic and mineral
           During this time, these species form a link in the aquatic          nutrients (Figure 9).       In parts of the River, muddy
           food chain, feeding on plankton and detritus and being              substrates give way to sand, which appears to          support
           preyed upon by adult and juvenile fish and birds (Boyce             fewer plants and animals. Active erosion in a          river or
           Thompson Institute, 1977; Odum et al., 1984).                       stream occurs at the "thalweg," the channel            running
                                                                               parallel to the banks that contains the fastest        moving
           P14mical EiMronment CharacterisUcs                                  waters. The thalweg has a firmer substrate than the
                                                                               slower moving water in side areas where sediment
           Shallows, mudflats, and shore areas        are dominated by         deposition is taking place. Mudflats and shallows form in
           tides and composition of the substrate.                             these side areas, away from the fast-moving water.
                                                                               Substrate deposition is enhanced on broad and level
           Hydrological Features                                               expanses of mudflats and shallows, which have significant
           Water flow in shallows, mudflats, and shore areas on the            quantities of rooted vegetation that trap and catch
           River is largely controlled by tides, which raise and lower         sediments by slowing current velocities.










          12                                     Chapter 1: Ecological Community Descriptions

          Geology of the shore is quite
          different from that of shallows and
          mudflats. The rocky, gravelly or
          sandy nature of shores is the
          result of continuous tidal erosion
          of sediments, which gradually
          removes smaller particles and
          leaves larger rocks and pebbles
          exposed.      Shore communities
          generally occur along parts of the
          River or its tributaries that are
          directly adjacent to elevated
          upland areas where mudflats or
          marshes have not formed.
          Artificial shore zones can be
          found along bulkheads and riprap.
                                                                                   k
          In almost all cases, the shore                                         K
          zone is a few yards wide at most,
          occurring in a strip between high
          and low tide along steeply sloping
                                                              A
          shore banks.
                                                                                    tit
                                                                             Vol
                                                                               z@
          Shallows, Mmffials, and Shore
          Idenfification                          Figure 10:    Broad-leaved plants of the lower marsh at Roger's Island (N.
                                                  Salafsky/TNC)
          Tidal shallows, mudflats, and
          shore areas form along edges of the River and tributary            and distinctions between the two depend more on
          creeks near low tide mark. Shallows are muddy or sandy             community structure than physical location within the site.
          areas covered by a few inches to six feet of water, usually        In comparison with upper marshes, lower marshes tend to
          containing large patches of rooted aquatic vegetation.             have less complex community structure and contain fewer
          Mudflats are large open areas of thick, bare mud exposed           plant- species.
          at low tide and often having colonies of small plants that
          resemble a mown lawn. Shore areas are narrow strips of             Lower Marsh
          rocky, gravelly, or sandy beach between low and high tide          Lower marshes typically contain plants adapted to large
          marks, where river or creek banks rise rapidly to uplands.         daily fluctuations in water levels. In freshwater areas,
          Shallows, mudflats, and shores can be surveyed on foot             dominant plants have broad leaves rising on long stalks
          at low tide or by canoe at high tide (consult tide tables for      from the base of the plant (Figure 10). The most common
          daily tide times).                                                 broad-leaved plant is spatterdock, typically the first large
                                                                             plant encountered when moving from water toward land
          1.5 Tidal Mairsh                                                   (Figure 11). Spatterdock forms homogeneous stands
          The tidal marsh community includes sections of the River           nearest deep water.         As distance from deep water
          where tidal waters inundate plants specifically adapted to         increases, spatterdock stands become interspersed with
          daily flooding. A lower marsh is defined by species                other species, including pickerelweed, big-leaved
          adapted to complete submersion daily, and an upper                 arrowhead, and arrow arum. In addition to these broad-
          marsh by plant species adapted to partial flooding. Taken          leaved species, other plants of the lower marsh include
          together, these two communities comprise the freshwater            wild rice, three-square bulrush, river bulrush, northern
          and brackish tidal marsh communities recognized by the             water plantain, and mud plantain. In general, the broad-
          New York Natural Heritage Program (Reschke, 1988).                 leaved plants form a continuous low canopy one to three
                                                                             feet tall, with wild rice and rushes emerging above and
          Plants of Me 771da/ Marsh                                          plantains growing below this low canopy.,
          Within the tidal marsh community, lower marsh, which is            On sandier substrates, three-square bulrush grows either
          partially to completely submerged during each tidal cycle,         in homogeneous stands or mixed with water smartweeds
          and upper marsh, which is dry to partially submerged               and bur-marigolds (Figure 12).         Three-square bulrush,
          during the course of a day, correspond to their functional         occupies sandy lower marshes in both fresh and brackish
          equivalents in tidal salt marshes, which contain 'low- and         water, while In regions of higher salinity, smooth cordgrass
          "high" marsh areas (Odurn et al., 1984). The lower marsh           becomes prevalent.
          extends into the upper marsh along drainage channels,











                                                                     Tidal Marsh                                                         13

                                                                              Although both purple loosestrife and common reed are
                                                                              very common, neither are native to Hudson River
                                                                              wetlands. Large homogeneous stands of common reed
                                                                              quickly become established in freshwater, brackish, and
                                                                              salt marshes where vegetation and soils have been
                                                                              physically altered by direct action or by upland erosion
                                                                              and subsequent sedimentation.

                                                                              Animals of the 771dal Marsh

                                                  .... ..                     Tidal marshes provide critical feeding and breeding areas
                                                                              for many aquatic and terrestrial animals. Some are
                                                                              transients, using marshes for feeding or resting during
                                                                              seasonal migrations, while others spend their entire lives
                                                                              in the marsh.


                                                                              Feeding
                                                                              Tidal marshes are among the most ecologically productive
                                                                              areas in the world (Odum et al., 1984) and the numbers of
                                                                              animal species directly or indirectly dependent on tidal
                                                                              marshes for food supply are astounding. For example, in
                                                                              a study at six freshwater tidal marshes on the Hudson,
                                                                              Swift (1987) observed 69 bird species, while in New
                                                                              Jersey, Tiner (1986) found 120 bird species in a marsh.
                                                                              Foraging methods vary from large flocks of red-wing
                                                                              blackbirds feasting on stands of wild rice to solitary
                                                                              northern harriers (marsh hawks), which spend much of
                                                                              their time in the marsh hunting for small animals.

                                                                              Terrestrial animals that feed in the marsh include
                                Sp4tter-dock                                  raccoons, which forage for crustaceans and other
                                                                              invertebrates, snapping turtles, which lie in wait for fish,
                                                                              and herbivorous insects that graze on leaves of marsh
            Figure 11: Spatterdock, a common broad-leaved          plant      plants. Although fish are absent from most marshes at
            of the lower marsh (from Odum et al., 1984)                       low tide, marshes become important feeding areas at high
                                                                              tide. Fish found feeding among the plants of the lower
                                                                              marsh include banded killifish, tessellated darters,
            Upper Marsh                                                       mummichogs, sunfish, and carp. Invertebrates including
            Upper marshes contain plants that undergo partial                 cladocerans, copepods, ostracods, and chironomid larvae
            flooding during the tidal cycle so they are seldom or never       are important prey for these fish (Richard and Schmidt,
            completely submerged. Whereas the lower marsh is                  1986; Duryea and Schmidt, 1986).
            characterized by broad-leaved plants, the upper marsh
            has a grassy appearance due to the presence of many               Breeding
            narrow-leaved, erect plants. The most common species              Birds are the most visible (and audible) breeders in
            are narrow-leaved cattail and common reed, both of which          marshes.     Swift (1987) found 22 species that were
            form large stands in drier areas. As the ground becomes           confirmed or likely to be nesting in tidal marshes at six
            wetter, cattails are joined by other grassy species,              sites along the river. Common species included marsh
            including wild rice, rice cut grass, river bulrush, and sweet     wrens, red-winged blackbirds, swamp sparrows, Virginia
            flag. Other characteristic plants are jewelweed, bur-             rails, yellow warblers, song sparrows, willow flycatchers,
            marigold, common dodder, purple loosestrife, and water            common yellowthroats, least bitterns, and American
            smartweed. In upper marshes, the canopy structure is              goldfinches; less frequently encountered species Included
            difficult to describe, but In general, grassy plants form a       mute swans, mallards, black ducks, wood ducks, green-
            distinct layer with occasional woody shrubs emerging              backed herons, American bitterns, spotted sandpipers,
            above and smaller broad-leaved plants below. In brackish
            water, narrow4eaved cattail, common        reed,  salt marsh
            bulrush, and marsh fern vire the most common species.










        14                              Chapter 1: Ecological Community Descriptions


















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                                                                     f



                        Figure 12:  Three-square bulrush stand on sandflats at Stockport Middle
                        Ground (N. SalafskylTNC)













                                                                A











                                     Maui      It
                         Figure 13: Grassy upper marsh at Stockport (N. SalafskVrNQ











                                                                     Tidal Marsh                                                         15

            common snipes, belted kingfishers, eastern kingbirds, grey       and low levels of dissolved oxygen, especially during
            catbirds, and common grackles. A similar study in New            summer months (Odurn et al., 1984). Aquatic animals
            Jersey found 48 species of nesting birds in the tidal marsh      found in the marsh are limited to species that can tolerate
            zone (Hawkins and Leck, 1977).                                   these conditions.

            Hudson River tidal marshes also support large populations        Geological Features
            of nesting birds (as opposed to numbers of species); the         High productivity of marshes is largely due to the rich
            average density of breeding birds was about 410 pairs per        physical substrate upon which they occur. Marshes are
            100 acres, among the highest densities of breeding marsh         often found adjacent to tributary mouths or in slow
            birds worldwide (Swift, 1987).                                   backwaters of the River where sedimentation rates are
                                                                             high. The sediment load that can be carried depends on
            Several fish species, including banded killifish,                water velocity and sediment particle size. When fast-
            mummichogs, bluegills, pumpkinseed, carp, and black              moving water, heavily laden with sediments, enters near-
            bass, use lower marshes as spawning or nursery grounds.          shore and shallow areas, the water velocity decreases and
            Many amphibians, reptiles, and mammals depend on                 the sediment load is deposited in layers of fine particles.
            marshes for iood for themselves and for their young,
            ranging from foraging tadpoles to unweaned muskrats.             As a result of this continuous sediment deposition, marsh
                                                                             substrates (particularly in the lower marsh) consist of thick
            Physical Environment Characteristics                             layers of rich, dark, "oozy" muck with high concentrations
                                                                             of sift, clay, and organic detritus. As a rule, sediments of
            Complex interactions of tides and        sediments at the        lower marshes include less than 50% organic material, and
            shoreline provide a unique marsh          environment that       those of upper marshes contain greater than 50% organic
            supports characteristic marsh plant and animal                   material (Odum et al., 1984). Cattail -dominated upper
            communities.                                                     marshes can include large amounts of peat derived from
                                                                             annual accumulations of dead marsh vegetation.
            Hydrological   Features
            Water flow in  marshes is affected by tidal patterns in the      Freshwater tidal marsh soils have high organic content,
            River and tributary streams.         Marshes themselves,         slightly acidic pH (6.0-6.5), moderate to strong reducing
            however, have their own unique hydrological features.            conditions, high cation exchange capacity, and are
            From above, open water areas in       a tidal marsh can be       generally anaerobic except at the soil surface. These
            seen as branching patterns of channels similar to the            conditions lead to high concentrations of ammonium in
            outline of a tree. Channels are generally broadest where         contrast to the more familiar nitrates and nitrites of
            they intersect the River (or, in
            many cases, flow under railroad
            tracks) and divide into smaller and
            smaller branches toward land.
            Lower marsh plants line open
            water channels well into the upper
            marsh (Figure 14). The branching
            channels complicate the marsh's
            topography since, at low tide,
            raised hummocks of the upper
            marsh may be up to three feet
            higher than mucky substrates of
            the lower marsh associated with
            the. channels.    The network of
            channels provides a large area in
            which water and land overlap and
            drains the marsh during low tide,
            allowing semi-terrestrial plants to
                                                                                                g4,
            colonize the upper marsh (Frey
            and Bassan, 1978).                                                                             -ell -

            Although many gaps in knowledge
            exist concerning marsh hydrology,
            water in marshes is generally
            eutrophic (nutrient4aden) with high Figure 14: Lower marsh extending along channel at West Flats (N.
            levels of suspended sediments SalatskylTNQ)










          16                                   Chapter 1: Ecological Community Descriptions

          terrestrial soils (Odum et W., 1984; Mitsch and Gosselink,       muddy, although some areas are sandy. Marshes may be
          1987). Marsh plants can tolerate these harsh conditions          surveyed with some difficulty on foot at low tide or by
          or have adapted to avoid specific unsuitable conditions.         canoeing through channels at high tide (consult tide tables
          For example, adventitious roots of many marsh species            for times).
          (e.g. beggar-ticks) may enable them to avoid anaerobic
          sediment layers while still competing for water-borne            1.6 71dal Swamp
          nutrients carried into the marsh (Whigham et al., 1980 in        The tidal swamp community includes land adjacent to the
          Odurn et al., 1984).                                             River which is regularly flooded by tidal waters. Tidal
                                                                           swamp is the least common tidal community along the
          Marshes at mouths of tributaries serve as catch basins for       Hudson River and is equivalent to the freshwater tidal
          sediments (and pollutants) that flow down tributaries.           swamp community recognized by the New York Natural
          Sediment loads and deposition rates are indicators of land       Heritage Program (Reschke, 1988).
          use in surrounding upland areas. Evidence now suggests
          that sediment levels in tidal marshes have been rising very      Plants of the Tidal Swamp
          rapidly (in excess of 10.8 inches/century) over the past
          three centuries as a result of increased soil runoff             Tidal swamps (or swamp forests) are dominated by a
          associated with human activities (Froomer, 1980 in Odum          closed canopy of trees (Figure 15). Common species
          et al., 1984).   This.linkage between marsh and the              include green and black ash, red maple, and slippery elm.
          contiguous upland has important management impli-                Beneath the trees is a layer of shrubs and vines including
          cations; any attempt to preserve marsh must take into            spicebush, arrowwood, silky dogwood, Virginia creeper,
          account actions occurring within the upland watershed.           and poison ivy. At ground level, there is a layer of herbs,
                                                                           including rice cutgrass, sensitive fern, spotted jewelweed,
          Tidal Marsh Identificatfon                                       common monkeyflower, knotweeds, skunk cabbage, hog
                                                                           peanut, groundnut, and swamp milkweed (Reschke, 1988).
          Tidal marsh forms along the Hudson River where creeks            A gradual transition from tidal marsh to tidal swamp
          and streams enter the River and in sheltered coves and           occurs in many places. Small trees and shrubs of tidal
          backwaters. Marshes can be identified by the presence of         swamps grow in clusters in sections of marsh. Tidal
          non-woody plants one to ten feet high growing in areas           swamps occur exclusively in freshwater, either near
          where there is standing water for at least part of each day.     freshwater tributaries in brackish portions of the estuary or
          Lower marshes are dominated by broad-leaved plants;              in upstream freshwater sections of the River.
          vegetation of upper marshes consists primarily of tall
          grasses and grasslike plants.      Substrates are usually
                                                                                                    Animals of the Tidal Swamp

                                                                                                    Although irregular flooding
                                                                                                    precludes regular use of tidal
                                                                                                    swamps by aquatic species, many
                                                                                                    terrestrial species use swamps
                                      Tt                                                            (along with marshes) for feeding
                                                                                                    and breeding.

                                                                                                    Feeding
                                          4'
                                                                                                    Many insects and other
                                                                                                    invertebrates feed on plants,
                                                                                                    seeds, and other organic materials
                                                                                                    found in the tidal swamp.
                                                                                                    Vertebrate herbivores (leaf-eaters)
                                                                                                    and granivores (seed-eaters)
                                                                                                    include pheasants, rabbits, grey
                                                                                                    s
                                                                                                      uIrrels, chipmunks, woodchucks,
                                                                                                     q
                                                                                                    mice, muskrats, beaver, and deer.
                                                                                                    Predators of these invertebrates
                                                                                                    and vertebrates include newts,
                                                                                                    salamanders, toads, frogs, a
                                                                                                    diverse group of turtles (including
                                                                                                    stinkpot, musk, painted, spotted,
                                                                                                    m
                                                                                                     ap, wood, and box turtles),
          Figure 15: Swamp forest at Roger's Island (N. Salalsky)                                   snakes, shrews, moles, foxes,









                                                                      Tidal Swamp                                                          17

              raccoons, weasels, mink, skunks,
              and (in theory) bobcats and bears
              (Conant, 1975; Burt and
              Grossenheider, 1976; Odum et al.,
              1984).

              Breeding
              Many of the above-listed animals
              also use drier portions of the
              swamp forest for nesting, although
              even there, use is limited by the
              saturated soils. Muskrats, which
              either build nests in the marsh
              itself or burrow in the nearby
              forest, are of particular
              importance. Kiviat (1978) found
              that many reptiles, including
              northern water snakes and
              snapping, musk, mud, spotted,
              wood, pond, and painted turtles,
              overwinter in abandoned muskrat
              burrows.                                                                                                     Z4-

                                                    Figure 16: Tidal Creek with upland forest in the background (N. SalafskylTNC)

              Physical Environment Characterisfics                             Tidal Swamp Identification

              Tidal swamps share many physical features with marsh             Tidal swamps on the Hudson form landward of marshes
              and shore communilties, but also have unique features.           and mudflats. This community can be identified by its
              Tidal swamps have not been studied extensively and               characteristic tree species, which often grow on elevated
              much remains to be discovered about physical conditions          hummocks between pools of standing water. Presence of
              undedying formation of this community.                           flood debris is a good indication that the forest receives at
                                                                               least occasional inundation. Tidal swamp is best surveyed
              Hydrological Features                                            on f9ot, although dense underbrush can make walking
              The irregular water flow in tidal swamps is one of their         quite difficult.
              most interesting characteristics. Some areas (especially
              parts adjacent to tributary creeks) receive regular daily        1.7 Freshwater Creek and Upland Forest
              tidal flooding; others are flooded only during severe
              storms or spring flood-driven tidal surges (the latter           Although not tidally-influenced, freshwater creek and
              communities are technically not tidal swamps, but                upland forest. communfties (Figure 16) play critical roles in
              floodplain forests). High water lines marked by natural          determining where other communities occur in the River.
              and man-made debds left by receding waters are usually
              visible in floodplain forests. Because of their distance         Freshwater Creek
              from the River, waters in regularly flooded swamps may
              have different nutrient and chemical composiltions from the      The freshwater creek community consists of portions of
              River. As a result, tidal swamps support specialized plants      tributary streams which are beyond the influence of tides,
              and animals adapted to a waterlogged environment.                yet still accessible to fish from the River. On tributaries
                                                                               of the Hudson, this extends from the first significant
              Geological Features                                              elevation in creek beds to dams or waterfalls that block
              Little is known about specific soils and sediments in tidal      upstream passage of fish. Freshwater creeks are vital to
              swamps, although they probably receive heavy sediment            many anadromous fish species whose eggs require fast-
              inputs from tides and floodwaters that inundate them.            moving, well-oxygenated, and sediment-free water to
              Forested wetland areas probably function as effective            hatch successfully.
              nutrient sinks (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1987).










        18                                     Chapter 1: Ecological Community Descriptions

        Upland Forest

        The upland forest community includes the wooded hills
        and bluffs along banks of the River and its tributary
        streams. Upland forests are important for many terrestrial
        birds and animals that alternate between it and marsh and
        swamp. Upland forests are crucial in the hydrological
        cycle by serving as watershed buffering systems. These
        forests have absorbent soils and extensive root systems,
        which retain stormwater runoff, particularly when trees are
        in leaf and can absorb large volumes of water. This
        sponge-like retentive capacity allows surface waters to run
        off gradually over time. Gradually released runoff is less
        erosive than the rapid runoff associated with impermeable
        soils and developed areas. When upland forests in buffer
        zones adjacent to the River are removed, large-scale
        flooding and erosion can occur, which is detrimental to
        the value of tidal habitats.


        FURTHER READING
        The single most useful source on generalized atlantic
        coast freshwater tidal communities is Odum et al., (1984) ,
        which focuses primarily on marshes but also provides a
        detailed overview of the entire tidal ecosystem, from
        physical factors to plant and animal communities. Mitsch
        and Gosselink, (1986) provides a short summary of
        physical and biological processes in freshwater tidal
        wetlands, as a part of their general text on wetlands. For
        field identifications of tidal wetland plants in the Northeast,
        as well as a brief summary of plant communities Tiner,
        (1987) is an excellent reference. For animals, standard
        field guides such as Peterson, (1980), Conant, (1975),
        and Burt and Grossenheider,          (1976) are useful. The
        New York State Breeding Bird Atlas (Andrie and Carroll,
        1988 ) provides information on all birds breeding in the
        state. Sources more specific to the Hudson include An
        Atlas of the Biolooical Resources of the Hudson Estuary
        (Boyce Thompson Institute, 1977) which provides an
        overview of plant and aquatic fauna in the River south of
        Poughkeepsie with particular emphasis on microscopic
        fauna and flora; and, Kiviat, (1978 and 1979) , which
        examine different ecological components of the River.
        Detailed descriptions of natural communities defined by
        the New York Natural Heritage Program can be found in
        Reschke,, (1988) . Finally, for an understanding of basic
        ecological and physical concepts introduced in this
        chapter, good general ecology and geology textbooks are
        available.















                Chapter 2:


                BIOLOGY OF RARE AND IMPORTANT SPECIES



                This chapter contains brief descriptions of the biology of rare and important animal and plant
                species found in the Hudson River tidal habitats. The species considered here do not constitute
                a complete list of animals and plants occurring along the River but are examples of species that
                are either endangered or are important for other reasons. Interesting aspects of each species
                are presented including background information, habitat requirements, and the status of the species
                in the Hudson River ecosystem. Species descriptions are presented according to the following
                categories:

                ï¿½ Mammals
                ï¿½ Birds
                ï¿½ Reptiles and Amphibians
                ï¿½ Fish
                ï¿½ Invertebrates
                ï¿½ Plants








         20                                              Chapter 2: Species Biology

         2.1 Rare Animal and Plant Species
         Under federal law there are two categories of rare animals       1986). During the breeding period, eagles are especially
         and plants: "endangered" and "threatened." New York            - sensitive to human disturbance.
         State also maintains a list of animals that are endangered
         or threatened plus a third category for animal species of        Habitat Requirements
         ..special concern." The State has also compiled a list of        Based on their dependence on fish as a food source, bald
         endangered and threatened plants. These Federal and              eagles breed and overwinter near large open bodies of
         State categories reflect the level of concern regarding          water. For non-breeding and migrating eagles, important
         extinction of the species. Endangered species are faced          habitat requirements include open water in winter, high
         with imminent extinction. Threatened species are in less         prey densities, and sheltered timber stands for protection
         danger, but require special protection in order to maintain      from severe weather. For breeding pairs, lakes with
         their populations. Species which are of special concern          surface areas of at least 3.7 square miles are the optimal
         have no legal protection but are listed because stability of     size for successful nesting and (where available) are
         the population is unknown. All species known to inhabit          preferred over rivers. Although eagles rarely nest along
         the tidal portion of the Hudson that are listed under these      the shoreline itself, nests are seldom found more than one
         classifications are discussed in this section.                   mile from the watedine. Nests are situated mainly in large
                                                                          old-growth trees or on occasion, on cliffs or on the
         Mammals                                                          surface of large treeless islands. Nesting eagles are
         No endangered or threatened mammals are known to                 extremely sensitive to human disturbance and populations
         inhabit the Hudson River tidal habitats. Adjacent upland         tend to be densest in areas with little or no human activity
         forest may provide habitat for the endangered eastern            (Peterson, 1986).
         woodrat. The eastern woodrat has not been observed in
         the area in recent years. Although not inhabitants of the        Eagles are extremely sensitive to pollutants including lead
         Hudson, many endangered marine whales and porpoises              shot ingested from wounded waterbirds, poisoned bait
         may depend on productive estuaries like the Hudson to            set out to kill raptors and other predators, and pesticides
         contribute to the marine food web for their survival.            which severely weaken eagle eggshells and limit
                                                                          reproductive success (Grier, 1983). Pesticide effects are
         Mirds                                                            severe, since contaminants accumulate in fatty portions of
         Species of birds which are endangered, threatened, or of         many fish, the eagle's primary food source. This can lead
         special concern along tidal portions of the estuary include      to a high level of contaminants in eagles, even when
         raptors (birds of prey) and shorebird&                           concentrations in the environment are relatively low.
         Bald Eagle                                                       Hudson River Population
         The bald eagle is a Federal and State-listed endangered          In New York State, both breeding and overwintering
         species found breeding during the summers along coasts,          populations of bald eagles have undergone a drastic
         rivers, and large lakes in the northern U.S., Canada, and        decline over the past century that has only recently been
         Alaska and wintering in the southerri U.S. Bald eagles are       reversed with increased management efforts. Reports
         considered non-breeding seasonal migrants to the lower           from the 19th century document dozens of eagles aloft at
         part of New York State, using the Hudson River as a              one moment along the southern part of the Hudson River
         winter feeding ground.                                           during the spring migration, whereas in the 1970's, only
                                                                          one or two were seen during the entire migration period
         Background Information                                           (Bird, 1985). Nesting sites along the Hudson in Orange
         Mature bald eagles feed primarily on fish, various water         and Westchester Counties have been abandoned since
         birds, and carrion (Peterson, 1986).        Depending on         the 1890's (Bird, 1985).
         availability, fish constitutes the main food source for          In the last decade, however, with stringent protection and
         eagles and under most circumstances comprises between            a decline in pesticide use, bald eagles have been returning
         50 and 90% of their diet. Bald eagles are primarily              to the Hudson. As many as twelve eagles have been
         scavengers, obtaining much of their food from fish kills         counted overwintering near Iona Island, feeding near the
         and other available dead animals.                                River surface. Adult and @ immature eagles have been
         While migrating, eagles follow mountain ranges to take           observed in both summer and winter at Moodna Creek
         advantage of associated thermal updrafts, and rivers             and on adjacent Sloop Hill although nesting is not
         which provide fish. Breeding pairs of eagles tend to return      occurring (DEC, 1987; Mildner, pers. comm.).
         repeatedly to the same nest she. In New York, eggs are           The Hudson River could once again function as an
         produced between mid-March and mid-May (Bull, 1985).             important resource for migrating, overwintering, and
         The eggs are incubated for 35 days and the birds are             breeding bald eagles. If bald eagles are to continue to
         fledged, 72 to 74 days after hatching (DeGraaf and Rudis,









                                                                    Rare Species                                                        21

            return to the area, it is essential that key habitat             breeding sites along the Hudson including those at Hyde
            requirements are met.                                            Park, West Point, Croton Point, and Yonkers have all been
            Osprey                                                           inactive since the late 1 800's, well before the development
            The osprey is a State-recognized threatened species              of synthetic pesticides (Bull, 1985).     Breeding osprey
            found along large bodies of open water. Osprey breed             persisted, on the other hand, at less disturbed sites such
            during the summer in the northern U.S. and Canada, and           as at Tivoli Bay until well into the 1950's when pesticides
            overwinter in the southern U.S., the Caribbean, and Latin        presumably became a factor (DEC, 1987). Currently, there
            America (R. Peterson, 1980). In New York, osprey migrate         are no known osprey breeding sites along the River but
            seasonally to most parts of'the State and nest in the            numerous sites including Schodack Island, North Tivoli
            northern Adirondacks and on Long Island.                         Bay, Esopus Estuary, Moodna Creek, Wappinger Creek,
                                                                             and Fishkill Creek provide important osprey feeding
            Background Information                                           grounds during the spring and fall migration periods (DEC,
            Mature osprey feed exclusively on live fish. Osprey hunt         1987; Mildner, pers. comm.). The lack of osprey breeding
            by hovering above the water and then plunging, talons            may indicate that existing levels of contaminants are
            first, into the water to catch its prey. Osprey will take        interfering with establishment of this species on the River.
            most fish species, but tend to concentrate on those that
            form large schools. Osprey breeding may be timed to              The Hudson River could become an important area for
            take advantage of concentrations of anadromous fish              osprey breeding. If osprey are to return in their former
            during spawning runs (Greene et al., 1983).                      numbers, key habitat requirements must be met. These
                                                                             requirements include a pesticide and pollutant-free
            Breeding osprey pairs return year after year to the same         environment with abundant fish populations, shallow open
            nest, which consists of a bulky stick structure situated         water feeding sites, and suitable breeding platforms that
            high up in a tree or on poles or other artificial platforms      are protected from predators. Although two platforms
            (DeGraaf and Rudis, 1986). Osprey can be colonial                erected in Tivoli Bay in 1985 have not been colonized,
            breeders; sites on the east end of Long Island such as           similar structures on Long Island and at other locations
            Gardiner's Island and Plum Island had over 250 active            have been successful in attracting breeding pairs.
            nests in the 1800's. In New York, eggs are produced
            between April 27 and June 21 (Bull, 1985). Eggs are              Nor#pem Harrier
            incubated for 28 days and the birds are fledged after an         The northern harrier or marsh hawk is a State-recognized
            additional 8 to 10 weeks (DeGraaf and Rudis, 1986).              threatened species found in freshwater wetlands
                                                                             throughout northern North America in summer and in the
            Habitat Requirements                                             southern U.S. and Latin America during winter. It breeds
            The primary habitat requirement for osprey is a plentiful        throughout New York but has been undergoing decline in
            and constant supply of fish. Consequently, osprey are            recent years (Andde and Carroll, 1988).
            found only near large lakes, rivers, and estuaries. Within
            these locations, areas of shallow water are preferred            Background Information
            where fish swim close to the surface (DeGraaf and Rudis,         Mature harriers feed primarily on small mammals and
            1986). Despite lengthy annual migrations, osprey do not          birds, reptiles, insects, and carrion (DeGraaf and Rudis,
            disperse readily from their natal breeding sites and are         1986). The harrier hunts almost exclusively over marsh
            slow to colonize new breeding areas. This tendency may           areas and meadows, flying at low altitudes and diving on
            explain why osprey do not readily return to inactive             its prey.
            nesting areas (Henny, 1983). Osprey are fairly tolerant of
            human activities and can breed quite close to areas of           Harriers are -thought to mate for life; occasionally a male
            human activity, even using telephone poles, duck blinds,         may be paired with two females. Unlike most other
            and other structures as nesting platforms (Henny, 1983).         hawks, harriers build their nests on the ground where they
            Breeding ospreys, however, are extremely sensitive to            are prone to high predation rates (Bull, 1985). In New
            organochlorine pesticide residues that interfere with            York, eggs are produced between April 20 and June 25.
            eggshell formation (e.g. DDT), resulting in shells that are      The eggs are incubated for about 24 days and the birds
            too thin to survive incubation.          The presence of         are fledged 5 to 6 weeks after hatching (DeGraaf and
            successfully breeding osprey indicates a pesticide-free          Rudis, 1986).
            local environment (Henny, 1983).
                                                                             Habitat Requirements
            Hudson River Population                                          The primary habitat requirement for the harrier is large
            The osprey population along the Hudson declined over             expanses of open marsh and meadow for both feeding
            most of the twentieth century, but has been increasing           and nesting. Although the harrier will hunt over pastures
            over the past decade. Afthough pesticides have no doubt          and agricultural lands, it is more prevalent in natural open
            had a significant impact, habitat destruction seems to have      areas (Bull, 1985). Nestlings are best able to hide from
            also played an important role.        Most of the known          potential predators when they are well concealed among










          22                                               Chapter 2: Species Biology

          herbaceous or low woody vegetation (DeGraaf and Rudis,             pollution, and pesticides (DeGraaf and Rudis, 1986). In
          1986) which is most commonly found in cattail marshes              addition, the specific location of the nesting site near the
          and other wetland areas (Bull, 1985). The effects of               boundary between upper and lower marsh makes the
          human disturbance on harrier populations is not discussed          bittern vulnerable to changes in the marsh composition
          in the literature but it seems likely that the decline of the      (Swift, 1987).
          species in New York is related to an overall loss of
          marshes.                                                           Hudson River Population
                                                                             The tidal marshes along the  'Hudson River are currently an
          Hudson River Population                                            important breeding habitat for least bittern. In one study
          Although no specific census of the Hudson harrier                  of six marsh areas, Swift (1986) conservatively estimated
          populations has been conducted, it is likely that the              2-3 breeding pairs at West Flats, 2 pairs at Stockport
          species occurs in most suitable upper marsh areas along            Marsh, 4-6 pairs in Hudson North Bay, 2 pairs at Tivoli
          the River. It seems likely that population levels would            North Bay, 3-4 pairs at Constitution Marsh, 1 pair at Iona
          benefit if these key nesting and feeding wetlands were             Island, and comparable populations at other upper marsh
          protected from human disturbance.                                  sites.

          Least Bittem                                                       Population levels of the least bittern along the Hudson
          The least bittern is a State-recognized species of special         River could potentially benefit by protecting upper nesting
          concern found in wetland areas of eastern North America            and feeding marshes from human disturbance.                The
          during the summer and in the southern U.S., Caribbean,             availability of suitable nesting sites in dense marsh plants
          and Latin America during the winter (Hancock and                   located near open water and protected from predators is
          Kushlan, 1984). It is found throughout New York in                 of special importance. In addition, it may be beneficial to
          suitable habitats, although it is very secretive and often         create or maintain lower marsh to keep pace with naturally
          extremely difficult to spot.                                       occurring marsh succession (Swift, 1987).

          Background Inrormation                                             Reptiles and Amphibians
          The least bittern's diet consists of small fishes                  Only two reptile or amphibian species which are
          supplemented with crustaceans, amphibians, small                   considered rare in New York occur in the tidal habitats,
          mammals, and insects (Hancock and Kushlan, 1984).                  both of which are turtles.
          Bittern hunt by wading slowly in shallow water with neck
          extended so that a rapid downward strike can be                    Spotted and Wood Turtles
          launched at a target, or at times by standing and waiting          Spotted and wood turtles are State-recognized species of
          for prey to come by (Hancock and Kushlan, 1984).                   special concern found primarily along the atlantic coast
                                                                             states and in isolated locations in the Midwest.
          Bittern are generally solitary nesters and undergo an
          extensive courtship ritual based largely on vocal cues.            Background Information
          Nest sites are chosen by the male and located in the               Adult spotted turtles are primarily aquatic, feeding only in
          upper marsh near open water in extensive stands of reeds,          water on crustaceans, mollusks, spiders, earthworms,
          cattails, sedges, or other dense vegetation. In New York,          aquatic insects, frogs, tadpoles, small fish, turtles, and
          eggs are produced between May 15 and July 10. Eggs                 vegetable matter. Wood turtles are more terrestrial and
          are incubated for 17 to 18 days and chicks remain as               feed either in water or on land on young vegetation, grass,
          nestl ings for 10 to 14 days during which time they are fed        moss, mushrooms, insects, worms, slugs, snails, tadpoles,
          foods regurgitated by the parents (DeGraaf and Rudis,              and fish (DeGraaf and Rudis, 1986). In summer, both
          1986).    In some regions, secondary or replacement                species are active during the day and can be found
          clutches have been observed, extending the likely nesting          basking in the sun, especially during the morning hours.
          period.                                                            During winter, the turtles hibernate in muddy banks,
                                                                             marshes, stream bottoms, and abandoned muskrat
          Habitat Requirements                                               burrows, spending most of the time in a deep torpor.
          The primary habitat requirement for least bittern is large
          expanses of open marsh for both feeding and nesting,               Spotted turtles mate between March and June and eggs
          Least bittern are very secretive and do not tolerate human         are deposited from June to July. Eggs incubate for 70 to
          disturbance. Least bittern rely primarily on concealment           83 days, hatching in late August or September. The newly
          for avoidance of predators.        A suitable nesting site         hatched turtles may overwinter in their natal nests. Wood
          requires extensive stands of dense marsh plants with               turtles breed between March and May when stream
          water that is between one and three feet deep at all times,        temperatures reach 59 OF. Eggs are deposited from May
          Nests are built in the plants, one to two feet above the           to June and hatch between August and November
          surface of the water (Swift, 1987).        Important factors       (DeGraaf and Rudis, 1986).
          limiting least bittern populations are marsh drainage,









                                                                    Rare Species                                                         23

            Habitat Requirements                                              (Crance, 1986). In a given reproductive year females
            Spotted turtles live in shallow, unpolluted bodies of water       produce between 40,000 and 200,000 eggs.
            including ponds, marshes, swamps, and tidal creeks.
            They prefer areas with aquatic vegetation and tend to hide        Habitat Requirements
            in the mud. Spotted turtles lay their eggs in well drained        The shortnose sturgeon, unlike its larger cousin the
            upper marsh areas or in tussocks. Wood turtles are found          Atlantic sturgeon, spends most of its life in the riverine or
            in slow-moving meandering streams from which they                 estuarine environment. The extent to which the fish enters
            disperse to surrounding woods and fields in summer. In            marine waters is unknown. In the northern part of its
            winter they return to stream areas to hibernate in muddy          range (including the Hudson), shortnose sturgeon moves
            banks.    Wood turtles lay their eggs in depressions              up and down rivers with the seasons, feeding in shallow
            prepared in sandy or gravelly soils (DeGraaf and Rudis,           brackish or freshwater sections during the summer and
            1986).                                                            overwintering in the lower portion of the estuary or in deep
                                                                              freshwater areas (Crance, 1986). In the southern portion
            Hudson River Populations                                          of the range, however, there is some evidence that the fish
            Little is known about turtle populations along the Hudson         is more anadromous, entering the river only to spawn and
            River. Although considerable research still needs to be           spending the rest of its time in coastal waters (Smith,
            done on turtle biology, existing turtle populations may           1985). In general, shortnose sturgeon may forage in
            benefit by preserving suitable unpolluted marshes. Turtle         relatively slow moving water over gravel and silt or shallow
            populations would be enhanced by protecting summer                muddy bottoms at a depth of about 10 feet, although in
            nesting grounds from disturbance by hikers, recreational          winter they occupy deeper areas that range from 10 to
            vehicles, and even reptile collectors. It is also important       more than 30 feet (Crance, 1986).
            to protect winter hibernation areas from disturbance from
            dredging, filling and grading.                                    Shortnose sturgeon reproductive activity occurs in
                                                                              freshwater portions of rivers and is generally associated
            Fish                                                              with moderately deep areas (6-36 feet) that have a gravel
            The shortnose sturgeon is the only Federally and State-           to rubble substrate, water velocities between 1.2 and 4.1
            recognized endangered Hudson River fish species.                  ft/s, and a temperature between 54 and 59 OF (Crance,
                                                                              1986). There is evidence that spawning may occur only
            Shortnose Sturgeon                                                within a narrow 3-6 day "window" in which the
            Shortnose sturgeon are distributed along the atlantic coast       environmental conditions are suitable for successful egg
            from the St. John River in New Brunswick to the St. Johns         deposition (Crance, 1986).
            River in Florida. It is estimated that from 13,000 to 30,000
            mature individuals live in the Hudson River, comprising the       Hudson River Population
            largest known population of the species. The shortnose            Shortnose sturgeon follow a complex migration in the
            sturgeon lives and breeds almost exclusively in riverine          Hudson (Dovel, 1981).        Before the spring spawning
            and associated estuarine environments; its survival               season, most breeding shortnose sturgeon congregate in
            depends on maintenance of habitat in rivers such as the           the shallow areas of Esopus Meadows below Kingston,
            Hudson.                                                           while other non-reproductive individuals remain in the
                                                                              deepwater areas of Haverstraw Bay. By about March,
            Background Information                                            along with ice breakup, adult fish begin moving upriver at
            Fertilized shortnose sturgeon eggs are found upriver from         a rate of 2 to 3 miles per day reaching the spawning areas
            saline waters between mid-April and mid-May. Eggs are             between Coxsackie and Troy during late April and early
            adhesive and attach to hard substrate in deeper portions          May. After spawning, adults return to the lower portions
            of the River where they hatch after an average of 13 days         of the estuary while newly hatched larvae and juvenile fish
            at a temperature of 50 OF (Dovel, 1981; Smith, 1985).             slowly migrate downriver throughout the summer. While
            Newly hatched larvae and juveniles are benthic (found at          adult fish tend to feed in the shallow areas of the River,
            the river bottom) and remain in the freshwater portions of        juveniles are found at the bottom of the channel in regions
            the River, feeding first on zooplankton and later on              of strong currents with water depths greater than 30 feet
            crustaceans, insect larvae, and cladocerans.            Adults    (Dovel, 1981; MPI, 1983).
            apparently move down river into brackish waters after
            spawning. Adult shortnose sturgeon are largely bottom             The Hudson River shortnose sturgeon population has
            feeders, consuming mollusks and other benthic animals             been identified as suffering from several stresses that
            with their protrusile tube mouths (Crance, 1986).                 could potentially be linked to pollutants in the water of the
                                                                              River. Seventy-six percent of 585 shortnose sturgeon
            Shortnose sturgeon males are capable of reproduction at           observed during the 1980 spawning season showed signs
            age 2 to 3 and thereafter reproduce every other year,             of fin rot which has been linked in other fish species to the
            whereas females first spawn between ages 6 and 11 with            chemical deterioration of the epithelial mucus coating. In
            a 3 to 11 year hiatus between reproductive efforts                the Hudson, PCBs may be linked to this condition. As a









           24                                                Chapter 2: Species Biology

           bottom feeder, shortnose sturgeon tend to accumulate                 Background Information
           toxins rapidly. Extremely high levels of PCBs have been              The heart leaf plantain, whose biology is detailed in
           found in shortnose sturgeon tissue ranging from 22 ppm               Bender (1986), grows either individually or in loose
           in muscle to 997 ppm in brain tissue. Presumably the                 clusters. Heart leaf plantains produce different-shaped
           shortnose sturgeon population suffered from the polluted             leaves depending on the season; in winter the distinctive
           conditions in the "Albany Pool" spawning grounds                     large heart-shaped leaves of the summer are replaced with
           between 1960 and 1980 and may only now be recovering.                small lanceolate leaves. In spring and fall, the plant can
           Thermal pollution may also affect this species. Temp-                have intermediately sized and shaped leaves.                Leaf
           eratures over 77 OF can cause distress or even mortality             production can be affected by drought or temperature
           among young individuals, suggesting that thermal                     stress and is controlled by length of day.
           discharges should be evaluated for impacts on the
           shonnose sturgeon population (Dovel, 1981).                          Heart leaf plantains initiate flower production in the fall and
                                                                                the new buds overwinter under protective leaf bases. In
           Protection of the Hudson River population is important for           the spring, a large spike grows rapidly, holding up to 130
           the survival of this endangered species, since the Hudson            individual flowers. The flowers are wind-pollinated and,
           River contains one of the largest populations of shortnose           once fertilized, the plants form mature fruits one to three
           sturgeon. The loss of suitable spring spawning and                   weeks later. Each fruit capsule contains two seeds which
           nursery grounds upriver, shallow adult summer foraging               dehisce (open up) when the fruit is ripe. When a seed
           grounds midriver, and deepwater overwintering areas                  falls into the water, the seed coat swells into a
           downriver are of particular concern. Protection of the               mucilaginous mass that gives the seed buoyancy and
           Hudson River shortnose sturgeon population requires                  causes it to stick to any object that it touches. Seeds
           scheduling of human activities to minimize impacts during            germinate in 6 to 14 days with the majority of seedlings
           reproductive periods.       Activities of concern include            ending up in close proximity to their parent. Established
           dredging, water intake by power plants and other large               seedlings can take up to 2 years to mature.
           users, commercial fishing for Atlantic sturgeon and other
           fish which may result in incidental catch of shortnose               Heart leaf plantains have the lowest reproductive output of
           sturgeon, and discharge of pollutants.                               all plantain species, which may in part be due to the fact
                                                                                that much of their energy is used to produce big leaves
           Invertebrates                                                        and fleshy roots. This low reproductive effort means that
           No legally-recognized endangered invertebrate species                they produce very few seedlings and are vulnerable to
           currently live in the Hudson River.          Further study is        disturbances that disrupt seedling germination and
           needed to determine which species might be experiencing              establishment.
           unstable or declining population levels which may warrant
           protection under existing law.                                       Habitat Requirements
                                                                                Heart leaf plantain is a semi-aquatic plant that grows in
           Plants                                                               gravelly or rocky beds of shallow, clear streams and their
           The Hudson's tidal habitats support a number of rare plant           adjacent floodplains in the Midwest and the Southeast. It
           species. Many of these species are recognized by the                 is also found in a mud-bottomed woodland stream in Ohio
           State as "protected native plants" which are listed as either        and in moist depressions in a deciduous woods in
           endangered, threatened, exploitatively vulnerable or rare            Ontario. Along the Hudson, the heart leaf plantain occurs
           (Article 9, Section 15 of the Environmental Conservation             largely on rocky shores just below the high tide mark.
           Law). A list of recognized plant species was adopted on              The plant is generally found at the mouth of a tributary
           June 23, 1989, and includes two species which are good               stream or in a cove or backwater area along the River.
           examples of plants that depend on the Hudson's tidal                 Heart leaf plantain is often partially obscured from full view
           habitats.   These and other listed plant species are                 by other upland woods plants that hang over the narrow
           protected from removal or damage by requiring the                    strip in which the plantain grows. In general, the heart leaf
           consent of the landowner. Effective protection can result            plantain is not very tolerant of excessive pollution and in
           from this law since many species live in the intertidal area         New York, may depend on the flushing action of the tides
           which is mostly under State ownership. Removal or                    for survival.
           damage of plants carries a $25.00 fine per plant or stem.            Hudson River Population
           Heart Leaf Plantain                                                  Heart leaf plantain is currently found at twelve sites along
           Heart leaf plantain is a State-recognized threatened                 the Hudson. While some of these sites contain several
           perennial plant that exists only in tidal waters in New York,        thousand mature plants, others have only a few dozen.
           although it also occurs in freshwater streams in several             The Hudson River population is thought to be in decline,
           states in the Midwest and the Southeast.                             since many sites in which the species was found in the
                                                                                1930's no longer support the plant.           This decline is
                                                                                attributed to both habitat alteration and to declining water









                                                                      Rare Species                                                          25

             quality. Major threats to the heart leaf plantain include         (Carex hormathodes), winged monkeyflower, lousewort,
             clear cutting of surrounding woods, trampling, alteration         spongy arrowhead, bur-marigold, beggar-ticks (Bidens
             of stream flow, exposure to erosive forces, and industrial        hyperborea), mud-plantain, and pigmyweed (see Appendix
             and domestic pollution.          Particular problems are          A for additional scientific names). Threats to the Hudson
             associated with increased stream flow washing seedlings           River populations of these plants are linked to loss of
             away, nutrient overloading causing extensive algal growth         habitat or to the direct destruction of localized
             that traps and kills seeds, and trampling of plants by            populations. Additional information on rare plants can be
             people, animals, and vehicles on the shore.                       obtained through the New York Natural Heritage Program.

             EsUkW Beggar-ficks                                                2.2 Important Species
             The estuary beggar-ticks is a State-recognized threatened         Important animal and plant species are those which satisfy
             annual plant found in estuaries between Maryland and              food, recreation, and other human needs.
             New York. The species is one of many congeners
             (closely related plants) found in tidal habitats (Gleason,        Mammals
             1952).                                                            A wide variety of mammals use the tidal habitats for some
             Background Information                                            portion of their life cycle. Many of the mammals that are
             The estuary beggar-ticks     grows individually or in small       most dependent on the River are important as furbearers.
             groups. Seeds from the previous year germinate in spring          Muskrat
             and sprout leaves. Flowering occurs in late August and            The muskrat is a small rodent found throughout the United
             September with the plants being pollinated by insects.            States and Canada.
             Seeds ripen in late September and October and have tiny
             hooks that latch onto passing animals and humans for              Background Information
             dispersal. Most seeds, however, probably fall near the            Muskrats are omnivorous, feeding primarily on cattails,
             parent plant.                                                     reeds, pondweeds, bulrushes, water lilies, clams, and
             Habitat Requirements                                              other small aquatic animals (DeGraaf and Rudis, 1986).
             Along the Hudson River, estuary beggar-ticks is found in          Muskrats will on occasion build small, roofed feeding
             two different habitat types. The most common occurrence           platforms and dome-shaped nest chambers of weeds over
             is in the sandy beach habitat, near the high tide mark. In        the water. Other individuals nest in dens dug in banks of
             this habitat the plant is occasionally found among three-         streams or ditches. Muskrats breed between March and
             square bullrush plants on the actual "beach," but it is more      August and have a gestation period of about 30 days.
             commonly found on a small eroding ledge that is located           Since the average litter size is five or six, a female may
             between 4 and 12 inches above the beach. Estua                    have up to three litters per year; and since the age to
                                                                         ry    maturity is as short as 4 months, muskrats have an
             beggar-ticks grows-only on the very lip of this edge and          enormous population growth potential which can take
             .no further inland; it seems to be able to establish itself       advantage of productive habitat.
             only in a very transitory environment. The plant in this
             habitat is generally very short and squat. The estuary            Habitat Requirements
             beggar-ticks is also found ina much taller form that grows        Muskrats live in marshes, shallow lakes, ponds, swamps,
             on rocky shores. Here the plant is found more in the              sluggish streams, and even drainage ditches.              They
             open and in generally lower densities,                            require wetland areas with dense emergent     .vegetation and
             Hudson River Population                                           more or less stable water levels. They are most common
             The estuary beggar-ticks is found at ten known sites along        when abundant supplies of cattails, the muskrat's
             the River. While a few of these sites contain several             preferred food, are present.
             hundred plants, others have only a very small population.         Hudson River Population
             Major threats to the estuary beggar-ticks are linked to           Muskrats are found throughout suitable habitats along the
             habitat loss and elimination of local populations.                Hudson River. As in other environments, the size of the
             Maintenance of existing populations requires protection           Hudson's muskrat population fluctuates widely, which may
             from shoreline development and disturbance. Research              be based on the availability of suitable overwintering
             should be undertaken to determine the extent to which the         burrows and water level. Muskrat populations along the
             plant is aided by.erosion or,if this process is detrimental       River may benefit by preserving and enhancing marsh.
             to its existence.                                                 Preventing exotic plants such as purple loosestrife and
             Other Rare Plants                                                 common reed from displacing cattails and other preferred
             Other plants found in the Hudson River tidal environments         foods may also be important for muskrat populations.
             that are being monitored by the New York Natural
             Heritage Program include the saltmarsh bulrush, sedge










          26                                                Chapter 2: Species Biology

          Mink                                                                Background Information
          The mink is a small carnivore found throughout the U.S.             Marsh ducks feed on aquatic plants, seeds, grass, insects,
          and Canada.                                                         and small aquatic life. A marsh duck feeds in water by
                                                                              "dabbling", le., in a position where its body is tilted with its
          Background     Information                                          head underwater and tail pointed up in the air. Certain
          Mink feed primarily on       small aquatic and terrestrial          species such as wood ducks also forage on land for
          animals. Primary foods include muskrats, voles, rabbits,            seeds, nuts, waste grains, and insects. Diving and sea
          fish, frogs, crayfish, salamanders, clams, and insects              ducks feed underwater on small aquatic animals and
          (DeGraaf and Rudis, 1986). The animals are largely                  plants. Mergansers are diving ducks with saw-toothed
          nocturnal and are active throughout the year.                       bills that are adapted for capturing small fish.

          Mink build their dens below ground under fallen trees or            Many ducks embark on lengthy migrations in the spring
          stumps or in hollow logs. Mink breed in the early spring            and fall between summer breeding areas and winter
          and have a gestation period of about 50 days but delay              feeding grounds.       Most duck species found on the
          implantation of the embryos in order to give birth in April         Hudson are present only during migration to the breeding
          or May. A litter contains an average of 3 or 4 kits.                grounds in northern or central Canada and are seldom
                                                                              found during the summer months. Species that do breed
          Habitat Requirements                                                on the Hudson include black duck, mallard, wood duck,
          Mink are found in streambanks, lakeshores, and marshes.             blue-winged teal, and hooded merganser. Additional
          They tend to prefer areas where there is extensive cover            information on these and other species breeding in New
          and they defend large territories. In general, mink prefer          York can be found in the New York Staie Breeding Bird
          wetlands with irregular and diverse shorelines. Mink are            Atlas (Andde and Carroll, 1988).
          reasonably tolerant of human disturbance but are sensitive
          to prey levels which may drop in conjunction with human             Habitat Requirements
          development (Allen, 1986). Mink may also be limited by              The primary habitat requirement for overwintering ducks
          the availability of suitable den sites.                             is access to open bodies of water where they can feed
                                                                              and rest secure from predators. An adequate supply of
          Hudson River Population                                             food is important and is generally available in marshes and
          In general, mink population sizes depend on the                     shallow water.
          availability of wetlands that are surrounded by dense
          woods and shrubs to provide adequate cover. Mink                    Breeding black and mallard ducks build their nests in the
          populations may also be affected by pollutants in the               marshy borders of ponds, lakes, rivers, and swamps and
          estuary, particularly PCB's. The Hudson River populations           adjacent uplands. Black ducks will settle in salt and
          may benefit by protecting marshes and adjacent swamp                brackish water areas, while mallards avoid salt water.
          and woodland in order to maintain the small animal                  Both require shallow water where they can reach bottom
          populations that serve as food sources.                             or submerged plants while dabbling from the surface.
                                                                              Wood ducks and hooded mergansers nest in cavities in
          Birds                                                               large trees (or nest boxes) adjacent to freshwater wetland
          Hundreds of bird species are found along the Hudson, all            feeding areas (DeGraaf and Rudis, 1986).
          of which have great value to bird-watchers and other
          nature lovers. Species discussed here are limited to                Hudson River Populations
          examples of waterfowl and wetland-dependent wading                  Ducks use the Hudson River Valley as a major migration
          birds associated with the Hudson.                                   corridor as they travel between northern breeding grounds
                                                                              and southern overwintering areas.           During migration,
          Ducks                                                               ducks stop along the River in large numbers to feed and
          The term "ducks" encompasses a large group of migratory             rest. In addition, thousands of ducks overwinter along the
          waterfowl that live throughout the world. Ducks inhabiting          southern portion of the estuary where the water remains
          the Hudson can be divided into four categories: marsh or            ice-free for the winter. Both hunters and bird-watchers
          dabbling ducks (black, mallard, gadwall, wood, pintall,             come to the Hudson River from throughout the
          green-winged teal, blue-winged teal, and northern                   surrounding area during fall migration. Duck populations
          shoveler); diving ducks (redhead, ring-necked,                      receive a great deal of management attention and
          canvasback, greater and lesser scaups, goideneye,                   protection through international, Federal, and State efforts.
          bufflehead, and ruddy); sea ducks (oldsquaw and surf,               The Hudson's duck populations may benefit by
          white-winged, and black scoter); and mergansers                     maintaining open water in specific wetland areas, limiting
          (hooded, common, and red-breasted) (R. @Peterson, 1980).            pollutants, preserving wetland quality and associated food
          Many of these duck species can be found in many areas               value, and by providing refuges free from human
          of New York during spring and fall migrations and are the           disturbance during migration.
          most frequent quarry of waterfowl hunters.









                                                                  Important Species                                                       27

             Canada Goose and Brant                                            Populations of Canada geese and brant receive substantial
             The Canada goose and its close relative the brant are             management attention and protection at the international,
             large migratory waterfowl that traditionally bred in the          Federal, and State levels. These species will continue to
             arctic and overwintered in the coastal and midwestern             depend on the Hudson Valley in their migrations and for
             portions of the United States. The Canada goose is found          overwintering and should be protected from potential
             throughout New York during the spring and fall migrations         disasters including oil spills from barge traffic and storage
             and on Long Island and the Hudson during the winter               facilities, and pesticide poisonings which are frequently
             (Bull, 1984). Canada geese are now also found breeding            associated with golf course and lawn maintenance.
             throughout southern New York (Andrle and Carroll, 1988).
                                                                               Herons
             Background Information                                            Herons are large wading birds found throughout the world
             Canada geese and brant      are herbivores and granivores         near water. Species found along the Hudson estuary
             (plant and seed eaters) feeding primarily on tender grass         include great blue, black-crowned night, and green-
             shoots, sedges and other marsh plants, submerged                  backed herons, great egrets, and American and least
             vegetation, wild seeds and fruit, and cultivated grains.          bittern. These heron species are distributed throughout
             Canada geese are well-adapted to using human crop                 the United States and southern Canada during the
             foods and geese populations may have increased with               summer and migrate in winter to the southern U.S., the
             increased food supplies associated with conversion of             Caribbean, and Latin America. Some individual great blue
             woodlands to farmland (Bellrose, 1976). Canada geese              herons do remain in the north for the entire winter near
             feed primarily on land and in marsh areas, whereas brant          open water. In New York, all of the listed herons are
             prefer feeding in shallows and flats on aquatic vegetation.       breeding species, with some breeding only on Long Island
             Brant drastically altered its feeding habits in the mid-          and others throughout the State (Bull, 1985). Although the
             1930's when eelgrass, a primary food source, succumbed            herons (in particular the great egret and great blue) were
             to a blight and almost completely disappeared. With the           hunted extensively in the early 1900's for their feathers
             loss of eelgrass beds, brant changed to a secondary               which were used in the millinery trade (Bull, 1985), they
             source, sea lettuce. In recent years, eelgrass has become         are now valued for their grace and aesthetic contribution
             more common and is once again available to brant.                 to the landscape.
             Geese migrate to and from their wintering grounds in large
             flocks that form at certain "staging areas." In flight, the       Background Information
             geese are often seen in characteristic V formations which         Herons feed primarily on small fishes and to a lesser
             are brought to our attention by their almost continuous           extent on amphibian, snake, lizard, rodent, small bird,
             honking.                                                          insect, and aquatic invertebrate species (Hancock and
                                                                               Kushlan, 1984; Short and Cooper, 1985). Colonial heron
             Habitat Requirements                                              populations have been known to feed in large flocks but
             Primary habitat requirements for overwintering geese and          the birds generally forage alone or in small groups (Short
             brant are access to large open water areas where the              and Cooper, 1985).
             geese can rest secure from predators, and snow-free
             feeding sites.                                                    Migratory herons return from the south in spring to begin
                                                                               the breeding season. With the exception of green-backed
             Hudson River Populations                                          herons and bittern, herons tend to be colonial. Dozens
             Canada geese use the Hudson Valley as a migration                 of pairs crowd into established "heronries" that can include
             corridor, concentrating on the east shore of the River and        several different heron species.      Herons can also be
             uplands as they travel to wintering grounds along the             solitary breeders, however, with great blue herons nesting
             atlantic coast and breeding grounds in New York and               in tall trees, green and black-crowned herons in smaller
             Canada. In addition, geese from the maritime provinces            trees or on hummocks in cattail marshes, egrets in dense
             of Canada migrate along the atlantic coast to overwinter          scrub thickets, and bittern in wetter portions of the upper
             near Long Island and perhaps the lower Hudson Valley              marsh. General biology of herons breeding in New York
             (Bellrose, 1976). In recent years, as many as 20,000              can be found in the New York State Breeding Bird Atlas
             geese have remained in the upper Hudson Valley in mid-            (Andde and Carroll, 1988).
             winter, along with large numbers concentrated in urban or
             suburban flocks around New York City.            Part of the      Habitat Requirements
             increase in overwintering geese in New York appears to            Primary habitat requirements for herons are large
             be due to a northward shift in the winter range of geese,         expanses of open shallow water for feeding, and
             which traditionally had been concentrated in the                  appropriate nesting sites. The two bittern species are
             Chesapeake area. The Hudson Valley is also a major                both very secretive, feeding and breeding in the wetter
             brant migration corridor between a staging area in James          portions of the upper marsh and relying primarily on
             Bay in the Province of Ontario and wintering grounds              concealment for escaping nest predators. Both of these
             along the atlantic coast.                                         species are very intolerant of disturbance and will









         28                                              Chapter 2: Species Biology

         abandon an area if it is even slightly disturbed (DeGraaf        Fish
         and Rudis, 1986).                                                Several fish species are commercially valuable and several
         Other herons feed primarily on mudflats and shallows near        others support recreational fisheries along the River.
         marshes. Great blue herons often build nests in large            Arnefican Shad
         swamp forest trees which may be located far from their           American shad, an anadromous which is native to North
         main feeding grounds. While great blue herons can                America, is found along the atlantic coast from Labrador
         tolerate human disturbance, a Minnesota study found that         to Florida. The species was introduced to the Pacific in
         all major heronries are located at least two miles from          1871 and is now also found from Mexico to Alaska (Stier
         human residences and are generally occupied year after           and Crance, 1985). Historically, American shad has been
         year until disrupted by logging or other human activities        one of the most important commercial fish on the Hudson
         (Short and Cooper, 1985). Green-backed and black-                and is now the mainstay of the River's fishing industry.
         crowned herons are more tolerant of human activities and
         have less demanding nesting site requirements than great         Background Information
         blue herons. In addition to loss of foraging and nesting         Fertilized American shad eggs are slightly heavier than
         sites, there is evidence that heron populations have been        water and are initially mildly adhesive, causing them to be
         reduced by heavy metal and organochlorine pesticide              transported slowly with the currents in the channel during
         contaminants that can contribute to eggshell thinning and        their two day incubation period (Smith, 1985). After
         hence increased hatching mortality (Short and Cooperi            hatching, larvae spend 4 to 5 weeks drifting from the
         1985).                                                           spawning grounds. Juvenile shad form schools and move
                                                                          gradually downstream, feeding opportunistically on aquatic
         Hudson River Populations                                         insects and zooplankton in the water column. It is not
         The Hudson River supports breeding populations of least          known whether juveniles spend their entire first year in the
         bittern and green-backed herons. Great blue herons use           estuary or if they migrate to the ocean. Adults spend late
         the River for feeding although no active heronries are           summer and early fall between the Gulf of Maine and
         known to exist on the River. Great egret, American               Nantucket, and winter off Long Island. Adult shad are
         bittern, and black-crowned night heron also forage at            primarily plankton feeders, swimming with mouths open to
         many sites along the River during the summer, but no             strain the water for copepods, mysids, crustaceans, and
         nesting has been reported. Herons that may depend on             some small fishes (Stier and Crance, 1985).
         the River as a source of food may establish heronries
         some distance away from the River in wooded uplands.             Adult shad remain in the ocean for 2 to 6 years before
         Great blue herons are the only species that overwinter           spawning. Shad spawn once and die in the southern part
         and can occasionally be found in the southern portions of        of the species' range whereas fish from northern
         the estuary (Andde and Carroll, 1988).                           populations are able to spawn more than once (Stier and
                                                                          Crance, 1985).     In northern populations such as the
         Although herons have little economic value, in the words         Hudson's, spawning occurs in spring and early summer
         of Peterson (in Hancock and Kushlan, 1984) they enjoy an         with individual fish returning to their natal tributaries to
         immensely high public relations rating among wildlife            spawn at night in clear, fresh water. Female shad can
         observers and conservationists. The Audubon movement             produce between 58,500 and 659,000 eggs in a given
         was sparked by the near extinction of great egrets caused        reproductive season, indicating low juvenile survival rates
         by the demand for feathers in the early 1900's for the           (Stier and Crance, 1985).
         millinery industry. Since that time, herons have been used
         as a symbol of the conservation and environmental                Habitat Requirements
         movements.                                                       Eggs, larvae, and juvenile American shad require fresh,
                                                                          well-oxygenated water (greater than 5.0 ppm of oxygen)
         Heron populations along the Hudson River can be                  that is at least 60 OF, although they can tolerate water as
         maintained and enhanced through the preservation of              cold as 40 OF. Suspended sediments greater than 100
         marshes. The availability of densely vegetated nesting           ppm have a lethal effect on shad larvae (Stier and Crance,
         sites in deepwater marsh areas for bittern, and large trees      1985). Adult shad occur in offshore areas of the ocean at
         in undisturbed areas for great blue herons are of special        intermediate depths where water temperatures range from
         importance.                                                      380 to 60 OF.

         Reptiles and Amphibians                                          Shad spawning runs depend on water temperature; peak
         No commercially valuable reptile or amphibian species            migrations coincide with a temperature of 65 OF in
         inhabit the Hudson other than the snapping turtle which is       estuaries and rivers. Spawning can occur in all parts of
         occasionally hunted (although it can contain high levels of      the River, but is concentrated in shallow, well-oxygenated,
         toxic chemicals). In addition, rare turtles native to the        and swiftly moving (0.3-4.3 ft/s) water over a sand and
         Hudson are unfortunately hunted by collectors.                   gravel substrate (Stier and Crance, 1985). Shad tend to









                                                                  Important Species                                                      29

            spawn in the shallows at the mouth of tributary streams           insects, and small fish found in or on the bottom
            and in broad, shallow portions of the River that meet the         sediments.
            above requirements.
                                                                              Atlantic sturgeon spawn just upriver from the salt front.
            Hudson River Population                                           Males are at least 12 years old when they first spawn while
            In the Hudson, spawning occurs from Croton Bay north to           females mature at age 18 or 19. ln@a single reproductive
            Castleton with greatest densities near Catskill (Smith,           cycle, a female can produce several million eggs
            1985). Prior to completion of the federal dam at Troy,            (providing the basis for the caviar industry).
            American shad were reported as far upriver as the, Batten
            Kill. Currently, American shad is one of the major fish           Habitat Requirements
            species taken commercially in the Hudson River.                   Atlantic sturgeon are found in deep water while in the
            Commercial fishing operations take advantage of the shad          estuary. They generally move with the tides, remaining in
            spawning runs by using staked, anchored, or drifted gill          waters that are about 55 'F. Temperature also controls
            nets. Commercial fishing is prohibited from Friday night          the movements of juveniles which begin migrating
            to Sunday morning, which protects the spawning stock by           downstream in fall.
            allowing fish to pass upstream to spawn (Smith, 1985).
            Historically the annual shad catch has ranged from 38,300         Hudson River Population
            to 2,091,300 pounds with an average annual catch of               Juvenile Atlantic sturgeon overwinter in the deepwater
            638,200 between 1913 and 1964,107,700 pounds between              portions of the Hudson River estuary between Cornwall
            1965 and 1974, and over 1 million pounds in recent years          and the George Washington Bridge.             In spring the
            (MPI, 1983; Paul Neth, pers. comm.).                              juveniles can be found as far north as Port Ewen. Adults
                                                                              generally are not found in the River during the winter but
            The American shad population in the Hudson River can be           migrate from the sea in spring to reproduce. Spawning
            maintained by protecting important shallow, mid-river             occurs just north of the salt front which is usually located
            spawning grounds, and feeding and nursery grounds of              in Haverstraw Bay in spring. After spawning, females
            larval and juvenile fish. The shad population will be least       leave the River for the ocean, but males may remain until
            affected if human activities are scheduled to avoid               cold weather returns.
            interference with critical life periods of the fish. The need
            to avoid dredging during periods when the resulting               Atlantic sturgeon was the backbone of the nineteenth
            increase in suspended sediment load might interfere with          century Hudson River fishery. The fish were so plentiful
            shad larvae is particularly important. Likewise, any action       that they were called "Albany beef." Atlantic sturgeon was
            that might after water temperature, reduce dissolved              heavily -overfished, however, and the population was
            oxygen levels or increase sedimentation should be                 decimated. In 1978 it was estimated that there were
            scheduled to avoid interference with adult migration to and       100,000 juvenile Atlantic sturgeon in the estuary but only
            use of spawning grounds and use of feeding and nursery            several dozen adults were being taken annually by
            grounds by young fish. The American shad commercial               commercial fishermen.
            fishery management activities of the New York State
            Department of Environmental Conservation should                   As with other fish species, Atlantic sturgeon population
            continue to be supported in order to maintain the                 levels can be maintained by limiting harvest to sustainable
            spawning stock for this species.                                  yields. This is particularly difficult to manage for long-
                                                                              lived species such as the Atlantic sturgeon where it takes
            AdarVic Sturgeon                                                  almost 20 years for females to reach maturity. Given the
            The Atlantic sturgeon is a large    anadromous fish found         historic abundance of Atlantic sturgeon on the Hudson,
            along the east coast of North America between Labrador            the opportunity may exist to encourage an increase in the
            and northern Florida. It has long been an important               pppulation by protecting the spawning stock from
            commercial fish in the Hudson River.                              exploitation until a higher sustainable yield can be
                                                                              achieved in the future. Successful spawning may also be
            Background Information                                            related to the location of the saftfront in relationship to
            Newly hatched Atlantic sturgeon remain in the estuarine           Haverstraw Bay in the spring; currently proposed water
            environment between 1 and 6 years, feeding first on               withdrawals have the potential to move the salt front's
            plankton and detritus and later on larger food items on the       location which may affect the survival of this species.
            River bottom (Dovel, 1978; Smith, 1985). During their time
            in the estuary, Atlantic sturgeon movements are correlated        Striped Bass
            with water temperature, heading upstream in spring and            Striped bass is an anadromous fish species found in the
            downstream in late summer. Eventually, the fish migrate           Atlantic between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and northern
            to the ocean where they move south along the coast in             Florida. This species also occurs in the Gulf of Mexico
            fall and north in early spring. Adult Atlantic sturgeon are       and has been introduced to the Pacific. Striped bass is
            bottom feeders and subsist on worms, amphipods,                   one of the most important commercial and sport fish in









          30                                               Chapter 2: Species Biology

          the U.S.      In addition to the Roanoke River and                commercial striped bass fishery was closed in the Hudson
          Chesapeake Bay, the Hudson is a major spawning area               in 1976 because of PCB contamination. In 1981, based
          for Atlantic striped bass.                                        on severe decline in the striped bass population, the
                                                                            Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission
          Background Information                                            recommended that member states' striped bass fishing
          Striped bass eggs are semi-buoyant and remain                     regulations be made more restrictive. In 1983, New York
          suspended in the water column when a current is present           passed a law increasing the size limit on bass that could
          (Bain and Bain, 1983; Crance, 1984; Smith, 1985).                 be taken commercially in the marine district. New York's
          Juveniles spend the summer and fall in the estuarine              law, however, was more restrictive than the Commission's
          environment, feeding on rotifers and copepods                     recommendations, placing New York's fishermen at a
          (Chesapeake Bay Program, 1987). With the arrival of               competitive disadvantage with fishermen from other states
          colder weather, some juveniles re     'main in marshes and        (Striped Bass Task Force, 1984).
          shallows while others apparently move to brackish, deeper
          portions of the estuary. Juvenile striped bass spend two          In 1985, the size limit issue became moot when
          or three years in the estuary and adjacent marine areas           commercial striped bass fishing was banned from all New
          before migrating to the open ocean (Striped Bass Task             York marine waters due to PCB contamination except for
          Force, 1984). Adult fish feed on silversides, menhaden,           eastern Long Island (Dullea, 1985). This exception, along
          shrimp, herrings, killifish, squid, and invertebrates.            with continued recreational fishing, made enforcement of
                                                                            the ban on selling fish from the Hudson River difficult. The
          Striped bass remain in the ocean for 4 to 7 years before          inability to enforce this ban led to new legislation in 1986
          returning to the estuary to spawn. Spawning is fairly             making the sale and possession of striped bass illegal in
          violent and involves rolling and splashing at the surface in      New York State (Dieffenbacher-Krall, 1986). The complete
          what are termed "rock fights" (Smith, 1985). Spawning             ban on striped bass fishing caused great outcry among
          generally occurs in fresh water near the salt front and is        sport fishermen, however, and the law was amended in
          triggered by the presence of suitable temperature and             1987 to permit recreational fishing for striped bass 33
          current.                                                          inches or greater in marine waters and 18 inches or
                                                                            greater in the Hudson River.          The New York State
          Habitat Requirements                                              Department of Health also issued an advisory against the
          Spawning occurs in deep waters that have strong                   consumption of striped bass caught in New York waters.
          currents, extensive freshwater flows, and a rocky substrate
          that is not subjected to sedimentation. Spawning starts           Alewife and Blueback Herring
          when the temperature reaches 58 OF, reaches its maximum           Alewife and blueback herring, collectively termed "river
          when the temperature is between 61 and 66 OF, and                 herring," are small anadromous fish distributed along the
          ceases at 72 OF (Striped Bass Task Force, 1984). Other            atlantic coast. Although they are commercially harvested,
          favorable factors are sufficient oxygen levels and a large        their chief importance is as an ecological link between
          freshwater input to the estuary (Bain and Bain, 1983).            zooplankton and other fish-eating animals.
          Striped bass has been the subject of numerous toxicity
          tests. Eggs and larvae can be significantly affected by           Background Information
          small concentrations of heavy metals and other toxic              Fertilized herring eggs are demersal (sink to the bottom)
          chemical compounds including PCB's.                               and slightly adhesive during the first 24 hours, causing
                                                                            them to stick to rocks and other underwater substrates
          Hudson River Population                                           (Fay et al., 1983; Pardue, 1983). After the first day, the
          Striped bass move into the River in April and remain until        eggs harden and float with the water currents. Larvae and
          mid-June (Smith, 1985). Spawning occurs between Iona              juveniles remain in the river for the summer, feeding on
          Island and Kingston, mainly between Storm King and Bear           plankton. In autumn, young-of-the-year migrate from
          Mountain where there is an extensive section of suitable          nursery areas to the sea where they feed on zooplankton,
          deep water. Juveniles remain throughout lower portions            fish eggs, and small fishes.
          of the estuary for the summer and move further downriver
          to overwinter. Between thirty and sixty percent of the            Herring remain in the ocean for several years before
          Hudson River juvenile striped bass population may                 returning to estuaries to spawn. Female herring are very
          overwinter near Manhattan's west side inter-pier area.            fecund, each individual producing between 60,000 and
          Based in part on the decline in Chesapeake Bay striped            350,000 eggs annually. Although mortality associated with
          bass stocks, over fifty percent of the north atlantic striped     spawning is high for these species, a spawning run can be
          bass stock may originate from the. Hudson (DEC, 1986).            comprised of up to 50% repeat spawners.

          In New York and New England marine waters, "stripers"             Habitat Requirements
          were the prime catch for both commercial and sport                Alewife and blueback herring are generally found at
          fishermen and also the subject of much controversy. The           shallow ocean depths with water temperatures between 37









                                                                  Important Species                                                      31

            and 63 OF. In contrast to American shad which spawn in            Hudson River Population
            the River, alewife and blueback herring prefer the                Little is known about the specific Hudson River black bass
            tributaries for spawning. As a group, river herring are           populations. Largemouth bass have been the subject of
            generally tolerant of a wide range of environments and            recent research which has located overwintering areas.
            spawn in both fast flowing streams with sand or gravel            Largemouth bass tend to school in winter and remain
            substrates and slower portions of streams with detritus or        relatively inactive in deeper water near tributary mouths.
            vegetated substrates. Spawning generally occurs when              Smallmouth bass may be particularly. limited by suitable
            water temperatures reach 51 OF for alewife and 57 OF for          spawning habitat due to the daily tidal fluctuations in water
            blueback herring.      Both species show a fairly high            level, which may alternately expose or deepen potential
            tolerance of suspended sediments but can be adversely             nesting sites. This may increase the importance of nesting
            affected by pollution and low oxygen levels.                      sites in the Hudson's tributaries. Maintaining or enhancing
                                                                              the black bass population depends on protecting and
            Hudson River Population                                           providing adequate nesting sites.
            Spawning occurs in tributaries throughout the upper
            portions of the Hudson estuary.          Herring also pass        Although black bass are not native to the Hudson, they
            through navigation locks which has resulted in inland             are now a major sport fish and an important component
            populations in lakes, rivers and canals.        The herring       of the estuary.    These species are sought by many
            populations can be maintained by protecting suitable              fishermen and support many annual black bass tour-
            spawning and nursery areas within the tributaries. It is          naments. The New York State Department of Health
            vital to keep freshwater spawning streams accessible to           currently advises against consumption of largemouth bass.
            river fish without physical or chemical barriers, maintain
            adequate tributary water flow, and minimize sedimentation         Inveirtebrates
            and erosion to protect substrate and water quality.               Although the Hudson estuary once supported enormous
                                                                              oyster and other shellfish beds, these resources were
            Black Bass                                                        destroyed in the nineteenth century through over-
            In addition  to numerous anadromous fish species, the             exploitation and water pollution. Today, only the blue crab
            Hudson estuary also supports many freshwater resident             is harvested in large numbers.
            fish species. Good examples of freshwater resident fishes
            in the Hudson are small and largemouth bass which                 Blue Crab
            together are known as black bass. The black bass, which           Blue crabs are found in estuaries along the Atlantic and
            were introduced into the Hudson in the 1800's, provide an         Gulf Coasts. Crabs are esteemed as a food source and
            important recreational resource.                                  are caught both commercially and recreationally.

            Background Information                                            Background Information
            Black bass spawn in spring when the male constructs a             Blue crab eggs are carried by the female on the underside
            nest in shallow water on the lake, river or creek bottom          of her body until they hatch (Boyce Thompson Institute,
            (Smith, 1985). Smallmouth bass nests are located in               1977).    The larvae are free-swimming plankton that
            areas with rocky or gravelly substrate, while largemouth          undergo several molts over the course of six weeks and
            bass construct nests in muddy or silty areas. Up to three         feed on zooplankton. During this period, larvae are found
            females enter the nest and deposit eggs which are                 both in the lower Hudson estuary and nearby coastal
            fertilized, guarded and fanned by the male. Hatching              waters. Eventually, the larva molts into a "megalopa" form
            occurs 1 to 3 weeks later depending on temperature.               that crawls along the bottom of the estuary but retains its
            Newly hatched larvae are guarded by the male for a short          swimming ability. The megalopa feeds on zooplankton as
            period. Young fish feed primarily on plankton and small           well as small pieces of fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants.
            invertebrates, switching to bigger prey as they grow.             The young move upriver, molting again to become
            Mature bass are opportunistic predators which feed on             miniature crabs. Both the young and mature crabs are
            tadpoles, frogs, fish, crayfish, and insects.                     omnivores, feeding on benthic macroinvertebrates, small
                                                                              fish, aquatic vegetation, and dead organisms (Chesapeake
            Habitat Requirements                                              Bay Program, 1987). The growth of young crabs is
            Smallmouth bass live in standing water near rocky                 influenced by temperature and is accompanied by a
            shorelines and over rocky substrates. Largemouth bass             molting process in which the outer shell is shed and a
            live in warm, vegetated portions of ponds and                     new one is grown. During peak growth periods, crabs
            embayments, and streams with silty bottoms. Both fish             can molt every 7 to 10 days. During the molting period,
            tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions,                the absence of a hard shell and an increase in metabolism
            although lower oxygen levels are better tolerated by              make the crab most vulnerable to environmental stress
            largemouth bass.                                                  and predation.









         32                                               Chapter 2: Species Biology

         Adult crabs are spatially separated according to sex, with        Program (1987) which discusses many estuarine species
         males living further upriver than females. In summer,             and provides detailed habitat matrices illustrating the
         females move upriver for the breeding season and in fall,         effects of different natural and artificial environmental
         return downriver. Although some females may mate in               conditions on both the target species and its significant
         spring and hatch eggs in July, most mate in late summer           food sources. Information specific to New York State can
         with hatching delayed until the following spring                  be found in: Andrie and Carroll (1988) and Bull (1985)
         (Chesapeake Bay Program, 1987). Crabs hibernate during            which provide detailed taxonomic and distribution
         winter in moderate to low salinity waters. The crab's             information about birds in the State (but little or no
         normal life span is three years. Wide-scale fluctuations          ecological information); and Smith (1985) which contains
         occur in population levels of crabs, but it Is not known          extensive distribution and ecological information for inland
         whether this is a natural phenomenon or if it is linked to        fish In the State. Finally, current information on the status
         pollution-induced stress.                                         of these species and current management efforts can be
                                                                           obtained through the New York State Department of
         Habitat Requirements                                              Environmental Conservation,        Division of Fish and
         During the summer months, male blue crabs are found in            Wildliie.
         brackish waters with a salt concentration between 3 and
         15 ppt.     Females prefer more saline waters ranging
         between 10 ppt to ocean salinity levels. Both male and
         female crabs are constrained by temperature and grow
         only in waters that are above 59 OF.               When air
         temperatures drop below 50 OF, crabs move from shallow
         to deep water and bury themselves in mud to hibernate.

         Hudson River Population
         Blue crabs are found throughout the brackish water
         portions of the Hudson estuary and less frequently, in
         fresh water habitats as far north as Catskill Creek. Blue
         crab abundance appears to have increased substantially
         throughout the River in 1989, perhaps in response to
         continued water quality improvement or favorable salinity
         and weather patterns. Blue crab fishing provides many
         hours of recreation and the crabs are considered a
         delicacy. The New York State Department of Health
         advises against eating more than six crabs per week and
         suggests discarding the liver and other portions of the
         crab where toxins accumulate.


         Plants
         Although many potentially valuable plants are found in the
         Hudson River's tidal communities, to date there has'been
         only minimal use of plants other than by fish and wildlife.
         One exception is rice, which was cultivated in the late
         nineteenth century. These efforts focused on creating tidal
         impoundments in which rice could be commercially
         harvested as an agricultural crop.            Today, these
         impoundments, such as the one near Constitution Island,
         have reverted to natural marsh. Wild rice is found in many
         of these habitats, but it is now important only for its
         wildlife values.


         FURTHER READING
         For each of the individual species, the best guides are the
         references listed within that section including the
         appropriate Habitat Suitability Index Models published
         by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (where available).
         Other important references include: Degraaf and Rudis
         (1986) which has brief descriptions of all major vertebrates
         in New England; and a report from the Chesapeake Bay















               Chapter 3:


               THE RIVER AS AN ECOSYSTEM



               In the preceding chapters, ecological commun.itles and species components of the Hudson River
               ecosystem are briefly presented. It is also important to look at the ecosystem from the perspective
               of large-scale and long-term effects and processes. Successful protection and management of the
               Hudson River tidal habitats must recognize the, effects of.

               ï¿½ Community Interdependence
               ï¿½ Ecosystem Cycles
               ï¿½ Seasonal Cycles
               ï¿½ Long-Term Ecological Processes













          34

          3.1 Community Interdependence                                          Primary Productivity and Energy Flow
          Although distinct ecological communities are described in              An important factor that determines how an ecosystem
          Chapter 1, it is essential to realize that any classification          functions is the source and amount of available energy.
          system is arbitrary. No matter how different communities               The organic materials produced through photosynthesis,
          within an ecosystem are defined, these communities are                 which captures energy from the sun, provides the energy
          not able to function independently.                   It is the        that supports most ecosystems. Energy is measured by
          interdependent relationships of communities within an                  net primaty productivity which is defined as the organic
          ecosystem which provide it with both natural resiliency                material stored by producers in excess of their own
          and fragility; one of the first responses to stress in an              metabolic needs.
          ecosystem is a change in community composition and
          interaction (Woodwell, 1970).                                          The origin of this organic material can either be
                                                                                 autochthonous (produced within the ecosystem) or
          Species often do not subscribe very well to community                  allochthonous (produced outside the ecosystem). In
          classifications. Individual animals and plants are not                 terrestrial ecosystems and lakes, production of organic
          restricted to one community type but often move to, or                 material within the ecosystem tends to dominate the flow
          are found in, different communities seeking different                  of energy. In rivers, however, the role of organic material
          resources or occupying different roles.             Herons, for        that is not produced within the ecosystem can be
          example, may find nesting sites within upland forest or                dominant (Hynes, 1970).
          tidal swamp, yet their food source is found in shallows,
          mudflats and tidal marsh.          In similar fashion, eagles          In the Hudson Estuary, terrestrial input of organic matter
          require roosts in large trees of the upland forest                     dominates the system. In fact, respiration of producers
          community, but feed in shallows and deepwater                          and decomposers exceeds the autochthonous production
          communities. The anadromous fishes of the Hudson                       by plankton in the River (Howarth, 1989). Terrestrial
          further illustrate the dependence of species on separate               sources of organic matter in order of importance include
          communities for spawning, nursery, and feeding needs.                  agricultural runoff, urban runoff, and sewage. Although
                                                                                 the estuary is dominated by terrestrial input of organic
          The concept of the interdependence of communities also                 matter, local conditions are strongly affected by
          extends to interdependence among species of different                  autochthonous production associated with plankton,
          communities. Although speculative, this is exemplified                 wetlands (marshes), and submerged vegetation.
          through a possible relationship between muskrats, cattails,
          purple loosestrife, and turtles. Muskrats live primarily in            Plankton, the minute plants found floating in the water
          the upper marsh where they eat cattails; however, they dig             column, are the dominant primary producers in many
          their burrows in nearby tidal swamp and upland forest.                 ecosystems including the open ocean, coastal waters, and
          These burrows are often used by overwintering turtles                  many lakes. . On the Hudson River, however, it appears
          (Kiviat, 1978). If cattails are replaced by purple loosestrife         that net productivity of plankton is relatively low, probably
          in the upper marsh, the muskrat population may decline,                due to a combination of turbidity and turbulence which
          and the turtle population may suffer due to a shortage of              reduces the amount of photosynthesis to levels that are
          burrows.                                                               only slightly above the amount necessary to support the
                                                                                 metabolic needs of the plankton (Hynes, 1970; Cole et al.,
          In considering the management of an ecosystem such as                  1989).
          the tidal portion of the Hudson River, it must be
          understood that communities and ecosystems are                         Marshes, the second source of primary productivity, are
          irrevocably interdependent.          Protection of the River           among the most productive habitats in the world.
          ecosystem must depend on protection of its component                   Marshes may have a productivity of over 2000          g/M2  /yr in
          communities and habitats.                                              comparison with other temperate ecosystem productivity
                                                                                 values of approximately       1000 g/M2    /yr for forests; 750
          3.2 Ecosystem Cycles                                                   g/m'/yr for cultivated lands; and 200       g/M2  /yr for deserts
          Another way in which communities are intedinked is                     (Odum et al., 1984; Tiner, 1985a).              Although these
          manifested through the physical and biological processes               numbers may not apply directly to the Hudson River, they
          which cycle energy and nutrients through ecosystems.                   illustrate the importance of marshes, especially since
          Energy is produced either within the system through                    much of the biomass produced is exported as an energy
          photosynthesis or brought to the system in the form of                 source to adjacent shallows, mudflats, and deepwater
          organic matter. Limiting nutrients are scarce elements or              communities.
          compounds which determine the level of primary                         The last source of primary productivity is associated with
          productivity that can be supported by the ecosystem.                   mudflats and shallows of the River that are densely
                                                                                 covered with submerged vegetation throughout the
                                                                                 warmer months of the year. Although the productivity of









                                                        Chapter 3: The River as an Ecosystem                                              35

             submerged aquatic plants is generally lower                       deposited as sediments (forming peat, fossil fuels, and
             (approximately 600 g/m2/yr) than either lower or upper            carbonate rock). Most carbon, approximately ninety-nine
             marsh communities, undoubtedly these beds of aquatic              percent, is contained in sediments. Living organisms are
             plants contribute large amounts of organic matter to the          the source of this sedimentary carbon reservoir; for
             ecosystem (Westlake in Wetzel, 1975). The extent of               example, most of the world's limestone probably
             submerged aquatic vegetation beds and their productivity          originates from biological processes (Kormondy, 1976).
             on the Hudson are not known. Recent research suggests
             that the amount of prod uctivity associated with submerged        In the Hudson River, carbon is mostly incorporated in the
             vegetation in the Hudson is extremely low (Garrit, 1989).         ecosystem through the vegetation of marshes, shallows,
             Although evaluating productivity of submerged plants is           and mudflats, and the forested uplands of the watershed.
             a difficult task for a variety of reasons, high rates of          These plants, as well as the River's plankton and the
             production are often found for submerged aquatic                  external sources of carbon, provide the foundation for the
             vegetation in rivers (see Hynes, 1970). Further research          ecological importance of the Hudson River.
             should be conducted with respect to the role of
             submerged vegetation on primary productivity on the               Nitrogen is cycled through the ecosystem quite differently
             Hudson, since these plants may play a large role in the           than carbon. Where carbon is relatively scarce in the
             productivity of the estuary.                                      atmosphere (0.03 to 0.04 percent), nitrogen is abundant
                                                                               (79 percent). The gaseous form of nitrogen, however, is
             In addition to primary productivity in the ecosystem,             not usable to most organisms. Gaseous nitrogen must be
             another important consideration is the transfer of energy         transformed or fixed in an inorganic form such as nitrate
             between different levels of the food web. Energy is               or ammonia before it can be used in biological processes.
             transfered in the form of plants that are consumed directly       Most nitrogen fixation is accomplished by the biochemical
             by herbivores, or indirectly in the form of dead organic          action of bacteria and fungi, mostly in symbiotic
             material or detritus, which is consumed by zooplankton,           relationships with higher plants. Nitrogen fixation requires
             benthic organisms, bacteria, and other consumers and              energy from carbon compounds; the symbiotic
             decomposers. These consumers support the next level of            relationship between plants and nitrogen-fixing organisms
             animals, which support the first level of predators, which        is based on plants exchanging carbon compounds for
             may in turn be eaten by other predators.                          biologically usable nitrogen.

             Energy transfer also differs within each community. Plants        In addition to biochemical nitrogen fixation, industrial
             of the lower marsh and shallows tend to decompose                 nitrogen fixation for the production of fertilizers almost
             much more rapidly than plants of the upper marsh (Odum            equals the total amount of nitrogen fixed by all natural
             et al., 1984). Because of these different decomposition           sources. The global nitrogen cycle is out of balance, with
             rates, energy tends to flow out of lower marsh for most of        the amount of nitrogen taken from the atmosphere
             the year, whereas upper marsh serves as a nutrient sink           exceeding the amount being returned. The resulting
             with a net inward energy flow for most of the year. The           excess in biologically available nitrogen is contributing to
             capacity of upper marsh to absorb excess nutrients                an increase in nitrogen compounds in ground water,
             enables the marsh to serve as a natural sewage treatment          rivers, lakes, and the ocean (Kormondy, 1976).
             plant and to moderate excess productivity in the
             ecosystem (Odum et al., 1984).                                    Sources of nitrogen supplied to the Hudson estuary
                                                                               include direct fixation of atmospheric nitrogen,
             Nutrient Cycles                                                   decomposition of organic matter in sediments and in the
             In addition to energy, plants and animals require nutrients       watershed, and runoff of fertilizers. The maximum input of
             including carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus.                       biologically usable nitrogen occurs in the spring and early
                                                                               summer, corresponding to the period of highest demand
             The carbon cycle is similar to the ecosystem's energy             for plant growth. Aquatic plants of the marshes, shallows,
             cycle since plants convert carbon dioxide from the                and mudflats remove nitrogen from the river during the
             atmosphere into organic molecules that are the basis of           growing season and release nitrogen during the fall and
             the food web. In addition to carbon being assimilated into        winter months, serving as effective regulatory reservoirs
             the ecosystem through primary productivity, carbon also           (Odum et al., 1984). In addition to this regulatory function,
             enters the ecosystem from allochthanous sources                   nitrogen is removed from the cycle through sedimentation
             (produced in another ecosystem) including dead organic            of decomposition-resistant organic matter, particularly
             matter carried by tides or watershed runoff, and live             from the emergent plants of the upper marsh.
             organic matter such as eggs from anadromous fish
             returning from the ocean.                                         In comparison with the other major nutrients, phosphorus
                                                                               is least abundant, and the most likely to limit biological
             Carbon that enters the food web is eventually released to         productivity. Natural sources of phosphate are produced
             the atmosphere (as methane or carbon dioxide) or                  by weathering of phos phate-bea ring rocks and










        36                                         Chapter 3: The River as an Ecosystem

        decomposition of organic matter. Additional sources of             of many of the fish species may migrate to the warmer
        phosphorus include fertilizers, domestic sewage,                   waters of the lower estuary or the ocean, leaving only
        stormwater runoff, and detergents; all originating from            resident fish species to remain beneath the ice of the
        human activities. Land use and management practices in             upper River over winter.
        forestry, agriculture, and in urban areas are all directly
        related to both nitrogen and phosphorous loading to the            Recognition of the seasonal cycles of nutrients,
        aquatic environment (Wetzel, 1975). Urbanization                   productivity, and species presence and abundance is
        increases phosphorous discharges to surface waters in              essential for effective management of tidal habitats. For
        approximately direct proportion to increases in population         example, dredging has much less impact on some fish
        densities (Weibel, 1969).                                          populations if it is conducted during the late summer and
                                                                           fall to avoid sensitive spawning periods. Likewise, factors
        The availability of carbon and nitrogen generally far              that determine the distribution of a rare plant may not be
        exceeds that of phosphorus in aquatic environments.                evident in summer, when the plant is growing, but instead
        Given enough light and other favorable conditions, the             might reflect winter scouring of the substrate by ice floes
        availability of phosphorus will be the first limiting nutrient     or perhaps autumn flooding by high tides or runoff that
        to biological productivity. When phosphorus is introduced          wash away seeds before they can germinate. Although
        to an aquatic system, this limitation is removed and the           much of the information provided in this report focuses on
        level of photosynthesis can increase dramatically resulting        the most productive stages in the ecosystem, it is crucial
        in increased productivity or eutrophication of the system.         to recognize that the ecosystem continues to function
        Excess productivity can be detrimental, eventually                 throughout the year and that its species must survive the
        resulting in algal blooms and oxygen depletion. Extreme            changes that occur with the seasons.
        examples of cultural eutrophication include the "death" of
        Lake Erie and the annual formation of the anoxic "Albany           3A Long-Term Ecological Processes
        pool" in the Hudson estuary in the 1970's.                         Another important consideration for management and
                                                                           protection of the Hudson's tidal habitats is the effect of
        As in the nitrogen cycle, the phosphorus cycle is regulated        long-term processes on the ecosystem.             One such
        by aquatic plants with an uptake of phosphorus in spring           process is natural succession. In the classic freshwater
        and a release of phosphorus accompanying the                       non-tidal system, a marsh is a transition stage between
        decomposition of plants in fall. Phosphorus is released            open water and land that occurs after a lake or pond has
        from decaying plants within a matter of days, and is               begun to fill in with sediments and organic materials. The
        quickly used by bacteria and algae or lost to the                  marsh subsequently gives way to either a meadow and
        sediments (Wetzel, 1975). Inputs of phosphorus can be              different types of forest or to a bog system (Wetzel, 1975;
        controlled by reducing use of fertilizers, advanced sewage         Mitsch -and Gosselink, 1987). Similarly, saltwater tidal
        treatment, maintaining natural vegetation cover, limiting          marshes may also represent a stage in ecological
        erosion and controlling surface water runoff.                      succession, with the low marsh gradually becoming high
                                                                           marsh (Frey and Basan, 1978).          In the case of tidal
        3.3 Seasonal C@ycles                                               freshwater and brackish marshes, a similar process may
        The seasonal changes in appearance, structure and                  occur with lower marsh gradually evolving to upper marsh
        ecology of communities are important factors to consider           and upper marsh gradually becoming swamp forest.
        in an examination of the Hudson River ecosystem. For               Although this process of succession has not been
        example, at the beginning of spring, the substrate in the          demonstrated for the unique conditions found in the
        tidal marsh is mostly bare muck containing only roots of           Hudson's freshwater tidal marshes, preservation of
        perennial plants and seeds of annuals. During summer, a            marshes in their current state may not be desirable or
        series of different plants dominates the canopy structure,         practical if these same marshes are undergoing a natural
        dramatically changing the appearance of the marsh. In              process of succession. If, however, succession is linked
        autumn, plants begin to die and by the onset of winter,            to human actions, such as erosion and subsequent
        only the dead stems remain to be broken up slowly by               siltation due to development@ then it would be correct to
        snow and ice, providing the detritus that is so important in       seek restoration of the area and to establish protective
        cycling carbon in the estuary (Odum et al., 1984).                 measures to allow the community to evolve naturally, or
                                                                           remain the same, as appropriate. It is likely that an
        Significant seasonal changes also occur in creeks,                 investigation of succession on the Hudson would show
        shallows, and deepwater. In spring, huge populations of            that relatively sheltered areas may be undergoing
        fishes enter the River from the ocean, seeking spawning            succession that has been accelerated'by human actions,
        grounds and, in the form of eggs and their own bodies,             while the succession process may not be evident in
        bringing a concentrated abundance of nutrients gathered            marshes, mudflats and shallows that are more exposed to
        from the ocean. After spawning, the adults either return           River currents, tides and ice: floes.
        to the ocean, or die, leaving their offspring to forage and
        grow in the River's nursery areas. During fall, the young









                                                        Chapter 3: The River as an Ecosystem                                                37

             Another aspect of succession on the Hudson is the
             formation of marshes, mudflats, and shallows through
             shoreline erosion. As easily eroded land recedes, flats            FURTHER READING
             and shallows are formed which may evolve to marshes.               The most useful source on the general ecology of the
             Examples of this process exist in the Stockport Creek and          freshwater tidal ecosystem is Odum et al. (1984) .
             Flats habitat. A similar succession process that involves          Introductory ecology texts such as Whittaker (1970) or
             shifts in the physical locations of communities would most         Kormondy (1976), or a limnology text such as Wetzel
             likely occur with shifting of River channels. Newly formed         (1975) provide add itional detail regarding the topics briefly
             backwaters would be rapidly colonized and may then                 presented in this chapter. For ecological information
             undergo the process of succession from shallows to                 about the Hudson River, works by Viviat (1978 and 1979)
             mudflats or marsh (see Figure 22 for an illustration of this       are valuable sources.
             phenomenon over the last century). Similarly, new areas
             of deepwater can also be formed at the expense of
             shallows and mudflats, a process that would be
             accompanied by corresponding changes in community
             composition in the opposite process of succession known
             as retrogression.

             The location of communities also depends on an even
             longer time scale that reflects changes in the ocean. As
             sea level slowly declined during the last ice age, tidal
             communities moved with the shore. Evidence of these
             communities can be found on the ocean bottom several
             hundred miles seaward of today's shoreline. Conversely,
             at the end of the last ice age, river mouths were drowned
             and the tidal communities retreated in front of rising sea
             levels. Although the current marsh communities have
             occupied their present positions for less than 15,000
             years, this community type has been in existence for
             muchlonger. Fossil evidence indicates that the functional
             equivalents of modern freshwater tidal marshes have
             existed for several hundred million years and have been
             constantly moving with tidal rivers (Frey and Basan, 1978;
             Odum et al., 1984).

             The effect of these long-term processes on the ecological
             communities has profound ramifications for conservation
             efforts. In addition to preserving the ecosystem from
             acute threats due to human action, it is also important to
             provide space and resources necessary for communities
             to respond to changes in the environment. A marsh that
             is threatened by rising water level and the attendant
             increases in currents and erosion, cannot retreat if it is
             thwarted by a bulkhead that prevents the adjacent upland
             from flooding. If all land adjacent to existing marsh is
             developed, there will be no suitable substrate to support
             survival of the marshes, if sea level should rise as Is
             expected to occur over the next century due to the
             greenhouse effect. Ironically, while it is human-induced
             change to the environment that currently threatens the
             Hudson's tidal communities, it may well be human
             resistance to change in the environment, through shoreline
             fortification against rising sea level, that constitutes the
             greater threat.












        38














                Chapter 4:


                HUMAN INTERACTIONS WITH THE RIVER ECOSYSTEM




                Human activities along the Hudson River that affect the Hudson River tidal habitats are examined
                in this chapter. The first section presents an historical overview of the interaction between humans
                and the River. Subsequent sections review human activities affecting the River, focusing on issues,
                practices, and impacts concerning the River habitats, and ways in which adverse impacts can be
                minimized in the future. Human activities and impacts covered include:

                ï¿½ Chronology of Hudson River Use
                ï¿½ Water Use and Management
                ï¿½ Pollutant Discharges
                ï¿½ Transportation
                ï¿½ Shoreline Development
                ï¿½ Use of Living Resources












         40

         4.1 Chronology of Hudson River Use                               of Manhattan Island. In 1626, Manhattan was purchased
         Knowledge of the history of human activities that have           from its original occupants for the fabled $24 price.
         worked to shape the River is central to understanding            During this time, Fort Orange was established at what is
         human interactions with today's Hudson River ecosystem.          now Albany to serve as a military outpost and trade
         For hundreds of years, the Hudson River and the                  center, focusing on the lucrative fur trade. In 1630, to
         surrounding valley have had an enormous physical,                stimulate settlement, the patroon system was established
         strategic, economic, and cultural impact on its inhabitants      in which a massive land grant was given to anyone who
         and the nation (Mylod, 1969; Boyle, 1979).                       would finance a settlement of fifty or more people.
                                                                          Beginning with Kilaen van Rensselaer, much of the valley
         Pre-European Period (?-1609)                                     became incorporated into large estates. In the mid 1650's
         Archaeological evidence indicates that the Hudson Valley         the British became jealous of the power held by the Dutch
         was settled several thousand years ago by tribal peoples         and in 1664, New Amsterdam was seized in a bloodless
         collectively called the Algonquin. Legend has it that the        coup and renamed New York. At this time, the population
         Algonquin came from the west and fulfilled an ancient            of the colony was a scant 8,000 settlers. A century later,
         prophecy by ending their nomadic journey at a great              at the start of the revolution, the population was 168,000.
         stream with "water that flows two ways." Algonquin tribes        With the growth in population came settlement of the wild
         ranged from the Mohicans near Albany to the Wappingers           lands which were first logged and then farmed.
         and Manhattans along the east shore of the River and the         The Military Period (1776-1812)
         Wawarsings, Haverstraws, Tappans, and Raritans along
         the west shore.                                                  Throughout the Revolution and the War of 1812, the
                                                                          Hudson River was of strategic importance in the military
         Living standards in Algonquin villages seemed to be              campaigns that formed the nation. In the Revolutionary
         relatively high compared to surrounding native tribes due        War, the Hudson River served as a main artery for trade,
         to the resources of the Hudson Valley, including abundant        information, and military supplies. At the outset of the
         food plants, game animals, and fish and shellfish. In            war, the British designed a strategy to sever the colonies
         addition, villagers grew corn and other crops in small           by sending General Clinton north from New York City to
         clearings, conducted extensive trade, and used mineral           meet General Burgoyne coming south from Canada.
         resources to produce copper beads and other art works.           Although Clinton was able to march as far north as
         The Algonquin lifestyie had its negative aspects such as         Clermont, Burgoyne was stopped in a decisive battle at
         losses to slave-taking raids by the more warlike tribes of       Saratoga that marked the turning point of the war.
         the western Iroquois federation.        Nonetheless, most
         accounts of these earliest inhabitants of the Hudson valley      Upon Clinton's retreat, the Americans regained control of
         describe a prosperous people who had little effect on their      the River and built fortifications at West Point including a
         natural surroundings.                                            great chain that was stretched across the River to impede
                                                                          naval attacks. In the last years of the Revolution, West
         The Colonial Period (1609-1776)                                  Point became the command centerforthe American army.
         Exploitation of the Hudson River ecosystem began with            In the War of 1812, Americans vigorously defended the
         the activities of european settlers. The mouth of the            mouth of the Hudson, preventing attack from blockading
         Hudson was discovered in 1524 by Giovanni da                     British ships. In support of these wars, the ship building
         Verrazzano but the first documented European exploration         industry along the River flourished, with the construction
         of the River was in 1609, led by Henry Hudson sailing for        of numerous privateers and other boats. During the entire
         the Dutch on the Half Moon. Afthough Hudson failed to            military period, the munitions industry was also thriving in
         find a northwest passage, he brought back reports of a           the Valley, along with fur trade, agriculture, and even a
         land "as pleasant as one can tread upon" that "is the finest     whaling fleet based at the City of Hudson.
         for cultivation that I ever in my life set foot upon, and it
         also abounds in trees of every description" (Hudson, 1609        Commerce and Industry (1807-1888)
         in Van Zandt, 1971). In similar fashion, Hudson's second         With Fulton's steamboat journey to Albany in 1807 and the
         mate, Robert Juet, described the surroundings as being           completion of the Erie Canal in 1823, the Hudson River
         "full of great and tall Oakes," having excellent fishing so      and New York State became more important to the
         that they could take "foure or five and twentle Mullets,         nation's economy, serving as the conduit between the
         Breames, Bases, and Barbils and return in an hour," and          resources of the western frontier and the cities of the
         containing mineral wealth in a "cliffe that looked of the        eastern seaboard. This transportation system became
         colour of a white greene, as though it were either Copper,       even more important in the 1840's with the construction of
         or Silver" (Juet, 1609 in Van Zandt 1971).                       rail lines along the Hudson River's shores. The wealth that
                                                                          flowed down the Hudson from other regions was
         In 1613, plans were made to establish a colony which             supplemented with considerable resources originating
         culminated in the creation of the Dutch West India               from the River Valley. In the first pan of the 19th century,
         Company in 1621 and colonization of the southern portion         the Hudson became a center for brick making, hide









                                                                  Historical Synopsis                                                     41

             tanning, cement production, ice cutting, fishing, and             began to fade, symbolized by the slow breakup and final
             agriculture. As a result of this commercial activity, waves       burning of the Catskill Mountain House in 1963.
             of new immigrants came to the Hudson Valley.
             Burgeoning commerce and population levels began to                Awareness of the Natural Ecosystem (1963 to present)
             place significant stress on the River's tidal habitats.           In the past quarter century, an awareness of the
                                                                               environment has evolved in the Hudson valley. This
             Over time, many of the industries along the Hudson                movement began in 1963 with organized opposition to a
             declined. Resource-dependent industries were doomed               power facility proposed at Storm King Mountain.
             by their own success which led to overexploitation of
             natural resources (e.g. the hemlock bark needed for               Since 1965, when plans for the power plant were halted
             tanning). In other cases, the demand for the product              and the Storm King controversy ended, the environmental
             collapsed (e.g. the invention of refrigeration eliminated the     movement has grown stronger in its efforts to protect the
             need for ice-cutting). As a result, many factories and            natural heritage of the River. Notable milestones include
             towns along the River were unable to survive                      the 1965 decision of the Hudson River Fisherman's
             economically. In addition, water-based transportation was         Association to aid in enforcing restrictions on pollutant
             replaced by the railroad (and later by highways). In 1888,        discharges in the River, construction of the Hudson River
             the first rail bridge was completed over the Hudson at            Sloop Clearwater in 1969, passage of the Federal Water
             Poughkeepsie, allowing direct shipment of goods through           Pollution Control Act in 1972, cessation of PCB disposal
             the region, and marking the end of the glory days of              in the River by General Electric in 1977, and the
             Hudson River commerce.                                            agreement between utilities and environmental groups that
                                                                               established the Hudson River Foundation in 1981.
             Art and Recreation (1823-1963)
             Even while industry and.commerce of the Hudson valley             FURTHER READING
             was at its height in the 19th century, the Hudson valley          The information contained in this section is adapted from
             and the nearby Catskill mountains also became host to             Mylod (1969) and Boyle (1979), two excellent and
             vacation homes and resorts for upper class residents of           entertaining histories of the Hudson River. Additional
             New York and other cities. A burgeoning tourist industry          information was also taken from a short history by Dyson
             was led by the Catskill Mountain House which began as             (1968).   A brief history of the Hudson River Valley
             a small cottage in 1823 and developed into a world class          supplemented with many outstanding photographs of the
             resort for the rich and famous. The numerous visitors to          region can also be found in Scheller (1988).
             and residents of the Valley included artists of the Hudson
             River School who attempted to capture in their paintings          4.2 Water Use and Management
             the essence of the landscapes they saw. The River and             The Hudson River's water is its most important resource.
             mountains also inspired authors such as Washington                Water from the Hudson is used in all facets of human life
             Irving and James Fenimore Cooper.                                 including drinking, bathing, swimming, boating, food
                                                                               processing, industry, fire fighting, commercial and
             In the latter part of the 19th and early 20th centuries,          institutional uses, irrigation, power generation, navigation,
             recreational use of the River valley extended to the middle       recreation, waste transportation and dilution, and
             class. Numerous summer camps were established in the              maintenance of fish and wildlife resources.
             River valley and in the Catskills. An important annual                                                               I
             event in the early part of the twentieth century was the          Recent growth in the region's human population has been
             Intercollegiate Rowing Association Regatta held at                accompanied by a corresponding increase in competition
             Poughkeepsie. Hundreds of spectators viewed the regatta           between different users of the water resource, a problem
             from the banks of the River, other boats, and even a              that is expected to increase in the future. In 1976 there
             specially built railcar.                                          was an estimated freshwater demand of over 745 million
                                                                               gallons a day (mgd) in the Hudson River Watershed.
             Although dominance of the Hudson River valley had                 Demand was projected to increase to 907 mgd by the
             declined in American industry, agriculture, and military          year 2000 (Hudson River Basin Study Group, 1979a).
             importance, it continued to make important contributions          Sewage effluent discharge has been increasing
             with its many cement plants, extensive fruit orchards,            proportionately. Given the magnitude of the demand for
             military use at Iona Island, and the Air Force headquarters       water, existing and future water consumption must be
             at Stewart Field. In addition, the River became host to           carefully planned to meet both human needs and the
             new industries including oil and nuclear power plants, a          River's tidal habitat requirements.
             shipping industry centered on petroleum products, and
             electronics manufacturing plants. Overall, however, the
             region had become a bucolic backwater removed from the
             hustle of the modern world. And eventually, even the
             cultured aura surrounding the Hudson and the Catskills










         42                                            Chapter 4: Human Interactions

         Water Withdrawals                                                These plants operate on fossil fuels with the exception of
         Water use can be divided into two main types: out-of-            the nuclear plants at Indian Point. There are a total of 21
         stream uses that divert the water from the river or tributary    generating units, all of which have once-through cooling
         channel and in-stream uses that keep water in the system.        systems with a combined maximum cooling water intake
         Within the category of out-of-stream uses, water                 of 6199 mgd. This is more than two-thirds of the 8919
         withdrawals can be further subdivided into consumptive           mgd average annual freshwater flow into the estuary.
         and non-consumptive uses. Non-consumptive uses are               During summer, when the freshwater flow is significantly
         those in which the water is withdrawn and then returned          less, water withdrawals can exceed the net freshwater
         to the system, such as in the generation of hydroelectric        flow. In addition, 88 percent of water withdrawal occurs
         power. Consumptive uses are those in which the water is          within the 28 mile stretch of the River Immediately upriver
         removed from the system, such as in crop irrigation. The         from Haverstraw Bay, concentrating the effects of water
         significance of impacts from consumptive and non-                withdrawals (McDowell, 1985).
         consumptive water withdrawals depend on the amount of
         water removed, the mechanism by which the water is               Impact of Water INI-Wrawals
         removed, and pollutants returned to the system.                  Entrainment and Impingement
         Issues and Practices                                             Removal of water from the River is most damaging to fish
                                                                          and other swimming or floating animals and plants. At
         Municipal Water Supplies                                         large water intakes for power plant and municipal systems,
         Eight communities depend on the Hudson for their public          the force of water rushing into the intakes sucks small
         water supply. These communities are located in the               organisms such as phytoplankton, zooplankton, and fish
         middle section of the River where water has been the             eggs and larvae into the system in a process termed
         cleanest and most potable. The largest user is the City of       entrainment. Larger organisms such as fish are trapped
         Poughkeepsie which takes about 10 mgd (compared to               against filter screens in a process known as impingement.
         an 8919 mgd average flow of freshwater into the River).          In both processes, the organisms can be either killed or
         Municipal water systems along the River are about 90%            suffer damaging chemical and physical stresses that lead
         non-consumptive, returning most of the water to the River        to subsequent increased mortality rates (McDowell, 1985).
         through sewage systems (Barclay, 1988). Direct removal
         of water by these communities does not result in large           Entrainment effects are critical with regard to survival of
         losses of water, although water quality is diminished.           anadromous fish eggs, larvae, and juveniles.              The
                                                                          entrainment effects are exacerbated by the 'two steps
         Direct removal of water from the River is a major issue          forward, one step backwards" nature of the River's tidal
         with respect to water supply plans for New York City.            flow which means that organisms are vulnerable to
         New York City has applied for a permit to take 100 mgd           entrainment several times as they are washed back and
         during drought from an intake near Chelsea, Dutchess             forth near an intake structure (Barclay, 1988). Impinge-
         County, and ultimately to obtain between 300 and 1200            ment can lead to reductions in fish populations directly by
         mgd from this and other withdrawal points on the River.          killing spawning fish or indirectly by tiring them as they
         Unlike local water system usage, water use by New York           escape from the intake so that they cannot complete their
         City is primarily consumptive (Barclay, 1988). Water is          upstream migration. The effects of impingement can be
         taken from the freshwater portion of the estuary, and after      partially mitigated with specially designed screens that
         being used, is discharged through sewage outlets in the          guide the fish to a bypass around the system or by other
         saltwater section of the estuary. The effect of removing         devices that collect fish from the system (Fletcher, 1984).
         such a large volume of freshwater from the system is
         largely unknown, but it would likely result in salinity          Salt Front Movement
         alterations and changes in habitat use and value.                The loss of water from consumptive uses at any location
                                                                          along the Hudson can change the ecosystem. Reducing
         Power Generation and other Industrial Uses                       the amount of fresh water in the freshwater portion of the
         Although some industrial plants and factories draw their         River will cause the location of the salt front, the
         water from public systems, the majority of industrial users      intermixing zone between salt and fresh water, to move
         take their water directly from the River. Foremost among         farther north.    The United States Geological Survey
         these industrial consumers are power plants that require         (USGS), in cooperation with the DEC and New York City,
         huge volumes of water for cooling. The amount of water           is undertaking a four year study of the salt front
         that is required depends largely on the power output and         movements.      Although the mechanisms of salt front
         the type of cooling system. Closed-cycle power plants            movement and its importance to the River ecosystem are
         include a complex cooling tower and use much less water          not well understood, altering the physical environment
         than once-through systems that use a continuous supply           created by the salt front holds great potential for adverse
         of water (Hudson River Basin Study Group, 1979b).                impacts on the ecosystem. Negative impacts would be
         Seven large power plants operate on the Hudson Estuary.          especially acute during droughts when withdrawals would









                                                             Water Use and Management                                                     43

             move the salt front further upriver than would occur under        warm discharges are quickly stopped between late fall and
             natural conditions.                                               early spring when ambient water temperatures are low.
                                                                               Fish are cold-blooded organisms that cannot rapidly
             The existing seasonal changes in salinity that accompany          adjust to radically different temperatures. When a plant
             the natural movement of the salt front may be important           causes temperature to rise abruptly, fish acclimated to the
             factors in the function of the ecosystem. Problems are            colder water can be killed. Conversely, when temperature
             likely to occur when artificial change does not correspond        drops suddenly, fish acclimated to warm water from the
             to the changing season or if the change exceeds natural           plant discharge may die or be immobilized while their
             geographic limits. Anadromous fish, particularly those that       systems attempt to adjust. Thermal pollution can have
             spawn near the salt front, may depend on the existing             beneficial effects including providing open water areas for
             combination of salinity and substrate which may not be            overwintering waterfowl, concentrating game fish, or
             available if the salt front location were changed.                raising the productivity of certain organisms.
             Freshwater areas would also be inundated by brackish
             water, resulting in the death of freshwater plants and            Habitat Protection Measures
             animals and a radical change in community structure.              Adverse impacts of water withdrawal on habitats are best
                                                                               mimimized by reducing the amount of water withdrawn.
             Movement of the salt front might drastically change               New York State law requires short and long term water
             productivity in the ecosystem. For most of the year the           conservation programs as a condition for all new water
             salt front, and its associated nutrients, is located in the       supply permits. In addition, the NYS Water Resource
             Tappan Zee/Haverstraw Bay area where broad, shallow               Management Strategy for the Delaware/Lower Hudson
             waters allow sufficient sunlight for plankton and extensive       region states that water conservation should be of primary
             beds of submerged plants. If the salt front were to move          concern in planning for the future. Water conservation
             north to the narrower and deeper region of the Highlands,         measures can include the use of low flow plumbing
             no corresponding productive shallow area would exist and          fixtures, universal metering, a price structure that
             the habitat values associated with the Tappan Zee and             encourages conservation, leak detection and control
             Haverstraw Bay area would not be replaced.                        programs, limitations on lawn watering, public education
                                                                               programs, reuse of waste water, and reuse and recycling
             The ecosystem of the Hudson River at New York City                by industry (Barclay, 1989). Increased water conservation
             would also be affected by the proposed water withdrawals.         has the additional benefit of reducing the volume of water
             Fresh water discharge into the brackish water via the city        flowing into sewage systems and improving municipal
             sewage sytern could easily have detrimental effects as            treatment programs. Large industrial users, especially
             salt-tolerant species are exposed to fresh water.                 power plants, can also reduce water withdrawals by
                                                                               employing closed-cycle cooling systems.                Water
             Thermal Pollution                                                 containing waste heat, which has traditionally been
             Returning water to the River after it is used is desirable in     pumped back into the River, could be used to heat
             that it maintains flow. Problems arise when the water             industrial complexes and nearby offices and residences.
             contains pollutants such as excess heat in power plant
             cooling water. Power plants operating along the Hudson            Large users can reduce impacts of their intake structures
             each discharge water that has been heated between 6.7             by locating them away from productive fish spawning and
             and 17.8 'F, with most discharging in the upper end of            nursery grounds, development of effective intake barriers,
             that range (McDowell, 1985).                                      and scheduling water withdrawals to avoid sensitive
                                                                               spawning and migration periods. Multiple use intakes
             Excess heat can alter the natural conditions of the river         could also be developed that would reduce both the
             environment, resulting in pronounced effects on thermally         number of intakes and the cost for mitigating impingement
             sensitive organisms such as fish that only spawn within a         and entrainment impacts.
             narrow temperature range. Thermal poillution can also
             delay normal freezing, throwing off cycles of overwintering       Demands for water for the NYC metropolitan area pose a
             plants and animals. Atlantic tomcod, which spawn in               significant challenge. New York City's existing proposal
             winter and generally thrive in colder waters, may be the          for Hudson River water withdrawals calls for taking an
             organism that is most affected by thermal pollution. The          unprecedented amount of water during drought to'
             Hudson is the tomcod's southernmost breeding ground.              supplement reservoir supplies. Emergency withdrawals
             Increasing water temperature alters the River so that it          during periods of drought would remove water from the
             resembles the more southern environments that tomcod              River at a time when tidal communities are undergoing
             cannot tolerate and may seriously affect the tomcod               stress due to naturally low seasonal flows. Seasonal
             population (Fikslin and Golumbek, 1979).                          effects of low water flow are already compounded by
                                                                               existing diversions from Hudson River tributaries to the
             Adverse impacts from thermal pollution become severe              New York City reservoir system.           A second water
             when temperature levels fluctuate widely, usually when            withdrawal proposal would expand the role of the Hudson










        44                                             Chapter 4: Human Interactions

        from a seasonal supplement to a continuous, large-scale           are located on the lower portion of the Hudson Valley
        supply. Negative environmental impacts must be carefully          (including parts of the Delaware watershed). Largest
        evaluated before large-scale withdrawal projects are              among these are the New York City and Jamaica water
        approved. Results of the USGS salt front study may help           supply districts (Hazen and Sawyer, 1987). As early as
        determine likely changes that would occur in. the                 the nineteenth century, New York City planned for its
        environment. This information will then have to be used           future water demands, acquiring land and water rights in
        in additional ecological research on the River's tidal            upstate counties. Under the 1905 Water Supply Act, New
        communities and populations before decisions regarding            York City was permitted to expand its water supply
        large-scale withdrawals should be made.                           system, subject to the condition that water would be
                                                                          supplied at cost to county water districts. This condition
        Proposals to withdraw significant quantities of water for         led to New York City's role in regional water supply.
        consumptive uses must factor in the major impacts on the
        ecology of the estuary that are likely to occur.                  The water supply system is comprised of a network of
        Implementation of these proposals may very easilydestroy          aqueducts and reservoirs that bring water to the southern
        ecological relationships, such as the timing of fish              portion of the State, bypassing normal tributary flow and
        spawning with the movement of the salt front over unique          reducing input into the Hudson River. Although a small
        substrates, that have been evolving since the passage of          amount of water is brought into the Hudson watershed via
        the last ice-age. Given the uncertainty of the magnitude          inter-basin transfer points, overall, the water supply system
        of impacts resulting from water withdrawals, any additional       reduces the net flow of freshwater in the tidal habitats and
        withdrawal should be permitted only after strict                  dampens fluctuations in water level.
        conservation measures have failed to meet water demand.
                                                                          Hydroelectric Power
        FURTHER READING                                                   As of 1979, over 38 hydroelectric plants were in operation
        An older discussion     of water resource issues in the           on tributary streams in the Hudson River Basin, producing
        Hudson Valley can be found in the two reports produced            an annual average of 4.8 million kilowatt-hours of power.
        by the Hudson River Basin Study Group (1979a,b) .                 Hydroelectricity is also produced at the main dam on the
        More recent information on water issues coin be found in          Hudson River at Troy and many other potential sites have
        recent studies by the DEC Division of Water such as               been identified for hydropower generation.
        Hazen and Sawyer (1987). For a complete history of the
        controversy over power plants along the River, see                Hydroelectric power uses the force of water flowing in the
        McDowell (1985). A technical review of mechanisms to              river or from higher elevations to turn turbines in a
        prevent impingement of fish on large intake systems can           magnetic field to generate electricity. The least disruptive
        be found in Fletcher (1984).                                      method of power generation is run-of-river generation.
                                                                          Power is generated when precipitation and runoff in the
        Dams and Water Impoundments                                       watershed produces overspilling in reservoirs or increases
        Direct removal of water from the River is only part of water      the flow rate in rivers and streams.        Since power is
        use in the Hudson Valley. Much of the water that would            generated when water flow increases, discharges simulate
        normally flow to the Hudson River is diverted from                natural fluctuations in downstream watercourses.
        tributary streams for municipal use, hydroelectric power
        generation, the barge canal system, flood control, and            Water Level and Flood Control
        crop irrigation. The water supply system is based on a            Dams are also used to control flow of water in the River
        network of dams, reservoirs, canals, and aqueducts.               by storing water from snow melt and heavy rains and
                                                                          releasing it during drier periods. In the Hudson River
        Issues and Pracaces                                               system, the most important flood control dam is at
                                                                          Sacandaga Reservoir. Prior to construction of dams,
        Water Supply                                                      spring snowmelt created high water flow and flooding in
        Water supplies are primarily managed using reservoirs to          the River basin while late summer droughts caused severe
        store runoff until it is needed. As of 1979, there were 37        reductions in fresh water flow. The Sacandaga dam, the
        reservoirs in the Hudson River watershed with a capacity          Federal dam at Troy, and other water impoundments have
        of 1 billion gallons or more, and many more smaller ones          dramatically reduced the severity of spring flooding, and
        (Hudson River Basin Study Group, 1979b). Reservoir                led to increased flow and improved water quality during
        capacities are measured in acre-feet of water with one            dry summer months.
        billion gallons of water equalling 3060 acre-feet. The
        largest reservoirs along the Hudson include Sacandaga             Despite these control measures, flooding still occurs in the
        Lake at 880,000 acre-feet and Ashokan reservoir at                Hudson Valley. Localized floods can be caused by ice
        390,000 acre-feet.                                                jams in early spring that form temporary dams which raise
                                                                          water levels above the River and stream banks. Through-
        Three hundred ninety two municipal water supply systems           out the Hudson's watershed, general flooding is caused by









                                                              Pollutants and.Water Quality                                                  45

             deforestation and development, which reduces the ability          Habhat Protecdon Measures
             of the watershed to retain water and results in rapid water       It is unlikely that new dams will be built on the Hudson
             level rise in tributaries. Damage to structures frequently        River or its major tributaries. If such proposals are made,
             occurs when development is allowed in flood-plains which          the impacts described above should be carefully
             are subject to inundation at 10 year and 100 year flood           considered. The need to increase reservoir capacities,
             levels.                                                           and thus further divert basin runoff from the River, can
                                                                               generally be reduced by employing water conservation
             Impacts of Dams and Impoundments                                  measures. New hydroelectric generation facilities should
                                                                               be limited to run-of-river operations. The critical factor for
             Reduced River Flow                                                protection of habitat values is maintaining adequate fresh
             The primary impact of water control systems on the River          water flow in the tributaries and the River that meets the
             is reduced water flow, causing a shift in the location of the     needs of plants and animals, particularly anadromous fish.
             salt front in the same way that direct removal of water
             from the River does. It is likely that the normal range of        Flood control values are provided by vegetation and
             movement of the salt front has been reduced by the water          permeable soils. The Hudson's marshes undoubtedly
             control systems in the Hudson watershed.                 Dams     provide flood protection and should be preserved for
             decrease water velocity in the River and the associated           these values. Wetlands intercept and store storm water
             scouring effect of floods on the River bed. Water entering        runoff for gradual release, mitigating the effects of heavy
             a reservoir loses velocity, and when water is released from       floods (Ogawa and Male, 1983). Although most research
             the dam, its sediment load is left behind, reducing               has focused on upland as opposed to tidal river wetlands,
             transport of sediment to the estuary. Of the above-listed         a frequently cited example is a study in which 8400 acres
             impacts, it is difficult to determine whether they are            of wetland along the Charles River in Massachusetts was
             positive or negative, particularly since the watershed has        estimated to provide $17 million in flood protection
             been altered by deforestation and development and the             benefits per year (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1972).
             reulting sediment loads have increased due to runoff and          As a result, the study concluded that it was less expensive
             erosion.    A clearly negative impact associated with             to preserve the wetland areas than to remove them and
             impoundments is reduced water quality. Water released             then have to build flood control structures to compensate
             from impoundments is generally warmer, containsless               for lost flood control benefits.
             dissolved oxygen, and may have higher nutrient levels
             when compared to natural runoff.                                  In addition, impermeable surfaces of developed areas and
                                                                               runoff from deforested watersheds should be reduced
             Tributary Impacts                                                 through active stormwater management programs that
             Although the Hudson estuary is not dammed for most of             reintroduce permeable surfaces, protect vegetated areas,
             its length, there are many dams on its tributary streams.         and limit runoff from new development.
             When dams store or divert tributary waters, their valuable
             freshwater input is lost. Indeed, many of the River's             FURTHER READING
             significant coastal fish and wildlife habitats are located        The best source of information on water use in the
             near the mouth of tributaries where environmental                 Hudson are the findings of the Hudson River Basin
             conditions associated with freshwater inflow has led in pan       Study Group (1979a,b) . A more recent discussion of
             to the ecological value of the areas.                             water resources and local water supply systems can be
                                                                               found in DEC studies on State water resources such as
             Dams also block access to anadromous fish spawning                Hazen and Sawyer (1987). For a discussion of wetland
             grounds in the tributaries, Although the area of freshwater       flood control mechanisms, see Ogawa and Male (1983).
             creeks accessible to fish is only a small fraction of the
             estuary, this habitat is the most important for many              4.3 Pollutants and Water Quality
             anadromous fish species that require clear, fast-moving           The effect of pollutants in the River ecosystem has
             water with adequate substrates for successful spawning.           received a great deal of attention. Pollutants can be
             Tributaries are also important to anadromous fish such as         divided into two categories: point source pollutants that
             American shad that spawn in the River, since suitable             enter the River from a specific discharge area (usually a
             spawning conditions exist near the mouths of tributaries.         drain pipe) and non-point source pollutants that enter the
             When a tributary is dammed, the flow of water is reduced          River over a broad area.
             in important downstream areas and upstream habitat is
             not available for spawning. Depending on the amount of            Issues and Practices
             water diverted, the tributary can be transformed into silty
             river bottom with little value for fish spawning. 'As an          Point Source Pollution
             example, the Croton River now has limited value as a fish         Point source pollution includes municipal sewage which is
             spawning area since most flow is diverted.                        composed largely of organic materials and industrial
                                                                               wastes which can contain organic material and toxic










           46                                             Chapter 4: Human Interactions

           chemicals. Municipal sewage can also contain toxic                are distributed throughout the Hudson River Basin (Figure
           chemicals originating from industrial sources, domestic           17). Many permits included more than one of the target
           use, and the water supply system. All point sources of            chemicals and other substances that were not inventoried.
           pollution in NYS are regulated under the State Pollution
           Discharge Elimination System (SPDES) permit program.              In another study of toxic chemical discharges, information
                                                                             derived from toxic chemical release reporting requirements
           Over the period 1979-1981 there were 455 permitted                under the Superfund Amendments of 1986 indicated that
           dischargers releasing pollutants into the surface waters of       74 companies discharged an annual combined total of
           the Hudson River Basin (Johnson and Schmidt, 1983).               over 50,000,000 pounds of toxic chemicals into the
           Included in this total number were 165 municipal sewage           Hudson River drainage basin. The reporting requirements
           plants, 266 industrial plants, 12 commercial facilities, 6        included only corporate facilities that had ten or more
           institutions, and 6 private residences. Most permits were         employees and that manufactured, imported, or processed
           held in the lower portion of the Hudson (including                more than 75,000 pounds of any of the 308 hazardous
           tributaries) with smaller numbers in the upper Hudson and         chemicals listed by the EPA within a calendar year
           Mohawk valley.      Several years later, the number of            (Barclay, 1989).      Since both the federal and State
           dischargers in the Hudson Basin was 550, although the             regulations include self-reporting requirements where the
           difference may reflect the inclusion of Hudson River basin        discharger documents how much of a toxic chemical is
           discharges originating in other states (Rohmann, 1985).           released, estimates of the total release of these chemicals
                                                                             are likely to understate the actual amount released.
           Sewage must be processed through at least two levels of           In addition to the continuing problem of controlling today's
           treatment. Primary treatment includes removing
           all material that either floats or settles.
           Secondary treatment involves using bacteria to            Map showing the locations of the 185        ----------
                                                                     dischargers in the Hudson Basin:     --- ---
           breakdown up to 85% of the organic matter                 Each dot indicates one discharger
           (Johnson and Schmidt, 1983). Although all
           sewage treatment plants were to have secondary
           treatment by 1984, a number still do not meet
                                                                             I)NEIDA                                                   7
           this standard, primarily due to the high capital                                                    lens Falls 0
           cost required to build and upgrade treatment                    Rome         HERKIMER                 @RATOI;A      1JENNING1 (IN
           facilities. Even in upgraded facilities, treatment of
                                                                                     Ttit.
                                                                                                                                VT
           municipal sewage is hampered since sewage and
           stormwater are combined in the same system. In                                                 Sd@n_ c,ady
           periods of heavy rain or snow melt, sewage
           treatment plants do not have the capacity to                                              -CH    1@1@
           retain the volume of incoming effluent and are
                                                                                                             Albany
                                                                                                 ICKOHARIE
           forced to let torrents of stormwater and raw                                                       L13ANN
           sewage flow directly into the River, an event
                                                                                                                              BERKSHIRE
           called a combined sewer overflow (CSO). In                                                                          MA
           addition, sewage treatment plants do not alter                              DELA-RE  NY        RE @E@FN
           toxins received from industrial dischargers,
           roadway runoff, or from paint and solvents that                                              -------
           may be poured down a home-owner's drain.                                                ULSTER
           Industrial discharges that may interfere with the                                            Kingston    ITCHESS
                                                                                                                              CT
           function of sewage treatment plants are
           prohibited under a State and federal industrial                                                         Poughk" si.
           pretreatment program where communities must
                                                                                                      Newburgh
           adopt standards to protect the sensitive                                            -------             FL TNAM
           secondary treatment process.                                                         IRANGE

           Although enormous gains have been made in                                          SUSSEX
                                                                                                                      M
                                                                                                                    E,1T( HEs-rE
                                                                                                                00
           sewage treatment and improvement in water                                                      R KLAND
           quality, this success has been tempered by the                                                          %
           greater threat that toxic chemical pollution
                                                                                                             BERGEN
                                                                                                             I       Yonkers
           presents. In an inventory of 26 toxic chemicals,                                        NJ
           185 institutions in the Hudson River Basin held                                                HU.S6N
                                                                                                            - @Aml









           discharge permits for at least one of these
           compounds between 1978 and 1983 (Rohmann Figure 17: Location of dischargers holding SPDES permits in the
           1985, Rohmann and Lilienthal, 1987). Discharges early 1980's (from Inform, 1985).









                                                                Pollutants and Water Quality                                                      47

             discharges, yesterday's disposal practices also present               capacity and lead to large volumes of pollutant-laden
             problems in the Hudson River. Foundry Cove, an EPA                    runoff entering the River. Since most municipalities have
             Superfund site, is contaminated with levels of nickel and             combined sanitary and stormwater systems, the volume of
             cadmium that present an immediate health hazard. Plans                urban runoff during storms can also exceed the capacity
             are well underway to reduce this contamination which                  of their sewage treatment plant, flushing raw sewage
             resulted from a battery manufacturing plant. Another                  directly into the River.
             example is the large landfill on Croton Point which is
             leaking toxic chemicals directly into the River.                      Herbicides applied to railroad and highway rights of way
                                                                                   enter the River as nonpoint pollution.            Kiviat (1978)
             Nonpoint Source Pollution                                             describes the railroad's herbicide application procedure of
             Nonpoint source pollution does not result from a specific             the early 1970's which involved two men on a tank car
             source or discrete discharge, but originates from                     using hoses to spray the railroad embankment, creating
             pollutants carried into the River over broad areas.                   clouds of herbicide that drifted into adjacent marshes.
             Nonpoint sources of pollution include agricultural runoff,            Even if herbicides are carefully applied, the proximity of
             urban runoff, atmospheric deposition, and groundwater                 the railroad to the water and the porous embankment
             leachate. Nonpoint source pollution is more difficult to              gravels guarantee the entry of herbicides into the River.
             measure or control than pollution entering from a discrete            Significant insecticide and herbicide concentrations can
             point.    Nonpoint source pollution is also ubiquitous,               also enter the River ecosystem from attempts to control
             entering the Hudson along the entire length of the estuary.           undesirable species. In the past, control of the spread of
                                                                                   exotic water chestnut plants was attempted using 2-4,D
             Agricultural runoff includes water-soluble pollutants and             and other chemicals.
             pollutants associated with soil erosion. Soils contain
             heavy metals including lead, chromium, and arsenic which              Atmospheric pollution also enters the River through
             are naturally present at low concentrations. Soil erosion             precipitation and fallout, although the contribution from
             also directly degrades water quality in the River by raising          these sources requires further study. Groundwater that
             turbidity, decreasing dissolved oxygen, and elevating                 enters the River through springs and upwellings is another
             nutrient levels; increases sedimentation rates in marshes,            potential source of pollutants if it has been contaminated
             shallows, flats, and deepwater communities; and                       by landfills, chemical spills, and agricultural practices. And
             eliminates spawning grounds in tributary streams.               In    finally, pollutants buried in River sediment may be reintro-
             addition to pollution that can result from soil erosion               duced into other physical and biological components of
             alone, agricultural runoff includes fertilizers, pesticides and       the ecosystem when disturbed by dredging and shipping
             herbicides. Fertilizers include nitrogen and phosphorus               or scouring by currents.
             compounds which percolate through the soil into
             groundwater or wash directly into the River. Persistent               Impacts of Pollutants
             pesticides are resistant to breakdown in the environment
             and include DDT, chlorodane, dieldrin, and endrin. These              Sewage
             chemicals adhere tightly to soil and still enter the River            Untreated sewage is a rich source of nutrients, including
             ecosystem through agricultural runoff, even though their              nitrogen and phosphorus, and organic matter. Under
             use has been banned in the United States for a number of              natural conditions, the productivity of plants is limited by
             years. Pesticides and herbicides in current use are less              the nutrients that are in short supply in the ecosystem.
             persistent in the environment, degrading through exposure             When sewage is added to the natural system, plant
             to sunlight or bacterial decomposition. These chemicals               productivity sharply increases and organic matter is
             tend to be water soluble and high concentrations can                  rapidly produced, usually through algal blooms. As algae
             appear in agricultural runoff soon after their application.           and other plants die, the organic matter they produced, as
                                                                                   well as the organic matter contained in sewage, under-
             Urban runoff includes pollutants associated with urban and            goes bacterial decomposition. The dissolved oxygen
             suburban development that enter the River through direct-             content of the water can be completely depleted, resulting
             discharge storm sewers and direct runoff that occurs at               in the death of additional organisms. In severe cases, all
             street ends for example. Pollutants in urban runoff that              the animals in the water can be killed and the once'
             are associated with roadways and paved areas include                  healthy tidal community becomes a dead system, with a
             heavy metals (e.g. lead, cadmium, and chromium),                      layer of foul mud resembling black mayonnaise.
             inorganic chemicals (e.g. cyanide, asbestos), gasoline,
             and oils.        Pollutants associated with residential               Nutrient enrichment results in a condition called
             development include fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides,              eutrophication.       The effects of eutrophication are
             which are largely used for lawn maintenance. Urban                    particularly pronounced in summer; warmer water holds
             runoff results directly from perrmeable surface areas in              less dissolved oxygen, and both plant productivity and
             developed areas.         Streets, parking lots, roofs, and            bacterial decomposition rates increase. Before sewage
             compacted soils all reduce the land's water retention                 treatment plants were introduced, the "Albany Pool" was









          48                                               Chapter 4: Human Interactions

          a festering cesspool for most of the summer, with little or          the metals tend to remain bound to the sediment and do
          no fish life. Primary treatment reduces the amount of                not necessarily enter the food chain. In the long run, the
          nutrients and organic matter that enter the waterway by              benefits of having contaminated sediments removed from
          removing coarse matter, floating scum, and settleable                the River outweigh the short term costs of dredging.
          particles from raw sewage. Secondary treatment further
          reduces organic matter using an accelerated bacterial                Chemical Pollutants
          decomposition process which reduces the amount of                    Chemical pollutants include benzene, chloroform, toluene,
          oxygen depletion occurring in the natural system. The                PCBs, and many herbicides and pesticides.                 These
          process results in a treated, disinfected liquid or effluent         pollutants have numerous negative effects ranging from
          which is released into the River, while leftover sludge is           producing cancer in fish, to thinning raptor eggshells so
          buried in landfills or dumped in the ocean (Congress has             that they break during incubation. As with heavy metals,
          banned ocean dumping of sludge after 1991).                          chemical pollutants bioaccumulate and biomagnify in the
                                                                               food chain. Predators at the top of the food chain make
          In addition to organic matter and nutrients,          municipal      good indicators of the amounts of these substances in the
          sewage may contain heavy metals in the effluent stream;              environment.      Osprey, for example, will only breed
          one study by the National Resource Defense Council                   successfully where DDT levels are low. While some of the
          estimated that over 4000 lbs of heavy metals pass through            organic compounds are relatively unstable and breakdown
          New York City sewage plants every day. The effluent                  rapidly, others (including chlorinated hydrocarbon
          stream can also contain harmful bacteria that escape                 insecticides and PCBs) are very stable and persist in the
          disinfection; disinfectants which depress natural bacteria           environment for years.
          populations in the River; and, plastics that present physical
          hazards to fish and wildlife.                                        Use of pesticides in the control of plant and animal pest
                                                                               species creates unique ecological problems, including the
          Heavy Metals                                                         evolution of resistant strains of pest species.             With
          Heavy metals are acutely toxic to animals and to a lesser            repeated use, surviving pesticide-resistant individuals
          degree, plants. In humans, cadmium affects lungs and                 make up the entire population, and increasing amounts of
          kidneys, lead affects kidneys and the nervous system, and            chemicals are required to control the pest. Pesticides also
          mercury harms the nervous system, skin, lungs, and                   kill beneficial species. Since beneficial species include
          kidneys (Rohmann and Lilienthal, 1987). Heavy metals                 predators that play a role in controlling pest populations,
          have similar harmful effects on animals, and can reduce              indiscriminate loss of these predators can actually lead to
          plant growth and respiration rates (Daiber, 1986).                   an increase in the population of the pest species.

          Under normal conditions, heavy metals are not water-                 In addition to contamination by pesticides, the Hudson
          soluble and either accumulate in sediments or concentrate            River has extensive chemical pollution, most notably by a
          in living organisms through bio-accumulation and bio-                group of chemicals called polychlorinated hydrocarbons
          magnification. Bio-accumulation results from the chemical            (PCBs), which are found in the Hudson in high concen-
          affinity of metals and other contaminants for fatty body             trations. PCBs are stable compounds that resist heat and
          tissues. Since heavy metals are not metabolized, the fat             fire, qualities that have led to the use of PCBs since the
          soluble metals accumulate at higher and higher concen-               1920's in electrical capacitators, plastics, flame retardants,
          trations in the animal with the consumption of each                  and adhesives. PCBs are fat-soluble, tending to accu-
          contaminated meal. Bio-magnification occurs as toxins                mulate in sediments and animal tissues. PCBs are also
          bio-accumulated at one level of the food chain are passed            suspected carcinogens.
          on to the next level through predation.              Since the
          predators consume prey that have already accumulated                 Most of the PCBs in the Hudson came from two General
          toxins from the environment, the concentration of toxins             Electric capacitator plants at Fort Edward and Hudson
          in the predators' diet is relatively higher than in their preys'     Falls, which released over 500,000 lbs of PCBs to the
          diet, resulting in higher toxin concentrations in predator           River between 1946 and 1977. Although most PCBs were
          tissues. The level of contamination is magnified with each           contained in sediments of the upper portion of the River,
          step up the food chain.                                              the removal of a dam at Fort Edward in 1973 released
                                                                               PCB-contaminated sediments resulting in contamination of
          Heavy metals persist in the environment, and do not break            the entire River (Limburgh, 1985).
          down or decompose into benign compounds. Once a
          metal enters the food chain it is rarely lost, but cycles            General Electric agreed to stop releasing PCBs in 1977
          continuously through different trophic levels. Removal of            and provided $3 million for monitoring and cleanup
          contaminated sediments is one of the few ways to remove              activities. Over the past 10 years, however, there has
          heavy metals from the ecosystem and can generally only               been extensive debate over what to do about PCB
          be achieved through dredging. Although dredging ran                  contamination and little action. One approach calls for
          resuspend up to 5% of the sediments in the water column,             dredging the upper portion of the River to remove highly










                                                                  Pollutants and Water Quality                                                     49

              contaminated        sediments      that
              contribute to PCB levels in lower
              parts of the River.            Another
              approach would allow PCBs to
              remain in the River to be naturally
              buried or even slowly degraded
              and that the dredging would only
              disturb this process.              Two
              administrative hearings (by        DEC
              Administrative Law Judges          and
              Hazardous Waste Facility Siting
              Boards) regarding the proposed
              clean-up project concluded that
              there is a compelling public need
              for the dredging project and that
              leaving the PCBs in place was not
              acceptable. More recently, DEC
              and EPA have reconsidered the
              possibility    of     designating      a
              substantial portion of the River as
              a superfund site. Meanwhile, the
              entire upper portion of the River
              between Troy and Fort Edward is
              closed to fishing and within the          Figure 18: Oil     tank farms are often located        adjacent   to  valuable habitat (N.
              estuary, the Department of Health         Salatsky/7"NC).
              has     recommended severe
              restrictions on fish consumption., Estimates indicate that            example is lead pollution that results from paint flakes that
              fishing restrictions resulting from PC13 contamination cost           fall into the River during bridge maintenance. The solid
              the State between $17 and $25 million annually in                     waste disposal crisis has led to reports of waste disposal
              recreational fishing income and $2 million annually in                in the River, including demolition debris, tires and food
              commercial fishing revenue (Barclay, 1989).                           containers. Litter can also directly impact wildlife, an
                                                                                    example is the plastic 6-pack ring that can choke birds
              Oil and other Petroleum Products                                      and other animals.         Radioactive contamination from
              Oil, grease, and other petroleum products are among the               atmospheric fallout and nuclear power plants must also be
              most ubiquitous pollutants found in the River, coming from            considered. Radioactivity can disrupt many aspects of the
              industrial discharges, leaking storage tanks, oil spills, and         ecosystem and should be carefully controlled.
              highway and urban runoff (Figure 18). Oil affects the
              biotic community by inhibiting germination of plant                   Wetlands -as Natural Sewage Treatment Systems
              seedlings, destroying plant leaves and shoots, and killing            Since wetlands can act as sinks for nutrients and
              birds and fish (Daiber, 1986). The tendency of oil to float           chemicals, they could also be managed to remove wastes
              on water makes it particularly disruptive to the mudflat and          added to the River system by humans (Hammer and
              shore habitats, where most of the sensitive biological                Kaldec, 1983; U.S. EPA, 1983). Managed wetlands are
              activity is concentrated on the surface of the sediment.              envisioned as solar powered sewage plants (Odum, 1978).
              Oil is also toxic to insect larvae and zooplankton that use           The properties of wetlands supporting this view include
              the water surface; before the development of synthetic                anoxic sediments that retain chemicals, sedimentation
              pesticides, oil was often directly applied to marsh areas to          rates that bury pollutants, and plant and bacterial
              control mosquito populations.                                         processes that can remove nutrients (Daiber, 1986).
                                                                                    Studies conducted on waste treatment by wetlands have
              Other Pollutants (Salt, Paint, Debris, Radioactivity)                 concluded that freshwater marshes can assimilate limited
              In addition to the toxic pollutants discussed above, there            amounts of nitrogen from sewage while increasing the
              are many other pollutants that adversely impact the River.            oxygen content, although these benefits are seasonal in
              A large amount of sait is added to the River from highway             nature and do not work well for toxic wastes (WhIgham
              and urban runoff and snow disposal. Salt could have an                and Simpson, 1976; Kaldec, 1978; Daiber, 1986).
              effect on spawning fish and their larvae which may be
              sensitive to fluxes in salinity. Salt stored In piles for use in
              de-icing also contain anti-caking compounds that often
              contain arsenic. Toxic compounds can also enter the
              River from construction and maintenance activities. An










         50                                             Chapter 4: Human Interactions

         Habitat Protection Measures                                       4.4 Transportation
         The only effective way to reduce impacts of pollution on          The Hudson River serves as an important transportation
         River habitats is to eliminate or minimize introduction of        corridor for the movement of goods and people in one of
         these substances into the system. The SPDES program               the most densely populated regions of the country.
         is designed to control and monitor all major point sources        Transportation has significantly impacted the tidal habitats.
         of pollution. Compliance with this program is largely the
         responsibility of the permittee who must monitor and              Freight and Passenger Trafric
         report the amounts and types of substances being                  Transportation routes using the Hudson Valley are both
         released into the water.        DEC staff make periodic           waterborne and land based; currently most of the freight
         inspections of facilities and take water quality readings,        traffic is waterborne while passenger traffic is land based.
         but they do not have the resources to monitor compliance
         with permit restrictions systematically, so that many             Issues and Practices
         violations may go undetected and unreported.              The
         detrimental effects of point source pollution can also be         Freight Traffic
         reduced by ensuring that treated effluent and industrial          Since the middle of this century, Albany has served as a
         wastes are not released in the most biologically valuable         deep-water port, handling freight traffic from ocean-going
         portions of the River. Containment structures designed to         ships, barges, and a variety of smaller craft. Access to the
         prevent leakage or spills from oil and gas storage tanks          port by larger vessels is facilitated by maintenance
         should also be regularly inspected and maintained.                dredging in the River channel. Waterborne traffic along
         There is no single program analogous to SPDES that                the River consists largely of petroleum products, raw
         addresses nonpoint source pollution. Numerous steps               materials, and some finished goods. Although the overall
         can be taken to reduce the effects of urban and                   tonnage shipped had declined since the mid 20th century,
         agricultural runoff on the Hudson River habitats.                 there was a resurgence of shipping in the 1980's based on
         Municipalities which are upgrading their existing water           the regional distribution of bananas and Volkswagons.
         delivery and treatment facilities can enhance the efficiency      More recently, the Port of Albany has lost a significant
         and effectiveness of' both by constructing separate               portion of its business to modernized ports. Freight is
         systems for collection and treatment of sewage waste and          also hauled in the Hudson Valley on the railroads that
         stormwater runoff. Municipalities can also expand current         flank the River shore and on the nearby Thruway.
         programs that collect and safely dispose of or recycle            Passenger Traffic
         household chemicals, paints, automotive oil, and batteries        In the early nineteenth century almost all travellers in the
         that otherwise may lead to contamination. Local soil              Hudson Valley boarded sloops and steamships. Since the
         conservation offices and other agencies can recommend             mid-nineteenth century, passenger traffic has been largely
         best management practices to minimize runoff and soil             land based, and continues today with extensive ridership
         erosion.  Application of insecticides and herbicides can be       on the Amtrak lines along the Hudson and the Thruway
         replaced with biological control methods or their use can         between New York and Albany. Reminders of older
         be limited to selective applications timed to coincide with       means of travel do exist; the Day Line still operates limited
         pest outbreaks rather than routinely scheduled spraying.          ferry service from New York City to points along the River,
                                                                           and the Clearwater, a replica of the Hudson River sloops,
         Salt storage runoff impacts can be reduced by using               plies the waters of the estuary.
         covered storage facilities. Highway and railroad rights-
         of-way can be maintained through mechanical removal of            Impact of Transportation
         vegetation in sensitive areas instead of herbicides. It may
         be cost effective to plant shrubs or perennial ground-            Waterborne Traffic
         covers that would eliminate the need for vegetation               Since the Half Moon first ran aground on a mudflat in
         maintenance (Kiviat, 1978). Highway and bridge repair             1609, the different kinds of transportation used over the
         work should avoid introducing lead-containing paint               years have had an enormous impact on the River eco-
         scrapings and other pollutants into the River ecosystem.          system. While earlier use of canoes and sailboats had
         FURTHER READING                                                   only affected the riverbank at docking areas, the advent of
         The best source on toxic pollutants in the Hudson is the          steam power coincided with a greater ability to pollute the
         Inform study published in two volumes: Rohmann (1985)             River. Initially pollutants were largely limited to ash and
         and Rohmann and Lilienthal (1987). These contain                  cinders that can still be seen in sediments along the
         detailed maps and information . for 26 major toxic                shore. More recently, petroleum products have polluted
         pollutants. Johnson and Schmidt (1983) explains the               the River, from both engines and cargoes of ships. For
         SPDES system and also describes specific dischargers.             example, over 420,000 gallons of oil spilled into the River
         For a history and technical discussion of PCBs in the             in 1977 when the barge Ethel H struck Con Hook Rock,
         River, see Limburg (1985).                                        resulting in an oil slick reaching Long Island (Hall, 1978).










                                                                      Transportation                                                       51

              Large cargo ships also impact
              shallow water and              shore
              communities (Figure 19). Large
              ships create a drawdown in water
              levels as they displace water from
              the shipping channel, alternately
              flooding and exposing shore and
              flats through wildly oscillating
              water levels and large wakes
              which scour sediments and cause
              local rises in turbidity. Wakes may
              have their greatest impact in early
              spring when vegetation has not                                                                 mA
              established a protective cover,
              newly-sprouted        plants      are
                                                                   0
              vulnerable to being washed away,
              and    young      fish  are
                                              more
              susceptible to water elevation
              fluctuations and          increased
              turbidity.
                                                                                                            GKO
              Large ships also impact deepwater
              communities, although this may be
              limited to the channels where the      Figure   19:  Tugboat and barge near 77te Flats above )Gngston   (N. SalafskylTNQ
              vessel     propellers     resuspend
              sediments as they pass several        feet above   the River      Habitat Protection Measures
              bottom. Large ships also discharge ballast        water that      The River's water quality will continue to improve as
              comes from the port of origin. Although not documented            maintenance protocols designed to prevent hydrocarbon
              for the Hudson River, ships of the same class as those            leaks from both engines and cargoes are strictly
              used on the Hudson have introduced exotic species that            implemented and enforced.          Contingency plans for
              have become pests in the Great Lakes. Overall, the                cleaning up major oil spills exist; it may be appropriate to
              combination of dredging required to facilitate ship passage       review and update these plans so that they include the
              and the use of large cargo ships in the River has had             latest information regarding sensitive habitats and
              adverse impacts on the River ecosystem.                           organisms. Without reducing river traffic, there is no
                                                                                obvious solution to the impacts of large boat wakes on the
              Landbased Traffic                                                 tidal habitats; however, barge-based shipping would have
              Land based transportation modes have had as much of an            less impact both in decreasing the amount of water level
              impact on the River as did waterbased modes. Foremost             fluctuation and in reducing the need for maintenance
              among these impacts was construction of the railroad              dredging. Port marketing efforts should be directed at
              lines along both banks of the River which, at the expense         barge traffic rather than large vessel shipping to lessen the
              of much shore community, created many coves where                 impact of shipping on the River's habitats.
              marsh and shallows are now found.               Currently, a
              significant impact results from herbicides applied along the      FURTHER READING
              railroad right-ot-way which, In addition to having localized      Historical information concerning transportation along the
              effects on sensitive plant species, introduces toxic              River can be found in Myllod (1969). Impacts of the
              chemicals into the environment. Other effects of the              railroad and potential solutions are more fully explored in
              railroad Include disturbance of wildlife by trains rushing        Kiviat (1978). Recent information on commercial shipping
              through the habitats, possible sewage discharges along            activities on the River is available in annual reports
              the tracks, and the potential for spills from a derailment.       prepared by the Port of Albany.
              Highways in the Hudson Valley also can have significant           Dredging and Dredge Material Disposal
              impacts on the River. Pollutants including lead, oil, and         Dredging Involves sediment removal from the River bottom
              salt, drain Into the River in significant quantities from         and excavation of contiguous upland areas. The resulting
              highway runoff.      Paint and other materials used to            material is transferred to another location by barge, truck,
              maintain bridges over the River and its tributaries are a         or pipeline depending on the method of dredging used.
              potential source of toxic contamination.                          Dredging can be done to facilitate deep draft shipping but
                                                                                can also be used to remove pollutant-contaminated
                                                                                sediments, create marinas and docking facilities, or as a










        52                                          Chapter 4, Human Interactions

        source of raw materials in construction projects. Dredging    Historically, several dredge material disposal methods
        has had a profound impact in shaping the Hudson as it         have been used. Before the mid-1 970's, economic factors
        exists today and is necessary for the continued use of the    dictated which disposal method was used with little or no
        River as an economic resource.                                regard for the ecological impacts. Spoil was used to fill
                                                                      wetlands to create developable land, create new islands or
        Issues and Practices                                          enlarge existing islands in shallow areas of the River
                                                                      (Figure 20), or was placed In non-channel or deep channel
        History of Dredging on theHudson                              areas of the River (MPI, 1983). Since the 1970's, natural
        The Hudson River's navigation channel is maintained by        resource protection has been a requirement in planning
        the Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers New York       dredging operations. This is clearly reflected in Corps
        District (Corps). The Corps is authorized by Congress         documents; early dredging plans (e.g. U.S Army Corps of
        under the Rivers and Harbors Act to "provide waterborne       Engineers 1965) were concerned with cost efficiency and
        access to the Port of Albany, and to the New York State       economic development, current plans (e.g. US Army
        Barge Canal System to the north and west of Albany"           Corps 1988) assess environmental impacts and attempt to
        (most information in this section is based on MPI, 1983;      select the least damaging alternative.
        and US Army Corps, 1988).
                                                                      Techniques for Dredging and Dredge Spoil Deposition
        Dredging the Hudson River began in 1900 in New York           Dredging is conducted either by hydraulic pump or
        City, south of the present day location of the George         mechanical removal by several diffferent techniques, each
        Washington bridge, and was extended 11 miles upriver          having advantages and disadvantages (MPI, 1983). The
        between 1917 and 1937 (MPI, 1983). Between 1926 and           preferred dredging technique depends on the disposal
        1930, a 27 foot deep channel was dredged between              method used, the nature of the sediments being dredged,
        Hudson and Albany, and from 1931 to 1954 the channel          the potential ecological impacts on the surrounding areas
        south of Hudson was also dredged to a depth of 27 feet.       and the types of equipment available.
        Between 1954 and 1966, the entire channel from
        Manhattan to Albany was dredged to its present depth of       Several methods of dredge material disposal are available,
        32 feet. In addition to the main channel, six auxiliary       each having associated costs and benefits. Factors in
        channels were dredged including Catskill Creek,               selecting a disposal method are the high economic cost
        Saugerties Harbor, Rondout Harbor, Wappinger Creek,           of transporting dredged materials to a disposal site and
        Peekskill Harbor, and Tarrytown Harbor. The Corps is          the local ecological impacts. Adjacent upland disposal
        currently conducting a study to evaluate providing access     has relatively low transportation cost, but suitable sites
        for larger vessels on the Hudson, either by deepening the     located near a dredging operation are difficult to obtain.
        entire channel or by creating
        deepwater areas in which ships
        could anchor during low tide.

        Maintenance dredging is required
        toremove sediment accumulations
        in the channel; the most recent
        maintenance was performed in
        1988.    In addition to channel
        dredging, the Corps has also
        conducted snagging and clearing
                         rem
        operations to
                             ove downed
                                                                  X4
        trees and other       debris that                               W-41
                                                                        A,
        impedes navigation. Due to the
        variation in depth and sedimen-
                                          is
        tation rates, more    dredging
        required in some     parts of the
        Hudson than others.            Most
        maintenance dredging has
        occurred in two sections of the
        River: between       Nyack and
        Peekskill; and, from Kingston to
        the dam at Troy. The River's
        natural depth precludes the need
        for dredging between these areas. Figum 20: Dredge fill encroachment Into wetlands at Roefiff-Jansen 1911 (N.
                                             Salafsky@TNC).









                                                                         Transportation                                                            53

             The cost of a recent dredging operation was increased by              Dredging can create a local turbidity plume which adds to
             over a million dollars solely due to dredge material                  the suspended sediment load. Suspended sediment can
             disposal costs; lacking a suitable upland site, the dredged           reduce the oxygen content of the water, interfere with fish
             material had to be barged to the ocean. A study of                    respiration, and limit photosynthesis.           This effect is
             dredging the Hudson concluded that upland disposal,                   pronounced with sediments that have a high organic
             beach nourishment, and wetland creation are the preferred             content, while turbidity plume impacts are negligible with
             disposal alternatives for clean material and that contained           sandy sediments. In general, suspended sediments from
             upland disposal is the best method for sediment                       a typical dredge plume are tolerated by fish (MPI, 1983).
             contaminated by PCBs and other toxic pollutants (MPI,                 In practice, fish can also swim away from most localized
             1983). More recently, the use of subaqueous borrow pits               dredging. When contaminated sediments are involved,
             for the disposal of contaminated sediments has been                   however, damage to fish populations ran result if
             considered, although these sediments are relatively rare in           contaminants are reintroduced to the food chain. Special
             the River's navigation channel (US Army Corps, 1988).                 dredging techniques that reduce the turbidity plume may
                                                                                   be necessary to avoid this impact.
             Dredging should be conducted in a manner that minimizes
             the need for repeated maintenance and to prevent re-                  Dredge Material Disposal
             entry of materials to the River channel. Most Hudson                  The practice of disposing material without regard to the
             River dredging is subcontracted by the Corps to private               ecological value of the River communities had the greatest
             firms. The Corps conducts inspections to ensure that                  impact on the River due to dredging. Today, it is not likely
             dredging and disposal activities are carried out properly;            that material will be disposed of within the River. Several
             careless work can lead to more frequent dredging and                  potential beneficial uses of dredge spoil are exceptions to
             results in needless environmental damage and cost                     this generalization. Sandy dredge material can be used
             (Darnell, 1978).                                                      for beach nourishment which provides one of the few
                                                                                   effective means of counteracting the effects of shoreline
             Impacts of Dredging                                                   erosion. Sandy sediments can also be used as con-
                                                                                   struction material with a market value that warrants the
             Direct Impacts                                                        establishment of reusable disposal sites where the material
             Dredging can eliminate tidal communities through direct               is trucked away for beneficial use at no public cost.
             removal of the site. Direct adverse impacts from dredging
             involve the loss of the uppermost sediment layer in which             The use of dredge material for the creation of wetlands
             most benthic organisms live and many swimming                         has also generated considerable interest. The Corps has
             organisms feed.        Maintenance dredging of the main               identified at least 22 sites on the Hudson that may be
             navigation channel would probably not eliminate                       suitable wetland creation sites. Wetland or marsh creation
             ecological values that could not be regenerated since the             on the Hudson is a practical alternative and is not as
             channel has previously been dredged. Direct adverse                   complicated as creating non-tidal freshwater wetlands
             impacts are associated with proposals that would deepen               where artificial control of water levels is usually required.
             the channel or create deep anchoring areas through                    Any wetland creation scheme would likely involve sacri-
             removal of deepwater, shallows, or mudflat communities.               ficing an existing ecological community (such as flats or
             Dredging in the six auxiliary channels may have adverse               shallows where material would be deposited) and may
             impacts depending on the changes in these areas that                  not be desirable until mitigation techniques have been
             have occurred since the last dredging operation and the               proven to work effectively under local conditions and only
             likely development pressures on adjacent ecological                   after conducting an evaluation which concludes that the
             communities that would result due to improved                         value of the new wetland community would be greater
             navigability.    Waterfront development may result in                 than the displaced community. This conclusion could be
             removal of ecologically valuable areas through private                reached in areas of the River where wetlands are not
             dredging operations conducted on smaller tributaries or               already abundant. Since the restoration of Foundry Cove,
             backwater areas of the River.             Dredging proposals          an EPA superfund site, includes replanting a native marsh
             involving adverse impacts have increased along with the               after the contaminated sediments are removed, the
             demand for recreational boat facilities.                              techniques for marsh creation on the Hudson River should
                                                                                   be well-documented and tested in the near future.
             Indirect Impacts
             The impact of maintenance dredging          on adjacent areas         A further potential adverse impact of dredge material
             may be of greater concern than direct impact on the                   disposal is associated with transportion to suitable
             dredged area. Indirect impacts fall into three categories:            disposal sites, usually when hydraulic pipe systems are
             immediate impacts associated with dredging; impacts                   used. Damage can result from pipe leaks in ecologically
             from disposal of dredge material, and long term impacts               important areas and from building access roads needed
             on the River ecosystem.                                               for laying pipe between dredging and disposal sites.
                                                                                   Under current plans, temporary roads will be employed if










           54                                              Chapter 4: Human Interactions

           necessary, using low quality wetlands that are dominated            contribution to the regional economy. The amount of
           by common reed or loosestrife when possible (MPI, 1983).            maintenance dredging and impacts on the River would be
           Although temporary roads that can be removed after work             reduced if the channel depth could be maintained at less
           is completed have significantly reduced impacts when                than the current 32 foot depth.         Calculating the true
           compared to the past practice of permanent road                     economic costs of dredging and its associated
           construction, even wetlands that have been designated               environmental impacts might prove expansion of the
           low quality do provide important values and will require            channel or even maintenance at current levels to be
           restoration or enhancement.                                         financially unsound, particularly if an economic niche
                                                                               relying on shallow draft coastal vessels could be
           Long-Term Effects of Dredging                                       developed for the Port of Albany.
           Long-term effects of dredging on the River ecosystem are
           difficult to assess. The Hudson has undergone more than             FURTHER READING
           350 years of human development and many if not all of               Most of the information on dredging is derived from an
           the existing significant habitats have been affected.               environmental impact statement on dredging in the
           Nonetheless, it is desirable to avoid adverse impacts on            Hudson River produced for the Corps by MPI (1983).
           existing habitats whenever possible. The largest impacts            Additional details can be found in subsequent reports such
           of dredging are probably altered hydrology, sedimentation,          as U.S. Army Corps (1988).
           and geography of the River.           Effects on the River's
           ,geography have persisted long after the dredging has               4.5 Shoreline Development
           been conducted; this is particularly evident in the number
           of islands in the River that are now connected to and               Much of the shoreline along the Hudson River and its
           indiscernible from upland, curiously keeping their island           tributaries has been altered through the construction of
           names. Many of these islands and disposal sites were                bulkheads, revetments, and dikes. These structures have
           bulkheaded to contain sediments and prevent their re-               had a profound impact on the distribution and
           entry to the River; these bulkheads are failing in many             composition of the River's significant tidal habitats.
           areas (Figure 21). Dredging has undoubtably altered the
           River's hydrology by increasing tidai flow with the                 Diking and Development
           elimination of constriction points in the natural River             Tidal areas have historically been destroyed directly
           channel. The effects of this change in hydrology on tidal           through diking and filling for agricultural, industrial, and
           amplitude, currents, and salt front movement have not               residential development and indirectly by embankments
           been investigated.       Sedimentation in the River has             for railroad lines or for containing dredged materials.
           increased with the deforestation and development of the             Direct bulkheading and diking tends to convert an area
           watershed. Since dredging is normally required in areas             permanently to upland, whereas indirect destruction
           that naturally accumulate sediments, dredging may have              retains elements of the original wetland (Daiber, 1986).
           beneficial effects through the removal of this excess
           material.                                                           Issues and Practrces
           Habitat Protection Measures                                         Creation of Fast Land
           Adverse impacts on fish and      other aquatic species from         Fast land, or upland, is created when an area is diked and
           dredging can be minimized by conducting dredging                    then filled. A great deal of the River has been filled near
           during the late summer and fall when the sensitive period           urban areas where the demand for waterfront land has
           of reproductive activity is largely completed.                      been the greatest. Filled land has been used for parks,
                                                                               housing, and industries. Land creation can also occur
           On the Hudson River, significant adverse impacts on the             through passive processes. Maps of the upper portion of
           tidal habitats are not likely to occur under current plans for      the estuary from the 1800's and the present, reveal that
           maintenance dredging of the Federal shipping channel.               much of what is now mainland shore was once shallow
           Deepening the channel to increase commercial shipping               backwater or naturally occurring islands (Figure 22).
           by providing access for larger draft vessels, as called for         Although land was directly created using dredge material,
           in a proposed plan, has the potential to severely affect            sedimentation has appparently also accounted for land
           significant habitats in the River and its tributaries which         creation, particularly behind bulkheads that may have
           probably could not be avoided or mitigated. Rather than             been built as breakwaters. These newly created lands
           pursuing a deeper channel to attract larger vessels to the          were often used for agricultural purposes.
           Port of Albany, an alternative approach would focus
           marketing efforts and facility design on shallower draft            Railroad Coves
           vessels. Since less than three percent of commercial                Many coves along the Hudson's shoreline were diked
           River traffic in 1977 had a draft of greater than 18 feet, it       when the railroads were constructed. Other coves were
           may be worth comparing the economic and environmental               diked to grow rice and for waterfowl management.
           costs of dredging required for deep draft vessels with their










                                                                  Shoreline Development                                                       55

             Although     the    railroad    tracks
             generally followed the River's
             shoreline, tracks were laid directly
             across coves on fill embankments
             in order to provide the straightest
             track alignment (Figure 23). In
             coves where a tributary stream
             flowed into the diked area, culverts
             were placed under the tracks to
             reduce hydrostatic pressure by                                                                       . . . . . . . .
             allowing flow to the River. Tidal
             flow was also facilitated through
             culverts. Depending on the size of
             the cove, the amount of freshwater
             inflow, and the tidal amplitude,
             connections ranged from small
                                                                                                                                      17@
             culverts to large open channels,
             which were bridged by the
             railroad.

             Impacts   of Dikes and Shoreline
             Development                              i

             Habitat Destruction and Buffer           Figure 21: Bulkhead retaining dredge material at Shad and Schermerhom Islands
             Zone Development                         (N. SalafskylITNC)
             Diking and fast land creation
             directly destroys valuable tidal habitat. Human activity on         examples are heart leaf plantain which is subjected to
             the Hudson River has permanently destroyed large                    trampling, and bald eagles that require undisturbed areas
             amounts of marsh, flats, and shallows.                Shoreline     for roosting and nesting.
             development also threatens tidal habitats indirectly. For
             example, adjacent upland areas are ecologically linked to           Bulkheads also compound the effect of wakes and waves.
             the tidal habitats by proximity, watershed, and soil                Natural shoreline absorbs wave energy as waves run up
             characteristics. Development of these buffer zones can              a beach or rocky shore, or in the case of larger waves,
             change the amount and nature of freshwater inflow, water            through erosion, which dissipates energy through removal
             quality, sedimentation rates, water level fluctuation, and          of shore material. Rather than losing their energy, waves
             species composition. Development in the buffer zone can             rebound off hard bulkhead surfaces and scour the area in
             also alter the suitability of adjacent habitat for plants and       front of  the bulkhead, eliminating beach, marsh, and
             animals that are unable to tolerate human disturbance;              mudflat.       Bulkheading     also prevents        ecological




                                                                                                                     zz




                                                                                                   -s





                                                       c-
                                                                   Jl@'4 t@

                                                                                                        SCIODACK


                                                                           -1,97,9-

                Figure 22: The effects of diking and disposal on the Hudson River shoreline between Albany and New Baltimore
                (from Clearwater, 1.979).










         56                                              Chapter 4: Human Interactions

                                                                                                   River, with the railroad often dividing
                                                                                                   those on the east shore. South of
                                                                                                   Saugerties, where there is little
                                                                                                   natural indentation in the River's
                                                                                                   shoreline, marshes tend to be located
                                                                                                   in rail road-sheltered coves. Although
                                                                                                   not conclusive, the railroad may have
                                                                                                   resulted in the creation of a
                                                                                                   significant amount of marsh in the
                                                                                                   southern portion of the estuary, and
                                                                                                   a decrease in quality of marshes in
                                                                                                   the northern part of the estuary.
                                                                                                   From a different perspective, the
                                                                                                   impact of the railroad is unques-
                                                                                                   tionably positive. Without the railroad
                                                                                                   and its restriction of access to the
                                                                                                   shore, many of the marshes would
                                                                                                   have     been     destroyed      through
                                                                                                   riverfront      development          and
                                                                                                   associated fill.

                                                                                                   Future management efforts should
                                                                                                   reflect the unique environmental
         Figure 23: Railroad tracks fronting cove at Stockport (N, Salatsky).                      conditions created by the railroad
                                                                                                   coves.     Reduced circulation and
         communities from evolving through natural succession or             increased sedimentation rates caused by the railroad are
         in response to events such as sea level rise (section 3.4).         likely to lead to increased senescence of marsh
                                                                             communities.      Many of the cove marshes could be
         Reduced Water Circulation                                           transformed into swamp forest over time without the
         The impacts that resulted from the creation of the railroad         formation of new marsh to replace ft. Marsh that has
         coves are difficult to evaluate. Railroad embankments               formed behind bulkheads at other points along the River
         have generally reduced water circulation. Although water            shore may also be subject to a similar process.
         levels still rise and fall, the flushing action of the tides is
         reduced and sediments tend to accumulate. Furthermore,              Habitat Protection Measures
         the linkage between cove marshes and the main body of               Direct destruction of the River's ecological communities
         the River is impaired, with reduced exchange of detritus            has been significantly reduced through recognition of their
         and nutrients. Marshes that are landward of the railroad            values and legislation. Proposals to fill in portions of the
         tracks are also more prone to invasion by species such as           River continue to be made for various purposes, and these
         purple loosestrife and common reed (Bob Zaremba, pers.              proposals should be rejected. Under current law, it is
         comm.). Impounded areas are generally less productive               difficult to obtain permits to place fill in the River for any
         and have lower species diversity than naturally occurring           purpose. Passive filling of the River currently requires
         areas, although certain species may be found in greater             study and management directed at sources of sedimen-
         densities in the enclosed areas (Daiber, 1986).                     tation and former breakwaters and man-made structures.

         Despite the negative impacts associated with railroad               In addition to limiting direct impacts, maintaining
         embankments, the net impact may be positive. Many of                undisturbed upland buffer zones may be essential to
         the cove marshes may exist because of the shelter                   protection of tidal habitats. Different types of development
         provided by the railroad embankment from River currents,            can have various impacts on adjacent areas and should
         waves, and scouring by ice floes. Without the railroad,             be evaluated for impacts that may affect adjacent, yet
         marsh areas in these coves might have been much                     ecologically-linked areas. Current wetland protection laws
         smaller or even non-existent.                                       do not include adequate buffer zones that are necessary
                                                                             for protection of the River's tidal habitats. Undeveloped
         The impact of the coves can be explored to some extent              areas of the River that do not currently support significant
         by comparing the east (with railroad) and west (without             habitats may be required for future habitat sites, since
         railroad) shores of the River.        Between Albany and            today's significant areas are not static and will require
         Saugerties where there are few coves and many sheltered             space to accommodate their dynamic nature. Loss of
         points and backwaters, the distribution of marshes                  these Important areas can be reduced If shoreline
         appears to be roughly equal between both sides of the               developments are clustered In or near existing population









                                                                 Shoreline Development                                                      57

             centers or previously disturbed sites, and If adequate             exclusive. Of the 82 boat launch and marina sites located
             setbacks from the River are used.                                  on the Hudson, only 17 are publicly owned while an
                                                                                additional 44 commercial sites are open to the public on
             Railroad cove marshes may be improved with enhanced                a limited basis (Hudson River Access Forum, 1988).
             flow resulting from construction of larger replacement
             culverts or bridges and improving flow in existing                 Swimming, Hiking, and Bicycling
             channels. Increased flow may reduce-sedimentation rates,           There has been a renewed demand in recent years for
             slow community succession, and delay the transformation            access to the River for swimming and hiking or biking
             of marsh to a swamp community (Kiviat, 1978).                      along the shore, largely as a result of water quality
                                                                                improvements. Although there are only a few beaches
             FURTHER READING                                                    along the tidal portion of the River where swimming is
             See Kiviat, (1978) for an excellent discussion of                  permitted, the potential demand for the use of these sites
             management steps that can be taken in the coves and                is enormous; surveys of American recreation activities
             along the shore.                                                   indicate that over 50% of all Americans annually engage
                                                                                in swimming (Hudson River Access Forum, 1988).
             Recreational Access                                                Likewise, there is extensive demand for hiking and biking
             Public access to the Hudson River shoreline for different          trails that follow scenic paths along the River.
             types of recreation activities is one of the most important
             management issues. This problem is especially acute on             As with recreational boating, a major problem is finding
             the Hudson River since approximately 3/4 of the shoreline          suitable access sites for these activities. Similar problems
             is blocked to most recreational access by the railroad.            are encountered with the need for grade-separated
                                                                                railroad crossings and publicly-owned sites.
             Issues and Practices
                                                                                Impacts of Recreation
             Marinas and Boat Launches
             Boating access to the River is available either at launch          POwerbOats
             sites where the boat is carried to the River on a car top or       Powerboats have numerous detrimental impacts on tidal
             trailer, or at marinas where the boat is kept for the season.      habitats, including discharge of pollutants that degrade
             The current high demand for both marina slips and boat             water quality. Toxic hydrocarbon emissions, including
             launches is expected to outstrip available supply over the         olefins, aromatics, and paraffins, are ten times higher on
             next few decades. In general, a boat launch site is fairly         average in a two-cycle engine (used by many pleasure
             simple involving a boat ramp, a parking lot and access             boats) than In a comparably sized four-cycle engine (U.S.
             road for cars, and sufficient water depth near the ramp-           EPA, 1974 in Gorski, 1988). Many motor boats also use
             A marina is much more elaborate, and can involve many              leaded fuel which introduces significant amounts of lead
             slips for mooring boats, a septic pump-out station, large          into the River.
             dock facilities, hoists for removing or launching boats, a
             fuel station, a boat repair area, on-land winter storage           Use of powerboats is also associated with fecal
             areas for boats, a restaurant and sales facility, locker and       contamination of the water. Several scientific studies (e.g.
             rest rooms, and a peripheral security fence.             Many      Fisher et,al., 1987) have demonstrated that increased
             marinas are designed to accommodate large, deep draft              power boat use is accompanied by increased fecal
             boats which cannot be launched by trailer and typically            colfform bacteria counts that are associated with the
             include dredging and bulkheading.                                  presence of pathogenic bacteria. This problem can
                                                                                become severe in marinas with heavy boat traffic and
             Both marinas and boat launch ramps are best located in             bilge pumping combined with restricted water circulation
             sheltered areas of the River that are protected from               in marina basins. The lack of pumpout facilities and the
             storms, waves, and winds. For this reason, many facilities         general failure to use existing facilities to properly dispose
             are located at the mouth of or on a tributary. Siting              of on board sewage further exacerbates the problem.
             additional marinas or boat,launches is restricted by limited       Litter is also a problem associated with recreational
             access to both tributaries and the River.          The main        boating; one study of pleasure boat users found that on
             restriction is caused by the railroad which can only be            average, each boat trip produced one pound of litter
             safely crossed by grade-separated crossings in which the           thrown overboard per passenger in the boat (National
             roadway either goes under or is elevated above the                 Academy of Sciences in Barclay, 1989). Powerboats can
             railroad track. The railroad further limits access to the          also create excessive noise and large wakes that disturb
             River by limiting the size of boats that can pass under the        various species, resuspend bottom sediments, and
             bridges at the mouths of tributary streams. Access                 contribute to shoreline erosion. Minimum vessel speeds
             restrictions are also created by the extent of private             designed to minimize wakes are not particularly helpful
             ownership of land bordering the River which includes               since maximum wakes tend to form at only six to seven
             many large estates. Finally, many existing facilities are          mph (Zabawa and Ostrum, 1980). Finally, powerboats










          58                                              Chapter 4: Human Interactions

          cruising over shallows and flats, and even through                  bottom, areas that would result in boating traffic impacts
          marshes, directly reduce the habitat value of these areas           on shallows, flats, and marshes, and areas that do not
          by churning bottom sediments, increasing turbidity,                 have sufficient upland to support marina activities. Boat
          damaging vegetation, and disturbing the nursery grounds             launch impacts can be reduced by following similar siting
          of young fish and the feeding grounds of waterfowl.                 guidelines and using designs that include runoff controls.

          Marinas and Launch Ramps                                            The least disruptive way in which humans can enjoy the
          Marinas and, to a lesser degree, boat launch ramps can              River and its tidal habitats is through the use of small
          also impact the tidal habitats. Marinas and boat launch             boats (trailer or car top carried boats) and by hiking or
          ramps require protected areas of the River. In many                 bicycling along the River. Low impact uses would be
          instances, the protected nature of an area is the same              facilitated by the development of a greenway corridor. An
          feature that has led to the formation of ecologically               understanding of the value of the tidal habitats would be
          valuable communities. Siting requirements for marinas               greatly increased by educational signage in appropriate
          frequently lead to direct conflict with resource protection.        places along riverside trails.
          This conflict is exacerbated when marina development
          requires extensive dredging and bulkheading that can                FURTHER READING
          reduce or destroy the ecological value of an area. Even             Current information on recreational access along the
          under circumstances that allow for a sensitive marina               Hudson can be found in the report issued by the Hudson
          design that preserves the value of an area, operation of            River Access      Forum (1998).         Earlier estimates of
          the marina may degrade the habitat values. Boat traffic             recreational demand are in the report by the Hudson
          going to and from launch and marina areas can create an             River Basin Study Group (1979a,b) . Extensive technical
          impact zone that fans away from the marina or launch.               information on marina design and ways of reducing
          The magnitude of adverse impact within this zone is a               environmental impacts can be found in the handbook
          direct function of vessel traffic volume and water depth.           produced by the U.S. EPA (1985). Fisher et al. (1987)
          Construction of upland parking and service areas for both           also examines the impact of marinas.            Finally, Ross
          marinas and boat ramps can also reduce the value of                 (1986) presents information on marina construction and
          buffer zones that may provide protection for the habitat.           environmental impacts from a marina owner's perspective.

          Marinas and boat launch ramps can also facilitate the               Exotic or Invasive Plants
          entry of toxic substances into the River. Fueling facilities        Exotic plants are those that are not native to the Hudson
          can lead to spills during refueling or from storage tank            River and have been introduced from other parts of the
          leaks.   Boat cleaning can result in oil, grease, bilge             world (usually overseas) either intentionally or accidentally.
          contents, and solvent discharges. Boat launch ramps                 Some of these foreign plants have proven to be extremely
          rarely include designs to control stormwater runoff and             well-suited to their new environment. A lack of natural
          frequently provide a direct entry point for runoff from long        predators and diseases enables these species to spread
          stretches of roadway with all of its attendant non-point            aggressively. Invasive plants are native species that tend
          source pollutants.                                                  to be opportunists, spreading rapidly once a foothold is
                                                                              established. Both exotic and invasive plants can threaten
          Habitat Prolecdon Measures                                          valuable communities by replacing species and by altering
          Launched boats are smaller on average and less impact               the physical environment. Furthermore, the deleterious
          results from their operation than from larger boats which           effects of these plants are often due to or enhanced by
          operate from marinas. In addition, marinas require the              human disturbance of the environment. Although the
          same sheltered environment which can also support                   problem of exotic and invasive plants are biological, this
          significant tidal habitats.     Resulting impacts can be            subject is presented under shoreline development based
          minimized by clustering marinas at previously developed             on the role that humans play in establishment of these
          sites and near existing marinas. Ideal spots for marina             species. Three of the most problematic exotic species are
          and boat ramp construction include abandoned industrial             discussed below along with suggested measures of
          sites and previously bulkheaded shoreline with adjacent             combatting their proliferation.
          deep water. Protected marina basins can be constructed
          through excavation of adjacent upland at appropriate sites          Water Chestnut
          to reduce impacts and construction costs by using land-             Water chestnut is native to     southern Europe and Asia
          based equipment.                                                    (Kiviat, 1987b). It was first brought to Massachusetts
                                                                              about 1875 as an ornamental plant. Water chestnut soon
          Sites that are inappropriate for marina development                 escaped from garden ponds and pools and spread
          include areas with previously undisturbed shoreline, creeks         throughout the Northeast. It is a violation of New York law
          with significant spawning or nursery grounds for                    to plant or otherwise enhance the spread of this species.
          anadromous fish, areas without adequate natural water
          depth that would require extensive dredging of the River









                                                               Shoreline Development                                                   59

            Biology
            Water chestnut is an annual that grows in full sunlight on
            the water surface over depths ranging from less than an
            inch to 16 feet. The plant has an anchor, a long flexible
            stem, and one to five or more floating leaf rosettes on the
            water surface (Figure 24). Water chestnut produces large
            spiny nuts that mature in late August and can survive over
            five years before germinating. Plant dispersal also occurs
            when rosettes break free from the stem, float away, and
            produce mature seeds. Water chestnut can form very
            large colonies that cover the water surface (Figure 25).

            Value to Wildlife and Humans
            Although water chestnut in the Hudson is not the Chinese
            vegetable of the same name, the nuts produced are
            consumed by muskrats and other rodents. In addition
            water chestnut provides shelter for cluckweeds and other
            small floating plants eaten by waterfowl. There is some
            evidence that they provide nursery ground for young fish.
            Despite these positive aspects, water chestnut is
            undesirable for a number of reasons: it often overcomes
            other more valuable waterfowl food plants; it limits
            swimming, boating, and fishing; it may lead to
            sedimentation by reducing current flow; it can lead to
            reduced oxygen levels; and its large biomass reduces
            water quality upon decomposition (Kiviat, 1987).

            Habitat Protection Measures
            Several chemical herbicides are effective against the plant;
            2,4-D was used by the DEC until 1976 when the permitted          Figure 24: Water chestnut Traga natans) (from Kiviat,
            application concentrations of the chemical fell beneath
            effective control levels. Herbicide    application has the       1987).
            significant drawback of removing
            desirable plant species and is not
            ecologically wise. Water chestnut
            control through   natural biological
            methods has been explored,
            including use of   a fungus and a
            beetle. Methods    for effective use
            of these organisms have yet to be      @'t
            developed and     more research is
            needed before    the practicality of
                                                               A"
            this approach can be determined.       4@

                                                                                                                      A ""Z*
            The only available method for
            controlling the spread of water
            chestnut Is to remove the plants
            either mechanically or by hand
            (Seeger, 1988). Given the long
            viability of seeds, it Is doubtful that
            even rigorous harvesting efforts
            would eliminate water chestnut
            from an area.          Nevertheless,
            periodic harvesting could prove to
            be useful, particularly if an
            economic use could be found for
            the plant material. Potential uses Fig.. 25: Continuous cover of water chestnut over open water at Fishkill Creek
            for water chestnut include (N. Salafsky).










         60                                            Chapter 4: Human Interactions

         livestock fodder, methane production, or as a mulch or
         green fertilizer. Unless effective biological control agents
         are developed, commercial use of water chestnut
         represents the only possible means for its safe and
         effective control.

         Purple Loosestrffe
         Purple loosestrife is native to Europe (Malecki, 1987). It
         was first brought  to the east coast in the early 1800's,
         possibly as seeds carried In ship's ballast or as an
         ornamental plant.  It has spread throughout the continent,
         often being planted by gardeners or aplarists.

         Biology
         Purple loosestrife Is a perennial herb that grows in moist
         soils associated with wetlands and floodplains. In tidal
         wetlands, it is generally associated with drier regions of
         the upper marsh and along the marsh and upland border
         where it can occur in dense stands. Purple loosestrife is
         a tall plant (2-8 feet) with squarish stems, opposite lance-
         shaped leaves, and large panicles of bright purple flowers
         (Figure 26). Its tiny seeds are dispersed by animals, wind,
         and water and remain viable for two or more years.
         Reproduction also occurs by adventitious roots. Plant
         establishment is often associated with physical distur-
         bance of the existing community.

         Value to Wildlife and Humans
         Purple loosestrife tends to invade throughout a
         community, reducing or eliminating other plants that are        Figure 26: Purple loosestrife       ythrum salicaria (from
         more valuable to wildlife species. Purple loosestrife may       Malecki, 1987).
         create drier marshes, leading to conditions that favor its
         own proliferation,    Although introduction of the plant        such, it is an invasive species in the tidal wetland areas.
         reduces nesting by some birds that require cattails and
         other native marsh plants, other birds that traditionally       Biology
         were found less frequently in the marsh nest in loosestrife     Common reed is a perennial grass that grows in moist soil
         (Swift, 1988). For humans, the plant has value in honey         and shallow intermittent surface water. Along the Hudson,
         production and for its appearance.                              common reed thrives in brackish areas such as Piermont
                                                                         marsh, and throughout freshwater sections of the River.
         Habitat Protection Measures                                     Common reed has an underground stem (rhizome) from
         Currently, there are no effective    means of controlling       which annual shoots (culms) grow. The culms have a
         purple loosestrife, although limited success has been           high concentration of silica which allows the plant to grow
         achieved with applications of the chemical herbicide            between six and thirteen feet tall and support a plumelike
         Roundup to individual plants. It Is unlikely that wetland       inflorescence at its top. Reproduction occurs through
         areas infested with purple loosestrife can be rid of the        both seeds and rhizomes. Common reed often grows in
         plant. Accordingly, efforts must be focused on preventing       large, dense stands that choke out most other plants
         the spread of the plant (Rawinski, 1988). Loosestrife-free      (Figure 27). Common reed colonizes areas in response to
         areas need to be identified and protected from distur-          both natural and human disturbances including changes
         bance. It may be valuable to systematically inspect             in drainage, impoundment of marshes, clearing vegetation
         loosestrife-free areas on an annual basis so that any           and exposing soil, dredge spoil deposition, and saline
         invasion could be eradicated before more than a few             runoff. Shopping malls, residential developments, and
         plants become established.                                      roadways are also areas where examples of common reed
                                                                         stands can be found.
         Common Reed
         Common reed, while native to the northeast, had been a          Value to WIldfife and Humans
         minor plant found along the coast but has become a              As with purple loosestrife, common reed can take over an
         highly aggressive weed that takes over communities that         area, eliminating plants that are more valuable to wildlife
         suffer any form of human disturbance (Kiviat, 1987a). As        species. Unlike loosestrife, however, common reed has









                                                                  Shoreline Development                                                       61

                                                                                 Common reed control efforts may also lead to promotion
                                                                                 of purple loosestrife. To control common reed, efforts
                                                                                 must be focused on preventing the spread of the plant to
                                                                                 new areas (Rawinski, 1988). As is the case with purple
                                                                                 loosestrife, common reed free areas should be identified
                                                                                 and protected from disturbance. In addition, marketable
                                                                                 uses for common reed should be explored.

                                                                                 FURTHER READING
                                      V                                          Descriptions of the biology and control of exotic plants in
                                                                                 New York is included in Decker and Enck (1987) from
                                                                                 which almost all of the above information is taken.

                                                                                 4.6 Use of Living Resources
                                                                                 An unusual characteristic of the Hudson Estuary is the
                                                                                 diversity of living things that can be found in the water
                                                                                 and its shores. Living resources are becoming more
                                                                                 threatened by population growth in the Hudson's
                                                                                 watershed and should be rigorously protected now.

                                                                                 Fishing
                                                                                 Fishing includes both commercial and recreational
                                                                                 activities.  Although the two types of fishermen can
                                                                                       ete for the same resource, they share many
                                                          oLIN                   comp
                        @7  Al
                                                  k"A                            concerns for the viability and protection of the resource.

                                                                                 Issues and Practices
                                                              3-

                                                     v
                                                                                 Commercial Fishing
                                                          M    tt@
                                                                                 Commercial fishing has been a major industry for much of
                                                                                 the history of the Hudson River. The mainstay of the
                                                                                 fishing industry has been the huge spawning runs of
              Figure 27:   Common Reed stand below Rip Van Winkle                American shad, Atlantic sturgeon, and striped bass. A
              Bridge (N. SalafskylTNC)                                           hundred years ago, Albany was known for its sturgeon
              value for both wildlife and humans.           Common reed          and caviar exports. The fish was so plentiful that it was
              provides food for muskrats and geese. In addition, several         known as "Albany beef"and laws were passed forbidding
              bird species and muskrat use common reed for cover and             its being given to servants more than once a day
              for building materials. Most of the docum ented ecological         (Chhabra, 1988). Likewise, caviar, which was exported
              value of common reed comes from European com-                      as far as Russia, was given away in waterfront saloons in
              munities. Although common reed is not commercially                 hopes that its saltiness would spur drink sales. Oysters
              important on the the Hudson, it is used in Europe and              and other shellfish harvested from the lower portions of
              Asia as construction material, fuel, livestock feed, pulp,         the estuary were also an important source of revenue.
              and ornamental flowers.                                            Starting in the twentieth century, however, commercial
              Habitat Protection Measures                                        fishing along the Hudson declined due to water pollution,
              Methods which have been used for control of common                 habitat loss, and stock depletion.           Urban pollution
              reed include herbicides, burning, water level alterations,         eliminated the oyster beds as early as 1925, and
              and mowing. Effective procedures include flooding with             subsequently, other species declined dramatically. Since
              ten to twelve inches of water in early June after                  the Korean War, fishing has become unprofitable for most
              establishment of the young plants, sudden flooding with            professionals; the number of regular commercial fishermen
              sea water, mowing shoots before mid-June, or a                     going out each spring has dwindled from 71 In 1935 to a
              combination of these methods. Burning is most effective            low of 31 in 1974. Finally, commercial fishing almost
              in early summer just after the shoots emerge or just               completely halted In 1976 with the discovery that many
              before the coldest part of winter (Daiber, 1986).            In    fish in the River had PCB contamination levels that far
              general, however, it Is doubtful that these methods would          exceeded Federal allowances for food consumption.
              control common reed populations In sensitive tidal marsh
              communities without causing extensive damage.









              62                                               Chapter 4: Human Interactions

              As a result of PCB contamination, the River north of the             crappie, rainbow smelt, Atlantic needlefish, northern pike,
              Troy dam was closed to fishing. The commercial fishery               tiger muskellunge, and bluefish (DEC, 1988). Other
              in the southern portion of the River was limited to                  sources of controversy are centered on River access.
              American shad and Atlantic sturgeon, two species which
              primarily feed in the open ocean and return to the River to          Impacts of Fishing
              spawn. In 1983, the commercial fish harvest from the
              Hudson River totalled 554,000 pounds with a value of                 Species Depletion
              $162,900 (Horn and Skinner, 1985). In recent years                   At the peak of the Hudson's commercial fishing industry,
              however, the shad catch alone has been over a million                it is likely that overfishing contributed significantly to the
              pounds annually. Marketing the catch is hampered by an               decline in many fish populations. Current bans on fishing
              undeserved reputation of Hudson River fish among                     for most species, however, may provide protection for the
              consumers and severely depressed prices due to the large             fish stocks. If the industry revives, intensive fishing could
              volume of fish on the market caught in earlier spawning              reduce the populations of many species. This potential
              runs from more southern waters.                                      problem would be especially acute for anadromous fish
                                                                                   since it is relatively easy to catch these fish during the
              Commercial fisheries are linked to the health of the River.          spawning runs. Determining how many fish must be
              Since PCB discharges in the River were curtailed in 1977,            allowed to spawn is not a simple task. Although most fish
              PCB levels in many species have been falling. With                   have the capacity to produce hundreds or thousands of
              cleaner waters and less fishing pressure, fish populations           eggs per female, the eggs and larvae suffer a high
              may have increased. Attempts are even being made to                  mortality rate. Large numbers of eggs may be necessary
              revive the caviar export industry and sales of smoked                to ensure that enough individuals survive to reproduce
              Atlantic sturgeon are rapidly rising (Chhabra, 1988). The            and sustain the population.         Many fish are also lost
              fishing industry may continue to improve with improve-               through impingement and entrainment in water intakes.
              ment in the River's environmental quality and adequate               Both natural and human causes of mortality must be
              management of the resource.                                          considered in setting limits on a sustainable harvest.

              Recreational Fishing                                                 Ecosystem Effects
              Over the last century, recreational fishing surpassed                Both recreational and commercial fishing have little impact
              commercial fishing in economic importance in the Hudson              on tidal habitats, provided that depletion of species does
              River. In 1976 it was estimated that over 50,000 angler              not occur. Adverse ecosystem effects that may be related
              days were spent on the River and that an additional                  to fishing or fishery management include: loss of nutrient
              1,417,000 angler days were spent on the coastal striped              input that anadromous fish carry into the ecosystem in the
              bass fishery, which is supported in part by the Hudson               form of eggs; loss of higher level predators that regulate
              Estuary (Sheppard, 1976 in MPI, 1983). Recreational                  other populations; and, introduction of exotic fish species
              fishing is an important part of the State economy. In 1978           into the River for recreational fishery development. Over
              it was estimated that freshwater fishing in New York State           the last few decades, it is quite likely that the tidal habitats
              generated between 385-448 million dollars in economic                have benefited more from the efforts of fishermen
              activity, while marine fishing added an additional 625-M             (especially the Hudson River Fisherman's Association) in
              million dollars (Skinner, 1979 in Horn and Skinner, 1985).           the control of River pollution than they have been
              Economic activity is directly related to environmental               adversely impacted by fishing practices.
              quality: estimates indicate that PCB contamination costs
              the State between $17 and 25 million annually in lost                Habitat aW Fish Populatron Protection Measures
              fishing revenues (Barclay, 1989). Fishing is also important          The greatest threat to both fish populations and the fishing
              as a recreational pastime. A survey of a large sample of             industry is the loss of suitable habitat. Accordingly,
              licensed anglers in 1977 revealed that most people fish to           fishermen and conservationists must work together to
              be outdoors and for the fun, sport, and skill challenges it          preserve as much habitat in the River as is possible. Both
              provides (Horn and Skinner, 1985).                                   recreational and commercial fishing would be greatly
                                                                                   improved If all fish in the River were safe to eat. Local
              Most of the issues facing recreational fishing today on the          fishermen can play an important role in working to
              Hudson are related to toxic substances in water and fish.            eliminate toxic discharges in their towns and counties.
              Fishing is completely prohibited between Troy and                    Effective management of the fishery resource requires
              Hudson Falls due to PCB contamination. In the estuarine              close cooperation between fishermen and the DEC.
              portion of the River (including tidal portions of tributary
              streams), where fishing is permitted, it is recommended              FURTHER READING
              that American eel, white perch, carp, goldfish, brown                Information on commercial and recreational fishing along
              bullhead, largemouth bass, pumpkinseed, white catfish,               the Hudson can be found in reports of the DEC Hudson
              striped bass, and walleye should not be eaten at all, and            River Estuary Fishery Management Program such as
              no more than one meal a month should be eaten of black               Dunwell (1984). Problems with toxic pollution and fish









                                                                    Living Resources                                                        63

             are reviewed in Horn and Skinner (1985) . Current fishing          Impact of Recreational Use of Resources
             regulations can be found in guides produced by the DEC.
                                                                                Consumptive Activities
             Other Natural Resource Uses                                        Impacts from hunting and trapping include intentional or
             Other recreational use of natural resources includes               accidental killings of protected animal species, disturbance
             consumptive activities such as hunting and passive                 of animal populations, minor disruption through the
             activities such as bird-watching and scientific study.             construction of deer stands and duck blinds, and pollution
                                                                                of the habitats with lead shot (recently banned in New
             Issues and Practfces                                               York for waterfowl hunting). Positive impacts of hunting
                                                                                include the regulation of overabundant animal populations
             Hunting and Trapping                                               and habitat conservation efforts conducted by hunting
             Hunting, as a consumptive use, has been practiced in the           clubs and financially supported by hunting fees.
             forests and wetlands of the Hudson since humans first
             inhabited the Valley. Accounts of the Algonquian and               Non-consumptive Activities
             early colonial days describe a land full of game animals           Passive observations of the natural environment have little
             and waterfowl that were easily taken. In subsequent                or no impact on the habitats save disturbance of a few
             years, the animals dwindled in numbers and species and             species (e.g. bald eagle or least bittern) caused by human
             are no longer a primary food source for most people.               presence, and whatever alterations that are needed to
             Nonetheless, wetlands and forests of the Hudson today              enable human access to the area. Hikers and hunters
             still support hunting and trapping. By far the most popular        can also trample valuable plant species and leave litter
             game are ducks and geese that stop briefly in wetlands to          behind. Passive scientific studies generally do not have
             feed and rest during fall migrations. Trappers focus on            negative impacts.       Studies involving active habitat
             muskrats, minks, and other furbearing animals of the               manipulation, however, may create adverse impacts that
             marsh and swamp communities.                                       have to be evaluated against the benefit of potential
                                                                                knowledge to be gained.
             Non-consumptive Nature Experiences
             Nature experiences are difficult to quantify or evaluate           Habitat PrOtectfOn Measures
             since they occur in so many varied forms.              In our      As is the case with fishing, the greatest threat to hunting
             increasingly urbanized environment, the River provides an          is the loss of suitable animal habitat. Accordingly, hunters
             opportunity to escape from the crowds, noise, and sights           and other conservationists must work together to preserve
             of the cities and their suburbs. Activities that satisfy this      habitat in the River as much as possible. Local hunters
             passive     recreational    need     include     birdwatching,     can play an important role in working to preserve suitable
             photography, painting, walking, hiking, biking, sailing            habitats in their towns and counties. Effective manage-
             swimming, sitting, and many others.                  Importani     ment of the wildlife resource requires close cooperation
             considerations that affect the quality of nature experiences       between hunters and the DEC.
             are safe, readily available access to sites, limits on outside
             noises and pollutants, limits an the number of people              Passive uses of the habitats should be strongly
             present, and the physical condition of the sites. In order         encouraged. The River ecosystem will only be preserved
             to provide high quality experiences, it is necessary to            to the extent that people appreciate its beauty and value.
             actively manage for this use. Unfortunately, there is a            In providing access to the River, care should be taken to
             presumption that these uses can normally be accommo-               educate all users to the sensitive nature of the habitats
             dated as an ancillary activity to some other economically          and how their presence may affect the system. Scientific
             attractive use.                                                    research on our basic understanding of the ecosystem, its
                                                                                component communities and species, the impact of
             Scientific Research                                                human actions, and the management of the resource are
             The proximity of the Hudson River to many universities             also vital and should be promoted. At the same time,
             and other scientific institutions makes it an excellent            however, it must be realized that research is not always
             resource or laboratory for research on physical and biotic         linked to conservation efforts and overzealous habitat
             aspects of the estuarine environment. Research is vital to         manipulations can destroy far more habitat value than the
             further our understanding and future management of the             knowledge gained can save. Scientists, universities, and
             ecosystem. Scientific work conducted on the Hudson                 funding agencies should ensure that research observes
             benefits management of the region directly and increases           protection of the resources as a primary concern and is
             the level of knowledge that is necessary to protect our            conducted in an appropriate manner.
             environment effectively.                                           FURTHER READING
                                                                                For information on access to the habitats, see the report
                                                                                by the Hudson River Access Forum (19N). DEC's
                                                                                hunting and trapping regulations are published annually.












        64





























































                                                                                                                              I














                Chapter 5:


                EXISTING RESPONSIBILITIES FOR RESOURCE MANAGEMENT



                This chapter examines the legal and political framework that governs human activity along the tidal
                portion of the Hudson River. The first section briefly reviews the major legislation that applies to
                the River habitats. The next section identifies government agencies that implement and enforce
                .these laws. The final section looks at a few of the private organizations that actively promote
                protection of the Hudson River's resources. A list of these agencies and groups together with their
                addresses is given in Appendix D.

                The information in each section is presented at three levels: national, state, and local.












         66

         5.1 Legislative Background                                          Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA)
         Legislative efforts impacting natural resources have tended         The 1972 Coastal Zone Management Act encourages
         to facilitate resource exploitation for economic reasons.           states to work in cooperation with federal and local
         For example, the Swamp Lands Act of 1849 gave states                governments to develop land and water use programs for
         title to their wetland areas so they could *reclaim" them for       coastal waters and adjacent shorelands. Amendments to
         productive uses.         Increasing public awareness of             the Act in 1976 and 1980 require funding recipients to
         environmental issues over the last two decades has led to           focus on shorefront access and the preservation of areas
         the adoption of a wide range of environmental legislation           of unique ecological, historical, and scenic importance.
         at Federal, State, and local levels. A complex framework            The act is administered by the National Oceanic and.
         of laws and regulations now governs the use of the                  Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
         Hudson River and the protection of its habitats.
                                                                             Marine Protection, Research, and Sancandes Act
         Federal Legislation                                                 The 1972 Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
                                                                             Act establishes the National Estuarine Sanctuary
         Rivers and Harbors ARYopriatrons: Act (Refuse and                   Program which provides matching grants to states to
         Navigation Acts)                                                    acquire, develop, and manage estuarine areas to be
         The 1899 Rivers and Harbors Appropriations Act is one of            used for scientific research and education. The Hudson
         the earliest federal laws regulating water pollution. Section       River National Estuarine Sanctuary System was
         10 of this law empowers the U.S. Army Corps of                      established in 1982 under the guidelines of this
         Engineers to regulate all dredging and filling in navigable         program. The Act is administered by NOAA.
         waters through a permit system. Section 13 prohibits                Endangered Species Act
         disposal of refuse from any vessel or shore facility in             The 1973 Endangered Species Act is designed to protect
         navigable waters; this section of law has not been                  species of fish, wildlife, and. plants which are listed as
         interpreted as empowering the federal government to                 either in danger of extinction (endangered) or are likely to
         impose regulations regarding hazardouswaste discharges.             become an endangered species in the future (threatened).
         Navigable waters include all tidal waters and adjacent              Under this Act, it is illegal to import or export any federally
         lands up to the unobstructed natural high water mark.               listed species. In addition, federal agencies must ensure
         The Rivers and Harbors Acts of 1925, 1930, 1938, and                that their actions will not jeopardize the continued
         1954 authorize the Corps to dredge the Hudson River to              existence of endangered and threatened species and that
         legislatively prescribed dimensions to providewaterborne            such actions do not destroy or impair habitats that are
         access to the Port of Albany.                                       determined by the Secretary of the Interior to be "critical"
         Fish and WildIffe Coordination Act (FWCA)                           to the survival of listed species.
         The 1965 FWCA requires that federal agencies coordinate             Clean Water Act (CWA)
         their activities to meet federal conservation goals.                The 1977 CWA incorporates several earlier water pollution
         Specifically, the Act requires each federal agency to               control measures including the 1972 Federal Water
         consult with the Fish and Wildlife Service concerning               Pollution Control Act. Enforcement mechanisms and
         potential impacts of proposed activities on endangered              regulatory procedures of the CWA were amended by the
         and threatened species.                                             1987 Water Quality Act. The CWA was enacted to "restore
         National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)                            and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological
         The NEPA, which became effective in 1970, was the first             integrity of the Nation's waters" (Freedman, 1987). The
         major attempt to establish a national policy for the                CWA established the National Pollution Discharge
         protection of the quality and condition of the environment          Elimination System (NPDES) that requires the EPA to
         (Freedman, 1987). NEPA was enacted to ensure that                   administer a permit system limiting the amounts of listed
         proposed Federal agency actions are carefully evaluated             pollutants that can be discharged into the waters of the
         before they are undertaken to avoid potential damage to             nation (see the description of SPDES under NYS laws for
         the nation's air, land, and water resources. Under Title 1          a more detailed account of the NPDES process). In the
         of NEPA, a proposed agency action that could adversely              1987 Water Quality Act, the EPA is given additional
         affect the human environment must have its implications             authority to establish a program controlling nonpoint
         fully detailed in an environmental impact statement (EIS).          source pollution. Section 404 of the CWA requires a
         Copies of the EIS must be made available to the public              federal permit to be issued by the Army Corps of
         and submitted to the Council on Environmental Quality               Engineers for discharge of dredged or fill material into
         (CEO), an executive advisory board created under Title 2            navigable waters. The 1987 Water Quality Act also has a
         of NEPA. NEPA does not require that potential adverse               provision directly addressing water pollution problems in
         impacts be avoided, but only that they be identified and            the nation's estuaries.
         alternatives to the proposed action be evaluated.









                                                                Legislative Background                                                    67

             Other Federal Acts                                                and the Verrazano Narrows. The program is administered
             The 1968 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act establishes a                 by the DEC through an advisory committee and a
             program to designate certain rivers as being of wild,             coordinator within the DEC. The committee is charged
             scenic, or recreational importance, and prohibits dams            with recommending a DEC management strategy that
             and other structures from being placed on designated              provides for the preservation, protection, restoration, and
             rivers. Three segments of the lower Hudson River have             enhancement of the Estuarine District. This section also
             been identified for inclusion in the program: from                addresses the State's participation in the Federal Hudson
             Barrytown to Maiden; Hudson to Coxsackie; and                     River National Estuarine Research Reserve.
             Coxsackie to New Baltimore.
                                                                               Title 5, Sec. 35: Endangered Species
             The 1974 Deepwater Port Act provides for"the protection           This section provides for the designation of endangered
             of the marine and coastal environment to prevent or               and threatened species by the DEC and prohibits the
             minimize any adverse impact which might occur as a                taking or sale of any of these species.
             consequence of the development of such ports."
                                                                               Article 15: Water Resources
             The 1980 Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships restricts            Water Resources regulations address a wide range of
             ships of U.S. registry, wherever located, and ships of            water management activities including reservoirs and
             foreign registry in the navigable waters of the U.S. from         reservoir releases, water resources planning and
             discharging oil, oily mixtures, or noxious liquids into the       development, water supply, hydroelectric power, and river
             water except under certain defined conditions.                    use and improvement.

             The 1980 Superfund Act requires that the public be                Title 5: Protection of Water
             notified of the release into the environment of any               This program requires a permit to be issued by the DEC
             substances that may present a substantial danger to               for activities in streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes including
             public health or the environment. The Act also establishes        disturbance to stream beds or banks, construction or
             two funds financed by taxes on oil and hazardous                  repair of certain dams, and excavation or fill in navigable
             materials to be used to clean up hazardous compounds              waters. Under the program, for "protected" streams (those
             and compensate the public for damages caused by the               classified for certain purposes such as drinking or
             release of these substances.                                      swimming), permits are required for activities that will
                                                                               disturb or change the stream bed or its banks within 50
             State Legislation                                                 feet of the edge of the stream. Construction and repair of
                                                                               dams also require permits within certain thresholds
             Erwironmental Conservation Law (ECL)                              regardless of the navigability or classification of the water
             The ECL contains the general authorization for the                body. In navigable waters (those on which a canoe or
             activities of the Department of Environmental Conservation        larger craft can be operated), permits are required for any
             (DEC) and many specific laws addressing a variety of              dredging and filling in the water and in adjacent wetlands.
             environmental issues.
                                                                               Title 27. Wild, Scenic, and Recreational Rivers System
             Article 8: State Environmental Quality RevlewAct (SEQRA)          Under this program, stretches of rivers in New York can
             Under this Act, which is New York State's version of the          be designated as important "wild," "scenic," or
             NEPA, State agencies and local governments are required           "recreational" resources. This law authorizes the DEC to
             to prepare an environmental impact statement (EIS) for            protect the outstanding natural, scenic, historic,
             any action which may have a significant effect on the             ecological, and recreational resources of these rivers.
             environment.     In accordance with Article 42 of the
             Executive Law, the SEORA regulations were amended to              Article 17., Water Pollution Control Act
             require state agency actions to be consistent with coastal        The Water Pollution Control Act regulates the discharge of
             policies.                                                         pollutants and sewage into the waters of New York and
                                                                               controls the bulk storage of petroleum.
             Articles 11 and 13: Fish and Wildlife Law
             Article 11: Fish and Wildlife and Article 13: Marine and          Title 8: State Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
             Coastal Resources comprise the parts of the ECL which             Pursuant to the 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act,
             regulate hunting, trapping, and fishing in the lands and          all direct dischargers into the nation's surface waters are
             waters of New York State.                                         required to obtain permits that regulate the amount of
                                                                               certain substances that they release. Under this act, the
             Title 3, Sec. 6. Hudson River Estuary Management                  National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES),
             This program establishes the Hudson River Estuarine               the EPA was authorized to set up national water quality
             District which encompasses the tidal waters of the River          standards for the maximum in-stream concentrations of
             and its tributaries and wetlands between the dam at Troy          various pollutants allowable that would still protect the









         68                                        Chapter 5: Management Responsibilities

         health of humans and aquatic organisms.               In the      to govern their use. A permit for development in a tidal
         provisions of the legislation, all states are required to         wetland can be issued only if it can be demonstrated that
         establish their own water quality control programs using          proposed activities will not adversely affect water quality,
         either the EPA standards or their own standards which             flood and storm control, marine food production, wildlife
         had to be at least as stringent as the EPA's. In New York         habitats, open space, and aesthetically significant areas.
         State, the DEC chose to develop its own standards for the         On the Hudson, the Tidal Wetlands Act applies from the
         amounts of pollutants that are allowable. As of 1987, the         ocean to the Tappan Zee Bridge. Regulation of mapped
         DEC had established "standards" (legally binding) for 95          tidal wetlands includes a buffer area that extends 300 feet
         hazardous substances and "guidelines" (challengeable in           from the landward boundary of the wetland or to an
         court) for 100 additional substances.                             elevation of 10 feet above mean sea level (whichever is
                                                                           closer). Unlike the Freshwater Wetlands Act, this Act does
         The standards established by the DEC are used to limit            not have a regulated wetland size limitation. The Act is
         amounts of various pollutants that a given manufacturer or        enforced by the DEC and its administration cannot be
         sewage plant can discharge into the River under a SPDES           delegated to local governments.
         (pronounced "speedeez") permit. The limits for any given
         water body are determined using scientific information            Article 34: Coastal Erosion Hazard Areas Act
         concerning the effects of different concentrations of these       The Coastal Erosion Hazard Areas Act provides the
         substances on humans and animals and the usage class-             authority to regulate and control certain activities and
         ification of the given body of water. A SPDES permit              development in coastal erosion hazard areas within the
         contains the specific effluent limits for each substance that     State's coastal area, including the estuarine portion of the
         is to be, released, self-monitoring requirements, a               Hudson River.      Within coastal erosion hazard areas,
         compliance schedule for construction of treatment                 construction or placement of a structure, or any action or
         systems, and any special regulations. SPDES permits are
         valid for five years and are divided into several categories
         depending on the size and type of the discharging plant.
         Compliance with the SPDES permit is largely based on
         information supplied by the discharger. Although the DEC
                                                                                                               .4,
                                                                                                          ........... .
         has the power to fine violators or to suspend or revoke a
         permit, the DEC has had a general policy of seeking                                                              t.-
                                                                                                                          A
         voluntary compliance in order to gain the greatest
         reduction in pollution without the delays that are inherent
         with litigation.

         Article 24: Freshwater Wetlands Act                                                    I ti- Aol@,
         The Freshwater Wetlands Act of 1975 recognizes the valu
                                                                      e
         of freshwater wetlands in providing flood protection,
         wildlife habitats, open space, and water resources. The
                                                                                                                          ..........
         program established under this Act regulates activities
                                                                                                                          Alh2n
                                                                                                      . . . . . . . . . . . ........
         potentially detrimental to wetlands such as draining,
         dredging, and filling. It is administered by the State or
         local governments pursuant to State guidelines following@
         official filing of wetland inventory maps by the State. The                                                 L
         DEC regulates freshwater wetlands through an interim                                                        Ai P-ghkerpsic
         permit program in communities where maps have not yet
         been filed. Before granting or denying a permit, the
         municipality or the DEC must determine whether the                                                            Newburilh
         activity will have an adverse impact on the value of the              tn .1-ificati.. of H.4-n -4 Knh-k araters by
                                                                             N- York. Department of E-vire-M.tal Co-mti=
         wetland. The Act covers wetlands that are greater than
         12.4 acres in size although smaller tracts can be included           A El F., drinking (.he. treated and disinfected),
                                                                                   swirnn@inii,fiah ngsadbosting          .................. .
         if they are of special importance. Regulations apply to the          B j           ini
                                                                                  For swimming, fishing and basting
                                                                              C                                           ......
         mapped wetland and to a buffer zone extending 100 feet                   Fr fishi ng and bwti ng                 ".Y
                                                                              D   For b-t::: ::d ffilithi ag Wt n.t fish p-1,affetion
         in all directions from the border of the wetland.                        For boat d shing.-ceptsheilfighLog
                                                                                   for the market
                                                                              S8  Salty watera usable forawinaming, hosting
                                                                                   and fishing eacco shellfishinir for the --rket ............... ....
                                                                                                                          ..............
         Anicle 25. Tidal Wetlands Act                                                                                    M
         The Tidal Wetlands Act of 1973 serves to preserve and
         protect tidal wetlands from despoliation and destruction.
         Under the terms of the Act, the DEC inventoried and               Figure 28: DEC water use classifications along the
         mapped all tidal wetlands and developed a permit system           Hudson River (From Rohmann and Lilienthal, 1984).









                                                                  Legislative Background                                                        69

             use of the land which would materially alter the condition           revitalization plans are of special importance to the future
             of the land requires a permit from the DEC, or county or             of the tidal habitats in the Hudson.
             local government, whichever has assumed jurisdiction.
             Coastal erosion hazard areas include: "structural hazard             Planning and Land Use Reguladon
             areas" which are receding at an average rate of one foot             Land use regulation by local government is derived from
             or more per year; and "natural protective feature areas'             the police power that local governments have to provide
             which include beaches, dunes, sandbars, spits, shoals,               for public order, peace, health, safety, morals, and general
             barrier bays, barrier islands, bluffs, and wetlands.                 welfare. In the early 1900's, local governments began to
                                                                                  use this power to plan and control their development.
             Execudve Law (EL)                                                    Municipal governments have the authority to create
             The EL contains the legal authority for the State's coastal          planning boards that advise local governments concerning
             management program which is administered by the                      appropriate and inappropriate uses of lands in their
             Department of State.                                                 municipalities. The recommended uses are then codified
                                                                                  in the form of zoning ordinances which regulate the types
             Article 42: Waterfront Revitalization and                            of land use that are permissible in each zone. Variances
             Coastal Resources Act                                                can be issued to permit the use of land in a manner for
             Article 42 declares in part that it is the public policy of the      which it is not zoned, provided certain conditions are met.
             State within its coastal area to: conserve and protect fish
             and wildlife and their habitats; achieve a balance between           Local Waterfront ReviWizatron Programs (LWRPs)
             economic development and preservation needs that                     Under provisions of the Federal and State coastal
             permits the beneficial use of coastal resources while                management programs, funding and technical assistance
             preventing permanent adverse changes to ecological                   are available to coastal municipalities to prepare and
             systems; and to minimize damage to natural resources                 implement local LWRPs.           Through local programs,
             and property from flooding and erosion.             The Act's        municipalities may refine and supplement state coastal
             policies also call for the assurance of consistency of State         policies to reflect local conditions and needs. Preparation
             actions and Federal actions with policies within the coastal         of a LWRP includes an inventory of waterfront resources
             area and cooperation and coordination with other states,             and    conditions,     identification   of problems and
             the Federal government, and Canada to attain a consistent            opportunities and development of local policies which are
             policy towards coastal management.             Consistency is        consistent with state policies, preparation of specific
             accomplished by requiring that all activities in the coastal         waterfront proposals, and enactment of local laws and
             area involving a federal permit be reviewed by the DOS               regulations to implement policies. Once a municipality's
             to ensure that the action is consistent with the State's             LWRP has been approved by the Secretary of State, the
             policies. Section 919 of Article 42 also requires that State         local program may be substituted for the state program in
             agencies' actions Including funding, planning, and land              that community. State and federal actions must then be
             transactions, as well as direct development activities, must         consistent with the approved LWRP. The State program
             be consistent with the policies of the Act. Coordination of          makes funds available to help implement specific
             this provision is achieved in part through SEQRA.                    waterfront projects proposed in the local program.

             Local Legislation                                                    FURTHER READING
                                                                                  Those interested in learning more about environmental
             Local governments in New York State are comprised of                 legislation and related implementing regulations should
             counties, cities, towns, and villages. These units of                begin with commentaries on and summaries of the
             government provide most local government services.                   statutes which present both the intent of the law and its
             Local governments are based on the State Constitution                interpretation by the courts. Direct reading of the law
             and statutes for the basic law which provides for their              often does not provide an adequate context for
             structure, powers, and operational procedures. important             understanding how the law addresses a particular issue.
             State Constitutional provisions relevant to local                    Useful sources on Federal environmental legislation
             governments are found in Article IX (home rule) which                include Freedman (1987) and Firestone and Reed
             gives local governments the power to adopt local laws                (1984).    No complete summary of New York State
             and Article VI I I (finance) which provides for tax collections.     environmental law is currently available; information in this
             Provisions pertaining to the specific powers and duties of           section was taken primarily and directly from the text of
             local governments are also found in various State statutes.          the Environmental Conservation Law of the State of New
                                                                                  York as reprinted (Looseleaf Law Publishing, 1988) . A
             Under the principle of home rule, local governments may              summary of local government law can be found in The
             pass a variety of laws, ordinances, and resolutions.                 Local Government Handbook, DOS (1987).
             Specific details of these laws vary from municipality to
             municipality but they tend to share general features.
             Zoning ordinances and the development of waterfront










         70                                       Chapter 5: Management Responsibilities

         5.2 Government Agencies                                         with the protection and enhancement of fishery resources
         Numerous agencies have jurisdiction over different              and their habitats. Responsibilities include review and
         aspects of the Hudson River. This section is adapted from       analysis of all development activities waterward of the high
         New York's Eastern Lake Ontario Sand Dunes@ Resources,          tide line of the Hudson up to the Troy dam, and special
         Problems. and Management Guidelines (DOS, 1989).                projects to the headwaters. NMFS is also responsible for
                                                                         management of the Endangered Species Act, with the
         Federal Agencies                                                Shortnose Sturgeon being a major concern in the Hudson.
         Army Corps of Engineers (Corps)                                 Department of the Werlor (DOI)
         The Hudson River is within the jurisdiction of the New          The Department of the Interior contains the National Park
         York District of the Corps of Engineers, with headquarters      Service which administers several historic sites located
         located in New York City.                                       along the Hudson, the United States Geological Survey
                                                                         (USGS) which makes maps and conducts surveys and
         The Corps regulates structures in, or affecting, navigable      hydrodynamics research in the estuary, and the Fish and
         waters of the U.S., as well as excavation of or deposition      Wildlife Service (FWS).
         of materials in navigable waters. The Corps is also             The FWS monitors endangered species, migratory birds,
         responsible for evaluating applications for Department of       and contaminants in fish and wildlife resources. The FWS
         the Army permits to deposit dredged and/or fill material        is also involved in reviewing permit applications for
         into the waters of the U.S. Including adjacent wetlands. In     navigation, flood control, power, and highway projects.
         general a permit must be obtained from the Corps for:           The FWS's Cortland, New York field office considers and
         filling of wetlands and navigable waters; placement of          comments on impacts on wildlife and marine resources
         structures in navigable waters; dredging; and disposal of       resulting from proposed development projects requiring
         dredged materials.                                              Corps permits. If the FWS determines that a proposed
         The Corps is also responsible for Federal navigation            development action will cause a habitat loss, the Service
         projects (e.g. channels, jetties, anchorages) specifically      can recommend mitigation measures to avoid, or minimize
         authorized by Acts of Congress. In the Hudson, this             and compensate for, such loss.
         includes the shipping channel up to Albany and auxiliary
         channels in six tributary streams which the Corps               State Agencies
         constructed and is responsible for maintaining.                 Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC)
         Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)                           The DEC has both resource management and regulatory
         The EPA is the primary federal agency for administering         responsibilities for the tidal habitats of the Hudson River.
         and enforcing federal environmental laws such as the            DEC's central office in Albany establishes statewide
         Clean Water Act and NEPA. The Hudson River estuary is           policies and regulations and provides technical assistance
         under the jurisdiction of the Region 11 office of the EPA in    to the regional DEC offices. Three regional offices have
         NYC which works to maintain water quality values in the         jurisdiction over the estuarine portion of the Hudson River:
         River and comments on applications for dredging and             Region 2, headquartered in New York City, has jurisdiction
         filling submitted to the Corps of Engineers. Under Section      over the River in New York City; Region 3, headquartered
         404 of the CWA, Corps permit decisions are made under           in New Paltz, has jurisdiction over the Hudson in
         EPA guidelines and the EPA has the authority to veto            Rockland, Westchester, Orange, Putnam, Ulster, and
         issuance of a permit during the review process. The EPA         Dutchess counties; while Region 4, headquartered in
         can also take enforcement actions against unauthorized          Schenectady, has jurisdiction over the Hudson in Greene,
         activities, impose civil fines, and seek criminal penalties.    Columbia, Albany, and Rensselaer counties.
         The EPA has also worked to identify important wetland
         areas in the U.S. Many of the specific habitats presented       Management Responsibilities
         in this guide are also identified under the EPA program.        The DEC's management responsibilities are directed
                                                                         towards fish and wildlife resources and focus on the
         National Oceanic ancif Atmospheric                              various wildlife management areas established within the
         Acfaiihistradon (NOAA)                                          estuary. Responsibility for managing these areas rests
         NOAA is the branch of the Commerce Department that              with the DEC Division of Fish and Wildlife in each regional
         administers the Federal Coastal Zone Management                 office. DEC conservation officers responsible for enforcing
         Program under which the New York State Coastal                  management rules and regulations are within the Division
         Management Program is authorized and under which the            of Law Enforcement. General wildlife management rules
         Estuarine Sanctuary Program operates. In addition, NOAA         and regulations are established by the DEC to apply to all
         contains the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)           wildlife management areas. In addition, special rules and
         which is a research and applied science agency charged          regulations have been established for, some areas,
                                                                         particularly those with significant waterfowl habitat and








                                                                 Government Agencies                                                        71

             wetland areas. The DEC-managed areas along the tidal               Special Area Designations
             portion of the Hudson include Roger's Island and Tivoli            The DOS is responsible for ensuring the protection of
             Bays. The DEC also has jurisdiction over rivers in the             coastal fish and wildlife habitats, scenic areas, and
             State outside the Adirondack Park through the New York             agricultural lands of statewide significance. Once areas
             State Wild, Scenic, and Recreational Rivers System Act             are designated, the coastal management consistency
             which includes three stretches of the lower Hudson River.          requirements can be used to protect these resources.

             Regulatory Responsibilities                                        Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitats may be
             The DEC has the major responsibility for protecting natural        designated by the State if the DEC determines that the
             resources in the coastal area of New York State and                habitat is: essential to the survival of a large portion of a
             exercises this authority through permit, review, and               particular fish or wildlife population; supports populations
             management programs.           For example, DEC reviews            of species which are endangered, threatened, or of special
             proposed development activities with the potential for             concern;    supports populations having significant
             significant environmental impact.in accordance with the            commercial, recreational, or educational value; or
             requirements of the State Environmental Quality Review             exemplifies a habitat type which is hot commonly found in
             Act (SEQRA), the Freshwater and Tidal Wetlands Acts,               the State or in a coastal region. The significance of
             Protection of Water, the State Pollutant Discharge                 certain habitats increases to the extent they could not be
             Elimination System (SPDES), and the Coastal Erosion                replaced if destroyed. The tidal portions of the Hudson
             Hazard Areas Act.        The DEC also implements the               currently include 34 sites designated as Significant Coastal
             Environmental Quality Bond Act and is empowered to                 Fish and Wildlife Habitats. In addition to the Significant
             acquire property.                                                  Coastal Habitat Program, the DOS has recently begun a
                                                                                program to identify, evaluate, and recommend areas for
             Hudson River Estuary Management Plan                               designation as Scenic Areas of Statewide Significance.
             Under Article 11 of the ECL, the DEC is developing a 15-
             year policy setting plan to manage the Hudson Estuary.             Special Interest in the Hudson River Tidal Habitats
             This plan provides a long-term focus for actions that affect       The unique values of the Hudson Estuary became
             the River ecosystem.                                               particularly evident during the identification phase of the
                                                                                Significant Coastal Habitat Program. The River contains
             Department of Stale (DOS)                                          one of the highest concentrations of designated habitats,
             The DOS, through its Division of Coastal Resources and             as well as some of the highest valued habitats in the State.
             Waterfront Revitalization, administers the New York State          Because of this uniqueness and the DOS's concern that
             Coastal Management Program (CMP) and coordinates                   the habitats are being adversely impacted by human
             activities essential to its. implementation. Authority for the     activities along the River, the DOS initiated and funded a
             CMP was established by the State Waterfront                        special study (presented in this report) of the tidal portion
             Revitalization and Coastal Resources Act of 1981. The              of the Hudson River.
             CMP covers the shores of Lakes Erie and Ontario, the
             Niagara and St. Lawrence Rivers, the tidal portions of the         Office of Parks, Recreation, and
             Hudson River, New York City, and Long Island.                      Hislodc Preservatfon (OPRHP)
                                                                                The main responsibility of the OPRHP is to operate and
             Protection of Coastal Resources through                            maintain a statewide system of parks and historic sites to
             Consistency Review                                                 meet the recreational needs of the people of the State.
             Actions proposed in the coastal area of New York State by          The State Parks 'and Recreation Law authorizes the
             federal agencies or by applicants for federal permits (e.g.        OPRHP to acquire, establish, operate, and maintain state
             from the Corps of Engineers) must be consistent with the           parks, parkways, historic sites, and state recreational
             policies established by the CMP. If a proposed action is           facilities. The Parks and Recreation Bond Act provides a
             determined to be inconsistent by the DOS, a federal                source of funds for acquisition. Within the framework of
             permit can not be issued. The DOS also evaluates the               the OPRHP, the Palisades Interstate Park Commission
             consistency of federal direct actions such as dredging and         (PIPC) operates as a semi-autonomous entity that
             funding with respect to coastal policies. In addition to           administers the Interstate Park System along the lower
             federal activities, state agency activities are also required      western shore of the Hudson.
             to be consistent with the coastal policies. Each state
             agency that proposes to fund or undertake an action in             OPRHP establishes rules and regulations for state park
             the coastal area must determine the consistency of its             use. OPRHP administered parks in the tidal portion of the
             action with the policies and purposes of the CMP. State            Hudson include the undeveloped Castleton Island State
             agency permit decisions must also comply with the                  Park (on Schodack and Houghtaling Islands) and the
             coastal policies when the proposed permit action is the            Hudson River Islands State Park (on Gay's Point and
             subject of an environmental impact statement or when               Stockport Middle Ground). The Iona Island and Piermont
             there is an approved local waterfront program.                     Marsh sites are managed in part by the PIPC.









          72                                        Chapter 5: Management Responsibilities

          OPRHP is also responsible for administration of the State's       Department of HeaM (DON
          Navigation Law. The OPRHP's Bureau of Marine and                  The DOH enforces the Public Health Laws and the State
          Recreational Vehicles has general responsibility for boating      Sanitary Code by which it regulates restaurants, motels,
          safety in New York State and provides funding and                 campgrounds, and other specific activities.                The
          training for marine law enforcement as well as boating            Department of Health must also approve water and
          education programs. Also, under the Navigation Law and            sewage provisions for commercial uses and realty
          Town Law, no local law or ordinance pertaining to the             subdivisions.    DOH also issues advisories regarding
          regulation of vessels and establishment of vessel                 consumption of fish caught in the River.
          regulation zones can take effect until it has been
          submitted to and approved by OPRHP.                               Local Agencies
          Hudson RAw National Estuarine                                     Counties bordering on the estuarine portion of the Hudson
          Research Reserve (HR-NERR)                                        River include Albany, Rensselaer, Greene, Columbia,
          The HR-NERR program Is authorized under the Federal               Ulster, Dutchess, Orange, Putnam, Rockland, Westchester,
          Coastal Zone Management Act and is administered by                and Bronx, Kings, and Richmond within New York City.
          State government. The DEC has primary responsibility for          Most of these counties have agencies similar to those
          the program but works in cooperation with the Department          described below.
          of State, OPRHP, and the Office of General. Services. The
          HR-NERR is headquartered at the Bard College Field                County Planning Departments
          Station and operates in conjunction with DEC Region 3             The primary function of these departments is to provide
          offices in New Paltz.                                             technical assistance on planning and development matters
                                                                            to local governments. For example, county planning
          The HR-NERR consists of four reserve sites along the              departments offer assistance, upon request, to other local
          Hudson River at Stockport Creek, Tivoli Bays, Iona Island,        governments relative to the formulation and enactment of
          and Plermont Marsh. The estuarine research reserves are           local land-use controls, such as zoning ordinances, sub-
          used for scientif ic research and environmental education.        division regulations, and special ordinances. The planning
          Currently, 4,130 acres of habitat are included in the four        departments also provide assistance to local governments
          estuarine sites. Much of the land was already owned by            with regard to State and Federal regulatory programs.
          the State when the program began, while additional lands          County land-use plans have been developed for all
          were purchased through a grant from NOAA and matching             counties along the Hudson River. These plans examine
          State funds.                                                      socio-economic conditions, land-use and land-capability
                                                                            characteristics, and present land use goals, objectives,
          New York Natural Heritage Program                                 policies, and implementation strategies.
          The Natural Heritage Program was established with
          funding provided by The Nature Conservancy and is now             County Soil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCDs)
          jointly funded by The Nature Conservancy and the DEC.             SWCDs have been established in several counties along
          Major purposes of the Heritage Program include                    the Hudson Estuary. The primary objective of the SWCD
          inventorying rare plant and animal species and natural            is the protection of natural resources in each county,
          communities in the State, compiling information on the            specifically the protection of soil and water resources and
          occurrences of these species and communities, and                 the agricultural resources dependent on soil and water.
          providing these data to interested parties. In conducting         The principal involvement of many of these SWCD districts
          the statewide inventory, the Heritage Program applies a           has been the provision of technical assistance to
          standardized methodology developed by The Nature                  concerned landowners regarding the establishment of
          Conservancy for ranking species and communities on the            appropriate erosion control measures.
          basis of their rarity both in the State and globally. Sites in
          the Hudson River Estuary have been identified that                County Environmental Management Councils (EMCs)
          support many rare species and communities.                        These bodies, established by the County and Regional
                                                                            Environmental Management Councils Act, are county-
          Office of General Services (OGS)                                  authorized citizen advisory boards.             The primary
          The OGS administers state-owned lands including all land          responsibility of the EMC is to advise citizens and local
          that is below the high tide mark along the coast. Under           government officials on matters affecting the management
          the Public Lands Law, most private uses of submerged              of the county's natural resources. The EMC provides
          land within the public domain require a grant, easement,          resource information and technical assistance to local
          or lease from OGS. In the past, the State has sold or             officials and county residents, conducts educational
          granted significant portions of the Hudson River shoreline        programs and special environmental projects and studies,
          and underwater lands for various commercial uses.                 and also helps local governments understand and comply
                                                                            with the requirements of state and federal environmental
                                                                            legislation.   The EMC participates in the review of









                                                                Government Agencies                                                       73

             development activities proposed within the county and            Greene, and Columbia counties; and the Lower Hudson
             provides comments on potential environmental impacts.            Chapter including Orange, Dutchess, Putnam, Rockland,
             The EMC at the request of county, town, or village officials     Ulster and Westchester counties. TNC also works with the
             reviews subdivision and development proposals to identify        NY Natural Heritage Program to identify sites containing
             fragile natural resources and potential environmental            rare plants, animals, and communities on the Hudson.
             impacts.
                                                                              National Audubon Sociefy
             County Health Departments                                        The National Audubon Society is a national conservation
             The County Health Departments inspect sewage facilities          group that provides leadership in scientific research,
             to see that they conform with standards established by the       wildlife   protection,    conservation     education,     and
             State Department of Health in towns which have no local          environmental action. Audubon receives its funding from
             enforcement officer.                                             membership contributions, grants, and corporate sources.
                                                                              Funds are used to manage wildlife sanctuaries, maintain
             Town Board                                                       liaison with government agencies, prepare educational
             The Town Board is a local legislative and executive body.        materials, and conduct scientific studies.            National
             Town Boards are responsible for the general management           Audubon is headquartered in New York City, has a State
             and control of town finances and have the power to               office in Albany, and chapters throughout the state.
             acquire land for any public purpose. The Town Boards             Audubon currently manages two wildlife preserves along
             may also enact, amend, and repeal various ordinances,            the Hudson River Estuary, at Ramshorn Marsh and at
             rules, and regulations, including a building code, vessel        Constitution Island.
             regulations,   zoning     ordinances,    and      subdivision
             regulations. City and village governments have executive         State and Local Organizations
             bodies with functions similar to those of Town Boards.
                                                                              Scenic Hudson
             Planning and Zoning Boards                                       Scenic Hudson is a community and environmental
             Many towns have Planning and Zoning Boards which are             organization committed to preserving and restoring the
             advisory to the Town Board. These boards develop and             ecological, scenic, historic, and recreational resources of
             administer zoning ordinances. Similar advisory entities          the Hudson River and the Hudson Valley. Scenic Hudson
             exist in city and village governments.                           rec.elves its funding largely from foundations and individual
                                                                              donors with additional monies coming from corporate and
             5.3 Private Not-for-Prorit Organizations                         government sources. Funds are used for land acquisition,
             In addition to the various Federal, State, and local             monitoring development activities, restoring historic sites,
             agencies which have roles and responsibilities affecting         environmental lobbying, and public education. Scenic
             resource protection and management in the Hudson River           Hudson is also involved in the Hudson River Greenway
             Estuary, many private, non-profit organizations participate      which is concerned with preserving the natural corridor
             in management of the ecosystem. In consideration of the          from New York City to Troy. Scenic Hudson is located in
             scope of this document, only the most prominent groups           Poughkeepsie and is active along the entire length of the
             are described here, but many other resource-oriented             Hudson River.
             groups are active in the Hudson River Valley.
                                                                              Clearwater
             International and National Organizations                         The Hudson River Sloop Clearwater Inc., is an
                                                                              environmental education and advocacy organization
             The Nature Conservancy (TNQ                                      committed to the protection and enhancement of the
             The Nature Conservancy is an international conservation          Hudson River and other waterways throughout the State.
             organization committed to the preservation of natural            Clearwater is largely supported by membership contri-
             diversity by protecting lands and waters supporting the          butions and grants.      Funds are used to operate the
             best examples of rare and endangered elements (plant             sailboat Clearwater, a 106 foot replica of the early Hudson
             and animal species or natural communities).              TNC     River sloops, that is used primarily for environmental
             receives its funding from membership contributions,              education purposes. Clearwater is also active in lobbying,
             donations of land, grants, and corporate sources. Funds          and reviews and monitors issues connected with the
             are used to protect and manage land where elements               environmental health of the River. In addition, Clearwater
             have been identified. Lands may be managed by TNC or             sponsors and promotes numerous activities along the
             transferred to an appropriate government agency. In New          riverfront to encourage its use by the public. Clearwater's
             York, TNC has seven regional chapters, each of which             main headquarters are in Poughkeepsie. There are several
             administers local preserves and land acquisitions. The           local branches of Clearwater along the River.
             estuarine portion of the Hudson is contained in the
             Eastern New York Chapter including Albany, Rensselaer,










        74                                       Chapter 5: Management Responsibilities

        The Hudson River Foundation                                     University Programs
        The Hudson River Foundation supports scientific and             Many local colleges and universities, including Bard
        public policy research, environmental education programs,       College, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, State University
        and physical improvement programs on the Hudson River.          of New York (several campuses), Cornell, Columbia,
        The Foundation was established in 1981 as the result of         Farleigh-Dickenson, University of Delaware, Fordham, and
        an agreement between environmental groups, government           Pace, sponsor research along the estuary or have faculty
        agencies, and utility companies which resolved a long           members researching various aspects of the Hudson.
        series of legal battles over the environmental impacts of
        power plants along the River. The settlement with the           FURTHER READING
        utility companies included the provision of a $12 million       Additional information on the groups and agencies
        endowment for the Foundation which is used for the              described above can be obtained by contacting the offices
        Hudson River Fund to sponsor scientific and educational         listed in Appendix D.
        programs. In addition, $1.5 million was given to the
        Foundation by the State for the Hudson River
        Improvement Fund which provides grants for projects
        stressing the public use and enjoyment of the River. The
        Hudson River Foundation also provides grants for
        graduate student fellowships studying the River and
        sponsors the Polgar Fellowship Program which provides
        summer research scholarships to graduate and
        undergraduate students studying wetlands along the River.

        Hudson Riverkeeper Fund/Hudson River Fisherman's
        Association (HRFA)
        The HRFA is a community group, which was initially
        formed in 1965, and is dedicated to protecting the public
        interest on the Hudson River. In 1983, the HRFA began
        the Hudson Riverkeeper Fund which sponsors a full time
        Riverkeeper to serve as the eyes and ears of the public on
        the River and in court. The Riverkeeper receives funding
        from membership donations and legal settlement awards,
        the most notable resulting from a settlement with Exxon
        Corporation for transporting and selling the public's
        Hudson River water to the Caribbean island of Aruba.
        Funds support a Riverkeeper position and are used to
        enforce and promote environmental laws and ecologically
        sound practices to protect the River's resources.

        Research Organizations

        Hudsonia
        Hudsonia is an organization which conducts biological
        and ecological research on different aspects of the
        Hudson River Valley. Recent studies include an evaluation
        of the contribution of the Hudson River's tributaries to the
        larval production of anadromous fish and a study of the
        life history of grass shrimp. Hudsonia is headquartered at
        the Bard College Field Station in Annandale-on-Hudson.

        Institute of Ecosystem Studies (IES)
        The IES is a research division of the New York Botanical
        Gardens and is located in Millbrook, NY. IES sponsors
        biological and ecological research on many different
        aspects of the Hudson River. Recent studies include an
        examination of zooplankton populations in the River and
        the development of a model for phytoplankton production
        in the River.















                Chapter 6:


                SITE SPECIFIC INFORMATION



                In the preceding chapters, the natural and human components of the River ecosystem were
                examined as they apply to the tidal habitats as a whole. In this chapter, this general information
                is applied to 39 specific sites located along the River between Albany and New York City (see
                the Hudson River overview map). All portions of the River have value as habitat for plants and
                animals. The sites in this chapter, however, have been identified as having special importance
                and include 34 sites designated as Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitats under the
                State's Coastal Management Program and five additional sites recognized by the New York
                Natural Heritage Program as containing important plant and animal communities. As noted in
                the introduction to the guide, site-specific coverage is limited to the portion of the Hudson
                estuary north of the NYC municipal boundary.

                Each site description consists of.

                ï¿½ Geographic information
                ï¿½ A description of significant biological features
                ï¿½ A description of human activities at the site
                ï¿½ Suggested habitat protection measures
                ï¿½ A map showing the boundaries of the site and important biological and cultural features












       76






                                                                        Haverstraw Be
                                                                                                      W E S T C H
                                                                         Haverstraw 0            Croton River
                                                                                                 and Bay
                                                                                                   Ossining
                                             4'j             R 0    C K L A N

                                                                                    Nyack
                                                               4tj@    IN,                         Tarrytown
                                                                          Is"



                                                                              Piermont Marsh

                                                                                           IN,




                                                                                                Yonkers







                             INDEX


                      Unique Natural Area Sites

                      Fresh Water


                      Brackish Water


                      Salt Water


                                N                                                      NEW YORK CITY


               8        4       0                 8
                          Scale in Miles







       N
                                                                                                                                                                        Albany

                                                                                                                                                                                    Rensselaer
                                                           SL                                                                                                amans KI
                                                                                                                                                                                          RENSSELA
                                       HUDSON RIVER
                                                                                                                                                                                                       Hudson
                                                                                                                                                                                   Castleton-on-
                                                                                                                                                 ScIlIermlomisland
                                                   SIGNIFICANT                                                                                                                                  ind
                                                                                                                                                 Cogymans Crook                   Schodacki
                                                                                                                                                                                                         di-

                                                                                                                                                Hannacrollf C ieek
                                      TIDAL HABITATS                                                                               ................
                                                                                                                     ..................
                                                                                                                                                                              Mill Creek W       lands
                                                                                                     ............
                                                                                                                                                          Coxsackkie
                                                                                                                                                             C
                                                                                        ............                                                            ree
                                                                                                                                                                                          sant
                                                                                                                                                                                   tu    9
                                                                                                                                                    Conackie
                                                                                                                                                                                  Marsh
                                                                ........                                                                      Island Backwate
                                                                                                                                                                        e
                                                                                                                                                          Coxsacki


                                                                                                                                                          VasbUrgh                  Stockpad Crook
                                                                                                                                                                                    and Flats
                                                                                                                                                                00
                                                                                                                                                          Swill'
 i IN
                                                                                                                                                          Athens
                                                                    G R E E                   N E                                                                                                                                      An
                                                                                                                                                                            Hudson
                                                                                                                                          Catskill Cre
                                                                                                                                                                        0  Guam            C    0 L U M B I                      A
                                                                                                                                               Catskill
                                                                                                                                                                           Island
                                                                                                                                   Ramshorn Mamb,
                                                                                                                                     In  ocht Bay                       Rooliff-Jansen
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  ! M101
                                                                                                                                                                           Kill
                                                                                                                             Smith1anding


                                       ...........
                                                                                                                                Garmantown-,".
                                                                                                                                             Fla
                                                            Eso                                                                 Clermont Fla
                                                                               .........................................
                                                                                                                                Saugerties                                 lb
                                                                                                                                                                           Z
                                                                                                                                                                           c",
                                                                                                                                                          Ti@oli.
                                                                                                                         Esopus Estuary,                                                                                         -------
                                                                                                                                                          Tivoli Bays


                                                                                                                                                                                                .....       ...........
                                                                                                                                                          Mudder Kill
                                                                                                                                 Th Flats


                                                                                                                                       reek
       41                                                                                            c                   Kingston                  Kingston
                                                                                                                                                  Deepwater Habitat

                                                                                                                                                          Vanderburgh
                                                                                                                                                          Cove                                                              Z!
                                                                                                                                   E
                                                                                                                                     90
                                                                                                                                    sSys
                                                                                                                                   me ows
       4                                             U     L S T E R
  iff Ir                                                                                                                                                        D U T C                  E S S

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               it
                                                                                                                                                                psie                                                       01
                                                                                                                                                   Poughkee
                                                                                                                                                  Deepwater Habitat
                                                                                  t
                                                                             dou
                                                                         0
                                                                                                                                                             m Elbo
                                                                                                                                                          Vaursh

                                                                                                                                                          Poughkeepsie


                                                                                                                                             C4
                                                                                                                                            44
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              iz
                                                                                                                                                                                               Ac
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              iz
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              -rM

                                                                                                                                                    ap inger Cree
                                                                                           ...........
                                                                                                   .. ........                 ........
                          S U L L I V A                 N                                                                                                 appingers
                                                                                                                                                          Falls

                                                                                                                                                          ishkill

                                                                                                                                            Beaco
                                                                                                                     Newburgh
                                                                                                                                                                                 ..............
                                                                                                                                   0                                       ..........
                                            ............                                                                                                     ... .........
                        .... ...........................                                                                                                  . .....
                                                                                                                                               Fishkill Creek
                                                                                                              Moodna Cre


                                                                                                                     Cornwall
                                                                                                     c                                           Cold Spring            P U T N)A M
                                                                                                       /e k
                                                                                                                                                          Constitution
                                         0 R A N                         E                                                                                Marsh
                                                                                                                         Highland Fall
                                                                                                                                                   Hudson River
                                                                                                                                                                                                                ..........
                                                                                                                                                    Miles 44-56
                                                                                                                             Con Hook 0                                               .................
                                                                                                                             Marsh                                      .... ............
                                                                                                                                                             . ...............
                                                                                                                                                                                              at










































































                                                                                                                                                          Camp Smith
                                                                                                                          Iona Island                     Marsh
                                                                                                                          Marsh,                          Peekskill












                                                                                                                                            77


            KEY TO SITE SPECIFIC INFORMATION

            Information about each site is presented using a standardized format and map that identifies the locations of examples
            of natural and cultural features. The content of the standardized descriptions and the mapping symbols used to
            represent important features are explained in the following sections. The information regarding each site is not complete.
            Additional field work and evaluation is essential in assessing the potential impacts of any activities proposed at the sites.

            Much of the information presented in this chapter is adapted from the Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat
            narratives (DOS 1987). These original habitat narratives constitute the findings of the Secretary of State regarding the
            designation of each site and contain useful and more complete information regarding habitat value. These narratives
            are available through the Departments of State and Environmental Conservation, and local communities. Additional
            information comes from the New York State Natural Heritage Program's data files, the New York Field Office files of The
            Nature Conservancy, staff of the Coastal Management Program and local site-specific sources. Initial and subsequent
            field verifications were carried out for each site. All unattributed photgraphs in this chapter are by Nick Salafsky (TNC).

            GEOGRAPHI[C INFORMATION

            Site Name: The name used is the Coastal Management Program Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat (CMP)
            name, unless otherwise noted.
            Town(s): Lists towns containing or adjacent to the site.
            County(ies): Identifies counties containing the site.
            7.5' Quad(s): Name of the NYS DOT topographical map quadrangles in which the site appears. All maps shown are
            the latest in the DOT series, as of January 1989. Information shown on the base maps is not necessarily accurate since
            the base maps used to prepare the DOT maps may be several decades old and may no longer reflect current landforms
            and topography. The map accompanying each site narrative depicts the site boundaries, approximate locations of
            examples of significant biological and man-made features, and surrounding land use patterns. The maps are not
            complete. Evaluations of environmental impacts will require on site investigations.

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Lists the major communities found within the site (see Chapter I definitions). Single letter codes
            indicate where examples of each community type may be found. Refer to the code definition list for community types.

            Rare Species:     Lists endangered species known to use the area (see section 2.11). Animal habitat is not indicated on
            the map; use by a particular species should be presumed whenever suitable habitat exists.

            Valuable Species:      Lists the useful or commercially valuable
            fish and wildlife species using the habitat (refer to section 2.2).
            Size: Gives the relative size (small, medium, large, vast) of the         Code         Community Type
            overall site as well as the size of each of the community types.

            Quality- Gives a brief assessment of the relative quality of the            D          deepwater
            site based on its diversity (high, moderate, low, uniform), quality         8          shallows
            (excellent, good, fair, poor), and degree of disturbance                    F          mud and sand flats
            (extensive, moderate, limited, none).                                       B          sandy beach
            Exotics : Describes the degree to which exotic plants have                  R          rocky shore
            invaded the site (see section 4.3). Large colonies of exotic                L          lower marsh
            plants are indicated on the site map with two letter codes.                 U          upper marsh
            Refer to the list for code definitions. If a plant is listed without        W          tidal swamp forest
            a map code, it can be presumed to be found in low                           C          freshwater creek
            concentrations throughout appropriate habitats.

            General Description: A narrative describing the site, including
            photgraphs where available.                                                             COMMUNITY CODES










         78                                              Site Specific Information

                                                                       HUMAN INTERACTIONS

           Exotic Plants                                               Major Features:      Lists the major man-made features
                                                                       present at the site (see Chapter 4). On the site map, two
           WC       water chestnut                                     letter codes indicate the general location of the feature.
           CR       common reed                                        Code definitions are provided in the list. Dredge reaches
           PL       purple loosestrife                                 and dredge disposal sites also include numbered codes as
                                                                       listed by the US Army Corps of Engineers.
           major Features                                              Site Histoiy. Describes the processes and actions that
           AR       abandoned       ruins                              potentially influenced the current ecological system.
           BH       bulkhead                                           Eidsting Use:    Describes the present use of the site.
           BL       boat launch ramp                                   Institutions holding a SPDES permit (see section 4.3) in the
           BR       bridge                                             early 1980's are also listed (Rohmann and Lilienthal, 1987).
           DA       dam or barrier                                     Surrounding Use: Describes the current use of lands
           DB       duck blind                                         adjacent to the site. On the map, general land uses are
           DR       dredged reach                                      indicated with a two letter code.
           DS       dredge disposal site                               Status: Identifies the current protection available for the
           EL       electric lines                                     site as well as known ownership. State-mapped wetiand
           FJ       flotsam and jetsam                                 codes are provided for general information only; concerns
           IN       industrial building                                regarding regulated wetlands should be directed to the
           LF       landfill or junkyard                               Department of Environmental Conservation. NY Natural
           MA       marina                                             Heritage Program sites included in the Significant Coastal
           PI       pier or causeway                                   Habitat area are also given.
           PK       parking lot
           PP       power plant                                        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES
           RB       RR bridge or culvert                               Site Boundary-     Indicates the relationship between the
           RS       radio antenna or tower                             Significant Coastal Habitat boundary and the boundary
           RV       recreational vehicle trail                         depicted on the site map. Significant Coastal Habitat
           SC       shipping channel                                   boundaries are shown as solid lines; other areas described
           SP       sewage plant                                       are indicated by a dashed line. A description of the
           TF       tank farm                                          appropriate buffer zone is also given.
           TH       seasonal residences
           WI       water intake                                       Recommended Actions:         Describes actions needed to
                                                                       protect, restore or enhance the tidal habitats.
           Land     Uses
                                                                       Incompatible Use: Describes potential future site and land
           AG       agriculture                                        uses that would be incompatible with maintaining the
           CP       county park                                        habitat values at present levels.
           IN       industry                                           Recommended Use: Describes potential future site and
           MR       military reservation                               land uses that would be compatible with or even beneficial
           NA       natural area                                       to the tidal habitats.
           PA       picnic or camping area
           NH       National Historic Site                             Knowledgeable Contacts: Lists individuals knowledgeable
           QU       quarries                                           about the specific site (see Appendix C for information an
           RH       residential housing                                how to contact these individuals).
           TP       town park
           SK       state park



                             FEATURE CODES











                                                                                                                            79


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


           Site Name:     Normans Kill                                                                 REFER TO MAP NUMBER 1
           Town(s):       Albany, Bethlehem
           County(ies):   Albany
           7.51 Quad(s):  Albany, Delmar

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Freshwater creek (C) with shallows (S) associated with the creek mouth.

           Rare Species: None known.

           Valuable Species: Important spawning area for anadromous fish including alewife, white perch and blueback
           herring. Large resident smallmouth bass population.

           Size: Two miles of unobstructed creek extending to just downstream of the Thruway bridge. The lower mile is
           tidally-influenced. The creek drains over 170 square miles of land.

           Qualit.r. A uniform habitat of fair quality that has experienced extensive disturbance.

           Exotics: The River banks near the mouth are covered with common reed (CR).

           General Description: The lower tidally-influenced part of the site is referred to as "Island Creek" and is relatively
           deep with silt and clay substrate and muddy banks lined with common reed. The upper mile of the stream is fairly
           shallow with a gravelly substrate and steep wooded banks, largely in a natural condition.









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                                Figure 29:  Norman's Kill looking east from Route 32. Photo by Styan
                             SwiftlDEC










         80                                            Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTION

         Major Features: Large tank farms (TF), many road and railroad crossings, bulkheading (131-1), sewage plants (SP),
         power plant (PP), shipping channel (SC), dredging reaches (DR) 2 and 3, and a dredge disposal site (DS) U-25.

         Site History. The River channel was first dredged be tween 1926 and 1930. Subsequent maintenance dredging
         occurred repeatedly. There are signs that the creek itself was also dredged at sometime in the past.

         Existing Use: Bass fishing, water withdrawals from the upstream areas. SPDES waste discharge permits were held
         in the early 1980's by Mobil Oil, Pyramid Crossgates Shopping Center, Air Products and Chemicals, Exxon, Niagara
         Mohawk's AJbany Steam Plant, Sears Petroleum Storage Terminal, and the Albany County and Albany City sewage
         districts.

         Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), many industrial activities (IN), natural areas (NA), roads and railroads.

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Upstream lands under private ownership.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary- Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife area. The buffer zone should include the
         woodlands surrounding the creek and its tributaries at least to the crest of the adjacent bluffs.

         Recommended Actions: Limit existing and additional upstream water withdrawals, especially during times of low
         water flow and during fish spawning, incubation and nursery periods (spring and summer). Monitor and control
         drainage to limit highway, tank farm, and industrial area runoff flowing into the creek. Maintain vegetation as a
         natural buffer.

         Incompatible Uses: Discharge of sewage and other waste products Into the stream, development of the creek bank
         and watershed leading to increased runoff, construction of dams and other barriers to fish movements. Clearing
         vegetation with subsequent erosion and soil slumping. Any activity resulting in introduction of sediment. Water
         withdrawals, particularly during low flow periods.

         Recommended Use: Increased access for recreation fishing.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DO$; DEC Region 4, Fisheries Manager or Environmental Protection
         Biologist.











                                                                                                                                  81


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name:      Papscanee Marsh and Creek                                                       REFER TO MAP NUMBER 1
            Town(s):        East Greenbush, Rensselaer
            County(ies):    Rensselaer
            7.51 Quad(s):   Delmar, East Greenbush

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Largely comprised of upper marsh (U) with lesser amounts of shallows (S), mudflats (F), lower
            marsh (L), and freshwater creek (C).

            Rare Species:   Least bittern nesting area, reported map turtle population.

            Valuable Species: Waterfowl use during migrations. Many breeding birds including green-backed heron, Virginia
            rail, several duck species, marsh wren, swamp sparrow, and others. Spawning and nursery grounds for anadromous
            and resident fish including American shad, blueback herring, alewife, white catfish, black bass and white perch.

            Size: Small sections of shallows in Papscanee Creek and Moordener Kill. Small sections of lower marsh and
            mudflat in the creek. Large tract of upper marsh surrounding the creek.

            Quality: A moderately diverse habitat of fair quality that has experienced extensive disturbance.

            Exotics: Invasion of the upper marsh by common reed (CR) and purple loosestrife (PL).

            General Description: The tidal portions of the site are along Papscanee Creek between the RR on the west and
            Route 9J on the east and along the first mile of Moordener Kill. Papscanee Creek is largely filled with lower marsh
            plants and is surrounded by large fields of reed-dominated upper marsh. Moordener Kill is a medium gradient
            warmwater stream with a gravelly substrate and some lower marsh vegetation. West of the RR is all non-tidal scrub
            forest.



























                                  Figure 30: Wetland and shallows in backwater area at Papscanee Marsh










        82                                           Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTION

        Major Features: Large industrial complexes (IN), recreational vehicle trails (RV), bulkheading along the River (BH),
        RR and highway rights of way surrounding the area, permanent residences (RH), radio antenna or towers (RS), dam
        (DA), power plant (PP), tank farms (TF), sewage plant (SP), shipping channel (SC), dredging reaches (DR) 9 and 11,
        dredge disposal sites (DS) U-1, U-2, U-8, U-10, and U-10A.

        Site History- Bulkheading and fill in the 1800's connected Campbell Island. to the mainland (see section 4.5). The
        River channel was first dredged between 1926 and 1930 with subsequent maintenance dredging and disposal. Direct
        agricultural use of the upper marsh including filling and draining.

        Existing Use: Waterfowl hunting, trapping, fishing, and bird watching. SPDES waste discharge permits were held in
        the early 1980's by the Fort Orange Paper Company, and the Castleton-on-Hudson and Bethlehem sewage districts.

        Surrounding Use: Residential houses (RH), industrial (IN), agricultural (AG), and natural areas (NA), Castleton and
        Rensselaer urban areas.

        Status & Ownership: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially
        includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (D-102, EG-1). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the
        Department of Environmental Conservation regional office.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary: Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. Buffer zones should include
        the wooded areas along Papscanee Creek and the banks and bluffs along Moordener Kill.

        Recommended Actions: Institute non-point pollution controls to reduce highway and industrial runoff. Manage
        agricultural uses to enhance wildlife uses. Restoration of upper marsh may be warranted, especially for waterfowl
        use.


        Incompatible Use: Discharge of chemicals and other waste products into the stream, development of the
        watersheds surrounding the site that would result in increased runoff. Dredging either of the two creeks.
        Constructing additional bulkheads.

        Recommended Use: Give h the already disturbed nature of most of the upper marsh, the site may be suitable for
        use as a managed area for waterfowl and other birds by enhancing food sources and by providing protected open
        water areas. The site may also be suitable for providing recreational access to the main River channel and resource-
        related access to the wetlands from Campbell Island.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.






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                               HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                   MAP NUMBER 1

                                                                                                                                                         Miles
                               Normans Kill             Papscanee Marsh and Creek

                                                                                                                                                         0                    1/2


                               New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                    Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky      December 1989











                                                                                                                                 83


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name:      Shad and Schermerhorn Islands                                                  REFER TO MAP NUMBER 2
            Town(s):        Bethlehem, Coeymans
            County(ies):    Albany
            7.5' Quad(s):   Delmar

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Largely comprised of shallows (S) and mudflats (F), with lesser amounts of lower marsh (L),
            upper marsh (U) and freshwater creek (C).

            Rare Species:   Heart leaf plantain historical record, estuary beggar-ticks.

            Valuable Species:    Large feeding areas for herons and other wading birds, furbearers, deer and other upland game,
            limited waterfowl usage, important spawning and nursery grounds for American shad, blueback herring, alewife,
            white perch, striped bass and resident fish species.

            Size: Large shallows and mudflats zone, medium sized marsh areas, several miles of tidal creek along Binnen and
            Vloman Kills draining 30 square miles. The entire area constitutes a large, undeveloped flood plain ecosystem.

            Quallit.r. A moderately diverse habitat of good quality that has experienced limited disturbance..

            Exotics: Limited patches of purple loosestrife (PL) alongthe fringes of Binnen Kill.

            General Description: The tidal portions of this site are dominated by shallows and mudflats between the islands
            and the River. A grassy marsh and sand/mud flats are located at a break in the bulkheads along the east side of the
            island. A shallows, mudflat, and lower marsh area is associated with the mouth of Binnen Kill, and very limited
            mudflats areas are located along Vloman Kill. The center of the island is largely upland forest and open agricultural
            areas.











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                                                                   MEEM113 NO                      I W@' @

                                  Figure 31: At the mouth of the Binnen Kill, looking north










         84                                            Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTION

         Major Features: Bulkheads (131-1) on the River side, hunting cabins (TH), recreational vehicle and dirt roads (RV),
         Thruway and railroad bridges (1113), agricultural fields (AG), sewage treatment plant (SP), gravel pit (QU), marina
         (MA), shipping channel (SC), dredging reaches (DR) 11, 12, and 14, dredge disposal (DS) site U-7.

         Site History- Bulkheading and fill in the 1800's connected Shad Island to the mainland (see section 4.5). The River
         channel was first dredged between 1926 and 1930 with subsequent maintenance dredging and disposal occurring on
         the islands.

         Existing Use: Significant deer and waterfowl hunting, fishing, boating, and agricultural use. SPDES waste discharge
         permits were held in the early 1980's by the Castleton-on-Hudson and Bethlehem sewage districts.

         Surrounding Use: The island is fairly isolated by steep bluffs. Limited residential housing (131-1), agricultural (AG),
         and natural areas (NA) border the site.

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Much of the island is privately owned. The
         site includes the Natural Heritage Program's Shad and Schermerhorn Islands site.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundarr. Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone should
         include the upland woods on the west side to the crest of the bluff, the watershed of Vloman Kill, and upland
         portions of the islands.

         Recommended Actions: Study effects of removing bulkheads to enhance water flow along the east shore of the
         island in order to promote wetland expansion. Monitor drainage patterns to determine if runoff from the Thruway
         overpass and agricultural lands is entering the habitat. Remove unsightly abandoned cabins from the east side of
         the island. Institute soil conservation practices in agricultural areas. Explore use of conservation easements with
         private landowners to protect natural condition of islands.
         Incompatible use: Dredging or bulkheading shallows and mudflats. Construction of barriers to fish movements in
         both Vloman and Binnen Kills. Development that would result in increased sedimentation, particularly clearing
         vegetation and expanding agricultural areas without using soil conservation practices. Channelization or other
         means of reducing flooding in wetland areas.

         Recommended Use: Managed game area, continued low-intensity recreation.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
         Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                                   85


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name:      Schodack and Houghtaling Islands and Schodack Creek                             REFER TO MAP NUMBER 2
            Town(s):        Schodack, Stuyvesant, New Baltimore
            County(les):    Rensselaer, Columbia, Greene
            7.5' Quad(s):   Delmar, Ravena

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Predominantly shallows (S), mudflats (F), and sandy beach (B), with lesser amounts of lower
            marsh (L) and upper marsh (U).

            Rare Species: Osprey roosting and feeding areas on lower Schodack Island, heart leaf plantain historical record,
            possible use by shortnose sturgeon.

            Valuable Species: Waterfowl use during migrations and limited nesting activity, nesting by other bird species.
            Furbearers present. Schodack Creek provides important spawning and nursery grounds for American shad, white
            perch, alewife, and blueback herring; black bass and other freshwater fish species. Northernmost concentration of
            shad spawning on the Hudson.

            Size: Large total area of shallows and mudflats,. medium sized lower and upper marsh, long stretches of sandy
            beach shore.

            Quality. A high diversity habitat of excellent quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

            Exotics: Moderate to severe invasion of purple loosestrife (PL) and common reed (CR) In the upper marsh areas in
            the north part of the site.


            General Description: The tidal portions of this site are centered on a large area of shallows and mudflats running
            the length of Schodack Creek. The creek is a relic side channel of the Hudson that now functions as a backwater
                                                                                                  area with generally higher
                                                                                                  biological productivity than the
                                                                                                  River. The creek is flanked on
                                                                                                  both sides by lower marsh that is
                                                                                                  broader in several locations
                                                                                                  Including the Rensselaer-
                                                                                                  Columbia county line, Hell Gate,
                                                                                                  and just north of the Thruway
                                                                                                  bridge. Thin strips of bulrush-
                                                                                                  dominated, sandy shore are
                                                                                                  found along the southern-most
                                                          -7                                         es of the creek and an area of
                                                                                                  sid
                                                                                                  upper marsh is located between
                                                                                                  the creek and Route 9J at the
                                                                                                  northern part of the site. The
                                                                                                  center of the island is largely
                                                                                                  scrubby upland forest and open
                                                                                                  agricultural areas.






               Figure 32: Looking across Schodack Creek at Schodack Island









         86                                             Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIO

         Major Features: Bulkheads on the River side (BH), recreational vehicle trails (RV), Thruway and railroad overpasses
         (RB), RR track forms east boundary of the site, shipping channel (SC), marina (MA), dredging reaches (DR) 14, 17,
         18, and 22, dredge disposal (DS) sites U-3A, 6, 18, 20, and 21.

         Site History- Site of Mohican Indian council fires and main village. Bulkheading and fill in the 1800's connected
         Upper and Lower Schodack and Houghtaling Islands to the mainland (see section 4.5). The River channel was first
         dredged between 1926 and 1930 with subsequent maintenance dredging and disposal.

         Existing Use: Deer and waterfowl hunting, bird watching, trapping, and commercial shad fishing.

         Surrounding Use: The islands are relatively isolated by the creek and the railroad. Agricultural areas (AG),
         residential houses (RH), and the Villages of Castleton and Schodack Landing occur on the eastern shore of the
         River.

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Much of the Island is within the Castleton
         Island State Park, an undeveloped State-owned property administered by the NYS Office of Parks, Recreation, and
         Historic Preservation. The area includes or partially includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (R-201, R-202).
         Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of Environmental Conservation regional office. The
         area includes the Natural Heritage Program's Hellgate Marsh and Houghtaling Island Marsh sites.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary. Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone should
         include the watershed surrounding Muitzes Kill, extending to the bluff crest east of Route 9J.

         Recommended Actions: Monitor and cont       'rol drainage from the Thruway overpass and from Route 9J to limit runoff
         into the habitat. Contain waste resulting from bridge maintenance such as from paint and scrapings. Develop a
         park plan which will actively protect Schodack Creek and most of the southern sections of the islands. Evaluate re-
         establishment of channels between Houghtaling, Lower Schodack and Upper Schodack Islands to increase flows in
         Schodack Creek in order to halt succession in the backwater at its currently productive state and to isolate the
         .Islands from existing human use impacts.

         Incompatible Use: Wetland creation in existing productive shallows areas, development of the uplands in the
         southern part of the island near the osprey sites, dredging, development or construction activity in or along
         Schodack Creek that is not specifically designed for habitat enhancement. Clearing vegetation from islands and
         adjacent bluffs. Dredge disposal at designated sites is compatible provided that entry of sediment into adjacent
         waters is minimized.

         Recommended Use: Development of the northern island as a camping site or day use park. Boating facilities
         along bulkheaded shoreline of Upper Schodack Island. Either eliminate or formalize existing recreational vehicle use
         to minimize environmental damage. Construction of nature and hiking trails.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
         Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                                  87


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name:      Coeymans Creek                                                                  REFER TO MAP NUMBER 2
            Town(s):        Coeymans
            County(ies):    Albany
            7.5' Quad(s):   Ravena

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Predominantly shallows (S) with smaller amounts of mudflats (F), lower marsh (L), upper marsh
            (U), and swamp forest (W).

            Rare Species: None known.

            Valuable Species:    Important spawning area for anadromous fishes including alewife, blueback herring, white perch,
            and American shad. Limited waterfowl use during migrations.

            Size: One-quarter of a mile of creek extending up to the large falls below Route 144. A large shallows area near the
            creek mouth in the River, small patches of marsh along the shore, and a very small piece of swamp forest.

            Quality- A low diversity habitat of fair quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

            Exotics: Invasion by purple loosestrife (PL) into the upper marsh areas.

            General Description: The site consists of a tidal cove at the mouth of Coeymans Creek, shallows along the
            shoreline, and a small marsh area south of the creek that has restricted tidal flow due to bulkheading.







                                                         --T 7--












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                                  Figure 33:  Bulkhead across backwater north of marina near Coeymans
                              Creek. Photo by Bryan Swift/DEC










            as                                           Site Specific Information

            HUMAN INTERACTIONS

            Major Features: Bulkheading and diking (BH), a town park (TP), a large marina (MA), sewage treatment plant (SP)',
            residential housing (RH), dam (DA), shipping channel (SC), dredging reaches (DR) 17 and 18.

            Site Historr. The bulkheads were constructed in the mid-19th century.

            Existing Use: Limited waterfowl hunting and fishing, recreational boating. SPDES waste discharge permits were
            held In the early 1980's by Atlantic Cement, Callanan Industries, Consolidated Rail Corporation, and the local sewage
            treatment district.

            Surrounding Use: Village of Coeymans, residential housing (RH), and natural areas (NA).

            Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area includes or partially includes State-
            regulated freshwater wetlands (R-16). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of
            Environmental Conservation regional office.

            HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

            Site Boundary: Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone should
            contain the fields and woods west of the site to Route 144 as well as the immediate areas bordering the creek.

            Recommended Actions: Evaluate selective removal of bulkhead along the edge of the marsh in order to enhance
            tidal flow and possibly promote marsh expansion and inhibit purple loosestrife growth. Monitor and control runoff
            entering from the marina and the surrounding roads.

            Incompatible Use: Construction of dams and other barriers to fish movements, dredging shallow areas,
            development of the watersheds near the marsh and the creek that would result in increased runoff and soil erosion.
            Elimination of natural vegetative buffer.

            Recommended Use: Town riverside park, boat launch near the marina.

            Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
            Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                              89


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name:     Hannacroix Creek                                                              REFER TO MAP NUMBER 2
            Town(s):       Coeymans, New Baltimore
            County(ies):   Albany, Greene
            7.5' Quad(s):  Ravena

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Predominantly freshwater creek (C) with shallows (S), mudflats (F), lower marsh (L), upper
            marsh (U), and swamp forest (W) associated with the creek mouth.

            Rare Species: None known.

            Valuable Species:   Important spawning area for alewife, blueback herring, white perch, American shad, and other
            fishes. Resting and feeding areas for migratory waterfowl. Feeding areas for herons,,varlous birds, and furbearing
            mammals.

            Size: Medium sized shallows and mudflats areas, medium sized marsh areas, medium sized tidal swamp forest.
            Tidal zone of the creek extends to Route 144, with about 1.5 miles of unobstructed fish habitat.

            QualiW. A moderate diversity habitat of excellent quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited invasion of the upper marsh and creek banks by purple loosestrife (PL) and common reed (CR).

            General Description: The site consists of shallows and mudflats along the River shore and in the tidal portion of the
            creek. Hannacroix Creek is a medium gradient, perennially warmwater stream with a gravel and rock substrate
            which drains an area in excess of 60 square miles. There is a small area of lower and upper marsh along the River
            in front of a tidal swamp forest that extends back to Route 144.









                                                                 47



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                                 Figure 34: Hannacrolk Creek below Route 144.     Photo by Bryan Swiftlt)EC

                                                                                                   j










        90                                             Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTI

        Major Features: Sewage plant (SP) discharging effluent into the creek, bulkheads (BH), vehicle trails (RV) mowed
        through vegetation, shipping channel (SC), dredging reach (DR) 18.

        Site History- The River channel was first dredged between 1926 and 1930 with subsequent maintenance dredging.

        Current Use: Limited waterfowl hunting and fishing. A SPDES waste discharge permit was held in the early 1980's
        by the local municipal sewage district.

        Surrounding Use: Natural areas (NA), residential housing (RH).

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Parts of the swamp forest are privately owned
        and were for sale as of September 1988. The area wholly or partially Includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands
        (R-16). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of Environmental Conservation regional office.
        The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's Hannacroix Creek Mouth site.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary- Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlffe Habitat area, plus the area identified as
        swamp forest extending back to Route 144 (dashed line). The buffer zone should include the wooded uplands
        surrounding Hannacroix Creek and extending to the crest of the steep banks.

        Recommended Actions: Monitor and control runoff entering the habitat from Route 144. Implement a watershed
        management program to maintain forested creek corridor, and limit agricultural runoff.

        Incompatible Use: Development or dredging of the shallows and mudflats, development of the Hannacroix Creek
        watershed area resulting in increased runoff. Bulkheading or dredging in the creek. Marina development. Clearing
        vegetation on adjacent bluffs.

        Recommended Use: Increased fishing access.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                                  91


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name:      Mill Creek Wetlands                                                            REFER TO MAP NUMBER 2
            Town(s):        Stuyvesant
            County(ies):    Columbia
            7.51 Quad(s):   Ravena

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Predominantly swamp forest (W) with smaller amounts of shallows (S), mudflats (F), sandy
            beach (13), lower marsh (L), and upper marsh (U).

            Rare Species:   Estuary beggar-ticks.

            Valuable Species: Limited waterfowl use during migrations. Populations of- breeding birds Including green-backed
            herons, various ducks, and many passerine birds.

            Size: Medium to large swamp forest (the smallest of four sizeable tidal swamps on the Hudson). Small upper and
            lower marsh areas, small to medium sandy beach, mudflats, and shallows.

            Quality. A high diversity habitat of good quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited invasion of purple loosestrife (PIL) and common reed (CR) in the upper marsh and along the sandy
            beach.

            General Description: Most of the site is a large tidal swamp forest located between Route 9J and the railroad. The
            swamp is fed by streams flowing from the uplands to the east and two channels under the RR to the River on the
            west. The land directly between the RR and the River is non-tidal upland with a stretch of tidal sandy beach along
            the front. The northern part of the site includes a small lower marsh at the mouth of a small stream, which is backed
            by a small upper marsh area.
















                                                           T









                                                      Zle

                                  Figure 35: Mill Creek and swamp forest above the railroad bridge.     Photo by
                              Bryan SwiftlDEC









          92                                             Site Specific Information

          HUMAN INTERACTION

          Major Features: RR tracks with several bridges (RB) over tributary streams, small marina (MA) and picnic area (PA),
          high bluff with erosion possibly induced by boat wakes, shipping channel (SC), bulkheads (131-11), dredging reaches
          (DR) 23 and 24.

          Site History- Development of the swamp forest was possibly enhanced by the construction of the RR in the.1850's
          which limited tidal inflow and may have allowed succession to reach the current stage. The River channel was first
          dredged between 1926 and 1930 with subsequent maintenance dredging and disposal.

          Existing Use: Limited hunting, fishing, trapping, and bird watching.

          Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), railroad and highway corridors, natural areas (NA).

          Status & Ownership: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Site is privately owned with
          portions recently acquired by The Nature Conservancy. The area includes or partially includes State-regulated
          freshwater wetlands (R-202). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of Environmental
          Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's Mill Creek Marsh site.

          HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

          Site Boundary: Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone should include
          the upland forest to the east and bluffs to approximately the 100 foot contour.

          Recommended Actions: Monitor effects of boat wakes on the eroding bluff area (erosion may actually be beneficial
          to the estuary beggar-ticks population). Maximize protective ownership to preserve swamp habitat. Enhance tidal
          flow into the upper marsh area to inhibit further spread of loosestrife and reed. Monitor and minimize herbicides
          applied along the RR rights of way to limit their entry into the habitat. Institute a watershed management plan for Mill
          Greek. Monitor and control runoff from Route 9J.

          Incompatible Use: Activities that would subdivide, destroy, or alter the tidal swamp forest habitat. Activities that
          would threaten the sandy beach area where the beggar-ticks grows. Construction of barriers to water flow and fish
          movement in Mill Creek and the creek to the north. Clearing vegetation within the immediate watershed.

          Recommended Use: The upland between the River and the RR track could be developed for use as a picnic site if
          adverse impacts on the beach could be averted. Managed access to the swamp forest for education could be
          provided with boardwalks.

          Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
          Protection Biologist. Robert Zaremba, The Nature Conservancy.







                    JJ@  BL     boat launch ramp
                                                                                                                                                                                        Pat
                         BR     bridge
                         DA     dam or barrier
                         DB     duck blind
                                                                                                                                                                      t
                         D R    dredged reach                                                                                                                                                   )oho
                         DS     dredge disposal site
                         EL     electric lines                                                                                                                     D@:
                                                                                                                                                                              3    S/
                         FJ     flotsam and jetsam
                         IN     industrial building
                                                                                                                                                                             DS,
                         LF     landfill or junkyard
                                                                                                                                                                   at1heA
                         MA     marina                                                                                                                             t
                         P1     pier or causeway
                                         lot
                         PP     power plant
                                                                         ac   If
                                                                                                                                                                      Q
                         RB     RR bridge or culvert
                         RS     radio antenna or tower
                         RV     recreational vehicle trail
                         SC     shipping channel
                         SP     sewage plant
                         TF     tank farm                                                                                                                                :2
                                                                                                                                                                      DA
                         TH     seasonal residences
                                water intake
                         WI
                                                                                                                                                          a
                         Land   Uses
                         AG     agriculture
                                county park
                         IN     industry
                         MR     military reservation
                         NA     natural area
                         PA     picnic or camping area
                         NH     National Historic Site
                         QU     quarries                                                                        P
                         RH     residential housing
                                                                                                                                             M
                         TP     town park
                         SK     state park
                                                                                                                                         @i (A
                        "Y                         V                                                                                                               4  ght

                                                                                                                                                                Dk.04

               U




                     HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                           MAP NUMBER 2

                                                                                                                                                              Miles
                     Shad and Schermerhorn Islands / Schodack and
                     Houghtaling Islands and Schodack Creek / Coeymans                                                                                       0                       V2
                     Creek / Hannacroix Creek / Mill Creek Wetlands
                     New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                               Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky           Dec









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                                                            MAP LEGEND
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                                                                                                                                                         -Aj
                                                            Community Type                                                                                                                                                                                                       I
                                                            D         deepwater
                                                            S         shallows
                                                            F         mud and sand flats
                                                            B         sandy beach                                                                                                                                                                                         P;
                                                                      rocky shore
                                                            R
                                                            L         lower marsh
                                                            U         upper marsn
                                                            W         tidal swamp forest
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   /@Ut9" "@      hS


























                                                            C         freshwater creek
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  V
                                                            Exotic    Plants
                                                            WC        water chestnut
                                                            CR        common reed
                                                            PL
                                                                      purple loosestrife                                         5
                                                                                                                                                                               K                                                                                                               10


                                                                      ahandonAd ruins
                                                            Major Features                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     I
                                                            AR                                                                                                                                               .1           .                      I                            % It                          . I       i     .  W *@       i .                         214.











                                                                                                                                   93


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name: -     Stuyvesant Marshes                                                             REFER TO MAP NUMBER 3
            Town(s):         Stuyvesant
            County(ies):     Columbia
            7.51 Quad(s):    Ravena

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Roughly equal amounts of shallows (S), mudflats (F), sandy beach (13), rocky shore (R), lower
            marsh (L), and upper marsh (U).

            Rare Species:    Heart leaf plantain, kidney leaf mud7plantain.

            Valuable Species: Limited use by migrating waterfowl, probable heavy use by various nesting bird species.

            Size: Small to medium sized shallows, mudflats, and marsh areas, long stretch of sandy beach and rocky shore.

            Quality- A moderate diversity habitat of good quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

            Exotics: Moderate to heavy invasion by common reed (CR), purple loosestrife (PL), and water chestnut (WC).

            General Description: Although this site is fairly small, it contains many habitat types including a mix of upper and
            lower marsh west of the RR tracks, sand and mudflats at the mouth of a small stream, and a long stretch of sandy
            beach south of the stream, and a stretch of rocky shore along the River at the northern end of the site.






























                                  Figure 36: Creek mouth at Stuyvesant Marshes










         94                                          Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIO

         Major Features: RR track forms east boundary of site, small summer house on site (rH), limited bulkheading along
         the shore (131-1), shipping channel (SC), dredging reaches (DR) 25, 26, and 27, dredge disposal (DS) areas U-23 and
         24.

         Site Historr. The River channel was first dredged between 1926 and 1930 with subsequent maintenance dredging
         and on site disposal. Urnited disturbance from construction of RR.

         Existing Use: Possible limited fishing and bird watching.

         Surrounding Use: RR track, residential housing (RH), Village of Stuyvesant.

         Status & Ownership: Not a designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Recognized by the NY Natural
         Heritage program as containing tidal communities of moderate significance.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundarr. Site boundaries shown on the map are from NY Natural Heritage Program. The buffer zone should
         include the upland watershed to the east including the bluffs extending to the 150 foot contour.

         Recommended Actions: Monitor and control runoff entering the habitat from Route 9J and the RR. Monitor the
         heart leaf plantain for evidence of trampling or degradation; use protective fencing as appropriate.

         Incompatible Use: Development, dredging, and filling of the wetland areas. Construction of new bulkheads along
         the shore. Clearing vegetation in the immediate watershed. Use of herbicides near rare plants.

         Recommended Use: Educational opportunities are facilitated by the site's small size, accessibility, and large
         numbers of community types.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
         Protection Biologist. Carol Reschke, Robert Zaremba, Caryl DeVrIles and Kate Hubbs (rhe Nature Conservancy).











                                                                                                                                 95


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name:      Coxsackie Creek                                                                REFER TO MAP NUMBER 3
            Town(s):        New Baltimore
            County(ies):    Greene
            7.51 Quad(s):   Ravena

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Principally freshwater creek (C) with lesser amounts of shallows (S), mudflats (F), sandy beach
            (B), lower marsh (L), upper marsh (U), freshwater creek (C).

            Rare Species:   Estuary beggar-ticks.

            Valuable Species: Spawning habitat for alewife, blueback herring, white perch, and American shad. Feeding
            grounds for herons and other wading birds. Small mammal and furbearer foraging.

            Size: Medium sized marsh, mudflats, and shallow littoral areas. One and a half miles of unobstructed stream
            accessible to migratory fish.

            Quality- A moderate diversity habitat of good quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited purple loosestrife (PL) around the fringes of the marsh.
                                                   I
            General Description: The mouth of the creek contains upper and lower marsh as well as mudflats. North of the
            creek mouth along the River is a spit of sandy shore (probably dredge material). The first half mile of creek is tidally
            influenced with a mud substrate while the next mile is non-tidal with a gravel and rock substrate. The marsh and
            creek are bordered by steep, wooded hills. Generally an undeveloped habitat.


























                                  Figure 37.  Tidal portion of Coxsackie Creek, looking east









         96                                           Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIONS

         Major Features: Residential housing (RH), highway, shipping channel (SC), dredging reach (DR) 25, dredge
         disposal (DS) site U-3.

         Site Historr. The River channel was first dredged between 1926 and 1930 with subsequent maintenance dredging
         and disposal.

         Existing Use: Limited fishing and hunting in the area. Local dip-net blueback herring fishery in the spring.

         Surrounding Use: Agricultural lands (AG), natural areas (NA).

         Status & Ownership: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The site Includes the Natural
         Heritage Program's Coxsackie Creek. Mouth site.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary. Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone should
         include the woodlands west of the site and along the creek, including steep banks up to the 100 foot contour.

         Recommended Actions: Monitor impact of runoff from the highway and surrounding agricultural areas. The creek
         has a very low concentration of water chestnut; it may be practical to use mechanical means to control the spread of
         this exotic here.

         Incompatible Use: Future dredge disposal in or directly adjacent to the habitats. Dredging or construction in the
         stream. Clearing vegetation. Expanding agricultural use without adequate runoff control. Alterations to the current
         natural state of the creek corridor. Activities that would increase turbidity or temperature.

         Recommended Use: The site is generally inaccessible from land. Fishing opportunities could be developed from
         River access points.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
         Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                              97


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name.     Coxsackie Island Backwater                                                    REFER TO MAP NUMBER 3
            Town(s):       Coxsackie, New Baltimore
            County(ies):   Greene
            7.5' Quad(s):  Hudson North, Ravena

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Predominantly shallows (S) with peripheral mud and sand flats (F), rocky shore (R), lower
            marsh (L), and upper marsh (U).

            Rare Species: Heart leaf plantain, kidney leaf mud-plantain.

            Valuable Species: As a large vegetated backwater, the site is an important spawning and nursery ground for a
            diverse number of resident fish including brown bullhead, largemouth bass, yellow perch, and redfin pickerel. Also
            feeding grounds for anadromous fish and wintering areas for largemouth bass.

            Size: Large shallows area, several small to medium sized marsh, shore; and mud flat areas.

            Quality. A low diversity habitat of good quality that has experienced extensive disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited invasion by purple loosestrife (PL) along the fringes of the marsh and by water chestnut (WC) in
            the northern portion of the backwater.

            General Description: The shallow littoral area is a vegetated backwater located largely behind Rattlesnake and
            Coxsackie Islands. Underwater shelter for fish is provided by the many sunken barges in the area. The site's
            northern shore is mostly sandy beach and unvegetated mudflats while the southern portion exhibits a wetland
            sequence starting with mudflats and grading into lower and upper marsh areas towards land.
























                                 Figure 38: Northern island shoreline area showing sandy beach and upper
                              marsh.










        98                                           Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIONS

        Major Features: Several marinas (MA), a town park (TP), boat launch (BL), sewage plants (SP), sunken barge hulls,
        shipping channel (SC), dredging reaches (DR) 26, 27, and 28, dredge disposal (DS) sites 23 and 24S.

        Site Historr. The River channel was first dredged between 1926 and 1930 with subsequent maintenance dredging
        and disposal. Historic shipping activity resulted in the many sunken barges.

        Existing Use: Extensive fishing and boating activities. A SPDES waste discharge permit was held in the early
        1980's by the Coxsackie sewage district. Surface oil films observed in marshes, perhaps originating from marina
        activities.                           I

        Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), roads, the Village of Coxsackie, natural areas (NA).

        Status & Ownership: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area includes or partially
        includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (HN-102). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the
        Department of Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's
        Coxsackie Marsh site.


        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary. The designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife area should be extended to cover the wetland
        area north of the town park (dashed line). The buffer zone should include the wooded hillside directly fronting the
        backwater up to Riverside Avenue along the northern portion of the site, and extending to the 150 foot contour along
        the southern portion.

        Recommended Actions: Locate and eliminate source of surface oil in the marsh. Monitor and control any harmful
        substances associated with outfalls in the south part of the site. Protect the heart leaf plantain from trampling, with
        fencing, if needed. Clean up trash dumped at the north part of the site near Rattlesnake Island.

        Incompatible Use: Construction of breakwaters and bulkheads that would alter water flow patterns or eliminate
        shallows and flats. Dredging the productive shallows and flats. Construction on adjacent lands resulting in erosion
        and runoff. Winter activities which would affect use by largemouth bass. Expanded marina development or other
        development that would result in boating traffic largely through shallows and flats.

        Recommended' Use: Increased fishing access.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                                            99


             GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

             Site Name:        Stockport Creek and Flats                                                            REFER TO MAP NUMBER 3
             Town(s):          Stuyvesant, Stockport, Greenport
             County(ies):      Columbia
             7.5' Quad(s):     Hudson North, Stottville

             BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

             Community Types: Habitat largely comprised of shallows (S) and muciflats (F). Substantial amounts of lower marsh
             (L), upper marsh (U), and woody swamp (W). Three miles of tidal and freshwater creek (C). Smaller amounts of
             deepwater (D) and sandy beach (B) associated with the navigation channel and islands respectively.

             Rare Species:     Heart leaf plantain, estuary beggar-ticks, goldenclub. Substantial map turtle population.

             Valuable Species: Very important spawning and/or nursery grounds for anadromous and freshwater fish species
             including alewife, blueback herring, smelt, American shad, striped bass, and smallmouth bass. Very important
             feeding and resting habitat for migrating and overwintering waterfowl. Use by wading, shore, and passerine birds for
             feeding and breeding. Bank swallows nest in the vertical sand banks on the southwest shore of Stockport Middle
             Ground. Extensive stands of wild rice.

             Size: Vast expanses of shallows and flats. Second largest unobstructed tidal and freshwater stream on the Hudson.

             Quality. A high diversity habitat of excellent quality that has experienced limitecl disturbance.

             Exotics: Limited to moderate invasions of purple loosestrife (PL), common reed (CR), and water chestnut (WC).

             General Description: Lower and upper marsh areas are located along the eastern shore of Nutten Hook. Rocky
             shoreline is found facing the River on Nutten Hook. North of Little Nutten Hook are marsh, mudflats, and shallow
             littoral areas. The tidal cove formed by Gay's Point is mostly shallow littoral areas with patches of lower marsh.
             Areas from Judson Point south to
             Stockport Creek include shallow and deep
             water with beaches around Stockport
             Middle Ground. Stockport Creek is a large
             tributary with deep water and shallow
             areas, and unobstructed tidal and
             freshwater creek extending three miles
             upstream, including portions of Claverack
             and Kinderhook Creeks.             South of
             Stockport Creek is a small upland spit and
             large marsh and mudflats between the RR
             track and the River; this area is cut by tidal
             channels leading to a small arm of
             Stockpon Creek and a culvert under the
             RR tracks. South of this area is a long
             stretch of sandy beach and shallow water
             down to Priming Hook. South of Priming                                                 . . . . .
             Hook is a large tidal marsh and shallow
             water area in the cove to the east of the
             RR tracks. Finally, shallow and deep water
             areas in the River occur along the entire
             length of the site.



                                                                  Figure 39:  Shallows and Stockport Middle Ground from a small Wal
                                                              creek mouth









         100                                          Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIONS

         Major Features: Residential housing (RH), old abandoned ruins and brick piles (AR), old ferry dock (AR),
         hunting/squatters shacks (TH), RR bridges and culverts (RB), the railroad track itself, bulkheads (BH), sewage plant
         (SP), shipping channel (SC), dredging reaches (DR) 28, 29, 31, 32, 33, dredge disposal (DS) sites U-9, 14, 24.

         Site Historr. Stockport Middle Ground and extensions to Gay's Point resulted from dredge disposal from original
         dredging between 1926 and 1930 and subsequent maintenance dredging. Nutten Hook was an industrial site,
         including ice-houses, brickyards, and a ferry dock. Fifty years ago the forest on Nutten Hook was a field.

         Eidsting Use: As part of the Hudson River Islands State Park, the area is a destination point for recreational boaters.
         The area supports waterfowl hunting during the fall migration, fishing in Stockport Creek and in the River. Used for
         teaching and research as part of the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve. Nutten Hook is the only
         site on the River with continuous study of vegetation development on dredge disposal. SPDES waste discharge
         permits were held in the early 1980's by Lion Brand and Columbia Corporations on tributaries of Stockpon Creek.
         Public lands receive intense and destructive use by campers and boaters. Bank swallow nesting bluffs are
         threatened by zealous campers clearing vegetation for campsites.

         Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), urban areas, quarries (QU), and natural areas (NA).

         Status: Designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. One of four Federally designated Hudson River
         National Estuary Research Reserves. Stockport Middle Ground and part of Gay's Point are part of the Hudson River
         Islands State Park. Includes or partially includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (HN-1, HN-2, HN-3). Refer to
         official welland maps available in the Department of Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes
         the Natural Heritage Program's Nutten Hook South Bay, Gay's Point Marsh, and Stockport Creek Marsh sites.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary- The designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area should be extended to the north to
         include the wetland areas near Nutten Hook (dashed lines). Protection of the site depends on protecting a buffer
         zone that includes the upland wooded slopes immediately to the east of the site as well as upland areas within the
         site. The designated significant habitat extends further along the creek than is shown on the map.

         Recommended Actions: Regulate or, control current public uses by providing supervision by on-site personnel and
         by excluding public use in sensitive areas. Limit use of herbicides along the RR right of way. Increasing tidal
         circulation in the coves behind the RR may reduce sedimentation and maintain wetland values. Establish active
         planning and management for recreational use of the islands. Protect rush stands on the flats along the River side of
         the islands from destruction associated with boat beaching and trampling; evaluate possible solutions. Evaluate
         River hydrology affecting islands and channels to determine if dominance of flow in the navigation channel has led to
         increased island erosion and shoaling in the side channels. Evaluate erosion problem at the north end of Stockport
         Middle Ground and possibly repair the failed bulkhead through placement of surplus dredge material. Alternatively,
         the Island may be allowed to erode.

         Incompatible Use: Activities that would subdivide this large habitat or substantially change water flow patterns in
         the area. Bulkheading and dredging. Subaqueous or littoral dredge disposal except as may be required to provide
         erosion protection. Discharge of sewage or other pollutants that would concentrate on exposed mudflats.
         Substantial water withdrawals from Stockport Creek. Marina development within the habitat. Possible long-term
         degradation from potential waste facility siting in geologically-unstable clay deposit areas.

         Recommended Use: Low intensity access from old brickyard areas of Nutten Hook, Gay's Point, and Priming
         Hook. Adequate management controls for existing camping and day uses with boat access should be instituted.
         Boat access requires walkovers to protect flats from erosion. Additional research and education opportunities.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; Betsy Blair (National Estuarine Research Reserve), Fran Dunwell (DEC
         Hudson River Coordinator), DEC Region 4, Fisheries, Wildlife Manager or Environmental Protection Biologist. Harold
         Hagemann (Hudson River Islands State Park)











                                                                                                                                 101


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name:      Vosburgh Swamp and Middle Ground Flats                                          REFER TO MAP NUMBER 3
            Town(s):        Coxsackie, Athens
            County(ies):    Greene
            7.5' Quad(s):   Hudson North

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Largely comprised of creek (C), deepwater (D), shallows (S), and mudflats (F) with lesser
            amounts of sandy beach (13), lower marsh (L), upper marsh (U), and freshwater swamp (W).

            Rare Species:   Possible least bittern and mud turtle site, heart leaf plantain, subulate arrowhead, estuary beggar-
            ticks.

            Valuable Species:    Important feeding and resting grounds for migrating waterfowl. Wintering ground for waterfowl
            when open water is available. One of the few known Hudson River bank swallow colonies is located on Middle
            Ground Flats. Heavy use of the shallows for American shad spawning and extensive spawning, nursery, and feeding
            areas for striped bass, alewife, blueback herring, and white perch as well as resident fish species. Extensive nesting
            for ducks, green-backed herons, and other bird species.

            Size: Large expanses of all the community types. Extends one-half mile up Murderer's Creek.

            Qualitr. A highly diverse habitat of excellent quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

            Exotics: Moderate invasion of purple loosestrife (PL), mainly in Vosburgh Swamp.

            General Description: The north part of the site includes sandy beach and rocky shore along the River. Vosburgh
            Swamp is a large wetland area cut off from tidal circulation by a low dam across the mouth. West Flats contains an
            extensive expanse of upper and lower marsh cut by a large channel system and also contains several dredge spoil
            islands. The River to the west of Middle Ground Flats contains shallow and deep water. Murderer's Creek is
            accessible to fish up to a dam at Sleepy Hollow Lake. East of Middle Ground Flats is mainly deepwater.












                                                            V, N,
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                                  Figure 40:  High marsh and tidal channel in Vosburgh Swamp, looking east.










        102                                          Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIONS

        Major Features: Residential housing (RH), sewage plant (SP), DEC boat launch (BL), marina (MA), tank farm (TF),
        town park (TP), orchards (AG), bulkhead (13H), small causeway (PI), dam (DA), shipping channel (SC), dredging
        reaches (DR) 31, 32, 33, and 36, dredge spoil (DS) sites U-9 and several unnumbered small disposal islands.

        Site Historr. The River channel was first dredged between 1926 and 1930 with maintenance dredging and spoil
        deposition occurring subsequently, especially on Middle Ground Flats which were originally constructed out of
        dredge spoil. Vosburgh swamp has been artificially impounded.

        Eidsting Use: Significant waterfowl hunting, fishing, public boat launch area, commercial shad fishing.

        Surrounding Use: Agricultural areas (AG), residential housing (RH), the Village of Athens, natural areas (NA).

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially includes State-
        regulated freshwater wetlands (HN-1 09, HN-1 13, HN-1 14). Refer to the official wetland maps available at the
        Department of Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's West
        Flats site.


        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary: Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. Buffer zone should
        include the upland wooded community to the west of the site extending to the crest of the bluffs (The 150 foot
        contour north of Murderer's Creek and approximately the 50 foot contour south of the creek).

        Recommended Actions: Research the effects on maintaining wetland values that may result from additional tidal
        flow into Vosburgh Swamp. Research effects of the release of water from the dam at Sleepy Hollow Lake on the fish
        use of the creek and optimize flows for fish spawning. Identify and control sources of sediment such as deteriorated
        bulkheads and storm drains. Determine where dredging is needed in specific instances where siltation from upland
        sources is degrading habitat values; take preventive measures to control sediment sources and reduce the need for
        localized dredging.

        Incompatible Use: Any activity that would interfere with the habitat functions of the site. Dredging, new
        bulkheading, and development in the habitats. Marina development that would result in boating traffic within
        shallows and flats. Clearing vegetation to the extent that erosion of adjacent land would occur.

        Recommended Use: Enhanced fishing opportunities.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.








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                                                 S    shallows
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                                                      sandy beach
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                                                 L    lower marsh
                                                 U    upper marsh
                                                 W    tidal swamp forest
                                                 C    freshwater creek

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                                                 WC   water chestnut                                                                                                                           h                            ke IN o 2
                                                 CR   common reed
                                                      urple loosestrife

                                                 Major Features
                                                 AR   abandoned ruins
                                                 BH   bulkhead                                                                                                          silm                                                                        R
                                                 BL   boat launch ramp
                                                 B R  bridge
                                                 DA   dam or barrier
                                                 DB   duck blind
                                                 DR   dredged reach                                I                                                                                                                     D
                                                                    isposal site
                                                 DS   dredge d
                                                 EL   electric lines                                                                                                                                             Liohl
                                                 FJ   flotsam and jetsam
                                                 IN   industrial building                                                                                                                                                                       YCtkl
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         89@
                                                 LF   landfill or junkyard
                                                 MA   marina
                                                 P1   pier or causeway
                                                                                                                                                                                                                   ISO
                                                 PK   parking lot                                                                                                                                                  Ay
                                                 PP   power plant                                                                                                            C M
                                                 RB   RR bridge or culver                                                                                                                                        tseil
                                                 RS   radio antenna or to,
                                                 RV   recreational vehicle trail                                                                                                                                                                                                                T!
                                                 SC   shipping channel
                                                            le plant
                                                            -arm
                                                 TH   seasonal residences
                                                 WI   water intake                                                                                                                                         0                     0 GD

                                                 Land Uses                                                                                                                                                         a rker
                                                      agriculture
                                                 C P  county park
                                                 IN   industry
                                                 MR   military reservation
                                                 NA   natural area
                                                 PA   picnic or camping are
                                                      National Historic
                                                      quarries                                                                                                                                                                             St2Fk
                                                 .... residential housing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 D
                                                 TP   town park
                                                 SK   state park

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                                       HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                                             MAP NUMBER 3                                                                                                                              N

                                                                                                                                                                                                        Miles
                                       Coxsackie Creek / Coxsackie Island Backwater
                                       Stuyvesant Marshes / Stockport Creek and Flats
                                       Vosburgh Swamp and Middle Ground Flats                                                                                                                           0                           1/2                        1
                                       New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                                                       Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky                    December 1989











                                                                                                                              103


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name:     Roger's Island                                                                REFER TO MAP NUMBER.4
            Town(s):       Greenport
            County(ies):   Columbia
            7.5' Quad(s):  Hudson South

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Comprised of roughly equal amounts of shallows (S) and mudflats (F) with lesser amounts of
            sandy beach (B), lower marsh (L), upper marsh (U), and swamp forest (W).

            Rare Species: Estuary beggar-ticks, two stands of larger-sized goldenclub.

            Valuable Species:   Extensive waterfowl use during migrations and overwintering, nesting sites for many birds,
            extensive spawning areas for anadromous fish including especially American shad.

            Sizes: Extensive shallows and mudflats concentrated at the south and north ends of Roger's Island, large lower
            marshes and rice-dominated upper marshes, one of the largest tidal swamp forests on the Hudson and in NYS.

            Quality- A highly diverse habitat of excellent quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited invasion by purple loosestrife and common reed along marsh edges.

            General Description: Productive wetland areas of the island occur in and along Hallenbeck Creek, in and along the
            creek at the south end of the island, in the swamp forest in the southeast part of the island, in the two marsh areas
            along the west shore, and in the extensive flats at the north and south ends of the islands. The western portion of
            the island is not tidally influenced and is covered with secondary coniferous forest and scrubby undergrowth.








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                                  Figure 4 1: Roger's Island backwater, looking north









        104                                          Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTION

        Major Features: Limited bulkheads along west side (13H), Rip Van Winkle Bridge (BR), iryformal picnic/camping
        areas (PA), RR track forms the eastern border, extensive flood flotsam (FJ), shipping channel (SC), dredging reach
        (DR) 39.

        Site Historr. The Island was formed naturally, although dredged material has been placed on the northern end.
        The River channel was first dredged in the 1930's with maintenance dredging occurring subsequently. The Rip Van
        Winkle Bridge was built in 1934.

        Eidsting Use: Extensive waterfowl hunting, Informal camping, extensive commercial shad fishing.

        Surrounding Use: The island itself is separated from the upland by the RR right of way and Hallenbeck Creek. One
        small farm field (AG) nearby, orchards, limited residential housing (RH), and extensive natural areas (NA) in the
        uplands to the east.

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Roger's Island proper Is owned by the State
        and administered by the Department of Environmental Conservation as a Wildlife Management Area. The area wholly
        or partially includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (HS-1). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the
        Department of Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's Roger's
        Island site,


        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundarr. Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
        should include the upland areas to the east, as far as Mt. Marino Road to the north and Route 9J to the south.

        Recommended Actions: Clean up flood flotsam, ensure that herbicides from the RR are not entering the creek.
        Establish bridge maintenance practices to control entry of runoff from the bridge and associated interchanges and to
        limit entry of maintenance debris such as paint and sand-blasting materials.

        Incompatible Use: Marinas or other development that would disturb the area or result in boating traffic within the
        shallows and flats. Any permanent building or structure (such as a bridge to the island) that would increase
        uncontrolled public access. Dredge disposal on or near the tidally-influenced portions of the Island. Direct loss of
        habitat associated with bridge maintenance or expansion.

        Recommended Use: Managed waterfowl area, picnic area, controlled access from the River.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                             105


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name:     Catskill Creek                                                                REFER TO MAP NUMBER 4
            Town(s):       Catskill
            County(ies):   Greene
            7.5' Quad(s):  Hudson South, Cementon

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Predominantly creek with small amounts of shallows (S), mudflats (F), and lower marsh (L).

            Rare Species: Wood turtle reported in the area, probably in association with adjacent buffer area.

            Valuable Species: Important spawning and nursery grounds for anadromous and resident fishes including
            American shad, alewife, blueback herring, white perch, and smallmouth and largemouth bass.

            Sizes: Five miles of the creek of which the lower 1.5 miles are tidally influenced. Narrow strips of mudflats and
            lower marsh along the creek banks. The Catskill creek watershed covers over 270 square miles.

            Quality: A low diversity habitat of good quality that has experienced extensive disturbance.

            Exotics: None noted.

            General Description: The tidal portions of this site contain both shallows and deepwater areas as well as thin strips
            of mudflats along the sides of the channel. The upper portions of the site accessible to fish include several miles of
            Catskill Creek and part of Kaaterskill Creek which are both fast moving cold water streams.





























                                 Figure 42:  Carskill Creek, looking west









         106                                           Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIO

         Mgjor Features: A large marina (MA), tank farm (TF), bulkheading along the north side (BH), highway and railroad
         crossings, extensive village development, dredging of the creek bottom (DR), sewage plant (SP), town park (rP).

         Site Historr. The creek was dredged in the early part of the twentieth century.

         Existing Use: Extensive recreational fishing and boating, large marina, commercial shad fishing. A SIDDES waste
         discharge permit was held in the early 1980's by the Catskill Sewage District.

         Surrounding Use: The lower portions of the creek are surrounded by the Village of Catskill. Upper portions are
         adjacent to quarries (QU) and scattered residential housing (RH) and natural areas (NA).

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary. Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
         should contain the upland watershed on both sides of Catskill and Kaaterskill Creeks to the crest of the associated
         bluffs.

         Recommended Actions: Monitor and prevent spillage into the habitat from the fuel tanks north of the Creek.
         Enforce existing regulations prohibiting discharges from boats at the marina. Avoid contamination of the Creek from
         wastes resulting from bridge maintenance activities. Avoid dredging in the Creek during fish spawning periods.
         Institute stormwater and non-point pollution control programs in the Village.

         Incompatible Use: Direct or indirect discharge of chemicals and other pollutantst extensive development of the
         creek bank and watershed resulting in increased runoff, construction of dams and other barriers to fish. Extensive
         expansion of marinas which would degrade spawning habitat.

         Recommended Use: Increased access for recreational fishing within the creek.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
         Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                                  107


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name:      Ramshom Marsh                                                                   REFER TO MAP NUMBER 4
            Town(s):        Catskill
            County(ies):    Greene
            7.51 Quad(s):   Hudson South, Cementon

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Largely shallows (S), mudflats (F), lower marsh (L), upper marsh (U), and swamp forest (W)
            with lesser amounts of sandy beach (B) and rocky shore (R).

            Rare Species:   Least bittern nesting, estuary beggar-ticks, heart leaf plantain.

            Valuable Species: Waterfowl use during migrations and overwintering, important heron feeding grounds, furbearer
            habitat, spawning and nursery grounds for American shad and black bass.

            Sizes: Large shallows and mudflats along River, a long strip of sandy beach, large tract of upper marsh, one of the
            largest tidal swamp forests along the Hudson.

            Quality- A highly diverse habitat of excellent quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

            Exotics: Very limited patches of purple loosestrife and common reed (CR).

            General Description: Starting from the River, there is a wide shallows area covered with aquatic plants. Moving
            inland, there is a narrow portion of lower marsh followed by a narrow sand and mud flat. The upper marsh is
            elevated 1-2 feet above the lower marsh and. extends to the west for 200-300 feet. This upper marsh is cut by
            several small drainage channels and Ramshom Creek. West of the upper marsh Is an extensive swamp area that
            has alternate sections of shrubby and forested areas as well as several small streams including Mineral Spring Brook.
            There is also a medium sized area of shallows, mudflat, and lower marsh along the small creek joining Catskill Creek
            in the north of the site and an extensive rocky shore area along the south portion of the site.











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                                  Figure 43:  Shore-parallel bands of low marsh, flats, and shallows at
                               Ramshorn Marsh, looking northeast









        108                                           Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIONS

        Major Features: Duck blinds (DB), residential housing (RH), marina (MA), tank farm (7), sewage plant (SP), town,
        park (TP), shipping channel (SC), dredging reach (DR) 47.

        Site History: The River channel was first dredged in the 1930's with maintenance dredging and spoil deposition
        occurring subsequently. Several causeways and road extensions traverse the swamp.

        Existing Use: Extensive waterfowl hunting, bird watching, nature sanctuary, bass and shad fishing. A SPDES waste
        discharge permit was held in the early 1980's by the Catskill sewage district.

        Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), the Village of Catskill, natural areas (NA).

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary: Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
        should include the upland forests to the west of the site and the Burger, Ramshorn and Dubois Creek watersheds.

        Recommended Actions: Monitor fuel tanks to the north for spills entering the significant habitat. Monitor erosion of
        the upper marsh edge along the River, particularly for effects of sediment entering the marsh. Survey common reed
        at the north part of the site that may be spreading in association with eroding soils. Stop mowing heart leaf plantain
        plants along the southern shore through education and fencing if needed. Much of the upland to the west is
        agricultural land under threat of residential development; preserve these areas in their current use through
        appropriate easements.

        Incompatible Use: Any activity that would subdivide the overall site into smaller units, such as additional road
        construction. Any construction activities in the shallows and marshes. Activities that would disturb the swamp forest
        areas and their existing hydrology. Bulkheading of any of the streams in the area or the River shore itself.

        Recommended Use: An ideal education and research site since it contains virtually all the different community
        types found along the River.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; Betsy Blair, National Estuarine Research Reserve. DEC Region 4,
        Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                                 109


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name:      Inbocht Bay and Duck Cove                                                       REFER TO MAP NUMBER 4
            Town(s):        Catskill
            County(ies):    Greene
            7.51 Quad(s):   Cementon

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Principally shallows (S) and mudflats; (F), with some lower marsh (L).

            Rare Species:   Estuary beggar-ticks.

            Valuable Species: Very extensive waterfowl concentrations during spring and fall migrations, some waterfowl
            overwintering, large muskrat and snapping turtle populations.

            Sizes: A huge expanse of shallow littoral zones and mudflats with a narrow fringe of lower marsh along the
            shoreline.

            Quality: A moderately diverse habitat of good quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited invasion of purple loosestrife (PL) along the shore.

            General Description: Inbocht Bay and Duck Cove form a very large, shallow backwater area of the River. There is
            extensive coverage of the area with aquatic plants and, a narrow, long band of lower marsh along the shore.






























                                  Figure 44: View across Inbocht Bay to the south









                                                     Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTION

        Major Features: Hunting cabins (TH), cement plants and loading facilities (IN), pasture areas (AG), cement loading
        piers (PI), an old stone dike extending north from Silver Point to the dredge spoil island, shipping channels (SC),
        dredging reaches (DR) 47 and 48, dredge spoil (DS) sites U-16 and 17.

        Site Historr. The River channel was first dredged in the 1930's with extensive maintenance dredging and spoil
        deposition occurring subsequently. The Islands in the bay were artificially created from dredge spoil. Industrial
        development has modified the shoreline and shallows, including construction of piers and use of deep draft vessels.

        Eidsting Use: Extensive waterfowl hunting, cement manufacture and transport. A SPDES waste discharge permit
        was held In the early 1980's by Lehigh Portland Cement Co.

        Surrounding Use: Agricultural pasture (AG), cement factories (IN), cement quarries (01J), natural areas (NA).

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially includes State-
        regulated freshwater wetlands (HS-101). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of
        Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's Inbocht Bay site.

        HABITAT PROTECrION MEASURES

        Site Boundary: Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. Buffer zone should include the
        watershed of Mineral Springs Creek and the immediately adjacent upland slopes and industrial areas.

        Recommended Actions: Monitor and control any pollutants entering the site from the cement plants, loading
        facilities and agricultural areas.

        Incompatible Use: Dredging that would disrupt the productive shallows including aqueous dredge spoil disposal.
        Development of marinas. Additional large-scale development of the bay and the surrounding watershed that would
        result in increased runoff or sedimentation. Discharge of agricultural and industrial pollutants.

        Recommended Use: Managed waterfowl area.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.













            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name:      Roeliff-Jansen Kill                                                             REFER TO MAP NUMBER 4
            Town(s):        Germantown, Livingston, Clermont
            County(ies):    Columbia
            7.5' Quad(s):   Hudson South, Clermont

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Predominantly freshwater creek (C) with limited shallows (S), mudflats (F), and lower, marsh (Q.

            Rare Species:   None currently identified.

            Valuable Species: Extensive use as a spawning and/or nursery ground for anadromous,fishes including American
            shad, blueback herring, white perch and striped bass. American shad spawning near the Kill mouth. The Kill
            provides spawning and nursery grounds for River-resident smallmouthbass that move upstream in spring. Upper
            reaches include resident brown trout.

            Sizes: Six miles along the stream of which the first half mile is tidal. :Small marsh and mudfiats areas at the stream
            mouth.

            Quality- A low diversity habitat of fair quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

            Exotics: Moderate invasion of purple loosestrife along the fringes of the lower marsh.

            General Description: Roeliff-Jansen Kill Is a large, medium gradient, cool-water stream draining a large,
            predominantly agricultural watershed. The tidal wetland areas are concentrated in two locations near the mouth of
            the creek. West of the RR bridge is a small area of shallow water and mudflats behind a small, sandy, dredge spoil
            island. East of the bridge the stream mouth divides into several channels between which are islands covered with
            scrub and weedy marsh plants. The banks of the creek are very steep, precluding marsh formation except in small
            pockets.





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                               Figure 45: Roeliff-Jansen Kill looking east from footbridge.










        112                                           Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTION

        Major Features: Highway and railroad bridges over the stream (RB), RR track forms border to shallow zones in the
        River, dredge spoil island (DS), boat launch ramp (BL), residential housing (RH), shipping channel (SC).

        Site Historr. The River channel was first dredged in the 1930's with subsequent maintenance dredging and spoil
        disposal.

        Eidsting Use: Significant recreational fishing, small recreational boat launching. Significant commercial American
        shad fishing and boat access.

        Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), natural areas (NA), agriculture (AG) along. the upstream portions of the
        creek.

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially includes State-
        regulated freshwater wetlands (HS-1 1). Refer to the official wetland maps available at the Department of
        Environmental Conservation regional office.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary- The Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat boundary should be extended to include the
        portions of the site located west of the railroad tracks that were not included in the original designation (dashed line).
        The buffer zone should include the watershed along the creek to the crest of the steep bluffs or to other sources of
        runoff. The designated significant habitat boundary extends further up the creek than is shown on the map.

        Recommended Actions: Monitor and limit upstream agricultural runoff. Protect the adjacent bluffs from
        deforestation and any other activities resulting in erosion. Establish protection through a watershed management
        program focusing on agricultural soil conservation practices. Evaluate the effects of the Washburn Dock on
        sedimentation at the mouth of the Kill. Limit the need for dredging at the Kill mouth increasing water flow through
        the deteriorating dock. I-imit channel dredging scope and restrict dredging to late summer or fall.

        Incompatible Use: Dredging the creek or the wetlands and shallows near its mouth for expanded boat access.
        Physical or chemical barriers to fish movements. Clearing vegetation or other activities that would introduce
        sediment, increase turbidity or increase water temperatures Within the Kill.

        Recommended Use: Increased fishing access.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.




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                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Community TYW
                                           uar                                                                                                                                                                                D   deepwater
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              S   shallows
                                                                                                                                                                    %
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              F   mud and sand flats
                                                                                                                                                                            F4                                                B   sandy beach                              J
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              R   rocky shore
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              L   lower marsh
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              U   upper marsh
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              W   tidal swamp forest
                                                                                                                                                                       Jr                                                                ater crook


                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  watev chestnut
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              CR  common read
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              PL  purple loosestrife
                                                                                         Airfield
                                                                                                                                                                        29
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Major Features
                                                                                                                               C                                                                                              AR  abandoned ruins
                                                                                                                                                                               Li                                             BH  bulkhead
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              III, boat launch ramp
                                                                                                                                                                                                  TIT                         BR  bridge
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              DA  dam or barrier
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              DB  duck blind
                              0                                                                                                                                                                                               DR  dredged reach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                 f,           DS  dredge disposal site
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              EL  electric lines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              FJ  flotsam arto jetsam
                                         2                                                                                                                                                                                    IN  industriaJi building
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              LF  landfill or Junkyard
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              MA  marina
                                                                                                                                                                                     @J                                       PI  pier or causeway
                                                                                        W                                                                                                                                     PK  parking lot
                                                                         INN
                                                                                                NA                                                                                                                            PP  power plant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              RB  RR bridge or culv(
                                                                                               53 GREEN
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         ?rt-
                                                                                                  PO 7,
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              RS  radio antenna or tower
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              RV  recreational vehicle trall
                                                                                                    L    im rimi                                                                                                              SC  shipping channel
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              SP  sewage plant
                                                                               L
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              TF  tank farm
                                                                                                                           35                                 NA                                                              TH  seasonal residences
                                                                                                                      00                                                                                                      %7  water intake

                                                                                                                     0
                                                                                                                                                                                                               -n             Land Uses
                          3-
                                                                                                                                                                                     QL                                       AG  agriculture
                                                 V                                                                                                                                                                            CP  county park
                                                                                                  ht                                                                                                                          IN  industry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              MR  military rewrvatlon
                                                                                                                                                                  Jlq.                                                        NA  natural area
                                 Q@@ rries                                                                                               F                                                                                    PA  picnic or camping area
                                                                                                                                                                                                        rP01 /
                                                                                                                                            It                                                                                NH  National Historic Site
                                                                                                            U.i,
                                            _9                                                                                                                                                                                QU  quarries
                                                          int                                     /24                                                                                                                         RH  residential housing
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              TP  town park
                                                                                      *,-b/F@47                                                                                                                                   state park
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         N
                        HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                                   MAP NUMBER 4

                                                                                                                                                                            Miles
                        Roger's Island / Catskill Creek / Ramshorn Marsh
                        Roeliff-Jansen Kill / Inbocht Bay and Duck Cove                                                                                                    0

                        New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                                           Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky               December 1989











                                                                                                                                 113


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name:       Smith's Landing Cementon                                                       REFER TO MAP NUMBER 5
            Town(s):         Catskill, Saugerties
            County(ies):     Greene, Ulster
            7.51 Quad(s):    Cementon

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Limited mudflats (F), lower marsh (L), and upper marsh (U).

            Rare Species:    Heart leaf plantain, kidney leaf mud-plantain.

            Valuable Species: None identified.

            sizes: Small mudIflats and marsh areas.

            Qualit.r. A low diversity habitat of good quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited invasion by purple loosestrife (PL).

            General Description: A small tidal cove that exhibits a progression starting with mudflats and moving through lower
            and upper marsh areas.
































                                  Figure 46: Tidal cove showing lower and upper marsh at Smith's Landing.










       114                                          Site Specific Information

       HUMAN INTERACTIO

       Major Features: Residential housing (RH), bulkheads (BH), boat docks (MA), town park (TP), shipping channel
       (SC).

       Site History: None Identified.

       Existing Use: Boat launches.

       Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), the Village of Cementon.

       Status: Recognized by the NY Natural Heritage Program as containing moderately significant interlidal mudflats.
       The area wholly or partially includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (C-25). Refer to the official wetland maps
       available at the Department of Environmental Conservation regional office.

       HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

       Site Boundary: The site boundary shown Is from the NY Natural Heritage Program. The buffer zone should include
       the immediate upland to the west, including the small tributary creek.

       Recommended Actions: Monitor and control runoff entering the habitat and contributing sediments or pollutants
       from the surrounding roads. Establish watershed management practices such as maintenance of natural vegetation
       buffers.

       Incompatible Use: Dredging or development that would alter or destroy the habitat. Any activity that would reduce
       flow of the tributary stream or increase its sediment load.

       Recommended Use: None identified, based on the need to protect rare plants.

       Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
       Protection Biologist. Carol Reschke and Caryl Devries, The Nature Conservancy.











                                                                                                                                115


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name:      Germantown/Clermont Flats                                                      REFER TO MAP NUMBER 5
            Town(s):        Germantown, Clermont
            County(ies):    Columbia
            7.51 Quad(s):   Cementon, Saugerties

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Deepwater (D), shallows (S), mudflats (F) and limited lower marsh (L).

            Rare Species:   None identified.

            Valuable Species:    Extremely important American shad spawning area, nursery areas for shad, striped bass, white
            perch, resident fishes. Extensive waterfowl feeding grounds during spring and fall migration periods. Some
            waterfowl overwintering use.

            Sizes: Very large expanses of shallow littoral areas and mudflats.

            Quality- A low diversity habitat of good quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

            Exotics: None known.

            General Description: One of the largest continuous areas of shallows and mudflats on the Hudson with abundant
            aquatic plant growth including water celery and eelgrass.

            HUMAN INTERACTION

            Major Features: Adjacent to the shipping channel (SC) and dredging reach (DR) 48. Extensive commercial shad
            fishing.

            Site History The River channel was first dredged in the 1930's with subsequent maintenance dredging and
            disposal.

            Existing Use: Extensive commercial shad fishing, recreational fishing. A SPDES waste discharge permit was held in
            the early 1980's by the Lehigh Portland Cement Company.

            Surrounding Use: Residential housing (131-1), natural areas (NA), agricultural lands (AG), villages, Clermont State
            Park (SK).

            Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat.

            HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

            Site Boundary. Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
            should include the upland along the eastern shore of the River as far as Woods Road. Watersheds of small streams
            discharging in the area may also affect the area. Adjacent sections within the River itself should be included in a
            buffer since the area's value depends on overall water quality.

            Recommended Actions: Undertake dredging of the channel only in late summer or mid to late winter to avoid
            disrupting the fish and bird uses of the area. Restrict recreational boat use over the shallows and direct boat traffic
            over deeper waters, especially during fish spawning and waterfowl feeding times. Continue efforts to improve the
            overall water quality of the River. Protect the area as a research reserve and as a sanctuary with limited non-
            resource related recreational use.










        116                                          Site Specific Information

        Incompatible Use. Any new navigation channels cut through the area, dredge spoil disposal, marinas along the
        shore bordering the site and other development that would result in boating traffic through the area.

        Recommended Use: Increased small boat fishing, research on shallow water spawning fishes.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 4, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                                  117


            GEOGRAPHIC INFL)IRMATION

            Site Name:      Esopus Estuary                                                                  REFER TO MAP NUMBER 5
            Town(s):        Saugerties, Red Hook
            County(ies):    Ulster, Dutchess
            7.5' Quad(s):   Saugerties

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Comprised of freshwater creek (C), deepwater (D), shallows (S), mudflats (F), lower marsh (L),
            upper marsh (U), and a small amount of tidal swamp forest (W).

            Rare Species: Shortnose sturgeon spawning and wintering area in the deepwater portion of the River, migrating
            osprey feeding grounds, heart leaf plantain, goldenclub.

            Valuable Species: Important spawning and nursery grounds for striped bass, white perch, American shad, alewife,
            blueback herring, rainbow smelt, and resident fish. Feeding and resting grounds for migrating waterfowl.

            Sizes: Large areas of mudflat, marsh, shallows, and deepwater habitat. Small area of tidal swamp. Esopus creek is
            accessible to River fish for 1.3 miles up to a large waterfall.

            Quality- A moderately diverse habitat of good quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited invasions of exotics overall with moderate to severe invasions of purple loosestrife (PL) and water
            chestnut (WC) in small areas.

            General Description: The site includes two coves with a marsh/mudflat/shallows series north of the creek mouth, a
            large mudflats just south of the creek mouth, a large upper marsh area along the south side of the creek channel, a
            cove with mudflats and lower marsh just north of the long causeway, a small section of shrubby tidal swamp on
            either side of the causeway, a large cove with mudflats and lower marsh south of the causeway, a deepwater section
            of the River in the east, and a small tidal portion of Esopus Creek.























                                  Figure 47.  Marsh area north of the Esopus Creek mouth.










        118                                            Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIONS

        Major Features: Extensive bulkheading (BH), residential housing (RH), a long causeway (PI), dredged channel
        areas (DR), marina (MA), duck blinds (DB), sewage plant (SP), Coast Guard station, shipping channel (SQ.

        Site Historr. The natural sedimentation patterns of the site have been radically altered by the construction of the
        causeway and bulkheads extending the creek channel. The creek channel was first dredged in 1929 with
        subsequent maintenance dredging in 1935 and 1968.

        Eidsting Use: Black and striped bass fishing including several tournaments, limited duck hunting. A SPDES waste
        discharge permit was held in the early 1980's by Ferroxcube Co.

        Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), the Village of Saugerties, natural areas (NA), small villages.

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially includes State-
        regulated freshwater wetlands (S-2, S-3). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of
        Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's Saugerties Marsh and
        Esopus Estuary sites.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary. Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
        should include the undeveloped upland woods within the Creek's watershed and the immediate banks and slopes
        within the Village.

        Recommended Actions: Minimize human activities in the area during osprey migration times in mid-April and early
        May. Examine the potential of increasing tidal flow or otherwise reducing sedimentation in the large upper marsh
        area to possibly reduce spread of purple loosestrife. Implement stormwater runoff and other non-point pollution
        control programs in the Village.

        Incompatible Use: Activities that would decrease stream flow from Esopus Creek. Dredging or filling. Intensive
        marina development in the Creek. Marina development that would result in boating traffic within the shallows and
        flats.

        Recommended Use: Fishing from the jetty, access through construction of boardwalks associated with the
        lighthouse.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                                  119


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

            Site Name:       North and South Tivoli Bays                                                     REFER TO MAP NUMBER 5
            Town(s):         Red Hook
            County(ies):     Dutchess
            7.5' Quad(s):    Saugerties

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Comprised of shallows (S), lower marsh (L) and upper marsh (U), followed by tidal swamp
            forest (W), rocky shore (R) and creeks (C).

            Rare Species:    Migrating osprey feeding and resting, map turtle use, least bittern nesting, king rail, heart leaf
            plantain, estuary beggar-ticks, goldenclub, other rare plants.

            Valuable Species: Feeding, spawning, and/or nursery areas for striped bass, alewife, blueback herring, largemouth
            and smallmouth bass, and other fishes. A large snapping turtle population. Extensive waterfowl use for feeding and
            resting during migrations. Many other breeding bird populations. Furbearer habitat.

            Size: Large expanses of all community types except tidal swamp forest which is found in a medium sized patch on
            the lowland separating North and South bays and in a small patch at Stony Creek.

            Quality. A highly diverse habitat of good quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

            Exotics: North Bay has limited invasion of water chestnut (WC) and purple loosestrife (PL), South Bay has severe
            invasion of water chestnut (WC).

            General Description: South Bay is largely comprised of tidal shallows and mudflats that are covered with water
            chestnut plants from mid-June through early October. North Bay has a complex network of shallow water channels
            that are lined with lower marsh, deeply penetrating areas of upper marsh. West of the RR track is a large area of
            shallow water covered with aquatic vegetation and including two islands that have marsh and/or shore associated
            with them. Two freshwater streams enter the bays: Saw Kill into South Bay and Stony Creek into North Bay.






















                                   Figure 48: Tivoli North Bay. Photo by Bryan SwiftlDEC










         120                                             Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIONS


         Mgjor Features: The railroad forms the west boundary of the bays which are connected to the River by five bridges
         (RB). Other features Include college buildings (RH), sewage plant (SP), water intake (WI), and shipping channel
         (SC).

         Site History. Hydrological and sedimentation patterns in the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
         the 1850's. A swamp region near Cruger Island was diked in the 1800's to form an ornamental garden that has since
         reverted to swamp.

         Existing Use: Waterfowl hunting, bass fishing, limited muskrat and snapping turtle trapping, extensive bird watching,
         scientific research, and nature study. Active interpretive programs.

         Surrounding Use: Bard College, villages, residential housing (RH), agriculture (AG), natural areas (NA).

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. One of four designated Hudson River National
         Estuarine Research Reserve sites. Upland areas state-owned and administered by the NYS Department of
         Environmental Conservation as a State Wildlife Management Area. The area wholly or partially includes State-
         regulated freshwater wetlands (SG-3). Refer to the official wetland maps available at the Department of
         Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes many Natural Heritage Program sites: North Tivoli Bay
         Stony Creek, North Tivoli Bay, South Tivoli Bay, Tivoli Bays, North Bay Big Bend, Tivoli Bays Cruger Island, South
         Tivoli Bay Cruger Island, Tivoli Bays Cruger Island Neck, South Tivoli Bay Saw Kill.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary- Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. Buffer zone should
         include most of the upland forest up to the crest of the bluff to the east.

         Recommended Actions: Monitor and control RR herbicides entering the habitat. Investigate protecting North Bay
         from water chestnut colonization by maintaining flows in channels through mechanical removal of invading water
         chestnut plants and controlling upland sediment sources. Facilitate access for research by maintaining small boating
         channels which should be maintained by mechanically clearing paths through the water chestnut. Protect both bays
         from oil spills by having booms available at each of the RR bridges. Ensure that runoff is not entering the habitats
         from the road to Cruger Island by maintaining grading and water bars. Consider allowing the Cruger Island
         causeway to revert from vehicle use to a pedestrian path for education and research uses. Maintain all buffer
         vegetation through appropriate landscape management (selective cutting and pruning). Include best management
         practices for all adjacent upland development to the extent that no increase in stormwater runoff will occur.
         Implement active erosion control through non-structural approaches (drainage and plantings) in areas prone to soil
         slumping. Ensure good management practices through land acquisition and conservation easements directed at
         protection of the immediate watershed. Institute watershed management programs for both creeks.

         Incompatible Use: General motor boat traffic would disrupt wildlife and nature-oriented activities. (Small shallow
         draft boats are traditionally used in relatively low numbers to gain access for waterfowl hunting in the bays during fall
         months). Development or alterations in the site, including shoreline development along either bay to the top of the
         bluff. Any activity that would interfere with the habitat values of either of the two bays. Clearing buffer vegetation
         would increase non-point pollution and induce erosion and bank slumping.

         Recommended Use: Increased use as an educational and research reserve. Facilitate access through construction
         of boardwalks and upgraded canoe launch sites as appropriate.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; Betsy Blair and Dennis Mildner (National Estuarine Research Reserve),
         Erik Kiviat (Hudsonia), DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental Protection Biologist.







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                                                                                           Cantire                                                                                 S
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                                                                                             Field                                                                                                                                                                         177               IT   mud and sand flats
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             BH   bulkhead
                                                                                                                                                                                                           W                                                                                 BL   boat launch ramp
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             BR   bridge
                                                                                                                                                                          Light                                                                                                              DA   dam or barrier
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             DB   duck blind
                                    IV// V//@J J                                                                                                                          Light                                                                                                              DR   dredged reach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             ON   dredge disposal site
                                                                                                                                                                          DB                                                                                                                 EL   electric lines
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             FJ   flotsam and jetsam
                                                                                                                                   '11      2 W                                                                                                                          I.,                 IN   industrial building
                                     J-1                                                                                                                                       66                                                                                                            LF   landfill or junkyard
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                                                                                                                                                    f                        )S@                                                                                                             P1   pier or causeway
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             PK   parking lot
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             PP   power plant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             RB   RR bridge or culvert
                                                                                                                                            t Fathers
                                                                                                                                                  6                                                                                                                                          RS   radio antenna or tower
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                        )1      4/           RV   recreational vehicle trail

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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             sp   sewage plant
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             TF   tank farm
                                                                                                                                            Rock,                                12
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             11171. seasonal residences
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             W1   water intake
                                                                                                                                                                          32
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                                                                                                                                             S
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             AG   agriculture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             CP.  county park
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             IN   industry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             MR   military res,
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             NA   natural area
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             PA   picnic or camping area
                                                                                                        61,                                                                                                                                                                                  NH   National Historic Site
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             QU   quarries
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             RH   residential housing
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                                 HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                              MAP NUMBER 5

                                                                                                                                                                            Miles
                                 Smith's Landing Cementon / Germ antown-C lerm ont Flats
                                 Esopus Estuary / North and South Tivoli Bays
                                                                                                                                                                            0                       '/2


                                 New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                                   Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky            December 1989











                                                                                                                                  121


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


           Site Name:       Muddler Kill                                                                    REFER TO MAP NUMBER 6
           Town(s):         Red Hook
           County(ies):     Dutchess
           7.51 Quad(s):    Kingston East

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Equal amounts of mudflats (F), lower marsh (L), upper marsh (U), and tidal swamp forest (W).
           Rare Species: Goldenclub, hirsute sedge, Davis sedge, heavy sedge, kidney leaf mud-plantain, spongy arrowhead.

           Valuable Species: None known.

           Sizes: Small tracts of all habitats.

           Quality- A low diversity habitat of fair quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

           Exotics: Limited invasion of purple loosestrife.

           General Description: A very small tidal cove west of the RR and a small swamp area east of the RR surrounded by
           steep upland areas and associated with the mouth of Mudder Kill.

           HUMAN INTERACTION

           NlEkjor Features: Picnic area (PA), RR splits site in half.

           Site History- Hydrological and sedimentation patterns in the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
           the 1850's.

           Existing Use: Limited recreational day use of adjacent uplands.

           Surrounding Use: Agricultural (AG), residential housing (RH).

           Status & Ownership: Not a designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Recognized by the NY Natural
           Heritage Program as containing rare tidal communities. Owned by Sylvania and by Rokeby Farms. The area wholly
           or partially includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (KE-33). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the
           Department of Environmental Conservation regional office.

           HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

           Site Boundary: The site boundary shown is from the NY Natural Heritage Program records. Buffer zone should
           include the steep bluffs surrounding Mudder Kill.

           Recommended Actions: Conduct detailed surveys and monitor stability of rare communities. The tidal cove may
           benefit from increased tidal circulation. Limit herbicide use in association with the RR to avoid impacts on rare
           plants.

           Incompatible Use: Any direct use of the site would destroy the rare communities. Boating access. Dredging, filling
           or increasing sedimentation.

           Recommended Use: None identified.

           Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DO$; DEC Region 3,. Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
           Protection Biologist. Erik Kiviat, Hudsonia, Inc. Carol Reschke and Caryl Devries, The Nature Conservancy










         122                                             Site Specific Information










































                 I











                                                                                                                            123


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


           Site Name.     The Flats                                                                    REFER TO MAP NUMBER. 6
           Town(s):       Ulster, Kingston, Red Hook, Rhinebeck
           County(s):     Ulster, Dutchess
           7.5' Quad(s):  Kingston East

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Comprised entirely of shallows (S).

           Rare Species: Potential shortnose sturgeon feeding and resting area.
           Valuable Species:   Primary spawning grounds for American shad. Spawning and nursery grounds for striped bass,
           white perch, resident fishes. Significant feeding areas during migration periods for diving ducks and resting areas for
           all duck species.

           Size: A very large expanse of shallows stretching for 4.5 miles along the middle of the River.

           Quality- A uniform habitat of excellent quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

           Exotics: None identified.

           General Description: A large underwater ridge system, most of which is shallow River bottom covered with aquatic
           plants. Occasional deeper water areas.






























                                                                          Z@" -





                                Figure 49: View of The Flats looking north. Photo by Nancy NugentlDOS










         124                                          Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIO

         Major Features: Shipping channel (SC), Kingston-Rhinecliff Bridge (BR).

         Site History: The River channel was first dredged In the 1930's with maintenance dredging occurring subsequently.
         The Kingston-Rhinecliff Bridge was constructed in 1957.

         Eidsting Use: Recreational boat traffic, recreational fishing. Commercial shad fishing is prohibited -based on.the
         importance of the site for maintaining shad stocks.

         Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), agriculture (AG), villages, quarries (QU), natural areas (NA).

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The site includes the Natural Heritage
         Program's The Flats,site.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundarr. Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone is
         unique in that it includes all adjacent sections of the River itself, since the area's value depends on overall water
         quality.

         Recommended Actions: Restrict dredging of the channel to late summer or mid to late winter to avoid disrupting
         the fish and bird uses of the area. Recreational boat use over the shallow water areas should ideally be restricted
         and directed over deeper waters, especially during fish spawning and waterfowl feeding times. Continue efforts to
         improve the overall water quality of the River. The area should be used as a research reserve and as a sanctuary
         with limited non-resource related recreational use. Establish bridge maintenance practices to control entry of runoff
         from the bridge and associated interchanges and to limit entry of maintenance debris such as paint and sand-
         blasting materials.

         Incompatible Use: Dredging activity during the spring and fall waterfowl migration periods or during the spring or
         early summer fish spawning times. New navigation channels or dredge disposal. Marinas and other development
         that would result In boating traffic patterns in the shallows. Loss of habitat due to bridge maintenance or
         construction.

         Recommended Use: Increased recreational fishing.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; William Dovel; Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
         Protection Biologists in DEC Region 3.








                                                                                                                                                                                               Picnic Po


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                                                                ff
                                                                                                                                                                                                 40 Lis                                                                                  0

                                                                                                                                                                                                     3
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                                                                                                                                                                      3     AIR

                                                                                                              ?T@
                                   MAP  LEGEND
                                                                                                                                                         J9
                                                                                                                                                                                   22
                                   Community Type
                                   D    deepwater
                                   S    shallows
                                   F    mud and sand flats
                                   B    sandy beach                                                      01NJXGra'                                                                                                             _@7
                                   R    rocky shore
                                   L    lower marsh                                                                                                          S
                                   U    upper marsh
                                   W    tidal swamp forest                                                                                                                                                              t
                                   C    freshwater creek

                      Park
                                   Exotic Plants
                                   WC water chestnut
                                                                                                                                                                          Mills Poin
                                   CR   common reed                                                                                                                                                                       ".1.                                 (0/
                                   PL   purple loosestrife                                                                                                                                                                                                     _7
                                                                                                                                                     J                                                            JI(I
                        arl        Major Features
                                   AR   abandoned ruins                                                                                   .1.2
                                   BH   bulkhead
                                   BL   boat launch ramp
                                                                                                                 Z
                                   RR   bridge                                                                                                                                            V
                                                                                                                -bo
                                   DA   dam or barrier
                                   DB   duck blind
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             X/'
                                   DR   dredged reach
                                   DS   dredge disposal site
                                                                                                                   N
                                   EL   electric lines
                                   FJ   flotsam and jetsam
                                                                                                                                               S                      3.?
                        t.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   (U
                         s         IN   industrial building
                                                                                                                                 +
                                   LF   landfill or junkyard
                                   MA   marina
                                                                                                                                 45                                                                                                                                        >/
                                                r causeway                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   0
                                   irr. parking lot                                                                                                 27
                                   PP   power plant
                                                                                                                     ast     ngston
                                   RR   RR bridge or culvert
                                   RS   radio antenna or tower
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         X
                                   RV   recreational vehicle trail.
                    Linj                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         0
                                   SC   shipping channel                                                                               3                        clpi.4.0.
                                   SP   sewage plant
                                   TF   tank farm                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          1@p
                                   TH   seasonal residences                                                            K@NGSl6     BAN AREA
                                   WI   water intake                                                                  IOPNDARY IS  DEFINED AS
                                                                                                          r
                                                                                                                        -L?AING    E SHORELIN
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 'Trail(
                                   Land Uses                                                                          if                                                                                                                                          rarK      V
                                   AG   agriculture
                                   CP   county park
                                                                                         bs@
                                   IN   industry
                                   MR   military reservation
                                   NA   natural area                                      -r                                                                                                                                              'ni
                                   PA   picnic or camping area
                                   NH   Nation
                                                al Historic Site                                   r
                                   QU   quarries
                                   RH   residential housing
                                   TP   town park
                                   SK   state park.
                                                                                                                                            30



                          HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                                            MAP NUMBER 6
                          Mudder Kill / The Flats                                                                                                                                           Miles

                                                                                                                                                                                            0


                          New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                                                        Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salatsky                    December 1989











                                                                                                                            125


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


           Site Name:     Rondout Creek                                                                 REFER TO MAP. NUMBER 7
           Town(s):       Kingston, Esopus, Ulster
           County(ies):   Ulster
           7.5' Quad(s):  Kingston East, Kingston West

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Predominantly creek (C) with shallows (S), mudflats (F), rocky shore (R), lower marsh (L), and
           limited amounts of upper marsh (U) in association with the creek mouth.

           Rare Species: Heart leaf plantain. Osprey during spring migration.

           Valuable Species: Important spawning areas for anadromous fish including alewife, rainbow smelt, blueback
           herring, white perch, tomcod, striped bass, and American shad. Important for resident fish including brown bullhead,
           yellow perch, sunfish, and black basses. Limited use by migrating waterfowl for resting and feeding. Extensive
           feeding on the mudflats by herons and other wading birds.

           Size: Large mudflats, medium to large areas of marsh and shallow water, four miles of unobstructed creek that
           drains over 1100 square miles in Ulster County.

           Quality- A moderately diverse habitat of fair quality that has experienced extensive disturbance.

           Exotics: Moderate to heavy invasions of water chestnut (WC), common reed (CR), and purple loosestrife (PL).

           General Description: A large site that has undergone considerable alteration as a result of human activities.
           Rondout Creek is a large, medium gradient, warmwater stream with a deep silt and clay bottom that is tidally
           influenced for most of the four mile unobstructed reach. South of the creek mouth is a large mudflats and marsh
           area known as Sleightsburg Marsh.












                                                                                         0











                                Figure 50: Near the mouth of Rondout Creek, looking west. Photo by Nancy
                             NugentlDOS










         126                                             Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTION

         Major Features: The City of Kingston, extensive bulkheading (BH), marinas (MA), town parks and beach (TP), tank
         farm (7), dredging in the creek (DR), dredge spoil islands (DS), sewage plant (SP), landfill area and junkyard (LF),
         small tourist RR, dam on the creek (DA). Significant water withdrawal from the creek further upstream.

         Site History: The creek was dredged In 1935 and 1968. The harbor has been the site of much commercial activity
         over the past two centuries. Creek flow is regulated at the dam in Eddyville near Route 213.

         Existing Use- Area of concentrated recreational boating. Moderate fishing and waterfowl hunting. Intake of over
         200 cubic feet per second of water from upper portions of Rondout Creek. Tourist railroad and picnic area at the
         end of the small causeway. SPDES waste discharge permits were held in the early 1980's by Hercules Inc., Kingston
         Oil Supply Corp. (3 terminals), Motzbro Corp., and the Kingston Sewage District. Barge traffic within the Creek.

         Surrounding Use: Kingston urban area, residential housing (RH), industry (IN), quarries (QU).

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially includes State-
         regulated freshwater wetlands (KE-4, KE-1 1). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of
         Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's Roundout Creek Mouth
         site.


         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary: Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone should
         include the remaining wooded uplands along the banks of the Creek above Kingston and the developed lands
         immediately adjacent to the Creek within Kingston. The boundary of the designated significant habitat extends up
         the creek beyond what is shown on the map.

         Recommended Actions: Monitor and protect against spills and leakage of pollutants from surrounding industry and
         landfill areas. Potential spillage from the fuel tanks to the north should receive particular attention. Preclude picnic
         area users from trampling heart leaf plantain along the shore with exclosures. Develop wetlands education displays
         to enhance visits to the site and provide needed education in this densely populated area. Study effects of
         increasing circulation in the shallows and flats by allowing controlled flow through the channel bulkheads. Establish
         advanced stormwater and non-point pollution control programs in the City, Eliminate existing direct discharges of
         sewage into the Creek from adjacent residences. Introduce vegetated and permeable buffers in conjunction with
         paved and developed areas adjacent to the Creek to reduce direct runoff.

         Incompatible Use: Dredging or development that would alter or destroy shallows, flats or marsh. Further restriction
         of tidal flow. Substantial reduction of freshwater flow in the creek. Dredging Activities during spring and early
         summer when most fish are spawning and in December and January when tomcod are active. Hydroelectric
         development at the Eddyville dam with the exception of run-of-the-river power generation. Construction, clearing or
         other activities that would increase runoff to and sediment in the Creek.

         Recommended Use: Environmental education concerning tidal wetlands, increased fishing, bird watching.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Han, DOS; DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
         Protection Biologist.












                                                                                                                            127


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

           Site Name:      Kingston Deepwater                                                           REFER TO MAP NUMBER 7
           Town(s):        Rhinebeck, Hyde Park, Esopus
           County(s):      Dutchess, Ulster
           7.5' Quad(s):   Hyde Park, Kingston East

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Deepwater (D).

           Rare Species:   Shortnose sturgeon wintering area and possible spawning grounds.

           Valuable Species: Atlantic sturgeon wintering area, the northern extent of many marine fishes in the Hudson.

           Size: Very large deepwater area extending over six miles of the River.

           Quality- A uniform habitat of excellent quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

           General Description: A nearly continuous deepwater section of the River with bottom depths between 30 and 100
           feet. Dense saline waters introduced by the tidal salt wedge lie in this deep trough and provide a unique
           environment for many estuarine and marine species that would not tolerate the overlying freshwater.






























                                 Figure 51: The Kingston Deepwater area from Norrie Point Photo by Nancy
                             NugentlDOS










         128                                         Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIONS

         Major Features: Shipping channel (SC).

         Site Historr. None recorded.

         Existing Use: Shipping traffic In overlying waters. Treated sewage discharge near upper depth limit of habitat.

         Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), the City of Kingston, villages, agricultural areas (AG), Norrie State Park
         (SK), natural areas (NA).

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The site Includes the Natural Heritage
         Program's Kingston Deepwater site.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundarr. Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The boundary
         parallels the River shore along the 30 foot depth contour. The buffer zone is the overlying water column and adjacent
         portions of the River itself.

         Recommended Actions: River-wide water quality improvements Including reducing sedimentation in the area
         should continue. Large scale hydrodynamic studies including salt wedge dynamics are essential in understanding
         the function and Importance of this habitat.

         Incompatible Use: Dredge spoil disposal. Large scale water withdrawals that would alter the chemical
         characteristics and the seasonal patterns associated with this habitat. Discharges directly into the deep water
         trough.

         Recommended Use: None identified.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 3, Fisheries Manager or Environmental Protection
         Biologist.











                                                                                                    129


         GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

         Site Name:   Vanderburgh Cove and Shallows                                 REFER TO MAP NUMBER 7
         Town(s):     Rhinebeck, Hyde Park
         County(ies): Dutchess
         7.5' Quad(s): Kingston East, Hyde Park

         BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

         Community Types: Largely shallows (S) with smaller amounts of mudflats (F), lower marsh (L), upper marsh (U),
         tidal swamp (W), and freshwater creek (C).

         Rare Species: Possible shortnose sturgeon feeding grounds, osprey feeding ground during migration, sharp-
         winged monkey flower.

         Valuable Species: Extensive waterfowl feeding and resting grounds during spring and fall migrations. Important
         spawning, nursery, and feeding grounds for anadromous fish (striped bass, American shad, white perch, rainbow
         smelt, alewife, blueback herring) and resident fish (largemouth bass, yellow perch, brown bullhead).

         Size: Medium to large sized wetland. Large shallows area. Access for river fish extends up Landsman Kill and
         Fallsburg Creek.

         Quality- A moderately diverse habitat of good quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

         Exotics: Extensive invasion of the cove by water chestnut (WC), limited invasion of the fringes by purple loosestrife.

         General Description: Vanderburgh Cove is a large shallow water area with some lower and upper marsh area near
         the mouths of the two tributary streams that are tidal for at least one-half mile upstream. There is a small area of
         some swamp forest along Fallsburg Creek. The site also includes Suckley Cove, a smaller version of Vanderburgh
         Cove located to the north which is an excellent quality lower marsh that has experienced limited disturbance. A
         large expanse of shallows exists to the west of the RR track with a silt substrate and beds of aquatic vegetation.















                   Ap'l-







                                           j

                                                                                  WX
                                                                               A P,




                   Figure 52: Aerial view of Vanderburg Cove looking east. Photo by Harry DodsonlDodson
                Associates










         130                                          Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTION

         Major Features: The RR with two bridges (RB) in Vanderburgh cove and one in Suckley Cove, residential housing
         (RH), nearby roads and bridges over the creeks, sewage discharge (SP) on Landsman Kill.

         Site History- Hydrological and sedimentation patterns in the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
         the 1850's. One of the two RR bridges was reconstructed in 1980 and further restricted water flow with a smaller
         channel width; this may have been detrimental to the overall value of the cove.

         Eidsting Use: Extensive waterfowl hunting and recreational fishing. A SPDES waste discharge permit was held in
         the early 1980's by Orchard Hill Farms of Red Hook which discharged into Landsman Kill.

         Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), natural areas (NA).

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially includes State-
         regulated freshwater wetlands (KE-29, HP-31). Refer to the official wetland maps available at the Department of
         Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's Vanderburgh Cove
         site.


         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundarr. Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The site boundary
         should be expanded to include the small unobstructed portion of Landsman Kill and its associated swamp. The
         buffer zone should include the wooded slopes on the eastern shore extending to the top of the banks along the two
         streams.


         Recommended Actions: Eliminate herbicide runoff associated with the RR right of way. Maintain the vegetation
         cover surrounding the site. Institute watershed management programs for the two Creeks. Reduce boating traffic
         over the shallows and flats.

         Incompatible Use: Dredging or development that would result in the loss of habitat. Further reduction in the tidal
         flushing of the coves. Marinas or other development that would result in boating traffic through the shallows and
         flats. Any disturbance of shoreline or vegetation in or adjacent to Suckley Cove that may result in the introduction of
         exotics in this high quality area.

         Recommended Use: Increased fishing.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; William Dovel. DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or
         Environmental Protection Biologist. Erik Kiviat, Hudsonia, Inc.








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                                MAP LEGEND                                                                                         0                                                                          R                   F
                                                                                  9                a                                                                                                                 wc-@,
                                                                                                                                                                                                                             C., L
                                Community Type                                                                                                                                       D
                                D       deepwater                                                                                                                                                                          so
                     01'        S       Shallows
                           -F           mud and sand flats                                                                                                                                                          RB m4
                                                                                                                                                                                                              3
                                B       sandy beach                                                                                                                                                                        0
                                R       rocky shore
                                L       lower marsh                                                                                                             S

                                W       tidal swamp forest                                                                                                                                          D
                      6,        U       upper marsh                                                                                                                                                             S
                                C       freshwater creek                                                                                                          Esopus Me"     s
                                                                                                                                                                        Lighthouse
                                Exotic Plants                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      L
                                WC water chestnut
                                CR      common reed                                                                                                                                                   47
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    -`u
                                PL      purple loosestrife
                                                                                                                                                                     Esopus N'       INS
                                Major Features                                                                                                                              5
                                AR      abandoned ruins                                                                                                                                                                                                                  A
                                BH      bulkhead
                                BL      boat launch ramp                                                                                                                                       56
                                BR                                                                                                                                              D/
                                        bridge
                                DA      dam or barrier                                                                                                                                              S
                                DB      duck blind                                                                                                                CP :'i, r-,
                                D R     dredged reach                    l6ter                                                                                            (P110
                                DS      dredge disposal site                                                                                                            '17/do :- /00
                                                                                                                                               C
                                EL      electric lines                                                                                                                e,!'V 4
                                FJ      flotsam and jetsam                                                                                                                  SC
                                                    building
                                        ;andfill or junkyard
                                MA      marina                                                                                                                                                                                       A
                                PI      pier or causeway                                                                                                               .95
                                        )arking                                                                                                                                                                u
                                PP      power plant
                                RB      RR. bridge or culvert                                    Sax
                                RS      radio antenna or tower
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             0
                                        recreational vehicle trail
                                SC      shipping channel
                                SP      sewage plant
                                TF      tank farm
                           -T411--seasonal-resickmees-
                                WI      water intake                                                                                                  arn 3

                                Land    Uses
                                AG      agriculture
                                CP      county park
                                IN      Industry
                                MR      mlittary reservation
                                NA      natural area
                                PA      picnic or camping area
                                NH      National Historic Site                                                                                                              htso
                                QU      quarries                          C                                                                                                                                                                                                                        C
                                RH      residential housing                                                                   U                                                                                                                                                                    U.
                                TP      town park                                                                                            Indiks     D
                         t      SK      state park                                                                                                                           orrie
                                                                                                                                                                            Point





                                                                                                                                                                                                  0

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 N
                           HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                                              MAP NUMBER 7

                                                                                                                                                                                                  Miles
                           Rondout Creek / Kingston Deepwater / Vanderburg Cove
                           and Shallows / Esopus Meadows                                                                                                                                          0                          1/2


                           New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                                                          Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky                     December 1989











                                                                                                                             131


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

           Site Name:      Esopus Meadows                                                        REFER TO MAP NUMBERS BA & 8B
           Town(s):        Esopus
           County(ies):    Ulster
           7.51 Quad(s):   Kingston East, Hyde Park

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Shallows (S)

           Rare Species:   Important feeding area for shortnose sturgeon, especially in the spring,

           Valuable Species:    Spawning, nursery, and feeding for anadromous fishes including striped bass, American shad,
           and white perch. Important feeding areas for resident fishes including largemouth 15ass, yellow perch, brown
           bullhead, and shiners. Use as a feeding and resting area by waterfowl during spring and fall migrations.

           Size: A large expanse of shallow water.

           Quality- A uniform habitat of good quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

           Exotics: None noted.

           General Description:    A large shoal area in the River with shallow water beds dominated by aquatic vegetation.








                                                                                                W
                                                                                                    01










                                                                 ; W0,-:



                                                           N



                                                                         P71




                                 Figure 53: Esopus Meadows looking south. Photo by Nancy NugentIDOS









        132                                          Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIONS

        Mgjor Features: Shipping channel (SC).

        Site Historr. None identified.

        Existing Use: Extensive recreational fishing, waterfowl hunting, and bird watching. Intense local recreational use of
        the Riverbank adjacent to Route 81.

        Surrounding Use. Residential housing (RH), natural areas (NA).

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The site includes the Natural Heritage
        Program's Esopus Meadows site.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
        should include wooded upland up to the crest of the steep banks to the south and the banks along Route 81 to the
        north.

        Recommended Actions: Restrict recreational motorboat traffic in the area during spring and fall when fish and
        wildlife use of this habitat is vulnerable to human activity. Re-establish vegetation in selected high use areas along
        Route 81.

        Incompatible Use: Cutting any navigation channels. Extensive non-resource related motorboat traffic especially
        during waterfowl migration and fish spawning periods. Marina development.

        Recommended Use: Increased fishing.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; William Dovel. DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or
        Environmental Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                             133


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


           Site Name:      Poughkeepsie Deepwater                                                REFER TO MAP NUMBERS 8A & 8B
           Town(s):        Hyde Park, Poughkeepsie, Wappinger, Esopus, Uoyd, Marlboro
           County(les):    Dutchess, Ulster
           7.5' Quad(s):   Hyde Park, Poughkeepsie, Wappingers Falls.

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Deepwater (D).

           Rare Species: Shortnose sturgeon wintering area and possible nursery grounds.

           Valuable Species:    Estuarine and marine fish including bay anchovies, silversides, bluefish, weakfish, and
           hogchokers.

           Size: A vast site containing 14 miles of the River.

           Quality- A uniform habitat of excellent quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

           Exotics: None noted.

           General Description: A nearly continuous deepwater section of the River with bottom depths between 30 and 100
           feet. Dense saline waters introduced by the tidal salt wedge lie In this deep trough and provide a unique
           environment for many estuarine and marine species that would not tolerate the overlying freshwater.












                                                  ZVI

                                                                                  ..........







                                                                                    4@41








                                Figure 54: View to north of the Poughkeepsie Deepwater area. Photo by
                             Steve StannelClearwater









        134                                          Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIONS

        Major Features: Shipping channel (SC), Mid-Hudson Bridge (BR), sewage plants (SP)., water intakes (WI), tank
        farms (TF).

        Site History: The site has been used for deepwater dredge disposal.

        Existing Use: Shipping traffic In overlying waters. Treated sewage discharge near upper depth limit of habitat.
        SPDES waste discharge permits were held In the early 1980's by Alfa Laval Inc., J.R. Sousa and Sons, Love Oil
        Corp., Tau Laboratories, Western Publishing Co., Agway Petroleum Corp., Hudson Valley Apple Prod. Inc., and the
        City of Poughkeepsie Sewage District.

        Surrounding Use: Poughkeepsie urban area , villages, industry (IN), residential housing (RH), quarries (01J), FDR
        National Historic Site (NH), natural areas (NA).

        Status & Ownership: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The site includes the Natural
        Heritage Program's Poughkeepsie Deepwater site.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary. Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife@Habftat area. The boundary
        parallels the River shore along the 30 foot depth contour. The buffer zone is the overlying water column and
        adjacent portions of the River itself.

        Recommended Actions: Improve River-wide water quality including reducing sedimentation in the area. Study
        large scale River hydrodynamics, including,salt wedge dynamics, to further an understanding of the function and
        importance of this habitat.

        Incompatible Use: Dredge disposal. Large scale water withdrawals that would alter the chemical characteristics
        and the seasonal patterns associated with this habitat. Discharges directly into,the deep water, trough.

        Recommended Use: None identified.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 3, Fisheries Manager or Environmental' Protection
        Biologist.











                                                                                                                             135


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


           Site Name:      Crum Elbow Marsh                                                            REFER TO MAP NUMBER 8A
           Town(s):        Hyde Park
           County(ies):    Dutchess
           7.5' Quad(s):   Hyde Park

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Small amount of shallows (S), lower marsh (L), upper marsh (U), tidal swamp forest (W).

           Rare Species:    Map turtle population.

           Valuable Species: Waterfowl migration use but value is limited by size of the marsh.

           Size: Small areas of marsh and shallows.

           Quality. A moderately diverse habitat of good quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

           Exotics: None noted.

           General Description: A small tidal cove fronted by the RR with shallows grading into lower marsh and a small area
           of swamp forest extending along the tributary creek.































                         Figure 55: Aerial view of Crum Elbow Marsh looking east.   Photo by Harty DodsonlDodson
                     Associates










        136                                          Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIO

        Major Features: The railroad with one bridge (RB). Site Is also known as Roosevelt Cove.

        Site Historr. Hydrological and sedimentation patterns in the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
        the 1850's.

        Existing Use: None noted.

        Surrounding Use: FDR National Historic Site (NH), natural areas (NA).

        Status: Not a designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Recognized by the NY Natural Heritage
        Program as containing rare tidal communities. The Federal government owns the FDR National Historic Site which
        contains most of the habitat. The area wholly or partially includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (HP-36).
        Refer to the official wetland maps available at the Department of Environmental Conservation regional office.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary- Boundaries shown on the map are from the NY Heritage Program site. Buffer zone should include
        the adjacent vegetated slopes and the FDR National Historic Site.
        Recommended Actions: Investigate possibilities of increasing tidal flow into the cove. Limit RR herbicides entering
        the tidal environment. Promote the use of this site as a scientific research model since the majority of the habitat's
        watershed Is protected.

        Incompatible Site Uses: Any activity that would reduce tidal flow into the area. Introduction of sediment and
        pollutants through clearing and grounds maintenance.

        Recommended Use: Access to site and the River via a hiking trail.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; David Hayes, FDR National Historic Site. DEC Region 3, Fisheries or
        Wildlife Manager or Environmental Protection Biologist. Erik Kiviat, Hudsonia, Inc. Robert Zaremba, The Nature
        Conservancy.











                                                                                                                             137


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

           Site Name:      Wappinger Creek                                                             REFER TO MAP NUMBER 8B
           Town(s):        Poughkeepsie, Wappinger
           County(ies):    Dutchess
           7.51 Quad(s):   Wappingers Falls

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Predominantly creek (C) with smaller amounts of shallows (S), mudflats (F), lower marsh (L),
           and upper marsh (U).

           Rare Species: Osprey feeding during spring migrations. Grassleaf arrowhead, subulate arrowhead, kidney leaf mud
           plantain and Maryland bur-marigold.

           Valuable Species:   Important spawning areas for anadromous fishes including alewife, blueback herring, white
           perch, tomcod, and striped bass. Many resident fish species including largemouth bass, bluegill, brown bullhead,
           and red-breasted sunfish. Productive feeding area for herons, waterfowl, and turtles.

           Size: Medium sized shallows, marsh, and mudflat. Tidal influence extends two miles up. the creek.

           Quality- A low diversity habitat of fair quality that has experienced extensive disturbance.

           Exotics: Extensive invasion by water chestnut (WC).

           General Description: The creek itself is a large, perennial, warmwater stream containing mudflats, sandbars, and
           shallow water within the tidal portion. There are small areas of marsh near the mouth of the creek and west of the
           RR tracks there is an area of shallow water in the River itself. The creek and its mouth are heavily covered with
           water chestnut.


































                                                     77,0-


                                Figure 56: Wappinger Creek looking east.










        138                                          Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTION

        Major Features: Road and railroad crossings (RB), dredged channel in the creek (DR), residential boat launches
        (BL), marina (MA), fishing pier (PI), dam (DA), sewage plant (SP), tank farm (TF), power plant (PP), water intake (WI).

        Site History: Hydrological and sedimentation patterns In the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
        the 1850's. The creek was dredged in 1922, 1930, and 1939. Extensive commercial and industrial use along creek
        in Wappingers Falls. Water flow In the Creek Is controlled by the dam In Wappingers Falls.

        Eyristing Use: Limited boating access, fishing, crabbing, water Intake upstream. Boat use of the creek is currently
        limited by the 6 months' advance notice required for rail drawbridge operation. SPDES waste discharge permits were
        held in the early 1980's by institutions along Wappingers Creek as far upstream as Millbrook including P.J. Haight
        and Co., Dutchess Quarry and Supply Co., IBM Corp., Fairchild Corp., New York Trap Rock Corp., and the
        Wappingers Falls Sewage District.

        Surrounding Use: Wappingers Falls urban area, villages, residential housing (RH), natural areas (NA).

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The site includes the NY Natural Heritage
        Program's Wappinger's Creek Mouth site.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary- Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
        should include the steep wooded uplands on both sides of the creek.

        Recommended Actions: Monitor and control runoff from nearby highways. Maintain bank vegetation. Institute
        advanced stormwater and non-point source pollution control programs In the urban and residential areas.

        Incompatible Use: Dredging the channel during fish reproductive periods including spring and early summer (most
        species) and December and January (tomcod). Excessive noise and activity during the osprey migration in mid-
        April to May. Significant water withdrawal that will reduce flow in the creek, especially during critical breeding times.
        Marina development.

        Recommended Use: Increased fishing.
        Knowled1jeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.








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                                    LIT    landfill or junkyard
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                                    P1     pier or causeway                                                                               3'0t
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                                    RS     radio antenna or tower                                                                                     y
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                                    Land   Uses
                                    AG     agriculture
                                    CP     county park                                                                                         D
                                    IN     industry
                                    MR     military reservation
                                    NA     natural area                                                   106
                                    PA     picnic or camping area
                                    NH     National Historic Site
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                                    QU     quarries
                                        H  residential housing
                                    TP     town park
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                                HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                             MAP NUMBER 8A

                                                                                                                                                                          Miles
                                Poughkeepsie Deepwater / Crum Elbow Marsh                                                                                                 0                      1h

                                New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                                  Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky,          December 1989



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                 D  deepwater
                 S  shallows                                44
                 F  mud and sand flats
                 B  sandy beach
                 R  rocky shore
                 L  lower marsh
                 V  upper marsh
                 W  tidal swamp forest
                                                                 Harbor,,
                 C  freshwater creek                           31
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                                                                                                                  M
                 Exotic Plants
                 WC water chestnut
                 CR common reed
                 PL purpie ioosestrife
                                                                                                               0
                 Major Features
                 AR abandoned ruins
                 111f bulkhead
                 Ill, boat launch ramp
                 BR bridge
                 D  dam or barrier                               3
                 DB duck blind
                 DR dredged reach
                                                           0
                 DS dredge disposal site                                         V=
                 r'll, electric lines                          3
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                                                     Cedar Cliff
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                 FK parking lot
                 PP power plant                          abiamon
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                 RS radio antenna or tower
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                 SC shipping channel
                 SP sewage plant
                               @50                           WC, B
                 TF tank farm           Z-1                   3
                 TH seasonal residences
                 W1 water intake                       1114
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                 Land Uses
                 AG agriculture
                 CP county park
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                 UN industry
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                 NA natural area                )n,,eyor
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                 NH National Historic She
                 QU quarries
                                                                          50
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                 SK                                                                                         53
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              New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky December 1989











                                                                                                                         139


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


           Site Name:     Fishkill Creek                                                            REFER TO MAP NUMBER 9N
           Town(s):       Fishkill, Beacon
           County(ics):   Dutchess
           7.5' Quad(s):  West Point

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Mostly shallows (S) and wooded upland with smaller amounts of mudflats (F), lower marsh (L),
           and upper marsh (U).

           Rare Species:   Important feeding site for migrating osprey and a potential osprey nesting site. Least bittern
           breeding. Estuary beggar-ticks, subulate arrowhead, kidney leaf mud-plantain.

           Valuable Species: Important spawning area for anadromous fishes including alewife, blueback herring, white perch,
           striped bass, and tomcod. Extensive resident fish community including largemouth bass, bluegill, and brown
           bullhead. Also blue claw crabs, herons, and turtles.

           Size: Medium sized marsh, mudflat, and shallows areas.

           Quality- A low diversity habitat of fair quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

           Exotics: Extensive invasion by water chestnut (WC), limited to moderate invasions of common reed (PR) and purple
           loosestrife (PL).

           General Description: The creek is a tidally-influenced, perennially warmwater stream with shallows, mudflats, and
           marsh components. At the creek mouth, east of the RR track, is an area with upper and lower marsh and west of
           the RR is a large shallow water area dominated by water chestnut. The site also includes Denning Point, an upland
           osprey roosting area.




                                                                 t




















                                                  WN NI








                                Figure 57. Fishkffl Creek channel with water chestnut and adjacent low and
                             high marsh.









         140                                            Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIONS

         Major Features: Railroad embankment with bridges (RB), old ruins (AR), sewage plants (SP), industry (IN).

         Site Historr. Hydrological and sedimentation patterns In the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
         the 1850's. Water flow is controlled at a dam located one-half mile upstream.

         Current Use: Very limited fishing, upstream water withdrawals, scientific studies of the osprey. In the 1980's, an
         experimental osprey nest platform was erected on Denning Point. SPDES waste discharge permits were held in the
         early 1980's by Package Pavement Co., IBM Corp., Merritt Brooklands Inc., Texaco Research Center., Three Star
         Anodizing of Beacon., Tuck Industries., Inc.

         Surrounding Use: Industry (IN), residential housing (RH), natural areas (NA).

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially Includes State-
         regulated freshwater wetlands (WT-1). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of
         Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the NY Natural Heritage Program's Fishkill Creek
         Mouth site.


         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundarr. Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
         should include the wooded areas bordering the site up to the Penn Central line to the north and the slopes above
         the RR to the south.

         Recommended Actions: Investigate potential benefits of increasing water circulation in the marsh behind the RR
         track. Monitor and control upstream inflows to limit pollutants. Maintain Denning Point in its natural condition as
         much as possible.

         Incompatible Use: Dredging or development within the tidal habitat. Disruptive activity during the osprey migration
         periods and during the summer breeding season If birds are successfully established at Denning Point. Intensive
         development of Denning Point.

         Recommended Use: Increased small-scale recreational fishing. River access from the northern section of Denning
         Point.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; Dennis Mildner (Hudson River National Estuarine Sanctuary), DEC
         Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                                  141


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name:      Moodna. Creek                                                                  REFER TO MAP NUMBER 9@
            Town(s):        Cornwall, New Windsor
            County(ies):    Orange
            7.5' Quad(s):   Cornwall

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Predominantly freshwater creek (C) with shallows (S), mudflats (F), lower marsh (L), and upper
            marsh (U) associated with the creek mouth.

            Rare Species:   Major feeding and resting ground for migrating bald eagles and osprey.      Limited summer feeding
            ground for bald eagles. Least bittern breeding area.

            Valuable Species: Important spawning area for anadromous fishes Including alewife, blueback herring, smelt, white
            perch, striped bass, and tomcod. Resident fish include largemouth bass, bluegill, pumpkin seed, brown builhead,
            and various estuarine fish. Also many herons, snapping turtles, raccoons and muskrats.

            Size: Medium to large marsh area, large mudflats, 3.5 miles of the creek of which the lower mile is tidally influenced.

            Quality: A moderate diversity habitat of good quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited invasion by water chestnut and purple loosestrife (PL).

            General Description: The 2.5 mile long, non-tidal, upper part of Moodna Creek is a medium-gradient, perennially
            warmwater stream with a rocky substrate. The mile long tidal portion is deeper with a silt and clay substrate. A
            marsh exists at the mouth of the creek, west of the RR, and a large mudflat is located east of the RR.










                                                                                   7-







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                            Figure 58: Shallows, low, and high marsh at Moodna Creek.      Photo by Bryan SwiftlDEC










        142                                           Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIO

        Major Features: Sewage plants (SP), the RR with one bridge (RB), recreational vehicle use (RV), dam (DA), tank
        farm (7).

        Site History- Hydrological and sedimentation patterns In the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
        the 1850's. Water flow is controlled at a dam located 3.5 miles upstream.

        'Eidsting Use: Limited fishing, upstream water intake, RV use on mudflats. SPDES waste discharge permits were
        held in the early 1980's by Yellow Freight Systems, Star Expansion Company, Cornwall Paper Mills Inc., and various
        local sewage districts.

        Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), Industry (IN), natural areas (NA), quarries (OU).

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area, wholly or partially includes State-
        regulated freshwater wetlands (CO-1 0). Refer to the official wetland maps available at the Department of
        Environmental Conservation regional office. Sloop Hill is State-owned and under the jurisdiction of the Department
        of Environmental Conservation. Sloop Hill is also listed as a State unique area, which is a preliminary listing for
        eligibility as a State Natural Area and Historic Preserve. Much of the surrounding land is privately owned. The site
        includes the NY Natural Heritage Program's Moodna Creek Mouth site.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary: Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
        should include the wooded banks bordering the Creek, the large natural area to the south of the Creek, and Sloop
        Hill.

        Recommended Actions: Eliminate RV use of the mudflats. Monitor and limit herbicides entering the habitat from
        the RR. Avoid disturbance in the creek mouth area in the spring and summer when osprey and eagles are present.

        Incompatible Use: Restriction of water flows. Physical and chemical barriers to fish migration during periods in
        early spring and summer and in December and January for tomcod. Marinas or other development resulting in
        boating traffic through shallows or flats. Clearing vegetation, introducing sediments, or removing large roosting trees
        for eagles and osprey.

        Recommended Use: Provide direct access to the creek for increased fishing, bird watching.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                             143


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


           Site Name:      Hudson River Miles 44-56                                               REFER TO MAP NUMBER 9k & 9B
           Town(s):        Cornwall, Highlands, Stony Point, Philipstown, Cortlandt
           County(ies):    Orange, Rockland, Putnam, Westchester
           7.5' Quad(s):   West Point, Peekskill

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Deepwater (D), shallows (S) and forested uplands.

           Rare Species:   Bald eagle winter feeding grounds. Possible nursery area for shortnose sturgeon.

           Valuable Species: The major spawning area along the Hudson for striped bass and white perch (an estimated 50%
           of Northeast Atlantic striped bass stocks come from the Hudson). Narrow migration corridor for all anadromous fish
           spawning upriver Including Atlantic sturgeon, blueback herring, American shad, alewife and rainbow smelt. Marine
           species such as bluefish, bay anchovy, silversides, hogchocker and blue claw crab reside in this area during periods
           of low freshwater flow (generally July through February)

           Size: Twelve miles of deepwater along the River.

           Quality- A uniform habitat of excellent quality that has experienced limited disturbance.

           Exotics: None noted.

           General ]Description: The site contains a narrow portion of the River between mean low water and the River bottom
           (up to 200 feet deep in places) with strong currents and a rocky bottom. The area is characterized by higher water
           flows than occur upriver (based on local tributary freshwater inflow) and seasonal changes in salinity. The area is
           generally the southern limit of freshwater spawning in the River. Three wetland areas (Con Hook, Manitou and Roa
           Hook Marshes) are adjacent to this deepwater site.























                          Figure 59: View to north from West Point. Photo by Steve StannelClearwater









        144                                           Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIO

        Mgjor Features: Railroads on both sides of the River (RR), Bear Mountain Bridge (BR), Foundry Cove superfund
        site (see Constitution Island), sewage plants (SP),. marinas (MA), shipping channel (SC).

        Site History. The area Is largely unaltered.

        Existing Use: Extensive recreational fishing.

        Surrounding Land Use: Villages, residential housing (RH), industry (IN), parking lot (PK), natural areas (NA), West
        Point and Camp Smith military reservations (MR), state parks (SK), quarries (QU).

        Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The site includes the NY Natural Heritage
        Program's Hudson River Mile 44-56 site. The adjacent wetland areas are not included in this site sue to substantially
        different resource values that are associated with these wetlands.


        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary- Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone for this large
        area includes adjacent upriver and downriver sections of the River, the upriver major tributary streams, adjacent
        shores and marshes, and upland slopes along both sides of the River.

        Recommended Actions: Minimize disturbance and noise in winter when the bald eagles are present. Undertake
        research on the dynamics of salt front movement. Protect the seasonal aspect of salinity changes by limiting water
        withdrawals, particularly during low flow conditions. Maintain existing natural areas adjacent to the River. Institute
        advanced stormwater runoff and non-point pollution sources in developed areas such as West Point. Control
        turbidity and sedimentation associated with restoration of Foundry Cove EPA superfund site to limit the introduction
        of heavy metal pollutants.

        Incompatible Use: Any activities that would disrupt striped bass spawning Including dredging and other
        construction activities during the period from May to July. Installation of water intakes that would cause
        impingement and/or entrainment of fish. Activities that would disrupt use of the area by eagles. Intensive
        development of Iona Island. Alteration of salinity concentrations or seasonal patterns.

        Recommended Use: Increased fishing. Boating would tend to have less of an impact in this area than in other
        areas of the River.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; Betsy Blair and Dennis Mildner (National Estuarine Research Reserve).
        Jack Focht (Bear Mountain State Park). DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental Protection
        Biologist.











                                                                                                                                  145


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


            Site Name:      Constitution Marsh                                                             REFER TO MAP NUMBER 9B
            Town(s):        Philipstown
            County(ies):    Putnam
            7.51 Quad(s):   West Point

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Approximately equal amounts of shallows (S), mudflats (F), lower marsh (L), and upper marsh
            (U).

            Rare Species: Least bittern nesting site. Osprey use during migrations.

            Valuable Species: Very important nesting habitat for a variety of bird species including green-backed heron, various
            waterfowl, and passerine birds. Important feeding grounds for herons, and other wetland and shore birds. Significant
            spawning and feeding grounds for anadromous and resident fishes including alewife, blueback herring, white perch,
            striped bass, and largemouth bass. Muskrat population.

            Size: Large tracts of all community types.

            Quality- A moderately diverse habitat of good quality that has experienced extensive disturbance.

            Exotics: Limited invasion by purple loosestrife (PL) and water chestnut (WC).

            General Description: East of Constitution Island, the site contains a large marsh area cut by a grid of water
            channels. South of the island near the mouth of Indian Brook is a small area of marsh and a large shallows and
            mudflats area. North of the island are shallows, deepwater and limited segments of marsh that comprise Foundry
            Cove.





                                                             --- - --------- ---------------








                                         f




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                                                                                              @-@k,5r-o @'N






                            Figure 60. View to south over Constitution Marsh.   Photo by Biyan SwiftlDEC










         146                                          Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIONS

         Major Features: The RR embankment with 2 bridges (RB), EPA Superfund site, bulkheads (BH), parking lot (PK).

         Site Historr. Hydrological and sedimentation patterns in the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
         the 1850's. The area was also diked in the 1800's to grow rice. In the 1900's, a battery factory released large
         amounts of heavy metals Including nickel, cobalt and cadmium Into Foundry Cove leading to its designation as an
         EPA superfund site. Current plans call for dredging the contaminated sediments from the site and replanting the
         marsh.

         Fodsting Use: Wildlife Sanctuary managed by the National Audubon Society. Fishing and crabbing In Foundry Cove
         and other pans of the site despite severe contamination and substantial health risks.

         Surrounding Use: Residential housing (RH), the Village of Cold Spring, Industry (IN), natural areas (NA).

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. Most of the site is owned by NYS and
         managed by the National Audubon Society as a wildlife sanctuary; the remaining area is privately owned. The area
         wholly or partially includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (WP-7). Refer to the official wetland maps available
         in the Department of Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's
         Constitution Marsh site.


         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary- Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
         should include the upland woods to the east as far as Route 9D, and watersheds of the three tributary streams:
         Foundry Brook, Indian Brook and Philipse Brook.

         Recommended Actions: Clean up heavy metal contamination. Conduct dredging in a manner that will avoid
         secondary contamination of other areas by suspended sediment. Minimize interference with animal populations by
         concentrating cleanup efforts in fall and winter as much as possible. The isolation that is afforded by the RR
         embankment with its limited connection to the River provides an opportunity to limit transport of heavy metals out of
         the cove. Evaluate the use of clean dredge material from the shipping channel as cover and replacement marsh
         substrate. Carefully plan and monitor replacement marsh; site restoration provides an excellent opportunity to test
         marsh creation practices along the Hudson. Place warning signs immediately to deter fishing. Allow artificial
         drainage channels in the marsh to revert to natural marsh to increase flooding of wetland vegetation.

         Incompatible Use: Fishing and other consumptive uses in the area. Dredging or filling of non-contaminated
         portions of the site. Clearing vegetation and introducing sources of sedimentation.

         Recommended Use: Increased nature observation, test site for marsh reconstruction.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; Jim Rod, National Audubon Society. DEC Region 3, Fisheries or
         Wildiffe Manager or Environmental Protection Biologist.











                                                                                                                            147


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


           Site Name:      Iona Island Marsh                                                           REFER TO MAP NUMBER 9B
           Town(s):        Stony Point
           County(ies):    Rockland
           7.5' Quad(s):   Peekskill

           BIOLOGICAL ffiATURES

           Community Types: Predominantly upper marsh (U), followed by shallows (S) and flats (F), with lesser amounts of
           woody tidal swamp (W) and non-tidal freshwater marsh.

           Rare Species: Least bittern nesting, adjacent bald eagle winter roosting. Walking fern and prickly pear cactus.

           Valuable Species:   Extensive breeding for many bird species. Muskrat and possibly other furbearers, amphibians
           (mostly limited to non-tidal freshwater marsh areas), snapping turtle, and blue claw crab. Heron and shorebird
           feeding. Spawning and/or nursery for anadromous and resident fishes including alewife, blueback herring, white
           perch, and striped bass.

           Size: Following Constitution and Piermont Marshes, the largest expanse of wetland along the lower partof the
           estuary. Limited patches of freshwater marsh and woody swamp forest.

           Quality. A highly diverse habitat of excellent quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

           Exotics: Limited invasion by common reed (CR) and purple loosestrife (PL).

           General Description: Large open expanses of barely brackish marshes (0-6 ppt salinity) behind Iona Island,
           bisected by a causeway. North of the road are marsh, mudflat, and shallow littoral areas along Doodletown Brook,
           while south of the road are the same communities plus limited areas of shrubby swamp near a small tributary
           stream. Patches of freshwater marsh are associated with tributaries such as the area Immediately behind Iona
           Island. The tidal creeks roughly define two sections of marsh: Salisbury Meadow to the west, and Ring Meadow to
           the east.
















                                   @ 7-774

                                 Figure 61: High marsh and flats behind Iona Island viewed to the southwest.









         148                                          Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTION

         Major Features: The railroad with two bridges (RB), an elevated causeway to Iona Island (PI), sewage plant (SP),
         shipping channel (SC).

         Site History: Hydrological and sedimentation patterns In the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
         the 1850's. During both World Wars I and 11, Iona Island was used as a storage site and munitions works by the
         military. After WW 11, naval ships were mothballed in the River near the site. Old causeways and dikes are located
         within the marshes.

         Existing Use: Iona Island and its associated marshes are managed by the Palisades Interstate Park Commission as
         a natural area and bird sanctuary. Active interpretive programs and scientific research.

         Surrounding Use: State parks (SK), natural areas (NA), military reservation (MR). Iona Island is used as a "pioneer
         camping" area for large-group experiences sponsored by the Palisades Interstate Park Commission.

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The site is administered by the Palisades
         Interstate Park Commission as part of Bear Mountain State Park. One of four sites comprising the Hudson River
         National Estuarine Research Reserve and registered as a National Natural Landmark by the National Park Service.
         The area wholly or partially includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (PK-1). Refer to the official wetland maps
         available in the Department of Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage
         Program's Iona Island site.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary- Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer zone
         should include the watersheds of Doodletown Brook, Snake Hole Creek, and Iona Island.

         Recommended Actions: Ensure that herbicides from the RR and runoff from the highways do not enter the tidal
         environment. Establish watershed management programs on the tributary streams.

         Incompatible Use: Any activity that would further restrict tidal flow. Dredging or construction within the habitat.
         Destabilization of adjacent bluffs. Intense use of Iona Island.

         Recommended Use: Iona Island could be developed as a natural park If such use were compatible with the bald
         eagle winter use. Park development should center on the unique ecological resource associated with Iona Island
         including resources of the island, marshes and River. Excellent site for education concerning the tidal marshes with
         opportunities to expand research and education programs which would be facilitated by the unique access provided
         by the causeway.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; Betsy Blair and Dennis Mildner (Hudson River National Estuarine
         Sanctuary), DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental Protection Biologist. Jack Focht (Bear
         Mountain State Park).











                                                                                                                             149


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

           Site Name:      Camp Smith Marsh and Annsville Creek                                        REFER TO MAP NUMBER 9B
           Town(s):        Cortlandt, Peekskill
           County(ies):    Westchester
           7.5' Quad(s):   Peekskill

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Largely shallows (S) and creek (C) with smaller amounts of mudflats (F) and upper marsh (U).

           Rare Species: Spongy arrowhead.

           Valuable Species: Not known.

           Size: Small marsh, medium to large shallows.

           Quality- A low diversity habitat of fair quality that has experienced moderate disturbance.

           Exotics: Moderate to heavy invasion by common reed (CR).

           General Description: A small marsh area near a small tributary stream at Camp Smith, and a large shallows and
           creek area associated with Annsville Creek.










                                                                                                                3"@,



















                           Figure 62: Aerial view of Camp Smith and Annsville Creek to the northeast Photo by
                       Harry DodsonlDodson Associates










        150                                          Site Specific Information

        HUMAN INTERACTIO

        Major Features: Extensive road system, RR with one tidal outlet (RB), tank farm (TF), Camp Smith military
        reservation (MR), residential housing (RH), dredged area (DR), sewage plants (SP), power plants (PP).

        Site Historr. Hydrological and sedimentation patterns In the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
        the 1850's. Peekskill Harbor was dredged In 1922, 1928, 1937, and 1938.

        Existing Use: A SPDES waste discharge permit was held in the early 1980's by the Peekskill Sewage District.

        Surrounding Use: Highways, military reservation (MR), Industry (IN), Indian Point Power Plant,(PP), urban areas ,
        residential housing (RH).

        Status: Recognized by the NY Natural Heritage Program as containing rare communities. The area wholly or
        partially Includes State-regulated freshwater wetlands (P-4). Refer to the official wetland maps available at the
        Department of Environmental Conservation Regional Office.

        HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

        Site Boundary- Site boundaries are taken from the NY$ Heritage Program. Buffer areas include the immediate
        upland and watercourses for Sprout Brook, Peekskill Creek, and Annsville Creek.

        Recommended Actions:       Monitor and protect against leakage or spills from the tank farm. Control runoff from the
        highways and limit railroad herbicides entering the water. Additional evaluation of this area is needed to document
        potential resource values.

        Incompatible Use: Dredging, fill and construction in the habitat. Any activity that might restrict water flow. Clearing
        buffer vegetation and uncontrolled grading.

        Recommended Use: None identified.

        Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
        Protection Biologist. Carol Reschke and Caryl DeVrIes, The, Nature Conservancy.




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                                                                                                                                                                                                                  MATCH LINE MAP 913
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                                                                                             Co munity Type
                                                  MAP LEGEND                                 D      deepwater                                                                 Y"
                                                                                             S      shallows
                                                  Major Features                                                                                                                                                                                        73
                                                  AR      abandoned ruins                    F      mud and sand flats
                                                  BH      bulkhead                           B      sandy beach
                                                  III,    boat launch ramp                   R      rocky shore                                                                                                                                        ck     61
                                                                                             L      lower marsh
                                                  BR      bridge                                                                                                                                                                                                I-A
                                                  DA      dam or barrier                     U      upper marsh                                                                                                                                         3
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                                                                                             W      tidal swamp forest
                                                  DR      duck blind                         C      freshwater creek
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          cor
                         'N                       DR      dredged reach
                                                  DS      dredge disposal site               Exotic Plants                                                                                0
                                                  EL      electric lines                                                                                                                                                                                          6.
                                                                                             WC     water chestnut
                                                  Fi      flotsam and jetsam
                                                          ladusidal-bai ding-                       common reed
                                                                                             CR
                                                                                                    purp e                                                                        (L             @zb      V
                                                  MA      -narina                                                                                                                                                                                              an
                                                  PI      pier or causeway                   Land   Uses
                                                                                             AG     agriculture
                                                  PK      parking lot
                                                                                             cP     county park
                                                  PP      power plant
                                                                                             IN     Industry
                                                  RB      RR bridge or culvert               MR     military reservation
                                                  RH      permanent residences               NA     natural area
                                                  RS      radio antenna or tower
                                                  RV      recreational vehicle trail         PA     picnic or camping area
                                                  SC      shipping channel                   NH     National Historic Site
                                                  SP      sewage plant
                                                                                             QU     quarries
                                                  TF      tank farm                          RH     residential housing
                                                  TH      seasonal residences                TP     town park
                                                  WI      water intake                       SK     state park                          Auys




                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               N
     ff                            HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                             MAP NUMBER 9A

                                                                                                                                                                              Miles
                                  Fishkill Creek                Moodna Creek                    Hudson River Miles 44-56                                                      0                  1/2                   1


                                  New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                                 Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky           December 1989








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                                                                                                                                                                                                                              C  freshwater creek
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                              CR common reed
                                                                                                                    hik                                                                                                          purple loosestrffe
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                                                                                                                            66                                                                                                Major Features
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                d
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              AR abandone
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              BH bulkhead
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              BL boat laund
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              BR bridge
                                                                                                                    ight                                                                                                      DA dam or barrier
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                              B  duck blind
                                                                                                                    Hodk                                                                                                      DR dredged reach
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              DS dredge disposal site
                                                                                                              72                                                                                                              EL electriclines
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              FJ flotsam and jetsam
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              IN industrial b-.--- Q
                                                                     HO,                                                                                                                                                      LF landfill or junkyard
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              MA marina
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              PI pier or causeway
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              PK parking lot
                                                                                                    D                                                                                                                         pp power plant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              RB RR bridge or culvert
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              RS radio antenna or tower
                                                                                                 4,'
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              RV recreational vehicle trail
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              SC shipping channel
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              sp sewage plant
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    6;
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 tank farm
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              T
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                              TH seasonal residences
                                                                                          I FoE                                                                                                                               W1 water intake
                                                                                       X.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Land Uses
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              AG agriculture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              CP county park
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              IN industry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              MR military reservation
                                                                       iPP       77
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              NA natural area                                       11
                                                                       ery'                                                                                                                                                      picnic or camping area
                                                        0
                                                        0                                                                                                                                                                     NH National Historic Site
                                                                                                                                                                                                                              QU quarries
                                                              chi CluW                                                                                                                                                        R Hresidential housing
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                                                                                                                                                                                                                       N
                             HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                     MAP NUMBER 9B

                                                                                                                                                      Miles
                             Hudson River Miles 44-56 /'Constitution Marsh / Iona
                             Island Marsh / Camp Smith Marsh and Annsville Creek
                                                                                                                                                      0                    Y2


                             New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                     Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky       December 1989











                                                                                                                         151


          GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION


          Site Name:      Haverstraw Bay                                                            REFER TO MAP NUMBER 10
          Town(s):        Clarkstown, Haverstraw, Stony Point, Conlandt
          County(ies):    Rockland, Westchester
          7.5' Quad(s):   Haverstraw

          BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

          Community Types: Deepwater (D) and shallows (S).

          Rare Species:   Shortnose sturgeon wintering area.

          Valuable Species:   Extensive nursery for anadromous fish species including striped bass, American shad, white
          perch, tomcod, and Atlantic sturgeon. Nursery and feeding area for many marine species including bay anchovy,
          Atlantic menhaden, and blue claw crab. Spawning and wintering grounds for Atlantic sturgeon. Waterfowl feeding
          and resting during migration.

          Size: Vast areas of deep and shallow water over a six mile reach of River.

          Quality- A low diversity habitat of good quality that has experienced extensive disturbance.

          Exotics: None identified.

          General Description: A vast open area of the River containing extensive shallows and deeper water along the
          western side of the area. Over this relatively shallow bay, freshwater and saltwater mix to produce brackish waters
          varying from 0 to 10 ppt salinity. Nursery values in the habitat are probably greatest in spring, summer and fall but
          depend on the salinity found in the area.




























                                           T 7-7                                           -A@
                         Figure 63. Anchored gffl nets in Haverstraw Bay. Photo by Steve StannelClearwater










         152                                            Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIO

         Major Features: Sewage plants (SP), power plants (PP), landfill (LF), marinas (MA), surrounding roads and
         railroads, shipping channel (SC), dredging reach B (DR).

         Site History. The River channel was first dredged in the 1920's with subsequent maintenance dredging and
         disposal.

         Existing Use: Moderate to heavy fishing. SPDES waste discharge permits were held In the early 1980's by
         Consolidated Edison's Indian Point Generating Station, Georgia Pacific Corp., Kay-Fries Chemicals, Inc., Orange and
         Rockland Utilities Bowline Pt. Generating Station, Tilcon Quarries, Inc., United States Gypsum Co., and local sewage
         districts.

         Surrounding Use: Industry (IN), highways and railroad (RR), urban areas, villages, residential housing (RH), county
         parks (CP), state park (SK), natural areas (NA).

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially includes State-
         regulated freshwater wetlands (HS-2, HS-1 1). Refer to the official wetland maps available at the Department of
         Environmental Conservation regional office.

         HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary: Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer area
         includes adjacent portions of the River itself and the immediate watershed along both sides of the River. Along the
         western shore this extends to the crest of the steep slopes and, on the eastern shore, includes upland slopes
         extending to approximately the 100 foot contour.

         Recommended Actions: Monitor and limit existing runoff from the roads, railroad, and industrial and landfill areas
         along both shores. Limit non-resource related (recreational) boating over the shallows throughout the entire eastern
         portion of the bay. Pursue active restoration of industrial and otherwise de-vegetated sites immediately adjacent to
         the River: this would Include establishing vegetated and permeable buffer areas to limit direct runoff and erosion.

         Incompatible Use: Dredging of the shallows and construction or filling in the habitat. Large scale removal of
         freshwater that may alter the variation in salinity over this shallow area. If mixing of salt and freshwater occurred
         further upriver over deep water as a result of water withdrawals, many of the habitat values associated with the bay
         would be lost and not replaced elsewhere in the River. Navigation channel dredging during sensitive nursery use of
         the area. Marina development along the eastern shore which would result in boating traffic patterns entirely through
         shallows during the critical summer months. Boating along the western shore would tend to have less adverse
         effects. Introduction of sediments, clearing buffer vegetation.

         Recommended Use: Increased fishing.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
         Protection Biologist.





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                                        MAP    LEGEND                                                     Community Type
                                                                                                          Ddeepwater                                    X 5 7',\
                                                                                                                                                                                                  44
                                        Major Features                                                    Sshallows                                 .4
                                                                                                                                                                                                                      39                                                                 ellers
                                        AR     abandoned ruins                                            Fmud and sand flats
                                                                                                          Bsandy beach
                                        BH     bulkhead                                                                                                                                                                                                                                Poigt-
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   S
                                        III,   boat launch ramp                                           Rrocky shore                                                     @x
                                                                                                          Llower marsh                                                                                                                                                                                         S
                                        BR     bridge
                                                                                                          Uupper marsh
                                        DA     dam or barrier
                                        D8     duck blind                                                 Wtidal swamp forest
                                        DR     dredged reach                                              Cfreshwater creek                                                                                           37
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    SC41
               41A
                                        DS     dredge disposal site
                                        EL     electric lines                                             Exotic Plants
                                        FJ     flotsam and jetsam                                         WC water chestnut
                                        IN     Industrial building                                        CR common reed
                              -EF ---- rple-loosesUffe--
                                                                                                          pu
                                        MA     marina                                                                                                                                                                     CROTON RIVER AN6 BAY
                                        PI     pier or causeway                                           Land Uses                                                                                                                                                                                                                  7
                                        PK     parldng lot                                                AG agriculture
                                        PP     power plant                                                CP county park
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    38
                                        RB     RR bridge or culvert                                       IN Industry                                                                         "t,
                                        RH     permanent residences
                                                                                                          MR military reservation                                                      A
                                        RS     radio antenna or tower                                     NA natural area
                                        RV     recreational vehicle trail                                 PA picnic or camping area                                                                                                                                                                  DR:A               OSSININC
                                        SC     shipping channel                                           NH National Historic Site                                                                   Uolr
                                        SP     sewage plant                                                                                                                                               @e,                                                                                                                           8
                                                                                                          QU quarries
                                                                                                          RH residential housing
                                        TF     tank farm
                                        TH     seasonal residences                                        TP town park                                                    's,
                                        W]     water Intake                                               SK state park
                 so
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                                                                                    0


                             HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                                                          MAP NUMBER 10                                                                                                                                               N

                                                                                                                                                                                                               Miles
                             Haverstraw Bay                                                                                                                                                                   0                               '/2


                             New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                                                                           Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky                           December 1989











                                                                                                                                153


           GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

           Site Name:       Croton River and Bay                                                          REFER TO MAP NUMBER 11
           Town(s):         Cortlandt, Ossining
           County(ies):     Westchester
           7.5' Quad(s):    Haverstraw, Ossining

           BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

           Community Types: Mostly shallows (S) with lesser amounts of mudflats (F) and brackish upper marsh (U).

           Rare Species:    Possible osprey feeding grounds during spring and fall migrations.

           Valuable Species:    Productive nursery, foraging and resting area for anadromous and resident fish species.

           Size: Large areas of shallow water, limited marsh and mudfiats areas.

           Quality. A low diversity habitat of poor quality that has experienced extensive disturbance.

           Exotics: Extensive invasion by common reed (CR).

           General Description: A large open bay area sheltered by Croton Point. There are limited marsh areas along the
           point, a large area of shallow water, and the tidal portion of the Croton River. Most of the freshwater flow is diverted
           to municipal water supplies except for overflows and minimum flow requirements.





                                                                                                    -V7



                                                                                                       "A





















                           Figure 64: Croton River from Quaker Bridge. Photo by Bryan SwiftlDEC









         154                                          Site Specific Information

         HUMAN INTERACTIONS

         Major Features: County park (CP), the RR with one tidal flow opening (RB), large landfill (LF), sewage plant (SP),
         parking lot (PK), dam (DA), shipping channel (SC), dredging reach A (DR).

         Site Historr. Hydrological and sedimentation patterns In the site were greatly altered when the railroad was built in
         the 1850's. The River channel was first dredged In the 1920's with subsequent maintenance dredging and
         deposition. Encroachment by the landfill into the upper marsh.

         Eidsting Use: Entire flow from the Croton River used for municipal water supplies. Moderate to heavy fishing use.
         SPDES waste discharge permits were held in the early 1980's by Sunmark Industries, Consolidated Rail Corp., Mobil
         Oil Corp, and the Ossining Sewage District. Scientific research (Hudsonia, Inc.).

         Surrounding Use: Industry (IN), highways and railroad (RR), urban areas.

         Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The area wholly or partially includes State-
         regulated freshwater wetlands (H-3, H-4, H-5). Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of
         Environmental Conservation regional office. The site Includes the Natural Heritage Program's Croton River and Bay
         site.


         HABffAT PROTECTION MEASURES

         Site Boundary: Includes the entire designated Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat area. The buffer area
         includes Croton Point to the north, upland to Route 9J and up to and including the roadways paralleling the Croton
         River corridor.

         Recommended Actions: Restore continuous freshwater flow to the Croton River to improve the habitat value of the
         site (currently freshwater flow releases can be reduced to zero during draught conditions). Monitor and control
         runoff from the roads, railroad, industry, and landfill areas around the site through stormwater and non-point sources
         of pollution control programs.

         Incompatible Use: Dredging, filling and construction in the habitat. Clearing adjacent vegetated uplands and
         banks. Marina development or other developments resulting in boating traffic largely through the shallows or flats.
         Further decreases in tidal flow within the Croton River. Introduction of waste materials in association with.bridge
         maintenance (Route 9J and RR bridges).

         Recommended Use: None identified.

         Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental
         Protection Biologist.





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                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              D    deepwater
                                                                                                      S                                                                                                                  e
                                                                  io                        9                     .9                                                                                                     e ervm                                               S    shallows
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              F    mud and send flats
                             y                                                                                                         Sewage
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              B    sandy beach
                                                                                                                                                        Wat                                                                                                                   R    rocky shore
                                                                                                                                        a                                                                                                                                     L    lower marsh
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              U    upper marsh
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              W    tidal swamp forest
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              C    freshwater creek
                                                         10
                                                                                                                                                                                                                        1,4                                                   Exotic Plants
                         26
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              WC   water chestnut
                                                                                                                         J                                                                                                                                                    CR   common reed
                                                                                                                                      LaM!fi,11,                                          W
                                                                             S                                                                                                                                                                                                PL   purple loosestrife
                                                                                                                                0 NTY A
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Major Features
                                                                                                                                                                                          Z                                                                                   A R  abandoned ruins
                                                                                                                              cr                                                                                                                                              111-1 bulkhead
                                                                                                                                                             CROTON
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              111, boat launch ramp
                                                                                                                                                                                S
                               37                            \114                                                                                                BAY                                                                                                          BR   bridge
                                                                                                                                                                                   OSSIN      G'
                                                                                                                         4.                                                                                                                                                   DA   dam or barrier
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              DB   duck blind
                                                                                                                                                                             Crawbuckie
                                                                                                                                                          S                         Point                                                                                     DR   dredged reach
                                      D                          20                                                                                                4            -1        --                                                                                  DS   dredge disposal site
                                                                                            10
                                                                                                                                                                                                              daie  I                                                         EL   electric lines                            -kaid,
                                                                                                                                   3                                                                                                                                          FJ   flotsam and jetsam
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           c                  IN   industrial building
                                                                                                                                                                                              2
                                       44                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     LF   landfill or junkyard
                                                           39                                                              ellers                                                S                                                                                            MA   marina
                                                                                                                         Poi9j,                                                                                                                                               PI   pier or causeway
                                                                                                                                                      3                                            2                                                                          PIK  parking lot
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              PP   power plant
                                                                                                                                                 S
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              RB   RR bridge or culvert
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              RS   radio antenna or tower                        T
                                                           37           Sic                                                                                                                                                                                                   RV   recreational vehicle trail
                       MV                                                                                                                                                                                                                       L                             SC   shipping channel
                                                                                                                                                                                                       7SewaR                                                                 SP   sewage plant
                                                                              41                                                                                                   6      S                                                                                   TF   tank farm
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              TH   seasonal residences
                                                                                                                                                                                                   M
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              W1   water intake
                                                               CROTON RnTX AN6 BAY                                                                                                                                                                                            Land Uses
                                                                                                                                                                       7
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              AG   agriculture
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              CP   county park
                                                                                                        38                                                                                                                                                                    IN   industry
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              MR   military reservation
                                                                                                                                                                                                  '4 Ossining                                                                 NA   natural area
                                                                                                                                                                                                  Correctior                                                                  PA   picnic or camping area
                                                                      ILAN                                                                   A            OSSINING                                  Facilit
                                                                                                                                                                                                  Sewage                                                                      NH   National Historic Site
                                                                                                                                                                                                  us
                                                                                                                                                                                                     M        I                                                               QU   quarries
                                                                                                                                                                          8
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              RH   residential housing
                                                                                                               28                                                                                                                                 vy -                        TP   town park
                                                                                     14                                                                                                                                                                                       SK   state park
                                                                                                                                        29                                                         9                                                                                                                          G id
                                                                                                    I iaht                                                                                         TA  P   PA                                                                                                                    C"
                                                                                                                                                05A
                                                     Al
                               HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                                                                       MAP NUMBER 11                                                                                                                                          N

                                                                                                                                                                                                                Miles
                               Croton River and Bay
                                                                                                                                                                                                                0


                               New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization                                                                      Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky                         December 1989











                                                                                                                              155


            GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATIO


            Site Name:      Piermont Marsh                                                              REFER TO MAP NUMBER 12
            Town(s):        Orangetown
            County(ies):    Rockland
            7.5' Quad(s):   Nyack

            BIOLOGICAL FEATURES

            Community Types: Predominantly shallows (S) and brackish upper marsh (U), with a broad transition area of
            mudflats (F).

            Rare Species:   Least bittern and sedge wren reported nesting, diamondback terrapin use, osprey feeding during
            migration.

            Valuable Species:    Extensive use of the mudflats by herons and egrets. Large numbers of resident and breeding
            bird species, blue claw crabs, resident fishes and lesser numbers of furbearers. Waterfowl, wading bird and
            shorebird feeding during migration.

            Size; Large marsh and shallows areas. Largest brackish water marsh within River.

            Quality. A low diversity habitat of fair quality that has experienced m0cferate disturbance.

            Exotics: Extensive invasion by common reed (CR) throughout most of the marsh, particularly concentrated at the
            north end.

            General Description: A large common reed dominated marsh area that extends south of the Piermont Pier. East of
            this marsh Is a large shallows and mudfiats area. Many of the plants found here illustrate the transition to a more
            saline environment and include saltmarsh cordgrass, saltmeadow cordgrass, and salt grass.
















                                   '"Mob'-















                                  Figure 65: Northeast view over PiermontMarsh.









       156                                          Site Specific Information

       HUMAN INTERACTION

       NlEkjor Features: A long pier (PI), town park (TP), residential housing (RH), sewage outlet (SP).

       Site Historr. The marsh formed behind the pier which was constructed in 1839 as the eastern terminus of the Erie
       Railroad. Prior to construction of the pier, the area was open water.

       Existing Use: Bird watching and nature study as pan of Tallman Mountain State Park. Active research and
       education programs.

       Surrounding Use: Tallman Mountain State Park (SK), factories (IN), the Village of Plermont, natural areas (NA).

       Status: Designated as a Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat. The north end of the park is State-owned and
       administered by the NYS DEC, the remainder is under the jurisdiction of the Palisades Interstate Park Commission.
       The area is one of four designated sites comprising the Hudson River National Estuarine Research Reserve. The
       area includes State-regulated tidal wetlands. Refer to the official wetland maps available in the Department of
       Environmental Conservation regional office. The site includes the Natural Heritage Program's Piermont Marsh site.

       HABITAT PROTECTION MEASURES

       Site Boundary- Includes the entire Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat boundary. The buffer zone should
       include the upland forests to the west within Tallman State Park, portions of the Sparkill Creek watershed and the
       Piermont Pier.

       Recommended Actions: Evaluate selective restoration of the marsh through common reed control; high
       sedimentation rates, however, may require extensive dredging for restoration efforts to be successful and may result
       in creating negative impacts that would exceed potential benefits. Monitor recurring problem of sewage loading due
       to breaks in the sewage outfall pipe,that passes through the marsh, flats, and shallows. Control sedimentation in the
       area through watershed management programs.

       Incompatible Use: Any action that would subdivide the overall site. Adjacent development that would increase
       runoff. Alteration of tidal channels resulting in hydrological changes. Marina development that would result in
       boating traffic within the shallows and flats, or increase direct impacts from boat beaching in the marsh and flats.

       Recommended Use: Bird watching center and expanded opportunities for research and education.

       Knowledgeable Contacts: Tom Hart, DOS; Betsy Blair and Dennis Mildner (National Estuarine Research Reserve),
       DEC Region 3, Fisheries or Wildlife Manager or Environmental Protection Biologist.






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                           MAP LEGEND
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                                                                                                         -Jb'
                                                                                                         it
              Ji           Community Type                                                                h
                                                                                                                                                                   21
                           Ddeepwater                                                             @;T I
                           sshallows                                               It
                           Fmud and sand flats
                                                                                      "'I- -- @/ @i Ul
                           Bsandy beach
                           Rrocky shore                                                                                4                                        #6
                           lower marsh
                           L                                                   -@"@ROCKLAN6.                                                  9
                           uupper marsh                                             C@' E-TERY@                                                                               45
                                                                                                                                                 Light
                           Wtidal swamp forest
                           Cfreshwater creek                                              J                                                             13
                                                                         St Thb  in"                         iermont

                                                             Wo                                                              rj
                           Exotic Plants
                           wc water chestnut
                                                                                  6,M)
                                                                       :.y
                           CR common reed                           ARo
                           PL e loosestrife                                                               I VT@.                                                               49
                           purpl                                                                     )P)
                                                                                                                                F
                           Major Features      IN,
                                                                                                                                        S                           ?7
                           AR abandoned ruins
                                                                                                                            -- ---------       u 5
                           Ill bulkhead                                                            buih
                                                               D
                                                                ri e                                                                    ------- @R
                           BL boat launch ramp                                                                                                                             49
                           Ill bridge
                           IJA dain or barrier                      A
                           DB duck blind                                                                                                      2
                                                                                                                                                                           IRVINGT9
                           DR dredged reach                                                        '6@
                                                                                                                A
                                                                             \N)                               N                     F
                           DS dredge disposal site
                           EL electric lines
                           FJ flotsam and jetsam  Water0
                                                                                                         C./  TALLMAN,.
                                                                                                                                                                           -on-Huds
                           IN industrial building                      Purno;'g Sbaridu4_1                                                                            Ardsley
                           LF landfill or junkyard                                                                                    3                                         B@10 tc,
                                                                                                                                           S
                           MA marina             T                                                             STATE                                                   49
                           PI pier or causeway
                           PK parking lot
                                               ^e                                                     i, on
                           PP power plant                                           A                           SK-
                           RB RR bridge or culvert
                 b@                                                                                                                                                                  7-
                           RS radio antenna o.
                           RV recreational vehicle trail                               3,
                           s cshipping channel
                           sp sewage plant     7
                           TF tank farm
                           TH seasonal residences        303
                           wi water intake                                                  C
                                                                                                                                        S

                           Land Uses            'J@                                                                                                17                   41
                           AG agriculture                                                                                                                    42
                           cp county park
                                                                                                                                                              DOBBS FERR
                           IN industry                                                                             alisades                                                P.
                           MR military reservation                                                                                                     0,
                                                                                                                                    Landing            'Tir-4,     46
                                                                                                                                                        17                    14
                           NA natural area
                           PA picnic or camping area                                                                    T                 2
                           NH National Historic Site                                                                                                                Smd R.
                           QU quarries
                           RH residential housing               'S        AKIL                                                                                         em
                           TP town park
                           SK state park
                                                               'St  sep-
                                                                    age                                                       Larnoni, dSel@ tory
                                                             4ilit                  L
                                                                     e    n4
                                                                                                                                                      HASTINGS-ON-JiU
                                         4 41X0/- /I
                                              X
                                                                    Golf Course
                                                                                                     1pi.                            STATE PARK
                                                     '/#                                                                             PALISADES
                                                                           0    ig                              4. V'@@8                                   51
                                                                            ck
                                                             .11IR

                                                                                                                                                                           N
                HUDSON RIVER TIDAL HABITATS                                       MAP NUMBER 12


                                                                                                                       Miles

                Piermont Marsh
                                                                                                                       0


                New York State Department of State Division of Coastal Resources and Waterfront Revitalization Prepared by T. Hart and N. Salafsky December 1989











                                                                                                                                           157

            THE FUTURE OFTHE RIVER

            Unique Values of Hudson River,Habitats                             Borrowing from our Children
            One might question the rationale 'in any endeavor to               We do not inherit the earth, we borrow it from our
            conserve natural areas.       One answer with regard to            children.
            protection of the Hudson River's tidal habitats in New York
            is that it is the law. Virtually all the habitats described in                            --Arnish Saying
            this guide are protected under the provisions of federal
            and state laws dealing with water quality, endangered              Over time, the natural resources of the Hudson have been
            species, coastal management, wetland protection and                regarded in several different ways. The first European
            significant habitats. Lawsare only effective, however, if          settlers saw the valley as an untamed wilderness that
            people understand and respect them and work to                     represented a challenge and opportuntity for them to
            implement and enforce them. Ultimately, only public                transform.    Soon after, however, the large trading
            understanding of the unique values of the habitats along           companies sought to extract as much wealth as possible
            the Hudson River will ensure their continued survival. This        for both personal and national profit.           For several
            natural resources guide has attempted to present enough          , centuries, the River valley continued to serve as a
            information about these habitats so that it will be easier for     wellspring of natural resources with its supply of fish,
            interested groups and citizens to develop the                      water, building materials, and other commodities limited
            understanding and sense of partnership necessary for               only by human technology and demand.
            effective protection of the Rivet's resources.                     As the Hudson Valley's population increased, its natural
            In attempting to summarize 'the ideas and information              resources began to dwindle. In the eighteenth century,
            contained in the preceding 'chapters, there is an                  the beavers and other furbearing animals became locally'
            overwhelming temptation to try to anticipate which                 scarce or extinct. The hemlocks that provided the basis
            information will be the most important or useful. Initially        for the leather tanning industry disappeared in the
            it seems likely that specific site information may be us@@         nineteenth century as did the once thriving shellfish beds
            most often because of local interests reflecting local             in Haverstraw Bay.      In the first half of the twentieth
            government boundaries, or perhaps because of the site              century, commercial fishing declined rapidly as fish stocks
            specific nature of proposals which may threaten the                dwindled. More recently, contaminants have reduced the
            ecological value of specific habitats. But many questions          value of the River's resources. Today, even water supply
            must be answered for each specific site before one can             may become scarce with many different demands being
            evaluate the relative significance of a proposed project or        placed upon it.
            activity in terms of its impacts.upon the characteristics and
            quality of a specific habitat.         In some instances,          A basic economic principle is that as resources become
            understanding the biology of an endangered or otherwise            scarcer, their value increases unless substitutes are found.
            valuable species;will be more important than site specific         With regard to beaver pelts, hemlock bark, or even fish,
            information and will override all other concerns. In other         substitutes can be found or the need for the use of the
            instances, the more subtle nature of the interaction among         resource eliminated. But today, the scarcity ofresources
            ecological zones and the animals and plants that                   becomes more pressing. Imagine, for example, the City
            participate in and depend on:these interactions will be the        of Poughkeepsie having to find an alternative water supply
            most valuable aspect of the habitat.          Ultimately, no       and the cost associated with such an undertaking.
            particular part of this guide will prevail over the others for     Clearly, if we are to be successful in preserving the River
            one simple reason: the subject of this guide, the Hudson           ecosystem for its plants, animals,, and people, we can no
            River, is an ecosystem.         Each component of that             longer view the Hudson River as a boundless resource.
            ecosystem described in this guide is an integral part of the       Instead, it is necessary to adopt policies that recognize
            River as an entity.                                                resource limitations, even among resources that are now
                                                                               considered renewable. In accordance with economic
            In considering the River as an ecosystem, two themes               practice, it is logical to ask consumers of these limited
            emerged during the preparation of this guide that                  resources to pay for them.
            pervaded all aspects of human use and conservation of
            the 'Hudson. It seems fitting to close with a discussion of        Disposal of toxic wastes provides a good illustration of
            'these two ideas.                                                  this principle. Until the 1970's, producers of toxic wastes
                                                                               were allowed to pollute air, water, and land as a right of
                                                                               ownership. The environmental movement started with the
                                                                               realization that pollution often dramatically










          158                                                        Epilogue

          affected the lives of people who were close to and even
          distant from the source of pollution. Beginning with air,
          and later, water and land resources, government                  Because They Could Do Only a Little
          responded with laws that acknowledge these as public
          resources that must be protected and preserved in the            Nobody makes a greater mistake than he who did nothing
          public interest. It is no longer an assumed right to pollute     because he could do only a little.
          these resources.
                                                                                                --Edmund Burke
          There has been a tremendous change in the protection of
          the Hudson River's resources over the past twenty years.         In considering the complex nature of the Hudson River
          The anoxic, open cesspools of summer are gone from the           ecosystem, it is apparent that a wide range of
          upper River, fishery resources are at healthy levels,            environmental protection and management actions must
          wetland filling has been reduced, and birds of prey have         be taken If the ecosystem's natural resource values are to
          returned to the River. Much more needs to be done. This          be preserved. The magnitude of problems and challenges
          requires further public recognition that the right to alter a    involved requires solutions at many different levels.
          habitat or to discharge pollutants is granted by the public      Examples of actions that could be taken by various
          who must be compensated for the use of the resource. In          agencies, concerned individuals and organizations, are
          effect, this policy captures the full cost of developing land    outlined below.
          or producing a given product, including the expense of
          safely disposing of waste products.                              Legislators    can work to protect tidal habitats by
                                                                           improving existing laws and regulations and promulgating
          For example, the SPIDES program       limits the quantity of     new measures at both Federal and State levels. One
          toxic compounds that can be discharged into the River            important action would be to extend the coverage of the
          basin. It is not difficult to imagine moving from the            Tidal Wetlands Act from its present limit at the Tappan Zee
          present structure of the SPIDES program, which is based          Bridge farther upstream to cover all tidal portions of the
          on voluntary or self-regulated compliance, to more               Hudson River and its tributaries up to the dam at Troy.
          stringent regulation and enforcement. Funds for stricter         This extension would increase the buffer zone surrounding
          enforcement could come from fees levied on dischargers           wetlands from 100 to 300 feet (or the 10 foot elevation
          who utilize the public resource of the River water for           contour) and also provide for more comprehensive
          private profit. Precedents exist for having private users        treatment of wetlands. Another step would be to amend
          pay for use of public resources. The best known example          the Reservoir Release Law (Art. 15, Title 8) so that
          on the Hudson is Exxon Corporation's payment, under              sufficient water Is released into the River not only to
          threat of suit by the Hudson Riverkeeper of two million          support drinking water and recreational needs, but also to
          dollars to the Riverkeeper Fund and New York State, for          meet instrearn needs for plants and animals in tidal
          using tankers to transport fresh water from the River to the     habitats. Laws could also be enacted to create a system
          Caribbean island of Aruba.                                       to compensate the public for the use of the River's public
                                                                           resources.
          Beginning with estsablished precedents, and based on the
          principle that the River's resources belong to the public, it    Existing and new laws protecting habitats are useless
          is possible to effectively protect all the resources of the      without effective enforcement by government agencies
          River. Permission for municipalities to withdraw water can       which need adequate support, funding, and commitment
          be linked to effective conservation measures. Permission         to carry out their responsibilities. In enforcing laws, it is
          for shipping companies to use the River for transportation       critical that a distinction be made between the theory and
          can be linked to fees covering the true costs of dredging        practice of environmental protection.          For example,
          the channel and environmental impacts of using the River.        although measures to reduce impacts from dredging may
          And permission to discharge toxic contaminants can only          be written into a work contract, the value of these
          be allowed when the true cost to the resource and public         measures ultimately depends on the dredging contractor's
          health is compensated. When the resources of the River           compliance with conditions designed to protect the
          are seen as public domain, they can be effectively used          environment. Compliance with conditions depends on
          for the plants, animals, and people of both today--and of        clear explanations which provide sound reasoning for
          tomorrow.                                                        each condition and an effective inspection and
                                                                           enforcement procedure, which could include financial
                                                                           incentives that favor compliance with conditions.

                                                                           Conservation organizations also play an important role
                                                                           in protection and management of the River's public
                                                                           resources. These organizations can often improve
                                                                           government decision-making, particularly in the case of









                                                     . Because They Could Only Do a Little                                              159

            permit approvals, by providing valuable resource
            information and commentary, usually through existing
            public notice procedures. Indeed, the level of expertise
            available through these organizations, in combination with
            their commitment to protection of resources, is an
            essential component of the River's resource protection
            network. These organizations can also effectively lobby
            legislators to pass new laws and to appropriate sufficient
            funds for implementation of existing laws. Furthermore,
            conservation organizations are in the best position to
            monitor whether the public policy expressed in law is
            being adequately implemented by the responsible agency.

            In similar fashion, local governments are invaluable in the
            protection of their sections of the River.              Local
            governments can and do rely on higher levels of
            government for natural resource protection. All too often
            however, the first-hand knowledge and views of local
            governments are not sufficiently factored into resource
            protection decisions by State and Federal authorities. The
            ability of local government to protect valuable natural
            resources under its jurisdiction may be even more
            important. Local governments have the ability and the
            obligation to protect their citizens and the public resources
            that are valuable to the community, including natural
            resources. Through use of police powers, such as zoning
            and subdivision approval, and through the implementation
            of special laws such as the State Environmental Quality
            Review Act and the Waterfront Revitalization and Coastal
            Resources Act, many communities are in the strongest
            position of any level of government to protect valuable
            natural resources.

            And last, but most importantly, concerned citizens are
            the key to the entire process. It is they who can lobby
            legislators to pass crucial laws and who can demand that
            government officials and private organizations they
            support serve as protectors of the public interest.



                                                  Give light and the people will find their own way.

                                                                                     Dante


            The intent in preparing this guide to natural resource protection is to shed stronger light to help concerned people become
            more involved in protection of the Rivees tidal habitats. This guide cannot be an endpoint; it only represents a small step
            forward in a journey that must be taken if the resources of the River are to be protected and preserved, not only for our
            children, but for everyone's benefit and enjoyment, today and tomorrow.












       160











               APPENDICES



               -Appendix A: Plant Species Referenced in the Text
               -Appendix B: Animal Species Referenced in the Text
               -Appendix C. Agencies and Organizations Involved in
                            Protection of the Hudson's Natural Resources
               -Appendix D: Bibliography











          162


          APPENDIX A.- PLANT SPECIES REFERENCED IN THE TEXT

          This is not a complete list of plants found in and around the estuarine portion of the Hudson River. This list provides
          scientific names for plants referenced In the text in order to avoid confusion from the use of common names.
          Scientific and common names follow Mitchell (1986).


          COMMONNAME                                              SCIENTIFIC NAME

          Spleenwort Family                                       Aspleniaceae
          Sensitive fern                                          Onoclea sensibifis
          Marsh fern                                              Thelypteris palustris

          Laurel Family                                           Lauraceae
          Spicebush                                               Lindera benzoin

          Waterlily Family                                        Nymphaeaceae
          Spatterdock                                             Nuphar luteum

          Amaranth Family                                         Amaranthaceae
          Water-hemp                                              Amaranthus cannabinus

          Elm Family                                              Ulmaceae
          Slippery elm                                            Ulmus rubra

          Buckwheat Family                                        Polygonaceae
          Knotweeds                                               Polygonum sp.
          Smartweeds                                              Polygonum sp.

          Mustard Family                                          Brassicaceae
          Pennsylvania bittercress                                Cardamine pennsylvanica

          Sedum Family                                            Crassulaceae
          Pigmyweed                                               Tillaea aquatica

          Water milfoil Family                                    Haloragaceae
          Eurasian water milfoil                                  Myriophyllum spicatum

          Bean Family                                             Fabaceae
          Hog-peanut                                              Amphicarpea bracteata

          Loosestrife Family                                      Lythraceae
          Purple loosestrife                                      Lythrum salicaria

          Water-chestnut Family                                   Trapaceae
          Water-chestnut                                          Trapa natans

          Dogwood Family                                          Comaceae
          Silky dogwood                                           Cornus amomum

          Grape Family                                            Vitaceae
          Virginia creeper                                        Parthenocissus inserta

          Maple Family                                            Aceraceae
          Red maple                                               Acer rubrum

          Sumac Family                                            Anacardiaceae
          Poison sumac                                            Toxicodendron vemix
 










                                                                                                                                    163

            Touch-me-not Family                                    Balsaminaceae
            Spotted jewelweed                                      Impatiens capensis

            Milkweed Family                                        Asclepiadaceae
            Swamp milkweed                                         Asclepias incarnata

            Morning-glory Family                                   Convolvulaceae
            Common dodder                                          Cuscuta gronovii

            Plantain Family                                        Plantaginaceae
            Heart leaf plantain                                    Plantago cordata

            Olive Family                                           Oleaceae
            Black ash                                              Fraxinus nigra
            Green ash                                              F. pennsylvanica

            Figwort Family                                         Scrophulariaceae
            Mudwort                                                Limosella australis
            False-pimperneil                                       Lindernia dubia
            Micranthemum                                           Micranthemum micranthemoldes
            Common monkeyflower                                    Mimulus ringens
            Winged monkeyflower                                    M. alatus
            Lousewort                                              Pedicularis lanceolata

            Bluebell Family                                        Campanulaceae
            Cardinal-flower                                        Lobelia cardinalis

            Honeysuckle Family                                     Caprifoliaceae
            Arrowwood                                              Viburnum recognitum

            Aster Family                                           Asteraceae
            Estuary beggar-ticks                                   Bidens bidentoides
            Bur marigold                                           Bidens sp. (cemua,laevis, etc.)
            Spotted Joe-pyeweed                                    Eupatorium maculatum
            Sneezeweed                                             Helenium autumnale

            Water-plantain Family                                  Afismataceae
            Water-plantain                                         Alisma plantago-aquatica
            Spongy arrowhead                                       Sagittaria calycina var: spongiosa
            Grass-leaf arrowhead                                   S. graminea
            Strap-leaf arrowhead                                   S. subulata
            Big-leaved arrowhead                                   S. latifolla

            Frog's-bit Family                                      hydrocharitaceae
            Waterweed                                              Elodea canadensis
            Wild celery (tapegrass)                                Vallisneria americana

            Pondweed Family                                        Potamogetonaceae
            Sago pondweed                                          Potamogeton pectinatus
            Pondweed                                               P. perfoliatus

            Ditchgrass Family                                      Ruppiaceae
            Widgeon-grass (ditch grass)                            Ruppia maritima

            Naiad Family                                           Najadaceae
            Naiad                                                  Najas guadalupensis var. muencheri
            Naiad                                                  N. minor
 









         164                                                       Appendix A

         Horned pondweed Family                                    Zannichelliaceae
         Horned pondweed                                           Zannichellia palustris

         Eelgrass Family                                           Zosteracese
         Eelgrass                                                  Zostera marina

         Arum Family                                               Araceae
         Sweetflag                                                 Acorus americanus
         Golden club                                               Orontium aquaticum
         Arrow arurn (arrowleaf)                                   Peltandra virginica
         Skunk cabbage                                             Symplocapus foetidus

         Duckweed Family                                           Lemnaceae
         Duckweed                                                  Lemna minor

         Hatpin Family                                             Eriocaulaceae,
         Estuary hatpins                                         Eriocaulon parked

         Sedge Family                                              Cyperaceae,
         Sedge                                                     Carex hormathodes
         River bulrush                                             Scirpus fluviatills
         Three-square                                              S. americanus
         Saltmarsh bulrush                                         S. cylindricus

         Grass Family                                              Poaceae
         Rice cutgrass                                             Leersia oryzoides
         Common reed                                               Phragmites australis
         Cordgrass                                                 Spartina alterniflora
         Wild rice                                                 Zizania aquatica

         Cat-tail Family                                           Typhaceae
         Narrow-leaf cat-tail                                      Typha angustifolia
         Broad-leaf cat-tail                                       Typha latifolia

         Pickerel-weed Family                                      Pontederiaceae,
         Pickerel-weed                                             Pontederia cordata
         Mud-plantain                                              Heteranthera reniformis
 









                                                                                                                                                 165


             APPENDIX B: ANIMAL SPECIES REFERENCED IN THE TEXT
             This is not a complete list of the animals found in and around the estuarine portion of the Hudson River. This list
             provides scientific names for animals referenced in the text in order to avoid confusion from the use of common
             names.


             COMMON NAME                                                  SCIENTIFIC NAME


             Invertebrates
             Bluecrab                                                     Callinectes sapidus

             Fish                                                         (after Smith, 1985)
             Sea lamprey                                                  Petromyzon marinus
             Shortnose sturgeon                                           Acipenser brevirostrum
             Atlantic sturgeon                                            A oxyrhynchus
             American eel                                                 Anguilla rostrata
             Blueback herring                                             Alosa aestivalis
             Hickory shad                                                 A. medlocris
             Alewife                                                      A. pseudoharengus
             American shad                                                A. sapidissima
             Atlantic menhaden                                            Brevoortla tyrannus
             Bay anchovy                                                  Anchoa mitchilli
             White catfish                                                Ictalurus catus
             Brown bullhead                                               L nebulosus
             American goosefish                                           Lophius americanus
             Atlantic tomcod                                              Microgadus tomcod
             Goldfish                                                     Carassius auratus
             Carp                                                         Cyprinus carplo
             Silvery minnow                                               Hybognathus regius
             Golden shiner                                                Notemigonus crysoleucas
             Common shiner                                                Notropis cornutus
             Spottail shiner                                              N. hudsonius
             Rainbow smelt                                                Osmerus mordax
             Banded killifish                                             Fundulus diaphanus
             Mummichog                                                    F heteroclitus
             Inland silverside                                            Menidia beryllina
             White perch                                                  Morone americana
             Striped bass*                                                M. saxatilis
             Pumpkinseed                                                  Lepomis gibbosus
             Bluegill                                                     L. macrochirus
             Smallmouth bass                                              Micropterus dolomieui
             Largemouth bass                                              M. salmoides
             Tesselated darter                                            Etheostoma olmstedi
             Yellow perch                                                 Perca flavescens
             Bluefish                                                     Pomatomus saltatfix
             Silver perch                                                 Sairdiella chrysoura
             Weakfish                                                     Cynosclon regalls
             Longhorn sculpin                                             Myoxocephalus: octodecemspinosus
             Hogchoker                                                    Trinectes maculatus

             Reptiles and Amphibians                                      (after Conant, 1975)
             Common snapping turtle                                       Chelydra serpentina
             Stinkpot                                                     Sternotherus odoratus
             Eastern mud turtle                                           Kinostemon subrubrum
             Spotted turtle                                               Clemmys guttata
             Bog turtle                                                   C. muhlenbergi
             Wood turtle                                                  C. insculpta
             Diamondback terrapin                                         Malaclemys terrapin
             Map turtle                                                   Graptemys geographica
             Painted turtle                                               Chryserays picta







            166                                                            Appendix B
            Eastern box turtle                                             Terrapene carolina
            Northern water snake                                           Nerodia sipedon
            Birds                                                          (after Bull, 1974)
            Great blue heron                                               Ardea herodias
            Great egret                                                    Casmerodius albus
            Green heron                                                    Butorides striatus
            Black-crowned night heron                                      Nycticorax nycticorax
            American bittern                                               Botaurus lentiginosus
            Least bittern                                                  lxobrychus exilis
            Mute swan                                                      Cygnus olor
            Canada goose                                                   Branta canadensis
            Brant                                                          Branta bernicla
            Wood duck                                                      Aix sponsa
            Mallard                                                        Anas platyrhynchos
            Black duck                                                     A. rubripes
            Gadwall                                                        A. strepera
            Common pintall                                                 A. acuta
            Green-winged teal                                              A. crecca
            Bluewinged teal                                                A. discors
            Northern shoveler                                              A. clypeata
            Canvasback                                                     Aythya valisineria
            Redhead                                                        A. americana
            Ring-necked duck                                               A. collaris
            Greater scaup                                                  A. marila
            Lesser scauP                                                   A. affinis
            Common goldeneye                                               Bucephala clangula
            Bufflehead                                                     B. albeola
            Oldsquaw                                                       Clangrula hyemalis
            White-winged scoter                                            Melanitta deglandi
            Surf scoter                                                    M. perpiscillata
            Black scoter                                                   Melanitta nigra
            Hooded merganser                                               Laphodyts cucullatus
            Common merganser                                               M. merganser
            Red-breasted merganser                                         M. serrator
            Ruddy duck                                                     oxyura jamaicensis
            Osprey                                                         Pandion haliaetus
            Bald eagle                                                     Haliaeetus leucocephalus
            Northern harrier                                               Circus cyaneus
            Common bobwhite                                                Colinus: virginianus
            Gray partridge                                                 Perdix perdix
            Virginia rail                                                  Rallus limicola
            King rail                                                      R. elegans
            Common gallinule                                               Gallinula chloropus:
            Lesser golden plover                                           pluvialis dominica
            Piping plover                                                  Charadrius melodus
            Semipalmated plover                                            C. semipalmatus
            Killdeer                                                       C. vociferous
            Common snipe                                                   Capella gallinago
            Spotted sandpiper                                              Actitis macularia
            Belted kingfisher                                              Megaceryle alcyon
            Long-billed marsh wren                                         cistothorus palustris
            Red-winged blackbird                                           Agelalus phoeniceus
            Swamp sparrow                                                  melospiza georgiana
            Song sparrow                                                   P. melodia
            Yellow warbler                                                 Dendroica petechia
            Willow flycatcher                                              Empidonax traillii
            Common yellowthroat                                            Geothylpis trichas
            American goldfinch                                             Carduelis tristis
 










                                                                                                                                     167

           Eastern kingbird                                         Tyrannus tyrannus
           Gray catbird                                             Dumetella carolinensis
           Common grackle                                           Quiscalus quiscula

           Mammals                                                  (after Burt and Grossenheider, 1976)
           Racoon                                                   Procyon lotor
           Black bear                                               Ursus americanus
           Longtall weasel                                          Mustela frenata
           Mink                                                     M. vison
           Common striped skunk                                     Mephitis mephitis
           Red fox                                                  Vulpes: fulva
           Bobcat                                                   Lynx rufus
           Woodchuck                                                Marmota monax
           Chipmunk                                                 Tamias striatus
           Eastern grey squirrel                                    Sciurus carolinensis
           Muskrat                                                  Ondatra zibethica
           Beaver                                                   Castor canadensis
           Cottontail                                               Syivilagus floridanus
           Whitetail deer                                           Odocoileus virginianus
 









         168

























































                                                                                                                              I









                                                                                                                              169

            APPENDIX C: AGENCIES AND ORGANIZATIONS INVOLVED IN PROTECTION OF THE
            IIUDSON` RIVER'S RESOURCES
            In this Appendix, addresses and phone numbers for the groups listed in Chapter 5 are given.

                        Federal Agencies

                        U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
                        New York District
                        26 Federal Plaza
                        New York, NY 10278
                        (212) 264-4662

                        U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                        Northeast Region
                        One Gateway Center, Suite 700
                        Newton Corner, MA 02158
                        (P17) 965-5100

                        U.S. Environmental Protection
                        Agency

                        Headquarters
                        401 M Street, SW
                        WH-556F
                        Washington, DC 20460
                        (202) 382-7166

                        Region 11
                        26 Federal Plaza
                        New York, NY 10278
                        (212) 264-5170

                        National Oceanic and
                        Atmospheric Administration
                        Office of Ocean and Coastal
                        Resource Management
                        1825 Connecticut Ave. NW
                        Washington, DC 20235
                        (202) 673-5152

                        National Park Service
                        North Atlantic Regional Office
                        15 State St, 8th Fl.
                        Boston, MA 02109-3572
                        (617) 565-8800

                        United States Geological
                        Survey
                        New York State District
                        PO Box 1397
                        Albany, NY 12201
                        (518) 472-3107

                        USDA Soil Conservation
                        Service
                        100 S. Clinton St. Rm. 771
                        James M. Hanley Building
                        Syracuse, NY 13260









            170                                                 Appendix C

                        New York State Government

                        New York Senate
                        Committee on Environmental
                        Conservation
                        State Capitol
                        Albany, NY 12224
                        (518) 455-2181

                        New York Assembly
                        Committee on Environmental
                        Conservation
                        State Capitol
                        Legislative Office Bldg.
                        Albany, NY 12224
                        (518) 455-4436

                        Department of Environmental
                        Conservation


                        Main Office
                        50 Wolf Road
                        Albany, NY 12233
                        (518) 457-6674

                        Hudson River Unit
                        21 South Putt Corners Road
                        New Paltz, NY 12561
                        (914) 255-5453

                        Region 3 Main office
                        21 South Putt Corners Road
                        New Paltz, NY 12561
                        (914) 255-5453

                        Region 3 Sub-office
                        202 Mamaroneck Ave.
                        White Plains, NY 10601
                        (914) 761-66M

                        Region 4 Main office
                        2176 Guilderland Ave.
                        Schenectady, NY 12306
                        (518) 382-0680

                        Region 4 Sub-office
                        Route 10, Jefferson Road
                        Stamford, NY 12167
                        (607) 652-7364

                        Department of State
                        Division of Coastal Resources
                        and Waterfront Revitalization
                        162 Washington Ave.
                        Albany, NY 12231
                        (518) 474-6000










                                                                                                                              171

                       Office of Parks, Recreation,
                       and Historic Preservation


                       Palisades Interstate Parks
                       Commission
                       122 E. 42nd St.
                       New York, NY 10019
                       (914) 786-2701

                       Saratoga/Capital District Reg.
                       PO Box W
                       Saratoga Springs, NY 12866
                       (518) 584-2000

                       Taconic Region
                       Staatsburg, NY 12580
                       (914) 889-4100

                       Hudson River National
                       Estuarine Sanctuary Program
                       Bard College Field Station
                       Annandale, NY 12504
                       (914) 758-5193

                       New York Natural Heritage
                       Program
                       Wildlife Resource Center
                       Delmar, NY 12054-9767
                       (518) 439-7488


                       County Aaencles

                       New York State Association of
                       Environmental Management
                       Councils
                       65 Broad Street, Rm. 203
                       Rochester, NY 14614

                       New York State Association of
                       Conservation Commissions
                       131 Big Island Road
                       Warwick, NY 10990

                       Albany County

                       Planning Board
                       I Lodge St.
                       Albany, NY 12207
                       (518) 445-7964

                       Environmental Management
                       Council
                       1 Lodge St.
                       Albany, NY 12207
                       (518) 445-7757









            172                                                  Appendix C

                        Soil and Water Conservation
                        RD 2, Martin Rd.
                        Voorheesville, NY 12186
                        (518) 765-2813

                        Columbia County

                        Development and Planning
                        Dept.
                        414 Union Street
                        Hudson, NY 12534
                        (518) 828-3375

                        Environmental Management
                        Council
                        414 Union Street
                        Hudson, NY 12534
                        (518) 828-3375

                        Soil and Water Conservation
                        813 Warren St.
                        Hudson, NY 12534
                        (518) 758-9265

                        Dutchess County

                        Planning Department
                        47 Cannon St.
                        Poughkeepsie, NY 12601
                        (914) 431-2480

                        Environmental Management
                        Council
                        PO Box 259
                        Farm and Home Center Rt 44
                        Millbrook, NY 12545
                        (914) 677-3488

                        Soil and Water Conservation
                        PO Box 37
                        Farm and Home Center Rt 44
                        Millbrook, NY 12545
                        (914) 677-8011

                        Greene County

                        Planning Department
                        Rt. 3, Box 909
                        Cairo 'NY 12413
                        (518) 622-3251

                        Environmental Management
                        Council
                        Rt. 3, Box 909
                        Cairo, NY 12413
                        (518) 622-3251










                                                                                                                          173


                       Soil and Water Conservation
                       Route 23B, PO Box 104
                       So. Cairo, NY 12482
                       (518) 622-8587

                       Orange County

                       Department of Planning
                       124 Main Street
                       Goshen, NY 10924
                       (914) 294-5151

                       Environmental Control
                       Commission
                       Dunderberg Road
                       Central Valley, NY 10917
                       (914) 928-9441

                       Soil and Water Conservation
                       33 Fulton St.
                       Middletown, NY 10940
                       (914) 343-1873

                       Putnam County

                       Planning Board
                       RD 9, Box 331
                       Fair Street
                       Carmel, NY 10512
                       (914) 878-3480

                       Environmental Management
                       Council
                       RD 9, Box 331
                       Fair Street
                       'Carmel, NY 10512
                       (914) 878-34W

                       Rentselaer County

                       Planning Board
                       1600 7th Ave.
                       Troy, NY 12180
                       (518) 270-2920

                       Environmental Management
                       Council
                       1600 7th Ave.
                       Troy, NY 12180
                       (518) 270-5386

                       Soil and Water Conservation
                       County Office Bldg.
                       Troy, NY 12180
                       (518) 270-2797








            174                                                Appendix C

                        Rockland County

                        Planning Board
                        18 New Hempstead Road
                        New City, NY 10956
                        (914) 425-5472

                        Environmental Management
                        Council
                        Building D, Rm. 147
                        Health Complex, Sanitarium Rd.
                        Pomona, NY 10970
                        (914) 354-0200 Ext. 2468

                        Soil and Water Conservation
                        23 Hempstead Road
                        New City, NY 10956
                        (914) 425-5084

                        Ulster County

                        Planning Board
                        244 Fair St.
                        Kingston, NY 12401
                        (914) 331-9300

                        Environmental Management
                        Council
                        244 Fair St.
                        Kingston, NY 12401
                        (914) 331-9300

                        Soil and Water Conservation
                        380 Washington Ave
                        UPO Box 97
                        Kingston, NY 12401
                        (914) 338-4764

                        Westchester County

                        Planning Department
                        148 Martine Ave.
                        County Office Bldg.
                        White Plains, NY 10601
                        (914) 682-2502

                        Environmental Management
                        Council
                        412 County Office Bldg.
                        White Plains, NY 10601
                        (914) 682-7610

                        Soil and Water Conservation
                        216 Central Ave.
                        White Plains, NY 10606
                        (914) 683-6772










                                                                                                                           175

                       Municipal Auencies
                       Consult town, village or city
                       offices



                       Private Ornanizations

                       The Nature Conservancy

                       New York Field Office
                       1736 Western Ave.
                       Albany, NY 12203
                       (518) 869-6959

                       Eastern New York Chapter
                       1736 Western Ave.
                       Albany, NY 12203
                       (518) 869-0453

                       Lower Hudson Chapter
                       223 Katonah Avenue
                       Katonah, NY 10536
                       (914) 232-9431

                       National Audubon Society

                       Northeast Regional Office
                       1789 Western Ave.
                       Albany, NY 12203
                       (518) 869-9731

                       Constitution Marsh Sanctuary
                       RFD 2, Route 9D
                       Garrison, NY 10524
                       (914) 265-3119

                       Natural Resources Defense
                       Council
                       122 E 42nd St.
                       New York, NY 10168
                       (212) 949-0049

                       The Sierra Club
                       Atlantic Chapter
                       234 Hudson Ave
                       PO Box 2112 E SP Station
                       Albany, NY 12220
                       (518) 472-1534

                       Scenic Hudson
                       9 Vassar Street
                       Poughkeepsie, NY 12601
                       (914) 473 444

                       Clearwater
                       112 Market Street
                       Poughkeepsie, NY 12601
                       (914) 454-7673







          176                                            Appendix C

                      Audubon Society of New York
                      8 Wade Rd.
                      Latham, NY 12110
                      (518) 783-8587

                      Ducks Unlimited
                      River Rd. RD 2, Box 225
                      Hamilton, NY 13346
                      (315) 691-3167

                      Hudson River Foundation
                      122 East 42 Street, Suite 1901
                      New York, NY 10168
                      (212) 949-0028
                      Hudson Riverkeeper Fund
                      P.O. Box 130
                      Garrison, NY 10524
                      (914) 424-4149

                      Hudsonia
                      Bard College Field Station
                      Annandale, NY 12504
                      (914) 758-1881

                      Institute for Ecosystem
                      Studies
                      Cary Arboretum
                      Box AB
                      Millbrook, NY 12545
                      (914) 677-5343
                      Ecosystems Research Center
                      Cornell University
                      Corson Hall
                      Ithaca, NY 14853
                      (607) 255-4348

                      Museum of the Hudson
                      Highlands
                      PO Box 181
                      The Boulevard
                      Cornwall, NY 12520
                      (914) 534-7781









           APPENDIX D: BIBLIOGRAPHY                                                                                    177

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           Barclay, B.
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           Bellrose, F.
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           Bender, J.
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           Boyle, R.
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           Bull, J.
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           Cole, J.
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        178                                               Appendix D

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        Daiber, F.
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        Decker, D. and J. Enck (eds)
        1987 Exotic Plants with Identified Detrimental Impacts on Wildlife Habitats in New York State. The Exotic Plant
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        DeGraaf, R. and D. Rudis
        1986 New England Wildlife: Habitat, Natural History, and Distribution. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
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        Dieffenbacher-Krall, J.
        1986 Comments on Proposed Recommendations for Recreational Striped Bass Management in New York State.
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        DOS (New York State, Department of State)
        1987a Local Government Handbook, 4th ed. DOS, Albany, NY. 322 pp.
        1987b Significant Coastal Fish and Wildlife Habitat: Project Narratives. DOS, Albany, NY.

        Dovel, W.
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        of Man. The Oceanic Society, Stamford, CT. 139 pp.

        Dullea, H.
        1985 Memorandum to Mario Cuomo on Striped Bass and PCBs.

        Dunwell, F.
        1984 Hudson River Estuary Fishery Management Program: Progress Report for 1982-1964. NYSDEC, New Paltz,
        NY. 45 pp.

        Dyson,J.
        1968 Our Historic Hudson. James B. Adler, New York, NY. 109 pp.

        Fay, C., R. Neves, and G. Pardue
        1983 Species Profiles: Life Histories and Environmental Requirements of Coastal Fishes and Invertebrates:
        Alewife/Blueback Herring. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Division of Biological Services, FWS/OBS-82/11.9. 25 pp.

        Fikslin, T. and J. Golumbek
        1979 Population Dynamics of the Atlantic Tomcod in the Hudson River Estuary. Energy and Thermal Wastes
        Section, Water Division, U.S. EPA, Region 11, New York, NY. 27 pp.

        Firestone, D. and F. Reed
        1983 Environmental Law for Non-Lawyers. Ann Arbor Science, Ann Arbor, MI. 282 pp.

        Fisher, J., R. Perdue, M. Overton, M. Sobsey, and B. Still
        1987 A Comparison of Water Quality at Two Recreational Marinas during a Peak-Use Period. University of North
        Carolina Sea Grant Publication UNC-WP-87-1. 46 pp.










                                                                                                                        179

           Fletcher, R.
            1984 A Survey and Analysis of Fish Conservation Devices for Water-Pumping Facilities Having High Volumetric
            Rates of Intake. Hudson River Foundation, New York, NY. 68+ pp.

           Freedman, W.
            1987 Federal Statutes on Environmental Protection. Quorum Books. New York, NY. 174 pp.

           Frey, R. and P. Basan
            1978 Coastal Salt Marshes. Pp. 101-169 in R. Davis,(ed.) Coastal Sedimentary Environments. Springer-Verlag, New
            York, NY.

           Garritt, H.
            1989 The Metabolism of a Submersed Macrophyte Community in the Tidal Fresh Water Hudson River Estuary.
            Exhibit at the annual Hudson River Foundation Symposium.

           Gerrard, J., P. Gerrard, G. Bortolotti, and D. Whitfield
            1983 A 14-year study of Bald Eagle Reproduction on Besnard Lake, Saskatchewan. Pp. 35-46 in D. Bird (ed.)
            Biology and Management of Bald Eagles and Ospreys. Harpell Press, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, QU. 325 pp.

           Gleason, H.
            1952 Illustrated Flora of the Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. Hafner Press, New York, NY. 3 vol.

           Godfrey, P., E. Kaynor, S. Pelczarski, and J. Benforado (eds).
            1985 Ecological Considerations in Wetlands Treatment of Municipal Wastewaters. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, New
            York, NY. 474 pp.

           Gorski, S.
            1988 Letter to J Seebode, October 22, 1988.

           Grant, R. and R. Patrick
            1970 Tinicum Marsh as a Water Purifier. Pp. 105-123 in Two Studies of Tinicum Marsh, Conservation Foundation,
            Washington, DC.

           Greene, E., A. Greene, and B. Freedman
            1983 Foraging Behavior and Prey Selection by Ospreys. Pp. 257-268 in D. Bird (ed.) Biology and Management of
            Bald Eagles and Ospreys. Harpell Press, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, QU. 325 pp.

           Grier, J.
            1983 Trends in Bald Eagle Reproduction and Toxicants in Northwestern Ontario, Canada, 1966-81 (Abstr.). Pp. 319
            in D. Bird (ed.) Biology and Management of Bald Eagles and Ospreys. Harpell Press, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, QU.
            325 pp.

           Hall, A.
            1978 The Hudson: That River's Alive. National Geographic, 153(Jan): 62-89.

           Hammer, D. and R. Kadlec
            1983 Design Principles for Wetland Treatment Systems. U.S. Environmental Protection Report EPA-600/2-83-026,
            Ada, OK 244 pp.

           Hancock, J. and J. Kushlan
            1984 The Herons Handbook. Harper and Row, New York, NY. 288 pp.

           Hawkins, P. and C. Leck
            1977 Breeding Bird Communities in a Tidal Freshwater Marsh. Bull. NJ Acad. of Sci. 22: 12-17.

           Hazen G. and Sawyer, P.
            1987 Delaware-Lower Hudson Region: Water Resources Management Study, draft. NYSDEC, Albany, NY.








          180                                                  Appendb(D

          Henny, C.
          1983 Distribution and Abundance of Nesting Ospreys In the United States. Pp. 175-186 in D. Bird (ed.) Biology and
          Management of Bald,Eagles and Ospreys. Harpell Press, Ste. Anne de Bellevue, QU. 325 pp.

          Horn, E. and L. Skinner
          1985 Final Environmental Impact Statement for Policy on Contaminants in Fish. NYSDEC, Division of Fish and
          Wildlife, Albany, NY. 150 pp.

          Hudson River Access Forum
          1989 Between the Railroad and the River. Heritage Task Force, Poughkeepsie, NY. 123pp.


          Hudson River Basin Study Group
          1979a The Water and Related Land Resources of the Hudson River Basin. Draft Level B Study Report and
          Environmental Impact Report. NYS DEC, Albany, NY. 148 pp.
          1979b Hudson River Basin Water and Land Resources Study: Selected Background Information. Vols. 1 & 2. NYS
          DEC, Albany, NY. 585 pp.

          Hudson River Research Council
          1980 Results of Hudson River Field Weeks April 1977 and August 1978. Water Temperature, Conductivity,
          Dissolved Oxygen, and Total Suspended Solids at Spring High Flow and Summer Low Flow. Hudson River
          Resource Council, Bronx, NY. 50 pp.

          Hynes, H.
          1970 The Ecology of Running Waters. University of Toronto Press, 555 pp.

          Johnston, S. and R. Schmidt
          1983 Polluting the Hudson: A Gentleman's Agreement: A Report on the SPDES Permit Program for the Period
          October 1979-September 1981. Hudson River Sloop Clearwater, Poughkeepsie, NY. 82+ pp.

          Kadlec, R.
          1978 Wetland for Tertiary Treatment. Pp. 490-504 in P. Greeson, J. Clark, and J. Clark (eds.) Wetland Functions and
          Values: The State of Our Understanding. America@_`Water Resources Association, Minneapolis, MN.

          Kiviat, E.
          1978 Hudson River East Bank Natural Areas, Clermont to Norrie., The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA. 11 5p.
          1970 Hudson Estuary Shore Zone: Ecology and Management. Unpublished Master's Thesis, State University
          College at New Paltz, NY. 159 pp.
          1987a Common reed (Phragmites australis). Pp. 22-30 in D. Decker and J. Enck (eds.). Exotic Plants with Identified
          Detrimental Impacts on Wildlife Habitats in. New York State. The Exotic Plant Committee of the New York Chapter-
          The Wildlife Society, Ithaca, NY. 57 pp.
          1987b Water chestnut (Trapa natans). Pp. 31-38 in D.J. Decker and J.W. Enck (eds) Exotic Plants with Identified
          Detrimental Impacts on Wildlife Habitats in New York State. The Exotic Plant Committee of the New York Chapter-
          The Wildlife Society, Ithaca, NY. 57 pp.

          Kusler, J.
          1978 Strengthening State Wetland Regulations. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-78/98 .147 pp.

          Limburg, K.
          1985 PCBs in the Hudson. Pp. 116-182 in K. Limburg, M. Moran, and W. McDowell (eds.) Environmental Impact
          Assessment of the Hudson River Ecosystem. Ecosystems Research Center, Ithaca, NY.

          Malecki, R.
          1987 Purple loosestrife (Lytherum salicaria). Pp. 39-45 in D. Decker and J. Erick (eds.) Exotic Plants with Identified
          Detrimental Impacts on Wildlife Habitats in New York State. The Exotic Plant Committee of the New York Chapter-
          The Wildlife Society, Ithaca, NY. 57 pp.











           McDowell, W.
           1985 Power Plant Operation on the Hudson River. Pp. 56-115 in K. Limburg, M. Moran, and W. McDowell (eds.)
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           Mildner, D.
           1988 Personal communication with Nick Salafsky (TNC).

           Mitchell, R.
           1986 A Checklist of New York State Plants. Bulletin No. 458 of the New York State Museum, Albany, NY. 272 pp.

           Mitsch, W. and J. Gosselink
           1987 Wetlands. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York, NY. 537 pp.

           Moran, M. and K. Limburg
           1985 The Hudson River Ecosystem. Pp. 8-55 in K. Limburg, M. Moran, and W. McDowell (eds.) Environmental
           Impact Assessment of the Hudson River Ecosystem. Ecosystems Research Center, Ithaca, NY. 458 pp.

           Moran, M., P. Walczak, and K. Limburg
           1985 Hudson River Data Base Pp. 239-302 in K. Limburg, M. Moran, and W. McDowell- (eds.) Environmental Impact
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           MPI (Malcolm Pimle, Inc.)
           1983 Hudson River Federal Channel Maintenance Dredging Final Environmental Impact Statement. Vols. 1 and 2.
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           Mylod, J.
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           Poughkeepsie, NY. 5 pp.

           Newcomb, L.
           1977 Newcomb's Wildflower Guide. Little, Brown, and Co., Boston, MA. 490 pp.

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           1988 Tide Tables 1988, High and Low Water Predictions: East Coast of North and South America Including
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           Nye, P. and L. Suding
           1978 Observations Concerning a Wintering Population of Bald Eagles on an Area in Southeastern New York. NY
           Fish and Game J. 25(2): 91-107.

           Oceanic Society
           1980 Hudson River Fishery Management Program Study. Unpublished report to the NYS DEC.

           Odum, H.
           1978 Value of Wetlands as Domestic Ecosytems. Pp. 9-18 in J. Montanad and J. Kusler (eds.) National Wetland
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           Odum, W., T. Smith, J. Hoover, and C. Mcivor
           1984 The Ecology of Tidal Freshwater Marshes of the United States East Coast: A Community Profile. - U,S. Fish
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           Ogawa, H. and J. Male
           1983 The Flood Mitigation Potential of Inland Wetlands, Water Resources Research Center Publication No. 138,
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           Pardue, G.
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          182                                                    Appendix D

          Peterson, A.
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          Report FWS/OBS-82/10.126. 25 pp.

          Peterson, R.
          1980 A Field Guide to the Birds East of the Rockies, 4th ed. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, MA. 384 pp.

          Rawinski, T.
          1988 Personal communication with Nick Salafsky (TINIC).

          Reschke, C.
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          Rohmann, S.
          1985 Tracing a River's Toxic Pollution: A Case Study of the Hudson. Inform: New York, NY. 154 pp.

          Rohmann, S. and N. Lilienthal
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          Sanderson, G.
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          Scheller, W.
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          Seeger, P.
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          Sheppard, J.
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          Short H., and R. Cooper
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          Simpson, R., R. Good, M. Leck, and D. Whigham
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          Sloan, R. and E. Horn
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          Smith, C.
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          Smith, H.
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          Material Res. Prog. Tech. Rept. DS-78-19, 37 pp.










                                                                                                                                   183

            Spitzer, P., A. Poole, and M. Scheibel
             1983 Initial Population Recovery of Breeding Ospreys in the Region Between New York City and Boston. Pp. 257-
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            Striped Bass Task Force
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             1987 An Analysis of Avian Breeding Habitats in Hudson River Tidal Marshes. NYS DEC, Delmar, NY. 62 + pp.

            Tiner, R.
             1985a Wetlands of Delaware. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory, Newton Corner, MA.
             1985b Wetlands of New Jersey. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, National Wetlands Inventory, Newton Corner, MA.
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            US Army Corps of Engineers
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            US Environmental Protection Agency
             1983 Freshwater Wetlands for Wastewater Management: Environmental Impact Statement-Phase I Report. EPA
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            US Office of Coastal Zone Management
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            Walczak, P., M. Moran, J. Buckley, E. Buckley, and K. Limburg
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            Weinstein, L. (ed)
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            Werner, R.
             1980 Freshwater Fishes of New York State: A Field Guide. Syracuse University Press, Syracuse, NY. 186 pp.

            Westad, K and E. Kiviat
             1986 Flora of Freshwater Tidal Swamps at Tivoli Bays, Hudson River National Estuarine Sanctuary. Bard College
             Field Station-Hudsonia Contribution No. 44. 20 pp.








         184                                               Appendix D

         Wetzel, R.
          1975 Limnology. W.B. Saunders Co. Philadelphia, PA. 743 pp.

         Whigham, D., J. McCormick, R. Good, and R. Simpson
          1978 Biomass and Primary Production In Freshwater Tidal Marshes of the Middle Atlantic Coast. Pp. 3-20 in R.
          Good, D. WhIgham, and R. Simpson (eds.) Freshwater Wetlands: Ecological Processes and Management Potential.
          Academic Press, New York, NY.

         Whigham, D., R. Simpson, and K. Lee
          1980 The Effect of Sewage Effluent on the Structure and Function of a Freshwater Tidal Wetland. Water Resources
          Research Institute Report, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. 160 pp.

































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