[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
Coastal Zone Information Center MAY 14 19 16 or 0 0101 s r t4_140 It a Strategy for Balanced Development and Protection of Water and Related Land Resources in Eastern < Massachusetts and Rhode Island REGIONAL REPORT COASTAL ZONE INFORMATION CENTER HC 107 Al 1 New England River Basins Commission N49 1975 c.2 V) Rep. t f th S th te New E- 9 1 d St dy The. Southeastern New England Study Ten PLANNING AREA REPORTS dealing Special Reports (SENE), is a "I.evel B water and related land with the same subjects as the Regional Report, In addition to inventory reports, over a dozen res6i@!ces study." It was conducted under the but aimed at the local level. Eastern Mas- special reports were prepared, including: provisions of the federal Water Resources sachusetts and Rhode Island were divided into Socio-Economic and Environmental Base Planning Act of 1965.,'The. resources man- ten "planning areas" based either on tradi- Study, Volumes I and 11; Economic analyses of isions or principa agement program the Study produced was tional sub-state divi i I river ba- water supply and demand issues, power plant developed by a team of federal, state, and sins. Reports were prepared for the following siting, coastal resources allocation, and sand regional officials, local citizens, and the scien- areas: and gravel mining; Legal and institutional tific community, under the overall coordination 1. Ipswich-North Shore, analyses of the state wetlands laws, arrange- of the New England River Basins Commission. 2. Boston Metropolitan, ments for water supply service, fiscal policy It is a part of the Commission's comprehensive, 3. South Shore, and Ian ,d control, access to natural resources coordinated joint plan for the water and related 4. Cape Cod and the Islands, areas, and management structure for water and land resources of New England. 5. Buzzards Bay, land use issues; Urban Waters Special Study; The -recommended program for managing 6. Taunton, Summaries of public workshops the.resources of Southeastern New England is 7. Blackstone and Vicinity, described, in increasing level of detail, in the 8. Pawtuxet, Copies of reports are available from: following Final Reports: 9. Narragansett Bay and A SUMMARY highlighting the principal Block Island, New England River Basins Commission findings and recommendations of the Study, 10. Pawcatuck 55 Court Street and their implications for the future of the re- Boston, Massachusetts 02108 gion. Other reports prepared during the course of A REGIONAL REPORT and Environmen- the Study include the following: National Technical Information tal Impact Statement describing in detail the Inventory Reports Service natural resources, issues and problems facing For each of the ten planning areas, inventory Springfield, Virginia 22151 the. region, the alternative solutions examined reports were prepared covering the following during th Study, the recommendations made, subjects: climate, meteorology, hydrology, and also in each of the 208 libraries and 2 10 pd,their implications. It includes policies and geology; land use, patterns, allocations, and town halls throughout the SENE region. programs.for dealing with water supply, Ian"' management; special environmental factors; use, w ater quality, outdoor recre 'ation, marine water supply; ground water management; water resources, flood and erosion protection, and quality control; outdoor recreation; fish and key facilities siting, and the changes in state wildlife; navigation; flood plain zoning and and. local government required to implement strearnflow management; inland wetlands th eprogram. management; coastal resources; irrigation and drainage; sediment and erosion; power; miner- als. Oro - 0,1 40 To Their Excellencies, the The water and related land Governors of Massachusetts resources of Southeastern and Rhode Island; to the New England serve over five Water Resources Council for million people in eastern Mas- transmittal to the Congress sachusetts and Rhode Island through the President of the with one of the most attractive United States; and to the landscapes for living of any people of Southeastern New urban region in the world. England: These resources are under intense pressure. The future will bring additional -stress as population grows and the re- gion seeks the expanded economic base it needs to pro- vide a decent standard of liv- Ash,- ing for all its citizens. Fortunately, the needs of the foreseeable future can be met without degrading the special quality of this environment-if patterns of growth respect the capabilities of land and water resources@ and if resource systems of special value and vulnerability lot:; IMP, are vigorously protected. This report outlines a strategy for accommodating and helping guide growth in ways consistent with wise use of natural resources, and rec- ommends policies, programs and specific actions to de- velop, protect and enhance these resources to meet a wide @_V V! N11 I I Ipp- range of human needs. -,_ %m Contents OVERVIEW Fold-out The report represents the diligent labor of over 250 in- Goals and Approach 1-1 The Setting 2-1 dividuals, both private citi- Guiding Growth 3-1 zens and public officials work- Water Supply 4-1 Water Quality 5-1 ing at local, state and federal Urban Stormwater Runoff/ levels for the management of Combined Sewer Overflows 5-8 Municipal Discharges 5-10 our resources. Many of the Industrial Discharges 5-15 Some Non-Point Pollution Sources 5-17 solutions they have proposed Oil Pollution 5-20 can be carried out immediate- Watercraft Wastes 5-21 Areavvide Management 5-22 ly; still others will require Outdoor Recreation 6-1 changes in laws or custom or Swimming 6-4 Recreational Boating 6-8 funding levels. The partici- Recreational Salt Water Fishing 6-10 Camping and Picnicking 6-11 pants did not always agree, Wildlife and Fresh Water Fisheries 6-13 but to an unprecedented de- Extensive Outdoor Recreation 6-17 Marine Management 7.1 gree this document represents Offshore Fisheries 7-4 Shellfish and Aquaculture 7-11 a consensus. We are deeply Port Development 7-16 grateful to all. Offshore Sand and Gravel Extraction 7-19 Urban Waterfronts 7-22 Southeastern New England Flooding and Erosion 8-1 is, to put it simply, a good Coastal and Inland Flooding 8-1 Inland Erosion 8-13 place to live and work. The Coastal Erosion 8-14 resources management strat- Locating Key Facilities 9-1 Onshore Sand and Gravel Extraction 9-2 egy offered in this report is Electrical Power 9-6 Petroleum Facilities 9-12 designed to help keep it that Solid Waste Management 9-19 way. Strengthening the Management System for Natural Resources 10-1 Tying the Recommendations Together 11-1 Respectfully submitted, APPENDIX: Environmental Statement ES-I Methodology M-1 Ulf Review of the Report RR-1 R. Frank Gregg, Chairman MAPS: Plate 1, Greater Boston Back Pocket New England River Basins and the North Shore Plate 2, Southeastern Massachusetts Commission Plate 3, Rhode Island and .the Blackstone A detailed guide to each Chapter appears on the back of the divider pages. REPORT OF THE SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND STUDY READER'S GUIDE: HOW TO REVIEW THIS REPORT In five minutes Read the OVERVIEW which folds out as one large sheet. There is an extra copy in the pocket in the rear for FOR A "THUMBNAIL SKETCH" those who would like to mount it on the wall. In a half hour or less Read the SUMMARY. It is published separately. You can read it in either of two ways: TO LEARN THE MAIN POINTS 0 SELECTIVELY. Read the Chapters on Goals and Approach and Guiding Growth, plus any others that interest you. Chapters are boldly labeled to facilitate selective reading; or 0 ENTIRELY. Read the full summary for a fuller understanding of the highlights of the SENE Study. In one day or less Read the REGIONAL REPORT. 0 SELECTIVELY. It is organized exactly like the TO UNDERSTAND THE DETAILS summary, Wherever your interests lie, you can turn to those sections for additional background, amplifica- tions, analysis of rejected alternatives, and especially for the full text of each recommendation, including who should do what and when. Also, remove the Development Capabilities Maps in the rear pocket and examine the legend to appreciate the type of information the maps portray; or 0 ENTIRELY. Read the full report for full apprecia- tion of all recommendations, and how they interrelate. In an additional 10 minutes to Get the PLANNING AREA REPORT for your locale. 2 hours Scan it or read it to see how the broader recommendations presented in the Regional Report may apply to the area FOR APPLICATION TO YOUR AREA where you live or work. OVERVIEW A Brief Look at the Findings and Recommendations of the Southeastern spite this finding, the Study concludes that to continue to consume land as MARINE MANAGEMENT (Chapter 7). The history of the region's ties New England Water and Related Land Resources Study we have in the 1960's would be grossly inefficient, both environmentally to the sea is a long and colorful one. Yet for the last several decades and economically. State development policies and comprehensive land use SENE's ports, fisheries, and urban waterfronts have been declining. Severe programs are badly needed. In the interim the Study recommends (on the overfishing by highly efficient foreign fleets has drastically, in some cases reverse) increased protection of the third of the region termed "Cwtical Fn- irreversibly, reduced the yield of the traditional fishing grounds. SENE's vironmental Areas "and calls for improved management of the developable own fleets are antiquated, inefficient, unable to compete. 6nly in the A central question facing eastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island today third (see multi-colored plates in pockets at the back of the Regional Port of Boston is any planning being done to expand and'revitalize port is: Can we accommodate growth and provide adequate economic oppor- Report for definition and location of these areas). The use of existing and facilities, and dredging to maintain existing channels is complicated by proposed expansions of infrastructure - water, sewers, and roads - to the problem of disposing of dredged material. The potential for offshore tunities for the people of the region and at the same time protect the guide growth in a way which reinforces land use policy is strongly recom- sand and gravel mining exists but such operations may conflict with more amenity values of the region's natural resourccs - those amenities which mended. traditional uses of the marine environment. Aquaculture. although opera- make this such an attractive place in which to live? ting at a very small scale, could increase the domestic production of some fish and shellfish. To help the region cope with these problems and op- portunities, the Study presents 24 recommendations (listed on the reverse). WATER SUPPLY (Chapter 4). To meet the 38 percent increase in water Highest priority is given to (1) establishing a 200-mile offshore "economic The conclusion of the Southeastern New England (SENE) Study is that use expected by 1990, the Study presents 14 recommendations (listed zone " and (2) developing a port planning and development program for we can. Three key findings support this important conclusion: on the reverse) which emphasize protecting and fully developing local the New England region. ground water and regional surface water supplies and instituting modest 0 ENHANCING THE ENVIRONMENT ENHANCES THE REGION's conservation measures. For the Boston area, which uses nearly half the ECONOMY. The export of services - education, medicine, research, wate'r used in A of SENE, the proposed diversion of Connecticut River FLOODING AND EROSION (Chapter 8). The region is cbaracterized by and others - is rapidly becoming the dominant economic activity water at Northfield Mountain is needed immediately, as well as conser- extremely high tidal, but relatively low riverine flood damages. With few of the region. It is expected to outstrip manufacturing before 1990. vation measures. The Millers River facility should he planned, but by opportunities for flood storage dams, protection of the region's remaining The region's pleasant living environment is the force which attracts the time additional resources must be developed, other alternatives may flood storing wetlands and flood plains is critically important. It has been and holds such businesses and the personnel they require. The be more feasible in place of it. In Rhode Island, supplies from the pro- 20 years since the last disastrous hurricane and much of the region's dam- region's amenities are its competitive economic advantage today, posed Big River Reservoir should be sufficient to meet the additional age prone coastline has been heavily developed, To prevent further in- as water power and ports were in the past. demands of many municipalities beyond 1990. creases in potential flood damages the Study presents 18 recommendations (listed on the reverse). While some flood control projects are recommended, 0 ANTICIPATED GROWTH CAN BE ACCOMMODATED AND the emphasis is on non-structural s 'olutions, such as flood plain zoning, to SHOULD BE GUIDED TO PROTECT FRAGILE RESOURCES WATER QUALITY (Chapter 5). About two-thirds of the total length of minimize increases in present flood damages, AND MAKE DEVELOPMENT MORE EFFICIENT. We can pro- the region's streams are below established water quality standards. Along LOCATING KEY FACILITIES (Chapter 9). Power plants, petroleum facil- tect those fragile resources so critical to the region's environment the coast, water quality is generally high, except in certain major harbors. ities, sand and gravel extraction operations, and solid waste disposal facil- and economy and still have enough developable land to accommo- The worst sources of pollution, in descending order of importance, are ities are critical to the economy and the public health and safety. Indeed, date growth through 2020, even if we continue to consume land at (a) urban stormwater runoff and combined sewers, (b) municipal dis- the availability and cost of energy have become New England's most serious the exorbitant rate of the last decade. But in many cases we can charges, (c) industrial discharges, (d) non-point sources, (e) oil spills, and economic problems. The Study concludes that while the demand for these no longer afford, either fiscally or environmentally, to consume (f) watercraft wastes. A massive local, state, and federal cleanup effort is facilities can be significantly reduced, the protection of sites suitable for land as we have in the past. We need to guide growth to those areas underway to meet the national goal of achieving "swimmable-fishable" their development is as important as the protection of Critical Envifon- already served by sewer, water, and transportation services and waters wherever possible by 1983. The Study presents 15 recommenda- channel growth through the expansion of these services. mental Areas. The Study presents 33 recommendations designed to meet tions (listed on the reverse) designed to support these efforts. Those with the region's needs for the services these facilities provide. Highest priority EXISTING KNOWLEDGE, PROGRAMS, AND INSTITUTIONS the highest priority are (1) protection of waters already clean enough for is given to (1) setting state goals for reducing energy (electrical and petro- PROVIDE THE TOOLS FOR ACHIEVING RESULTS, BUT swimming and fishing, (2) treatment of combined sewer effluents, (3) leum) consumption (2) studying ways to simplify power plant licensing accelerating federal grants for municipal wastewater treatment, and (4) procedures, and (3)'establishing or strengthening state authorities for SOME CHANGES ARE NEEDED. Not only can the region's continuing the successful industrial permit system. natural system accommodate future growth, its political system facilities siting.. is capable of guiding that growth. Broad state responsibility, tempered by the tradition of local control, can still achieve HOW TO PROTECT OUR NATURAL RESOURCES (Chapter 10). results, but some changes in how they relate to each other will OUTDOOR RECREATION (Chapter 6). Southeastern New England is a Existing institutions and programs can generally provide the necessary be needed. The Study chose achievability over novelty, proven recreational and tourism center of national significance, each year drawing tools for implementing the Study recommendations. Several options for institutions over grand schemes. millions of visitors. It is a region of exceptional beauty. And yet hun- integrating water and related land resources policy making and program dreds of thousands of the region's urban residents are either unable to management into other state economic and social programs are examined reach, or are denied access to, its recreatio nal opportunities. To meet for both Rhode Island and Massachusetts. They range from comprehen- 1990 recreational demands from the region's residents alone, about 2,000 sive and centralized statewide natural resources management and regulation, A "thumbnail sketch" of the major chapters in the Regional Report is more acres of developed public beach will be needed, 14,000 more picnic through several mechanisms emphasizing shared state, regional, and local presented below. For reference, a complete listing of every recommenda- tables, 500 more boat launching lanes, 20,000 more slips and moorings, authority, to completely local control under state guidelines. tion and the relative priority of each is presented on the reverse side. 20,000 more campsites, and about 130,000 more acres of natural areas for such less intensive activities as hunting and hiking. To meet as much GUIDING GROWTH (Chapter 3). Between 1960 and 1970, land was of this demand as is feasible, the Study presents 21 recommendations TYING THE RECOMMENDATIONS TOGETHER (Chapter 11). Through text and charts, the integration of recommendations with the consumed in the SENE region at a rate four times higher than the histori- (listed on the reverse). Highest priority is given to expanding the grossly Study's goal and planning objectives is displayed, with special focus on cal average. While the population grew by only eight percent, urbaniza- inadequate recreational opportunities available to urban dwellers by (1) the contributions the Study makes to national economic efficiency, en- tion increased by 45. percent. Low density urban "sprawl" increased by urging states to execute their plans to acqqire and develop the Boston vironmental quality, regional economic development, and social well-be- almost 70 percent. Today, one-third of the region is urbanized (though even Harbor Islands and the Narragansett Bay Islands Park, and (2) expanding ing. The picture which emerges is that the Study strongly recommends in urban areas there is room for growth), one-third is too fragile to be de- and increasing access to existing facilities bt state beaches and parks. Much better resource management programs and emphasizes regional planning veloped, and one-third is legitimately developable. It appears that the de- of the acreage needed for less intensive activities can be provided by pro- to accomplish better resource management. In addition, a modest and velopable third is sufficient to rneet future growth needs through 2020 even tecting and managing Critical Environmental Areas as described in Chap- balanced mix of research and development, private investment and public if we continue to consume land as rapidly as we did in the last decade. De- ter 3, Guiding Growth. projects are recommended along with a minimum of new acquisition and legislation. OVERVIEW RECOMMENDATIONS FLOODING AND EROSION (Chapter 8) GUIDING GROWTH (Chapter 3) OUTDOOR RECREATION (Chapter 6) Planning Objective: To reduce flood damages in the region, both riverine Planning Objective: To suggest strategies for protecting the critical water and coastal; and to reduce critical coastal erosion. and related lands resources of SENE while accommodating economic Planning Objective: To meet 1990 recreation needs in economically, Flooding activities and guiding growth. environmentally, and socially acceptable way& o1. Prepare flood plain programs with non-structural emphasis. Swimming 2. Adopt zoning to regulate new flood plain construction. 0 1. Increase protection of Critical Environmental Areas: priority pro- a 1. Expand facilities @at existing state beaches and parks, 3. Establish local regulations to control runoff and erosion. tection and other protection areas. 2. Study beach erosion control. 4. Provide technical assistance to local officials. 0 2. Improve management of Developable Areas by resource capability, 3. Study beach expansion. 5. Acquire key flood plains and wetlands. judicious use and expansion of infrastructure, and regulation of o4. Secure public access to shoreline. 6. Locate in existing safe buildings in the flood plain. laige-scale development. Boating 7. Require relocation out of flood plains where appropriate. o S. Form state boating advisory committees. 8. Discourage reconstruction or redevelopment after storm damage. WATER SUPPLY (Chapter 4) 9. Update and establish flood warning and evacuation programs. 6. Undertake authorized channel and anchorage improvements. 10. Increase funding for storm forecasting. Planning Objective: To meet municipal needs for adequate supplies of 7. Investigate new regional marina basins. 11. Amend and strengthen administration of wetland laws. fresh water in the most economically feasible and environmentally Salt water fishing 12. Construct flood protection projects selectively. sound manner. o 8. Coristruct public boat ramps and fishing piers. Erosion 9. Encourage private construction of boat ramps and fish piers. Everywhere Camping and picnicking 13. Establish local sediment and erosion control ordinances. o14. Manage critical erosion areas through state coastal zone programs. 0 1. Maintain and protect existing water resources. 10. Form state recreational advisory committees. *15. Protect critical coastal erosion areas under local regulations. 0 2. Prefer local ground water to intermunicipal surface water to o 11. Expand state for@sts and parks near tourist centers. *16. Encourage natural stabilization of coastal erosion area. interbasin transfer. Wildlife and fresh water fisheries -17. Construct erosion control projects selectively. o 3. Limit water consumption through education and water-saving 12. Acquire SENE's Most important upland and wetland wildlife 18. Build or restore salt marshes. technology. habitat. 4. Acquire key watersheds and potential well sites. 13. Acquire SENE's (nost important streambanks. LOCATING KEY FACILITIES (Chapter 9) 5. Establish regional water management agencies. 14. Acquire public access to ponds. .6. Study advanced technologies leading to new sources of water. 15. Enforce wetlands legislation and local zoning regulations. Planning Objective: To provide certain vital services to society - power, Ground water dependent areas Extensive outdoor recrIti n fuel, construction materials, solid waste disposal - in a manner * 7. Survey ground water location, quantity and availability. Boston -b 016. Develol Taro or Islands and Narragansett Bay Islands Park. which supports continued economic growth and minimizes the * 8. Restrict activities shown to be hazardous to ground water quality. o17. Develop guidelin s for limited recreation on selected storage negative environmental impacts such facilities have traditionally had. 9. Limit ground water withdrawal to maintain stream levels. reservoir lands. Onshore sand and gravel extraction 10. Monitor saltwater encroachment in coastal aquifers. o18. Make multiple usb of urban lands. o1, Centralize minerals management authority. 11. Provide recharge basins to capture storm runoff. o19. Implement or delelop scenic rivers legislation. *2. Conduct state minerals resources survey in Massachusetts. 12. Establish state ground water boards. *20. Expand existing forests and parks near urban centers. 1 3. Create public education program for minerals management. Surface water dependent areas 21. Develop a regional trail system. *4. Promulgate minimum state extraction operation and rehabilitation 13. Expand MDC sources by completing the Northfield Mountain standards. Facility. Carry out conservation measures. Plan the Millers River MARINE MANAGEME14T (Chapter 7) *5. Provide state guidance to municipalities on extraction permits. Facility. *6. Reclaim selected abandoned extraction sites for recreation. 14. Encourage regionalization of water supply systems. Planning Objective: To maintain the region's renewable marine resources Electrical power at a level sufficiehtfor a sustained future use and to develop the o7. Create state energy conservation education program. I WATER QUALITY (Chapter,S) region"s nonrenewable marine resources in an environmentally 08. Provide state technical assistance on state energy consumption rate Planning Objective: To achieve swimmable-fishable waters by 1983 sensitive manner. reduction goals. wherever realistically attainable economically, socially, and Offshore fis heries o9. Implement program of mandatory and voluntary energy-saving technically. 01 -Declare 'interim qffshore 200-mile economic zone. measures. *2. Adopt national fisheries management policy and program. *10. Study electric rate schedules; encourage off-peak power use. Preservation 3. Increase tariffs Op imported fish products. o11. Identify and secure power plant sites for future use. 0 1. Stress anti-degradation in areas now swimmable-fishable. 4. Allow privately financed purchase of foreign-built fishing boats. a12. Avoid Critical Environmental Areas for future sites. o 2. Carry out current state non-degradation policies. 5. Improve market for underutilized fish species. o13. Maximize development capabilities at existing power plant sites. * 3. Attenuate runoff from new urban developments. 6. Accommodate coastal fishing facilities through improved planning. *14. Upgrade or phase out inefficient fossil units near cities. * 4. Negotiate acceptable low-flow regimes with upstream communities. *15. Put transmission and distribution lines underground in urban rede- S. Provide streambank buffer strips. Shellfish and aquacultwe velopment programs. 7. Increase Mass. tethnical assistance for local shellfish management. *16. Provideinterim recreational use of undeveloped power plant sites. Restoration 8. Increase shellfish@ license fees in Massachusetts and require recreational 017. Simplify, procedures for power plant licensing. 0 6. Emphasize treatment of urban stormwater overflows. licenses in Rhode Island. 0 7. Accelerate federal grants for municipal wastewater treatment. 9. Develop underuthized shellfish market. Petroleum facilities 0 8. Continue current industrial permits program. 10i Research remova 'of virus and bacteria to enhance shellfish habitats. o18. Revise new building standards to improve heating-cooling efficiency- o 9. Begin rcgionwide stormwater and wet-weather stream sampling. 11. Site new wastewater discharges away from estuaries. *19. Provide tax incentives for voluntary energy-conservation measures. o 10. Make towns responsible for scavenger waste disposal. 12. Enact aquacultuib legislation in Rhode,lsland. *20. Provide state energy-consumption rate reduction technical assistance. * 11. Determine municipal sludge disposal policy on plant-by-plant basis. 13. Investigate potential aquaculture sites. *21. Fund mass transit systems. * 12. Place burden on industry for disposing hazardous wastes. 14. Increase technical assistance to towns for aquaculture, o22. Establish petroleum facilities siting authority in Rhode Island. 13. Study and define the landfill -leachate problem. 15. Increase research on use of wastewater for aquaculture. o23. Strengthen petroleum facilities siting authority in Massachusetts. 14. Provide pumpout facilities and treatment for watercraft wastes. Port development *24. Consider New England-wide implications of siting decisions. 16. Plan regionwide ort development. o25. Establish standards and criteria for refinery siting and operation. *26. Use SENE Study development capability analysis in siting decisions. Area priorities 17. Continue interim dredged materials d4osal procedure. o 15. Give priority to Cape Cod, New Bedford, Providence, and Boston. o27. Establish deepwater ports; evaluate sites individually. Offshore sand and gravel o28. Locate refineries and related development inland near infrastructure. 'bute refined products by pipeline wherever feasible. * 18. Develop state pohcy and program regulating mineral extraction *29. Distri activities in coast'al waters. *30. Use most advanced technologies in facilities operation. The priority of the recommendation is indicated by the symbol 19. Coordinate future federal far-shore leasing with adjacent states. preceding it: *20. Develop predictive modeling techniques. Solid waste management * Highest priority recommendations (18) Urban waterfronts * 3 1. Enforce existing sanitary landfill regulations. * High priority recommendations (28) 0 32. Fund the Rhode Island solid waste management program. * Other priority recommendations (39) 21. Coordinate local Waterfront planning and development. 33. Accelerate local participation in state recoveryl@iograrns. (Blank) Remaining recommendations (43) o22. Provide guidance and set criteria for priority waterfront uses. T p Priority]was assigned to the recommendations according to their signifi- 23. Review and coordinate waterfront use at state and substate regional HOW TO PROTECT OUR NATURAL RESOURCES (Chapter 10) c cance m meeting the objective of each chapter. Consideration was given level. ance 24. Support state and local waterfront development plans. to those policies and actions which are expected to meet the greatest needs Planning Objective: To ensure appropriate action taken with regard to f [the fastest and which support, most directly, the three themes of the Study. planning recommendations. 1. Maximize use of existing resource policy institutions. uj ALP-* MM) -.4z' %, Par kit WL Goals and Approach CHAPTER I GOALS AND APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Study Goals 1 - 1, Maj or Regional Planning Objectives 1 -1, The SENE Study Re commendations I - 1, The Major Characteristics of the SENE Study Recommendations 1-1, Using the Study 1-2, Compilation of Base Data 1-2, Formulating the SENE Study Recommendations I T2, Functional Analysis 1-2, Alternative Plan Development 1-3, Analysis of Implications 1-3, Major Conclusions 1-3, Enhancing the environment also the economy 14, Anticipated growth can be accommodated, but it needs guidance 14, Existing knowledge, programs, and institutions, with some changes, provide the most realistic tools for achieving results 1-5. CHAPTER 1 GOALS AND APPROACH This chapter is intended to outline, briefly, how the recom- Analysis of these concerns and o bjectives led to the emer- mendations for Southeastern New England were developed gence of the understanding that the development of a and to highlight the major conclusions of the Study. publicly acceptable regional growth policy is basic to mak- ing intelligent water and related land resource planning The principal goals of the Study are presented first, followed and management decisions. by a brief description of the major planning objectives which influenced the direction of the Study. A brief characteriza- The Regional Report does not attempt to define a single tion of the SENE Study recommendations and the process growth policy for the SENE region. It does, however, in used to develop them is explained next, followed by a sum- Chapters 2 and 3, clearly identify the major elements which mary of the major themes or conclusions which emerged must be considered in such a policy. Moreover, in Chapter from the Study effort. 10, the Study identifies several alternative approaches for implementing such a policy within the political and social Study Goals realities of Southeastern New England. The Southeastern New England (SENE) Water and Related The Study's special emphasis is to detail a comprehensive Land Resources Study was authorized by Congress and program which establishes the vital role that water resources funded in 1971 in response to the increasingly troublesome and certain water related land resources play in such a re- pressures the region's rapid urbanization was exerting on its gional growth policy. Thus SENE Study recommendations rich and varied natural resources. The SENE Study had two have consciously and deliberately been formulated in a man- principal goals: ner which contributes to the development of a regional growth policy and to potentially have an important influence on its � "To identify and recommend actions to be articulation and implementation by the region's decision taken by all levels of government and by private makers. interests to secure for the people of the region the full range of uses and benefits which may be The SENE Study Recommendations provided by balanced conservation and develop- ment of the region's water and related land re- The SENE Study presents in this Regional Report (and in sources" (From the Plan of Study), and the ten Planning Area Reports) a program of recommended actions and policies which includes development projects, � To provide a compilation of base data on the Imanagement programs, land acquisition activities, institu- region's water and related land resources for the tional modifications, and legislative changes. These are de- benefit of future planners and researchers. tailed in each of the functional chapters and summarized and evaluated in Chapter 11, Tying the Recommendations To- The attainment of these goals is documented in the twelve gether. final reports produced by the SENE Study: the Summary, Regional Report (including Environmental Statement and The Major Characteristics of the SENE Study Methodology) and ten planning area reports. The recom- Recommendations mendations and the resource capability analysis which form the foundation of the Study are supported by literally Before the recommendations can be presented, it is import- dozens of technical reports and maps available in the library ant to understand their major characteristics and how they of the New England River Basins Commission. determined the scope of the Study. The SENE recommendations are broad, comprehensive, Major Regional Planning Objectives long-range, multi-agency, water and related land resource oriented, and coordinated. The initial step toward the stated Study goals was to iden- tify the major regional planning concerns within SENE. The SENE recommendations are broad because principal These ranged from such purely technical objectives as the emphasis was placed upon major regional policies and pro- provision of a safe water supply, to such political and so- grams. They are comprehensive in that all principal water- cial objectives as the maintenance wherever possible of lo- related resource uses are addressed for all parts of the re- cal autonomy in resource decision making. Objectives such gion, for all levels of government, and for the private sector as these served to focus the Study effort and are the foun- as well. Since they are long-range, they not only consider dation upon which the recommendations are built. current conditions, but also attempt to anticipate condi- 1-1 tions, problems, and solutions for the year 1990 and to dations and their supporting rationale - and the SENE gauge the compatibility of these solutions with conditions Study files - can also be used as a starting point for more which might be present in the year 2020. The recommen- detailed work. dations are multi-agency in that the states of Massachusetts Compilation of Base Data and Rhode Island, eight federal agencies, two other regional agencies, a Citizen Advisory Committee, a Regional Scien- As indicated earlier, one goal of the Study is "to provide a tific Task Force, and ten Basin Advisory Committees helped prepare and review them under the direction of the compilation of base data on the region's water and related New England River Basins Commission, a regional federal- land resources for the benefit of future planners and re- state planning organization. searchers." This goal is satisfied by the creation and filing of a massive amount of unpublished material on the region's The Study focuses on water and related land resources. To resource base. It is available for inspection and abstracting make the study manageable, the tendency to expand into at the offices of the New England River Basins Commission ever-widening circles had to be resisted. It is important to (NERBQ at 55 Court Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02108. recognize, for example, that the treatment of land use in This wealth of material could not be adequately reflected in Chapter 3 was developed primarily from a water resources the SENE Study report itself. Draft documents have been point of view. Other major growth concerns - such as prepared for each of the functions covered in Chapters 3 economic development, housing, transportation, and edu- through 9 for each of the ten planning areas. A mass of cation - were considered only to the extent necessary to raw and analyzed data and information has been assembled. determine how water resources programs could contribute Much has been graphically depicted on a common map to objectives associated with these concerns. scale and integrated into a multi-purpose map. For many portions of SENE, this is the only information available at The Study is coordinated: One of the principal benefits of uniformly comparable scales. For other portions of SENE, the Study was the bringing together of major federal and much more detailed information is available at the local state agencies as a team during the organization, prepara- level. It is now, however, possible in these areas, using the tion and review of this report. Everyone could see what SENE Study data, to compare the local situation with the everyone else was doing. All of the recommendations have regional perspective. This multi-purpose framework for been exposed to all participants, who have been given an decision making has never before been available for South- extended opportunity to voice objection or support. Most, eastern New England. The Study has codified and con- but not all, of the recommendations thus have the support densed the results of a myriad of previous work in order of the participating federal and state agencies and the other to take a broad comprehensive geographic viewpoint and members of state government with whom they judged it relate individual functions to broad regionwide policies. desirable to coordinate. In instances where agreement was less than complete, prominent divergent views were inclu- Table 1.1 lists the type of material contained in the SENE ded in the analysis. Thus, it is correct to say that the SENE files. The material and the processes followed are available recommendations represent a generally agreed-upon, con- to assist other planners in increasing the store of knowledge sistent set of proposed actions, coordinated with the feder- about SENE's natural resources. al and state governments. The recommendations should Formulating the SENE Study Recommendations therefore be particularly useful for coordinated planning, for programming, for assigning priorities and, to a lesser To serve as a guide for meeting expressed needs and to con- extent, for budgeting. tribute to orderly future growth, the Study recommenda- Using the Study tions were formulated by systematically appraising alter- native programs aimed at both meeting needs within indi- vidual functional areas (water supply, recreation) and The SENE recommendations are a guide for meeting the synthesizing the functional programs to determine how they needs of people, developed in a manner consistent with contributed to the future regional growth objectives. their desire to manage future growth. The recommenda- tions are intended for continuous use by those having re- Thus, three basic steps were followed: sponsibilities for, or interests in, the management of the water and related land resources of the region. To use 0 analysis of problems and issues and alternative them, agreement with every recommendation is not neces- solutions within individual functional areas; sary. Associated with each recomroendation are the alter- native solutions with which it competed. Others may 0 development of alternative plans within func- weigh the pro's and con's differently; but, at least if they tional areas; and, use this guide, their solutions will have been formulated with an awareness of what they have chosen to gain and 9 analysis of implications for future regional what they have thereby chosen to forfeit. The recommen- growth. 1-2 Functional Analysis. Each area of functional concern In applying this approach, a separate report was developed begins with an assessment of the resource situation which for each of seven broad functions corresponding to Chap- provides background, describes problems and opportunities ters 3 through 9 of the Regional Report, for each of ten and explains the effects if the problems are not resolved. Al- planning areas - a total of 70 reports. These reports were ternative solutions are then described and evaluated in terms then condensed and combined into ten planning area re- of their major environmental, economic, and social impacts. ports. The ten reports were then synthesized into this Re- Choices are made in the form of recommendations indicat- gional Report with added coverage given to the alternatives, ing who is to do what, and often how it might best be done. rationale, and policy aspects. Finally, new insights gained in preparation of the Regional Report were fed back into Alternative Plan Development. After the alternative the individual planning area reports. solutions were described and evaluated, they were grouped to form three distinct alternative plans emphasizing differ- The process by which the recommendations were formu- ent objectives. One emphasized environmental quality, se- lated is in many ways similar to the requirements for an lecting only those measures which favored, or at least did environmental statement - it identified critical environ- not detract from, environmental enhancement. Another mental areas, and analyzed alternative measures (the emphasized economic development. The third plan, more environmental and economic impacts). Despite this simi- often than not the recommended plan, sought a middle road larity, a separate environmental statement was prepared providing opportunities for economic development consist- and is included as part of the Regional Report. ent with the region's environmental aspirations. Major Conclusions Analysis of Implications. Finally, the recommended functional plan was discussed in terms of its broad economic, At the end of the Study three major conclusions, or themes, social, and environmental implications on regional growth emerged around which all of the recommendations appear policy. to revolve. These themes or conclusions are that: TABLE1.1 TYPICAL INFORMATION CONTAINED IN THE SENE STUDY FILES 1. General Information Publications. Plan of Study, pamphlets, newsletters, a map overlay packet, and an annotated bibliography. 2. Base Reports. A socio-economic and environmental framework, an environmental base study, data books, and population projections. 3. Inventory Reports. For each of 10 basins, a separate report on 18 individual subjects including flood plain zoning and streamflow management; water quality control; ground water management; water supply; land use patterns, allocations, and management; special environmental factors; fish and wildlife; outdoor recreation; inland wetlands management; navigation; coastal resources; power; minerals; irrigation and drainage; sediment and erosion; health aspects; climate, meteorology, hydrology, water quality, geology and ground water availability; and related land - - a total of 216 reports. 4. Maps. Mainly at a scale of 1 inch = about I mile (1:62, 500), occasionally at 1 inch = 2000 feet and 1 inch = 4 miles (1:24,000 and 1:250,000, respectively): (1) maps showing physical characteristics such as surficial geology, soils classifications, slopes, depth to bedrock, depth to seasonal high water table, flood plains, water quality, ground water recharge areas, coastal resources, physical characteristics, and tidal flooding; (2) maps showing land use, ownership, and services such as land use patterns, land use capability groups, transportation systems, zoning, town functional environments, unique natural areas, unique cultural areas, recreation areas, navigation, sewer service areas, existing and potential water supply sources and service areas, power generation stations, and ownership and use of coastal resources; and (3) suitability analyses on basic resource configurations, limitations for septic tank wastewater disposal, special environmental factors, fish and wildlife habitats and corridors, freshwater fisheries, salt water sport fishing, quality of wildlife wetlands, existing and potential navigation developments, suitability for base load power plant siting, potential sand and gravel resource areas, and many others. 5. Special Economic Reports. Economic considerations, economic criteria, economic implications, economics of power plant siting, economic analysis of coastal resource allocation. 6. Special Legal and Institutional (L & 1) Reports. Design of L & I arrangements, changes in wetlands law, fiscal policy and related land use control, ensuring access, proposed legislation and implementation of the SENE study. 7. Citizen Participation Publications. Tabulations of major watershed problems by workshop participants and citizen- preferred solutions, summaries of news releases about public workshops and Regional Citizen Advisory Committee meetings. 1-3 0 Enhancing the environment also enhances costs, the region's basic economy in the future will prob- the economy. ably increasingly rest on its ability to export essential services and pioneer in high unit value, state-of-the-art, and 0 Anticipated growth can be accommodated, prototype manufacturing. To attract and hold the neces- but it needs guidance. sary skills - which could really be located almost anywhere in the nation - the region's principal drawing power will be 0 Existing kno 'wledge, programs, and institu- a clean, attractive environment - a good place to live, work, tions provide the most realistic tools for and raise a family. There are many other environmentally achieving results. attractive places in the nation. Therefore, SENE's success cannot be taken for granted. If SENE does not maintain Enhancing the environment also enhances the and improve the quality of its natural landscape, not only economy. It is the major conclusion of this Study that will its environmentalfuture be degraded, but its long-ninge environmental enhancement and economic development economic future will probably also falter. will tend to reinforce each other in Southeastern New England. Environmental and economic goals are often Notwithstanding the above general strategic harmony of considered polar opposites. The Study has found, however, long-range environmental and economic aspirations in this that while society may have to be prepared to pay some region, several major current conflicts need to be resolved. "opportunity cost" for preserving a given resource or en- They are considered principally in Chapter 9 on Locating vironmental value in the short run, it will gain significant Key Facilities. They provide the services everyone needs economic values in the long run. Both environmental and but no one wants nearby. In general, the recommendations economic objectives seek to improve the overall quality of emphasize the importance to public welfare of providing life, but in different ways. for these facilities and then gives priority equal to that given to preservation of critical environmental areas. A future favoring environmental values would enhance the quality of life by giving first preference to clean air and Anticipated growth can be accommodated, but it water, to natural beauty, to open space, to opportunities needs guidance. The Study has found that, overall, suf- for outdoor recreation or solitude. ficient legitimately developable land exists in the region to meet development requirements not only in the nearfuture A future favoring economic values would enhance the but through the year 2020. This finding is true even if the quality of life by giving first preference to employment, to region continues to consume land at the current rate of a high economic standard of living, to upgrading the labor one-half acre per person - a rate four times higher than the force through education, to increasing the use which people historical average in Southeastern New England. Should can make of their natural resources for material and recrea- current population trends and the tendency among devel- tional benefits, to improving the region's infrastructure* opers to cluster development continue, the development and generally upgrading the efficiency with which the re- picture could even be brighter. The implication for resource gion produces or acquires goods and services. management is that we can encourage and support the eco- nomic development the region needs so badly without sacri- In the SENE region it has been found that these generally ficing critical or fragile natural resources or risking public polar cases tend to merge for several reasons: safety. (1) Population growth is slowly leveling off; To assure that development is guided to those lands most capable of supporting it, the Study concludes that a re- (2) Per capita income will remain high; and gional growth policy or regional land use plan is essential. Such a plan would seek to influence the location of our (3) The region's economy is getting "cleaner", future development investments in order to emphasize i.e. less resource -consuming, more service@- economic efficiency, and reflect the region's social prefer- oriented. ences and environmental values. In addition to water and related land resources input, that plan needs input from Almost all of these socio-economic trends will tend to lessen other diverse spheres of human interest such as employ- tension between environmental and economic aspirations. ment opportunities, transportation, utilities, housing, and Indeed, achievement of environmental goals should actually urban renewal. reinforce economic goals. In recognition of its regional dis- advantages of remoteness from bulk raw materials, of poor The SENE Study presents what it considers to be a power- transportation links, of high power rates, and of high labor ful beginning. As will be seen in more detail in Chapter 3, Infrastructure means the facilities required to support development. It includes interrelated basic services such as energy sources, utilities systems, and communication and transportation links. 1-4 Guiding Growth, and on the Development Capability Maps already weathered most of the realities of the political in the rear pocket, the SENE Study has categorized every process. For example, at every reasonable opportunity the parcel of land and water in the SENE region; suggested SENE Study sought to mesh with the federal Coastal Zone whether it ought to be protected, managed, developed with Management Act of 1972 and the Federal Water Pollution controls, or developed fully; and given the reasons for this Control Act Amendments of 1972. The Study also sought choice. In general, the suggested protection areas are those ways to use the existing institutions to get things done ra- Critical Environmental Areas which are essential to the ther than search for new arrangements that might have environmental quality of life described earlier, especially the been slightly better if judged from a parochial water re- preservation of open space to give visual variety to growth. sources point of view. In choosing these strategies the Use of the more developable areas, if properly managed, can Study traded off novelty to increase achievability. generally improve the economic quality of life, which was also discussed earlier. Therefore, the SENE Study recommendations strongly bring out the need for a comprehensive management sys- In addition to offering a specific framework for strategic tem with the following major elements: land use planning for endorsement or modification by other decision makers, the Study's water and related land use man- 0 State leadership and control; agement recommendations can influence land use decisions. Setting priorities for the provision of water supply and 0 Federal agency support; sewer systems, the rational intensification or relaxation of environmental standards, and the enhancement or carefully * Implementation frequently at local level; considered sacrifice of amenities, can all play a very impor- and, tant part in implementing any consensus as to how growth can best be distributed. Once a general land use consensus 0 A modest continuing planning process, capable is achieved, water resources management can become one of linking all three levels of government. of the major tools for implementing growth policy, rather than simply responding to development, as has been the Within this system, the emphasis throughout the SENE case up to now. Study recommendations has been on delegation of author- ity - placing decision making at the lowest level commen- Existing knowledge, programs, and institutions, surate with the anticipated scope of the decision, but pre- with some changes, provide the most realistic tools scribing the policy framework and the types of external for achieving results. The SENE Study's recommenda- considerations that should be referred to a higher level. tions were developed with special attention to "implement- Here the recommendations ran into an administrative ability." There was a deliberate effort to avoid "grand management problem. To recommend that "every com- schemes." Instead, the recommendations emphasize better' munity should (do what)" would have unquestionably use of existing knowledge, programs, and institutions as the produced an unevenness of awareness, interpretation, and most realistic way of achieving its first major goal. Effort performance that could have destroyed the overall intent was concentrated on collecting and analyzing existing infor- of the recommendation. A consistent leadership, a cata- mation. Expensive additional field surveys and research lyst, was needed, and for this the SENE Study focused.re- were avoided. The inclination to postpone recommendations sponsibility primarily on the states of Massachusetts and until, somehow, more research could be -accomplished was Rhode Island. The typical wording chosen was "the De- generally resisted. The Study accepted the conclusion that partment of (what) in the state of (what) should encour- "no decision" is indeed a decision. In cases of doubt, the age municipalities to (do what) by providing leadership, in- general tendency was to recommend reversible action formation, technical advice and (sometimes) seed money." coupled with research to permit adjustments to be made if This approach casts the state in a leadership role but leaves new knowledge should suggest them. Full use of ongoing the details to be elaborated and implemented to those clos- programs, notwithstanding some inadequacies, was viewed est to the decision, including federal and local governments as a pragmatic way of "piggy-backing" on programs that had and substate regional agencies. 1-5 AR vW A410 f"K 4A. nO k /A ;4C-1 A ALI - - , Pl- 4t 4t Vj A4 ?MF ki The Setting CHAPTER 2 THE SETTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 Physical Characteristics 2-1, Boundaries 2-1, Geology and Topography 2-1, Climate and Water 2-3, Coastal Resources 2-3, Population: Today and Tomorrow 2-4, The Structure of the Economy 2-5, An ffistorical Sketch of the Economic Base of SENE 2-5, Current Structure and Projected Changes in the SENE Economy 2-5, Per Capita Income 2-6, Employment 2-6, Industry Mbc 2-6, Sub-Regional Differ- ences Within the SENE Economy 2-9, Implications 2-11, Relatively Lower Growth in Direct Demand for Natural Resources 2-11, Opportunity for Decentralization ofEconomic Activity 2-11, Con- tinuing Need to Upgrade Region's Labor Force 2-11, Changed Nature of Economic Fluctuations 2-11, Conflicts Between Economic and Environmental Objectives 2-12, Conclusion from an Economic- Resources Perspective 2-12, Resource Management Institutions 2-13, Federal 2-13, Interstate and Regional 2-13, State 2-13, Massachusetts 2-13, Rhode Island 2-14, Local 2-14, Current Public Perceptions 2-15. CHAPTER 2 THE SETTING Southeastern New England (SENE) is the northern terminus velopment and the resource conflicts which result from that of the Northeast Megalopolis, a belt of dense urban growth development exhibit distinct similarities throughout the reaching from Norfolk, Virginia, to Boston. SENE is the SENE region. `1he region can be described, then, in a vari- commercial, industrial, financial, and cultural center of New ety of physical and human terms, and one of the goals of England. Fifty percent of the total population of New Eng- the SENE Study planning effort has been to gain a better land lives and works in SENE, though it contains only seven understanding of how these physical and human characteris- percent of New England's land area. tics interact and to apply these insights to solve some of the region's problems. The dense press of people, commerce, and industry which characterizes most of the Megalopolis has not yet blanketed The physical characteristics include hydrology, geology and SENE. A coastally-oriented region, SENE has its major topography, climate, water, and coastal resources. These urban centers; but it also has vast expanses of open space - characteristics have played a major role in the evolution of extensive forests, broad wetland networks, productive farm- the human characteristics of the region - the growth and land. Indeed, the diversity of its natural and human land- distribution of its people, the structure of the economy, and scape makes SENE difficult to describe as a "region". While the nature of the institutions created to manage and develop people in SENE perceive a sense of "place" in the South their resources. Together, these characteristics form the Shore, Cape Cod, or Narragansett Bay, few see Southeastern setting within which the Study was conducted and within New England as a distinct "region". Yet the nature of de. which its recommendations must be carried out. Physical Characteristics Boundaries The Study region's 4400 square miles include the entire Massachusetts. By generalizing the hydrologic boundaries state of Rhode Island and all or portions of Essex, Middle- to include whole towns, and by combining basins which sex, Suffolk, Worcester, Norfolk, Plymouth, Bristol, Barn- drain into the same harbor, the twenty river basins were stable, Nantucket, and Dukes counties in Massachusetts. A grouped into ten planning areas. A separate report was pro- small corner of Connecticut lying within the Pawcatuck duced for each of the ten planning areas. In each planning River basin is also included. area report, the policy issues discussed in this Regional Re- port are refined to a much greater level of detail. As a re- All 39 cities and towns in Rhode Island are included in the sult, SENE Study recommendations attain a level of speci- Study area, as well as 171 municipalities in Massachusetts, ficity not generally found in past regional studies. Figure encompassing forty-one percent of the state, and 3 munici- 2.1 is a map of the SENE region showing the planning palities in Connecticut, encompassing one percent of the areas and the towns within them. state. Geology and Topograpliy Although the Study area contains five separate urban areas and contains four complete Standard Metropolitan Statisti- The SENE Study area is primarily confined to the low coast- cal Areas (SMSAs), the Study area was expanded to include a] border forming the margin of the interior uplands of the information from outside of the Study area wherever sig- states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. This seaward- nificant influence on the region was being exerted by an sloping margin is a portion of the New England geologic outside market or supply. The need for this is most obvious province known as the seaboard lowland. The principal in cases determining recreation demands on the Cape and characteristic of this coastal region is that it is lower and Narragansett Bay, electrical power needs, port facilities, and smoother than the adjacent upland areas to the north and water supply requirements of the metropolitan Boston area. west. The smoothness of the surface is locally broken by rock hills rising above the lowland surface north and south In contrast to studies of single major river systems, the ac- of the city of Boston. Topographically, the region presents tual SENE Study area is composed of some twenty signifi- a mature, gently sloping drainage pattern rising to its high- cant river and coastal drainage areas in Rhode Island and est point of approximately 1400 feet above mean sea level 2-1 mAssAcmvsrrrs I I AWAW FAY W A rLAmr1c ocrA& L r E ILi. _4 ISL " ACK &"@CK TAw. IV IC I N CAPE COD RAY v lu B CO ...... CAPE COD & ISLANDS Bey AANrvclrrr soomp Aw -MMASETT Zee NAR' BAY & BLOCK ISLAND SLOC9 ISLANO .. ...... so"D 0 2 MILES KILOMETERS 0 2 NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS NO. PLANNING AREAS 2.1 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 1,41 r 2-2 in the northwesterly portion of the Study area. The crys- about 2.1 cubic feet per second for every square mile, ac- tAine bedrock which underlies much of the region is gen- counting for roughly fifty percent of the average annual erally more than 10 feet from the surface, but ranges from rainfall. The remaining runoff is lost to evaporation, both hilltop outcroppings to several hundred feet deep in valleys. directly and indirectly through plants and soil. In contrast to the bedrock, the softer sedimentary rocks of the Boston and Narragansett geologic basins have produced The low landforms of SENE have other fundamentally a drowned coast allowing the radial arrangement of streams important implications in that lack of topographic relief entering the basins to be navigable even at low tide, a fea- restricts the use of dams for surface water supply reser- ture which provided early transportation corridors and de- voirs or for flood control reservoirs. The larger rivers, termined the location of the major population centers of which have adequate flows for water supply, have been the region. polluted by two centuries of urbanization and industrial development. Consequently, parts.of the region, as with The surface topography and soils of the region were formed virtually every other urban center in the world, have his- during the advance and retreat of the Wisconsin ice sheet torically supplemented their water supply with imports some ten thousand years ago. These glacial movements pro- from outside of the region. The major importer of water duced the extensive terminal moraines of Cape.Cod and are in the SENE area is the Metropolitan District Commission responsible for the formation of Nantucket, Martha's Vine- which serves the greater Boston area and provides approxi- yard, and the Elizabeth Islands. Till covers the higher eleva- mately 90 percent of its members' supplies from out-of- tions in the northern parts of the Study region. Outwash region sources. deposits fill valleys in the north and form broad plains in the south. Coastal Resources Each of these landforms and their.physical properties estab- The SENE region's irregular 1540-mile coastline has been lish parameters for economic and environm Iental planning its most valuable resource. The bays and coves, carved by and development. For example, in water supply planning, glaciers during the Ice Age, offered sheltered anchorages to deep stratified valley deposits afford excellent opportunities early fishermen and were later developed by a burgeoning for wells capable of yielding sufficient quantities of ground mercantile industry into world-leading ports. Today, there water for municipal or industrial use. These ground water is a great demand for sea-coast land as prime residential or reservoirs are usually of high quality and can transmit as second-home property. Recreational boating, salt water much as 300 gallons of water per minute or more to indi- sportfishing and swimming at the many broad, sandy vidual wells. In contrast, bedrock or till deposits which beaches have established a national reputation for the re- may lie only a few yards away, rarely yield one hundr 'ed gion's significant tourism, industry. This combination of gallons per minute and generally are capable of being coastal ambience, of a physical link to the sea, and a sense pumped at only twenty-five gallons per minute. Such wells of heritage mellowed by the sea, contribute largely to the are adequate only for individual domestic uses. region's quality of life. Septic tank limitations and bearing capacity are also devel- Following the retreat of the ice sheets, the rising ocean opment parameters determined by soils overlying SENE's chewed into the moraines of sand and gravel. It scoured landforms. In a glaciated region such as SENE, septic , and molded the Cape and Islands and flooded the Boston tank capability can vary drastically within a few hundred and Narragansett basins. Bluffs were eroded and the sand yards. Such physical characteristics have in the past and cast up into long barrier beaches backed with saltmarsh will continue to present significant limitations and oppor- estuaries. The rocky headlands of Cape Ann, Marblehead, tunities to shape the location and scope of urban develop- and Newport project into the Atlantic surf in sharp con- ment. trast to the nearby sandy beaches and quiet tidal marshes. Climate and Water In these estuaries lie an abundance of fishery and shellfish resources. The coastal clam and scallop industries have be- Although the annual precipitation is relatively high, avera- come nationally known, and as much as seventy percent of ging 44 inches per year and evenly distributed throughout the commercially valuable offshore fisheries rely on these the year, the Study region must still rely on an outside same coastal waters as nurseries and feeding grounds. source for some of its water supply. Average runoff is 2-3 Population: Today and TomorTow As discussed earlier, the physical landscape has had a signifi- made by the federal Office of Business Economics (OBE) cant effect on the location and growth of the- population and the Economic Research Service (ERS). These projec- centers in the region. SENE's four urban centers are Boston, tions, called "OBERS E", are based on the very low birth Providence, Worcester, and New Bedford/Fall River, and rate that the nation is currently experiencing which may nearly 80 percent of the region's approximately five million ultimately produce a low population growth rate. How- people have settled in these four areas. While a surprisingly ever, because of the disproportionately large number of large amount of open space still exists, the average popula- young adults in our population, even this low birth rate tion density is about 960 persons per square mile compared will not actually result in a leveling off of the population to averages of about 180 for New England as a whole and for almost 50 years. 60 for the nation. Any projections, including OBERS E, represent only an As elsewhere in the nation, SENE experienced a steady educated guess based on observed or expected trends. For migration of population away from the older central cities the long-range, population projections are likely to be more to less densely settled suburban areas during the last decade. accurate for larger areas, such as the United States as a Predictably, the direction of these movements of people whole, or multi-state regions, in which variations in the was, and continues to be, strongly influenced by major actual growth of smaller areas will tend to offset each other. transportation systems. Yet, with the exception of the Thus, the projections for the Southeastern New England re- Route 128 industrial development around Boston, most of gion can be used with some confidence, while the figures the employment opportunities in the region continued to for the planning areas and in turn for the towns are some- be in the four urban centers. what less reliable. However, in the last two years the migration from Boston On Table 2.1, the 1990 and 2020 OBERS E population has reversed and the city is once again experiencing a slow projections are shown for Southeastern New England and but steady increase in population. While these population for each of the ten planning areas. Also shown for com- movements are discussed in more detail in Chapter 3, Guid- parison purposes are projections made by state and sub- ing Growth, it should be clear that it is just as important to state regional planners. The differences illustrate the diffi- be able to determine where people will be as it is to know culty in population forecasting, particularly in smaller areas, how many there will be. and point out the need for periodic updating based on ac- tual occurrences and changing trends. Nevertheless, it is To determine the magnitude of the demand which can be believed that the OBERS E projections provide a reason- expected to be placed in the region's resources in the next able and useful basis for anticipating demand for water 20 to 50 years, the Study used the Series E projections and related land resources and for developing policies to cope with that demand. TABLE 2.1 COMPARATIVE POPULATIONS (in I,D00's) Past Projected 1960 1970 1990 2020 PLANNING AREA U.S. Census RPAa-/ Statel2J OBERS@/ Statet/ OBERSC-/ 1 Ipswich-North Shore 514 584 778 705 772 796 1,035 2 Boston Metropolitan 2,064 2,115 2,329 2,242 2,303 2,904 2,399 3 South Shore 77 116 235 218 238 213 46: 4 Cape Cod & Islands 80 107 120 152 165 1 5 25 5 Buzzards Bay 163 178 215 183 200 204 271 6 Taunto 341 399 5 59 484 512 583 703 7 Blackstone & Vicinity 810 824 - - 894 886 920 8 Pawtuxet '30 154 '93 228 318 9 Narragansett Bay 231 291 372 384 553 10 Pawcatuck 54 70 102 88 118 Southeastern New England 4,464 4,838 5,545 5,776 7,029 Massachusetts Portion 3,868 4,361 4,605 5,590 Rhode Island Portio 949 1,147 1,144 1,404 Connecticut Portion 21 37 27 35 a/ RPA - Projections by Regional Planning Agencies in Mass. State - Projections by Mass. Office of State Planning & Management and R.I. Statewide Planning Pro- gram (& Southeastern Conn. RPA) c/ OBERS - OBERS SERIES E projections by office of Business Economics (U.S. Dept. of Commerce) and Economic Research Service (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture) 2-4 The Structure of the Economy While by definition a water and related land resources in the Blackstone Valley at such places as Woonsocket, planning effort, the Southeastern New England Study Rhode Island and Worcester, Massachusetts. Woolen and was established, and its recommendations are presented, worsted textile manufacture came int6-these river basins in response to the demands placed on the region's re- more slowly but gained considerable importance during sources by continuing economic growth. As discussed in de- the first half of the 19th century. These industries were tail throughout the report, the goal of the SENE Study is further stimulated by the introduction of steam power in to accommodate and guide this growth in a manner which the latter half of that century. During this period, leather enhances the region's economic opportunities and is con- working and shoe manufacturing became important ac- sistent with its environmental aspirations. What follows, tivities in Taunton and Brockton, Massachusetts. then, is a brief history of the economy of the region, a more detailed discussion of its current structure, and an ex- The needs of these rising industries fostered the growth of amination of the remarkable compatibility between the other industrial concerns producing steam engines and tex- needs and demands of the region's economy and regional tile machinery and related items throughout these basins. and national environmental goals. With the opening of the Blackstone Canal from Providence to Worcester, the completion of the railroad access, Wor- An Historical Sketch of the Economic Base cester, although not on a natural waterway, grew rapidly ofSENE and became one of the largest and most diversified manu- facturing centers in the United States. The introduction America's industrial revolution began in mill towns scat- of the railroad in 1833 played a definite role in accelera- tered throughout New England. The metropolitan areas of ting, as well as integrating, the productive activity of the Boston, Providence, and Worcester which constitute the growing economy. The economic development of the hub of the SENE region were the most important centers SENE region began to be handicapped during this stage by of economic activity even in the 19th century. Farming, the shift in primary transportation from water to land. In the principal occupation of the early settlers in SENE, be- addition, electric power transmitted over great distances gan to give way to shipbuilding and commerce before the reduced the role of water power and SENE% streams were end of the 17th century. Newburyport, Salem, Medford, generally too small to turn hydroelectric turbines. SENE's and North River, which served as primary shipbuilding ports were overshadowed by the ports of New York, Balti- centers, led the nation in the development of mercantile more, and Philadelphia which were larger, provided excel- trade. By the mid-18th century, trading with foreign ports lent overland facilities such as rail connection, and offered had built major commercial centers all along the region's a faster and more diversified range of auxiliary services to coast. Newport, which -was the chief commercial center on shippers. Narragansett Bay, also became a summer resort of note dur- ing this period. With the loss of comparative advantage in water power and port facilities, as well as several other dislocations, SENE Availability of water (and consequently water power) had a began to lose industry, especially textiles, to southern crucial role in early industrial location decisions. The sig- states. The stage for the decline of the textile industry in nificance of the role of water in shaping the economic his- New England was set well before World War 1, but the tory of the region may be seen in the following examples. sharpest decline came at the end of the first half of this century. Between 1950-1970, the SENE region's share The rivers of the Narragansett Bay drainage basins were of national textile earnings dropped from 14.7 to 6.0 per- harnessed for power production shortly after settlement cent. began. A communal grist mill was operating on the Moshassuck River at Providence as early as 1646. A grant Despite the economic dislocations in the older mill towns, for a sawmill on the Pawtuxet River was issued in 1669, the overall economy of the region has continued to fare and in 1671 a water wheel was installed at Pawtucket well, keeping pace with, or occasionally falling slightly be- Falls in the Blackstone River in conjunction with a saw- low national averages. mill, carpentry shop, and iron foundry. Iron works be- came commonplace and, at the outset of the American Current Structure and Projected Revolution, production in Rhode Island exceeded that in Changes in the SENE Economy any other colony. An appreciation of regional trends can be gained by examin- The Old Slater Mill, constructed in 1793 in Pawtucket, was ing demographic and employment changes among, and with- the first successful cotton textile mill in America. Soon in, industry sectors in the region and comparing these chan- thereafter, cotton textile plants were set up in the Paw- ges with those in the nation. These are summarized in Table tuxet Valley at Centerville, Coventry, and Warwick; in Fall 2.2, which appears on the following page, and serve as a River, Massachusetts, at the head of Mount Hope Bay; and basis for the discussion of population and economic trends which follows. 2-5 Per Capita Income. Per capita income in SENE, a com- Industry Mix. With the highly skilled labor force and the mon measure of economic well-being, has consistently been region's reputation as a center for technological and scien- above the national average. As shown in Table 2.2 in con- tific development, the trend towards specialization in pro- stant (non-inflated) 1967 dollars, mean per capita income fessional services is expected to continue. With respect to was $2,226 in 1950 and rose to $3,775 in 1970. Current total earnings, data in Table 2.3 and Figure 2.2 show the projections show an increase to $6,600 in 1990 and $13,900 changing relative significance of industry sectors for BEA in 2020 - an almost four-fold increase between 1970 and Economic Area 4 and the nation. Figure 2.2 shows that, 2020. Combining this increase in per capita income with when measured as a percentage of the region's total earnings population projections produces a five-and-a-half fold in- in 1950, 1970, 1990, and 2020, the manufacturing sector crease in total personal income - from $24 billion in 1970 as a whole shows a decline from 38 to 29 to 22 to 17 per- to $135 billion in 2020. cent, respectively. Even within the important manufactur- ing sector, most of the "dirtier" industries such as textiles, The implications are considerable. Even allowing for nor- paper, and primary metals are expected to drop in relative mal increases as well as inflationary increases in the relative importance. The fastest growing sector of the SENE econ- share of the total income used for food, clothing, shelter, omy is services - primarily health, business, education, and and other necessities, the share available as disposable in- the professions. Using the percentage notation employed come will increase significantly. As leisure time and income above for manufacturing, the services sector is expected to increase, the demands, both direct and indirect, on the re- grow from 12 to 19 to 26 to 33 percent of total SENE gion's resources - land, energy, water - can be expected to earnings. Agriculture, forestry, and fishing are relatively increase as well. low in regional earnings, although significant in their value for ensuring an adequate supply, in quantity and price, of Employment. From 1950 to 1970 total employment in some of the region's food and fiber needs. The other eco- SENE increased by over 600,000. Total manufacturing em- nomic sectors which make up about half the region's earn- ployment expanded very slowly during the period with most ings, are expected to maintain their current shares. In or- rapid growth in the manufacturing sector registered by elec- der of regional economic importance, they are the retail tronic and related machinery, fabricated metals, and ord- and wholesale trade which together provide about a quarter nance. By far the greatest growth was in the services and of SENE's earnings, and the following four sectors which financial sectors, increasing 54 and 50 percent respectively;- share about evenly the remaining quarter: government, both above the national rate. Within services, professional finance -in suran ce -real estate, contract construction, and services, including private education, research and medicine, transportation-utilities. All, except the last two, of these and business and repair services including consulting firms, sectors can be characterized as generally clean and environ- programmers and other highly skilled activities were the mentally compatible activities. fastest growers. The growth patterns indicate a clear move- ment towards an increasingly specialized, service -oriented, Table 2.4 provides location quotients which reflect regional highly technical economy. specialization among selected SENE industries relative to the nation as a whole. The location quotient is determined TABLE 2.2 POPULATION, PER CAPITA INCOME, EMPLOYMENT, AND EARNINGS: BEA Economic Area 4*; Selected Historical and Projected Years Indicator 1950 1970 1990 2020 Population, midyear 5,163,100 6,3549600 7,739,800 9,707,900 (Comparative figures (4,836,800) (5,776,000) (7,029,800) for SENE) Per capita income 2,226 3,775 6,600 13,900 (1967) Per capita income 1.08 1.09 1.08 1.05 relative (U.S.=1.00) Total employment 2,039,058 2,639,691 3,561,700 4,446,900 Employment/population ratio .42 .46 .46 Employment/poputation .39 .43 .44 Source: 1972 Series E OBERS Projection Data analyzed for this section arc for OBERS (Office of Business Economics and Economic Research Service) Economic Area 4. This area is composed of ten of Massachusetts fourteen counties - Barnstable, Bristol, Dukes, Essex, Middlesex, Nantucket, Norfolk, Plymouth, Suffolk, and Worcester; half of New Hampshire's ten counties - Belknap, Carroll, Hillsborough, Merrimack, and Rockingham, and the whole state of Rhode Island. Parts or all of the ten Massachusetts counties, and all of Rhode [stand, are included in the SENE Study area. None of the New Hampshire counties are part oftbe study area. Thus, the OBERS or BEA (Bureau of Economic Analysis) Economic Area 4 does not exactly conform to the study area, but offers an approxinuite source ofstatistics useful for purposes of providing perspective. 2-6 4&47 @AU 4 2.33 26.10 4.78 2ZI 3 7.23 6. 3.49 1.0 L is .23 1950 1970 1990 2020 Agriculture, NOTE: National level figures Forestry & are denoted by Fishing Manufacturing WON/ Finance, Insurance & Real Estate Services All Others NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS PERCENTAGE NO. CONTRIBUTION OF SELECTED INDUSTRY SECTORS 2.2 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND TO TOTAL EARNINGS: WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY BEA ECONOMIC AREA 4 AND THE U.S. Q21 2-7 TABLE2.3 RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRY SECTORS TO TOTAL EARNINGS: BEA Economic Area 4 and the U.S., Selected Historical and Projected Years Sector 1950 1970 1990 2020 Total Earnings 100 100 100 100 Agriculture, Forestry, 2.00 0.69 0.40 0.23 & Fishing (9.11 (3.49) (1.96) (1.10) Mining 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.02 (1.99) (1.00) (0.62) (0.37) Contract Construction 5.68 6.48 6.24 5.63 (5.97) (6.13) (6.06) (5.53) Manufacturing 37.91 29.06 22.15 17.23 (29.01) (27.79) (24.78) (21.39) Transport, Communication, 6.45 6.26 6.52 6.37 & Public Utilities (8.17) (7.10) (6.90) (6.68) Wholesale & Retail Trade 19.41 17.06 15.54 13.56 (18.94) (16.55) (15.22) (13.65) Services 11.82 18.85 26.10 32.33 (11.18) (15.13) (19.94) (23.49) Professional Services 12.58 19.29 24.60 (9.28) (13.75) (17.51) Government 11.78 15.41 16.29 17.72 (11.39) (17.66) (18.37) (19.97) Finance,Insurance, 4.89 6.14 6.71 6.91 & Real Estate (4.23) (5.14) (6.15) (6.81) Source: 1972 Series E OBERS Projection Figures in pertain to the U.S. TABLE 2.4 LOCATION QUOTIENTS-FOR SELECTED INDUSTRIES: BEA Economic Area 4,1950,1970, 1990, and 2020 (Ranked by 1990) Selected Industry 1950 1970 1990 2020 Forestry & Fishing 2.41 2.71 2.62 2.57 Miscellaneous Manufacturing 2.35 --- 1.65 1.44 Professional Services 1.19 1.36 1.40 1.41 Business & Repair Service .94 1.3 1.24 1.18 Wholesale & Retail Trade 1.02 1.03 1.02 .99 Utilities 1.00 1.02 .99 .97 Textile Mill Products 4.12 1.71 .97 .63 Electrical Machinery --- 1.19 .96 .82 Apparel & Other Products 1.is 1.12 .81 .61 Paper & Allied Products 1.40 1.05 .75 .62 Food & Kindred Products .79 69 .69 .70 Transport Equipment .90 .57 .51 .46 Lumber & Furniture .59 .56 .44 .38 Chemicals & Allied Products .55 .46 .46 .44 Primary Metals .73 .53 .41 .36 Railroad Transport .47 .31 .32 .31 Nonmetallic Mining .25 .30 .32 .31 Agriculture .19 .16 .15 .15 Source: 1972, Series E OBERS Projections Location Quotient = Area industry as percent of total area earnings U.S. industry as percent of total U.S. earnings 2-8 by dividing the proportion of earnings stemming from a Sub-Regional Differences Within given industry in a given region by the proportion of national the SENE Economy earnings accounted for by this industry. A ratio greater than one means that the industry is proportionately more import- While this chapter deals with the SENE economy as a whole, ant in the region than in the nation. This is taken to repre- there are marked differences among sub-regions within sent a degree of regional export specialization in that in- SENE. For example, coastal portions of Massachusetts and dustry, and the larger the ratio, the more export oriented Rhode Island represent small but rapidly growing residential the industry. A change in an industry's location coefficient and retirement areas with strong recreation, and until recent- over time reveals a change in the export specialization in ly, military sectors in their economic structure. In other the industry. areas, manufacturing and services play important roles, with greater Boston prominent in this group. A review of Table 2.4 underscores several interesting devel- opments and features of the industrial mix in the SENE By any measure of population, earnings or per capita income, economy relative to the rest of the nation. The industries the greater Boston sub-area dominates the remaining sub-areas with the largest location quotient in 1950 were forestry of SENE (Figure 2.3). Boston serves as the regional center for and fishing, and textiles. By 1970, the picture was consid- government, professional services, finance, insurance, real es- erably different for textiles. Both textiles and apparel are tate, business, and repair services, wholesale and retail trade, also the sectors which are projected to greatly decline in printing-publishing, and technical manufacturing (electrical specialization between now and 2020. In addition, the re- and computer equipment). No other area in the region en- gion's deficiency in nonrenewable natural resources is em- joys such diversification of economic activity. phasized by the extremely low quotient in the mining sector and also in the chemicals sector which, in large mea- Providence-Pawtucket-Warwick, Fall River-New Bedford, sure, depends on the availability of minerals, natural gas and Worcester-Fitchburg-Leominster are important manu- and oil, and low-cost energy in the region. On the other facturing areas, although each contains a small amount of hand, the development of greatest significance is the in- services activity. Wholesale and retail trade, finance, insur- creasing strength of professional services as an export ance, and real estate have recently become more significant oriented industry. In 1950, its location quotient was 1. 19, in the Providence sub-area. roughly indicating self-sufficiency. But, by 1970, the quo- tient had risen to 1.36 and is expected to rise further. FIGURE 2.3 POPULATION AND EARNINGS OF SUBAREAS AS PERCENT OF BEA ECONOMIC AREA 4,1969 Greater Boston 163.8 Providence-Pawtucket-Warwick 12.1 11.1 Worcester-Fitchburg-Leominster 10.1 99.0 Fall River-New Bedford 7.0 55.5 Coastal Rhode Island 2.8 @2.4 1.7 Coastal Massachusetts P1.2 92.3 SENE 193.4 100.0 BEA Economic Area 4 1100.0 KEY: Population Earnings 2-9 Variations in per capita income within SENE are shown in tional average in 1950 to below the national average in Table 2.5. The higher than average income found.in the 1969 suggests local, but substantial, continuing economic greater Boston and Providence -Pawtucket-Waiwick- sub- distress. These subregional differences in per capita income areas is characteristic of larger metropolitan areas. During reflect a certain amount of non-integration of the economic the period 1950-1969, greater Boston's per capita income activity within the region, following the departure of tex- increased from eleven percent to sixteen percent above the tiles into the 1950's. national average. This is explained by employment of a larger proportion of population than the U. S. average, In summary, an analysis of the current and projected struc- higher per capita property incomes than the U. S., slightly ture of the SENE economy yields three major conclusions: higher occupational skill of labor force, and an increasingly favorable 'industry mix. (1) Earnings and employment in manufacturing have become relatively, but not absolutely, On the other hand, the decline in per capita income in less important when compared with other Providence from eleven percent to three percent above the sectors. The direction of this structural national average during the same period, is indicative of change is much stronger in SENE than in the the fact that Rhode Island's labor force is not as well- nation as a whole. But this is not to say that educated or well-trained in high demand skills as the labor manufacturing will not continue tobe an force for the region as a whole. Further, that area is in a important employment sector. transition in its industrial mix, moving from an economy based on textiles and military installations to one where (2) Within the manufacturing group, employ- durable goods manufacturing and services play more im- ment in non-durable industries has decreased portant roles. However, Rhode Islanders are now being markedly while employment and earnings in trained and educated in the high demand skills. In the durable goods industries, particularly machin- meantime, Rhode Island must seek ways of slowing the ery production, has increased sharply. exodus of its already higher skilled population. (3) Several sectors, such as financial, civilian, gov- The condition found in the Worcester-Fitchburg- ernment, and services, have expanded at a ra- Leominster sub-area and the Fall River-New Bedford sub- pid rate. However, the most substantial in- area where per capita income declined from above the na- creases have occurred in the professional serv- ices and business and repair service industries. TABLE 2.5 PER CAPITA INCOME: SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND STUDY AREAS; 1967 Dollars and as a Percent of National Average, 1950 - 2020 Per Capita Income 1967 Dollars Study Area 1950 1969 1990 2020 Greater Boston 2,283 3,965 6,809 14,870 (1.11) (1.16) (1.10) (1.04) Providence-Pawtucket- 2,291 3,515 6,281 14,518 Warwick (1.11) (1.03) (1.02) (1.02) Worcester-Fitchburg- 2,245 3,352 6,122 14,128 Leon-dnster (1.09) (.98) (.99) (.99) Fall River-New Bedford 2,113 3,220 5,805 13,238 (1.02) (.94) (.94) (.93) Coastal Rhode Island 1,944 3,127 5,710 13,308 (.94) (.92) (.93) (.93) Coastal Massachusetts 1,949 2,781 5,181 12,407 (.94) (.81) (.84) (.87) SENE 2,255 3,736 6,530 14,530 (1.09) (1.09) (1.06) (1.02) BEA Economic 2,226 3,696 6,600 13,900 Area 4 (1.08) (1.08) (1.05) (1.02) Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis Figures in show percent of national average 2-10 In short, there is a clear trend away from low skill and non- Moreover, the strong trend towards specialization in pro- durable industries and towards high skill, high education, fessional services and other high-skill industries implies and high technology activities. The region is expected to that the economic health of the region is dependent upon continue to show a strong orientation in these directions. its ability to attract creative people and industries which, in As a result of these trends, a fairly clear picture of the re- turn, is partially a function of the quality of the natural environment. This implies that the natural resources of the gion's development atmosphere emerges. There are both region will gain importance as "consumer" goods as opposed positive and negative features. The positive features are: to "producer" goods in the conventional sense. (a) a mature and highly urbanized economy; Opportunity for Decentralization of Economic (b) clearly established metropolitan centers of Activity. The service sectors are currently condentrated in growth; metropolitan areas (particularly around Boston), yet an op- (c) a relatively highly educated and well trained portunity exists for their decentralization without loss in labor force; econoniic efficiency. This is especially true for finance, in- (d) a national reputation as a center of technologi- surance, and consulting firms. The point may be clarified cal and scientific development; through the use of the concept of a "foot-loose" industry. (e) a comparatively good location for import of in- dustrW raw materials; and An industry is "foot-loose" if not constrained by the neces- (f) an aesthetically pleasing environment within a sity of close proximity to its input and output markets. In short distance.of the metropolitan areas. other words, procurement or distribution costs are not overriding locational factors and, thus, the industry is rela- On the other hand the area has certain negative economic tively free to locate anywhere good personnel, transporta- features. They include: tion, and communication conditions exist. (a) declining traditional industries creating tem- The nature and requirements of these relatively "foot-loose" porary labor and capital dislocation; industries afforda good opportunity for public policy to in- (b) a higher cost of living than the national average; fluence the development of an overall locational pattern. (c) a higher than national average: rate of property That is, this kind of industry has the potential for being and state taxes; amenable to public locational controls, and thus offers (d) higher unemployment than the national average; planners and policy-makers an opportunity to guide growth (e) higher energy costs than the national average; and enhance the natural landscape without adversely affect- (f) with the exception of sand and gravel and ing overall economic efficiency. stone, a lack of economically extractable min- erals; and Therefore, with policy direction, the Worcester- Fitchburg- (g) poor access with respect to national markets. Leominster, Fall River-New Bedford, and Providence- Pawtucket-Warwick sub-areas 'May be able to gain a larger Implications share of future economic activity than might otherwise be the case. This may lead to lower and more manageable In the light of the region's major economic trends and the rates of increase in pressures on land use, and costs of con- resulting development atmosphere, what are the implica- struction in other metropolitan areas. tions for future economic development and the demands placed on the resource base? Continuing Need to Upgrade Region's Labor Force. The trend towards continued growth of profes- Relatively Lower Growth in Direct Demand for sional services also points to a continuing need for programs Natural Resources. The changes in the industrial com- to upgrade the professional abilitypf the region's labor position of the region imply that the economic activity re- force. 'This, in turn, implies that more and more funds may lated to the production of marketable goods and services have to be devoted to expand and improve educational, re- will place a relatively lower demand on the region's water search, and training facilities. Policy decisions will be and related land resources in the form of direct require- needed however to determine where, both geographically ments. This implies that the chances for meeting national and eco 'nomically, such investments will yield the greatest environmental goals for cleaner water and air may be some- returns. Rhode Island, for example, is already beginning to what more favorable than one mightexpect for SENE. This train its residents, in higher demand skills . situation tends to underscore at least in one area, the non- conflicting nature of the relationship between the objectives Changed Nature of Economic Fluctuations. A of economic growth, and preservation and management of heavy reliance on activities such as education, research, ord the environment in SENE. nance, and electrical machinery, has led to the expression of some concern that the workers in these industries are 2-11 more directly exposed to the vagarie& of the public budget time employment, tax revenues, and the ready availability processes than workers in other industrial sectors. In any of recreational opportunity for the work force. On the period of fiscal austerity, the problem of unemployment in other hand, exploitative and unabashed use of the resources these industries can be severe, though temporary. However, for recreational activities will conflict with the objective of the long-term economic and social implications of such restoring and maintaining the quality of the environment. fluctuations are expected to be much less severe than would The issue is not merely one of quantity of natural resources be the case if the economy continued to rely heavily on the to be devoted to recreational uses, but also of maintaining production of non-durable consumer goods. Moreover, to (or even improving) the quality of the recreational experi- the extent that the threat of severe economic fluctuation is ence and the physical environment of the region. reduced, a community's willingness to address itself to en- vironmental quality issues will be more likely to increase. The issue is further complicated by the fact that over 85 per- cent of the total recreational shoreline in SENE is privately Conflicts between Economic and Environmental owned and a vast proportion of this land is not accessible Objectives for public recreation. This situation is not likely to improve if private market forces are allowed to continue to dominate Unfortunately, the situation may not be as simple as the the allocation of the use of coastal lands. foregoing discussion indicates. Conflicting demands on .water and related land resources exist and must be con. Conclusion from an Economic-Resources sidered. Perspective As discussed in Chapter 9 of this report, there are increasing It should be apparent from the above discussion that, while pressures for the location of one or more refineries in the the conflict betw een conventional economic and environ- SENE region. The petroleum refining industry is known to mental use of the region's resources has, to some extent, be a major water user and discharger of pollutants. More- been alleviated by the transition towards a service economy, over, the region's power generating capacity will have to be it has not been resolved completely. While some may con- expanded, even with strict consumption rate reduction mea- strue from the preceding remarks that manufacturing has been sures. Thus, without strong siting and operating guidance, completely excluded from further consideration, this is not the water and land requirements of power plants and refin- the case. Manufacturing enterprises which recognize the eries have the potential to be in conflict with environmental value of the environmental character of SENE as an import- quality objectives. ant locational determinant, and implement sound natural resources management policies, obviously could provide a In addition, the future consumption of land for urban pur- balanced mix with the strong service sector and improve poses will be an important factor. During the 1960's, about the economic position of SENE. Without this mixture which 182,000 acres were developed for residences, businesses, in- includes light industry, for example, it will be difficult for dustries, institutions, and transportation facilities while the the service sector to provide employment to keep pace with region was growing by almost 375,000 people. This amounted ordinary growth of numbers of low skilled workers. to a rate of urbanization of about one-half acre per capita during that 10-year period - four times higher than the av- The region's physical character is one of its major assets erage rate of land consumption since the Pilgrims landed in with direct and indirect potential for economic develop- 1620. ment. The region may be unique in the nation in that re- gard. Direct resource related industries such as tourism, If this recent rate of urbanization should continue, the pro- recreation, forestry, and aquaculture have strong growth jected increase in population in Southeastern New England potential. Indirectly, the quality of the environment is a of 939,000 people between 1970 and 1990 would consume potent factor in the region's ability to attract and retain another 470,000 acres, almost equal to the present area de- the highly skilled, highly selective, and amenity-oriented voted to urban uses. Even if the projected population labor force, and the growth industries which employ them. growth occurs, however, the rate of land consumption need Having lost its initial competitive advantage in manufac- not be as high. Both the need and the opportunity for strong turing, the future economic health of the region depends in environmental management are indisputable. large part in maintaining the competitive advantage it now enjoys in services and "foot loose" industries. To maintain The likelihood of a significant per capita increase in demand that advantage the region must maintain its natural land- for outdoor recreational facilities from the SENE residents scape, the main attraction, To improve its competitive ad- has already been pointed out. Additionally, the region's vantage, the region must improve its natural landscape. recreational resources are also going to be pressured by out- Growth achieved by the misuse ofthe quality of the re- siders, 50 million of whom are within an easy one day drive gion's water and related land resources wiif have adverse of SENE. The economy of the region benefits from recrea- effects on its long term economic stability. The contribu- tional activities through the generation of seasonal and full tion that the remaining natural resources in the SENE region can make to the economy is significant. The recog- 2-12 nition of the mutual importance of economic growth and lightened natural resource policy-making and is the funda- environmental quality in the SENE area is a key to en- mental theme of this Study. Resource Management Institutions In order to further understand the dynamics of the region, State it is important to have a sense of the actors and institutions which make natural resources decisions in SENE. This sec- The role of the states of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and tion will briefly describe the governmental responsibilities Connecticut in resource management decisions in the re- in the region. More detailed discussion is found in Chap- gion is a potentially strong one. Federal committment to ter 10. this policy is evidenced by the role the states play as a re- sult of such key legislation as the Federal Water Pollution Federal Control Act Amendments of 1972 (FWPCAA, 1972), and the Coastal Zone Management Act. An example from the A large number of federal agencies are involved in resource FWPCAA of 1972 characterizes the state role: planning, regulation, technical and financial assistance, and policy development. Areas of resource management include "ft is the policy of Congress to recognize, pre- water, land, air, and wildlife. Because of the number of serve, and protect the primary responsibilities agencies involved in these activities, a discussion of all of and rights of states to prevent, reduce, and eli- the specific federal programs would be impractical at this minate pollution, to plan the development and point in the report. However, the agencies involved in use (including restoration, preservation, and carrying out functional recommendations are discussed in enhancement) of land and water resour- the chapters which follow in this report. ces. . . ." (Section 101). Interstate and Regional State level agencies are currently involved in program ad- irtinistration, provision of funding, and technical assistance, The most prominant interstate bodies in the SENE area in- and regulatory activities in resource management. Because clude the New England Regional Commission and the New of the primary role the states will be playing in natural re- England River Basins Commission. The former, established source management, it is worth reviewing the current re- under Title V of the Public Works and Economic Develop- sponsibilities of the existing institutional framework for ment Act of 1965, is responsible for strengthening regional the two states which comprise the largest portion of the economic development. The latter, established under Title SENE area. II of the Water Resources Planning Act of 1965, serves as the principal agency at the regional level for coordination Massachusetts. In Massachusetts, policy development among the major federal-state natural resource decision- for the state's physical resources is currently the responsi- making programs, and is charged with the preparation of a bility 9f the Cabinet, replacing what was formerly the re- comprehensive, coordinated, joint plan for management of sponsibility of Resource Management Policy Council water and related land resources of the region. This is (RMPC). This Council was designed to 'aid program coordi- carried out by the Commission through its studies of re- nation among state air quality, water quality, coastal zone, gional problems and needs as inputs to state decision- land use, and rural development programs. making processes, and through its comprehensive, multi- purpose management programs such as the Southeastern The RMPC's Coastal Zone Task Force, under the direction New England Study, the Long Island Sound Study, and the of the Secretary of Environmental Affairs, prepared the Connecticut River Basin Program. state's application for federal funding under the Coastal Zone Management program. Funds have now been The New England Governors' Conference, which is composed awarded to the Office of Environmental Affairs for plan- of the six New England governors, also exists to coordinate ning and program development. The RMPC Task Force on state activities with regard to natural resources. A Federal Land Use, under the leadership of the Department of Com- Regional Council has also been established for the New Eng- munity Affairs, developed alternative comprehensive land land region. This council is to improve the administration use strategies for the state as a whole, including some of of federal grant programs in the region by improving pro- the. features of the recently enacted Martha's Vineyard law gram operations, developing funding Programs in coopera- which provides for regional review of development and tion with state and local officials, and encouraging joint and areas of critical concern. integrated grant applications. Finally, other special-purpose organizations, such as the New England Interstate Water Under the state government reorganization, the Executive Pollution Control Commission, exist to coordinate specific Office of Environmental Affairs has been authorized to plan ftinctional activities in the region. 2-13 and carry out'the state's environmental policies, and has Long-range water resources planning is conducted by the combined the functions of the Department of Natural Water Resources Board, which also approves water supply Resources, the air quality programs of the Department distribution systems. With the approval of the Governor, of Public Health, the solid waste functions of the De- this Board is authorized, to acquire dams and construct or partment of Public Works, the Department of Agriculture, purchase reservoirs. Finally, the Economic Development and the Metropolitan District Commission (MDC) into Corporation, designed to stimulate industrial and economic five major departments: Environmental Quality Engineer- growth in the state, is authorized to construct and develop ing, Environmental Management, Food and Agriculture, utility facilities and port projects. Fisheries, Wildlife and Recreational Vehicles, and the MDC. The state has also recently created an Energy Fa- Local cilities Siting Council authorized to review long-range plans and proposed site locations for electrical power generation As is typical of the rest of New England, the SENE region is and natural gas refinement. characterized by a tradition of strong local involvement in resource decision-making. Local governments make many Water management programs are currently the respo'nsibil- of the most critical water and related land management de- ity of the Water Resources Commission and administered in cisions. Local governments regulate the many land uses that Commission by the Division of Water Pollution Control (including flood plains) through the administration of zon- and the Division of Water Resources. ing ordinances, bylaws, subdivision controls, and permit systems for a variety of developments and land-disturbing Rhode Island. In Rhode Island, the State Planning activities. The existence of local conservation commissions Council composed of state, local, and federal representa- gives a focal point to local environmental interests, and by tives, provides overall resource policy direction insofar as it law in Massachusetts, they are charged with responsibility reviews and adopts elements of the State Guide Plan. The for administering the wetlands protection program and State Guide Plan outlines policies for land use, water and also have a role in open space acquisition. With one or two sewer service, water quality, transportation, recreation, eco- notable exceptions, water supply is also a local matter, us- nomic development, and historic preservation. The plan is ually limited to supply development on a town-by-town prepared by the Statewide Planning Program, the centra 'I basis by municipal agencies and private water companies in planning agency for the state government and the clearing- conformance with state standards to ensure protection of house for federal grant administration. The Department of public health and water quality. Though, in Rhode Island, Natural Resources administers many programs related to more than half the communities are served by regional parks and recreation areas, forests, fish and wildlife, agri- systems, four are only served by local systems, and four are culture, land acquisition, freshwater wetlands, shoreline and served by both. Special interest organizations, such as the tidewaters. Close coordination between the activities of various watershed associations and citizen groups, pro- the Department of Natural Resources and the Coastal Re- liferate at the local level and have played a vital role in sources Management Council (CRMC) is maintained since influencing decision making. Because the communities the department, through its Division of Coastal Resources, ratify actions proposed by their selectmen at town and city provides staff to the CRMC. council meetings, the cities and towns can bring significant pressure to bear on resource management in Southeastern The CRMC is responsible for planning and management of New England. In light of this political and social reality, coastal resources, and administers programs in the coastal special emphasis on local issues and control must be given to area such as those for wetlands. It also regulates selected the design of any water and related land management pro- uses and activities in that area, such as power plants, sewer gram for SENE. The SENE region contains more than two treatment plants and solid waste plants, so as to assure hundred municipal bodies which makes the securing of local consistency of uses with standards and plans for protection consensus on resource management an extraordinarily of coastal resources. The CRMC is also involved in the difficult task. state's coastal zone management program under the Coastal Zone Management Act. Although county government does exist in the SENE region, it is largely an anachronism. Substate regional institutions Water quality, air quality, and solid waste disposal are regu- are not altogether lacking, however. In the SENE portion lated by the state's Department of Health. The Department of Massachusetts there are eight regional planning agencies of Community Affairs provides technical planning assistance whose responsibilities include, in. addition to reconciling and administers federal grants to local governments. The various local plans within their jurisdiction, a role in review- Solid Waste Management Corporation is responsible for ing local grant applications as part of their designation as planning and rearrangement of the solid waste resource A-95 clearinghouse agencies. In Rhode Island, the Statewide recovery system. Planning Program provides these functions over the entire 2-14 state. A number of special purpose organizations, such as performed by the Metropolitan District Commission. Al- watershed districts and sewer districts also exist in both though it is a creature of state government, MDC services states. In the Boston metropolitan area, water supply, and supplies only the Boston metropolitan region. wastewater management, and other municipal services are Current Public Perceptions More often than not, the perceptions of the planner and the participants agree about the value of enhancing recreation general public on priority natural resource problems differ. opportunities for the tourism value but worry more about The planner in metropolitan Boston is worried about the the general disappearance of natural areas. They are uni- area's critical water shortage. The citizen whose faucet con- formly concerned about the slow pace of water quality tinues to yield water is not. The citizen is angry that he can- improvements and unwilling to make commitments, whe- not swim in local streams and rivers. The planner knows ther financial or otherwise, to actions which depend on that water quality improvements are proceeding well. For clean streams and rivers. Finally, the citizens who partici- a plan to work, it must recognize and address these differ- pated, probably more so than the general public are less ences in perception. concerned about the future availability of water supplies than they are about the effect water supply development Southeastern New England's people are unusually well ac- can have on patterns of growth. quainted with environmental issues. Organizations such as the Audubon Society and Ecology Action for Rhode Island While the several major issues as described above, surfaced are examples of active organizations. In Massachusetts es- at most public meetings, SENE is unique in that its public pecially, the town conservation commissions keep environ- is primarily concerned with its perceptions of local issues. mental concern near the forefront of public discussion. As Active watershed associations, and other citizen groups a result a proportionately larger segment of the general identify with their own concerns: growth and its effect on public in SENE can be considered citizen environmental water supply and wastewater management on Cape Cod; activists than in the nation as a whole. water supply in the Ipswich-North Shore and Greater Boston area; and management of regional beach opportuni- To understand their perceptions of the key resource issues ties in the Pawcatuck Planning area in Rhode Island are a and determine their preferences among the many alterna- few examples. The perceptions of the public based on un- tive solutions to these problems, the SENE Study created a derstanding of its locale are as fundamental to resource regional Citizens Advisory Committee and ten individual planning in New England asthe recognition that local gov- river Basin Advisory Committees, and held meetings ernment is a major decision force. throughout the Study region at each critical step in the planning effort. It was not always easy for planners and This chapter has described the setting of the Study area in citizens to reach consensus. On occasion interest flagged terms of its geography and its people. The changes toward and attendance at meetings dropped. But on the whole, a service based economy in SENE may alter some precon- both planners and citizens benefited, and to a great extent ceived notions about the potential for a continuing and in- the Study's recommendations reflect the key concerns and creasing threat of serious pollution problems. The steady preferred solutions of those many citizens who chose to shift in the industrial composition of the region to one take advantage of the opportunity to participate. which places a lower direct demand on the region's water is encouraging. The past decade has been characterized by While variations in emphasis exist from one sub-area of the a significant environmental awareness. The next decade, Study region to the next, there'was surprising unanimity given the current state of economy, may see a shift in the among those citizens who attended SENE's many work- other direction. As shown in this chapter, the complemen- shops and public meetings. Sprawl and the related effects tarity does exist between economic growth and the main- of uncontrolled growth is their major concern. Within the tenance of'a quality environment. limits of reasonable economic opportunities, most people prefer some method of directing future growth in such a The Study was guided by these concerns and its recommen- manner as to preserve some sense of open space and the ded resource management program, to a very great degree, natural beauty which drew them to, or kept them in, the responds directly to them. Ultimately, if the recommenda- region in the first place. In most areas of the Study region, tions are to be implemented, they must be responsive. 2-15 - h- - 40@ Or ziawm or t4 er kN 4i. @Ak kite t 4", Azi Alt" L TRW 1W, I wik* Vol ago Guiding Growth CHAPTER 3 GUIDING GROWTH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 The Setting 3-1, The Situation 3-2, General Growth Trends 3-2, Land Use Changes 3-2, Population Growth 3-3, Land Consumption 3-3, Sewering and Water Supply 3-3, Employment 34, Development Pressure 34, Effects of Growth on Water and Related Land Resources 3-7, Wetlands 3-7, Beaches, Dunes, and Bluffs 3- 7, Water Bodies 3- 7, Well Sites 3- 7, Estuaries 3-8, Flood Plains 3-8, Prime Agricultural Lands 3-8, Unique Natural and CWtural Areas 3-8, Aquifer and Recharge Areas 3-9, Upland Wildlife Habitat and High Landscape Quality Areas 3-9, Soils with Development Limitations 3-9, Developments of Regional Impact 3-9, Key Facilities 3-9, Large Scale or Growth Ifiducing Development 3-9, The SENE Resource Development Capability Analysis 3-10, Criteria for Classifying Resources 3-10, A Water and Related Land Use Classification System 3-11, Critical Environmental Areas 3-11, Developable Areas Requiring Manage- ment 3-12, Preempted Use Areas 3-13, The Implications of the Development Capability Analysis for Accommodating Growth 3-14, The Solutions 3-16, Alternatives 3-16, Continuing Current Programs and Regulations 3-16, Increase Protection of Oltical Environmental Areas 3-19, Improve Management of Developable Areas 3-20, Recommendations 3-23, Implications 3-28. CHAPTER 3 GUIDING GROWTH The Setting The growth of a region and the quality and quantity of its programs, investment decisions, acquisitions, and fiscal water and related land resources are closely interrelated. policies. The fink may be somewhat less direct than it was when most of the people in Southeastern New England farmed Federal governmental agencies, such as the Environmental or fished for their livelihood, but it is there nevertheless. Protection Agency through its air and water quality programs New development creates demand. for water - for drinking, and funding of interceptor sewers, influence the location of for waste disposal, for recreation, and many other purposes. development. The Corps of Engineers also plays a role in New development consumes land and often encroaches on protecting water related resources through recent regula- such water related lands as flood plains, wetlands, and lands tions of discharge of dredged or fill material in navigable overlying ground water. The degree to which water demand waters or ocean waters pursuant to Section 404 of the and land consumption becomes,a problem depends not Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. simpl@ on the amount of development, but also on its type, The new regulations extend fe de ral jurisdictions, regulations, density, and location. When water demand and land con- and permitting authority to virtually all wetlands, swamps, sumption do become problems, the effects of growth be- rivers, lakes, and streams of the United States. While this come inhibitors of future growth, and the quality of life Study directs its attention to water related factors, present suffers. or proposed land use patterns and their attendant activities have a major impact upon the type and amount of air pol- Decision-making which affects the character ofgrowth is lution generated over a region. The federal government is multi-faceted. Decisions by private landowners, developers, also deeply involved in land use and growth decisions in businesses, and others have the prime impact on land use, connection with its management of federal holdings in the determining the exact location, type, and timing of devel- region such as wildlife refuges and the National Seashore. opment according to their needs. Local governments have These examples underscore the need for effective coordina- the primary responsibility for governmental regulation tion among all responsible agencies with respect to guiding through zoning, subdivision controls, building codes, and growth. other regulations; local investments in streets, sewers, and water facilities also strongly influence development pat- This brief summary has shown the multi-faceted nature of terns. decision making which affects growth. Proposed national land use legislation would put the states in firmer control Substate regional planning agencies, like those in Massachu- through state review or guidance of significant local actions. setts, presently are responsible for planning on a multi-town basis but have no power to execute the plans. Their role is This chapter concentrates on setting forth basic principles increasing and may include greater authority to represent upon which an overall strategy for natural resources man- the concerns of their constituents in state program decisions. agement can be built. It draws on Chapter 1, Goals and Other substate agencies, such as transportation authorities, Approach, and Chapter 2, Yhe Setting, which provide a regional water and sewer authorities, and counties, influ- framework and an order to deal with water and related ence development through public investments; some spe- lands from an integrated, resource perspective. Many cially formed institutions such as that on Martha's Vineyard cross-references to other portions of this report are made, have broad land use regulatory authority, emphasizing the strong interrelationships which exist with functions -covered in other chapters. The material pre- State government plans and regulates to varying degrees; sented in this chapter is fundamental to virtually every Rhode Island has adopted a land use policy and plan, and other chapter in this report. This is demonstrated in Chap- regulates only with respect to certain resources such as ter 11, 7),ing the Recommendations Together. There, the those in the coastal zone and wetlands. Massachusetts has interrelationships of all Study recommendations are set enacted comprehensive regulation on Martha's Vineyard in forth on tables in summary fashion. addition to regulations for power.plant siting and wetlands preservation, but has not formulated a land use policy or The principles and rationale set forth in Chapter 3, Guid- plan. Comments during review of this Study showed strong ing Growth, provide a sound basis for guiding growth not public sentiment that such policies are badly needed. Cur- only in Southeastern New England, but in other regions in rently the Commonwealth is working on such a framework. the nation as well. The institutional structures necessary States also influence development through other regulatory to implement these recommendations will vary according 3-1 to location; they are treated in Chapter 10, Strengthening lands and to the contribution they make to the quality of the Management System for Natural Resources, near the life in Southeastern New England. conclusion of the Regional Report. This chapter does not present a comprehensive land use The objective of Chapter 3, Guiding Growth, is to suggest plan for Southeastern New England because major growth strategies for protecting the critical water and related land concerns, such as housing, transportation, education, and resources of Southeastern New England while accommodat- economic development, which should be part of such a plan, ing future economic activities; and to suggest ways that were considered only to the extent of their interrelationships growth might be guided to preserve the amenities of the with water resources. However, the detailed analysis of the region and the quality of its resources. The chapter first several steps recommended to control the use of water and investigates recent growth trends in Southeastern New Erig- related land resources while accommodating needed growth, land and examines the effect that growth has had on the constitute a basic first step in the development of a regional region's resources. Second, alternative ways of protecting growth policy and comprehensive land use plan. The critical environmental areas and guiding growth to areas decision to stress water resources in this Study does not suitable for development are examined. Finally, several infer a diminished role to other planning factors, but, rather, recommendations are made to provide for the expected is the result of the scope of the New England River Basins growth of the.region in a manner which is sensitive to the Commission's authority. development capabilities of the region's water and related The Situation General Growth Trends Und Use Changes. Table 3.1 shows that between 1960 at the expense of agricultural and forest lands. In 1970, of and 1970 lands used for urban development (1,000 people SENE's 2,865,000 acres, 5 percent was in water, about 56 per square mile) increased by almost 50 percent, primarily percent was covered by forest (a 5 percent reduction from TABLE 3.1 LAND USE CHANGES IN SENE, 1960 to 1970 Acres (in 1000's) % Total Area Change Category 1960 1970 1960 1970 By Category Water Area 133 144 4.6 5.0 +.-8.3 Land Area 2,732 2,721 95.4 95.0 0.4 Fprest* 1,693 1,601 -59.1 55.9 5.4 Open (160) (161) (5.6) (5.6) (+0.6) Salt Wetlands 51 44 1.8 1.5 -13.7 Freshwater Wetlands 71 67 2.5 2.4 - 5.6 Other incl. Recreation 38 so 1.3 1.7 +31.6 Agriculture (459) (350) (16k) (12.2) (-23.7) Agriculture 287 205 10.0 7.2 -28.6 Open Transitional 172 145 6.0 5.0 -15.7 Urban (420) (609) (14.7) (21.3) (-k45.O) Low Intensity 22 37 0.8 1.3 +68.2 Medium Intensity 71 98 2.5 3.4 +38.0 High Intensity 261 382 9.1 13.4 +46.4 Transportation 30 42 1.0 1.5 +40.0 Industry 19 26 0.7 0.9 +36.8 Extractive & Disposal 17 24 0.6 0.8 t41.2 Total Area 2,865 2,965 100% 100% 0% Source: Se6 Methodology Forest figures include forested freshwater wetlands which totaled 224,000 acres in 1970. 3-2 1960), about 6 percent was open space (an increase of 0.6 ulation, compared to an historical average rate of only one- percent, but the category includes a 9 percent decrease in eighth of an acre per person. wetlands), about 12 percent was in agriculture (a decrease of 24 percent), and the remaining 21 percent was urban. Populations for SENE and itsten planning areas for 1990 Similar disaggregations are shown in Table 3.2 for each and 2020 were shown in Chapter 2 on Table 2. 1. The 0.8 planning area. These figures emphasize, as noted in Chapter percent annual rate of population growth during the 1960's 2, The Setting, the conflict between the simultaneous de- is expected to continue through 2020. If projected popu- mands of a growing population for land for development lations are accommodated in the SENE region at densities and for preservation of the natural areas that make for a similar to those experienced in the 1960's, about 37 per- pleasant living environment. cent of the region will be urbanized by 1990, and about 50 percent by 2020. Why has the use of land changed and why will it continue to change?The reasons are found by examining a number Sewering and Water Supply. Of the region's 1970 of important trends. population of 4.8 million, 70 percent lived in dwellings which were connected to public sewers. As shown in Population Growth. Between 1960 and 1970, Table 3.3 sewer service varied from a high of 87 percent of SENE's population grew from 4,460,000 to 4,838,000, an the population in the Boston Metropolitan area to only 12 8.5 percent increase. As might be expected, however, this percent on Cape Cod and the Islands. The remaining popu- growth was not evenly distributed. Of the major urban lation was dependent on individual on-lot systems (cesspools centers, the area encompassing Boston and its southern or septic tanks) for disposal of wastewater. It is estimated suburbs grew the fastest with a 15 percent increase. The that more than half of these individual disposal systems Providence metropolitan area followed with an 11 percent will have to be replaced by sewer connections because the rise. Fully 81 percent of SENE's population now lives in lots are too small to assure continued protection of surface urban areas. Some of the less densely populated parts of and ground water. the region, however, experienced much higher rates of growth. Barnstable County registered a 38 percent increase. In 1970, 95 percent of SENE's 4.8 million people were served by municipal water supply systems; the remainder Land Consumption. Since 1946, new residential de- relied on individual wells for their water. Municipal water velopment has consumed land at an increasingly rapid rate. supply systems served a high of over 99 percent of the Between 1960 and 1970, land in SENE was consumed at South Shore planning area population and a low of 61 the rate of one-half acre for every new addition to the pop- percent of the Pawcatuck planning area population. TABLE 3.2 LAND USE IN SENE PLANNING AREAS IN 1970 Acres Percent (%) of Planning Area Planning Area (in 1000's) Water Forest* Open Agriculture Urban Ipswich-North Shore 274 6 47 11 10 26 Boston Metropolitan 421 3 42 5 9 41 Southghote 1-72 5 61 7 8 19 Cape Cod & Islands 378 9 57 8 11 is Buzzards Bay 205 6 57 6 17 14 Taunton 351 5 60 4 13 18 Blackstone & Vicinity 410 3 59 3 13 21 Pawtuxet 180 4 73 2 9 12 Narragansett Bay 212 5 41 5 24 25 Pawcatuck 262 4 72 4 12 8 SENE 2,865 5.0% 55.9% 5.6% 12.1% 21.3% Source: See Methodology *Figures for forest include forested freshwater wetlands 3-3 Employment The core cities and the metropolitan Figure 3.1 was developed by applying these indices to areas are still the employment centers, but their share of each town in SENE. The figure gives an indication of the the region's employment is decreasing. The urban and ur- probable levels of developmeni pressure over the next 20 banizing centers of Boston, Narragansett Bay, Buzzards years. Note that the pressures are generally high in the Bay, Cape Cod, and Worcester, still account for almost 80 towns peripheral to the major cities. Figure 3.2 is a gen- percent of the growth in employment in the region. The eralized picture of towns with population density exceed- fastest growing area was Cape Cod where employment grew ing 1000 people per square mile in 1970, with projections 13 percent faster than population during the 1960's. through 1990 and 2020. This density was selected be- cause it is equivalent to one acre residential lots covering Development Pressure. The direction of future ur- half of the area of a town, with the remaining half devoted ban expansion - development pressure - is influenced by to commercial, industrial, institutional, and transportation the location of existing residential development, and eco- uses or to undeveloped land. nomic and cultural activities, the relative cost and length of travel time between residences and jobs, and the amount Figures 3.1 and 3.2 give some indication of the location and and location of land available for development at any given extent of development that can be expected to occur in time. Seven indices can be used to estimate the potential SENE if urbanization proceeds in the future according to development pressures that may affect each community: the patterns which have occurred in the past. Figure 3.1, (1) absolute and (2) relative population change 1960-1970; in particular, if modified by state, regional, and local land (3) absolute and (4) relative employment change 1960- use planners based on their more intimate knowledge, can 1970; (5) relative accessibility by automobile to popula- be used to anticipate future pressure on critical water and tion and (6) to employment in all other municipalities in related lands. the region; and (7) the acreage of developable land having moderate to no septic tank limitations. TABLE 3.3 POPULATION SERVED BY SEWERS IN SENE PLANNING AREAS 1970 Population (in 1,000's) Served by Sewers Unserved but Planning Area Total No. % Requiring Sewers Ipswich-North Shore 584 410 70 101 Boston Metropolitan 2,115 1,832 87 183 South Shore 116 19 16 52 Cape Cod & Islands 107 13 12 14 Buzzards Bay 178 123 69 25 Taunton 339 219 55 115 .Blackstone &Vicinity 824 609 74 145 Pawtuxet 154 91 59 36 Narragansett Bay 291 75 26 .168 Pawcatuck 70 15 21 15 SENE 4,938 3,406 70% 854 Source: See Methodology Assuming that all unserved dwellings on lots of 1/2 acre or less will require sewer service to protect water resources. 3-4 LEGEND High Medium-high Medium-low Low Based on indices relating to past rates of growth, accessibility and land availability. Other more detailed data may produce different results. aAssAcmt1szrVs JIMIRM, AWAW PAr ___.4t A r L A Iv r/ r oczAm It 71 jql- LIT S "WK CAPE COO JIAV '44 r- rr-_1 el .......... #Amrucxrr SOUND .96 #1.OCX ISLAND .... SOUND 0 2 MILES KILOMETERS 0 2 4 S NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS NO. DEVELOPMENT PRESSURES 3.1 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 3.5 @P 1970 1990 2020 Current and projected areas with population density greater than 1000 people per square mile. Source: 0 BE RS Series E. 0-4 NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS 41 NO. ti) URBANIZATION PATTERNS 3.2 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND OF THE SENE REGION WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 3-6 Effects of Growth on Water and Related Land Resources The SENE Study is concerned primarily with the relation- which increases, oxygen demand, thereby to some -degree ships between growth and water and related land resources. negating filtration benefits. Inland wetlands do, however, Water related lands are generally those which, because of aid water quality in rivers through their capacity to re- their soil characteristics and/or location over, under, or lease stored water gradually, providing an even flow. near water resources, are important for use, protection, management, or development of that resource. Such water More detailed discussion of the characteristics above are related lands include, but are not limited to: wetlands, res- included in Chapter 7, Marine Management, and Chapter ervoir watersheds, flood plains, ground water recharge areas, 8, flooding and Erosion. The recreational value of wet- soils with septic system limitations, shellfish flats, well sites, lands is discussed in Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreation. and beaches. Beaches, Dunes, and Bluffs. The region's coastal The development capability of such lands is limited for a beaches, dunes, and bluffs are major aesihetic attributes; number of reasons. Some are vital to the preservation of they attract literally millions of tourists annually. They drinking water supplies. Others are sites for a necessary are also the region's first line of defense from coastal segment of production of food and fiber, the marine food storms and tidal flooding. Development on these often chain, or serve as wildlife habitats. Still others would create critically eroding lands has disrupted their ability to per- a threat to public health and safety if developed. The form these functions. The problem is critical along such decision as to whether such lands are to be developed or areas as Plum Island (Ipswich-North Shore planning area) preserved involves weighing the benefits of development and Scituate (South Shore planning area) in Massachusetts, against the benefits of preservation (or the costs of develop- and along the southwestern coast of Rhode Island (Pawca- ment). Each of these water related lands is examined in tuck planning area). For the region as a whole, over 70 greater detail below. miles of shoreline is eroding at a rate of more than three feet per year; 55 miles of this total is along the beaches Wetlands. Wetlands are among the most fragile of the and bluffs of the Cape Cod and Islands planning area. region's water and related land resources. According to Table 3.1, salt water wetlands decreased by 13.7 percent Problems associated with the development of these critical between 1960 and 1970. Fresh water wetlands decreased areas are discussed more fully in Chapter 8, Flooding and by 5.6 percent in the same period. Both Rhode Island and Erosion and in the appropriate planning area reports. Massachusetts now protect these areas by law, but the cur- rent level of regulation and enforcement may not be suffi- Water Bodies. Programs of water quality preservation and cient to reduce the rate of loss significantly. restoration in SENE should improve the region's capability to provide and hold the skilled personnel it needs to main- Wetlands perform several basic functions: they recycle tain its economic well-being (Chapter 2, The Setting). Water nutrients used.by fish and wildlife, serve as nursery areas bodies must be protected not only for their aesthetic value, for many species, and provide habitat for wildlife. Coastal but for their irreplaceable benefits such as recreation sites wetlands act as buffers for storms and as stabilizers of and sources of water supply. Many of the region's inhabit- shorelines, and inland wetlands serve as natural storage ants are without access to clean, natural water bodies. Land areas for excess flows, releasing them slowly and modify- use measures needed to protect water quality include con- ing downstream flood stages. The Corps of Engineers, in trol of non-point source pollution, particularly polluted a recent study, determined that a forty percent loss of storinwater runoff from urban concentrations, and sediment Charles River wetlands (Boston Metropolitanplanning from erosion. Management of present and proposed reser- area) could increase flood stages in the middle and upper voir watershed lands must ensure that significant pollutants river from two to four feet, for a flood of the magnitude do not enter the water bodies. Development must be re- experienced in 1968. According to studies conducted at stricted in these areas in order to protect water quality. the University of Massachusetts, wetlands common in More complete treatment of surface water sources (storage, SENE are capable of holding and transmitting .25 to 3.0 not distribution sites) could pen-nit more use of their sur- million gallons of water per day. The slightest alteration rounding watershed lands. However, the growing trend of the delicate balance of waters, land, and vegetation can toward complete treatment of all surface sources should significantly diminish the ability of wetlands to perform not preclude a general policy of water quality protection. these functions. It is worth noting that coastal wetlands are valuable for water quality enhancement because of the flushing action Well Sites. In addition to surface water sources, well caused by the normal change of tide. The water quality sites must be shielded from development. Pollutants en- benefits of inland wetlands are less certain, however, be- tering the ground in these locations may filter directly into cause of their tendency to collect decaying vegetation water supplies. Details are discussed in Chapter 4, Water 3-7 Supply, particularly with respect to the pressures being levels to rise and subject areas to flooding that had not placed on existing and potential well sites as a result of been exposed before. population growth. Prime Agricultural Lands. The availability of high Estuaries. Tidal rivers and their associated salt water quality agricultural soils is decreasing rapidly in SENE. Ac- wetlands are also vulnerable to deterioration and outright cording to the Massachusetts Governor's Commission on destruction due to careless land use practices. In some Food, the acreage of farms in the state has declined from planning areas in SENE, most of the salt water wetlands 2 million in 1945 to about 700,000 today. In SENE as a that once existed are already gone. All but one of whole, 29 percent of the region's prime agricultural land SENE's tidal estuaries have been dammed, and the re- was converted to urban use (Table 3.1) between 1960 and maining one, the North River, is noted for its high-quality 1970. This rapid conversion of agricultural land threatens sport fishery and is the site of the first salmon restoration to pose serious problems for the long-range production of project in the region. Many of SENE's estuaries are also food and fiber. But significant potential exists for increasing adversely affected by wastewater treatment plant dis- the proportion of the regional food market held by local charges and other types of water pollution. Significant production, thereby reducing cost to the consumer and the amounts of shellfish beds have been closed for public vulnerability of the region to disruptions in the distribution health reasons due to inordinately high pollution levels system. (see Chapter 7, Marine Management). In addition to these "estuary related" species, however, many more are in some Prime agricultural lands are also important to the produc- nianner "estuarine -dependent" . Sources at Woods Hole tion of non-food renewable resources such as forest products. Oceanographic Institute estimate that about 70 percent Fifty-six percent of Southeastern New England is covered of New England's commercially-valuable fish species are by forest, most of which is second growth, and not nearly either directly or indirectly dependent upon estuaries at as productive as it could be under good management. As various stages of their life cycles. While these offshore with agricultural lands devoted to food production, the species may never actually enter estuarine waters, they vast majority of these areas are small, privately owned feed on the many species which do, and are therefore tied parcels which make commercial harvest difficult. Yet it has to estuarine habitats through the food chain. Unfortu- recently become clear that on a worldwide scale there is no nately, these species are being threatened by continued such thing as excess agricultural capacity or an over- loss of these coastal habitats and by pollution of coastal abundance of massive resources. Therefore it is incumbent waters. Estuaries and other areas critical for marine life upon all decision makers to preserve whatever capacity this are discussed ii-; more detail in Chapter 7, Marine Manage- region may have for production. ment. In addition to their food and fiber function, agricultural Flood Plaihs. Some water related lands can retain lands may serve as important recharge areas for ground their usefulness under limited kinds of development. Flood water, produce habitat for wildlife, and are important plains, discusse-d in Chapter 8, F76oding and Erosion, are factors in the physical attractiveness of the region. New capable of supporting certain limited forms of develop- England depends on the ever changing landscape created by ment, including agriculture and recreation. Such develop- active agriculture to provide a mixture of land use diversity ment would neither impede natural flood flows nor incur which contributes to the heritage and culture of this area. substantial damages if flooded. But encroachment of Prime agricultural lands, both non-forested and forested, larger scale development, which occurs in several parts of can be utilized indefinitely, provided that they are managed the region, not only escalates local damages and loss of in ways which take into account their inherent capabilities. life, but by altering flood stages causes greater damage both upstream and downstream. The National Flood In- Unique Natural and Cultural Areas. As a coastal surance Program of the Department of Housing and Ur- region, many of the unique natural and cultural areas are ban Development will be of some assistance, but because water related. Although a minor portion of the region's it does not require prohibition of development (except in total area, these areas play a major part in the high quality the floodway), it may encourage development in some flood of life characteristic of Southeastern New England. plain areas by enabling property owners to obtain insurance. Unique natural areas consist of resources such as unusual In the last.few.years, steadily increasing development in geologic and hydrologic areas, unique examples of flora flood plains, particularly in the Pawtuxet and Blackstone and fauna. Examples include Natural Landmarks such as planning areas, has greatly increased the potential for Gay Head Cliffs or Martha's Vineyard and Lynnfield heavy flood damages. Recurrence of floods of record in Marsh, and Acushnet Cedar Swamp in Bristol, Rhode Island. these two planning areas alone could cause an estimated Cultural areas include historic elements such as structures, $5 3 million in damages. New development, even flood- sites and districts on local, state, and national registers as proofed, in flood plain areas, will cause the present flood well as important archeological and educational sites such as museums. Examples are Minuteman National Historic 3-8 Park in Lexington, Paul Revere's House and Arnold Upland Wildlife Habitat and High Landscape Arboretum in Boston. Quality Areas. Productive upland wildlife habitat is us- ually found along edges of field, forest, and wetland. Ur- Preservation and management of unique natural and cultural banization has continuously encroached on these lands, sites not only adds to the diversity of the overall environ- steadily reducing the region's total wildlife habitat. Other ment, but because of their status, can place certain limita- land uses are almost always judged to have higher economic tions and requirements on nearby development possibilities returns than wildlife production. Similarly landscape quality and patterns. While this Study has incorporated many sites rarely counts in land use decisions. In 1970, best upland from existing sources such as the New England Natural wildlife habitat and areas with high landscape quality - de- Resources Center survey, inventory and identification of fined by land use diversity and relief - accounted for some- new sites by others, such as the National Park Service's where between 10 and 20 percent of the total area of SENE. program on Natural Landmarks will continue. Therefore, this is a resource category that will need continuous cross- Soils with Development Limitations. Some areas checking on the part of planners. can sustain many types of development, but they have values that will be lost without careful management of Aquifer and Recharge Areas. As explained more that development. For example, soils with limited capac- fully in Chapter 4, Water Supply, ground water is now, and ity to absorb septic wastes, and areas of steep slopes or will continue to be, an important source of water supply ledge - all common in SENE - can bear only limited for many of the region's people. But in many areas of the development before deteriorating or creating health region, development of lands which serve as recharge areas hazards. for aquifers threatens the future, viability of ground water quality and therefore the viabiUty of water supplies. High The production and management of the water and related density development increases the possibility of pollutants land resources outlined above are a major concern of the infiltrating the aquifer. Moreover, the greater the percent- SENEStudy. Both deliberate and unconscious evolu- age of pavement and other impervious surfaces, the lesser tionary land use decisions have deleterious effects on the replenishment of,ground water supplies by rainfall. these resources. Most of them come under the heading of Other hazards to ground water quality and quantity include critical environmental areas" as detailed by the Coastal sanitary landfills, highway deicing salt, industrial wastes, Zone Management Act, the National Environmental Act, agricultural runoff, and sand and gravel mining where ex- and proposed federal land use legislation. traction goes below the water table. Developments of Regional Impact Just as it is important to protect or manage critical water Key Facilities. It is the SENE Study's conclusion, resources and related lands, it is important to guide the explained more fully in Chapter 9, Locating Key development of facilities which will have greater than local Facilities, ttiat the same priority should be given to the impact on people and their resources. The Study defines identification and preservation of sites for such key facilities,. developments of regional impact as those Rely to present as power plants, petroleum facilities, solid waste disposal issues of statewide or regional significance as a result of their sites, and sand and gravel extraction,. operations, as is given magnitude or of the magnitude of their direct or indirect to the identification of fragile natural areas. Both kinds of effects. Includid within this definition are key facilities, areas are critical to the public health and safety and the long-: such as power plants, oil receiving or refining sites, and term health of the region's economy. The most important airports; large scale or growth inducing development, such step needed is to place such decisions within a statewide - as housing projects, industrial parks, and shopping centers; in some cases regionwide - context. Decisions which affect and major public facilities, such as highways, interchanges, all the people of the region should not be left to one munic- mass transit terminals, and water and sewer line extensions. ipality. All are important to the continuing economic health of the region and the well-being of its people. They also have a Large Scale or Growth Inducing Development. history of more or less negative effects on natural resources In some cases the sheer magnitude of a development can and environmental quality. In a region as densely populated have long-range impacts on water and related land resources. and rapidly growing as SENE, both the need to find sites for, Such projects as major shopping centers and industrial parks, and the concern over the impacts of, such major facilities apartment complexes, and highway and interchange const- are steadily increasing. Such key facilities must be dealt ruction have a history of far greater than local impacts. with using approaches which are more creative and less Perhaps the classic example is the industrial development environmentally harmful than the forms they have taken in which appeared along Route 128 as it encircled Boston. The the past. same phenomenon is repeating itself on either side of thi 3-9 more distant Route 495 in rural towns far less able to cope capability analysis be conducted prior to initiation of any with the new development. As with key facilities, the long- project and that the local decision be shared with state or range impacts of large scale development on resources and substate regional agencies able to recognize the potential for people, on commercial and industrial activity, and patterns regional impact. of residential development, dictate that detailed resource The SENE Resource Development Capability Analysis It became clear that if the Study was to provide any guid- The Study's Resource Development Capability Analysis ance to the region for its future economic growth, some and the maps which are the product of that analysis (Plates system was needed for displaying not only the location of 1, 2, and 3) provide that needed information. the region's water and related land resources, but also how the characteristics of those resources presented opportuni- Criteria for Classifying Resources. Federal and ties or limitations to growth. state Study participants mapped and analyzed dozens of TABLE 3.4 THE SENE RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT CAPABILITY SYSTEM CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL AREAS REQUIRING PROTECTION Water Bodies (Category A), blue. [Includes estuaries, shellfish flats, and fish spawning areas.] Priority Protection Areas (Category A), dark green: wetlands, well sites, beaches, and critical coastal erosion areas. Other Protection Areas (Category B), light green: flood plains, class I and Il agricultural soils, unique natural and cultural sites, 1proposed reservoir sites and related watersheds, and upland erosion areas] excluding all "A7 areas. DEVELOPABLE AREAS REQUIRING MANAGEMENT, Excluding All A & B Areas WATER RESOURCE LIMITATIONS Aquifers and/or Recharge Areas (Category Cl) black dots: highest yield aquifers in each basin. WILDLIFE AND SCENIC RESOURCE LIMITATIONS Wildlife Habitat (Category C3), black diagonal lines: best upland wildlife habitat other than publicly owned land and [cornmercial fishing -grounds). Landscape Quality Areas (Category C2), black vertical lines: land characterized by high landscape quality other than categories C, and C3. SOILS RESOURCE LIMITATIONS Ledge and/or Steep Slope (Category C5), brown: land with slope greater than 15 percent and/or with rock near the surface. Severe Septic System Limitations (Category C4), orange: land with severe septic system limitations other than Category C5. Moderate to No Septic System Limitations (Categories F and G), yellow: land with moderate or no septic system limitations. PREEMPTED USE AREAS Urban Areas (Category E), gray: residentialyinstitutional, commercial and industrial development. Publicly Owned Lands (Category D), beige: major public parks, forests, watersheds, and military lands. Notes: I/ All categories above, except those within brackets, are depicted on the Development Capabilities Maps (Plates 1, 2, and 3 in the rear pocket of this report). Categories in brackets are included to Show where they would fit in the overall classification hierarchy, were they 3/ included on the plates in the pocket. All categories above, including those within brackets, are depicted on large-scale, unpublished maps available for ,./inspection as part of the SENE Files. Categories Cl, C2 and C3 overlap with categories C4, C5, F, or G. Thus, Category C3-C4 is a wildlife habitat located on ledge or steep slopes. YMapped urban areas (Category E) include all-residential development, although the legend on Plates 1, 2, and 3 reads "residential areas on less than one acre lots." 3-10 discrete water and related land resources. The resources 0 Federal Wild and Scenic Rivers Act were subsequently grouped into one of several development 0 Massachusetts Scenic River Act capability classifications on the basis of five criteria: A Water and Related Land Use Classification Intrinsic Resource Values: Resources which pro- System. On the basis of these five criteria and vide services to man, as wetlands provide natural sound understanding of resource capability analysis valley flood storage; renewable resources includ- techniques, the water and lands of Southeastern ing prime agricultural lands, which are needed for New England were grouped and mapped into eleven production such as food, fiber, and wildlife development capability subcategories, each with its habit; non-renewable resources such as sand and own color or pattern of lines, and placed into three gravel needed in construction; and resources major classifications: Critical Environmental Areas, which have amenity value such as scenic, recrea- Developable Areas Requiring Management, and tional, or educational areas. Preempted Use Areas. The large multicolored plates (in pockets in the back of this report) are drawn at Resource Sensitivity and Retrievability: Resources a scale of one inch equalling two niiles (1 :125,000) which are particularly vulnerable to development, and, in addition to the resource data, display every such as barrier beaches or shoreward dunes, or are municipality in the region, and all major existing not easily retrieved once developed such as filled- and proposed highway, rail, airport, and ferry in wetlands and or urbanized forested or non- transportation systems. Table 3.4 summarizes the forested prime agricultural lands. land and water elements of the classification system and is, in fact, identical to the map legend. A brief Tbreat to Public Health and Safety: Resources on description of each subcategory of resources,- which development would present a threat to public grouped according to their suitability for develop- health and safety, such as the threat of flooding moint, follows, in the same order as they appear in presented by flood plain or beach development. the legend on Plates 1, 2, and 3. Resource Scarcity or Uniqueness: Resources Critical Environmental Areas. Resources which which are particularly scarce, unique and therefore have been classified as Critical Environmental Areas valuable, such as high yield aquifers in ground water include the following: dependent areas, scenic promontories in generally flat landscapes, habitats for rare and endangered Water Bodies. Displayed in blue, the region's species, or regionally or nationally significant his- water bodies have as high a priority for protec- torical sites and natural landmarks. tion as the following categories and are included in category A, Priority Protection Areas; how- Institutional Criteria: Resources which are ever they are separated for mapping purposes. Included in this category but more difficult to similarly regulated or which have already been pinpoint were certain salt water areas - shellfish classified by such acts or guidelines as the: flats, estuaries, fish spawning areas. * Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 Priority Protection Areas. Displayed in dark 0 National En vironmental Policy Act of 1969 green, this category (A) includes those fragile 0 Federal Water Pollution Control Act resources which have the lowest tolerance for Amendments of 1972 development and highest value for water re- 0 Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 source protection. Uncontrolled or incompat- and related Committee Reports ible use of these lands would result in the loss 0 Rural Development Act of 1972 or reduction of resource productivity and would 0 U. S. Water Resources Council, Principles pose a resultant risk to public safety and wel- and Standards fare. The category, as shown on Plates 1, 2, 0 Proposed federal land use bills and 3, contains well sites, coastal and inland 0 Massachusetts Wetlands Act wetlands, beaches and critical erosion areas 0 Massachusetts Environmental Policy which were mappable at the scale used. To- Act (MEPA) gether they constitute 445,000 acres or 16 per- 0 Martha's Vineyard Land Use Act cent of the region's land area. 0 Proposed Nantucket Sound Islands Trust 0 Rhode Island Statewide Land Use Plan Other Protection Areas. Displayed in light 0 Federal and State legislation on historic green, resources in this category (B), within sites and districts. the classification of Critical Environmental- 3-11 Areas, are suitable for certain kinds of ex- more intensive development, provided this tremely limited development, such as recrea- trade off will not interfere with the ground tion. These areas should be carefully analyzed water resources of an adfacent town. for such uses on a case-by-case basis. The category includes riverine and tidal flood plains, Wildlife and Scenic Resource Limitations include class I and 11 prime agricultural soils, and the following sub-categories unique natural and cultural sites. Proposed reservoir sites and related watersheds, and Wildlife Habitat. Displayed as a pattern of upland erosion areas, though not included on, diagonal black lines"overlaying the soils infor- the Development Capability Maps, are included mation, lands in this category (C3) include in this category and have been delineated on the best upland wildlife habitats, other than maps in the SENE files. Note that Category B publicly owned land or wetlands, which are areas such as flood plains which are also wet- in other categories. For this report, best up- lands are excluded from Category B and in- land wildlife areas are defined in terms of a cluded instead in Category A. Category B lands range and transition of vegetation cover. How- constitute about 421,000 acres or 15 percent of ever, the character of these lands changes ra- the region. pidly, and local decision makers using their own more detailed information may wish to Developable Areas Requiring Management. vary the degree to which development can be Again, on the basis of five criteria, all of the permitted or restricted as conditions change. region's remaining undeveloped resources were Landscape Quality Areas. Displayed as a pat- classified for development suitability. Within this tem of black vertical lines also overlaying soils classification, which corresponds to map categories information, lands in this category (C2) include C, F, and G, the resources were further classified by areas of striking variation in topography, land factors which, in varying degrees, limit their develop- use diversity, and vegetative cover. These lands ment: water resource limitations, wildlife and are capable of supporting a number of develop- scenic resource limitations, and soils resource limi- ment uses, if those uses are designed in a man- tations. Together the three sub-categories described ner compatible with the intrinsic value of the below consititute about 1,044,000 acres or 36 per- cent of the land area of the SENE region. resource. Water Resource Limitations: The first sub- Soils Resource Limitations* include the following category under Developable Areas Requiring three sub-categories: Management is: Ledge and Steep Slope. Displayed on the maps in brown, lands in this category (C5) have bed- Aquifer and/or Recharge Areas. Displayed on, rock within three feet of or at the surface, or the map as a pattern of black dots overlaying have slopes greater than 15 percent. Both these the soils information, high yield aquifers and characteristics pose difficult development prob- their recharge areas (Category Cl) (other than lems. Steep slopes are often susceptible to ero- those recharge areas under Categories A and B) sion when disturbed, and septic tanks have only can sustain a limited degree of development, limited feasibility on either type of land, except but must be strictly managed in ways which at high cost. protect the quantity and quality of ground water beneath them. As mentioned earlier, Severe Septic System Limitations. Displayed and as discussed in detail in Chapter 4, Water in light orange, lands in this category (C4) are. Supply, ground water is available to most of suitable for development as long as sewers are the towns in the region and will be needed to installed or density is limited to prevent over- meet 1990 water demands. At the same time, loading the land's ability to absorb wastewater. however, where surface water is readily avail- Without such precautions, the threat of con- able for long-term needs, towns may wish to tamination to local ground water, among other trade off the benefits of protecting ground things, is considerable. water aquifer and recharge areas in favor of Based on interpretation of soils maps by the Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. That agency, located in each state, should be contacted for operational soil surveys for detailed town level information. About 60 percent of the SENE region has been mapped in detail. 3-12 Moderate to No Septic System Limitations. prices are high, neighboring development may be Displayed in yellow, lands in this Category unattractive, and municipal opposition may be (F and G) have almost unlimited development encountered. Municipal financial incentives and capability. They are generally flat and well- preferential zoning can help, but major problems drained and, because of ease of development remain under any redevelopment scheme. and virtually unlimited capability to accommo- Assessing the specific capability of SENE's date septic systems, have a tendency to be de- urban lands to absorb further development was veloped as a "sprawl". Yet their developabil- a level of detail beyond this Study, although ity gives them great flexibility for many other the land use policies advanced by the Study can Idnds of development as well. be applied to larger parcels. Yet the potential, Preempted Use Areas. To a greater or lesser and opportunity, remains and deserves detailed degree, the suitability for development of a significant study. Further recommendations on urban land uses (for example buffer strips in Chapter 5, portion of the region's total land area has already been Water Quality; urban waterfront redevelopment preempted. These lands are either already urbanized or in Chapter 7, Marine Management) can be publicly owned. found throughout the text. Urban Areas. Displayed in gray, lands in this Pu.blicly Owned Areas. Displayed in beige, lands Category (E) include all urban land uses. However, in this category (D) are predominantly in federal even though urbanized, portions of this urban land or state ownership. Some are open space and remain vacant. Because much of the land in this recreational areas or water supply watershed category is already served by infrastructure - water holdings. A few large government holdings - and sewer service, transportation systems - it rep- such as Otis Air Force Base on Cape Cod - may resents a valuable opportunity for future develop- be released from public ownership and become ment if problems preventing its development are available for other uses. In that event, they can identified and overcome. be readily reclassified under the foregoing system in fact all such areas have already been mapped But significant difficulties exist. Assembly of by the SENE Study. The public can contact the parcels large enough for development is difficult, New England River Basins Commission for this TABLE 3.5 PERCENT OF LAND AND WATER RESOURCE CATEGORIES IN EACH PLANNING AREA Total Percent (%) of Planning Area Critical Environmental Develop- Preempted (in 1000's of Areas able Areas Use Areas Planning Area acres) A* B* A&B C, F, G* D, EIP Ipswich-North Shore 274 19 13 32 34 34 Boston Metropolitan 421 14 9 23 30 47 South Shore 172 17 13 30 43 27 Cape Cod & Islands 378 10 23 33 32 35 Buzzards Bay 205 17 16 33 47 20 Taunton 351 19 22 41 37 22 Blackstone & Vicinity 410 10 11 21 38 41 Pawtuxet 180 11 7 18 41 41 Narragansett Bay 212 16 16 32 34 34 Pawcatuck 262 27 12 39 40 21 SFNE 2,865 16% 15% 31% 36% 33% Sources: See Methodology in the Regional Report. The location of these lands is depicted on the multi-colored development capabilities maps in the rear pocket. 3-13 information in order to assess present use com- ronmental areas than in the other planning areas, and the patibility with resource capability and to plan for lowest percentages are in the Blackstone and Pawtuxet possible future changes in use of such areas due planning areas. The highest Percentage of developable land to changing ownership or need. is in Buzzards Bay with the Boston Metropolitan lowest. However, it is important to note that while the percent- It is important to note that Plates 1, 2, and 3 are a final ages of land classified as critical environmental area vary composite of dozens of maps produced during the course significantly, the availability of developable land is surpris- of the Study. These originals, many at greater levels of ingly uniform from planning area to planning area. The detail, are available in the files of the New England River Boston Metropolitan planning area has the greatest amount Basins Commission. Table 1.1 in Chapter I summarizes of land in preemptive use while the Taunton and Pawca- the data available. tuck have the least. The Implications of the Development Capability Table 3.6 translates percentages to acres. According to this Analysis for Accommodating Growth. Table 3.5 table, roughly one-third of the region's land area can be displays the percentage of critical environmental area, de- classified as in preempted use, one-third in critical environ- velopable area and preempted use area in each planning mental areas, and one-third developable. area and for the region as a whole. The table indicates that while generally similar distributions prevail through- The most significant implication of the analysis, however, out most of the region, some disproportions exist. A higher can be found in Table 3.7. The conclusion of the analysis percentage of the Taunton planning area is in critical envi- is that enough legitimately developable land (categories C, TABLE 3.6 AMOUNT OF EACH LAND AND WATER RESOURCE CATEGORY BY PLANNING AREA Acres (in 1,000's) % of Total SENE Area Pre- Total Pre- Total Develop- empted Land Develop- empted Land Critical Environ- able use & Critical Environ- able Use & mental Areas Areas Areas; Water mental Areas Areas Areas; Water Planning Area A B A&B C,F,G D, E Area A B A&B C, F, G D, E Area Ipswich- North Shore 52 36 88 92 94 274 1.8 1.3 3.1 3.2 3.2 9.5 Boston Metropolitan 61 38 99 124 198 421 2.1 1.3 3.4 4.3 7.0 14.7 South Shore 29 23 52 74 46 172 1.0 0.8 1.8 2.6 1.6 6.0 Cape Cod & Islands 36 89 125 122 131 378 1.2 3.1 4.3 4.3 4.6 13.2 Buzzards Bay 34 33 67 98 40 205 1.2 1.2 2.4 3.4 1.4 7.2 Taunton 68 78 146 129 76 351 2.4 2.7 5.1 4.5 2.6 12.2 Blackstone & Vicinity 42 45 87 154 169 410 1.5 1.5 3.0 5.4 5.9 14.3 Pawtuxet 19 13 32 74 74 180 0.7 0.4 1.1 2.6 2.6 6.3 Narragansett Bay 34 34 68 71 73 212 1.2 1.2 2.4 2.5 2.5 7.4 Pawcatuck 70 32 102 106 54 262 2,4 1.1 3.5 3.7 2.0 9.2 SENE 445 421 866 1044 955 2865 15.5 14.6 30.1 36.5 33.4 100.0% Some public lands are included in Categories A, B, and C, F, and G. Thus, the Prempted Use Column, D-Public & E-Urban, is understated. F, and G) exists to accommodate the development demands Bay, Blackstone and Vicinity, and Pawcatuck. of the SENE region through the year 2020, even at the very high consumption rate (one-half acre per capita) of However, patterns of growth which use up land at the the past decade. Moreover, if OBERS projections of a recent high rate of one-half acre per person eventually leveling off of population due to the declining birth rate would mean that only critical environmental areas such as are accurate, the 2020 population may be the largest the wetlands, flood plains, and agricultural lands would be left. region has to accommodate. Some sub-regional incon- The rest of the area n-dght be subject to low density sprawl, sistencies to this rule are to be expected. For example, if hardly representative of a "New England flavor." The the land consumption rate of one-half acre per person con- people of this region clearly will reject that kind of future. tinues, the Ipswich-North Shore, South Shore, and Narra- Therefore, we must begin now to manage Southeastern New gansett Bay planning areas would occupy all their develop- England's water and related land by protecting critical able land by 1990-2020. On the same basis, developable environmental areas, respecting the resource capabilities of lands would last until about 2020 in the Boston Metro- developable areas, and making better use of our urban lands. politan, Taunton, and Pawtuxet planning areas. Four This makes long-range sense economically, socially, and planning areas would have abundant developable lands environmentally. long after 2020 - Cape Cod and the Islands, Buzzards TABLE 3.7 PROJECTED POPULATION INCREASES IN SENE PLANNING AREAS COMPARED TO THE POPULATION CAPACITY OF THEIR DEVELOPABLE LANDS AND SEWERED LANDS (in 1,000's) Projected Increase (OBERS E) Unused Capacities in 20 years in 50 years Developable Existing and Planning Area 1970-1990 1970-2020 Lands Proposed Sewers Ipswich-North Shore 189 451 185 (-22) Boston Metropolitan 188 284 248 349 South Shore 122 345 148 91 Cape Cod & Islands 58 145 244 79 Buzzards Bay 22 92 195 45 Taunton 113 303 122 Blackstone & Vicinity 62 97 308 127 Pawtuxet 74 164 148 92 Narragansett Bay 93 263 143 32 Pawcatuck 18 49 212 24 SENE 939 2,19,3 2,090 939 These figures represent the number of people that could be accommodated on developable lands (categories C, F & G) if the average rate of land consumption in Southeastern New England between 1960 and 1970 (i.e., 0.5 acre per capita) were to continue. Unused sewer capacity is the design capacity of existing and proposed treatment facilities less the 1970 population already served or needing service on lots of 1/2 acre or less. 3-15 The Solutions It bears repeating that the SENE Study is a water and re- affected by growth, that they may often determine how lated land resources study and that while comprehensive much we can grow, and that we can use their capability to in scope with respect to these resources, it does not pur- support various forms of development as tools for guiding port to be a comprehensive land use plan for the region. growth. Nevertheless, we have seen that these resources are deeply Alternatives Within this context, the Study examined three alternative tion of existing programs, particularly state coastal zone strategies for guiding the future growth of the region to management and land use planning and management efforts. guarantee the protection and wise use of its water and re- lated lands. Guiding that growth rather than placing limita- The three alternatives approach the problem of accommo- tions on it seemed a more realistic objective, given the scope dating growth and protecting valuable resources from of this Study. Such considerations as population control by decidedly different directions. The first recognizes that in regulation of birth rate or migration patterns, and political many ways state and local governments in Massachusetts and socioeconomic controls such as modifications in income and Rhode Island have a history of leadership in resources tax deductions based on family size, are but a few of the management. This alternative emphasizes continued use of factors which can affect growth. Social legislation of this available tools on an ad hoc basis to manage the future type is needed for effective growth control, but is not with- growth of the region. Some might describe this as a "take in the scope of this water and related land study. Therefore no action alternative" - but this would be a misnomer; the three alternatives examine the desirability of a more in- relevant programs and regulations currently exist and are tegrated and comprehensive approach to management of continually being modified. The second alternative goes a resources. Even when limited to water and related land re- step further by defining certain critical environmental areas source issues, our problem is, nevertheless, very complex- and removing these areas from consideration for most forms and like all complex alternatives, those presented here are of development. While this alternative guides growth away not mutually exclusive. The three alternatives described do, from critical environmental areas ensuring integrated main- however, provide different degrees of emphasis on what were tenance of the future quality and quantity of water re- judged to be viable solutions to the problem at hand - to sources, it still permits relatively unrestricted use and de- effectively guide growth while protecting water and related velopment of most other lands. The third alternative con- lands: centrates on these other lands. No new controls are con- sidered for "critical environmental areas" other than cur- L Continuing current programs and regulations; rent programs and regulations. Rather, this alternative seeks 2. Increasing protection of critical environmental to guide growth on the basis of ability of the region's water areas; and and related lands to support a variety of forms of develop- 3. Improving management of developable areas. ment, to increase the efficiency with which public invest- ments in services needed to accommodate growth are made, The Study's detailed resource development capability and to control the location of those forms of development analysis will be a useful tool for each of these alternatives. having major impacts on the region's water and related land While the analysis is most closely associated with the second resources. and third alternatives, it is just as applicable to the continua- 1. Continuing Current Programs and Regulations. decisions, such as those on locations of federal instal- The region's growth is determined for the most part lations, have'direct impacts on location of growth. by individual private development decisions, but the Generally, however, the federal government has cre- extent to which that growth is directed depends on ated inducements to growth rather than making de- public regulatory programs. It is therefore important cisions as to its location. Indeed, federally insured to understand how the various levels of government mortgages, for example, were to a large degree re- currently influence the region's development. To do sponsible for the suburban boom during the 1950's this it is necessary to examine the nature of federal, and 1960's; federal highway aid also encouraged this state, and local controls and then to evaluate what is movement which continues today. Most importantly, currently being done as one alternative method to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) grants . guide growth. for construction of wastewater management facilities The Federal Program. Some federal government have made funds available to communities, expanding 3-16 their capacity to accept new development. Any di- cantly affecting the environment must be accompan- rected growth program must coordinate the location ied by environmental impact reports. As with federal of infrastructure under this program with the desired agencies under NEPA, this requirement has helped to location of growth. EPA air quality standards will sensitize government officials to the environmental also influence the location of growth, especially consequences of their decisions. through regulations establishing antidegradation standards and limiting permissible pollution levels. Emerging state programs in coastal zone management from automobiles and indirect sources. Section 208 and areawide waste management also indicate the di- of the 1972 Water Pollution Control Act Amend- rection that states are taking to manage critical areas ments requires that areawide wastewater management and resources and at the same time provide a vehicle plans be formulated consistently with regional growth to coordinate various functional activities to guide policy. Finally, since 1954, the Department of Hous- growth. ing and Urban Development (HUD) has been adminis- tering grant programs to enable the preparation of To the extent that the state provides financial assist- community master plans, and most recently, has as- ance to municipalities through its Department of sumed responsibility for administering the Flood In- Community Affairs, its ability to coordinate local surance Program, designed to prevent inappropriate planning efforts serves to give some direction to state development of flood plains. growth policies. State level fiscal policy, too, influences development decisions. State policy respecting capital investments State Efforts. The most important function of the attracts development indirectly and real property tax state is one of setting development policies and goals. policies do so directly. Both states' farmland assess- The Massachusetts Resources Management Policy ment acts, designed to encourage retention of farm- Council had been in the process of adopting pol- land in agricultural uses by allowing its tax assessment icies respecting state growth (this function will now to remain low, are examples of the latter policy. be undertaken by the Cabinet), while the Rhode Is- land State Planning Council, based on the Statewide At the regional level, and only in Massachusetts, sub- Planning Program's State Guide Plan, has adopted its state regional planning agencies such as Old Colony official policies. Planning Council, Metropolitan Area Planning Council, and Merrimack Valley Planning Commission have prepared open space, sewer, and water supply plans Many state agencies and other bodies with responsi- which are important vehicles guiding growth. Also bilities greater than the municipality also influence the new Massachusetts Martha's Vineyard Land Use development directly by investing in facilities and Act creates a prototype regional mechanism for regu- utilities, and in some cases, state regulatory pro- lating critical areas and developments of regional im- cesses intervene in local decisions. For example, pact. both states have strong regulatory programs protect- ing water quality, including standards and permit Local Authority. By far, municipalities have had systems directing the location of well sites, sanitary the primary responsibility for guiding growth and landfills, septic tanks, and dredged materials disposal. development. Traditionally, the state has'delegated State legislation also exists for protecting wetlands, powers to local governments, through home rule beginning in most cases with administrative process provisions, to enable them to act on their own'and before local conservation comn-tissions. Through the to regulate activities to further the public health, Massachusetts Energy Facilities Siting Council and safety, and welfare. Generally, local governments the Rhode Island Coastal Resources Management regulate land and other resource use under police Council, both states are beginning programs to power authority; the extent of regulation, however, regulate power plant siting. must meet certain constitutional requirements. Then, too, local governments are empowered to acquire The state'also manages and can acquire a great num- land for public purposes by eminent domain under ber of resources, which indirectly influences the pat- authority delegated by the state. tern of development, including park and recreation Zoning, subdivision controis, and development or use facilities, and nature preserves. Also, the state's permits are the traditional regulatory tools of local capacity to construct highways, mass transit, and government. Zoming establishes districts in which port facilities provides the necessary infrastructure categories of uses are allowed, but within broad to support new development. Under the Massachu- limits the exact location, timing, and type of use is setts Environmental Policy Act, state actions signifi- determined by the market. Administrative solutions 3-17 to variations in uses and conditions are often neces- visions, in which the municipality sells or leases back sary and because of the issuance of variances or the land to the original owner, offer financial advant- amendments, some areas bear little resemblance to age and a device to control development. Such mea- the original zoning. Building codes and other ordi- sures have been used to retain farm land for agricul- nances are also typical tools used to control the type tural uses. of development which occurs. In fact, in Petaluma, California, growth is limited by controlling the Purchase costs may also be reduced by acquiring number of building permits issued each year. development rights or conservation easements, which at the same time act as a growth restricting Theoretically, local zoning is based on, and imple- tool. Transferable development rights (TDRs) are ments, the local plans for growth prepared by local also used to influence development, especially its planning boards. Local plans, however, often either density. Although TDRs have been enacted in Sun- do not exist or are dissimilar to the zoning schemes. derland, Massachusetts to preserve. agricultural lands, They do attempt to describe the types and location state enabling legislation may be required to make of particular developments which the community their application widespread. wishes to encourage. Tax measures can be used to encourage or discourage In form, these regulations have not generally changed certain types of uses. Preferential assessment can be since their. origin early in this century, when they used to ease maintenance of land in open condition were designed to protect private property from the (e.g., farmland, flood plains) but it is difficult for nuisance of incompatible uses. With greater under- communities to do this to any large extent, since it standing, some regulations are now being made which reduces tax revenues. recognize the interrelationships of land uses and the consequences of their locations in terms of soil, in- Opportunities and Limitations. It should be frastructure, and other requirements. clear that not only is much already being done to direct growth, but also that governmental authority Impact zoning is an example of this approach. As to do so is extensive. Both states have in the past adopted in Duxbury, Massachusetts, uses are per- been leaders in resource management programs in mitted depending upon their impact on site topog- general, and wetlands preservation in particular, and raphy, soil, and required municipal services. The there is no reason to think they will not continue to most notable example of this concept has been in remain so. Ramapo, New York, which established a use permit rating scheme, discussed later in this chapter. Other Nevertheless, the framework in which those programs land use control innovations such as cluster zoning, exist does require some improvement for effective planned unit development, and incentive and com- growth management. First, because of the number pensatory zoning, provide benefits to the landowner of agencies and programs involved in land use policy if he responds positively to zoning requirements; making, regulation and management decisions and these have not yet been used extensively, however. programs tend to be uncoordinated and isolated from one locality to the next. Without a clearly The other authority which municipalities exercise to enunciated state policy for growth, development, influence the location of growth is that of acquisition. and conservation, resource decisions will continue Public ownership of land not only protects critical re- to be unguided. sources, but allows public use, and the amenity value may influence the location of other development. Second, it is inherent in current regulatory processes Municipal acquisition may take many forms. Outright at the local level that they fail to consider the impact purchase, purchase of easements, and purchase of op- of decisions which may be felt beyond local bound- tions are all well within local authority. aries. There is no present process which incorpo. rates greaterthan local participation in regulatory de- Municipal bonds may be authorized to raise funds for cisions. As a result, immediate benefits to a commun- acquisition: installment contracts can be used to ity are given greater weight than the external economic space payments to the landowner to spread his capital and environmental costs it imposes on the region. gains over a period of years. If the benefits of a land purchase will 6ccur in the future, discount bonds can Third, municipal resources have been inadequate and be authorized to defer payment of both interest and ineffective in the past in dealing with the problems principal. To reduce cost, partial interest in the land of urban growth. Present controls lack enforceability such as a conservation easement, can be leased or ac- with any degree of certainty or do not directly deal quired. Finally, the use of saleback or leaseback pro- with current problems. 3-18 It is evident that although the continuation of present develop integrated, coherent approaches to growth programs is important, it is even more important to management. 2. Increase Protection of Critical Environmental within agricultural reserves designated by towns Areas. This alternative seeks to improve on existing, according to state guidelines. somewhat fragmented, programs by providing a stronger, more integrated approach to the protection of those re- Unique natural and cultural sites, upland erosion sites, sources which are critical to the provision of adequate proposed water supply facilities all have a common future supplies of high quality water or which provide characteristic, as do areas subject to flooding and protection from the forces of nature. Highest priority agricultural land: their identification and careful is given to those highly fragile resources which have the classification as to long-term values can be pivotal to lowest tolerance for development and the highest value the innumerable conceptual plans and ultimate project for water resource protection: proposals being generated by many decision makers. a. Priority Protection Areas. Permissible uses This alternative emphasizes protection of the natural of Category A resources (water bodies, wetlands, well functions of a few critical resources - for providing sites, critical erosion areas, beaches, estuaries, shell- water; forest, agricultural, fish and shellfish products; fish flats, and fish spawning areas) are strictly limited natural protection from erosion and flood damages; to water supply, fish and wildlife production, scenic and a variety of recreational opportunities. On the and open space and extensive recreation (nature surface, the alternative appears to be highly "pro- study, hiking, etc.) tectionist", that is, heavily biased in favor of environ- mental preservation. Upon closer inspection, how- Second priority is given to those resources slightly more ever, it becomes clear that unless growth and devel- tolerant to limited types of low density use but still opment are guided away from such resources both having very high value for water resource protection and society and the economy will incur heavy losses. related land resource management. Expensive new sources of water may have to be de- veloped, damage to property and loss of life due b. Other Protection Areas. Permissible uses of to flooding will escalate, the availability of indig- Category B resources (riverine and tidal flood plains, enous products (wood, fish, agricultural products) Class I and 11 agricultural soils, unique natural and will decrease, and the cost of replacing them will cultural sites, upland erosion areas, proposed reser- be high. voir sites and related watersheds) which are somewhat more tolerant to use under strictly managed condi- Communities having significantly higher amounts tions, include forest and agricultural production, more of critical environmental areas than developable intensive recreational use than permitted on Category lands as defined by the Study will run into severe A lands, and in some cases very low density residential income difficulties if the current propetty tax struc- development. Because of the severe pressures on the ture is continued. A number of revisions of the pro- region's remaining prime (Class I and II) agricultural perty tax structure have been suggested including soils, special efforts could be made to apply the ex- state takeover of the tax system and major expendi- periences gained in Sunderland, Massachusetts, where ture burdens (such as schools) and regional pooling the concept of transferable development rights is be- of certain tax revenues. Regardless of the system ing experimented with; in New York where special chosen, a revision is long overdue. Without substan- "agricultural districts" have been established with tial reform, implementation of this alternative would restrictions on other forms of development, though be difficult in many parts of the region. this approach may have limited applicability in this region because of the smaller size of agricultural This alternative does not place limitations on development parcels; in Vermont where special capital gains taxes in lands other than Category A and B. It represents a kind are being levied on land speculators; and in Long of middle ground - stronger, better integrated than existing Island where public acquisition of development rights programs and regulations, yet not as comprehensive as a is being attempted. In Connecticut, the Governor's program which would also manage growth on less fragile Task Force for the Preservation of Agricultural Land developable lands. has proposed state purchase of development rights 3-19 3. Improve Management of Developable Areas. of areas with severe septic system limitations While Alternative 2 emphasized direct protection of critical (orange, C4) due to slow permeability are highly environmental areas, leaving the management of development flexible, varying from low intensity commercial on other lands to the current system, Alternative 3 empha- and limited residential use without sewering, to sizes just the opposite. Further regulation of critical envir- relatively unlimited commercial/industrial and onmental areas is bypassed. Instead pressure on the region's residential uses with sewering. Permissible uses most critical resources is relieved by guiding development of areas with no to moderate septic system limi- directly to those areas most capable of supporting it, based tations (yellow, F and G) include the full range of on the information gained from the resource development residential, commercial, and industrial uses from capability analysis. The first management step under this medium intensity commercial/industrial and low alternative, discussion of the types and densities appropriate density residential without sewering to high inten- to the several categories of "developable areas" in the analy- sity commercial/industrial and high density resi- sis, is presented in two forms. Permissible uses are suggested dential with public sewering and public water. first, followed by a detailed chart entitled "Guidelines for Appropriate Use 'of Developable Areas" which dis- Table 3.8 presents suggestions for appropriate uses of plays suggested intensities of use. The second manage- developable areas, displaying residential and commer- ment step under this alternative is a series of measures cial/industrial development intensities, both with public designed to increase the efficiency of public investments water and sewer facilities and without, for every pos- in services to accommodate growth. The third manage- sible combination of soil limitations (yellow, orange, ment step under this alternative is the regulation of de- and brown) and other resource limitations (black line velopment of regional impact. overlays) displayed on Plates 1, 2, and 3. While these guidelines include clustering, other forms of develop- a. Develop According to Resource Capability. ment controls such as zoning, when coupled with sourid The analysis groups in the six categories of develop- engineering, can provide a great deal of flexibility of ap- able areas presented on Plates 1, 2, and 3 by three plication. The Soil Conservation Service (U.S. Depart- limiting factors: water, wildlife-scenic, and soils. ment of Agriculture) can provide detailed soils maps Permissible uses are grouped accordingly. and guidelines to assist with engineering design. The U.S. Geological Survey and Fish and Wildlife Service Water Resource Limitations. To protect recharge (U.S. Department of Interior), along with locally 'based areas for aquifers (black dots, C I) needed for water state offices can provide additional data for site supply, density of development without sewering planning. should be strictly limited. Higher densities are permissible with sewering but must be clustered b. Public Investment Efficiency Options. on to allow for continued recharge. Other permissible the first page of this chapter, The Setting, decision uses include agriculture and forestry. Development making factors which affect growth have been described. of these lands presents several difficult problems. There is every indication that the competition for cap- Uses which threaten the quality of the aquifer - ital between major social programs, the need to de- such as sanitary landfill, highway deicing salt, in- velop new energy sources, improvement of mass transit dustrial waste disposal and excessive use of septic facilities and environmental quality programs, will systems - must be prohibited. And while sewering continue into the indefinite future and the factors would eliminate this threat to quality, it serves to which affect growth will become more complex. It is remove water from the area, reducing the ability of not sufficient, therefore, merely to provide an altema- the aquifer to meet future needs, unless ground tive method to guide future growth based solely on disposal techniques are employed. resource development capability; if public investments in growth can be made more efficient, every effort Wildlife and Scenic Limitations. Limited residen- must be made to do so. Consequently, this alternative tial development is permissible on both upland of improving management of developable areas also u4ldlifie habitat areas (diagonal lines, C3) and land- examines three options for improving public invest- scape quality areas (vertical lines, C2)- The latter ment efficiency: is also able to support limited commercial develop- ment if planned to minimize conflict with the Use excess capacity of existing infrastructure. Table landscape. 3.7, referred to earlier in this chapter, indicates that, for the region as a whole, the unused capacity of ex- Soils Resource Limitations. Development on ledge isting and proposed sewer systems is sufficient to and steep slope (brown, C5) areas must be strictly accommodate expected growth for the next 20 limited and special precautions taken to control years. The excess capacity varies from planning erosion and septic tank seepage. Permissible uses area to planning area. The Ipswich-North Shore 3-20 BROWN ORANGE YELLOW MAP COLOR lam :1@ CD 00 2 ("D g 4! tr o" o0. CD P- 0ID C, 0 CD CD C., >Zg. CD It. CD bi (D w CA Z 4. -i@ @. 0 P. q co- t3 tv 0 tv tv OQ* CD w to 00 t@l C, 0 'CID, @:g A 2. 0 00 lwlo o 9 a. 0 r. 0 ?@ 0 CD @r.!z S. IL CD 0 wn CD0 52 w = 0 CD CD I-e :1@ CD 0 0 cr, 0 o > > z > w C/I C. I, - M 47!o0. 0. o" CD o 0 (A 19 ZZ 0 - 0 tv ca CD 0 > Z> Z o > > z 'Fill . ..... CD w C, ol0ID (D so CD 0. 1, _ W P. CD ID CD. . n o tV area is already severely overtaxed, but the present patterns in a hypothetical community. As would and proposed facilities in the Boston metropolitan be expected, the high density (10 units per area have unused capacity to accommodate ex- acre) clustered community cost much less,.environ- pected growth over the next half century. Based mentally as well as economically, than a low density on water related infrastructure alone - the Study (2 units per acre) unclustered community. More did not investigate other non-water related infra- open space was available in the high density com- structure - urban areas are capable of absorbing a munity because over half of it remained completely vast amount of the projected growth for the next undeveloped. The low density community con- two decades with far less public investment than tained open space in private yards, but all of its is required by the continual outward spread of de- land was at least partially developed. Improved velopment to unserviced fringe communities. The but vacant land was left by "leapfrogging" develop- decreased dispersion could also facilitate mass ment. Stormwater pollution and sedimentation as transit development and reduce dependence on well as downstream flooding decreased in the high the automobile. Total air pollution (though density clustered community. The clustering pat- probably not urban peak concentrations) and terns turned out to be both resource efficient and overall energy consumption could be reduced, as public investment efficient. Water consumption could the need for more highways. was reduced 6 percent by clustering alone, and 35 per cent by high density clustering as a result of Use new infrastructure as a tool to guide growth. more efficient distribution systems. Energy con- It is only another small step to move from making surription dropped 14 percent by clustering, and maximum use of existing infrastructure to using 44 percent when clustering was combined with expansion of infrastructure as a tool to guide high density. High density produced lower de- growth. Using infrastructure in this manner can mands for residential heating and air conditioning, be either reactive or direct. The town of Ramapo, and both density and clustering lowered the use of New York, for example, reacting to a major de- automobiles. Lowered use of energy for heating velopment proposal, decided it would not issue a and automobiles also improved air quality. Public permit for construction unless an array of serv- investment. costs were lowered by both high den- ices - or infrastructure - was already available at sity and clustering. Expenditures for roads and the site. The New York Court of Appeals sus- utilities were 55 percent less in these communities. tairied the controversial ordinance, which was ac- companied by an 18,year plan for public capital Given -the expected increase in population in the investments. But use of infrastructure can also be next, few decades, the opportunities for cost effect- direct. Town or city planners may decide to chan- iveness suggested in the above study are important. nel public investments in new infrastructure - Accommodating the region's projected growth un- water lines, sewer lines - to those areas in which der current land consumption patterns, even though they wish to encourage development. The U. S. the study has shown that the land is available, will Environmental Protection Agency released a re- require an enormous@public investment. It appears port in 1974 which indicated that EPA's funding to be both environmentally and fiscally irrespons- for wastewater interceptor sewers with excess ible to continue making those investments. capacity served as a subsidy to future land devel- opment and encouraged sprawl. Half the land to C. Regulate Developments of Regional 1mpact. be served by the sewers was vacant. Yet despite Within the alternative of improving the management what appear to be clear cut opportunities for of developable resources, special attention is given to directly influencing the broad goal of guiding those key facilities or major growth inducing develop- growth through the provision, withholding, or ments having greater than local impacts. Defined and maximum use of infrastructure, the legal prece- discussed earlier in this chapter, these briefly include dents are limited. In fact there are none at a key facilities such as power plants, large scale or growth more-than-local level. inducing developments such as shopping centers, and major public facilities such as highways and water Clustering. A technique requiring far less regula- and sewer line extensions. While all are vital to the tion than the previous two options for reducing continuing health of the region's economy and, for overall infrastructure costs is clustering. The Real that matter, to the well-being of the region's people, Estate Research Institute recently completed a their effects on the natural environment have gen- study for the President's Council on Environmen- erally been negative. The importance of these facili- tal Quality and HUD, entitled The Costs of Sprawl, ties and the magnitude of their local and regional in which it examined several different combina- impacts have been specifically recognized in both the tions of high, medium, and low density housing federal Coastal Zone Management Act and the Fe.d- 3-22 eral Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of sition of sites having the greatest environmental and 1972. Two strategies for guiding the location and economic suitability for these uses. By designating controlling the impacts of such developments on the appropriate sites, protecting them from preemption developable areas of SENE have received attention. by other uses, and either providing interim recrea- Two other states in New England have adopted tiorial use or leasing them for short-term use, the re- procedures for siting developments of regional im- gion could be assured an adequate supply of suitable pact. Also the Model Land Development Code cre- sites. This alternative, while expensive in the short- ated by the American Law Institute (ALI) of the run, would pay off handsomely in the long-run - in American Bar Association contains such procedures. land costs, and in infrastructure costs if property sited. Another alternative would be to provide Under Maine's Site Selection Act, licensing is re- interim leasing or transfer of development rights. quired for any proposed commercial, residential, or With these alternatives even the short-term costs industrial development which would occupy area in could be reduced. excess of 20 acres, excavate natural resources, or in- clude a structure with a ground area of more than 60,000 square feet. The license may be obtained It should be noted that while noise and air pollution only if the proposal can pass a state-level review of:. abatement is not the responsibility of the New England (a) financial and technical capacity to meet state River Basins Commission, the impacts produced by air and water pollution control standards, to pro- many forrris of development may result in such unde- vide adequate solid waste disposal, to control odors, sirable effects on adjacent areas. And air pollution, de- and to secure sufficient water; (b) traffic patterns pending on the toxicity and level of its constituents in generated; (c) effects on the natural environment, precipitation and storm water runoff, could adversely including existing uses, scenic character, natural re- impact water quality. New development of any degree sources, and property values; and (d) suitability of must be planned with all environmental factors taken soil types for the proposed development. Vermont's into account, as well as social and economic conse- Act 250 also includes a review by district commis- quences. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency sions of developments and subdivisions of certain has promulgated three sets of regulations which could types and sizes, and of any development on land on impact the development of air pollution emitting elevations over 2,500 feet. Massachusetts and Rhode sources. These regulations address air quality main- Island are both considering various means of provid- tenance plans, indirect source review, and prevention ing state input into developments of regional impact. of significant deterioration. They all recognize that The recently approved Martha's Vineyard Land Use new development must be planned and accomplished Act was largely based on the ALI code. in a manner which will protect health and welfare related air quality standards. These examples under- A more effective and far more direct way to regulate score the necessity for effective coordination of the location of some key facilities is advance acqui- development among all responsible agencies in regula- ting developments of regional impact. Recommendations. The SENE Study's Development Capability Analysis has The recommended program is a strategy for guiding growth shown that while occasional shortages may occur in indi- in a manner which Protects the critical natural functions of vidual planning areas, overall, enough developable land the region's water and related lands, yet assures adequate exists to accommodate growth through 2020, even if land land for economic development. As discussed in Chapter 2, is consumed at the high rate of the last decade. However, in The Setting, this program is designed to provide support for the section of this chapter entitled "Effects of Growth on the growing emphasis on services in the region's economy. Water and Related Land Resource& " it has been shown that as a result of the past decade of development if growth con- The recommended program draws on all three alternatives tinues along the same dispersed patterns without careful discussed in the last section. It emphasizes the integrated guidance, significant loss of critical environmental areas will protection of Critical Environmental Areas and suggests occur. It is the conclusion of the Study that a land use plan ways to minimize negative impacts of development on De- is badly needed in Southeastern New England. The Study's velopable Areas. At the same time, however, the recom- Development Capability Analysis and the following recom- mendations support and encourage a number of ongoing mended program constitute an important element of such a programs, recognizing the practical advantage of building plan - one which focuses on water and related land uses. upon the firm base of existing institutions. 3-23 The major recommendations are: dations can be acted upon immediately by communities, With technical and financial assistance from regional plan- 1. Increase and Integrate Protection of Critical ning agencies and state and federal agencies. However, be- Environmental Areas cause of the earlier stated need for integrated, coherent re- source management, a comprehensive system should be de- 2. Improve Management of Developable Areas veloped involving state, sub state. regional (in Massachusetts), and local levels of government. Alternatives for such sys- Both are extremely complex management issues, involving tems to carry out the following recommendations are ex- a wide variety of management and regulation tools and plored in Chapter 10, Strengthening the Management Sys- many key actors. The actors have not been designated for tem for Natural Resources. each recommendation below. Almost all of these recommen- 1. Improve Protection of Critical Environmental Areas. Protect wetlands by: The region's water bodies, well sites, inland and coastal wet- lands, critical erosion areas, beaches, fish spawning areas, 6 Revision of wetlands legislation as detailed shellfish flats, and estuaries have been classified Priority in Chapter 8, Flooding and Erosion. Protection Areas (category "A" resources). The region's flood plains, prime agricultural lands, coastal flood hazard *Acquisition of the most valuable wetlands. areas, and unique and scenic sites have been classified sec- Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreation identifies a ond priority Other Protection Areas (category "B" re- number of wetlands having particular value sources). Together they form the Critical Environmental for recreation as. well as for flood storage, Areas in the region - those lands either too fmgile to sup- ground water recharge and wildlife. Acqui- port any development or whose development would con- sition is appropriate because of their multi- stitute a hazard to public health and safety. All these lands ple values and is necessary to provide public should be carefully analyzed for compatible uses on a case- access for recreation. by-case basis to ensure proper protection. 0 Regulation of development on uplands sur- Priority Protection Areas rounding important wetlands through acqui- sition for recreational use or conservation Protect water bodies from non-point source pollu- easements or other zoning methods. tion by: *For coastal wetlands, inclusion on flood *Subdivision regulations requiring storm water hazard maps for HUD's Flood Insurance detention ponds for ground water recharge, Program, and regulations prohibiting and where feasible, other methods listed un- development in those areas (Chapter 8, der recommendations for ground water re- Flooding and Erosion). charge areas. Municipalities, regional plan- ning agencies, and states should develop Protect critical coastal erosion areas standards for control of runoff and sediment, by zoning ordinances prohibiting develop- assisted by federal agencies such as the Soil ment and any other use that creates health Conservation Service (USDA) and the Envi- and safety problems or accelerates erosion ronmental Protection Agency (EPA). (See rates (Chapter 8, Flooding and Erosion). Chapter 4, Water Supply, and Chapter 5, Water Quality). Protect beaches and their immediately adjacent lands by erosion control regula- *Stream bank and lake shore forest buffer tions, prohibition of development, or ac- strips obtained through acquisition of fee quisition for recreational use (See Chapter simple or of easements (including intercep- 6, Outdoor Recreation, and Chapter 8, ter rights-of-way) or town shoreline ordin- Flooding and Erosion). These area must ances along stretches designated for anti- be managed so that uses do not degrade degradation and where erosion and runoff the resource. Fragile wildlife areas and are particular problems. (See Chapter 5, dunes must receive special attention and Water Quality, and Chapter 8, F7ooding protection from overuse. and Erosion See Chapter 5, Water Quality for the recommendations on point-source Protect estuaries, fish spawning areas, and pollution.) shellfish flats though not mapped on the De- 3-24 velopment Capabilities Maps, by prohibit- 0 Clarify authority for local agencies to ing outfalls of wastewater treatment fa- enact transferable development rights. cilities, power plants, or any other major producers of effluent in these locations. 0 Evaluate (given the small size of agri- Prohibit dredging, sand and gravel mining, cultural operations in SENE) and pre- installation of pipelines, and any other pare an approach which might lead to disturbing activity within these areas. the establishment of "agricultural (Chapter 7, Marine Management and districts" where appropriate. Chapter 9, Locating Key Facilities). 0 Protect through local acquisition or Other Protection Areas provide for limited local acquisition of development rights for highest priority Protect riverine and tidal flood plains lands most likely to be lost to urbaniza- by prohibiting adverse development and tion. discouraging reconstruction after sub- stantial storm damage. Acquire flood 0 Provide federal-state cost-sharing plains for public uses such as recreation, arrangements similar to the U.S. relocate public facilities as they axe ex- Department of Interior's Land and panded where structural protection is Water Conservation Fund fo@ the pur- not available or practical. (Chapter 6, pose of assisting communities in Outdoor Recreation and Chapter 8, acquiring prime agricultural sites. F76oding and Erosion.) 0 Actively promote, in Massachusetts, Protect agricultural sites by legislation which Chapter 6 1, the Forestland Assess- would establish appropriate policies, provide ment Act, and Chapter 61A, the Farm- for the acquisition of significant sites, and land Assessment Act, in order to lower set standards for appropriate regulations. The the burden of property taxes on active Massachusetts and Rhode Island state agencies commercial agricultural operations. concerned with management of agriculture 0 Actively promote, in Rhode Island, and natural resources, in cooperation with the (Chapter 44-27 of the General Laws) U.S. Deptinent of Agriculture should work to: which enables preferential assess- ments for open lands, farm, and 0 Identify prime sites for production of forest lands. both food and non-food (forest) pro- ducts using available U.S. Department 0 Reform tax laws, in both states, of Agriculture mapping and state including strengthening the preferen- university produced land use maps. tial assessment laws by establishing 0 Provide management assistance through penalties for change of use, providing cooperative federal-state foresty and investment credits for farm related soils programs. capital costs, sales tax breaks, and/ or reducing the extent of reliance on * Provide guidelines for local zoning the property tax. ordinances to protect prime agricultural Protect Unique Natural and Cultural sites based for example, on U.S. Forest Sites by acquisition of conservation or Service forest land suitability criteria historic easements, development rights, such as dispersed recreation use capa- or fee simple, financed by the National city, wood product, production Ifistoric Preservation Act and other capability, and wildlife habitat poten- public and non-profit funds. State and tial; guidelines for flexible zoning local governments could adopt protective controls, including PUD's, to create measures similar to, and as extensions of, incentives to allow prime agricultural federal approaches. Use of other tech- sites to remain undeveloped; and estab- niques is described in the Natural Areas fishing an early warning and review Project of New England Natural Resource system which would notify authorities Center. These sites are critical features of a developer's intent to alter farm- and therefore could be pivotal in con- lands. ceptual plans and ultimate project proposals. 3-25 Protect Proposed Reservoir Sites and Their Protect Erosion Areas also not mapped, Related Watersheds, though not mapped by local sediment and erosion control on the Development Capabilities Maps, by ordinances, (Chapter 8, Rooding and prohibition of all but low intensity uses Erosion). such as agriculture or forestry. Monitor the use of tributaries and their banks. (Chapter 4, Water Supply). 2. Improve Management of Developable Areas. Develop According to Resource Capability. The recommendation has three parts which deal with management of all Developable Areas, both Manage recharge areas for aquifers neces- within existing developed areas, and in areas yet sary for local water supply by: to be developed: there are no Developable Areas in which management of some kind is not required. *Zoning ordinances and subdivision regu- lations restricting density so that septic systems will not endanger quality of the Develop According to Resource Capability. ground water; densities requiring sewers Those lands suitable for development to should be allowed only after analysis of varying degrees of intensity under several the economic and environmental feasi- different levels of management control bitity of artificial recharge, unless studies were classified by the Study as Develop- show that the aquifer will not be depleted. able Areas (category C, F, and G resour- (Chapter 4, Water Supply, and Chapter 5, ces). The region's future growth must be Water Quality). guided to these lands to probihit destruc- tion of Critical Environmental Areas. *Subdivision regulations ensuring mainten- ance of water level. Storm water deten- Maximize Public Investment Efficiency tion ponds with ground water recharge Options. Wherever possible and desirable should be required where feasible. In- guide growth to maximize use of exist- crease recharge in urbanized areas by ing excess capacity of infrastructure in al- channeling runoff from roofs back to ready developed areas and in areas to be the soil, installing drains with filters for developed to achieve desired patterns of runoff from streets, driveways and park- future growth; and use clustering, planned ing lots, use of permeable drainage ditches unit development, and impact zoning to and maximum open space. (Chapter 4, increase the efficiency of resource use and Water Supply, Chapter 5, Water Quality, decrease the cost of public investments in and Chapter 8, F7ooding and Erosion). services. oSpecial precautions incorporated into Regulate Developments of Regional Impact. regulations to restrict activities hazardous Establish criteria for economically and to ground water quality such as sanitary landfill, highway deicing salt, industrial environmentally suitable sites for key wastes, agricultural runoff, and sand and facilities, large scale or growth inducing gravel mining below the level of the water developments, and major public facili- table. The operation of sand and gravel ties, all of which have greater than local mining must be carefully regulated to impact on people and resources. To prevent subsequent fill by polluting sub- prevent preemption by other uses of stances. (Chapter 4, Water Supply, and the most critical sites, acquire or des- Chapter 9, Locating Key Facilities). ignate for future public use and lease or specify interim uses. Manage best upland wildlife habitat (C3) and A more detailed elaboration of the above, generalized areas of high landscape quality (C2) by recommendation for improving management of areas zoning ordinances limiting residential develop- suitable for development is as follows: ment to extremely low density or by encour- aging clustering. In high landscape quality 3-26 areas large scale developments should not Use clustering, plat .med unit development, be located on bluffs or hilltops but should and impact zoning to control distribution be absorbed in forested regions of lower and density of development, thereby areas to lessen their visual impact. Develop- increasing the efficiency of resources ments that would tend to preempt the re- use and public investment in services. source values of wildlife habitat and landscape quality should be carefully evaluated to Regulate Developments of Regional Impact ensure that adverse impacts are fully taken into account. Establish criteria for location of such key facilities as power plants and Manage land with ledge and/or steep slopes petroleum facilities, and large scale by zoning ordinances and subdivision regu- or growth inducing development such lations to limit residential densities. Densi- as apartment complexes, recreational ties on areas with ledge at, or within three development, and highway interchanges. feet of, the surface should be determined by These criteria should take into consid- feasibility of either septic systems or sewers. eration the environmental and eco- nomic ramifications of the siting, and Manage land with severe septic system (C4) should be incorporated into a review limitations by zoning ordinances and and regulation process. subdivision regulations limiting residen- tial densities unless sewers are present. Identify and protect specific sites for key Higher densities with sewers should be facilities with particular locational needs. encouraged because many of the other For those significant facilities for land resource categories are only suitable which few sites meet their require- for low density use. ments with a minimum of environ- mental degradation, sites identified Manage lands with moderate (F) to no should be protected from preemp- septic system (G) limitations by tion by other uses. The process of regulating development on moderate site identification should provide soils according to sewer availability. opportunity for public review and com- ment, ensure orderly development of the Take Advantage of Public Investment Effi- facilities, and allow multiple uses where ciency Options possible, such as in transmission line corridors. It should be based on careful Maximize use of excess capacity of existing consideration not only of the immediate infrastructure in urban areas (category E) locational factors (needs and impacts of which are vacant and suitable for de- the facility) but also of the regional needs velopment or redevelopment. It will for the uses and the impacts on desired be necessary for local or state agen- growth.patterns. Sites could be protected cies to determine and act on pro- by: blems which have previously pre- vented their development. Efficient *Advance land acquisition for future use and reuse of urban areas will re- facility usesi through purchase, interim duce pressure on undeveloped areas. leasing for compatible uses, and subse- quent transfer to the appropriate user. Use new infrastructure as a tool to guide growth on Developable Areas by locat- *Designation of land for future public ing water and sewer systems where use and specification of interim uses growth is desired. The timing of consistent with the purposes, making development could be controlled use of provisions spelled out in the by providing or withholding provi- American Law Institute's Model Land sion of infrastructure as well. Development Code. 3-27 Implications The SENE Study's detailed Resources Development Capa- and hold skilled personnel. By taking the recommended bility Analysis indicates that both Rhode Island and Mas- steps to build where the land can support it, and protect sachusetts have sufficient developable land to meet their land that cannot, the region's amenity values - in fact its needs through 2020. The Study's recommended program major competitive economic advantage - are ensured and is a method for ensuring that the future growth of the re- improved. We know, through the resource development gion is guided to those areas most capable of supporting capability analysis, that enough legitimately developable new development, and for preserving those water and re- land exists to meet our needs. It only makes sense, eco- lated land resources critical to protection of the region's nomically and environmentally, to guide growth to those water supplies or important for ensuring public health and areas. safety. The recommendations have important implications for national and regional economic development, environ- The recommendations, and the development capability mental quality, and overall social well-being. Moreover, analysis that backs them up, were designed to fit into on- they form the foundation for the rest of the SENE program. going state resource management and development pro- grams and the intent of recent federal legislation. Together The recommendations, if implemented, will have significant the recommendations constitute a useful framework positive effects on national economic efficiency, chiefly by through which local, regional, and state planners can carry reducing the resource and public investment costs of growth. out their increasingly complex resource management re- By maximizing the use of the excess capacity of existing in- sponsibilities and set priorities for future action - a frame- frastructure, the cost of accommodating new development work which, for the most part, depends on existing pro- can be significantly reduced. The clustering of new develop- grams and institutions. ment, in those areas of the region with only limited develop- able land, will bring savings in construction costs, in energy In the end, the region's people benefit most. The program, consumption, in water consumption, and in the cost of ex- if nothing else, provides choice and opportunity: choice of panding and constructing new infrastructure - water, sewer, lifestyle - from urban living through clustered suburban and transportation facilities. By taking the steps outlined development to the more traditional, if highly wasteful, low in the recommendations, the region can be assured protec- density sprawl; and opportunity and flexibility for many tion of certain critical resources and yet still have opportuni- forms of industrial and commercial development. South- ties for new economic development. eastern New England is a good place to live and work. The recommended program for guiding growth through resource It follows that by protecting certain critical environmental development capability is designed to keep it that way. areas, the overall environmental quality of the region will be enhanced. Perhaps more important, however, since both While this chapter concentrated on implementation sug- states have already taken steps to protect some of these re- gestions which fit within the framework of existing programs sources, if future growth can be directed to those lands and institutions, as noted above, opportunity does exist for most capable of supporting it, the traditionally negative improvement. These opportunities are presented in Chapter effects of development - erosion, flooding, loss of wildlife 10, Strengthening The Management System for Natural habitat and open space, pollution or loss of water supplies- Resources. In that chapter a number of alternative strategies can be minimized. are presented with a view toward organizing the decision making process in ways which make more effective use of Enhancing the region's natural landscape'through the im- present and potential state planning and regulatory functions plementation of these recommendations will have import- for water and related land resources. In order to truly be ant benefits for the region's economy as well. The Study effective in guiding growth, some realignment of the powers emphasizes encouraging economic activities most appro- assumed by the state, the region, and the municipalities wflI priate to New England. The trends toward light manufac- be necessary. Chapter 10 contains the principles for such turing and the increasingly dominant services sector depend legislative change. on the attractiveness of the region's environment to draw 3-28 Yiri Ir 4@y ''fitt v A Yli lit 77,11 At Water Supply CHAPTER 4 WATER SUPPLY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 The Setting 4- 1, The Situation 4-2, The Solutions 4-3, Alternatives 4-3, Managing Water Demand 4-4, Developing Ground Water 4-5, Developing Surface Water 4-9, Achieving Self-Sufficiency 4-10, Using Emerging Technology 4-10, Improving Water Supply and Water Quality 4-13, Making In terbasin Trans- fer: The MDC 4-14, Expanding or Forming R egional Systems 4-22, Improving Institutional A rrange- ments 4-24, Alternative Plans 4-26, Recommendations 4-26, Recommendations applicable throughout the region 4-26, Recommendations for communities relying wholly orpartially on ground water 4-2z Recommendations for municipalities relying on surface water 4-28, lmolications 4-29. CHAPTER 4 WATER SUPPLY The Setting In 1970, 95 percent of the 4.8 million people living in plished at the local level; regional, state, and federal SENE were served by municipal water s,upply systems. agencies have little effective control over water supply The remainder of the population relied on individual planning and implementation policy. However, at private wells. While municipal systems provided 655 certain points in the decision-making process, non- million gallons of water per day (mgd) in 1970, the local agencies have significant powers. In Massachu- total average demand in 1990 is expected to be about setts these non-local powers currently include: 890 mgd. In 2020, the projected demand will prob- ably be between 1200 mgd and 1400 mgd. New re- 0 The General Court. Local water supply agencies sources must be developed to supply these needs. must seek legislative approval for development out- side of local jurisdictions and for diversions out of Development, Management, and Delivery of Water watersheds. Supplies Massachusetts and Rhode Island differ somewhat in 0 7he Office of Administration and Finance. Local water supply authorities require state approval for their institutional arrangements for planning, develop- many types of capital expenditure. ing, managing, and delivering water, although the gen- eral characteristics of institutions in both states are 0 The Department ofPublic Health. This department similar. Municipal water supply is generally provided has important approval and veto powers over deci- by local institutions. The largest locally-managed sions relating to municipal water supply, quality, and regional system in SENE is the Providence Water Sup- allocation. ply Board. On the other hand, the region's largest supplier of water, the Metropolitan District Commis- 0 The Executive Office of Environmental Affaft sion (MDC) is not a local institution, but instead is an This office directly influences water supply develop- arm of the state under Massachusetts General Law, ment under its Department of Environmental Chapter 92. Management, Division of Water Resources and effectively controls the volume and quality of Local Institutional Arrangements. Local institutional water supply through the control of wastewater arrangements take several different forms. The most common institutions are public municipal water supply disposal under its Department of Environmental systems, usually created by local legislative action and Quality Engineering, Division of Water Pollution developed and managed by local water departments. Control. Other forms include private water companies chartered 0 The WaterResources Commission The WRC co- by the state and special water supply systems created ordinates the formulation of state water resource by special acts of the legislature to meet the joint policy and programs. needs of a number of communities. Some communi- ties rely wholly or partially on privately owned wells 0 Regional Planning Agencies. Regional planning for their municipal water supply. agencies in Massachusetts may identify the need for Historically, municipalities in SENE have depended changes in proposed developments through their either on private wells or on a local water supplier who review powers under A-95 and comparable state developed and managed their water resources. This review processes. arrangement is most appropriate when local ground ne Courts. The courts may resolve particular water water is the source of supply. Local water supply sys- Supply Controversies. tems allow municipalities to remain independent of regional systems. This historical preference for "home In Rhode Island, the degree of non-local involvement is rule" in SENE communities must be considered when similar. Additional institutions and requirements include: planning the development of water supplies. State and Federal Arrangements. Most water supply 0 7he General Assembly. Local water supply agencies planning, development, and management is accom- must seek legislative approval for development out- 4-1 side of local jurisdictions and for diversions out of the amount of sewe ring in a community affect the level of watersheds. its ground water resources and its stream flows. Therefore, basic policies involving water supply and water quality is- � The Water Resources Board (WRB). Thisboardsuper- sues must be resolved in a spirit of coordination and co- vises the development and conservation of the state's operation. resources. It accomplishes this objective through long- range, comprehensive planning and implementation Ideally, Chapter 4, Water Supply, and Chapter 5, Water programs. The WRB is authorized to acquire sites and Quality, should be treated together. However, because to construct and operate facilities for water supply. water supply and water quality institutions are generally separate in the SENE region, it seemed desirable to pro- � Public referenda. A public referendum is required on vide each group with information which emphasized its General Obligation bond issues for water supply de- particular concerns. The.Study's recommendations, while velopment projects. fully recognizing the interrelationships between water quantity and quality, can be implemented by the existing Two federal agencies also exercise some control over water water supply and water quality institutions themselves. supply management: At the same time, every effort has been made to stress � The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). water supply and water quality interrelationships through The EPA may require Environmental Impact State- numerous cross-references in each chapter. The section in ments from federally funded water developers; it Chapter 4, entitled "Improving Water Supply and Water also administers water quality permits. In addition, Quality Management" discusses methods by which greater the new Safe Drinking Water Act, gives EPA the cooperation between water supply and water quality insti- authority to set and enforce national drinking tutions might be achieved. In Chapter 5, a section entitled water standards. "Areawide Management " also deals with this topic. More- over, Chapter 10, Strengthening the Management System � The Department of Housing and Urban Development. for Natural Resources, contains a discussion of long-range This federal agency may require the satisfactory efforts for regional, integrated management of each state's achievement of certain water supply requirements water quality and supply. for eligibility for federal grants-in-aid. It must be emphasized that the reader cannot gain a clear Planning for Water Supply and Water Quality perspective on water supply or water quality in the SENE region without also reading the other chapters cross- As outlined in Chapters 1 and 2 of this report, the SENE referenced in the text. For example, Chapter 4 builds upon Study has developed a series of recommendations which are the principles presented in Chapter 3, Guiding Growth, by based on the use of existing institutions and programs. Chap- recommending policies and actions designed to protect ter 3, Guiding Growth, provides a framework in which water Critical Environmental Areas and by discussing the various supply and water quality plans are developed in the context constraints on land use imposed by the necessary protec- of other water and related land resource policies. Planning tion of significant ground and surface water resources. for water supply and water quality, if the basic policies dis- Cross-references to other chapters such as OutdoorRecrea- cussed in Chapter 3 are followed, must be accomplished in tion (Chapter 6) have also been made. Chapter 11, 7@4ng an integrated manner. the Recommendations Together, summarizes the inter- relationships between objectives and recommendations Water supply and water quality are intimately related. Just designed to meet water supply needs and those proposed as the amount of water used by a community affects the in other chapters of this report. efficiency of its wastewater treatment plant, so, too, does The Situation The major objective of the SENE water supply program is sidered in light of alternatives such as demand management, to meet municipal needs for adequate supplies of fresh the use of surface and ground water sources, local self- water in the most economically feasible and environmen- sufficiency, reliance on emerging technology, improved tally sound manner. In addition, wherever possible, the water resources management, in-basin and inter-basin trans- Study has attempted to accomplish this objective through fers, and improved institutional management. consideration of local preferences. T'he objective was con- 4-2 In 1970, public water supply systems in SENE supplied 655 in water consumption after 1990. The present rate of con- million gallons per day (mgd) to 95 percent of the people sumption, occasioned by the widespread use of appliances living in the region. The estimated 1990 and 2020 water such as air conditioners, dishwashers, and washing machines consumption needs for the SENE region have been calcu- will probably level off somewhat in the next 20 years. In- lated on the basis of the Bureau of Economic Analysis dustrial consumption may level off as well, as higher water OBERS "Series E" population projections. These projec- quality will allow more industries to recycle their water. tions estimate a population of 5.8 million in the region by The number of water-using industries in the region may 1990 and 7.0 million by 2020. They reflect a significant also decrease in the future as SENE becomes more "services- decrease in the rate of population growth in the region. ori6nted"(Chapter 2, The Setting). In addition, water con- servation and the increased use of efficient water saving ap- Using these figures and assuming historical trends, a one pliances will probably also slow the increasing rate of water percent (1.0%o) per capita increase in water use per year consumption. If a lower per capita increase in consumption, through 1990, the total average demand in 1990 is expected for example 0.5 percent per year, is assumed after 1990, the to be approximately 890 mgd (Table 4. 1). If such a trend in projected average demand for water will be about 1,200 consumption were to continue, the projected demand in mgd by 2020. Even so, the deficit between 1970 and 2020 2020 would be about 1,400 mgd. In this case, about 700 will be about 500 mgd. New resources must be developed if mgd would have to be developed over 1970 supplies. How- the residents of the SENE region are to be supplied with suf- ever, it may be reasonable to assume a lower rate of increase ficient water in the future. The Solutions Alternatives In order to satisfy the objective of meeting municipal needs 0 Using emerging technology; for an adequate supply of fresh water, the SENE Study has considered a number of alternative measures: 0 Improving water supply and water quality manage- � Managing water demand; ment; � Developing ground water; 0 Making interbasin transfers; � Developing surface water; 0 Expanding or forming regional systems; and � Achieving self-sufficiency; 0 Improving institutional arrangements. TABLE 4.1 AVERAGE DAY WATER USE PROJECTIONS BY PLANNING AREA*: 1990 and 2020 (in rngd) Planning Area 1990 Use 2020 Use Ipswich-North Shore 108.91 189.64 Boston Metropolitan 407.23 525.61 South Shore 31.10 80.38 Cape Cod & Islands 27.40 55.01 Buzzards Bay 31.49 61.50 Taunton 70.20 121.11 Blackstone & Vicinity 141.83 197.09 Pawtuxet 26.38 44.69 Narragansett Bay 40.89 80.50 Pawcatuck 8.27 17.08 tOTAL: 893.70 1372.61 Planning area totals based solely on projected average day water needs at an increase in use of 1% per capita per year. 4-3 The following discussions will consider each of these alterna- sures will provide the best solution foT a specific situation. tives in turn. Generally, a combination of the above mea- Managing Water Deinand. Even if the SENE popula- have a significant effect on demand by the private sector. tion stabilizes sometime during the 2 1 st century as pres- On the other hand, the price of water is generally elastic ently appears likely, a decrease or stabilization in the water for large industrial and agricultural users. Replacing the consumption increase rate will be necessary to slow down decreasing block rate structure presently charged to these the region's demand. Anticipated demands can be signifi- high-volume users with a higher metered flat rate or a cantly reduced if water conservation measures are instituted. schedule of increasing block rates, would help bring the Unfortunately, despite recent public concern for the conr prices offered to high-volume users more in line with the servation of natural resources and the need for planning to cost of developing new sources of supply. The short-run address environmental issues, the public has not been willing effects on commercial and industrial users would be to save water, except in situations of extreme emergency. largely income-distributional. However, in the longer run, The low cost of Water - for example, approximately I cent high-volume users would have an incentive to invest in for 50 gallons in communities served by the MDC - may be water-saving equipment and conserve usage in other ways. primarily responsible for the lack of a water conservation Voluntary compliance with the uneconomical aspects of ethic. the pricing policy by water utilities is unlikely, however. Therefore, legislation would be required to implement Because of the environmental, economic, social, and legal pricing alternatives. constraints which hinder increasing water supplies in SENE, there is astrong need for managing not only supply but Some industries are now investigating the feasibility of water demand as well. Since demand is, for some high vol- recycling their own wastewater in their manufacturing ume users of water, a function of price, some basic changes processes. Such a "closed cycle" would have a marked ef- in the present structure of water rates should be considered. fect on the amount of water used by industry, and would free supplies formunicipal use. The new effect of such a The price of water should not merely represent the sum practice will vary with the percentage of municipal water required for its transmission to home or business. Under supplies used by industries. If industrial use requires 40 the criterion of economic efficiency, water should be percent of municipal supplies, increasing block rates and priced in such a way as to ensure its allocation to those subsequent reduction of industrial use could result in a uses for which its value exceeds the cost of increased significant reduction of total municipal water consump- supply. To ensure that this occurs, price needs to be set tion. However, if only 20 percent or less of municipal equal to the marginal cost of production. Those users who supplies is required, even large reductions on the part of value additional water more than its marginal cost will use industrial consumers would not result in substantial net it, while those who value it less will tend to conserve it. If savings. paying the full marginal cost of production precludes cer- tain uses and restricts others, it may be argued that those Although in general, residential use of water would not be uses are not in the best economic interest of society when affected by all but the highest rate increases, some water water resources are scarce. Marginal cost pricing tends to demand management policies could be instituted for this clear the market for water at the point of maximum net sector. A case exists for charging the full marginal cost benefit to society. Therefore, it can be an important instru- price to all users during the peak-load season (June - ment of public policy aimed at efficient allocation of water August @ Maximum-day demands (about 160 percent of resources. average-day demands) occur during this period. This fact assumes significance once it is realized that the water sup- Where the demand for water is elastic (its use drops signifi- ply systems are designed to meet projected maximum-day cantly with rising prices), price increases can substantially demands rather than average-day demands, and the addi- affect not only the total amount used, but also the patterns tional unit cost of this capacity expansion is considerably of use over time and the allocation of water resources among higher than average. Next, certain peak season demands different uses. These adjustments in turn, can strongly in- such as lawn sprinkling are known to be price elastic fluence the size and timing of incremental additions to sup- (Howe and linaweaver, 1967, Water Resources Research, ply capacity, as well as the valuation and distribution of net Vol. 3 #1, pp. 13-30). Finally, seasonal rates can be ap- benefits from incremental capacity expansion. plied administratively, without requiring any special meters. It is generally recognized that the demand for water for domestic, institutional, and commercial uses is price If other institutional pricing mechanisms fail, a progres- inelastic - even doubling the price would probably not sive sales tax on retail water sales could be instituted. The 44 proceeds from such a tax could be placed in a special fund sumption of water is accounted for by toilets. Similarly, established for the purpose of financing future water sup- some washing machines use twice as much water as some ply and wastewater treatment developments, or to com- others. It appears desirable, therefore, that proven water- pensate the communities whose environment is disturbed saving fixtures be considered in all new buildings whenever by large water supply systems. the cost of water saved would exceed the cost of the con- servation device. Again, a public education campaign on In this context, it is important to note that although water the benefits of such fixtures could increase their use and supply and wastewater treatment are closely related issues, reduce unnecessary waste of water. consumers should not be charged twice for wastewater treatment by their sewer and water bills. At the same time, In conclusion, it may be said that although the case for however, consumers should be aware that an interrelation- water demand management has not been accepted by the ship does exist between water quaritity and quality and that public in water-plentiful parts of -the country like the their patterns of water use affect both situations. A pro- Northeast, it has been shown to be effective in other water- gram of public education, outlining the advantages of short parts of the country. Additional study to determine conservation in maintaining water supplies and protecting the true cost of water, including its social and economic water quality is another form of "demand management" costs, must be carried out. Policy guidelines are also needed not accomplished by economic means. for using the revenues collected for social and environmental improvements. Although it will not solve all our water con- Additionally, a form of demand management for the pri- servation problems, water demand management appears to vate sector can be achieved by requiring the use of water- be a useful tool in developing a water conscious society and saving devices when their efficiency has been proved. It has in encouraging a more efficient use of water. been estimated that nearly 50 percent of household con- Developing Ground Water. Even if the rate of increase Ground water resources are particularly appropriate when in water consumption can be reduced or stabilized within supplies are developed and delivered at a local level. The the next 15 to 25 years, additional sources of supply will preference of many of the SENE communities for local still have to be tapped to meet the 1990 and 2020 SENE autonomy has previously been emphasized. Rural com- water demands. As in the past, ground water and surface munities in the SENE region are the most likely to con- water will be the two major sources of additional future tinue their reliance on ground water supplies. Not only do supplies. Figure 4.1 shows which of those sources are pro- they have the necessary recharge areas and the limited de- posed to supply the towns of the SENE region. Develop- mands, but these communitie's also tend to have the strong- ment of either of these sources presents advantages or prob- est feelings about "home rule" and local independence from lems, according to the specific situation under consideration. regional water districts. Municipalities with a choice between ground and surface sources must balance these pro's and con's before choosing However, municipalities which rely on ground water as a either alternative or a combination of both.- This section local source of supply must be aware of the importance of discusses the ground water alternative, while the next sec- maintaining and improving their supplies. They must also tion will examine surface water. be aware of the environmental and economic impacts which result from ground water use. However, they must develop In many cases, ground water is presently the most economi- new sources of ground water, if possible. cal source of supply. At a very general level, the cost of de- veloping ground water might be expected to amount to ap- The drought of the sixties (1963-1966) revealed that many proximately $ 100 per million gallons. This figure includes municipal ground water supplies were insufficient under ex- the costs of a limited amount of exploration and the devel- treme drought conditions. All too many SENE communi- opment and operation of wells at a local level. It includes ties have been unwilling to spend the money to develop the price of chlorination, but does not include the price of supplies until it has been demonstrated that they do not ground water treatment for removal of iron and manganese. have an adequate safe yield to meet conditions such as Even the cost of this treatment, which could increase the drought or increased demand. price of ground water by about 40 percent, might still be less expensive in many cases than development of surface The Central Massachusetts Water Supply Study has recom- water sources. Moreover, the desirability of ground water mended that all communities with the potential for locat- development is further enhanced by the opportunity for ing and developing additional ground water sources should municipalities to spread out capital expenditures over time undertake continuing programs of well exploration, testing, through phased construction of wells. and site acquisition. The objective would be to completely 4-5 LEGEND Surface Water Sources Ground Water and Surface Water Sources 7 = Ground Water Sources -7 NASSACVUSfrrS jr JWWW Aftrb@ SAY U- A rLANric OCEAN 1--. 11 -VA 'I Ii I M, CAPE COD SAY IT--- 4 A vwi- 4- 6. 4 #A#rtlcxrr so4mo SLOCK ISLAND ... SOUND co 0 2 MILES KILOMETEAS 02 4 8 NEW ENGLAND RIVER.BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS PROPOSED NO. SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND WATER SUPPLY SOURCES 4.1 WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 4-6 evaluate the ground water resources of these municipalities sources from pollution. In addition, it corresponds in part within a five-year period. Where sufficient water is available, with the land use recommendation included in Chapter 3, communities should acquire well sites at least adequate to (Guiding Growth), protecting portions of "Developable supply projected 2020 demands as soon as possible; even Areas Requiring Management" some of which are aquifers wells requiring some treatment should be acquired if they and recharge areas, (Category C on Plates 1, 2, and 3). are the best available. If the municipalities acquire water supply resources now, and protect and preserve them to It is important that such land use policies be formulated as meet future demands while encouraging compatible interim soon as possible by the communities involved, in order to use, then eventual social, economic, and environmental costs avoid degradation of these resources. Municipalities rely- should be significantly reduced. ing on ground water could receive economic benefits from this low-cost source. However, they must pay the price for In many municipalities, especially in the Blackstone, Paw- this advantage by restricting land development over re- catuck, and Cape Cod planning areas, geologic conditions charge areas and perhaps by regulating housing density or are favorable for ground water development, and ground by sewering areas which might otherwise affect ground water is the most economical alternative. For communities water quality. such as these, the Central Massachusetts Water Study has recommended that the Water Resources Commission, in co- In order to maximize the potential of ground water re- operation with the U. S. Geological Survey (USGS), conduct sources, it will be necessary for municipalities to maintain a survey of ground water location, quantity, and availability ground water recharge and to prevent contamination from in the region. In Rhode Island, the same projects are being natural as well as man-made sources. Coastal communities carried out by the Water Resources Board and the USGS. relying on ground water should be encouraged to monitor Such a survey would provide information to help munici- salt water encroachment and to define acceptable limits palities design their well-site exploration programs and to for encroachment caused by well withdrawal. A legal and assist regional agencies in evaluating future needs to supple- institutional framework should be es4lished to prevent ment ground water. In addition, the survey would provide violation of these limits. Monitoring will provide an early data necessary for the regulation, protection, and preserva- warning system to safeguard ground water quality for tion of ground water resources. future use. -After the necessary legal authority is provided, individual municipalities or a regional water management Such a program could enhance the economic outlook of agency, such as the one discussed for Cape Cod in a follow- communities relying on ground water by allowing them to ing section, could maintain ground water levels and control use this economical source of supply to its maximum ex- and limit salt water intrusion by requiring permits for ground tent. The communities would benefit from the expertise water withdrawal in excess of 50,000 gallons per day. Further of the Water Resources Commission and the U. S. Geo- water management actions are outlined in the Cape Cod logical Survey in preserving existing resources and in devel- and Islands PlanningArea Report. oping additional supplies. A recent referendum in Barn- stable County has authorized the County Commissioners Regulating ground water withdrawal is also a method of to appropriate funds for such a program on Cape Cod. The protecting strearnflows and pond levels. All rivers in the program will be jointly financed by the Divisions of Water SENE region are highly dependent on ground water dis- Pollution Control and Water Resources of the state's Water charge for their flows, especially during the summer Resources Commission, Barnstable County, the U. S. Geo- months. Examples of streams which could be particularly logical Survey, and the National Park Service. Figure 4.2 sensitive to depletion caused by existing or potential shows all areas in SENE where ground water studies and ground water development are the Ipswich River, the management should be implemented. Charles and Abe@ona Rivers (Boston Metropolitan plan- ning area), Abbott Run (Blackstone planning area), the As development encroaches on recharge areas, many kinds Chipuxet and Usquepaug Rivers (Pawcatuck planning of activities tend to threaten the quality of ground water area), and the Ten Mile River. Even though some aquifers supplies. The protection of these recharge areas in com- have a high theoretical safe yield, withdrawal of too much munities relying on ground water is therefore extremely of their water can result in excessively low streamflows or important. Activities shown to be hazardous to ground pond levels. Pumping permits should be required to con- water quality, such as operating sanitary landfills, storage trol strearnflow depletion and pond level lowering in those and use of highway deicing salt, and industrial waste dis- cases. posal, to name only a few, should be restricted from re- charge areas of both existing and potential sites for public The Rhode Island Water Resources Board currently sets supply wells. stream depletion standards in that state. For communities relving on ground water, municipalities or water manage- This alternative would enhance social well-being and envi- ment authorities should establish recommended pond ronmental quality by protecting valuable ground water level and strearnflow depletion limits based on the value 4-7 Areas where salt water encroachment should be monitored A Apply computer simulation models 0 Restrict activities hazardous to ground water ftom prime recharge areas N Establish recommended pond level and strearnflow depletion limits Maw r, @SACW.MTU IO*kN MASSACMUSIrrrs N"ba, *Ar A r A III rj c ocarAm @rjjw. le A kj 41%1@ _1411 1) ------- 4- Ane '\ .%. - k CAPE Coo *A r It I I, ... I. \I V A 0, < r Ix r2 AM me _J -4 7r IAN V k'AS* A A-0- Air, ..1. 040CK ISLAND SW#V MILES KILOMETE" NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS NO. AREASFOR 4.2 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 4-8 not only of water supply, but of other water uses as well. tial source of water quality degradation, and careful atten- Maintaining specific streamflows and pond levels will cor- tion must be given to the water quality and health aspects rect many social and environmental problems of low or of such disposal. If future study shows that land applica- irregular flows. Water quality will tend to improve, recre tion is economically, environmentally, and medically sound, ational uses such as boating and fishing will not be im- spray irrigation of treated wastewater would be particularly paired, and fish and biota will live in a more favorable en- appropriate in the Taunton and Cape Cod planning areas. vironment. Furthermore, higher strearnflows will provide downstream surface sources with a more dependable water 7his topic is discussed more fully in the Water Supply supply. (Note. These same advantages can be achieved by and Water Quality sections of the individual planning programs of low flow augmentation). (See Chapter 5, area reports. Water Quality.) In conclusion, where ground water is available, it is an Maintenance of ground water recharge in municipalities economical source of supply. It also allows municipalities with increasing development is an important problem. In- to make the most of local resources and to remain inde- creased development in many towns has covered recharge pendent of regional water supply systems. However, in areas with houses, roads, shopping centers, and other im- some parts of the SENE region there may be "too much of permeable surfaces. In order to maintain their ground a good thing". For example, Burrillville, Rhode Island has water supplies, these communities can create new rapid seven independent water.supply systems. In many cases, recharge areas where infiltration may be concentrated. local systems may have inadequate financial resources for The low cost of ground water may be enough to offset the maintenance of their property or the expansion of their extra costs in maintaining its supply. Again, trade-offs service areas. The benefits of local autonomy for these must be made by the municipalities, restricting develop- systems must be balanced against the economic and envi- ment in the new recharge areas so that they may compen- ronmental losses due to inefficient management. Munici- sate for the recharge lands previously lost to development. palities which choose to use ground water must also be sure to avoid harmful environmental impacts. Moreover, A topic of some controversy in SENE at the present time they must take decisive steps to maintain or improve the is the land application of treated wastewater. (See Chapter quality and quantity of their resources. If this is accomp- 5, Water Quality@ This process has the benefit of recharg- lished, their water supply policy will retain a flexibility . ing ground water from sources (stormwater and waste- greater than that of municipalities which have abandoned water systems) which would otherwise carry their water their local ground water sources for other supplies. out of the basin. However, land application is also a poten- Developing Surface Water. Many municipalities do mies of scale. It charges about $240 for a million gallons not have additional supplies of available ground water, or of water. Of the surface sources 'in StNE, the Ipswich and if available, its low quality may require a prohibitively Taunton Rivers in Massachusetts and the Big (Pawtuxet costly degree of treatment. Because of the large quantities planning area) and Tarkiln (Blackstone. and Vicinity plan-' of surface water available for use, it is an extremely impor- ning area) Rivers in Rhode Island, appear to be particularly tant source of supply, though it is often more costly than appropriate as sources of regional water supply- ground water. While the development of local surface water supplies may be convenient, this action generally proves to Regional surface water supply systems can provide econo- be extremely expensive. While local ground water supplies mies of scale where local systems prove to be inefficient. may cost about $100 per million gallons (see above) Cost sharing, operational efficiency, and quality control are benefits provided by the regionalization of surface comparable local surface water developments may roughly cost as much as $500 to $700 per million gallons. water supply systems. For surface water dependent areas, Acquisition of-land, construction of dams, aqueducts, regionalization of systems should be encouraged. At and water mains, as well as system maintenance and the same time, it must be noted that regionalization water treatment, can be more efficiently handled by a sacrifices the local autonomy of individual municipalities group of municipalities working together. These muni- for economic rewards and the long-term security of cipalities will realize economies of scale by joining inter-municipal cooperation. Several regional water other cities and towns in regional water supply systems. supply systems have been recommended for the SENE A rough estimate for the cost of developing regional sur- region. Someof these are discussed briefly in a fol- face water systems, comparable to. the local surface and lowing section, and all are discussed at length in the sepa- local ground water systems discussed above, would be ap- rate planning area reports. Among the recommendations proximately $400 per million gallons. SENE's largest re- are proposals for establishing systems in the Ipswich River,. gional system, the MDC, is able to realize significant econo- Taunton River, South Shore, and Blackstone planning 4-9 areas. Extensions of service for existing water supply sys- alternatives by failing to purchase or protect areas which tems such as the MDC, the Providence Water Supply Board, have a potential for further water resource development. and the Brockton Water Commission, have also been pro- Proposed reservoirs and their watersheds are classified as posed and are discussed in greater detail in the appro- "Other Protection Areas" (Category B) in Chapter 3, and priate planning area reports. It thus appears reasonable that, they should be carefully managed to avoid an irretrievable where local water supply development has proven insuf- commitment of resources. ficent, where growth is expected, and where sources of supply are limited, certain municipalities should be encour- In the past, emphasis has been placed on the protection of aged to join existing regional systems, or to form new ones surface water resources. However, future state require- for their organizational and economic benefits. Figure 4.3 ments will tend toward complete treatment of all surface shows the existing and proposed regional water supply sources. With the emphasis on treatment rather than on systems in SENE. preservation, municipalities may, in the future, be able to develop some water sources of low quality which are riot Surface water, like ground water, must be developed and presently used. Moreover, if complete treatment is manda- managed to provide adequate supplies for future needs. tory, the large amount of watershed acreage now required Most important, municipalities having existing sources of for reservoir protection may not be necessary. Instead, some supply should maintain the quality and yield of those of the land could be used for limited recreational purposes sources to ensure their continued use as long as it is tech- (See Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreation). Appropriate steps nically possible and environmentally and economically must be taken, however, to assure that recreation activity feasible. It must be stressed that maintenance of existing will not conflict with the primary use'of these resources, water supplies generally provides the most efficient resource ie., the provision of safe, palatable drinking water. use and usually offers high long-term cost benefits. In addition, to preserve future options for development of Surface water, then, will continue to serve as a major source water supply resources, key watersheds should be acquired of supply in SENE. In general, the smaller, more local water or managed (,See Chapter 3, Guiding Growth). Management systems will be able to develop ground water more cheaply of watersheds should include monitoring of tributaries to than they would surface water resources. However, the -nsure that sources of pollution are restricted from the area. larger the system, the more likely it is that surface water A municipality should not foreclose its future water supply will be a more economical source of supply. Achieving Self-Sufficiency. In the two previous sec- if in-basin sources are not used to their maximum extent. tions, a great deal of emphasis has been placed on alterna- tives which maintain or encourage development of existing If carried to extremes, however, a policy of self-sufficiency local resources. The alternatives to be considered in this can militate against concentrated growth patterns - held case are self-sufficiency and dependence on out-of-commun- to be the basis of a rational SENE land use policy in Chap- ity or out-of-basin resources. In general, local -self-sufficiency ter 3. Local self-sufficiency should not be encouraged to is a more flexible and more popular, but often a more costly the point where it identifies the environmental, economic, alternative than dependence on outside systems. In order and social consequences of scattered growth. After judicious to achieve a "hydrologic balance", water should ideally be use of in-basin ground water and regional in-basin surface used and disposed of in the basin from which it was with- water, interbasin transfers will be the only alternative for drawn. Moreover, the economic and social complications supplies to be developed in the near future. Figure 4.4 il- of interbasin transfers, to say nothing of the legal complica- lustrates the existing and proposed water supply transfers tions of interregional transfers, can impede the transport of in SENE. It is apparent that many of them cross hydrologic water and minimize its quantity. The use of local ground boundaries. Further discussion of specific in-basin and water or in-basin regional surface water supply systems are in terbasin transfers may be found in the ten planning area the alternatives which best achieve the goal of self-sufficiency. reports. They allow a flexibility in water supply policy which is lost Using Emerging Technology. By 1990 or 2020, re- "Under present AWT (advanced wastewater treat- search into wastewater recycling, spray irrigation of treated ment) technology, the cost of bringing secondary wastewater, and desalination may have made them feasible effluent to drinking water quality is about 40 alternatives to reservoir construction for sources of water cents per 1,000 gallons in a 10 mgd plant. As the supply. As far as wastewater recycling is concerned, the volume increases, the price falls. . . Engineering News Record centennial edition of April 30, 1974 stated: 4-10 Existing Regional Water Supply .=Service Area - - 1970 Blvd Partially served by an existing regional Water Supply Service Area - - 1970 Proposed 1990 Water Supply Service Area ------- 0 Not expected to have municipal systems by 1990 All other communities will have individual municipal water supply systems or will have systems sharing a source with only one other community- r ---- -- &ASSAc#4vsrrrs el I-, 1%.... VWA. MWAW VAY rmT t A N rt C OCtAA, E in- IOLA N TAU r CAPE COD DAY 0 L "D N NANrUCITET SOUND 0 f 0,LOCJr ISLAND SOUND MILOS KILOVEIVAS Is NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS NO. EXISTING AND PROPOSED 4.3 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND WATER SUPPLY SERVICE AREAS WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 4-11 Intermunicipal Transfers: 1970 InterRegional Transfers: 1970 -o@ Proposed 1990 Intermunicipal Transfers T 0 Existing Sources of Supply: 1970 (approximate location) Proposed 1990 Reservoirs (approximate location) 9AY A r 4 A v r/ c OCEAN ff" S w, -P, '14 J c@,z. Al D4 r CAPE COO &A1' V V, -V '"If J. *AAorvcKEr souND 0 "7 J SLOX 154ANP SOUND T NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETT! EXISTING & PROPOSEO NO. SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND WATER SUPPLY TRANSFERS 4.4 WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 4-12 However, there are not enough examples of this type of junction with conventional power plants, the use of waste technology to recommend it for general use without quali- heat from nuclear power plants for desalination is a topic fication. Furthermore, the cost cited in the quotation does which should be carefully researched. In addition to pro- not appear to include transmission and distribution, both of viding a lower cost energy source for the desalination pro- which are the major components of total water supply costs. cess, this method would help to reduce the thermal pollu- tion presently caused by nuclear power plants. If further Drinking water is only one of the many products of re- research on this method of desalination - and on methods cycling, however, and some industries are already recyc- of disposing of the brine it would generate - were success- ling wastewater for use in their manufacturing processes. ful, municipalities on the South Shore might be able to If water quality standards are met, industrial water sup- jointly develop an economically feasible desalination fa- plies may become pure enough to make recycling even cility for public water supply with the Pilg-im nuclear more economically feasible for many high volume water power plant in Plymouth. Some distribution facilities users. Again.quoting from the Engineering News Record 'already exist for such a source, a fact which increases its centennial edition: economic viability. "By 1974 or 1975 [Denver] will reclaim 10 Spray irrigation, discussed in the ground water section of million gallons daily of wastewater for industrial this chapter could indirectly provide the SENE region with use; by 1986 about 100 mgd, and by 2000, re- a new,"source" of water. Spray irrigation of treated waste- claimed water will supply 25% of the city's total water provides a way of returning water to the water table needs." from which it was originally drawn. Additional study of the economic feasibility, environmental impacts and health Thus, while it will probably be many years before recyc- aspects of this procedure in SENE must be unde4aken. led wastewater is used for drinking water, it could be feasible to use it in some industrial processes in SENE in Advanced technologies may, in the long-run, alleviate some the near future, thereby making additional water supplies of the future water supply problems which the SENE region available for municipal use. faces. Although they may relieve many of the environmen- tal stresses which we are currently placing on our water re- Although the current energy crisis and a continuing short- sources, we should ensure through in tensive research, that age of fossil fuels may have adverse effects on the eco- they do not place additional burdens on the environment. nomic feasibility of energy-intensive desalination in con- Improving Water Supply and Water Quality. Water These authorities would have regulatory, operational, and supply and water quality are intimately related. For ex- management powers in areas of water supply and waste- ample, removing Wastewater from a watershed by sewering water disposal. However, conflicts might arise between can lower the level of ground water and deplete streamflow proposed water management authorities and existing water there, creating a problem for municipalities which rely supply and wastewater disposal systems. If the geographi- upon ground water resources for their supplies. On the cal boundaries of the last two interests were not cotermin- other hand, the amount of. water consumed in a munici- ous, a great deal of institutional reshuffling and political pality directly affects the size and efficiency of its treat- confusion could result. In addition, the interests of local ment plants. An effort must be made to coordinate the municipalities and local water supply and wastewater dis- management, practices at both ends,of the water pipe. posal systems in "home rule" are in many cases too en- trenched to accept a regional authority which could dic- Water supply systems are generally not institutionally tate water supply and disposal policies. Much careful re- linked with wastewater disposal. The Metropolitan Dis- search and consideration would have to go into recommend- trict Commission is probably the only exception to this ing the immediate adoption of specific water management general situation in the SENE region. Greater coordina- authorities. The background information available to the tion between water supply and wastewater disposal sys- SENE Study was not sufficient to provide such a recom- tems, however, could result in economic and environmen- 'mendation. However, over the long-term, conditions for tal benefits for the region, as well as in more efficient the establishment of regional water management authorities water management policies for both water supply and may become more favorable. Two institutional approaches water quality interests. for a more integrated approach to water management are described in Chapter 10i Strengthening the Management One method of coordinating water resource management System for Natural Resources. In addition, Chapter 5, would be to establish regional authorities to deal with Water Quality, discusses areawide waste management in wastewater treatment and disposal as well as with the de- the context of recent water pollution legislation. velopment, maintenance, and distribution of water supplies. 4-13 A modification of the regional authority alternative has whole is too great to allow the inconsistency and duplica- been suggested for the Cape Cod planning area and is more tion of effort involved in local water management. Other fully discussed in that planning area report. However, in areas of the SENE region where such agencies may be ap- general, the recommendation states that a regional water propriate for both ground and surface water management agency, while not responsible for delivery of water supplies, are: municipalities in the Ipswich River basin (Ipswich- will have the authority to manage uses of the Cape's sup- North Shore planning area); and the Pawtuxet planning plies for protection of their water quality. The economic area (see those planning area reports for details). and environmental value of ground water to the area as a Making Interbasin Transfer: The MDC Because basins. Table 4.2 lists the municipalities served by the the major supplier of water in SENE, the Metropolitan MDC as of 1970. District Commission (MDC), is truly regional - indeed inteff egional - in scope, it is appropriate to include a As in the case of other regional developments, the im- discussion of its future options in this report. The MDC portation of water to municipalities in the Boston Metro- manages the water supply, wastewater treatment, and out- politan and Ipswich-North Shore planning areas has been door recreation facilities of many of its member communi- primarily due to necessity. Where ground water of suffi- ties. It is the largest regional water supply system in New cient quality and quantity is present, it should be devel- England. Currently, the MDC supplies the water needs of oped. However, local development of ground and surface 41 Massachusetts municipalities* (32 within the SENE supplies in MDC towns is generally less satisfactory than region) from three major reservoirs: Quabbin, Wachusett, importation of water, because of the lack of high quality and Sudbury. These reservoirs impound water diverted supplies or the preemption of well sites, recharge areas, and from tributaries of the Connecticut and Merrimack River watershed lands by urban and suburban development. TABLE 4.2 COMMUNITIES SERVED BY THE MDC in 1970 FULLY SUPPLIED MEMBERS: Arlington Marblehead Revere Belmont Medford Saugus Boston Melrose Somerville Brookline Milton Stoneham Chelsea Nahant Swampscott Everett Newton Waltham Lexington Norwood Watertown Maiden Quincy Vrmthrop, PARTIALLY SUPPLIED MEMBERS: Cambridge Peabody Canton Wakefield Lynnfield Weston Needham Winchester NON-MEMBERS SUPPLIED: Clinton Leominster Southborough Chicopee Marlborough South Hadley, F.D. *1 Franiingharn Northborough Wilbraham *Worcester On an emergency basis only. Worcester also receives emergency supplies from the MDC. Lancaster has an agreement with the MDC to receive water, but has not made use of this agreement since 1963. 4- 14 The existing dependable yield of the MDC system is esti- hydroelectric facility in Northfield and Erving, Massachu- mated to be 300 mgd. However, the average daily,amount setts. In order to provide water for the diversion, Northeast of water furnished by the system in 1970 was 307 mgd. Utilities would pump an additional 375 million gallons into Above average rates of precipitation since 1971 have en- its upper storage reservoir each day that flows in the abled the MDC to supply more water than its theoretical Connecticut are above a control flow of 17,000 cubic feet safe yield.* per second (cfs) at the Montague City U.S. Geological Survey gaging station. The diverted water would then be The existing deficit in the MDC's water supply must be piped to Quabbin Reservoir through a 9.8 mile long aque- corrected in the near future. In addition, the system will duct. Although high flow skimming of 375 mgd could yield require new sources of supply as its member communities an annual average of 84 mgd to the MDC system, the NEWS increase their consumption and as additional towns gain Study estimates that, because of "operational considerations," membership. In 19 74, the Northeastern United States the average daily yield to Quabbin would be about 72 mgd. Water Supply (NEWS) Study by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers estimated that by 1990, 24 additional munici- Uke the Northfield Mountain diversion, the Millers River palities (18 of them within the SENE region) will have no basin project would use high flow skimming techniques to option for water supply other than the MDC. These divert water from the East Branch of the Tully River, about municipalities are listed on Table 4.3.** The Corps estimated four miles above Athol, Massachusetts, and from the main that these communities and the 41 presently served commun- stem of the Millers River, about three miles above Athol. ities will place an additional demand of 141 mgd (over its Both diversions in the Millers River basin would require not present 300 mgd yield) on the MDC by 1990. The Metro- only the control flow of 17,000 cfs on the Connecticut at politan Area Planning Council, in its report on Alternative Montague City (see above), but would also require minimum Regional Water Supply Systems for the Boston Metropolitan flows on their respective rivers. Diversions might occur Area (Camp, Dresser and McKee, February, 197 1), came to simultaneously or possibly only at one site, depending on a similar conclusion, estimating that the MDC would require the control flows and the water quality of the two rivers. 196 mgd over its 300 mgd yield by 1990. Because of the low quality of the Millers River, treatment at the project's intake, or advanced treatment at the point In order to meet its projected demands, the NEWS Study pollution sources along the river, would be required. The recommended Northfield Mountain and Millers River basin combined diversion from the Tully and Millers Rivers would projects would divert an average of 72 and 76 mgd, respec- be carried to Quabbin through a seven mile long aqueduct tively, from the Connecticut River basin during periods of and would provide the MDC with an average annual supply high flow. The Northfield Mountain project would use a of 76 mgd. This amount, combined with the 72 mgd from high flow skimming technique, principally during spring the Northfield Mountain diversion, would provide 148 mgd runoff periods, diverting water from the main stem of the to meet the NEWS Study's projected needs for MDC com- Connecticut through Northeast Utilities' pumped storage munities in 1990. TABLE 4.3 COMPARISON OF NEWS AND SENE FINDINGS: COMMUNITIES WITH NO REPORTED OPTION OTHER THAN THE MDC *Ashland Holbrook Millis Stow Avon Holliston *Natick Sudbury Bolton *Hudson Norfolk *Wellesley Braintree Lincoln Randolph *Westwood *Dedham *Maynard Sherborn Weymouth Dover Medfield *Stoughton *Woburn Communities.which the SENE Study finds have no reported option other than the MDC. All communities listed here have been identified by the NEWS Study as having no reported option other than the MDC for meeting projected water supply needs. *Average daily amount of water supplied by the MDC in: 1971 = 322 rngd 1972 = 318mgd 1973 = 316 mgd "The MDC is now negotiating with two other municipalities not considered by the NEWS or SENE studies. However, both studies found that these municipalities have alternative sources other than the MDC. 4-15 Findings in the SENE Study, however, indicate that reliance rate level which the nation is now experiencing, rather than of the 65 towns on MDC supplies may not be as great as sug- the higher 1960-70 national growth rate on which the gested by NEWS. Table 4.4 presents results of the NEWS "Series C" projections are based.* Although the disaggre- and SENE studies for comparison. The SENE Study find- gated figures may not be totally accurate for individual ings are based on two factors which differ from those of the towns and cities, it is felt that, over the total number of NEWS analysis: lower population projections and a differ- municipalities considered in this comparison, the Series E ent interpretation of existing and potential local resources figures are reasonable projections. available to meet water needs. The second major difference between the SENE Study and Both the NEWS and SENE studies estimate a reasonably NEWS figures is the evaluation of sources other than the close rate of increase in domestic per capita water consump- MDC. Based on its policy of maximum use of local re- tion between 1970 and 1990. However, while the NEWS sources, the SENE Study has investigated the existing or Study uses the OBERS "Series U figures as the basis for its potential local surface and ground water sources for the projections, the SENE Study has used a more recent set of same 65 municipalities evaluated by the NEWS Study. figures, the OBERS "Series E" projections. The latter pro- Detailed accounts of the SENE Study's findings for the jections assume a continuation of the zero population birth communities within the SENE region may be found in the TABLE 4.4 COMPARISON OF NEWS AND SENE STUDY ESTIMATES FOR WATER SUPPLIES IN METROPOLITAN BOSTON THROUGH 1990 WITHOUT NORTHFIELD MOUN- TAIN AND MILLERS RIVER DIVERSIONS. -a/ Assumptions - DEMAND NEWS SENE Rate of growth, per capita use 1.1 gpod/yrt/ 1.1% pc/yr -c/ Total projected population 1990 2,845,000 2,773,000 Total projected demand 1990 524 mgd d 493 mgd Assumptions - SUPPLY (in mgd) Existing MDC supply 300 300 Existing local supply 74 104L/ Potential local supply 9 12 Total projected supply - 1990 without additional diversions 383 416 Net deficit - 1990 141 77 a Service area: Current MDC towns (fully and partially supplied, 32), current non-member towns supplied (9), and towns identified by NEWS as having no reported options other than MDC service by 1990 (24). gallons per capita per day/year graphical; domestic rate (industrial rate not available) ,@j per capitalyear compounded; domestic and industrial rate total NEWS demand based on domestic and industrial projections e / 1970 yield of ground water systems reduced to allow for 1970 maximum day demands fJ 1970 yield of ground water systems applied to 1990 average day demands Additional supplies available to meet 1990 maximum day demands. *In fact, the OBERS Series E figures closely approximate the "Dispersed" estimates (or the lower limit of county population totals listed in the NEWS study [Millers River Basin Water Supply Project, Volume II, Appendix B, pp. B-1 3 to B-141). 4-16 Boston Metropolitan and Ipswich North Shore Planning The Merrimack River presently serves as a source of water Area Reports. supply for Lawrence, Lowell, and Methuen, and could, with treatment, serve communities in the Ipswich and Merrimack Although the SENE Study was able to identify 12 mgd in basins which now are members of the MDC or which might potential additional local resources in the 65 communities, have to join the MDC in the future. The NEWS Study is this figure is not significantly different from the 9 mgd presently considering the advisability of providing supplies which the NEWS Study identified as additional supplies. to several Merrimack Valley communities from the Mer- Thus, the major difference in the two studies' water supply rimack by 1990. However, the NEWS Study is not con- figures is 30 mgd in the estimated yield of existing local sidering diversions from the Merrimack to serve out-of- supplies. This difference may be explained by the fact that basin needs, including those of the MDC, until after 1990. the NEWS Study significantly reduced its estimate of the Presently, the water quality of the Merrimack River necessi- amount of existing ground water supplies if these supplies tates a high degree of treatment before it can be used as a were insufficient to meet maximum day demands. In con- water supply source. The cost of treatment and distribu-, trast, the SENE Study included all ground water supplies tion, which could result in a total project cost as high as which satisfied communities' average day demands,* pro- $79.1 million for in-basin use alone,** precludes this alterna- vided that these communities also had storage of additional tive as a practical short-term solution for MDC needs. State supplies sufficient to meet their maximum day demands. and local interests in New Hampshire are also concerned about the potential Massachusetts diversions of the Merrimack. Therefore, of the 24 additional communities which the Nevertheless, it appears that a clean Merrimack River will NEWS Study assigned to the MDC service area by 1990, hold the greatest potential as a long-term solution for the the SENE Study has found that only 9 would have to join MDC's water supply problems, and continuing study of the MDC at that time (see Table 4.3). The remaining 15 this alternative is extremely important. municipalities appear to have a sufficient amount of water from existing or potential local sources to postpone their The MDC is currently sponsoring a study on the feasibility membership in the MDC system. If more detailed investiga- of using the Upper Sudbury River as a source of additional tions of local resource potential reveal that additional water supplies. A draft report has been prepared and is supplies are not available or suitable for use, the affected undergoing review by the MDC, but no conclusive informa- municipalities will require connection to the MDC. tion has been developed as yet. However, there is a possibi- lity that if technical matters are resolved, the Upper Sud- The last row of figures on Table 4.4 compares the NEWS bury could provide the MDC with additional supplies of and SENE Study estimates of MDC communities' need for between 30 and 40 mgd by the mid,_ 1980's. These supplies water by 1990 if no additional sources of water supply were would be in addition to the 15 mgd presently being with- developed (i.e., if neither the Northfield Mountain nor the drawn from the Sudbury River for MDC use. Until more Millers River basin diversions were constructed). While the definitive information is developed, neither the MDC nor NEWS Study estimates that 141 mgd would be required by the SENE Study can evaluate the feasibility of the Upper 1990, the SENE Study figures indicate that, based on lower Sudbury project, but it appears to be a potentially valuable demand projections and on maximum use of local resources, source of supply, and the Study endorses the MDC's only 77 mgd would be necessary to meet the MDC com- continued investigations. muruffies', needs. The question faced by the MDC is how these short-range needs will be met. The apparently substantial reserves of ground water in Ply- mouth County, Massachusetts, have been suggested as an The SENE Study has investigated short-range water supply alternative source to the Northfield Mountain and the Millers alternatives to the Northfield and Millers River diversions, River diversions. However, as discussed in the South Shore but to date has been unable to suggest any alternatives which, Planning Area Report, the South Shore is one of the fastest either separately or in combination, are demonstrably growing areas in the Southeastern New England region. superior to these projects. However, work is in progress by Based on discussions with consultants who are conducting a others on several studies, and additional investigation needs water supply study in the area, the SENE Study's conclu- to be carried out in order to determine -their feasibility. sion is that Plymouth County ground water will be needed Average day demands represent a community's yearly average of daily water demands. Maximum day demands represent the amount of water required by a community on the peak day in any given year. Because ground water supplies generally have no storage facilities, communities which rely entirely on ground water must develop enough supplies to meet their maximum day demands even though these peak demands may occur infrequently. However, the SENE Study finds that communities which use both surface and ground water supplies can rely on the storage capacity of their reservoirs to provide the additional water needed to meet maximum day demands. Thus, these communities only need to develop ground water supplies to meet their average day demands. MERRIMACK RIVER WATER SUPPLY STUDY. Information Packet for Public Meeting, July, 1975. 4-17 to meet local, in-basin water supply needs. This source may would have to be carried out to determine the technical be a short-term solution, helping to keep several South feasibility and the costs and benefits of reactivating these Shore communities from having to join the MDC, but, in local supplies. the long-run, it will probably not be possible to supply the MDC area with enough Plymouth County ground water to Continuing the theme of maximizing the use of in-basin reduce the need for additional sources. water supplies, the SENE Study strongly endorses the MDC's present policy of requiring maintenance and develop- Desalination has been proposed as a source of additional ment of its member communities' local resources. The MDC water supplies. However, as mentioned earlier in this Study encourages the MDC to continue this policy, even as chapter, present desalination techniques are not economi- additional sources become available. Communities which, cally feasible for large-scale use, and envirom-nental problems, in the past, were required to purchase a certain percentage such as brine disposal, still remain to be solved. Desalination of their water from the MDC in order to be served should will certainly not be economically feasible in time to pre- consider revising their agreements with the MDC if they clude the need for the Northfield Mountain diversion, and can make greater use of their local resources and place it is doubtful that it could be developed in time, and at a fewer demands on the MDC. The maintenance and pro- large enough scale, to replace the Millers River diversion. It tection of existing in-basin water supplies, as well as the is important to note, however, that desalination has a great protection of potential local sources, remains the major deal of potential as a long-term source of water supply, and recommendation of the SENE Study. studies on the development of economically feasible, environmentally safe methods of desalination should be Water conservation must also be stressed in the MDC com- vigorously pursued. munities. Water saving appliances and fixtures discussed earlier in the chapter could result in stabilized or reduced The reuse of wastewater has also been discussed in a pre- water demands if they were used on a large enough scale. vious section of this chapter. The SENE Study has con- Unfortunately, it does not appear that this approach can cluded that while recycling of wastewater for industrial use be regarded as a short-term solution to the MDC's water can be economically sound, it will probably be many years supply problems, as it should require a significant period of before recycled wastewater is an economically viable alter- time to replace older appliances. In terms of future savings, native to other sources of drinking water supply. Industrial however, a greater emphasis on water saving devices could recycling of water would not result in large enough savings increase public awareness of their benefits. The Study has to negate the short-term needs for new MDC sources. How- also suggested, above, that these fixtures could be required ever, for the long-term, wastewater reuse for drinking water in new buildings when their cost is less than the price of and for industrial use could result in substantial water the water they would save. Certainly, a program of public supply savings in the future, and research in this field must education on the advantages of water conservation would be continued. be a first step towards voluntary "demand management." Another alternative which should be explored is the reacti- Along the same lines, the MDC must act to prevent water vation of presently unused local water supplies in com- losses from system leakage. A recent study * prepared for munities now served by the MDC. Although the SENE the MDC by the Water Resources Research Center at the Study staff is aware of no previous work on this matter, it University of Massachusetts and Curran Associates, Inc., is possible that if local supplies were reactivated, pressures has identified a large amount of "unmetered" water usage on the MDC sources would be lessened. This proposal is con- in MDC communities, particularly in Boston. "Unnietered sistent with the Study's theme of making maximum use of usage" includes distribution system leaks, unavoidable local resources. Unfortunately, jeactivation may not be an leakage, meter slippage, "blow-offs" (devices to prevent economically acceptable solution for many of the com- freezing water pipes or poor water quality), main flushing, munities involved, which joined the MDC because of the sewer flushing, street cleaning, fire fighting, unmetered high costs of treating their local supplies. However, com- public usage, and other umnetered usage. Because the un- munities such as Canton, which joined the MDC because of metered usage in Boston accounts for over half of the total demands on local wells during the summer months, can unmetered usage in all MDC communities, the Water maintain local sources to meet most of their needs, while Resources Research Center report recommends that the relying on the MDC for augmenting their water supplies city undertake a study to investigate the causes of this during times of peak demand. Other communities which situation. The report also states that leaks and breaks in have discontinued the use of previously significant supplies many water distribution systems are generally regarded as should look into the option of their reactivation to lessen the major components of unmetered usage (p. 57). Even the burden placed on MDC sources. Additional research though some leakage in a distribution system is unavoidable, Water Usage Study in Communities Served by the Metropolitan District Commission. June, 1975. 4-18 the report suggests that, "based on the price of water in the Connecticut River water into Quabbin Reservoir. MDC communities, location and repair of leakage in excess It is further recommended that proposed diver- of 3,000 gallons per mile of main per day may be considered sions be conditioned on adequate measures to justifiable" (p. 58). If a large portion of the MDC's un- prevent radioactive contamination of diverted metered water use is, in fact, leakage and if all communities water, including water quality monitoring. served by the MDC could eliminate leakage in excess of 3,000 gallons/mile of main/day, the report estimates that 3. "Diversion of surplus water from the Basin is approximately 47 mgd of the communities' total 1972 recommended subject to recognition of riparian demand of 376 mgd could be saved. Since a large proportion, rights, specifically the right of return of these of this. water is supplied by the MDC, (about 318 mgd in waters when needed for water supply or flow 1972), the 47 mgd reduction could result in substantial augmentation within the Basin. water savings for the system. It is therefore in the best interests of the MDC and the City of Boston to pursue 4. "The Commission recommends [that] ... the Water Resources Research Center's investigations approval of diversions [in addition to that further and, if their findings are confirmed, to act im- already authorized at Northfield Mountain] mediately to reduce water loss from system leakage. be conditioned on: In light of the foregoing discussions, it appears that while a. Creation of a regional mechanism for alloca- several water supply alternatives may be potentially impor- ting water in which downstream states have a tant to the MDC's future supplies, and while water conserva- voice. In the event that the creation of such a tion measures can result in signiflicant savings, neither the mechanism proves unfeasible, it is recommended above individual alternatives, nor combination of them, has that its functions be performed by existing in- the@ potential to fully meet the MDC's projected short-range stitutions with appropriate regional management water supply needs of 77 mgd. In contrast, the proposed capabilities; Northfield Mountain project would supply the MDC's "Water needs through the late 1980's. b. Prior measurement of the impacts - environ- mental, social, public health, economic, and It appears that the water supplies from the Northfield other - used in determining "excess flows" Mountain diversion will be required to meet the needs of [that is to say: prior determination of the im- MDC communities almost immediately. The diversion, pacts the diversion(s) would have] ; and, which has been approved by the Massachusetts legislature, would provide the MDC with 72 mgd from the Connecticut c. Prior determination of the location and main stem. Subject to pending negotiations, the project available yield of ground water sources in the would use the existing Northfield pumped storage facility [Connecticut] Basin and on development of operated by Northeast Utilities. The 1980 Connecticut adequate measures for their protection, in River Basin Plan, prepared by the New England River coordination with environmental and flood Basins Commission in 1972, investigated the diversion from management studies conductedas part of the the "donor" aiea's point of view. Recognizing the need for supplemental study program." environmental safeguards and the potential political pro- blems which could arise, that Plan recommended the The first condition, that of continued evaluation for adverse Northfield Mountain diversion, with the following qualifica- environmental effects, has been addressed in part by the tions: Corps of Engineers in their environmental studies of the Northfield Mountain and Millers River basin diversions. The 1. "The Commission recommends continued Corps has also stated that during post-authorization studies, evaluation for adverse environmental effects environmental analysis will continue until action on the throughout project planning, development, and projects is complete. Moreover, departments in the Mass- operation, with mitigation of environmental achusetts Executive Office of Environmental Affairs and damage or repair by removal of the cause. the Office of State Planning will have the opportunity to review the environmental effects of the projects during the 2. "The Commission recommends that all proposed state's evaluation of their Environmental Impact reports. It diversions of Connecticut River water below should be noted that completion of the Northfield project the newly constructed nuclear power plant at is subject to compliance with both the Massachusetts Vernon, Vermont, including Northfield Moun- Environmental Policy Act and the National Environmental tain, be conditioned on satisfactory completion Policy Act. In addition, it is also important that environ- of environmental impact evaluations of the mental impact be considered after the diversions are in power plant. It is recommended that these operation and that any adverse effects of the projects be evaluations include careful investigations of the remedied. possibility of radioactive contamination of 4-19 Steps are being taken to satisfy the second condition, that In addition, the rate of water consumpfion in the 50 of water quality monitoring below the Vernon, Vermont municipalities which will require MDC service will continue nuclear power plant. The-completion of the Atomic to increase, though probably at a lower rate than at present. Energy Commission's Environmental Impact Statement on the Vermont Yankee plant indicates that public'health If the rate of increase of per capita water use remains at agencies and detailed monitormig specifications should about one percent (I %) per year, MDC municipalities would effectively guard against water quality problems. In addition, require an additional 196 mgd over the MDC's current safe the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has yield of 3 00 mgd by 2020 - far more than the two pro- a.dvanced the op M,-ion' that this diversion would not cause posed diversions could supply. For reasons given earlier in degraded water quality in MDC supplies, provided that.the, this chapter, however, it appears more likely that.the rate EPA-proposed program of watershed management to main- of increase in water use will slow down in the future. If this tain Class B water in the vicinity of the water intake at rate is assumed to be a 0.5 percent increase per capita per Northfield is carried out.* However, final authority to year after 1990, the SENE'Study estimates that the, 50 approve or disapprove of the Northfield project on water municipalities which it recommends be assigned to the .quality criteria is the responsibility of the Commonwealth MDC will require an additional 117 mgd by 2020, rather of Massachusetts. than 196 mgd. The third condition, recognition of riparian rights, has not As the previous discussion of short-term alternatives has yet been resolved by the parties involv .ed, primarily die, . . shown, the Millers River diversion currently represents the states of Connecticut and Massachusetts. it may be appfopri- most reliable source of the additional supplies which will ate to deal with this issue in the context of developing a be required in the late 1980's. However, water supply regional mechanism for the equitable allocation of the alternatives such as the Upper Sudbury River and conserva- Connecticut River basin's water supplies. tion measures may lessen the pressure which the MDC com- munities will place on their water resources. With the The 1980 Basin Plan's final condition, which includes the Millers River basin project in place, and based on the lower above-mentioned regional mechanism, deals with diversions 0.5 percent increase in per capita usage per year, the SENE beyond the Northfield Mountain project and will be dis- Study estimates that the 76 mgd which the project would cussed in detail with respect to the Millers River diversion, supply could meet the MDC's additional water needs below. through 2020. Whereas the 1980 Connecticut River Basin Plan has In fact, if the lower rate of growth in water use discussed documented the issues of environmental safeguards and above were to occur, about 31 mgd would be available to political equity required by the "donor" region before the meet the additional water requirements of the municipalities Northfield Mountain diversion can be constructed, the which would have to join the MDC between 1990 and 2020. SENE Study's figures have substantiated the need for the diversion from the "recipient" area's perspective. Therefore, However, before the Millers River diversion can be construc- while observing the qualifications listed above, it is the ted, it is extremely important that the final set of con- SENE Study's position that the Northfield Mountain diver- ditions, listed above under the 1980 Connecticut River sion should have first priority for the MDC. Basin Plan's fourth recommendation, be observed. According to the SENE Study's estimates, the completion The development of a regional mechanism, if feasible, or of the Northfield Mountain project would leave the MDC other appropriate arrangement, between Connecticut and communities with- a 1990 deficit of 5 mgd. Although this Massachusetts in order to allow downstream interests a amount of water would have to be provided, the figure does voice in water supply allocation is a recommended con- not carry the urgency of the 69 mgd deficit projected by dition for development of the Millers River diversion as the NEWS Study for this same date. In other words, the indicated on page 4-20. Unfortunately, despite meetings firidings of the SENE Study suggest that although the held between the two states in 1974, the two states have Northfield Mountain diversion will be needed as soon as been unable to reach an agreement on the form this . possible to meet the MDC's water supply demands, - the mechanism should take. The New England Division of the need for additional supplies will not occur until the late Army Corps of Engineers recommended that federal loans 1980's. However, at that time, several municipalities which for both the Northfield Mountain and Millers River basin Will have been able to rely on local sources may have to projects be conditioned upon prior agreements between look to the MDC for supplementary supplies, even if they Massachusetts and Connecticut on the diversion issues. protect and conserve their existing and potential supplies. However, reports of the Corps of Engineers' Board of Correspondence from Regional Administrator, EPA Region I to Division Engineer, New England Division, Corps of Engineers, February 28, 1975. 4-20 Engineers for Rivers and Harbors have stated that, while it cal water quality model of the Millers River as a part of the will be -in the best interests of both.Connecticut.and developmentof a complete plan for that basin. Information Massachusetts to "enter an agreement regarding the man- from such a model would provide data useful for impact agement and allocation of waters of the lower Connecticut assessment of the diversion of Millers River water to the River,*" it is not necessary to make this agreement a.con- Quabbmi Reservoir. ditio n for federal loans in the case of the Northfield Mountain or Millers River basin projects. Currently, the Federal Power Commission, under a separate study, is preparing,an environmental impact statement on The Water Resources Research Center has recently been the relationships among hydroelectric facilities, the electric funded to study the question of an interstate water alloca- power generation and transmission systems, and water use in tion mechanism for the Connecticut River. It is hoped. that the Connecticut River basin, with extensive use of mathe- the recommendations of that study will encourage matical models. This material should prove useful infurther Connecticut and Massachusetts to re 'ach a mutually determining the environmental effects of diversions in the acceptable agreement and will provide the states with the basin. tools to do so. The firidings of the SENE Study indicate that there is time The second prerequisite (page 4-20) before a diversion for additional research on the above issues before the such as the Millers River basin project could be recommen- Millers River basin project is needed. While the option to ded is that there be prior measurement of the diversion's divert water froni the Millers River basin should be pro- environmental impacts on the "donor" area. The NEWS tected by beginning the initial project planning and acquir- Study has included detailed environmental reports on the ing the necessary land, this additional time can be used to impacts of the Millers River diversion. The Board of provide more definitive information on alternatives to the Engineers for Rivers and Harbors found that these reports diversion and its environmental consequences. In addition, were of sufficient scope and depth to support the project the Corps of Engineers has stated that its environmental recommendations. It also concluded that the positive effects analysis will continue during post-authorization studies. of the diversion would outweigh its minor adverse environ- mental effects. However, respondents in the Connecticut A third condition (page 4-20) which must be met before River basin have felt that it is necessary to have more detailed the Millers River diversion can be implemented is the prior information than has been currently produced, in order to determination of the adequacy of water resources in the fully evaluate the environmental effects of the project. In Connecticut River basin. The in-basin water supply needs addition, Connecticut River basin interests have requested have been considered both within the earlier Connecticut reevaluation of the present control flow requirement of River Coordinating Committee report*** and also by the 17,000 cubic feet per second (cfs) at Montague City to Corps of Engineers during the NEWS survey. Water supply detennine the appropriateness of that figure. needs were considered beyond 2020, and both groups found that the size of the in-basin need was extremely small. Water quality monitoring, a prerequisite for the Northfield in comparison with the amount of water that would be le 'ft Mountain.diversion under the 1980 Connecticut River within the river after diversion. Further, during the environ- Basin Plan, should also be a major consideration for the mental and ecological investigations of the basin conducted Millers River diversion. EPA has stated that its approval of for the NEWS Study, and during the continuing ecological the diversion of water from the Millers River is not possible studies of the Connecticut River Supplemental Study, no until the point sources of pollution on the river have been in-basin needs which would be adversely affected by the treated and good quality water is consistently available." diversion were determined. The Corps of Engineers' Board of Engineers for River and Harbors has also expressed the opinion that in addition to However, members of the 1980 Connecticut River Basin monitoring the water supplies, additional studies should be Plan's Citizens Review Committee were concerned about conducted to more precisely define the scope of the Millers the adequacy of Connecticut basin ground waterresources River diversion's water quality problems and ecological to meet future needs. It was felt that the future water effects. Two years ago, the Massachusetts Water Resources requirements of the basin, including the needs of munici- Commission indicated a willingness to prepare. a mathemati- DEAN-BR (21 March 1975) (25 Oct. 74), 2nd Ind., Subject: Northfield Mt. Water Supply Project Survey; Millers River Water Supply Project, Survey. Correspondence from Regional Administrator, EPA Region I to Chief Engineer, New England Division, Corps of Engineers, December 24, 1974. Connecticut River Basin Coordinating Committee, Comprehensive water and Related land Resources Investigation Connecticut River Basin, Volume III, June 1970. 4.21 palities, industries, and agriculture along the Connecticut optimistic picture means that the conditions affecting the River and its tributaries, must be considered in establishing environmental and political consequences of the Millers a policy on out-of-basin transfers. The group's objective, River basin diversion can be clarified before construction given the current data base, would be to obtain a reasonable of the project begins. understanding of in-basin needs before allocations of water could be made. The Secretary of Environmental Affairs for Massachusetts has stated that the timing and economics of water supply Based upon the foregoing discussions, the SENE Study has alternatives to diversions must be addressed before it is determined that the Millers River diversion can be recom- assumed that further diversions are necessary and wise.* mended assuming that the conditions of the 1980 Basin As discussed above, the SENE Study indicates that there is ad- Plan are observed. If they are not satisfied, other alternatives ditional time for consideration of these alternatives, at least as may have to be selected, despite their present environmental they apply to the Millers River diversion. At the same time, or economic implications. however, the option to build the Millers River project must be kept open. This can be accomplished by initiating planning In conclusion, the SENE Study has confirmed the MDC's and design of the project and by acquiring the land necessary need for the Northfield Mountain diversion. Moreover, it for its construction. In the meantime, work must continue appears that the Millers River basin project will be required on the long-range water supply solutions which do not in- by 1990 because no currently proven short-range alternatives volve further diversions of the Connecticut River. The longer will fully meet the MDC's water supply needs. The supplies the MDC can rely on the Northfield and Millers River basin provided by the Millers River basin diversion can be expected projects for its additional needs, the more time is allowed to meet the MDC's additional water requirements through for the development of advanced technologies and new 2020. This is a significant finding. Based on its assumptions resources in Southeastern New England. The Millers River of population growth and water use, the SENE Study has basin project can be expected to meet the MDC's needs indicated that the supplies of the Millers River project will through 2020. In the interim, it is likely that alternatives be adequate for a longer period than previously believed. such as diversions from the Upper Sudbury or Merrimack Rivers, recycling, and desalination will become technically, Of course, population and consumption projections are economically, and environmentally feasible as major sources always open to question, especially when they are long-range of supply, and that they will be developed when new sources estimates. The growth of water supply demands in the MDC are needed. Constructive use must be made of the years service area should be monitored so that the MDC can up-. before 2020, ensuring that all long-range solutions are date its projections of future water demands and can plan thoroughly investigated from economic, environmental, for serving them. However, assuming the accuracy of the and social perspectives. SENE Study's water consumption projections, this more Expanding.or Forming Regional Systems. The Study the MDC supplying an additional 17 mgd. The 1990 has investigated a number of additional existing and pro- maximum-day demand is expected to reach 127 mgd. posed regional water supply systems. Specific recommen- dations for development of these regional systems have The SENE Study recommends that a large regional been made and are discussed in detail in the ten plan- reservoir, Reservoir 30-B, proposed by the Water ning area reports. However, a brief summary of some of Resources Commission, be constructed to serve eight the major regional systems is appropriate in this report as municipalities in the planning area by 1990. After well. 1990, the reservoir could be expanded to serve addi- tional municipalities. Maintenance of the reservoir Ipswich River System. The Ipswich-North Shore and the distribution of supplies could best be handled planning area is one of the only areas in SENE where by the establishment of an Ipswich River regional topographic conditions and water availability favor water supply system. surface water reservoir construction. Existing re- sources are inadequate to meet projected 1990 needs. Despite some local opposition to the reservoir, this Water consumption from the planning area's munici- source has significant advantages over other altema- pal sources in 1970 averaged 71 mgd. There is an tives and is strongly endorsed by the Study. Reservoir existing safe yield of 79 mgd within the basin, with 30-B would be capable of supplying water at roughly Correspondence from Secretary of Environmental Affairs, Commonwealth of Massachusetts, to Chairman, New England River Basins Commission, September, 1975. 4-22 the same cost to consumers as expansion of the Planning Area Report contains the discussion and Metropolitan District Cormnission. Some of the re- recommendations for the New Bedford System. quired land has already been purchased, and many municipalities are involved. A number of these com- Brockton Water Commission. The Brockton Water munities will need additional water supplies soon and Commission, with a supply of 13.4 mgd, presently will have no alternative resources. - Further discussion satisfies the total demand of Brockton and Whitman of the situation and the full text of the recommenda- and most of Hanson's demand. It also supplies a tions may be found in the Ipswich-North Shore Plan- small amount of water to Abington, Avon, and Pem- ning Area Report. broke. Silver Lake, located in both the Taunton and South Shore planning areas, serves as the source of Taunton and New Bedford Water Departments. The supply for the Brockton system. Because the Lakeville Ponds complex, located in the Taunton neighboring town of Avon, will need additional planning area, has been developed to provide an esti- water supplies before 1990, the SENE Study mated yield of 31 mgd to the Taunton, Fall River, recommends that Brockton extend its service area and New Bedford water departments. Fall River has to include Avon. Flood skimming of Howard and several alternative sources available, such as expand- Pine Brooks and the Jones River in Kingston ing the Copicut Reservoir, further developing and should be explored to augment the existing Silver treating water from Noquochoke Lake, and exercis- Lake supply. Additional consideration of the ing unused stream rights of up to 6 mgd. Therefore, Brockton system may be found in the Taunton this municipality is not expected to use its rights to Planning Area Report. 11.5 mgd from the Lakeville Ponds until well after 1990. Furthermore, if these rights were exercised, Providence Water Supply Board. The Providence and if Taunton and New Bedford maintained their Water Supply Board (PWSB) is the second largest present levels of withdrawal, the safe yield of the regional system in SENE. At present, this system ponds would be exceeded. Taunton and New Bed- supplies, either wholly or partially, the needs of ford will soon need more water and have few alterna- seven municipalities in Rhode Island. Existing de- tive sources. Therefore, the SENE Study recom- pendable yield of the system is estimated to be 72 mends that these two municipalities acquire Fall mgd. In 1970, the PWSB served a total amount of River's rights to the Lakeville Ponds. about 55 mgd to its municipalities. Should Taunton acquire some of these rights, the It appears that four more municipalities may be city would be assured of 9.4 mgd by 1990, a suffi- supplementing their present sources with connec- cient.yield to supply its own needs through 1990. tions to the PWSB by 1990. However, the SENE Dighton already purchases a large portion of its Study's demand projections indicate that the capa- water supply from Taunton. Attleboro will need city of the system need only be expanded by 8 mgd additional supplies in 1975. Moreover, six other through 1990. The SENE Study therefore suggests communities will need to supplement their local that the 26 mgd from the proposed Big River Reser- resources sometime before 1990 in order to meet voir would be sufficient to supply PWSB municipali- their peak water demands. Therefore, the SENE ties well through 1990. The administration of this Study recommends that all these municipalities reservoir, either by the Providence Water Supply form a regional water system using rights to the Board or by the state Water Resources Board, should Lakeville Ponds acquired from Taunton and a assure the multi-purpose uses of the proposed diver- diversion of Fall Brook to the P *onds to supple- sion sites on the Wood River. In addition, either the ment existing public water supplies. PWSB or the Water Resources Board should encourage full development of local ground water resources in New Bedford should also purchase a share of Fall the Wood River Valley to minimize costs of water River's rights to the Lakeville Ponds. However, this supply and to preclude or postpone the need for any action alone will be insufficient to meet the 1990 surface water impoundments on the Wood River. needs (over 25 mgd) of New Bedford and the four other municipalities served by the New Bedford This recommendation would expand the amount of Water Department. Therefore, the SENE Study water available to the Providence water system to recommends that New Bedford develop potential supply future needs in its present service area. It ground water supplies in New Bedford and would also allow the system to expand service to sev- Acushnet to supplement its existing safe yield. The eral municipalities, such as four communities in lower Taunton Planning Area Report contains a discussion Narragansett Bay, which may require additional sour- of the Taunton system and the full texts of the ces of supply after 1990. Further discussion of the corresponding recommendations. The Buzzards Bay recommendation and its full text may be found in 4-23 the Blackstone and Vicinity Planning Area Report. The Study recommends that the Rhode Island Water Re- recommendation is also discussed in the Narragansett sources Board petition the General Assembly to ap- Bay Planning Area Report. prove the Tarkiln and Nipmuc projects and provide for the acquisition of these sites in the near future. By Pawtucket Water Supply Board and Woonsocket acquiring the Tarkilri and Nipmuc sites now, long- Water Department. The Rhode Island section of the range options for the Pawtucket and Woonsocket sys- Blackstone River basin is served primarily by the Paw- tems would be assured at considerable savings. This tucket and Woonsocket water supply systems. Both topic will receive further consideration in the Black- systems use a combination of ground and surface stone and Vicinity Planning Area Report. The full sources, providing a total yield of about 28 mgd to text of the recommendation may also &e found in the six municipalities which they wholly or partially that report. serve. This supply appears to be enough to meet the municipalities' 1990 demands, which are estimated at Other Regional Systems.In addition to the water about 22 mgd. However, in preparation for meeting supply systems described above, a few other systems long-range water needs, the municipalities will have are discussed in the planning area reports. A Wor- to consider alternative sources of supply. The Tarkiln cester regional system and a South Shore water and Nipmuc reservoir sites are the most suitable areas district are considered in the Blackstone and Vicinity for development in the northern part of Rhode Island. and South Shore Planning Area Reports, respectively. Projected additional demands on the Pawtucket and The last district could be developed more for investi- Woonsocket systems could be met from the Tarkiln's gation of water supply alternatives than for actual 5.4 mgd yield alone, well beyond 1990. The SE.NE distribution of resources. Improving Institutional Arrangements. In order waters unless the pe rson claiming injury can demon- to implement many of the alternatives suggested in this strate that the pollution was the result of negligence chapter, some legislation must be enacted. This section on the part of the person controlling the polluting briefly suggests some of the inadequacies of existing substance. legislation and discusses how several of the water supply alternatives may be implemented by legal means. The In Massachusetts, under Chapter 546 of the Acts of discussion of ground water management will be fol- 1973 (Chapter 21, section 26A), discharges of pollut- lowed by alternatives for establishing regional water ing matter into ground water from point or major supply systems. non-point sources is subject to civil and criminal penalties unless a permit, based on effluent limita- Ground water management. The maintenance and tions set by the Massachusetts Division of Water Pol- protection of ground water quality and quantity will lution Control, has been obtained from the Division. not be achieved unless measures for the implementa- (See Chapter 5, Water Quality tion of some of the alternatives suggested in the ground water section of this report are undertaken. State administrative regulations are limited to regis- At present, there are few local and no state regula- tering well drillers-and requiring the submission of a tions governing the right to acquire and use ground report upon completion of a well. However, the water resources in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Massachusetts Department of Environmental Quality The courts have recognized however, that rights to Engineering exercises ultimate authority'as to the percolating water, as opposed to ground water flow- quality of public underground water supply. Approval ing in a definite underground stream, are inherent in of public health officials is required for designation the rights of ownership of the overlying land. Thus, of water sources and for acquisition of watershed land the landowner may use the ground water percolating for public water supply. through his land even though his use interferes with the flow of percolating waters in his neighbor's land Local governments in both states are empowered to and diminishes the water in his neighbor's well. How- enact land use controls to further the public health, ever, the landowner may not purposefully or negli- safety, and welfare. These controls cover public gently interfere with his neighbor's use of the ground water supply and ground water. Municipalities have water. the authority, with public health department ap- proval, to acquire watershed lands by purchase or In Rhode Island, an overlying landowner has the same eminent domain to protect both the water quality obligation to protect the quality of a subterranean and safe yield of the water supply. Thus, the acqui- stream as he does with regard to surface streams, but sition process itself can amount to effective protec- is not liable for the pollution of percolating ground 4-24 tion of the resource. Courts have not yet recognized, are discussed in Chapter 10, Strengthening the Man- however, the authority for land use regulations pro- agement System for Natural Resources. tecting aquifers and recharge areas because of the difficulty of precisely specifying the location of such Regional Supply Systems. In order to establish re- resources. gional water supply systems, discussed earlier, muni- cipalities will require legal and institutional authoriz- Since the most productive aquifers often cross muni- ation. A number of alternative arrangements for cipal boundary lines, local authorities could be en- such systems have been suggested. First, a state couraged to provide for their j oint management. controlled regional authority might be established However, history indicates that municipalities are for a given area similar to the MDC model. Second, unlikely to voluntarily undertake such cooperative a system composed of representative municipalities or complementary efforts. It is unlikely that they could be created as an independent special district will forfeit controls to the region or the state for the with approval by the state. Third, private water purposes of establishing protection zones and regu- companies could be encouraged to expand to include lating the extent of pumping from the aquifer. multi-community service, similar to the existing Ded- ham Water Company and the Hingham Water Com- Ground water quality should be upgraded or main- pany. A final option might include establishing fed- tained when ground water is a source of supply. Pro- eral field offices with responsibility for at least the visions should be made to ensure that ground water planning and development of supply sources. How- used for supply is protected from the contamination ever, this alternative is probably unacceptable be- associated with septic tanks and other underground cause it would remove responsibility for a local pollution. Agencies which decide the location of function to a higher level of government than neces- ground water supplies must often seek cooperation sary. An optimal arrangement would seek solutions from those that review the location of potentially at a local or sub-state regional level, then move re- polluting sources such as highways and drainage sys- luctantly to the state level only if circumstances tems. Although policies exist to prohibit the impro- so require. The extensive participation and the per use of land within several feet of municipal wells, democratic machinery in the process of develop- problems of ground water pollution are much too ing supply is legally necessary and popularly de- complex to be governed by simple distance regulations. manded. For that reason the private water company alternative would prove untenable. Because of the specialized nature of knowledge about ground water, and to acquire the expertise needed to The first suggestion, based on a commission such make ground water decisions, it has been suggested as the MDC, would also prove disadvantageous for. that legislation ought to be enacted to create a state implementing this recommendation. Historically, body of expert ground water hydrologists and other in the case of the MDC, the creation of a regional professionals. This body would have the responsibility agency of state government has set the tone for later to study and report on ground water matters and to decisions to expand in anticipation of regional need ' advise municipalities on resource management. Public The expansion of supply.in advance of need and the health representatives on the board should determine provision of services to areas in advance of their health policy in matters of ground water quality. The growth has led to inefficiencies in the trade-off be- board could have the power to close off the water tween cost and dependability of supply. Because of supply or to order the cessation of polluting activity its control by a state representative legislative body, where it found a clear danger from activities such as such an agency would not only have diminished ef- storage or use of highway deicing salts or pesticide ficiency but also a reduced ability to be fair. A application near ground water sources. "boar 'd of directors" of several hundred, legislators is, at best, a cumbersome management scheme. If more effective regulation of ground water recharge areas is to occur, and is desired, the state could play The most efficient and politically expedient way in an active role in assuring their protection. State inter- which to establish a regional system would be on vention to regulate these areas could be incorporated the basis of intermunicipal negotiation and con- in a program to manage significant recharge lands. tract. While the impetus for such regionalization The state could, through a variety of institutional should come from member communities, its author- mechanisms, ensure that these areas are developed ity would be subject to approval by state legislatures compatibly with water supply goals. Some altema- and public health departments and should be con- tive approaches to this kind of institutional program sistent with state water resource planning. 4-25 Alternative Plans In order to meet the 1990 and 2020 water needs in South- Recognizing that economic and environmental goals are not eastern New England, the SENE Study considered two al- necessarily incompatible, as described in Chapter 1, the ternative plans. First, an environmentally oriented plan recommended program has attempted to combine the two emphasized the maximum use of conservation and demand alternative approaches. It has, however, placed slightly management, along with the maintenance and development more emphasis on the environmental approach. It has also of local ground water supplies. In addition, the plan at- stressed the social objective of local self-sufficiency wher- tempted to make each basin in the region as self-sufficient ever possible. The recommendations in the next section as possible. Second, an economically oriented plan stressed accordingly emphasize the development of water supplies the goal of providing all of the region's required supply at at the lowest reasonable environmental cost. the lowest possible cost. Recommendations The recommendations for water supply in. the SENE region relying wholly or partially on ground water sources, while can be divided into three groups. The first group consists the third group of recommendations refers to municipali- of general recommendations which should apply through- ties whose needs are met by surface sources. out the region. The second group applies to municipalities Recommendations applicable throughout the education for residential consumers. They should region. Recommendations which apply throughout the encourage the use of water saving devices for both region, listed in their general order ofpriority, are as domestic and industrial uses to increase the follows: efficiency of water use and to help stabilize or reduce per capita water demand. 1. Maintain existing water resources. The Department of Environmental Management and the Water 4. Acquire key watersheds and potential well sites. Resources Commission in Massachusetts and The Department of Environmental Management in the Water Resources Board in Rhode Island Massachusetts and the Water Resources Board in should establish a program which encourages Rhode Island should establish a program to help municipalities to maintain the quality and their municipalities preserve future options for yield of their existing sources of supply to development of in-basin water supply resources. ensure their continued use as long as technically, The agencies should encourage municipalities to economically, and environmentally feasible. acquire and manage key watersheds and potential well sites. 2. Prefer local ground water to intermunicipal sur- face water to interbasin transfers. In order to 5. Establish regional water management agencies. maximize local self-sufficiency, the Water Resources In order to achieve total water resource manage- Commission and the Executive Office of Environ- ment for an area, the Executive Office of Environ- mental Affairs in Massachusetts and the Water mental Affairs in Massachusetts and the Water Resources Board in Rhode Island should encourage Resources Board in Rhode Island should encourage SENE municipalities to meet future water demands municipalities to join together in regional agencies. by judiciously using in-basin ground water and These agencies would manage activities which have regional in-basin surface water resources to their an impact on water supplies to protect their quantity maximum extent before they consider interbasin and quality. transfers of water. 6. Study advanced technologies leading to new 31. Limit water consumption through education and sources of water. The U. S. Department of the water saving technology. The Executive Office Interior, in cooperation with the Environmental of Environmental Affairs in Massachusetts and the Protection Agency, should greatly increase activities Water Resources Board in Rhode Island should in the investigation of the techniques to desalination develop and extend water demand management in conjunction with nuclear power plants. The through pricing for high volume users and through Department of Environmental Quality Engineering 4-26 in Massachusetts and the Water Resources Board the Department of Public Health in Massachusetts in Rhode Island should increase research in waste- and the Department of Health in Rhode Island. water re-use (recycling, spray irrigation). In Such activities could make these technologies as addition, the economic environmental, and public viable as other water supply options currently health impacts of the above projects should be being considered for the period after 1990. carefully researched by the above agencies and by Recommendations for the communities relying ground water withdrawal permits to prevent wholly or partially on ground water. The SENE undue strearnflow depletion and pond level Study has formulated recommendations for communities lowering. Depletion limits should be based which rely either wholly or partially on ground water. For on the values of water for all uses, including these municipalities, the recommendations, listed in their supply, recreation, navigation, waste assimila- general order of priority, are as follows: tion, and aesthetic needs. 7. Survey ground water location, quality, and 10. Monitor salt water encroachment in coastal availability. The SENE Study endorses the general aquifers. The Department of Environi- recommendation from the Central Massachusetts mental Quality Engineering in Massachusetts Water Study, summarized as follows: The Mass- and the Water Resources Board in Rhode achusetts Water Resources Commission (and the Island should guide coastal municipalities, Rhode Island Water Resources Board), in co- in defining acceptable limits for salt water operation with the U. S. Geological Survey, encroachment and in establishing a legal should make a survey of ground water location, and institutional framework for the quantity, and availability in SENE to provide regulation of ground water development. information: 11. Provide recharge basins to capture storm � To assist municipalities in designing their runoff. The Department of Environmental exploration programs for well sites Quality Engineering in Massachusetts and the Water Resources Board in Rhode Island � To assist regional agencies in evaluating should encourage municipalities to construct future needs to supplement ground water (or to have developers construct) new re- charge basins in areas where development � To assist municipalities in regulating, pro- has covered major recharge lands. tecting, and preserving their ground water resources. 12. Establish state ground water boards. The Massachusetts General Court and the Rhode 8. Restrict activities shown to be hazardous to Island General Assembly should establish a ground water quality. The states' departments state board of qualified ground water hydrol- of health, the Department of Environmental ogists and public health officials within the respective state Water Resources Commission Quality Engineering in Massachusetts, and the Water Resources Board in Rhode Island and Water Resources Board which should be should encourage municipalities and water charged with the responsibility for: management agencies to restrict sanitary land- fills, storage and usage of highway deicing 0 Coordinating activities such as ground salt, industrial waste disposal, fertilizers and water exploration, salt water monitor- other activities hazardous to ground water ing, and limitation of ground water quality from recharge areas of existing wells withdrawal. and potential sites for high capacity wells. 0 Developing state land use standards for 9. Limit ground water withdrawal to maintain protecting intermunicipal and munici- stream levels. The Department of Environ- pal aquifers and recharge zones. mental Quality Engineering in Massachusetts and the Water Resources Board in Rhode 0 Encouraging the adoption of local land Island should guide municipalities or regional use regulations implementing the state water management agencies in requiring land use standards. 4-27 Recommendations for municipalities relying on Millers River diversion), the Basin Plan recommends surface water. The SENE Study has proposed additional that: recommendations for municipalities relying on surface water systems for their supplies. Recommendations in an appropriate mechanism be established for this third group include: allocating water in which downstream states have a voice. In the event that the creation of 13. Expand MDC sources by constructing the such a mechanism proves unfeasible, it is rec- Northfield Mountain Facility. Carry out ommended that its functions be performed by conservation measures. Plan the Millers existing institutions with appropriate regional River Facility. To meet immediate needs, the management capabilities. Metropolitan District Commission should promptly construct the Northfield Mountain 0 prior evaluation of environmental, social, public diversion facility. The MDC should actively health, economic, and other impacts on in-basin carry out conservation measures and should needs be made; encourage investigation of unmetered water use problems. The Millers River basin project 9 monitoring the quality of water continue; and, does not have to be in operation until the late 1980's, but to protect the opportunity for 9 Connecticut River Valley in-basin ground water timely implementation of this option, design resources be determined and adequate measures and land acquisition should be initiated now. for their protection be developed. In addition, the MDC should continue to In five years, the MDC should also re-examine popula- examine the technical, economic, and environ- tion growth and consumption needs to verify trends mental feasibility and timing of other alterna- and determine the necessary timing of needed solu- tives for meeting its long-range needs. tions; and should: In carrying out this recommendation, the affected continue to require maintenance and develop- states and, specifically, the Massachusetts Executive ment of member community local resources; Office of Environmental Affairs and the Corps of Engineers can continue to implement the provisions actively promote water conservation measures, of the NERBC 1980 Connecticut River Basin Plan, including use of water-saving devices and which recommends continual evaluation for ad- demand management; and, verse environmental effects throughout project planning, development and operation, with mitigation take steps to prevent economically avoidable of environmental damage or repair by removal of the water losses from distribution system. cause. In addition: For the Northfield Mountain facility as well as sub- If the provisions of the 1980 Connecticut River Basin sequent diversions, the 1980 Basin Plan recommends Plan, summarized above, are not satisfied, other al- that: ternatives may have to be selected. At the present time, alternatives being studied include: 0 based on satisfactory completion of environ- the feasibility of diversion of treated Merrimack mental impact evaluation, proposed diversions be conditioned on adequate measures to prevent River and/or Upper Sudbury River waters to radioactive contamination of diverted water, in- the MDC system as additional sources; and, cluding water quality monitoring; and, new technologies including wastewater re- 0 diversion of surplus water from the Connecticut cycling and desalination. basin be subject to recognition of riparian rights, 14. Encourage regionalization of water supply specifically the right of return of these waters systems. The Executive Office of Environ- when needed for water supply or for flow mental Affairs and Water Resources Commission augmentation within the basin. in Massachusetts and the Water Resources Before any diversions in addition to that already Board in Rhode Island should encourage region- authorized at Northfield Mountain are made (i.e. the alization of water supply systems among munim cipalities wherever it is technically, economically, and environmentally feasible. 4-28 Implications As described in Chapters I and 3, once overall land use coupled with careful planning and development of addi- goals have been developed, water supply policy can be tional sources, should provide the residents and industries used as a tool to bring about greater economic efficiency of the SENE region with an adequate supply of reasonably and environmental quality in the SENE region. Patterns of economical, high quality water over the next 50 years. land use which protect recharge areas and which use exist- Where regionalization is selected, benefits include cost ing infrastructure, such as water supply systemsj enhance sharing, operational efficiency, and quality control. Maxi- the environmental and economic aspects of life in this re- mum use of in-basin resources will maintain local and re- gion. Furthermore, coordinated water supply and water gional autonomy and will preserve flexibility in water quality planning can provide more efficient methods of supply policies. In addition, advanced technology may water management and environmental protection. The ef- allow the region to develop new sources of water without ficient use and protection of existing sources of water, placing increased stress on its natural resources. 4-29 Ap --low jp- It It tk iL Ij XA. 1@f 4@ eligo- -AA Jo r. AP,1 F' I`U,@ .,Lf i@N Water Quality CHAPTER 5 WATER QUALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 The Setting 5-1, The Situation 5-2, Why Cleanup is Desirable 5-2, Existing Organizations and Programs 5-3, The Water Quality Goals 5-4, Scope of the Chapter 5-4, URBAN STORMWATER RUNOFF/COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS 5-8, The Situation 5-8, The Solutions 5-9, Alternatives 5-9, Stormwater sampling 5-9, Attenuation ofRunoff.5-9, Better Street Ckaning 5-9, Separation S-9, In-System Controls S-9, Off-System Storage S-9, Treatment 5-10, MUNICIPAL DISCHARGES 5-10, The.Situation 5-10,The Solutions 5-10, Alternatives 5-10,Additional Sewering 5-11, HigherDegree of Treatment 5-14, Better Effluent Disposal Methods 5-14, Better Sludge Disposal Methods 5-14, Greater Regionalization 5-15, INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES 5-15, The Situation 5-15, The Solutions 5-16, Alternatives 5-16, SOME NON-POINT POLLUTION SOURCES 5-17, Septic Systems 5-17, The Situation 5-17, The Solu- tions 5-18, Alternatives 5-18, Low Strearnflows 5-19, The Situation 5-19, The Solutions 5-19, Agricul tural Runoff 5-19, Leachate from Landfills 5-20, Instrearn Pollution 5-20, The Situation 5-20, The Solutions 5-20, Alternatives 5-20, OIL POLLUTION 5-20, WATERCRAFT WASTES 5-21, AREAWIDE, MANAGEMENT 5-22, ALTERNATIVE PLANS 5-22, RECOMMENDATIONS 5-22, General,Strategy 5-22, Preservation 5-23, Restoration 5-24, Planning Area Priorities 5-25, Costs 5-27, Implications 5-27. CHAPTER 5 WATER QUALITY The Setting The people of the SENE region yearn for clean water - But much remains to be done. The most stubborn pollu- clean streams and ponds, clear harbors, clean shellfish beds, tion problems will exist where the value of clean water to clean salt water beaches. They have said-so in unmistakable the most people is highest - iri and near urbanized areas - ways - in their support of strong state water pollution con- particularly in cities with substantial industrial concentra- trol programs, in support (with occasional exceptions) of tions and with coiribined sanitary storm sewers. Boston local bonding proposals for pollution abatement, in unrelent- Harbor and the Boston area rivers, extreme upper Narra- ing pressure on public officials and industry to restore the gansett Bay and its tributaries, and several stretches of the quality of their waters and keep them that way, and in Blackstone River are key examples. public meetings held by the SENE Study. How can the remaining problems be solved? The answer Current Program Levels to that question is the burden of this chapter. To answer it, it is necessary to take a closer look at how the national The pace of pollution abatement depends heavily on fed- edort to protect and restore water quality works in the eral grant levels for collection systems and treatment plants. SENE area, to define more carefully the nature of pollu- From the start of the federal grant program in 1956 to the tion problems and assess priorities for solving them, and end of Fiscal Year 1974, 245 municipal projects, at a cost to outline a strategy developed on these bases. of $288.6 million, were approved in Massachusetts. During this same period, 65 projects were approved in Rhode Island, How the Water Pollution Control Program Works. at a cost of $44.3 million. Fiscal Year 1976 funds for fed- eral aid to municipal construction projects amount to $295 The current pollution control program concentrates heav- million in Massachusetts and $45.6 million in Rhode Island. ily on completing construction of secondary treatment However, the states estimate a total of $812 million per year plants in 1970's. National goals have been set for 'fishable- in Massachusetts and $180 million per year in Rhode Island swimmable" waters by 1983, and "zero discharge" by 1985. would be required for the next six years in order to meet their 1983 construction goals. This is three to four times The federal government, through the Environmental Protec- the level of current federal assistance. Thus, a high priority tion Agency, sets broad goals and giants money to strengthen must be placed on the preservation of existing high quality state water pollution control agencies, and to help construct streams in these states rather than on costly after-the-fact treatment facilities. The federal government also brings en- restoration. forcement actions in certain circumstances. The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System is also administered Present Patterns and Future Trends by the Environmental Protection Agency. This system is more fully discussed in the "Industrial Discharges" section Two thirds of major stream miles in the SENE region are of this chapter. presently below state standards, as are most waters in urban harbors - where access to clean water is most The states have the primary responsibility for water quality, urgently needed and is in shortest supply. by 1977, most of through the Division of Water Pollution Control, Depart- these waters - except those bearing the heaviest pollution ment of Environmental Quality Engineering (in Massachu- burdens - will be fishable, and many will be swimmable. setts) and the Division of Water Supply and Pollution Most presently closed shellfish beds will remain closed be- Control, Department of Health (in Rhode Island). Both cause of stringent requirements, but the spread of "closed" states p,Ian abatement programs, set schedules and require- areas should be slowed. The attractiveness of the SENE ments for municipal and industrial abatement, allocate region as a place to live and work will be enhanced. federal (and state) grant support for treatment plant con- struction, and set and enforce water quality standards. About 70 percent of the SENE region's population is served by municipal wastewater systems. The remaining 30 per- Water Quality and the Regional Report cent rely on individual septic systems. Twenty-two of 78 major industrial sources are, or will be, treated in municipal As was stated in Chapter 4, it is necessary to read each plants, by subsurface disposal, by process changes, or by chapter in the context of the entire SENE Regional Report. the closing or moving of a business. The remaining 56 in- Elements of each chapter have direct, bearing on the water dustries will be required to provide best practicable treat- quality discussion. The relationship between water quality ment (BPT) by July 1, 1977. and water supply is the most clear-cut. 5-1 In Chapter 4, Water Supply, the interrelationships between long-range alternatives for the integrated management of water quality and water supply were discussed in some de- water supply and water quality are presented in Chapter tail. Again, these interrelationships must be stressed when 10, Strengthening the Management System forNatural water quality is considered. The SENE Study's recommen- Resources. dations have been developed with existing institutions in mind. Therefore, because most water supply and water There are other chapters of the Regional Report which also quality institutions in the SENE region serve separate func- have a direct or indirect relationship to the contents of tions, the Water Supply and Water Quality chapters were C7wpter 5. Chapters I and 2 provide an overall setting in written to recommend policies or actions which could be which to assess water quality issues. Chapter 3, Guiding implemented by these distinct institutions. However, Growth, deals with the impact that provision or with- throughout each chapter, cross-references serve to empha- holding of sewer service has on growth and with the limita- size the interdependent nature of water supply and quality. tions imposed on waste disposal by soil type and other fac- tors. Furthermore, water quality issues also relate to The sections entitled Improving Water Supply and Water issues in the Outdoor Recreation, Marine Management, Quality Management and Areawide Management in and Locating Key Facilities Chapters (Chapters 6, 7, and 9 Chapters 4 and 5, respectively, present methods by which respectively.) These relationships are summarized in Chap- water quality and water supply institutions may achieve a ter 11, Tying the Recommendations Together. higher degree of coordination and integration. In addition, The Situation About two-thirds of the total length of major streams in The objective of this Act is to restore and main- Southeastern New England are currently below the tain the chemical, physical and biological integ- water quality standards set for them by the Massachusetts rity of the Nation's waters.... [Sec. 101(a)] and Rhode Island water pollution control agencies. In con- trast, the coastal waters are generally of high quality and The Act goes on to state: support a variety of uses such as shellfshing, bathing and boating. Coastal water quality problem areas are limited It is the policy of the Congress to recognize, to harbors receiving combined sewer overflows and muni- preserve, and protect the primary responsibili- cipal and industrial wastewater discharges. Figure 5.1 sum- ties and rights of states to prevent, reduce, and marizes existing water quality for the major streams and eliminate pollution, to plan the development coastal waters in SENE. and use (including restoration, preservation, and enhancement) of land and water resour- Table 5.1 shows the principal types of pollution that ces., . . [Sec. 101(b)] determine the quality of surface water and ground water in each of the ten SENE planning areas. The determinants are The three major themes of the SENE Study are either direct- listed across the top in descending order of regionwide sig- ly or implicitly contained in this quote. Enhancing the SENE nificance. The table also shows that, among the ten plan- environment through water quality programs should improve ning areas, water quality is the worst in four - Boston - the region's attractiveness for enticing and holding the skills Metropolitan, Taunton, Blackstone and Vicinity, and Paw- it needs for its service s-o riente d economic future. Conversely, tuxet. The two planning areas with the best overall water that future, which includes an evolutionary movement away quality are Cape Cod and the Islands, and Pawcatuck. from the heavily polluting manufacturing sectors, should also make it easier to improve the quality of SENE waters. Why Cleanup is Desirable In short, improved water quality improves the future econ- omy, which further improves water quality. The widespread deterioration of water quality in SENE and in the nation has led to the recognition by the people and The second theme is also double-edged as it applies to water the Congress of the United States that prompt attention quality programs. Guiding growth eases water quality prob- must be given to this problem. It is clear that water pollu- lems, particularly those -related to land use. Conversely, tion significantly affects the public health and the environ- early provision of sewering and adequate treatment tends mental and economic well-being of the Nation. to concentrate growth, while its deferment or denial tends to disperse growth. In brief, water quality programs can be The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of both a major beneficiary and a major tool for implementing 1972 is an expression of these concerns and states: a policy for guiding growth. 5-2 Existing Organizations and Programs The third study theme - of using existing knowledge, pro- is principally coordinated, the key organization is the grams and institutions - also fits water quality rather well. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). At the state Recommendations for filling some major knowledge gaps level, where the major responsibility for planning and ad- for non-point pollution sources will be given later, but in ministering the program takes place, the key agencies in general the SENE Study recommendations are based upon Massachusetts are: The Divisions of Water Pollution Con- proceeding with existing knowledge. The existing pro- trol, and Environmental Health within the Department of grams, authorities, and institutions are considered good Environmental Quality Engineering; in Rhode Island, the enough. The basic need is for better use of these tools, key agency is the Division of Water Supply and Pollution not more tools. Control of the Department of Health (DOH). In Connecticut the Department of Environmental Protection is responsible The responsibility for water quality restoration and pres- for state water quality programs. The above Massachu- ervation is shared by federal, state and local governments, setts and Rhode Island agencies will be cited frequently private industries, and concerned citizens. Each sector throughout the chapter, especially in the recomrnenda- must maintain a firm, positive commitment to environ- tions. The Connecticut agency should be inferred where mental enhancement, if the goal of clean water is to be appropriate; but for brevity it will not be mentioned, as realized. At the federal level, where the overall program TABLE 5.1 KEY DETERMINANTS OF WATER QUALITY BY PLANNING AREA Determinants of Water Quality Overall Severity 4 4@ 0 Land Use 1 Discharges 04 @20 A 0 - 0 03 L1, to 0 .11 04 CV -a PLANNING AREA Ipswich - North Shore 0 0 0 0 0 Boston Metropolitan 0 - 0 0 South Shore 0 0 0 0 Cape Cod & Islands 0 0 0 Buzzards Bay 0 0 0 0 0 Taunton 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Blackstone & Vicinity 0 0 0 - - 0 0 0 Pawtuxet 0 0 0 - 0 Narragansett Bay 0 0 - 0 0 0 Pawcatuck 0 0 0 SENE as a whole 0 0 0 0 0 0 Major determinant 0 Intermediate determinant Minor determinant 5-3 only three municipalities in Connecticut (North Stoning- The permit process, whether administered by the state in ton, Stonington, and Voluntown) are within the SENE Massachusetts, or by EPA, as is the case in Rhode Island, boundaries. In all three states, local government and in- must be coordinated with the overall water quality standards dustry are particularly important in achieving water and planning program. It is their responsibility to ensure quality goals because they have the major responsibility that water quality standards are met. The states gather basic for building, operating, and maintaining pollution control information and categorize all stream stretches as either: facilities. These facilities will serve as the framework for regional water quality management systems. Local govern- 0 Effluent limited - in which water quality will ment also plays a key role in regulating land use and sub- meet all applicable water quality standards surface disposal systems. Both types of control will con- after the application of minimum national ef- tribute to the effectiveness of efforts to preserve waters fluent limitations established by'the EPA for which are currently of high quality. point-source discharges and municipal treat- ment works. The Water Quality Goals 0 Water quality limited - in which water quality The ambitious goals of EPA's water quality program, as will meet applicable water standards only after enunciated in the 1972 Amendments cited above, are: application of more stringent effluent limita- (1) to attain swimmable-fishable waters, where possible, tions. by 1983; and (2) to achieve zero discharge everywhere by 1985. Figure 5.2 presents the water quality standards Both states have so categorized their streams, as illustrated (1977 goals) for SENE waters as determined by the states in Figure 5.3. and approved by EPA. A comparison of this map with the earlier map in Figure 5.1 (existing water quality) points For segments classified as "effluent limited", the state must out the specific locations where present water quality is sub- develop an overall management plan to maintain water qual- standard. The most severely degraded waters are found ity. For segments classified as "water quality limited," the in portions of the Charles River, the Taunton River, and state must assign maximum daily load limits. In Massachu- New Bedford Harbor. For municipal and industrial setts, the Division of Water Pollution Control has the in-house sources of pollution, two dates, July 1977 and July 1983, capability to determine these maximum allowable loadings. are to serve as targets for a base level of technological The Rhode Island Division of Water Supply and Pollution control. The period 1973-1977 is referred to as Phase 1, Control carries out such functions by contracting with pri- 1978-1.983 as Phase 11. vate firms. The Statewide Planning Program has completed the Woonasquatucket interim basin plan and the Blackstone Phase I is characterized by the issuance of permits and preliminary and final Moshassuck draft basin plans. In the award of construction grants. It provides the begin- addition, preliminary management plans for the Taunton ning steps for meeting a goal of swimmable -fishable waters. River, and the Massachusetts portion of the Blackstone and For some pollution sources, achieving the 1977 treatment Ten-Mile Rivers have been developed by the Massachusetts objectives will be all that is necessary to meet 1983 objec- Division of Water Pollution Control. These plans were the tives. Most of the pollution problems being addressed in basis for most of the recommendations included in those this phase are well identified, and have been addressed by planning area reports. local, state, and federal governments in past years. Other plans examined included the Boston Harbor-Eastern Phase 11 will be a period in which solutions become more Massachusetts Metropolitan Area Wastewater Management subtle, the alternatives for abatement more challenging, and Study and studies done for and by regional planning agencies. for which a better understanding of the causal and cost- Town engineering reports were also investigated if available. ,benefit relationships of alternatives will be required. It will Elements of each are included later in the recommended be a period for implementing plans for controlling non-point program and more specific information can be found in the sources and the most formidable point sources of pollution. individual planning area reports. A solid start toward addressing these problems must be made, however, during Phase 1. In addition, while Phase Il Scope of the Chapter will emphasize treatment techniques for combined sewer overflows, it is recognized that the best solutions will evolve The remainder of this chapter considers each orf six major as the results of case-by-case studies because treatment may sources of water pollution in order of decreasing region- not be necessary in all areas requiring swimmable-fishable wide significance - combined sewer overflows and urban water quality. stormwater runoff, municipal discharges, industrial dischar- ges, non-point pollution sources, oil pollution, and water- State water quality planning efforts are also based on the craft wastes. For each source, the general situation is des- Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. cribed and alternative solutions are examined. Following is 5-4 Class A & B: water suitable at least for bathing and shellfishing Class C: water suitable for all uses except drinking, bathing, and shellfishing Class 0: water unsuitable for most uses (In Massachusetts, Class 0 waters will be reclassi -------- fied and upgraded to Class C1.) Rivers are marked in two shades if classifications change along reaches. MAssAcmusirrs &Ar Note: Minor local variations in the general pattern presented herein cannot be shown because of prob - Offfto #-AV lems of scale A rLANric oczA# L e^ CAIAI COO ,AV 10 p soy SAArrucirEr soumo ANRA Nsrrr*Ar IRK' 81LOCN ISLA" SOVN0 o MILES L/A -1 KILOMETERS NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS NO. EXISTING WATER allALITY 5.1 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND gap WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 5-5 B: J Class A & water suitable at least for bathing and shellfishing Class C: water suitable for all uses except drinking, bathing, and shellfishing Class D: water unsuitable for most uses (in Massachusetts, ..S3 TS 6; Class 0 waters will be reclassi- fied and upgraded to Class C1.) Rivers are marked in two shades -J, if classifications change along reaches. MASSAcmilserrs 8"t- "W#_ AAr A rtA#rlc ocEA# Jj CAPE COD &Ar r A _Ij 'D,;h r 0-Y ovAiirucxEr spumv 1W [email protected], #Ar OLOCR 1SLA#O MILES KILOMETERS NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS NO. SEEMS stimm SOUTHEASTERN NEW EN ZW@ PROPOSED WATER DUALITY (1977 goals) 5.2 WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 5-6 M Water Quality Limited ORE Effluent Limited A" All other stream and coastal waters are classified Anti- degradation (Current high k quality waters). IJI mAssAcm4vsrrrs 4p Anow. Ablow RAY T@' A r i. A# Pic vcrAA, 4 Tk'L j % Lr- OMMIC-ur 14 L CAPE COO SAY V L 0 % 4 r LR J. ...... ;P4, II I Ix #A#rucwer somvp 0 0,*Cx ISLA#0 SWND 0, 2 , I MILE9 FFT KILOMETERS NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS NO. SEGMENT CLASSIFICATION 5.3 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND WATER allALITY WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 5-7 a brief discussion of areawide water quality management, ties. Lastly, the total cost of the program is broadly esti- alternative plans are outlined, and a recommended program mated and the major environmental, econon-dc, and social is described by arraying recommendations under the head- implications of carrying out the program are highlighted. ings of preservation, restoration, and planning area priori- URBAN STORMWATER RUNOFF/ COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS The Situation A good hard rain is an extremely efficient city street There are several major combined sewer systems in the cleaner. It washes suspended pollutants out of the air and Study area. Their overflows degrade the quality of portions off exposed surfaces where they have settled; dirt, animal of Boston Harbor, the Mystic, Charles, and Neponset Rivers. wastes, and debris are flushed from the streets. What dis- Approximately 19,000 acres are served by combined sewers appears down the drains, gutters, and sewers is called "ur- in portions of Boston, Cambridge, Chelsea, Somerville, and ban stormwater runoff". Unfortunately, the problems as- Brookline. In the sewer system tributary to Boston's Deer sociated with such pollutants do not disappear down the Island treatment facility, 125 overflow points have been lo-_ drains as well. They reappear along the riverfront or in the cated. The second largest combined sewer system serves harbor, beconiing perhaps the most serious water pollution Providence, Rhode Island, and overflows occur to the Provi- problem in SENE. Although many excellent studies through- dence, Seekonk, Woonasquatucket, and Moshassuck Rivers. out the nation have stressed the seriousness of this problem Fifty-six overflow points have been located in Providence, for at least a decade, its importance is only now being wide- while New Bedford has identified 27 overflow points to the ly accepted. Recent EPA studies indicate that stormwater Acushnet River and New Bedford Harbor. Fall River has runoff in many modem cities is heavily laden with zinc and 14 to the lower Taunton River and Mount Hope Bay. Other lead and that it probably contributes a greater pollution areas which exhibit combined sewer problems are Taunton load than the city's treated waste outfalls. In some cities and Worcester in Massachusetts, and Newport (10 overflow the oxygen demand of urban stormwater runoff is three to points), Central Falls and Pawtucket in Rhode Island. five times greater than that of treated wastewater. These systems serve Ithe most heavily populated areas in the SENE region. About 3.4 million people are currently served In Brockton, the Massachusetts Division of Water Pollution by municipal sewer systems. About 60 percent of these Control sampled strearnflows and found that violations of people are connected to combined sewers either directly or bacterial standards for swimmable waters occur regularly through separate systems which eventually discharge to during wet weather. Other indicators of water quality combined sewers. showed similar increases. Such substantive investigation has been lacking in most other areas of the region and ex- Significant concentrations of bacteria, oxygen demanding tensive "wet weather'@ stream surveys are needed. wastes, and suspended solids are discharged to the receiving waters when overflows occur. In many of the areas des- When storm sewers also carry sanitary wastes, the problem cribed above, it is difficult to determine the contribution is further aggravated. These combined sewers must then combined sewer overflows make to water quality degrada- carry (1) urban stormwater runoff, (2) sanitary wastes pro- tion, since inadequately treated municipal and industrial duced during the period of high runoff, and (3) resuspended discharges are also present. However, it is known that com- ,material from sediments and solid sanitary wastes which had bined sewer overflows have resulted in periodic closings of accumulated on the sewer bottoms during the previous peri- Tenean Beach in Dorchester, several shellfish areas in win- od of dry weather flow. throp Bay, Dorchester Bay, the tidal portions of the Nepon- The effects of combined systems are twofold. First, since set River, and shellfish areas in upper Narragansett Bay. they convey both municipal and industrial wastewater as The Rhode Island Department of Health has determined well as stormwater, treatment facilities can become hy- that when one-half inch of rain is recorded in Providence in draulically overloaded during times of excessive storm- a 24-hour period, the shellfish areas in the Providence River water runoff, thus lowering the operating efficiency of the must be closed for 7 days. For a rainfall of one inch, the treatment plant. Second, combined systems are equipped closure is in effect for ten days. The total number of days with overflow points to prevent the "backing up" of sewers. that the shellfish areas have been closed in one year has ex- This results in the discharge of untreated mixed wastewater ceeded, 200 in the past. In other areas affected by com 'bined and stormwater directly to streams or coastal waters during sewer overflows, water quality classifications always preclude certain storms. water contact recreation. 5-8 The Solutions Alternatives Measures for addressing urban stormwater problems include: as the sanitary wastewater portion, alternatives which will (a) stormwater sampling; (b) attenuation of runoff; (c) better manage the entire problem are being considered and imple- street cleaning; (d) separation of combined sewers; (e) in- mented. stream controls; (f) off-system storage; and (g) treatment of combined sewer overflow. A combination of methods will In-System Controls. These measures include mainten- usually provide the best solution. The optimum combination ance of overflow regulators and tide gates, use of improved depends upon topography, erodibility, and other charac- regulators, infiltration and inflow control, and the use of teristics of the soils of the service area, land use patterns, computerized sewer system controls. They vary in cost. sewer system design parameters, capabilities of wastewater The degree to which they can be implemented depends on treatment facilities, location of overflow points, desired the nature of the specific system. uses of the receiving waters, and availability of construction site s. Regulators are devices which control the flow of waste- water and stormwater between the local collecting sewer, Stormwater sampling. One of the first measures to be the interceptor sewer, and the outfall. During wet weather, undertaken in dealing with this aspect of non-point pollu- they allow overflows to prevent back-up in the sewer. Tide- tion is to determine the extent and the severity of the prob- gates prevent salt water inflow into the sewer and intercep- lem. Somewhat different water quality sampling techniques tor during periods of high tide. A malfunctioning regulator will be required than those customarily used on stream sur- can allow untreated wastewater discharges during dry wea- veys. For the most part, current water quality sampling is ther, and a defective or missing tide gate will force a treat- geared only towards determining allowable loadings for dis- ment facility to accept large volumes of salt water, thus re- crete discharges of wastewater. Pollution from runoff enters ducing overall treatment efficiency. The Metropolitan the subsequent model as an estimated background effect or District Commission in Boston is currently conducting a not at all. program of regulator and tidegate maintenance and repair. Attenuation of Runoff. Subdivision controls can atten- Infiltration and inflow of water reduce the capacity of a uaie runoff in new developments by increasing open space, sewer system available for the transport of wastewater. by providing,safe and attractive stormwater detention ponds, Hence, the frequency and volume of overflows increase and and by. making maximum use of permeable drainage ditches. treatment plant efficiency decreases if much unwanted These measures could also improve ground water recharge. water finds its way into the system. Poor joints and crushed pipes are usually the cause of excessive infiltration and in- Runoff can also be attenuated by providing buffer strips flow and are symptomatic of older systems, Combined along streambanks, particularly in suburban and rural areas. sewer systems, such as those in Attleboro and North Prov- The buffer strips should be heavily vegetated and attractive. idence, can experience excessive infiltration and inflow. They should be able to fit gracefully into programs to man- age category B lands (Chapter 3), to improve picnicking, Another effective in-system control measure with possible fishing and extensive recreation (Chapter 6), and to manage application in larger systems is computerization. The sys- flood plains-(Chapter 8). Furthermore, even when exclu- tems make the most effective use of interceptor and, line sively under private ownership, streambank buffer strips capacity by employing computer-linked monitoring and should enhance land values. control devices to route and store combined sewer flows. The computer system all ows an operator to divert flows to Better Street Cleaning. Most current street cleaning pro- half-empty interceptors, thus using all available in-system grams and equipment are designed with no awareness of the storage and "buying time" until the wet weather passes significant polluting effects of stormwater runoff. Mter, more and the combined flows can be accepted by the municipal frequent street cleaning might help considerably, but more treatment facility, thus treating the stormwater as well. An information is needed on its cost-effectiveness compared to added advantage of this type of system is that individual treatment and other measures described in this section. components can be installed as funds become available and can still produce good results. Possible applications may Separation. For years physical separation of stormwater be found in Boston and Providence. and wastewater collection systems was considered the only method of abating combined sewer problems. In the older Off-system storage. This measure refers to the use of cities - Boston, Fall River, New Bedford, and Providence - holding tanks to collect combined sewer overflows and to complete separation of combinedsewers would be a massive return the collected wastewater to the sewers during periods undertaking resulting in massive social disruption. Now, with of low or direct flow, thus completely eliminating the dis- the growing realization that the stormwater portion of com- charge and providing treatment of overflows at the munici- bined sewer overflows can be as detrimental to water quality pal wastewater treatment facility. Because of the size of 5-9 the systems and the highly urbanized character of Boston however, detention is decreased and treatment is minimal. and Providence, widespread use of this method is not feas- From May 1971, to December 1973, the Co 'ttage Farm ible. Fall River and New Bedford should consider this station received 769.8 million gallons of wastewater and measure, however. discharged 674.5 million gallons of treated flow. The re- maining 95.3 million gallons of flow were returned to the Treatment. Perhaps the most cost-effective measure is interceptor and treated at the Deer Island primary treat- additional treatment wherever feasible. Generally, physical ment facility. A second combined sewer overflow treat- or physical/chemical treatment is applied to the combined ment facility on the Charles will be built by the Metropoli- sewer flows, followed by chlorination. Also, the flow tan District Commission in conjunction with a new dam could be conveyed to an existing wastewater treatment at Warren Avenue. facility. All but the small combined systems should strive to implement treatment measures for managing the entire An alternative concept should be evaluated while planning problem. other combined sewer overflow treatment plants. The valve arrangements could allow the plant to retain and treat to The Cottage Farm Station on the Charles River is an exist- high standards all of the initial very contaminated runoff ing example of combined sewer overflow treatment. When and bypass all of the later relatively clean flow. Overall flow exceeds the capacity of existing downstream treat- abatement efficiency could thus be greatly improved by ment plants and their interceptors, all the excess combined concentrating on the more contaminated early portion of sewer flow is diverted to the Cottage Farm station for de- the total flow. However, in extensive systems, detailed tention, chlorination, and release. When runoff exceeds sampling must be undertaken in order to determine whether interceptor capacity moderately, diversion and detention or not this "first flush" treatment alternative would yield can be very effective. In the case of major excess runoff, economically and environmentally justifiable results. MUNICIPAL DISCHARGES The Situation About 80 municipal wastewater facilities are currently dis- probably not be completed in time. charging io the waters and land areas of the region. They serve 3.4 million people, about 70 percent of SENE. As Fiscal Year 1976 funds for federal aid to municipal con- indicated in Table 5.1, effluent from some of these facilities struction projects amount to $150 million statewide in contributes substantially to water quality problems in each Massachusetts and $19.5 million in Rhode Island. Total of the 10 planning areas. The problem is particularly severe needs estimated by each state amount to $6.5 billion in in the following five planning areas, which are listed from Massachusetts and $1.4 billion in Rhode Island. At 75 per- north to south: Boston Metropolitan, Buzzards Bay@ Taun- cent, the federal share would be $4.9 billion and $1.1 billion, ton, Blackstone and Vicinity, and Pawtuxet. respectively. If the last projects funded take two years to construct in order to meet the 1�83 goals, about $812 EPA provides 75 percent of the funding for the planning, million in Massachusetts to $180 million in Rhode Island design, and construction of publicly owned wastewater will be needed annually for the next six years. This is treatment facilities. The states contribute an additional 15 five to nine times the current level of federal assistance. percent and communities usually bear the remaining 10 For these and other reasons EPA has developed a policy percent. Massachusetts also administers a 90 percent grant of strict preservation of streams closest to standards in program for certain projects not federally funded. The order to reach the goals of the Act in as many areas of Gloucester Treatment Facility is one such project. theregion as possible. The grant requests for Fiscal Year 1975 are listed in Table 5.2. They are arranged by state according to state-established The Solutions priorities. The low level of funding slows construction progress. While Alternatives EPA continues to attempt to meet the goals of the Act, it is General approaches for solving municipal wastewater prob- generally felt, both in and out of government, that the dead- lems include (a) additional sewering, (b) higher degree of lines in the Act will not be met for all publicly owned treat- treatment, (c) better effluent disposal methods, (d) better ment facilities -unless substantial funding increases occur. sludge disposal methods and (e) greater regionalization. A Even if fully funded, engineering and construction could combination of several methods will usually be required. 5-10 Additional Sewering. It should be clear from the land the runofffrom areas of lowerdensity on individual sub- use discussion in Chapter 3 that the provision or withhold- surface systems. ing of sewer service can be a powerful means of determining growth patterns. Sewers allow high density development in some areas and thus help to preserve open space in others. The 1990 design capacity for presently existing treatment At the same time, however, a large treatment facility with a facilities and new facilities proposed by the SENE Study large wastewater volume to be assimilated at the disposal would serve 5.2 rrdlfion people. Figure 5.4 locates the ex- site necessitates a higher degree of treatment. In addition, isting and potential sewer service areas in SENE. Waste- the runoff associated with the higher densities generally water from the potential service areas would be treated by contribute more to the degradation of water quality than the pro posed facilities, shown in Figure 5.5. In general, the TABLE 5.2: CONSTRUCTION GRANTS PROJECTS LIST - FISCAL YEAR 1975 Applicant Name Planning Type ofy by Priority Area Grant Project Description@j In Massachusetts: Hull BM PDC I, PS, FM, outfall Lynn INS PD 1, PS, S Nahant INS I'D PS & FM to Lynn Wttapoisett BB I'D 1, PS & FM to Fairhaven Hopedal e BL PDC A Charles R. P. C. District BM PD 1, PS9 A Metro. District Commission BM PDC Stormwater detention Newburyport INS PD PS, S Metro. District Commission BM PDC Incinerators Attleboro BL PD 1, PS, A North Attleboro BL I'D 19 PS, A Groveland INS PDC I & PS to Haverhill South Essex Sewer District INS PD S Fairhaven BB PD I Taunton TA PDC 1, PS, FM, A Brockton TA PD A Milford , BM PD A Uxbridge BL PD 1, PS, S South Essex Sewer District INS PDC PS & FM from Marblehead Middleboro TA PDC A Falmouth cc PDC PS, FM, S Weston BM PDC PS, FM to MDC Sutton BL PDC I, PS to Millbury Essex INS PDC I, PS, A Blackstone BL PDC I, PS to Woonsocket Millbury BL PDC I Raynham TA PDC I, PS & FM to Taunton In Rhode Island: Providence BL PV S, combined sewers Woonsocket BL Cv I'S Quonset Point NB PV 11, S, sewers Newport 1 & 2 NB 01 1, PS, FM, sewer separation Barrington NB C Iq PS, FM Burrillville BL C I'S Westerly PTCK C I, PS, FM, S New Shoreharn (Block I.) NB CY 1, PS, FM, S Lincoln BL CY I P = Planning, ID = Design, C Construction 2/ 1 Interceptor, II = Infiltration/inflow, PS Pumping Station, FM Force Main, S Secondary Treatment Plant, A = Advanced Treatment Plant 3/ Awarded before November 5, 1974 5-11 LEGEND Existing Proposed (1990) mAssAcmuserrs fWAw AVIAW &AV A r L A m r/ c OCEAN ly mon I -r@ ^j t CAPE COO fAr Iv- ....... 17- r- 114 ...... r 4 r Aw #ANrucwLr sLvmo SLOC9 ISILA#19 -7. SO MILIB KILoutTElls NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS EXISTING & PROPOSEO NO. 5.4 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND ftMa SEWER SERVICE AREAS WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 5-12 Sewer Service by Town r service system Town with no sewe Town with local sewer service system (one or two towns served by a system) Town with regional sewer service k system (three or more towns served by the same system) Town with both local and regional sewer service system Type and Location of Wastewater TreatmenFF-acility Secondary 0 Secondary, ground discharge MASSACHUSErrS V A Advanced I AVI*W RAY W A r L A III ri c OCEAN CAPE COD &Ar g R-14 #AAfrucirer souNp #A##Am#srrr awr 04LOCK ISLAND SWN0 MILES -I KILOMETERS NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS PROPOSED NO. WASTEWATER TREATMENT 5.5 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND too SYSTEMS AND FACILITIES - 1920 WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 5-13 proposals for these facilities follow state and regional plan- Sludge handling and disposal can cost as much as 25 to 50 ning agency recommendations. percent of the total wastewater treatment plant capital and operating costs. Assuming that the average cost of disposal Higher Degree of Treatment. Three general degrees of is in the neighborhood of $25 per ton of dry solids, the ' treatment are provided in the region: primary, secondary, total annual cost at present for sludge treatment and dis- and advanced (tertiary). All should be followed by disin- posal in Massachusetts and Rhode Island is $ 11 million fection. Primary treatment is provided by most of the com- per year. munities along the coast with sewer systems. Of the 3.4 million people served by sewer systems in the region, 73 Sludge disposal alternatives include ocean dumping, incinera- percent are connected to primary facilities, 23 percent are tion, land spreading, and landfilling. connected to secondary treatment plants, and 4percent are connected to systems which receive no treatment. Be- Ocean dumping is prohibited in Rhode Island. Although it cause of the inefficiencies of primary treatment, and since is not prohibited by state statute in Massachusetts, it is reg- the 1972 Act requires secondary treatment, this condition ulated under the federal permit and license systems. At should change. Advanced treatment is currently proposed present, ocean dumping is allowed at only one site in Massa- for all but two stream discharges in order to meet the 1983 chusetts, in )Boston Harbor at the Deer Island wastewater swimmable-fishable goal. treatment plant. Since state and federal policies discourage. ocean dumping as a means of disposal, it does not appear to Better Effluent Disposal Methods. There are three be a viable alternative for the future. basic methods of disposing of effluent from treatment plants: stream disposal, ocean disposal, and land disposal. Incineration of sludge containing organic matter reduces the Of the three, the most widely used in the SENE area are amount of solids to be disposed. The resulting ash will vary stream and ocean disposal. The largest discharges are to the from 15 to 45 percent of the original weight of solids. How- coastal waters of the region since most of the cities are on ever, the disposal of this ash is an associated cost of the in- the coast. However, the most severe water quality prob- cineration process. Incineration, moreover, can cause air lems result from municipal wastewater discharges into the pollution, and siting an incinerator is perhaps as controversial streams of the region. The Worcester treatment facility on as siting a solid waste disposal facility. For example, a pro- the Blackstone River, the Brockton facility on the head- posed incinerator for the MDC's Metropolitan Sewer District waters of the Taunton, the Milford facility on the Charles in the Boston area has drawn considerable criticism because River, and the Cranston, West Warwick, and Warwick facili- of possible airborne nuisances and health hazards. ties on the Pawtuxet are prime examples of the above situ- ation. Land Disposal, most commonly by spray irrigation on TABLE 5.3 ESTIMATED SLUDGE VOLUMES FOR 1990 agricultural or forest land, is not currently used to any BY STATE AND PLANNING AREA* great extent in the region. Several communities have used filter beds, a type of land disposal, but not in significant State Volume amounts. Several areas, including the Taunton, Pawcatuck, Upper Charles, Blackstone, Buzzards Bay, South Shore, and Massachusetts Part of SENE 120.3 .Cape Cod, have lands which meet the physical requirements Rhode Island Part of SENIE 22.9 for land disposal - good drainage and depth of soil; depth, SENE Total 143.2 quality, and use of ground water; topography; climate and Planning Area Volume public access. Because of the contribution this method makes to recharging ground water, it will be particularly ap- Ipswich-North Shore 12.3 plicable on Cape Cod if problems of safety, high cost, and Boston Metropolitan 70.2 extensive land requirements can be overcome. Several plan- South Shore 4.9 Cape Cod & Islands 1.1 ning areas such as the Taunton have some suitable acreage Buzzards Bay 5.0 close to urban areas. Therefore, they may be appropriate Taunton 12.6 for small scale land disposal operation. Blackstone & Vicinity 28.0 Pawtuxet 5.9 Better Sludge Disposal Methods. As higher and higher Narragansett Bay 2.1 degrees of treatment are require4jo meet water quality Pawcatuck 1.1 goals, sludge disposal problem will increase. Although no SENE Total 143.2 fully reliable data are available on the quantity of sludge handled in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, Table 5.3 pro- !/In thousands of cubic feet per day, treated and dewatered vides an estimate of the quantity of sludge that will be gen- erated in SENE in 1990. 5-14 Land spreading is 'the only disposal option which takes ad- treatment and disposal at one site. Because of economies vantage of the potential of sludge as a soil building material. of scale, regional treatment facilities are generally cheaper Furthermore, it furnishes an alternative to more concentra- to build and operate. Because personnel are generally better ted inorganic fertilizers which have recently diminished in trained at larger facilities, they are usually more effectively supply and increased in cost because of the petroleum short- operated. Of major importance is the fact that fewer water age. Applied to land in either a liquid or dried state, the bodies are exposed to potential degradation since fewer dis- water, nutrients, and organic matter in sludge increase the charges result. The recommended programs in each planning humus content, fertility, and water-retention capacity of area have favored tl-ds approach over individual municipal the soil. Both Attleboro and North Attleborough are pres- treatment facilities wherever possible. Regional approaches ently investigating the possibility of using dried sludge as a can also help to achieve preservation goals by limiting dis- soil conditioner. It has also been suggested that the Metro- charges above the most upstream municipal plant. politan Sewer District convert its sludge to fertilizer, ra- ther than incinerate it (see above). The principal problems Major regional treatment facilities exist in the Boston Metro- of land application appear to be the potential long-term politan planning area (Metropolitan District Commission), effects of toxic metals in the sludge and the product's mar- in the Ipswich-North Shore planning area (South Essex Sewer ketability. District), and in the Blackstone and Vicinity planning area (Upper Blackstone Pollution Abatement District and Black- Landfilling is used by most industries and municipalities in stone Valley Sewer District). These regional districts serve Massachusetts and Rhode Island. After the sludge has been two-thirds of the total sewered population of SENE. treated and dewatered, it is brought to the landfill site and buried in accordance with sanitary landfill guidelines. Later, a closely related concept will be discussed under the heading of "Areawide Management. " Unlike the regionaliza- Greater Regionalization. This last alternative measure in- tion described immediately above, areawide management win volves communities joining together to provide wastewater not be confined primarily to municipal discharges. INDUSTRIAL DISCHARGES The Situation According to Table 5.1 industrial discharges have a major face disposal methods, by process changes, or by the closing effect upon the region's water quality, particularly in the or moving of a firm. The remaining 56 will be required to following four planning areas: Boston Metropolitan, provide best practicable treatment (BPT) by July 1, 1977. Taunton, Blackstone and Vicinity, and Pawtuxet. Currently, engineering is proceeding on schedule, and no delays are foreseen which will cause an industry to miss the In terms of flow, electric power production is the largest 1977 deadline. However, the industries whose discharges industrial discharge category. In terms of water quality will be eliminated through connection to a planned munici- degradation, other industries in the region are also im- pal system may not be able to meet the deadline because of portant. Textile dyeing and finishing is the largest contri- lack of federal funds for municipal treatment facility con- butor of biochemical oxygen demanding material (BOD) to struction and other delays. Pretreatment, which is usually the region's watersIand the jewelry and metal finishing in- less than BPT should occur on time, however. Smaller dustries discharge significant quantities of metals in plating flows have resulted through water conservation, recycling wastes. and reuse in order to lower user charges levied by the muni- cipal plant. This trend is encouraged and applauded by the The abatement of waterborne industrial wastes is managed SENE Study. by the industrial permits program. Administered by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers for the first three years of A special aspect of industrial wastes is hazardous wastes - its existence, the program was modified, renamed the Na- pesticides, radioactive wastes, industrial chen-dcals and bio- tional Pollutant Discharge Efirriination System (NPDES), chemicals. The management of hazardous wastes is gen- and transferred to EPA by the Federal Water Pollution Con- erally inadequate in SENE. The uncontrolled discharge of trol Act Amendments of 1972. such waste materials into the environment unnecessarily threatens the public health and welfare. In general, the program is working well and on schedule in SENE. Based upon permits which have been written or In Massachusetts, the Department of Environmental Quality drafted thus far, of the 78 major existing industrial dis- Engineering is charged with the authority and responsibility charges into surface water bodies in the region, 22 will be for hazardous and toxic waste disposal. State regulations eliminated by connection to municipal systems, by subsur- cover handling and disposal methods involving the transport 5-15 of hazardous wastes by truck, rail, and vessel. In addition, sewers, however, pathenogenic wastes may contaminate the Department licenses the disposal of hazardous wastes by the receiving waters. any person. The disposal of biochemical wastes is a potentially danger- Rhode Island does not have specific laws regulating the use ous problem in the Boston and Providence areas. The and disposal of hazardous wastes. Only the use and appli- larger laboratories hire disposal firms to take care of their cation of pesticides are regulated by statute; disposal is wastes, but many of the smaller laboratories either store uncontrolled. In many cases, pesticides are disposed of in these wastes or flush their wastes without pretreatment municipal sewers, and in other cases, they are disposed of into municipal wastewater treatment plants. at municipal landfill sites. The other hazardous wastes are controlled by the state's air and Water pollution control The Solutiods laws. AlternatiYes Pesticides are used only on a small scale in Massachusetts because agriculture is not a significant economic activity. For industrial wastes, there is no need to change the There is a storage facility in Hingham for pesticides dis- industrial permits program. It seems to be working well. posed of by businesses and farmers in the state. It is esti- mated that between eight and ten tons of pesticides are The burden of disposing of hazardous wastes is best stored there annually. placed upon industry or the farmer who uses them. De- termination of the proper disposal method for these wastes The major sources of radioactive waste in Massachusetts must be made on an industry-by4ndustry basis. Geological, are the Boston Edison nuclear power plant in Plymouth air quality, and'cost studies must be made for each indust- and New England Nuclear of Boston, a firm which manu- rial plant. The states could locate, approve, and monitor factures fuel rods for use in hospitals, research labora- discharges from every significant source of hazardous tories, and schools. These hospitals, laboratories, and wastes in their state. schools, most of which are located in the Boston area, are the other sources of radioactive wastes. Commonly used alternatives include land burial, deep-well injection and ocean dumping. Incineration is used for dis- The University of Rhode Island at Kingston, which oper- posal of some organic chemicals, and biological and flam- ates a small reactor, and the United Nuclear Company of mable wastes. Charlestown, which operates a uranium recovery plant, Sanitary landfills are preferable to dumps for the disposal are the primary sources of radioactive waste in Rhode Island. of hazardous materials. Unless designed properly, however, sanitary, landfills have potential for surface and ground wa- Radioactive waste in both Massachusetts and Rhode ter pollution as well as air pollution from gas venting. Island is packaged according to federal regulations and transported to designated disposal sites outside of the Land burial is a suitable method for those hazardous mate- SENE region. rials that require complete containment and permanent disposal, including radioactive and highly toxic chemical Most of the industrial chemical wastes in Massachusetts wastes. The material is deposited either directly into the and Rhode Island are generated by the metal plating and ground, or is deposited in stainless steel tanks or concrete- finishing industries. These wastes are treated on-site at lined pits beneath the ground. the larger plants. Dewatering and landfilling at the plant usually follows. On occasion, leachate from these on-site The geology of the SENE region does not provide suitable landfills has polluted water sources. Cases of pollution deep underground reservoirs. to accept wastes by means of have been noted most frequently at plants in the metal deep-well injection. Unless all other alternatives have been plating industry. The smaller companies usually look to found less satisfactory for environmental protection, and disposal firms to handle their wastes. unless extensive hydraulic and geologic studies are made, EPA opposes deep-well injection. Although hospital wastes are similar to those generated by other types of public institutions, they require special Since state and federal policies discourage ocean dumping, consideration due to the possibility that pathological ma- and the environmental problems associated with it have terials may be present. In most cases, the disposal of long been recognized, ocean dumping is not considered a pathological wastes is accomplished by incineration (which viable alternative. Incineration and open burning can result may affect air quality). Where they are disposed through in air pollution unless adequate controls are employed. - 5-16 SOME NON-POINT POLLUTION SOURCES In marked contrast to most of the point sources considered There is strong public support for the Department of Environ- above, most non-point sources of water pollution are diffi- mental Quality Engineering to take the step of reviewing cult to measure and control. Prominent non-point sources existing regulations with particular attention to the allow- include: (1) stormwater runoff; (2) precipitates from air- able depth of subsurface systems to ground water and the borne pollution; (3) sediment; (4) septic systems; (5) in- maximum rate of percolation, a function of porosity and stream pollution sources; (6) agricultural runoff; and (7) slope. The latter is of concern because septic wastewater leachate from landfills. The first source was considered which is flowing too rapidly to have a chance for purifi- earlier where it is most significant, as urban stormwater run- cation in the natural system can contaminate water sup- off. The second will not be discussed directly in this report. plies. Its principal manifestation, however, is the form of dust often containing lead and zinc. The dust coats cities and With proper enforcement, it is estimated that more than 40 factories near its points of origin. It affects water quality percent of the current population now dependent on septic primarily when it is washed into water bodies in the form systems can remain on such onlot facilities without serious of urban storm runoff, which was covered earlier. Sedi- problems. The other 60 percent of the 1970 septic tank ment is considered below. users Will probably require connection to sewers because of undersized lots, poor soil conditions, or other reasons. For Although non-point sources are currently difficult to mea- new development, limiting septic systems to those lands sure and their effects are even more difficult to access, shown on SENE's development capability maps (Plates 1, 2 they must be fully integrated into any comprehensive and 3) as suitable for such purposes will ensure that indivi- plan that attempts to improve the quality of water bodies dual disposal systems can continue to be useful for an in an economically efficient way. Increasingly numerous important portion of future residential development. In studies have documented their importance. As treatment most cases, however, where detailed soils surveys are avail- efficiency of point sources rises, the key question becomes able they should be used to locate individual disposal sys- increasingly more pertinent: might the effort to abate non- tems. Without such precautions, the cumulative failure of point sources be just as effective as other efforts to improve individual systems will intensify pressure for even more water quality? In the future, concurrent efforts should be sewer extensions and new treatment works. The result will made to deal with both point and non-point sources of be new concentrations of effluent in high quality streams, pollution. loss of in-basin ground water, and increased municipal ser- vice costs. Towns already facing this problem include sec- Septic Systems tions of Wilmington and North Reading along the Ipswich River in Massachusetts; and the villages of Wakefield and The Situation Peacedale along the Saugatucket River in Rhode Island. Cesspools and septic tanks service 26 percent of the popu- Disposal of the solids collected in subsurface disposal sys- lation in the SENE part of Massachusetts and 36 percent of tems is a related problem. Most of the existing treatment the population in Rhode Island. From a quantitative point and disposal methods are inadequate to ensure the protec- of view, properly operated septic systems help replenish tion of public health and environmental quality. ground water supplies and maintain strearnflow. Qualita- In Massachusetts, the Department of Environmental Quality tively however, seepage from improperly designed, con- Engineering has delegated the authority for overseeing septic structed, and operated systems is probably a major source tank and cesspool waste disposal operations to the local ,of water pollution. According to Table 5.1, this problem boards of health. But the lack of community-provided dis- appears almost everywhere, but it is most severe in two posal sites has led to violations of the law and potential planning areas - Ipswich-North Shore, and Cape Cod and pollution problems. Private pumpers have dumped septic the Islands. The problem is especially apparent where seep- tank and cesspool wastes into isolated swamps and streams, age from septic systems for homes and cottages hastens down the embankments of rivers, and even on road sides in eutrophication in the lakes they border. Other symptoms wooded areas. include surface wetness and accompanying odors, overland runoff to streams in wet weather, and contamination of The disposal of this pumped waste presents a problem to ground water supplies. the private contractor. Although some pumpers maintain private land disposal sites, many feel it is a community ob- Rhode Island has recently reviewed and updated regulations ligation to provide such an area. Since many communities regarding individual disposal problems and believes them to do not provide disposal areas, contractors discard the waste be adequate. Massachusetts has contemplated this step. in the quickest, easiest way possible. 5-17 Some municipalities, however, do provide disposal facilities. ning and siting septic systems - aquifers, ledge soils and/ Brockton accepts waste pumpings from as many as 30 sur- or steep slopes, moderate to no septic system limitations, rounding communities at its wastewater treatment facility. and severe septic system limitations. Septic systems should be discouraged on ledge soils and/or on steep slopes and soils In Rhode Island, the state Department of Health regulates with severe septic system limitations. septic tank and cesspool waste disposal. The state requires pumping contractors to be licensed yearly. It also has the Whatever the criteria, to be effective, they must be en- power to establish regulations concerning methods of dis- forced. Therefore, emphasis is focused on institutional posal and pumping equipment. However, no laws currently and legal arrangements for compliance through state and cover disposal methods, although some laws prohibit con- local regulatory authorities. This is a. major task; the states tamination of drinking water. have difficulty in regulating installation of the multitude of widely dispersed systems - not to mention regulating The lack of waste treatment and disposal sites is as serious a their performance and maintenance. problem in Rhode Island as it is in Massachusetts _. Many communities do not have treatment and disposal facilities, The two states have been doing most of the things sug- and some p umpers are discharging wastes in an unsafe and gested above, but continued more intensive effort is environmentally damaging manner. Cranston is one of the justified. towns in Rhode Island that does provide an adequate treat- ment and disposal facility for the community. Increasing Use of Dry Disposal Systems. If they ever come into widespread use, new, non-water-using home waste dis- There are no federal regulations specifically regulating the posal systems may, in the future, alleviate some of the disposal of septic tank and cesspool waste. Federal funding problems with septic systems. The only residue is claimed is available for construction of handling facilities at waste- to be a small quantity of compost removed about once a water treatment plants, and the only condition is that the year. Wastewater from kitchen and bathroom sinks, showers plant meet applicable treatment standards. and tubs must still receive treatment, however. The Solutions Disposal at Existing Wastewater Treatment Plants. Probably the best method of disposing of septic pumpings is to truck Altematives them to the nearest secondary or higher wastewater treat- ment plant for treatment along with sewage. The user, of The principal alternative measures for minimizing seepage course, would pay his fair share of the treatment costs. problems are: (a) establishing and enforcing criteria and compliance procedures; and (b) increasing use of dry dis- Since this alternative is not always available, however, other posal systems. The principal alternatives for disposal of methods must be considered below. Whatever method is septic pumpings are: (c) disposal at existing wastewater chosen, town government must play a key role. It should treatment plants; (d) land spreading; (e) drying beds; (f) provide the disposal sites and carefully monitor their use. lagoons; and (g) land filling. Land Spreading. In the ordinary land spreading method, Establishing and Enforcing Effective Criteria and Compti- septic purnpings are spread above the soil and allowed to ance Procedures. This is easily the most important alterna- dry. Since the waste is spread in the open, animals and tive. An in-depth look at the criteria for locating, siting, people may easily come in contact with disease-causing and designing individual subsurface disposal systems might bacteria and viruses. Other possible problems are con- disclose some aspects of existing regulations that still allow tarnination of drinking and recreation waters, attraction. problems to develop. For example, high percolation rates of disease -carrying insects, and objectionable odors. coupled with the minimum allowable depth to ground water may result in bacterial contamination, nitrate build-up or The plow-furrow-cover, terreator, and sub-sod-injection even phosphate build-up in the ground water. Allowing methods are other techniques of land spreading which systems to be placed in fill material might invite clogging require further research to determine whether treated soil conditions at the "fill-old ground" interface. Site inspec- may be useful for agriculture. All three methods involve -tions could be limited to the wet months of the year in placement of the wastes under the soil. Possible problems order to spot potential water table problems. Deeds for include concentration of heavy metals, plant absorption of property might be required to state specifically whether the metals, and persistence of viruses in the treated soil tests have, or have not, been conducted, and where the and related ground water. reports may be examined., For more general planning, the subregional multi-colored land capability maps (Plates 1, Drying beds.. Drying beds treat the septic pumping in a 2, and 3) in the rear pocket of this report could be used. shallow, uncovered pit which is underlined primarily with Four land classifications are particularly relevant to plan- sand and gravel. Since the pit is open, it is subject to the 5-18 inflow of surface water and possible overflow, and it is ex- uses such as boating and fishing might be impaired. Fish posed to animal and insect contact. Some dewatering of and biota are not always permitted sufficient water cover the wastes occurs through leaching, which may have an ef- to be able to thrive in such streams. Findings from water fect on ground water. The pit apparently does not act as a quality studies on intermittent streams suggest that the stabilization pond due to its insufficient depth. dissolved oxygen and temperature levels often fluctuate to such an extent that water quality standards may be Lagoons. In lagoons, solids in the waste settle to the bot- violated. Aesthetically, the streams suffer most. Odor tom. When the lagoon is filled and sufficiently dewatered, from algae and river bed biota which die from lack of the stabilized sludge can be removed and buried. water cover, and are not swept away by the flow, may constitute serious pollution problems. Moreover, dry Landfilling. This is a possible method for disposing of river bed bottoms will never compare to the visual beauty septic tank and cesspool wastes, although most experiments of free flowing streams. in landfilling have been primarily concerned with sewage sludge. In particular, close attention should be paid to con- The South Branch of the Pawtuxet River has extremely trolling runoff and leachates. Besides contamination of er.ratic flows and wastewater discharges. The Nemasket water resources, other possible problems include insects, River often has low flows incompatible with a munici- rodents, and odors. pal treatment facility discharge downstream. Both of these rivers are regulated for water supply purposes, in- Low Streamflows dustrial and municipal, respectively. The Situation The Solutions Generally, water law in the Northeast conforms to the To minimize in-stream problems, particularly in heavily riparian doctrine as interpreted by the courts through spe- used streams having little flow, low flow augmentation cific case litigation. The riparian doctrine gives to the should be considered. Wherever a stream happens to have owner of the land adjacent to a stream the right to use an upstream reservoir, additional water should generally water from that stream. If downstream users object, the be released during periods of low strearnflow. Since these upstream rights may be limited to a "reasonable use," as releases will often conflict with other reservoir purposes - decided by the court. such as water supply and recreation - hard negotiation and carefully considered trade-offs will be necessary be- If the upstream riparian owner is a municipality which di- tween upstrearn and downstream communities. Low flow verts a significant quantity of water for its water supply augmentation with highly treated wastewater is also being system, users will receive a reduced flow until the water is attempted. Safeguards must be instituted to avoid stream returned - less evaporative, seepage, and other consump- pollution in the event of treatment plant failure, however. tive losses - to the system in the form of treated effluent. Unless the stream is very small, these flow reductions are Agricultural Runoff usually inconsequential. Sometimes, however, the water is diverted to another basin or to the ocean through sewers. Agricultural runoff includes the runoff of fertilizers and As a result, the water near the mouth of the stream from and animal wastes. Pesticides and herbicides were con- which the diversion was taken will be a few parts per thou- sidered earlier in this chapter as hazardous wastes. Sedi- sand saltier and somewhat cleaner. Near salt water outfalls, ment is considered in Chapter 8. however, the water will become a few parts per thousand fresher and also somewhat dirtier. These changes can have According to Table 5.1, agricultural runoff is a minor water a slight, but not critical, effect on the region's ecological quality problem in SENE, which is a non-agricultural region. system. The most likely harmful possibility might be the The problem is moderate in only two planning areas - Buz- closing of an area to shellfish harvest near the outfall. This zards Bay and Taunton. It is minor or inconsequential else- is a consequence of every wastewater discharge and has where. The planning area reports for the two cited areas little to do with the small salinity changes produced by contain further detail. the diversion. If the stream is very small, so that the diversion or inter- Farming practices can significantly reduce problems of mittent water use is a large proportion of its total flow, agricultural runoff. Chemical fertilizers can be applied so as to minimize adverse water quality effects. Manure can the consequences can then become biologically and hydro-. be spread during periods when soil moisture is low and the logically devastating. Downstream use might have to be restricted because of the irregular flow. Recreational 5-19 ground is unfrozen. Well-vegetated streambank buffer The Solutions strips - advocated earlier under urban stormwater runoff - can attenuate agricultural runoff particularly near loca- Alternatives tions where animal wastes are-produced or spread in quantity. In order to deal with these problems described above, three alternative measures should be considered: (a) dredging of @Leachate from Laniffills benthic deposits; (b) aeration; and (c) treatment. According to Table 5.1, leachate from landfills is a fairly Dredging of Benthic Deposits. Several lakes have been re- minor regional problem. It is of moderate importance in stored by dredging polluted material that covered their bot- three planning areas, however - Ipswich-North Shore, Bos- tom. Sometimes, however, dredging for water quality im- ton Metropolitan, and Blackstone and Vicinity. provement can create more problems than it solves by re- suspending polluted material. If benthic deposits cannot be If not properly controlled, landfill leachate can cause removed by natural stream mechanisms, covering of the ground water and surface water bodies to be degraded in problem material with clean sand is an'alternative. the same manner as any other improperly treated waste- water. Two of the worst problems exist in the Charles In-stream Aeration. Although sometimes technically diffi- River at Milford and in the Saugus-Pines estuary. The first cult to accomplish, aeration can help a stream to handle a causes eutrophication and water quality degradation; the heavy organic load, especially if the stream is sluggish and second causes water quality problems that contribute to deep, and has a slow natural reaeration rate. Aeration can the closing of shellfish beds. be accomplished in the stream by mechanical mixers or diffusers. It can often also be accomplished at the treat- The degree to which most of the other landfills affect water merit plant out-fall site by a series of simple weirs over quality is poorly documented. Sampling programs are which the effluent cascades. Municipal discharges to the needed before abatement techniques can be properly cho- upper Charles and the Taunton Rivers will require such sen. The most effective measure is careful site selection post aeration. and preparation. The concept is to isolate the leachate. from important aquifers or surface waterchannels. In-stream Treatment. This method is being used experi- mentally at the Storrow Lagoon, in the Charles River Basin. In-stream Pollution Some of the lagoon's water is diverted through a physical/ chemical treatment facility and returned after treatment. The Situation if water quality in the lagoon improves sufficiently, a full scale plant would be the likely next step. Treatment sys- In some streams, the use of previously cited solutions to tems like this are applicable where non-point sources or deal with point and non-point discharges may not result the volume of effluent preclude significant water quality in desired water quality improvements. The chief sources improvement, regardless of the degree of upstream treat- of in-stream pollution are: (1) toxic and/or oxygen demand- ment. Another example is the lower Pawtuxet where the ing benthic deposits; and (2) a high volume of pollutants rel- volume of effluent now precludes any classification higher ative to the volume of strearnflow, even if the pollutants have than Class D. The operational costs of such systems, how- received treatment. ever, could be prohibitive. ,OIL POLLUTION Oil pollutants threaten the goal of achieving swimmable- and industrialized areas in eastern Massachusetts and fishable water, especially in the Boston area. These pollu- Rhode Island. Many oil unloading and storage facilities tants reach the water through inadequately treated indus- are located in the Study area with the two major concen- trial and municipal wastewater, overflows from combined trations located in Boston Harbor, and in the Providence sewers, accidental spills, runoff from land areas, discharge River and Harbor. exhaust from two-cycle engines used on recreational boats, air pollutants, and drainage entering from outside the Of 189 oil spills recorded in SENE during 1973, 86 oc- SENE Study area. curred in Boston Harbor and 10 in the Providence Area. Woods Hole and Beverly-Salem Harbors showed more The Study area has no major refineries, but Massachusetts spills than Newport, Fall River and New Bedford Harbors., and Rhode Island rely on oil tankers to provide the great Continued vigilance by the Coast Guard, EPA, and the volume of oil required to service the densely populated state water pollution control agencies can help to control 5-20 this potential threat to water quality and marine life. Chapter 9 considers related problems associated with the However, prevention by all persons handling oil is the exploitation of oil and gas reserves off the SENE coast. key to fewer spills. WATERCRAFT WASTES From a regionwide point of view, pollution from recrea- A third alternative is restricted usage. Areas with concen- tional watercraft is relatively less significant than many of trations of recreational boating could be closed to swim- the other sources of pollution described in this chapter. ming and shellfish harvesting. Conversely, all areas near However, locally - and particularly to the individual those dedicated to swimming and shellfish harvesting could swimmer - the presence of watercraft wastes near beaches be closed to boating. As a fur 'thei refinement, boats could and popular harbors is particularly serious. As might be be allowed near shellfish harvest areas and near bathing expected, the key problem areas are Cape Cod and the areas, if the owner voluntarily agreed tocomply with hold- Islands and Narragansett Bay. ing tank requirements. However, enforcement of this alter- native could be more difficult than those required under The region's recreational boating fleet discharges about the first two alternatives considered in this section. 22 million gallons of wastewater to the SENE coastal waters each boating season. This is equivalent to New EPA and Coast Guard regulations have tried to mesh the year round untreated wastes from a population of about the first two alternatives. "Proposed Certification Proce- 600 people. If spread evenly along SENE's 1540-mile coast- dures and Design and Construction Requirements," written line, and evenly throughout the year, wastes from watercraft by the Coast Guard for marine sanitation devices (MSD), would clearly not benoticed. However, the wastes are con- allows certain certified flow-through devices for specified centrated into a few months and into a few crowded harbors. time periods. No new vessel constructed two years after If these harbors are adjacent to waters desired for swimming promulgation of the regulation will be permitted to dis- and shellfishing, problems occur. Furthermore, the wastes charge wastes. Thus, it appears that "no discharge". is the are very noticeable from the shore and docks. ultimate goal. If pump-out facilities and adequate on-shore treatment facilities are developed, the "no discharge" con- There are two distinct alternatives for handling the domes- cept will ensure maximum possible pollution abatement. tic wastes generated on watercraft. They are: (A)flow- through devices providing primary treatment and disinfec- Pollution from outboard motors (discharge of unburned tion; and (b) holding tanks, devices which result in no dis- hydro-carbons) is another cause of concern with respect charge. Both pose problems. to watercraft. How much concern is open to considerable debate. A large quantity of unburned fuel is known to be Flow-through deviceswill not always operate at designed discharged through the exhaust of two-cycle outboard en- levels of treatment if improperly maintained, and there is gines on recreational boats. The effect of this fuel on the no practical way for enforcement personnel to ensure that water quality and aquatic life is uncertain. Since the proper maintenance will be performed. Moreover, the resultant oil concentrations are low, adverse environmental treatment provided by an on-board, flow-through device effects may be minimal. However, toxic constituents in could be considered inadequate in the only areas where the fuel, such.as lead, may be increasing, expecially in treatment of any sort n-dght be really needed - over shell- lakes and ponds. Nevertheless, one effect of these dis- fish areas, and near bathing beaches. charges is certain: a large quantity of oil and gasoline is being wasted. Devices which eliminate. these discharges The second alternative, the holding tank, also poses prob- and recycle unburned fuel are presently available. lems. It requires that pump-out facilities be available, devices are inexpensive to purchase and they lower fuel which is not now the case at most docks and marinas. In bills. Consequently, their use is recommended not only addition, the level of treatment provided by on-shore from an environmental standpoint, but also from an eco- facilities where they do exist, is often inadequate. Also, nomic one. for certain types of vessels, on-board retention or complete disposal is not feasible. 5-21 AREAWIDE MANAGEMENT Past experience has. indicated that individual municipal Within the SENE boundaries are portions of as many as efforts to improve water quality can be costly and com- ten proposed "208 planning areas" Designation of these plex to manage. It is often the case that a coordinated areawide waste treatment management areas is required water quality management program linking several com- under Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Control munities will have a greater chance to meet state water ActAmendments of 1972 and subsequent regulations. quality goals than strictly local action. Moreover, such Nine of the 208 areas are in Massachusetts. The agencies an areawide approach facilitates simultaneous management designated to carry out the development of these area- of the effects of water supply development on water qual- wide waste treatment management areas will not have ity and, conversely, the effects of sewering and disposal authority to implement waste water management or water methods on water supply. However achieved, this inte- supply plans. They could, however, provide for the necessary gration is essential in several parts of SENE where a deci- coordination between proposed water supply developments sion regarding one function will preclude, or open up, and water quality management plans, because the 208 areas. opportunities in the other. Primary consideration should coincide with, or include many of, the previously mentioned be focused on the Ipswich River watershed in the Ipswich- watersheds. The coordination could be ensured by having North Shore planning area, the upper Charles watershed water supply experts provide technical assistance to the 208 in the Boston Metropolitan planning area, the North River agencies. Water supply aspects are covered more fully in watershed in the South Shore planning area, the Cape Cod Chapter 4, Water Supply. ,and Islands planning area and the Pawtuxet planning area. ALTERNATIVE PLANS The primary goal of the Federal Water Pollution Control in understanding the significance, distribution, and means Act Amendments of 1972 is the elimination of all dis- of abating non-point source pollution would be needed. If charges of pollutants to navigable waters by 1985. How- such a breakthrough could be made, a major abatement ever, it seems clear that in SENE, as in many'other parts program would have to be developed, accepted, funded and of the nation, that ultimate goal cannot be reached with- executed. Clearly, the social and environmental benefits out massive increases in federal funding - if at all. At the would be very high. But so would the costs. Until a better same time, the steady, if somewhat slower than anticipated, idea of the nature and scope of the non-point source prob- progress in municipal treatment plant construction, and the lem can be developed, exactly how costly the program strides being made in industrial wastewater recycling and might become cannot be estimated. recovery, indicate that we have a good chance of at least approaching that goal. The economic plan emphasized least-cost alternatives con- sistent with the achievement of water quality standards set Within the context of these political and scientific realities, by the states and approved by the U. S. Environmental then, several alternative plans were developed, with varying Protection Agency. These standards include classification degrees of economic or environmental emphasis. of water quality lower than Class B ("swimmable-fishable"). flighest priority went to industrial and municipal point The environmental plan sought the lower, but still ambi- sources of pollution, then combined sewer problems, and tious, goal of swimmable-fishable waters everywhere by finally non-point sources. Least-cost alternatives were cho- 1983. The plan gives equal priority to point and non-point sen, resulting in the minimum allowable water quality in sources of pollution. Treatment, rather than separation keeping with the standards. Therefore, achievement of would be the only alternative to solving the combined sewer Class B waters under this plan would be delayed well into overflow problem. Moreover, some kind of breakthrough the future. RECOMMENDATIONS General Strategy The recommended program strikes a balance between eco- The objective of the recommended SENE program nomic and environmental objectives. It also includes certain for water quality is to achieve swimmable-fishable political and technical constraints not considered in either waters by 1983 wherever realistically attainable of the alternative plans described in the previous section. economically, socially, and technically. 5-22 "Realistically attainable" means that some areas should not sources of its pollution. Socially, it may also be of low use limited financial resources to achieve water quality goals priority because of the general shoreline character and of questionable worth. The recommended program recog- lack of significant access. Furthermore, the economic nizes the political-institutional reality that the municipal and importance of the harbor and its waterfront activities industrial abatement programs are already well underway. other than swimming would currently take priority. The Therefore, it generally follows current state plans, especially lower Pawtuxet River is another example where structural in the planning area reports. Second, the recommended pro- solutions at prohibitive cost could be misused in the short- gram recognizes the technological reality that non-point run to attain swimmable quality. As a result of such situ- sources are still not well understood, while at the same time ations, the recommended program for water quality sug- recognizing our rapidly increasing respect for their signifi- gests that while swimmable-fishable waters everywhere cance. should be a long-term goal, the limited financial resources now available should be invested in abatement efforts that The philosophy behind the recommended program can best will provide significant short-term environmental improve- be brought out by several examples. Achieving water of ment, protection of the public health, restoration of public suitable quality for swimming in the Upper Blackstone uses, and clean-up of entire riverine or estuarine systems. River would be an unwise use of current financial resour- ces since the river is often too shallow for swimming, re- The recommended program therefore has two thrusts - gardless of quality. Boston's Inner Harbor is another preservation and restoration where most attainable. The example of an area where swimmable quality is not individual policy and action recommendations that com- "achievable" as a short-term goal because of the diverse prise the recommended program are presented below. Preservation The SENE program gives immediate priority to ensuring private water quality programs should ensure that that no additional water quality degradation be allowed in water bodies currently swimmable-fishable are kept areas of high quality water. Five recommendations are that way. listed below in what is perceived to be their general order of importance in meeting the above-stated objective of the 2. Caffy out cuffent state non-degradation policies. recommended program. In Massachusetts, the Department of Environ- mental Quality Engineering should ensure that (1) Stress non-degradation in areas now no new discharges will deteriorate the quality of swimmable-fishable. stream water above the most upstream municipal (2) Carry out current state antidegradation policies. discharges and Class SA and SB waters (shell- (3) Attenuate runoff from new urban developments. fish harvest and swimmable-fWiable salt water), (4) Negotiate acceptable low-flow regimes with up- with conditioned exceptions: stream communities. (5) Provide streambank buffer strips. (1) to allow new cooling water discharges if stand- ards are met; (2) to allow new municipal discharges The first is the general policy. The others are policies or if part of a comprehensive plan; and (3) to require actions supporting it. Environmentally, all five recommen- existing discharges to cease and either connect to a dations are attractive. All appear relatively inexpensive, municipal system or provide high degrees of treat- when compared to their potential benefits, although there ment consistent with maintaining high quality may be some localized difficulties with numbers 2 and 3. waters. Technologically, all are easy, but number 3 and number 5 will require some imaginative but rewarding landscaping. In Rhode Island, the Department of Health should Politically, most are attractive, but number 2 may en- ensure that no new discharges will deteriorate the counter localized problems and number 4 may become quality of Class A, B (drinkable, swimmable), SA, difficult - but the difficulties would be worse if it were and SB waters. ignored. 3. Attenuate runoff from new urban developments. The full text of each recommendation, including who is ne Massachusetts Department of Community responsible and qualifying details, is given below: Affairs and the Rhode Island Department of Com- munity Affairs should encourage each of their 1. Stress non-degradation in areas now swimmable- municipalities to adopt subdivision controls which fishable. All federal, state, municipal, town, and emphasize open areas and the use of permeable 5-23 drainage ditches, and provide attractive, safe storm- stream wastewater treatment measures and water water detention ponds, thereby also possibly uses. augmenting ground water recharge. 5. Provide streambank buffer strips. Everywhere, 4. Negotiate acceptable low-flow regimes with up- but particularly in communities expecting high stream communities. Wherever applicable, but development pressures, the Massachusetts Depart- particularly in the Nemasket and Pawtuxet River ment of Environmental Management, the Rhode Basins, the Massachusetts Department of Environ- Island Department of Natural Resources and the mental Quality Engineering and the Rhode Island Rhode Island Statewide Planning Program, in Departments of Health and of Natural Resources conjunction with other flood plain programs, should ensure that negotiations are conducted should encourage municipalities to provide between upstream reservoir managers and down- attractive streambank buffer strips to preserve stream municipalities to improve low-flow regimes, vegetation and other natural systems which help at least to the extent that these regimes will be keep non-point source pollutants from reaching compatible with economically-achievable down- sensitive water quality areas. Restoration The SENE program has a set of nine recommendations Environmental Quality Engineering, and the within the limitations discussed earlier, to restore existing Rhode Island Department of Health should water quality. They are listed below in what is perceived emphasize the treatment of combined sewer to be their general order of importance in meeting the overflows, particularly where the receiving waters objective of the recommended plan. have a high value for swimn-dng and shellfishing. These agencies should discourage separation of (6) Emphasize treatment of combined sewer over- combined sewers unless separation can be demon- flows. strated to be more cost-effective than other (7) Accelerate federal grants for municipal waste- methods. water treatment. (8) Continue current industrial permits programs. 7. Accelerate federal grants for municipal waste- (9) Begin regionwide stormwater and wet-weather water treatment. The U. S. Environmental stream sampling. Protection Agency should persuade the Congress (10) Make towns responsible for scavenger waste and the Administration to accelerate federal disposal. grants to reenergize the slow-moving municipal (11) Determine municipal sludge disposal policy on a wastewater treatment program. plant-by-plant basis. (12) Place burden on industry for disposing of 8. Continue current industrial permits program. hazardous wastes. (13) Study and define the landfill leachate problem. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (14) Provide pumpout facilities and treatment for should continue the current industrial permits watercraft Wastes. program, which is part of the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System. Environmentally, all recommendations are attractive. Eco- 9. Begin regionwide stormwater and wet-weather nomically, all recommendations, except possibly numbers stream sampling. Everywhere, but particularly 7, 8 and 14, could provide considerable benefits,* relative to in areas of high urban stormwater runoff and high their costs. Technologically, all are within the current state non-point source runoff, the Massachusetts Depart- of the art, but numbers 6 and 12 should be challenging. ment of Environmental Quality Engineering and Politically, all should be acceptable, but numbers 10 and 14 the Rhode Island Department of Health should can be expected to encounter opposition. begin a major year round stormwater and wet The full text of each recommendation, including who is re- weather stream sampling program designed to sponsible and qualifying details, is given below: provide a rational basis for a major, badly needed, non-point source abatement program. 6. Emphasize treatment of combined sewer over- 10. Make towns responsible for scavenger waste flows. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, the Massachusetts Department of disposal. The Massachusetts Department of 5-24 Environmental Quality Engineering and the Rhode 13. Study and define the landfill leachate prob- Island Department of Health should enforce lem. The Massachusetts Department of;Environ- existing legislation requiring towns to be respon- mental Quality Engineering and the Rhode Island sible for ensuring proper and monitored disposal Department of Health should make further field of wastes taken from septic tanks and cesspools. investigations and studies to better define the extent and nature of water quality problems 11. Determine municipal sludge disposal policy associated with existing and abandoned solid on a plant-by-plant basis. The Massachusetts waste disposal sites, with a view to developing Department of Environmental Quality Engineer- adequate perspectives and rational controls. ing and the Rhode Island Department of Health should continue to examine and approve 14. Provide pumpout facilities and treatment for the sludge disposal plans of each municipal water wastes, as an interim measure. Until wastewater treatment plant, giving balanced on-board treatment is more technically and consideration to ground water quality, surface financially attractive, holding tanks and pump- water quality, air quality, and socio-economic out facilities are the advised methods of treatment. concerns, and to opportunities for achieving The Department of Environmental Quality Engineer- regional economies of scale. ing in Massachusetts and, in Rhode Island, the Department of Health and the Coastal Resources 12. Place burden on industry for disposing of Management Council: (a) should have publicly hazardous wastes. The Massachusetts owned treatment plants along the coast, provide Department of Environmental Quality Engineer- pump-out facilities; and (b) should require-,all ing and the Rhode Island Department of Health marinas in heavily congested harbors and adjacent should place the burden upon industry and to major harvestable shellfish beds and swimming farmers for disposing of pesticides, herbicides, areas to provide pump-out facilities with either radioactive wastes, industrial chemicals, bio- adequate treatment or disposal to a municipal chemical wastes and other hazardous wastes. system. The above state agencies should locate, approve and monitor discharges from every significant source in their state. Planning Area Priorities Many factors should influence the development of a priority To illustrate, a previously cited example bears elaboration. list. Few people will weigh them the same way. The factors The Pawtuxet River in Rhode Island, through on-going pro- include: the relative severity of the pollution problem; the grams, has been receiving smaller amounts of industrial potential and existing uses of the water body and adjacent pollutants as industries treat or tie into the three secondary shoreline; the population affected; the technical complexity municipal treatment facilities there. Despite these efforts, of abatement; the readiness to proceed as evidenced by the water quality is not expected to improve above Class D status of planning; the cost effectiveness of the abatement; levels in the lower reach. Attempting to achieve Class B and the total costs and availability of funds. waters there would quite probably sap all the funds avail- able to the rest of the state, thereby preventing Class B in The two preceding sections on preservation and restoration areas where it is achievable. For this reason, the Pawtuxet presented the Study's perception of the relative importance should have basic aesthetic and public health values attained, of 14 recommendations. These priorities were regionwide. but a swi mm able -fishable goal should not be sought in the In application, they differ from place to place as indicated short-run. in the individual planning area reports. The Cape Cod and Islands planning area deserves highest In this section, the Study recommends general priorities for priority for planning funds. Funds expended there for the planning areas by considering each from a regional view- construction should be relatively low. Proper planning can point. In doing so, the Study draws attention to its convic- minimize the extent of sewer service and attendant treat- tion that preservation is more rewarding than restoration ment facilities. The resulting limited-service areas will fur- because it is a more cost-effective, politically acceptable ther tend to protect water quality by limiting urbanization way of maximizing SENE's future inventory of swimmable- and associated runoff. Several of the factors mentioned as fishable waters - which is the water quality objective of being important in establishing priorities are evident in this the SENE program. basin and result in its high ranking. First, the basin contains 5-25 uniformly excellent fresh and coastal waters. Thus, the flow treatment facility is operating on the lower Charles limited construction projects will serve to maintain that ex- River. A second is to be built in conjunction with a new cellence rather than having to restore already polluted waters dam at Warren Avenue. The design for partial separation Some sewer service and treatment facilities are needed, and of combined sewers in Cambridge should produce over- returns from the investment - protection of ground water flows only during storms of a magnitude greater than the supply and contributions to recreation and tourism - "five-year" storm. Sewer separation is planned for Brook- should far exceed costs in this planning area. Since the line, as well. Finally, tide gate and combined sewer regu- Cape is a nationally important recreation area, a signifi- lator repair is a continuing project of the MDC. Emphasis cant population is affected by water quality there. Given should be placed first on treatment of storm sewer and high priority, funds can be reserved for planning and nec- combined sewer overflows affecting bathing areas and essary construction to ensure swimmable -fishable waters shellfish harvesting, in keeping with the "swimmable- throughout this planning area well before 1983. fishable wherever achievable" theme. Next, a solution to the sludge disposal problem of the treatment facilities must The next area deserving high priority is the New Bedford be implemented. Then, remaining combined and storm Harbor portion of the Buzzards Bay planning area. Unlike sewer flows should receive attention. Finally, secondary the previous area, the degree of pollution is a major con- treatment should be achieved at the Deer Island and Nut sideration here. Based solely on severity and complexity Island treatment facilities. of water quality problems throughout the SENE portion of Massachusetts, this area received the highest priority The remaining planning areas can be adequately restored determined by the Massachusetts Division of Water Pollu- within a reasonable time by adherence to existing state 'tion Control. Within the area, emphasis should be placed priorities. As a general rule, however, treatment facility on control and abatement of combined sewer overflows discharges which alone cause degradation of water quality in New Bedford. Partial separation may be appropriate in in a given area, should be addressed first so that a maxi- limited areas. However, due to the potential problems mum of stream miles and coastline can be restored in the associated with urban runoff, a treatment scheme, either shortest possible time. This approach is in keeping with at the upgraded municipal facility or at overflow areas, is the swimmable-fishable goal wherever attainable by 1983. the most positive approach to ensure demonstrable water quality improvements. With respect to time frame, it is obvious that funding is a determinant of how quickly the waters of the region can Next on the priority list is the Providence area and its be brought to acceptable levels of quality. It is also im- combined sewer problems. Based upon severity of pollu- portant to recognize that the -priorities listed above need tion, expected water uses, and population affected, the not be attempted sequentially. They can be implemented, Rhode Island Division of Water Supply and Pollution at least in part, concurrently in each area and between Control has determined this to be the number one prior- areas. Thus, for accelerated water quality control, more ity in the state. Water quality restoration through com- funding is necessary at all levels of government. As pre- bined sewer separation and treatment of overflows will viously emphasized, if that funding is not forthcoming, enable more of upper Narragansett Bay to remain open dates for achievement of water quality standards, as well to shellfishing and improve overall aesthetics in the Provi- as minimum treatment levels, will not be met. This is dence River. Recently, Providence received an EPA plan- why it is necessary to have a priority list emphasizing ning grant to study the combined sewer problem. The preservation and attainment of swimmable-fishable wa- SENE Study considers the key to improvements to be ters where feasible and economically advantageous. treatment techniques, perhaps in conjunction with partial separation, to ensure that urban stormwater runoff will This section can be summarized in the SENE Study's last not perpetuate existing problems of intermittent closures water quality recommendation: of shellfish harvesting areas in the Upper Bay. 15. Give priority to Cape Cod, New Bedford, The fourth priority is the Boston Harbor portion of the Providence, and Boston. The U. S. En- Boston Metropolitan Planning Area. The major problems vironmental Protection Agency, the Mass- deserving attention there are the combined sewer systems achusetts Department of Environmental of Boston, Cambridge, Chelsea, Somerville, and Brookline. Quality Engineering, and the Rhode Island Depart- Because of the large number of untreated combined sewer ment of Health should give planning, design, and overflows, these systems are more important to the deter- construction priority to the Cape Cod and Islands mination of water quality than are the existing primary Planning area, New Bedford Harbor, Providence discharges at Deer and Nut Islands. Therefore-, they should area, and Boston Harbor, in that order. be addressed first. Currently, one combined sewer over- 5-26 Costs Firm detailed cost estimates cannot be made. Unfortu- No one keeps consolidated records on what it costs industry nately, not enough attention has been given nationally and to comply with the industrial water pollution abatement locally to accurately estimating the total costs for carry- permits program. A detailed study of these costs, however, ing out existing, much less proposed, water quality pro- has been done for the Connecticut River Basin by the CEM grams. Total costs include not only the capital costs to all (Center for Environment and Man) for the Chase Manhattan levels of government, but more importantly the full capital Bank and EPA. Including all remaining capital and 0 and operating and maintenance costs to everyone - government, M costs, allowing for anticipated growth rates in each in- industry, and private consumer. Costs also include the value dustrial grouping, and adding up estimates for more than of opportunities denied. 3,000 individual plants, that study concluded that about $191 million (in 1971 dollars) would have to be spent by Notwithstanding this lack of good information, the SENE industry during the 1972-1980 period to meet best practi- Study attempted to derive some minimum estimates of the cable treatment (approximately secondary) water quality more visible costs to provide a rough sense of the amounts standards. Adjusting for the larger population in SENE, a involved. No reader should infer any greater degree of ac- somewhat different industrial mix, and a different degree curacy than this. of previous abatement efforts, and rounding off to the nearest tenth of a billion, it would appear that carrying According to information presented earlier for municipal out the industrial permits program will cost SENE industry discharges, the two states have estimated a total of $7.9 about $0.6 billion dollars over the next decade. Of this billion to complete those portions of their municipal pro- total, nearly $0.4 billion can be expected to be for 0 and grams that are eligible for EPA funding. Adding the other M costs. costs of programs which are not eligible for EPA funding, and the operations and maintenance (0 and M) costs over None of the other programs - on septic systems, low the next ten years, the capital figure costs might double. strearnflow, agricultural runoff, landfill leachate, oil pollu- Rounding off, the municipal total would be about $16 bil- tion, and watercraft wastes - have been costed thoroughly lion. EPA, however, estimates that a more achievable total by anyone to the Study's knowledge. The most difficu 'It would be about $1.5 billion for that part of the capital pro- costs to estimate here are the value of opportunities denied, gram eligible for EPA 75-percent funding. Adding the re- as, for example, land not developed. Conservatively, total maining capital costs which EPA does not fund and all 0 costs would probably be at least $1 billion for the next and M costs for this level of performance should bring this decade. figure to about $3 billion. Included in the EPA estimate are some projects for urban stormwater treatment. On that Adding the above estimates in billions of dollars - $3 for basis, and retaining a very conservative cost assessment ap- municipal discharges and urban stormwater runoff, $0.6 proach, this estimate will include no additional costs for for industrial discharges - and only $1 for everything else - urban stormwater runoff. produces a minimum total of about $5 billion during the next decade. Implications If the SENE Study's package of five preservation recom- existing swimmable waters and achieving the swimmable- menda 'tions, nine restoration recommendations and one fishable goal elsewhere, where most beneficial in relation to area priority recommendation is carried out, what differ- the costs incurred. Preservation of existing high quality ence will it all make,? What will be the environmental, waters will lower pollution control costs in the future. To- economic, and social implications? tal costs will be in the $5 billion range, not nearly as high as the achievement of swimmable-fishable waters everywhere. Environmentally, swimmable-fishable waters will have been Economic benefits should accrue through increased recrea- achieved by 1983 wherever realistically attainable, econom- tion and tourism, improved value of waterfront locations icAy, socially, and technologically. To visualize the antici- and some increase in shellfishing. In addition, the Environ- pated improvement, see Figures 5.1 and 5.2. They compare I mental Protection Agency has estimated that each $1 mil- existing water quality with proposed water quality. lion spent on wastewater-handling facilities generates 46 jobs on and off the site. Probably the most important Economically, the key element of the program comes in the economic benefit is less tangible - making SENE a more realization that all waters in the region cannot - and in some appealing place for attracting and holding the professionals cases should not - reach swimmable as well as fishable levels and highly skilled workers it will need- in the future. As in the short-run. Instead, the program emphasizes preserving described in Chapter 2, 7he Setting, as a result of a trend 5-27 toward a more- service oriented economy, direct demands Socially, the program adopts the popular, ongoing, long- on SENE waters, both as a medium for waste assimilation range programs that have already won political support. as well as for supply, may not be significantly greater in Major technical problems must still be resolved, particu- the future. Pollution problems resulting from industrial larly in understanding and abating non-point source pollu- by-products may not exponentially increase as has been tants. Although no major institutional changes are sug- the trend in the past. Thus, the outlook for improvement gested, it is evident that for the program to succeed, fed- in water quality in SENE may be somewhat better than eral funds must be made available. many might perceive today. 5-28 VI @own&= -16k Outdoor Recreation CHAPTER 6 OUTDOOR RECREATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . 6-1 The Setting 6-1, Introduction 6-2, SWIMMING 6-4, The Situation 64, The Solutions 6-5, Alternatives 6-5, More Efficient Use of Existing Public Parks and Beaches 6-5, Securing Public Access to the Shoreline 6-5, Acquiring New Beaches for State Parks 6-6, Alternative Plans 6-6, Recommendations 6-7, RECREATIONAL BOATING 6-8, The Situation 6-8, The Solutions 6-9, Alternatives 6-9, Expansion of Existing Facilities (Public and Private) 6-9, Investigate Development of New Facilities 6-9, Alternative Plans 6-9, Recommendations 6-10, RECREATIONAL SALT WATER FISHING 6-10, The Situation 6-10, The Solutions 6-11, Recommen- dations 6-11, CAMPING AND PICNICKING 6-11, The Situation 6-11, The Solutions 6-12, Alternatives 6-12, Expansion of Existing Facilities (Public and Private) 6-12, Development of New Facilities (Public and Private) 6-12, Alternative Plans 6-12, Recommendations 6-13, WILDLIFE AND FRESH WATER FISHERIES 6-13, The Situation 6-13, The Solutions 6-14, Alternatives 6-14, Acquiring Wetlands 6-15, Acquiring Upland Wildlife Management Areas 6-15, Providing Public Access to JWvately Owned Wildlife Habitat 6-15, Wetlands, Legislation 6-15, Acquiring Public Access to Ponds 10 Acres and Larger 6-15, Acquiring Streambank Access 6-15, Alternative Plans 6-16, Recommendations 6-16, EXTENSIVE OUTDOOR RECREATION 6-17, The Situation 6-17, The Solutions 6-17, Alternatives 6-17, Developing Boston Harbor and Narragansett Bay Island Parks 6-18, Making Recreational Use of Currently Inaccessible Urban Resources 6-18, Gaining A,ccess to Critical Environmental Areas 6-18, LimitedPublic Access to Water Supply Watersheds 6-19, Multiple Use of Trails 6-20, Scenic Rivers Legislation 6-20, Alternative Plans 6-20, Recommendations 6-21, PRIORITIES 6-21, IMPLICATIONS 6-22. CHAPTER 6 OUTDOOR RECREATION The Setting The SENE region's water and related land resources, des- However, the fund has been exhausted since 1972 and the cribed extensively in Chapters 2 and 3, probably mean the Study encourages the state to generously refund the Green most to people in terms of their potential for outdoor Acres Program. Municipalities generally acquire and develop recreation. In fact, the Study's estimates indicate that recreational facilities at a smaller scale than state or federal demands for various recreational opportunities are increas- levels. However, they do have substantial powers to protect ing so dramatically that the need for action is urgent. potential recreational resources, for instance, through zon- ing and wetlands protection legislation. The power of pro- The single most important program responding to this tection has indirect , but far-reaching implications for meet- need is a federal program, the Land and Water Conservation ling future recreational needs, primarily in terms of keeping Fund Program (PL 88-578). The Bureau of Outdoor Recre- recreational options open. ation (BOR in the U. S. Department of Interior) administers this program which funds federal recreational projects and Between the state and municipal levels of government in up to 50 percent of state or local costs for recreational ac- Massachusetts there are substate regional planning agencies quisition and development. Since the program's inception which can advise communities about open space in 1965 to the end of 1975, Massachusetts will have obli- planning. In the greater Boston area the Metropolitan gated 100 percent of its available funds, and Rhode Island, District Commission performs a planning -function, but less than 70 percent of its available funds. also acquires, develops, and manages recreational facilities. In both states there are myriad watershed associations and Also a part of Interior, the National Park Service (NPS) private organizations which act to acquire and develop plans and administers the natural, historic, and recreational recreational opportunities and are most effective in terms sites within the National Park System, specifically for the of environmental education and awareness. SENE region, the Cape Cod National Seashore. Present NPS policy for managing the Seashore focuses on protect- There are a number of other federal programs which assist ing the rich and varied resources. Demand projections for state and local governments in meeting recreational needs. future recreation would indicate that there may be cause The U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS in the Depart- for reassessing this position to allow for greater recreational ment of Interior) administers the Federal Aid in Fish and use. To preserve the nation's natural and cultural heritage Wildlife Restoration Program, which can, in some instances, NPS also administers the Natural and Historic Landmark cover the costs of land acquisition. The Soil Conservation Program (described fully in the Fish and Wildlife Section). Service (SCS in the U. S. Department of Agriculture) makes cost-sharing grants to local sponsors under the Small Water- At the state level, the Massachusetts Department of Envi- shed Program for land acquisition, eas 'ements, rights-of-way, ronmental Management (DEM) uses the funds for recrea- and facilities needed to develop the recreational potential tional planning, acquisition, development, and management. of watershed projects. The Department of Housing and In Rhode Island, the Statewide Planning Program (SPP) co- Urban Development (HUD) administers the Housing and ordinates with the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) Community Development Act of 1974, which provides for recreational planning, acquisition, development, and funds for any aspect of community development, includ- management. ing open space acquisition or urban park development, Projects related to water resources development (navi- At the local level, municipal authorities can also use Land gation, flood control, multi-purpose water resource and Water Conservation Funds for matching recreational projects) are legally bound by the Federal Water Project acquisition and development. In addition, Massachusetts Act to consider recreational options. Further, the legis- has a Self-Help Program to help fund up to 50 percent of lation provides funds to cover up. to half the direct costs local conservation acquisitions. From 1961 to, the end of of developing recreational facilities. Fiscal Year 1974, the Commonwealth reimbursed munici- palities over a $6.2 n-dllion total, about two-thirds of which (nearly $4 million) has gone to about half the Massachu- While this chapter concentrates on the outdoor recreation setts municipalities in the SENE region. A similar program aspects of water and related land planning, it incorporates in Rhode Island, the Green Acres Fund, made $2 million the concepts outlined in Chapter 1, Goals and Approach, available to 31 of 39 of the states -municipalities, for up'to and Chapter 2, 7he Setting, which provide a framework. 50 percent of the cost of conservation land acquisition. Those chapters describe, for example, the importance of 6-1 the environment to enhancing the region's economy, and references are also made to several other portions of this that existing knowledge, programs, and institutions can report, Chapter 11, Tying the Recommendations Together, provide the tools for achieving results. Chapter 3, Guiding can be consulted to deterniine the implications of the recom- Growth, outlines a rationale and policies for protecting mendations in this chapter or those described in other Critical Environmental Areas, many of which could be al- chapters of this report. located for particular kinds of recreation uses. Although INTRODUCTION This chapter considers many outdoor recreation activities - 0 6 occasions boating; 2 requiring slips and moorings, swimming, boating, salt water fishing, camping, picnicking, 1 requiring boat ramps, and 3 -requiring neither. hunting, fresh water fishing, and less formal pursuits such as hiking and nature study. All are either water-related or 0 6 picnicking occasions: 4 requiring picnic tables and water-enhanced. Some of the activities such as swimming 2 not. may be considered as intensive - a large number of partici- 0 3 occasions fishing. pants are usually accommodated in a small area. Others are extensive - a major part of the experience is the isolation 0 2 occasions in extensive pursuits such as hiking and hence a very large area is required per participant. and nature study. 0 1 occasion camping. The objective of this chapter is to develop a program for 0 1 occasion hunting. meeting anticipated recreational needs in environmentally, economically, and socially acceptable ways. To accomplish To satisfy this anticipated demand, certain basic facilities this objective, for each recreational activity there is a dis- will be required. Exactly how many depends upon many cussion of the demand and supply situation, alternative solu- factors such as usage rates and spatial standards. Both will tions for meeting needs, alternative plans, and recommenda- vary from place to place. Using the general factors con- tions. The implications of carrying out the recommended sidered representative in the NAR study and supplementary program concludes the chapter. studies by the U. S. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (Out- door Recreation Needs - A Planning Aid Report), pro- The best currently available consistent estimates of future jected requirements and the existing supply are shown in recreational demand for the entire region were systematically Table 6. 1. Their difference is an estimate of deficiencies developed in the North Atlantic Regional (WAR) WaterRe- ("needs"). sources Study in 19 7 1. Assuming that the people in the SENE area will want to participate in outdoor recreation at When the percentage of requirements unmet in Table 6.1 is the same rate as the average New Englander did in the last multiplied by the applicable participation rates summarized decade, and after making allowances for the changing popu- above, a deficit can be seen in terms of the number of occa- lation in terms of numbers, age, education, and affluence, sions each person would probably be denied annually. Thus the average SENE citizen in 1990 can be expected to have for beach swimming, 5 1 percent of the 15 applicable swim- a demand for outdoor recreation about as follows: ming occasions would be denied. This is about 8 days per 0 19 occasions swimming: 11 in the ocean, 4 in capita each year. On a similar basis, the annual per capita lakes and streams, and 4 in pools. occasions denied for the other outdoor recreation activities TABLE 6.1 PROJECTED RECREATIONAL NEEDS Projected Existing Deficits Percent Rqmts. Supply (Needs) 1990 Facility in 1990 in 1990 Rqmts. Acres of developed beach 4,500 2,200 2,300 51 Slips and moorings 67,000 47,000 20,000 30 Boat. ramps - - lanes 900 400 500 56 Picnic tables 23,000 9,000 14,000 61 Campsites 29,000 10,000 19,000 66 Acres for extensive outdoor recreation 350,000 220,000 130,000 37 Source: Outdoor Recreation Needs - - A Planning Aid Report. U.S. Bureau of Outdoor Recreation. Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 6-2 would be about one-half occasion for boating that requires recreational demands. The protection and slips and moorings, about one-half occasion for boating that management of Critical Environmental Areas requires boat ramps, about two occasions that require picnic through the Study's proposals for guiding tables, about one-half occasion for camping that requires growth (see Chapter 3) should help keep the camp sites, nearly one occasion that requires extensive area options open for satisfying these demands. for hiking and nature study, and an undetermined number The main limitation is public access. of occasions denied for fishing and hunting. There are several limitations to the demand figures shown Table 6.1 brings out several major perspectives that must be in Table 6. 1. First, the numbers do not depict the fact that considered in dealing with recreational needs. the major sources of demands in the region - the urban centers - are distant from the largest recreational facilities. (1) In terms of impact on future outdoorsmen, the This means that residents of the Boston, Providence, and occasions denied for swimming exceed the com- Worcester metropolitan areas, about a third of whom do bined total of all others - about 8 of 12. not own an automobile, find difficulty in reaching recrea- tion resources in other parts of the SENE region. Second, (2) Satisfying swimming needs will require intensive despite the national nature of recreational demands in the development of a very small area of land - less SENE region, the Study's demands do not account for than one-tenth of one percent of the total recreational demands from outside the region. Third, they SENE land areas. Emphasis here must be on do not account for the portion of the region's recreational developing selected, high-quality, favorably- demand satisfied in other parts of New England or the located beaches for public use, and on improv- United States. ing access and transportation. Recreation planners throughout New England and in New (3) Boating needs rank second in total quantity. York have bemoaned these and other limitations, caused Much of the boating need is met by private en- partly by inconsistent demand methodologies. As a result, terprise which, because of hard financial times, they have proposed a Recreation Demand/Supply Study local resistance, and high maintenance and build- which would produce a methodology for use in the New ing costs, may not be able to keep pace with England states. The SENE Study's experience indicates an growing demands. Boat ramps are highly effi- urgent need for this effort and encourages the state legis- cient in meeting small-boat demand. Existing latures to back it with'funds. slips and moorings, inventoried by the Corps Satisfaction of recreation demands can be cumulatively in 1972, are now near capacity for demands important for at least four strategic reasons: (1) absorbing of medium and large boats. a large portion of regional recreation demands at a local . ; level improves local environmental quality and reduces (4) There appears to be a large deficiency in picnic transportation requirements; (2) allowing controlled and tables. The quantity ought to be relatively easy compatible recreation use of public Category A and B lands to provide, however, by an increase in informal improves the political likelihood of keeping these lands in (away from picnic grounds) picnicking. Abun- a protected status as proposed in Chapter 3; (3) maintain- dant space is available on SENE Critical Environ- ing the region's environmental and social amenities should mental Areas (Category A and B lands on become increasingly important to the region's economic Plates 1, 2, 3) recommended for protection in future, as was pointed out in Chapter 2; (4) meeting recre- Chapter 3, although most of this land is privately ational needs requires coordinated planning at all levels of owned and not available for recreation by the government, particularly with regard to transportation, public. water supply, and wastewater treatment. In other words, care must be taken to see that tourist facilities are not ex- (5) A high proportion of camping needs appears to panded at the cost of spoiling the basic natural resources be unmet. Since most campsites require some which attract these recreationists, as well as other forms of roads and utilities, satisfying these needs will economic activity. require coordinated planning between the public and private sectors. The need for aggressive action for providing outdoor recrea- tion is clear. Most action for acquisition and development piv- (6) Area requirements for extensive outdoor recreation ots around the Iand and Water Conservation Fund (L&WCF) seem staggering - another 5 percent (130,000 Program established by Congress in 1965 (P.L. 88-578). acres) added to the existing 9 percent (250,000 The program provides (1) funds for federal acquisition of acres) of SENE's total land area. There is, how- land by certain federal agencies for outdoor recreation; (2) ever, no lack of resources for meeting these matching grants (on a 50-50 basis) for state recreation plan- 6-3 ning and state and local land acquisition or facilities develop- related outdoor recreation opportunities, particularly in ment. The program is administered by the Bureau of Out- the case of Rhode Island which has been unable to gen- door Recreation of the Department of the Interior. To qual- erate matching monies. The situation suggests that both ify for matching grants, the Massachusetts Department of the state, and the national approaches should be reassessed, Environmental Management and the Rhode Island Statewide and, as a result, perhaps revised. Planning Program have prepared and are periodically updating Statewide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plans At the state level, the manner in which L&WCF program (SCORPs) which identify priorities for recreational needs, is operated could be modified. There are at least two among other things. possible funding sources which could be explored for matching Land and Water Conservation Funds. If the The amounts available from the Fund for each state are de- states qualified for, and received, funds from the New Eng- termined by a formula which incorporates the state's total land Regional Commission under the Public Works and Eco- population, its population concentrated in standard metro- nomic Development Act, the state could then choose to use politan statistical areas, and a percentage that is prorated them in conjunction with L&WCF monies and thereby limit equally to all States. the state or local share up to 20 percent. Since inception of the L&WCF Massachusetts has been At the national level, it seems appropriate to suggest a eligible for nearly $30 million which, along with over review of the Land and Water Conservation Fund Pro- $900,000 of contingency funds, the State will have com- gram by Congress or the Department of the Interior. pletely obligated by the end of Fiscal Year 1975. On the There are several options to consider. First, cuff ently other hand, Rhode Island has been eligible for over $12 Congress is considering amendments to the L&WCF Pro- million over the past 10 years, of which only 70 percent has gram related to increasing the total size of the Fund, been obligated. Rhode Island, therefore, has an unobligated increasing the federal share for acquisition projects develop- balance of nearly $4 million, primarily because of an inabil- ing closed and sheltered facilities, and requiring annual ity to raise state and or local matching monies. The Rhode evaluation of state grant programs. A second option set Island legislature has refused well over a third of the funds forth in the Nationwide Outdoor Recreation Plan pub- proposed by the Governor and the Department of Natural lished by BOR in 1973 proposes a revised apportionment Resources since 1965. Among the New England states this formula which would provide more funds to states with situation is not uncommon. Excluding Massachusetts, the higher population densities - at the same 50-50 matching average portion of available Fund monies used by the five ratio. Experience in Rhode Island - which would benefit New England states since 1965 is approximately 75 percent, from a density factor in apportionment - suggests that a figure which is much lower than other parts of the United more money on the present basis is not necessarily the States. answer. A third option is an investigation by Congress- There are any number of reasons for this situation. The of the cost-effectiveness of a sliding scale. Such a scale legislature may favor other federal programs which offer could be based on an evaluation of certain projects using a higher federal share than the Und and Water's 50 per- such criteria as land costs, regional impact, climate, popu- cent matching ratio. Bonds for recreation acquisition and lation density, degree of national significance, and degree development may not be popular in an area with an ap- of non-resident use. parent abundance of recreational opportunities. Projects which require winterizing in the cold New England clim- In large measure, then, the states must revise their recrea- ate,. such as swimming pools, cannot be enclosed under the tion programs so that they and the local governments take Fund and yet such facilities represent a significant recrea- maximum advantage of assistance that is available and by tional need. getting recreation as a higher priority in the state and local budgets. On the other hand, the federal government should The supply-demand data discussed, earlier in this chapter stand ready to assist those states and communities which suggests that there will be serious unmet needs for water are unable to come up with matching funds. SWIMMING The Situation According to Table 6.1, the amount of public beach re- trates on ocean beaches, one of SENE's most valued re- quired to meet 1990 swimming demands is likely to be sources. One problem with satisfying beach demands is twice as large as the existing area. This section concen- that roads, public transportation, and facilities for public 6-4 beaches are often undeveloped. A second problem is that local public transport, beach use could increase and there is not enough public access to the coastline. Accord- total impact on coastal lands could be lessened. Im- ing to the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers' National Shore- provement of Route 146 in Massachusetts (improvements line Study, of SENE's total 1,540-mile shoreline only 225 for the Rhode Island portion have been completed) would miles are available for public recreation. A related issue help Worcester area residents reach coastal beaches in the concerns public rights along the shoreline. In Rhode Island, Narragansett Bay planning area. To improve the recrea- the public has access rights to the area between the mean tional experience and safety, bath houses, beach patrols, high and mean low watermarks (the foreshore). In Massa- and lifeguards are needed at several beaches in the North chusetts, the public has limited rights, dated to Colonial Shore, South Shore, Narragansett Bay, and Pawcatuck times with respect to "angling" and "fowling" and naviga- planning areas. Details are available in individual planning tion uses, but these need clarification in modern terms. A area reports. third problem is the availability of funds to acquire and develop new regional beaches and local resistance to beach Beach erosion controls and nourishment are important tools development. A fourth problem is that many existing for maintaining and expanding the region's existing beaches. public beaches are eroding due to a combination of Alternatives for controlling coastal erosion are discussed in natural forces and misuse by man. The latter is particularly Chapter 8, FZooding and Erosion, and some priorities are retards plant growth, dune formation, and beach stabiliza- suggested later in this Chapter. tion. Ocean waters north of Provincetown are notoriously cold, so that tourists may prefer the Cape's southern beaches Management for more intensive use of existing publicly- or those in Rhode Island. Finally, water pollution occasion- owned beaches will often produce a greater return on in- ally limits swimming in some locations. vestment than acquiring and developing new beaches. Dis- advantages as expressed during the 90-day review period Because coastal tourists and beach users often travel long are that municipal services, roads and local environmental distances to SENE's beaches, there is a need for better co- quality suffer because of additional beach users. In the ordination between beach developers and campground and case of state beaches, or of non-resident access to Town picnicking facility planners. Efforts to develop new tourist beaches, various forms of sharing costs for access and services should be coordinated with efforts to develop addi- public use facilities and services should be explored. User tional or new beaches, although intensive development of fees should be considered a potential resource for these pur- Critical Environmental Areas (Category A and B lands) poses. Rhode Island currently shares revenues for seasonal should be restricted. passes to coastal beaches with affected communities. The Solutions Securing Public Access to the Shoreline, A strategy for improving public access to the remaining 1315 miles of Alternatives privately owned and inaccessible coastline .would differ for Rhode Island and Massachusetts. The three major alternatives for satisfying future beach In Rhode Island, the public has the free right of public pas- needs are: (a) more efficient use of existing parks and sage on foot along the coastline between the mean high and beaches; (b) securing public access to the shoreline; and mean low watermarks. There remain some problems, how- (c) acquiring new beaches for state parks. ever, including access to the intertidal strip and landowner liability for injury on private property. More Efficient Use of Existing Public Parks and Beaches. One method of meeting a small, but significant A solution to that problem is legislation similar to portion of urban swimming demands is adding facilities at Massachusetts Chapter 21, Section 17C, which would exempt the nearby beaches. Beaches in the North Shore, South landowners from liability for injury to the person using land Shore, Cape Cod, and Narragansett Bay planning areas have for recreational access. Such legislation niight encourage considerable potential for meeting these demands, but in- landowners to permit access across private lands to Rhode adequate public transportation, facilities, and inadequate Island beaches. parking will hinder use to the fullest capacity. Convenient and inexpensive public transportation could provide im- Acquisition of public access points is more expensive,'but proved beach opportunities without the adverse impacts of often necessary. An active program for acquiring public roads and parking lots, for thousands of residents in SENE access routes to the coast being conducted in Rhode Island who do not have automobiles. During the 1974 summer by the Public Rights of Way Commission in cooperation season, the Rhode Island DNR developed a very popular with the Department of Natural Resources should be con- program of shuttling Providence residents to South County tinued in cooperation with the Coastal Resources Manage- beaches. If additional parking facilities were provided ment Council. Care must be given to coastal reaches which away from the beaches and connected to the beaches by may be fragile or inappropriate for recreational use due to 6-5 poor water quality, conflicting land uses, or the inadequacy Recommendations for expansion, management, and pro- of roads and parking. tection of specific beach areas are described in the planning area reports. Unlike Rhode Island, Massachusetts residents do not have a "free" right of access along the foreshore for swimming. This As a matter of policy, the two states should pursue the ex- was confirmed in July, 1974, when the Massachusetts Supreme pansion of opportunities for general public use of appro- Judicial Court ruled unconstitutional proposed legislation to priate beach areas not presently accessible to the general codify a general public right to the foreshore (H.B. No. 6438). public, where such use can be sustained without damage The public has limited rights, dating to Colonial times, with to related ecosystems or intolerable burdens on associated respect to "angling" and "fowling" and navigation uses, but communities. State acquisition and management should be these need clarification in modern terms. considered one important tool for implementing this policy. A Special Legislative Commission on Availability and Accessibility of Public Beaches is continuing to consider Acquisition or expansion of state-owned and managed beach alternative ways of opening more Massachusetts beaches areas will be expensive -- in acquisition costs; in development to the public. A current report suggests three kinds of of access and public use facilities; and in operation and main- action: equalizing parking fees at town beaches for resi- tenance. Nevertheless, the ocean beach provides experiences dents and non-residents; requiring non-profit organizations of a nature so special as to demand the investment of state holding tax-exempt status to permit public access to beach resources to secure these opportunities for the general public. property; and automatically opening beaches and property that remain unposted and open to the public for over five While the state's role is inevitable and desirable, local govern- years under a right of way dedication statute. There are ment and private acquisition and management of beach serious problems with each of these actions; for example, areas can help serve the public interest. A number of major the "dedication to public use" provision might well beaches in the SENE region -- including Duxbury Beach on stimulate private property owners to close beach access the South Shore and the Westport-Dartmouth reach in presently unofficially open to the public to prevent loss Buzzards Bay -- are examples of beach areas in which pri- of the private status. vate institutions and local governments are providing gen- eral public access and undertaking protection programs The SENE Study recommends that the Commission con- for fragile ecosystems. Such local and private initiatives, sider the feasibility of various forms of state financial sup- where they are capable of serving the broader public in- port for access and facility development, maintenance and terest, are to be commended and should be supported by operation costs incurred in servicing non-resident use; and state policies and programs. If the future reveals that the comparable forms of incentive to encourage opening of objectives of public access and protection of fragile re- beach areas held by non-profit institutions. User fees as a sources cannot be accomplished despite the best efforts of source of funding for beach access and management should private or local stewards, the urgency of public need for be fully explored. beach access will inevitably lead to renewed interest in state acquisition and management. Acquiring New Beaches for State Parks. The annual summer migration to the shore severely overtaxes beach facilities, particularly near Boston and Providence and on Alternative Plans Cape Cod. Of the 1540 miles of shoreline in the SENE Study area of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, approximately The alternative measures just described can be applied to 225 miles are accessible to the general public for coastal re- varying degrees to produce three separate plans. One would creation. Even if all major stretches of beach were in public stress environmental protection through such actions as the ownership, and managed for general public recreation use, preservation of beach areas and limiting public use and ac- the resources would be inadequate to satisfy future peak de- cess. There would be few benefits for'the local or regional mands for public recreation. economies because new development (tourist or related services) would be restricted. Another plan would stress The coastline is dotted with small stretches of beach which economic development through such actions as the man- are not suitable for massive public use, either because of agement of beaches for intensive use and the development special difficulties in providing for public access, or limited of numerous new state beaches and parks. While local and capacity to sustain use. There are, however, expanses of regional economies would prosper, environmental quality beaches along the North and South Shore coastlines, Buz- would likely decline. The recommended plan is n-dd-way zards Bay, and Narragansett Bay which are capable of between the two extremes: it aims to centralize manage- sustaining substantially increased recreation use without ment of regional facilities, but encourages continued pro- destruction of related ecosystems or intolerable congestion tection of certain beach resources for public and private and traffic impacts on the communities involved. use. 6-6 Recommendations Beach Municipality Planning Area To meet future demands for public beach access the recom- Long Point Beach Wareham Buzzards Bay mended program, which is given in priority order below, *Island Park Portsmouth Narragansett Bay incorporates both approaches. *Allen Harbor North Beach Kingstown Narragansett Bay 1. Expand facilities at existing state beaches and Ninigret Beach Charlestown Pawcatuck parks. The Massachusetts Department of Environ- (Ninigret Con- mental Management and Rhode Island Department servation Area) of Natural Resources and appropriate local govern- *East Matunuck South ments, or private beach operators, should provide State Beach Kingstown Pawcatuck increased capacity at existing beaches, or expand Block Island Jetty New the boundaries of existing beaches, by acquiring Beach Shoreham Narragansett Bay new parcels nearby for future swimming Beaches marked by an asterisk (*) should be considered development and extensive recreation. Ex- for nourishment in the next 15 years. Other beaches amples are Wollaston Beach in Massachusetts and Goddard State Park Beach in Rhode Is- should be considered for erosion control in the next 15 land. years. Feasibility and environmental impact studies would be essential. Agencies responsible for transportation and recreation planning and development in both A second series of investigations should be conducted into states should consider the feasibility of in- opportunities for expansion of beaches - adding to the creased public transportation and expansion length or depth of beach area beyond the natural configu- of parking facilities away from the fragile ration - quite apart from erosion problems. The Corps beach environment with shuttle service to may presently undertake nourishment and protection the beach on peak days. This procedure projects only where erosion is a major issue, and does not - could be appropriate at locations such as even when erosion control is the present purpose - have Crane Beach and Wingaersheek Beach in authority to nourish or expand beaches beyond the "natural" the Ipswich-North Shore planning area, Cape configuration. Accordingly, the SENE Study recommends: Cod National Seashore beaches, and Narra- gansett Bay beaches such as Scarborough. 3. Study beach expansion. The Corps of Engineers under new authority, working jointly with the Bur- The Corps of Engineers has assessed beach erosion problems eau of Outdoor Recreation, appropriate state agencies, along the SENE coastline and identified several areas where municipalities, and private interests, should expand erosion control couldincrease the public i@se capacitypf the following beaches by adding sand, if justified by existing beaches. The Corps has, under existing law, authority preliminary studies of feasibility, environmental im- to undertake coastal erosion control projects to protect pub- pact, and consistency with state coastal zone man- licly-owned shore areas under specified conditions, including agement programs: non-federal cost-sharing requirements. Beach erosion control projects, in some cases in combination with facilities improve- Beach Municipality Planning Area ment and protection from highly intensive human abuse, would characteristically include both beach nourishment Crane Beach Ipswich Ipswich- (adding sand) and construction of jetties. Such a program North Shore should be considered on a case-by-case basis, following Nantasket Beach Hull Boston Metro- careful evaluation of impacts on "downstream" areas as expansion politan well as the project areas and of compatibility with the Humarock Beach Marshfield South Shore states' coastal zone management programs. Therefore, the Plymouth Long SENE Study recommendation is: Beach Plymouth South Shore Ocean Grove Beach Swansea Narragansett Bay 2. Study beach erosion control. The Corps of (Coles River) Engineers, as requested by individual municipali- The Corps has authority to study technical, economic, and ties or together with Massachusetts and Rhode environmental aspects of beach erosion and expansion. At Island agencies, should control beach erosion, the same time, it may also be appropriate for state and local if justified by a preliminary feasibility study, governments to re-appraise the appropriate level for beach evaluation of environmental impacts, and con- ownership and management in cases where sharply increased sistency with state coastal zone management capacity for general public use is realized through erosion programs, at the following beaches: control and expansion programs. 6-7 Recommendations 1, 2, and 3 above emphasize better tion to major beach areas, opportunities utilization, protection and expansion of existing beach for public access to the coastal shoreline areas. These recommendations are priority elements of generally should be expanded in both a broader recommendation to: states for such valuable experiences as scenic appreciation, beachcombing, surf- 4. Secure public access to the shoreline. casting, wildlife observation, etc. The States of Rhode Island. and Massachu- setts should continue, as a matter of policy, In Rhode Island, where public use of the efforts to expand public access to the coastal foreshore is secured under State Law, the shoreline, with careful regard for the protec- Rights of Way Commission and Department tion of fragile ecosystems and for minimizing of Natural Resources should continue their negative impacts on affected communities public access programs, acquiring access and individuals. points at frequent - roughly five-mile - intervals along Narragansett Bay and the Beaches not under protection and capable of "South County" coast. sustaining intensive and large scale public use should be considered for state acquisition and In Massachusetts, where public rights of access management. Priorities should be based on along the foreshore are severely limited, the nearness to demand centers, any threat to Commonwealth should pursue an implement- pre-emption of public use opportunities, and able clarification of the angling-fowling-naviga- prospective damage to fragile ecosystems. tion rights granted in Colonial times. The Commonwealth should also consider possi- Efforts of local governments and private bilities of various means of state sharing of institutions to acquire and manage beach costs of access, traffic control, facility develop- areas and related ecosystems for public ment, and maintenance and operation in return use and protection should be recognized. for general public access to town beaches. User Their efforts should be encouraged in ap- fees should be carefully addressed as a means propriate ways by the states and the fed- of direct beneficiaries bearing a portion of eral government. There are also oppor- costs, without excluding use on the basis of tunities for expansion of general public such fees. The Commonwealth should also use of appropriate town owned beaches continue to explore other alternatives for leg- through local-state cooperation. In addi- islation and programs to improve public access to the foreshore generally. RECREATIONAL BOATING The Situation SENE's 1,540 miles of coastline are jagged and irregular. quality aspects associated with boating are pursued in Chap- They offer tremendous opportunities for the recreational ter 5. boater, whether he is a weekend fisherman or a blue-water cruising sailor. The difficulty, however, is that the region's Analysis of the SENE coastline established that as many as 50,000 permanently moored recreational boats are concen- 16,000 additional boat slips and moorings could be devel- trated in a few of the more popular harbors. When the oped at existing or potential marinas, yacht clubs, town weekend trailer-boat enthusiast descends, major boat jams docks or moonng areas. Accommodating this number would develop. According to Table 6. 1, about 20,000 more slips require only minor dredging at marina areas and no addi- or moorings and 500 more lanes of boat ramps will have to tional channel improvements. be developed to meet anticipated demands in 1990. The 500 boat ramps needed for smaller craft will provide about New information is emerging which tends to dispel some as many boating days as the 20,000 slips and moorings fairly negative notions about marinas. Research at the Uni- needed for larger craft. versity of Rhode Island has indicated that the impact of marina development on marshes and the environment is This section focuses on slips and moorings. Boat ramps will not necessarily destructive. There has been research in be considered in the next section on salt water fishing. Water North Carolina into techniques for building coastal marshes 6-8 using dredged materials. Federal water quality legislation design of existing areas through such practices as dry- and the states' coastal zone management programsare help- stack storage and multiple moorings. They could spon- ing to guide thinking about suitable locations for, and man- sor a cove-by-cove, harbor-by -harbor study to deter- agement of, marinas. These are important considerations in mine how expansion of existing marinas would be possi- planning for methods of meeting the rapidly increasing ble wi@th minimal impact on the environment and sur- needs for new boating facilities. rounding infrastructure. The results would help local decision-makers decide whether or: not to approve new The Solutions marina developments. In addition the committee could help marina developers by providing technical assistance Alternatives in business aspects and working toward more equitable tax rates. The previous discussion has shown that SENE's coastline potentially can accommodate future recreational boating The Rhode Island Department.of Economic Development demands. The main questions focus on the roles of public and the Massachusetts Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and private sectors and the extent of the development. and Recreational Vehicles are appropriate agencies to The latter question involves certain value judgments - some sponsor the committees. Membership would include boaters prefer the amenities of electricity, running water, marine trade associations, natural resource managers, and shoreline commercial development; others prefer less coastal zone planners, and municipal authorities; but over crowded conditions. The former can strain utilities and half the membership should consist of those who are most stimulate unsightly commercial development, while the affected by marinas - boaters, salt water fishermen, local latter may not help to meet a large portion of the de- residents, and conservationists. Some of these interests mands. Both kinds of needs must be met, by means of are represented in the volunteer Marine Recreational Ad- (a) expansion of existing facilities (public and private); visory Board to the Massachusetts Department of Fisher- and (b) development of new facilities (public and private). ies, Wildlife, and Recreational Vehicles. The advantages of this kind of state guidance are: (1) new developments .Expansion of Existing Facilities (Public and in the most suitable locations in economic, social, and en- Private). Existing marinas can accommodate a larger vironmental terms; (2) assurance that a variety of condi- volume and variety of boats, by means of: enlarging the tions are provided; (3) stimulation of private enterprise; existing area for boats and constructing additional slips and (4) less strain on public funds for marina development. and moorings; channel improvements; more efficient use The major disadvantage revolves around the success of co- of the existing land and water space through techniques ordinating disparate interests. such as dry-stack storage and fore-and-aft mooring. The two main problems related to this alternative are funding Investigate Development-of New Facilities. Parts and regulating expansion to tfiinimize economic and envi- of the Massachusetts and Rhode Island coastline may be ronmental impacts. Public efforts would be supported suitable for new marinas large enough to absorb regional de- through agency budgets or through bonds. mands. Using criteria such as the degree of or potential for protection, the size and ability to absorb demands, and the However, private efforts are hindered by a number of presence of Critical Environmental Areas, the SENE Study problems - high capital construction and annual mainten- has identified several possible locations: Collins Cove in ance costs, resistarce from the state and municipalities, Salem, North Plymouth Harbor; the Seekonk River; War- wetland laws, popular misconceptions that marinas are wick-East Greenwich Bay; Coggeshall Cove, Portsmouth; environmental destroyers, susceptibility to storm damage, Allen's Harbor and Davisville, North Kingstown; and Cod- high costs of shore lands, high cost of credit, the seasonal dington Cove, Middletown. These areas should be investi- nature of recreational use, inadequate business manage- gated further to dec'ide which would be most suitable, ment and training, and competition. keeping in mind other factors such as accessibility and proximity to demand. The boating advisory committee On the other hand, in the public eye, marinas are a kind suggested earlier could encourage private development of of unwelcome facility. They attract people and traffic these areas. Or public agencies could lease them for pri- which strain municipal services and, in the eyes of some, vate management. The latter has the advantage of enlarg- detract from coastal environmental quality. A popular ing the local tax base. solution is prohibiting new marina development, The problem boils down to how to satisfy increasing boating Alternative Plans demands without sacrificing Critical Environmental Areas. An environmental approach for increasing slips and moor- ings would involve guidance about suitable locations for To help solve the dilema, coordinated planning is needed. development of new areas and expansion or existing A statewide boating advisory committee could encourage marinas. It would meet a smaller portion of the boating marina developers and managers to adopt more efficient demand than the economic approach, but it would main- 6-9 tain a higher regard for environmental quality. An eco- State guidance of private marina expansion could help nomic: approach would concentrate on considering the minimize economically and environmentally undesirable development of new marinas. As outlined in the impacts, especially those associated with business failures second alternative, intensive development will increase and the development of ancillary services such as repair, boating pleasures, but it can also strain the region's retail, and commercial enterprises. Confining further character. marina development to centers which already have roads and services checks the possibility of "marina sprawl" Recommendations and encourages modernization. It thereby indirectly pro- tects more fragile coastal stretches included in SENE The recommended approach is described in priority order Critical Environmental Areas. These lands could serve below. It seeks to develop enough slips and moorings to as buffer strips and wildlife habitats. Making better use meet most of the demand, but with minimal harm to the of existing facilities is economically sensible. However, environment. without support and stimulation, private action is unre- liable. Publicly subsidized marinas are also needed, but 5. Form state boating advisory 'committee to en they should be located in areas which are already developed, courage the private sector. The Massachusetts are centrally located, and non-sensitive environmentally. Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Recreational Several possible areas are suggested for study: Vehicles and the Rhode Island Department of Eco- nomic Development together with public works and 7. Investigate new regional marina basins. The natural resources agencies, coastal management, and Corps of Engineers under expanded authority, private boating interests should form a state boating in conjunction with the state coastal zone man- advisory committee to develop training programs agement programs, agencies in both states, and and guidance for recreational entrepreneurs. State communities, should consider the feasibility of boating advisory committees should help plan and coordinating federal, state, and private inter- implement orderly development of boating and en- ests in the development of major recreational courage fore-and-aft moorings in protected areas boating harbors at Collins Cove in Salem; and expansion of existing marinas near centers of North Plymouth Harbor; the Seekonk River; high demand. Warwick-East Greenwich Bay; Coggeshall Cove, Portsmouth; Allen Harbor and Davisville, North 6. Undertake authorized channel and anchorage Kingstown; and Coddington Cove, Middletown. improvements. The Corps of Engineers should proceed with authorized federal recreational Disposal of materials dredged from channels and harbors channel and anchorage improvements in high is a problem pursued further in Chapter 7. While the use coastal areas, including, but not limited to recommendation is to continue interim dredged materials Brush Neck Cove, Warwick; the Taunton River disposal procedures, the SENE Study encourages research between Berkley and Dighton; and Boston' and practice in the field reusing dredged materials for con- Harbor. struction of artificial islands and wetlands. RECREATIONAL SALT WATER FISHING The Situation In 1961, the Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries es. salt water fishermen is actually twice that number. timated that salt water fishermen made about 650,000 day- fishing trips in Massachusetts. Accurate estimates on night- Based upon the current Rhode Island population of about fishing are not available, but the activity is considerable in 950,000, the USFWS estimates that about 75,000 salt water some areas. Interviews with bait shop owners and sports- fishermen spent about 900,000 days fishing along the Rhode men's organizations indicate that night-fishing has increased Island coast. These estimates are probably low; Rhode Is- on the order of 50 percent in the last 10 years. Updating the land is small and the percentage of salt water fishermen there 1961 day-fishing and adding the night-fishing, USFWS esti- is probably much higher than the New England average of 8 mates that, in 1970, more than a million fishermen-days percent, which was used in the USFWS estimates. were expended on salt water fishing in the Massachusetts area. According to unpublished information from the Na- Based on the USFWS estimates, and using the USFWS value tional Marine Fisheries Service, the number of Massachusetts of nearly $11 per day per fisherman, the approximate annual 6-10 dollar value generated by sport fishermen in the region is in Study recommends: the vicinity of $20 million. This amount covers costs of boats, gear, fuel, charters, lodging, food, and other usual ex-. penditures by the fisherman. This estimate seems insignifi- 8. Construct public boat ramps and fishing piers. cant in monetary terms, as it does not include the use of The Massachusetts Public Access Board and the SENE sportfishing resources by out-of-region fishermen. An- Rhode Island Department of Natural Resources, other value more difficult to quantify is the availability of in cooperation with appropriate stat ie and muni- the salt water fishing expe .rience in this coastal area. cipal agencies, should construct boat ramps and fishing piers or similar facilities such as break- As with most forms of outdoor recreation, lack of access - waters, docks and coastal bridges, which provide either boat launching ramps or publicly available shoreline - walk-ways for surf-casters to productive salt is the primary problem facing the region!s sport fishermen. water fishing areas. These facilities should be The Massachusetts Public Access Board has an active pro- wide enough to provide space for surf-casting grarn for acquisition and, with the Division of Waterways, and traffic. a program for developing ramps and parking facilities. The DEM through its Division of Forests and Parks, cooperates 9. Encourage private construction of boat ramps in maintaining the areas. Recently the Commonwealth and fish piers. The proposed state boating built several new double-ramp facilities capable of serving advisory committee (see the boating section of several hundred trailers daffy. MDC manages 15 miles of this chapter, recommendation 5) should en- coastline fouthis sport in the most densely populated courage utilities or private industries which are portion of the region. developing facilities, such as wastewater treat- ment plants, power plants or residential, com- The Rhode Island DNR, through the Division of Fish and mercial or industrial developments along the Wildlife, locates new sites, acquires land, builds and main- coast, to provide well-landscaped (using vegeta- tains parking lots and boat launching ramps for both fresh tive screening) shore access and structures for and salt water resources. Currently, the state is concentrat- fishing whenever possible. The proposed state ing on developing boat ramps and parking lots either upon boating advisory committees, or in Massachu4 request from municipalities or on state owned property. setts, the Public Access Board, should oversee Although new acquisitions within the next few years are the development of innovative design standards not likely because funds have been exhausted, DNR should showing prototypical construction features and plan to acquire and develop enough additional boat ramps materials specifications which should be con- to meet 1990 demands. sidered in providing this access. The Solutions Social and economic benefits would result from improved coastal access, especially in urban areas. The construction Recommendations costs of slightly modifying shore protection or coastal Plans to secure frequent public access to the shoreline bridge or highway projects in selected areas would be (see the Swimming Section of this chapter) should be more than offset by significantly improved social benefits coordinated with efforts to improve recreational salt generated by the additional access. Cost of providing water fishing opportunities. Therefore, the SENE ramps and piers might be partially met by the BOR Land and Water Conservation Fund Program. CAMPING AND PICNICKING The Situation According to Table 6.1, over twice the number of existing The major impediment, other than consistently inadequate funds, is local resistance to the development of new camp- camping and picnicking facilities now available will be ing OT picn,icking facilities. Concentrations of visitors at- needed to meet 1990 demands. The Study distinguishes tracted by these facilities severely tax local sewer, police, in this section between camping and picnicking activities and fire protection services. At the same time, the nature needing facilities, and the more informal camping and pic- of today's modem, fully equipped motorized camper nicking covered under extensive recreation elsewhere in this vehicles is such that the campers rely .on local businesses chapter. The distinguishing factor - and the principal prob- far less than they used to In short, today's campers spend lern - is the need to provide for and maintain facilities: less but require more in the way of costly services; and the water supplies; sanitary facilities; picnic tables; and even result is stiff local resistance to campground or picnic devel- electrical power. opment. 6-11 In developing parks and recreation areas, the state can over- Development of New Facilities (Public and Private). rule local resistance through the powers of eminent domain. The private sector is generally viewed as the appropriate Rhode Island has managed to compensate for this unpopu- mode for filling the gap between user demands and the lar step taken in beach development by sharing income de- available supply of public facilities, especially for camping. rived from user fees with municipalities. The biggest prob- Two current trends are likely to intensify the importance lem with state management is that limited funds are of the private sector in developing camping and picnicking squeezed between the need for daily and reliable mainten- facilities. First, people are looking more and more for ance at existing facilities and a need for new facilities. Pre- "less government"; second, during economic crisis, state occupation with maintenance problems should not stall expenditures for recreation will receive low priority. efforts to provide needed new facilities. Unless facilities are available for these increasingly popular activities, there Expansion by the private sector will not persist as long as is the more unfortunate risk that campers and picnickers recreational entrepreneurs are beseiged with the problems will proclaim their own territory. of credit unavailability, inadequate training in business man- agement, cyclical patterns in recreation use, and resistance The Solutions from municipalities. As discussed in the boating section of this chapter, new public programs would help alleviate these Alternatives problems. Nevertheless, private development is the best alternative for The choice for meeting camping and picnicking needs is meeting demands in the long-run. Carefully sited facilities between (a) expansion of existing facilities (public and would not irretrievably damage some Critical Environmental private);.and (b) development of new facilities (public and Areas, specifically flood plains, agricultural soils, and certain private). natural resources (Category B lands). These areas as mapped Expansion of Existing Facilities (Public and Private). (Plates 1, 2, and 3 as described in Chapter 3) provide a good This alternative involves the ossibilities of expanding ex- starting point for further investigation leading to purchase p and development of facilities. It should, however, be em- isting park boundaries and developing new facilities, actions phasized that without careful planning and subsequently primarily involving state responsibilities, Expansions could efficient management, the stress on roads, sewers, and other occur near existing cities, near tourist centers, or in both lo- local services, from campground development can be ex- cations. However, campgrounds within metropolitan areas pected to generate community hostility and resistance. .are, for the most part, underutilized by tourists. Consistent with Massachusetts SCORP policy, these urban campgrounds Alternative Plans' should be maintained for youth groups. This approach is economically efficient. If properly imple- At best, it is difficult to distinguish alternative plans for en- mented, it would have minor environmental impacts. Bene- hancing environmental quality or stimulating economic de- fits of expanding park boundaries could accrue for other velopment in the recreation field. However, the two alterna- recreational activities, especially extensive activities. Citizens tive measures for meeting camping and picnicking demands, in a series of public workshops held mid-way in the Study discussed above, offer a somewhat clearer opportunity for favored this approach more than acquiring and developing tradeoffs than is generally the case. The first alternative new state forests and parks. However, later during the 90- measure - expanded development of existing facilities - if day review period there was strong opposition to the ex- emphasized in a campground and picnicking plan would have only minor impact on the remaining open space in the pansions because of additional strain on municipal services, region and place minimal requirements on existing water local traffic congestion, vandalism, and the threat to environ- supplies and sewer services. The second alternative - devel- mental quality. In this sense state,parks become a kind of opment of new sites and facilities - would, however, by unwelcome facility for which municipalities could be com- definition, place new demands on open space for camping pensated by some form of cost-sharing. and picnicking sites. At the same time, especially if devel- The point must be made that impacts on municipal services oped by the private sector, a plan emphasizing new develop- by expanding existing facilities on the whole would not be ment would generate a higher degree of economic activity, as great as developing new ones. The portion of needs met but with more adverse secondary effects on environmental by expansion is difficult to assess because private enterprise quality. We have seen that the first alternative alone is un- has a large responsibility in expanding facilities, and its able to meet a significant portion of the demand. Conse- ability to respond is subject to economic and political vag- quently the recommended program includes elements of aries. However, Rhode Island is evolving a policy opposed both alternatives. All three approaches - the alternatives to state participation in campground development. What and the recommendations - assume that state and local remains, therefore, is development by the private sector agencies will play important roles in controlling the place- which cannot respond without the states' support. ment of facilities. Such means as placement of utility lines 6-12 could be used to control the location of these developments assess the impacts on municipal services and and, therefore, the environmental impact. traffic and determine appropriate means of cost-sharing. Examples are the Harold Parker Recommendations State Forest in the Ipswich-North Shore planning area, Myles Standish State Park in The recommended approach emphasizes coordination Plymouth and Carver, and Arcadia State Park and among state, municipal, and private interests to develop as and Pachaug State Forest in the Pawcatuck many camping and picnicking facilities as feasible without planning area. Protection of Critical Environ- environmental damage. Recommendations are listed in mental Areas is implicit in this recommenda- priority below. tion. 10. Form state recreational advisory committees. Acombination of the two approaches is essential for meet- The Massachusetts Departments of Commerce ing about half of the tourist demands for campgrounds and and Development and Environmental Manage- picnic facilities; the second as a solution for satisfying ment, the Rhode Island Departments of Eco- midterm demands,'and the first for the long-run. A third nomic Development and Natural Resources option of expansion and development of state parks near and Statewide Planning Program together urban concentrations (see the section on extensive outdoor with municipal representatives and private recreation) is not as important for satisfying regional recreational interests should-form state rec- camping demands, as it is for providing low-intensity reational advisory committees. These com- outdoor recreation opportunities of a more local na- mittees should assist and encourage the ture. Furthermore, the park expansions are coordinated private sector to develop campground and with actions, either recommended or conitemplated, for picnic facilities. In an advisory capacity, the satisfying regional beach demands. states should assess implications for the local infrastructure and guide development of these facilities to flood plains, agricultural soils, and other SENE Category B resources. State guidance is intended to minimize calamaties some- times traditionally associated with privately owned camp- 11. Expand state forests and parks near tourist grounds. If municipalities would implement protective centers. The R. 1. DNR and Massachusetts zoning of Critical Environmental Areas (Category A and B DEM should add camping facilities and en- lands) and guide growth toward areas with existing infra- large existing parks which are distant from structure (see aapter 3), campground development could urban concentrations, but convenient to proceed with minimal environmental impacl. Private de- tourist centers. Prior to the expansions the velopment of these facilities should also contribute some- state and affected municipalities should what to the region's tourist economy. WILDLIFE AND FRESH WATER FISHERIES The Situation it is estimated that by 1990 residents of the SENE region Insufficient fish and wildlife habitat both in extent and will spend 10,250,000 and 3,500,000 recreational days, variety, and a general lack of public access to the existing respectively, on fresh water fishing and hunting.. As resource base are the major factors limiting fulfillment of might be expected, hunting and fishing opportunities demand. Only 103,500 acres, or 3.6 percent of SENE's within the densely populated SENE region are inadequate. total area, are in public ownership and open to hunting.. Overall, demand for fish and wildlife resources exceeds Approximately 900,000 more acres are open to hunting supply, and this is expected to continue into the future. through the generosity of private land owners. How long Only the Cape Cod and Pawcatuck planning areas can these private landowners will tolerate hunting and other hope to support their residents' 1990 hunting and fishing recreational uses without recompense is open to conjecture. demands. 6-13 Of the 1000 fresh water ponds 10 acres and larger in SENE, gressional Acts, the Pittman-Robertson Act passed in 1937 only about 120 (16,000 acres) have guaranteed statewide and the Dingell-Johnson Act in 1950. These funds are col- public access. Of the 1200 miles of stream, the amount of lected from an I I percent excise tax on fishing and hunting streambank in public ownership and open to fishing is equipment. They are used solely for wildlife-fisheries res- negligible. The vast majority of SENE's streambanks are toration projects, and may include land acquisition expendi- privately owned and can be closed to the general public. tures. For each dollar spent by the state on approved pro- jects, up to seventy-five cents may be reimbursed by the federal government within the limitations of any current The states own and hold in trust for their people all of the apportionment and pending federal approval of completion fish and wildlife within their borders. The Massachusetts of the project. The Soil Conservation Service makes cost- Division of Fisheries and Wildlife and the Rhode Island sharing grants to local sponsors under the Small Watershed Division of Fish and Wildlife serve as the legal administra- Program (PL83-566, as amended) for land acquisition, tors and guardians of their fish and wildlife resources. They easements, rights-of-way, and facilities needed to develop carry out responsibilities relating to the enforcement of the water oriented potential of watershed projects. The game laws, conduct nature and education programs,and Rural Environmental Conservation Program administered monitor, study, propogate, salvage, conserve, and manage by the Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service the states' fish and wildlife population. Insofar as it is feas- (ASCS) of the U. S. Department of Agriculture provides ible, various fish and wildlife resources are maintained at a for cost sharing funds and technical assistance to private level that will have the greatest economic, aesthetic, and landowners for erosion control, forestry, wildlife habitat recreational value possible for all citizens. improvement, and other similar measures. Also technical assistance is available to landowners through local Conser- These agencies have endeavored to spend funds prudently vation Districts which exist for all of SENE, except Suffolk for habitat preservation and enhancement of fish and wild- County, Mass. For forestry. measures the Massachusetts life. On occasion a portion of their revenues is derived Division of Forest and Parks and the R. 1. Division of from legislative measures, for example, the recent $5 mil- Forest Environment, in cooperation with the U. S. Forest lion bond used to acquire portions of the Hockomock Service, furnish this assistance. The National Park Service Swamp and other areas in Massachusetts. However, this administers the National Registry of Natural Landmarks measure and other revenues are derived from, or paid for through which natural resources of outstanding signifi- by, sportsmen through the sale of hunting, fishing, and cance receive national acclaim. Three important wildlife trapping licenses. To enlarge this source in Rhode Island habitats in the SENE region so designated are the Acush- there is strong support for raising license fees and expand- net Cedar Swamp and Lynnfield Marsh in Massachusetts ing the licensing program to include women (who presently and Ell Pond in Rhode Island. NPS has cited over 20 po- pay no fees) and fishermen 12 years and older. In ad- tential sites in the SENE portion of Massachusetts (includ- dition non-consumptive users of fish and wildlife resources ing the North and South Rivers, Sandy Neck and Great who utilize public areas such as state parks and management Marshes, and the Hockomock Swamp) and 15 areas in areas should also share the costs of managing fish and wild- Rhode Island (including Block Island Marshes, the Great life resources, for example, through user-fees. Swamp and Wallum Lake Forest). Also, lands owned by Na- tional Park Service are often utilized tinder use agreement Aside from acquiring, developing, and managing their own for public hunting purposes. In addition, The Corps of parks and management areas, the states also provide finan- Engineers grants licenses to state fish and wildlife agencies to develop management areas on reservoir lands. cial assistance to communities through the Massachusetts Self-Help Program (administered through DEM) and the former Rhode Island Green Acres Fund (administered The Solutions through DNR) and discussed earlier in this chapter. Con- sistent with the SENE Study policy of protecting Criti- Alternatives cal Environmental Areas (Category A and B lands), high priority should be given to using these funds for wetlands Six alternatives can provide major fish and wildlife oppor- acquisition. Other actions for local wetlands protection tunities (a) acquire wetlands; (b) acquire upland wildlife are discussed .in Chapter 8, Rooding and Erosion. management areas; (c) provide public access to privately owned wildlife habitat; (d) use of wetland legislation; There are several sources of funds. Funds for acquisition (e) acquire public access to ponds; and (f) acquire stream- and development through BOR's Land and Water Conserva- bank access. Public access to water supply reservoirs, im- tion Fund Program have been previously mentioned in this portant for improving hunting and fishing, is also recom- chapter. The USFWS administers the Federal Aid in Fish mended in the section of this chapter entitled "Extensive and Wildlife Restoration Program. The program provides Outdoor Recreation. federal aid money, resulting from the passage of two Con- 6-14 Acquiring Wetlands. Although this is one of the two More vigorous local enforcement with state support is re- most expensive options, acquiring highly productive wildlife quired if the environmental characteristics crucial to the habitats is the safest assurance that the values of wetlands region's quality of life are to be protected. In Massachu- for wildlife production, flood and erosion control, and setts, municipalities can obtain technical assistance about recreation are preserved. Prime wetlands for acquisition by wetlands protection through the Natural Resources Plan- states are listed in Table 6.2. Through the efforts of the ning Program coordinated by the Conservation District USFWS, BOR, National Park Service, state fish and wild- Offices. In Rhode Island, wetland maps are being provided life agencies, and local conservation commissions, a com- by the state. Protection of wetlands alone, however, is not bined acquisition effort could be undertaken. completely adequate to ensure the preservation of these fragile resources. Development of adjacent uplands can Acquiring Upland Wildlife Management Areas. To quickly degrade "protected" wetlands. One tactic which increase natural wildlife production, furnish hunting areas, both state and local authorities should consider is first ac- and provide release sites for game farm birds, several wild- quiring a ring of uplands surrounding important wetlands life management areas in Massachusetts and Rhode Island and later protecting the wetlands themselves, either could be established, or expanded, to help meet a portion through outright acquisition or through special zoning. of regional demands for consumptive and non-consumptive wildlife uses. Wetland areas for acquisition on Table 6.2 Acquiring Public Access to Ponds 10 Acres and also include surrounding upland habitat. Larger. A significant opportunity for obtaining access to many of these ponds in Massachusetts rests with a revision The expansion of existing game farms and development of of the "Great Ponds Law." A great pond is defined under new facilities is required to satisfy expected needs for ad- the Law in two ways: for recreational use other than fish- ditional stocked game birds. Hunters who prefer this type ing, a pond must be of natural origin and 10 or more acres of stocking should be paying the cost. This could be ae- in size; for fishing, the pond must be of natural origin and .complished by requiring and selling a special game bird 20 or more acres in size. Programs to identify great ponds propagation stamp. and develop public access have been strengthened and now need to be accelerated. The inconsistency in the size factor Providing Public Access to Privately Owned Wild- should be corrected to provide the fishing as well as recrea- life Habitat. The Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and tion on all natural ponds of 10 or more acres. Wildlife could develop cooperative programs similar to those in Rhode Island between state and private landowners Presently over 60 water supply reservoirs in the SENE region, designed to open many wildlife areas currently closed to representing over 13,000 acres of water, are closed to public hunters. Cooperative agreements would provide access fishing. The possibility of providing public access to this for hunting and other wildlife oriented recreation, in re- vast untapped fishery resource should be fully explored, as turn for management of the land, hunter controls, tax described in the Extensive Outdoor Recreation section. In ad- breaks, or lease of the land. An amendment to the Massa- dition, all possibilities should be explored for obtaining public chusetts General Law (Chapter 21 � 17 C) limits land- access to other ponds 10 acres and over in size which have owner liability, if he should open land to the public for significant fishery resource capabilities. The Massachusetts recreational purposes. The Rhode Island General Assem- Public Access Board and Rhode Island DNR could acquire bly should hasten to pass similar legislation. access and develop boat ramps and parking facilities near these reservoirs. This includes all ponds in Rhode Island, However, sentiment expressed at public workshops held which does not have a Great Ponds Law. by the SENE Study indicate that public access to pri- vately owned lands is unpopular regardless of the wild- Great ponds designation tends to be confined to water life management benefits for the landowner. Because bodies several hundred acres in size. Although the Wetlands private ownership does not assure hunting use of these Protection Act leads to the regulation of activity along the resources in the long-run, this solution would most likely shoreline, there is no guarantee of the rights of fishermen, not meet a significant portion of the region's future or that the great ponds will remain of high recreational hunting demands. Also, municipal by-laws often com- quality. The safest means of assuring fisherniens' rights is pletely prohibit or restrict hunting. acquisition of fresh water resources and streambanks. Wetlands Legislation. The Massachusetts Wetlands Pro- Acquiring Streambank Access. The Massachusetts tection Act (Chapter 13 1, Section 40 as amended 1974), Division of Fisheries and Wildlife and the Rhode Island Di- the Rhode'Island Freshwater Wetlands Act (Chapter 201, vision of Fish and Wildlife have extensive trout stocking Section 18-24), Intertidal Salt Marsh Act (Chapter I I- programs which strive to meet the heavy demands of trout 46.1), and Coastal Wetlands Acts (Chapter 2-1, Sections fishermen., However, lack of public access to major streams 13-17) prohibit altering of fresh water and salt water wet- and tributarie's severely limits "put-and-take" trout stock- lands without a permit. ing and curtails use of existing warm water fisheries. If 6-15 viable stream fishery programs are to be improved and ex- might go so far as to forego hunting and fishing oppor- panded, immediate steps should be taken to acquire stream- tunities in favor of commercial or residential development bank rights-of-way with a minimum width of 20 feet per of wildlife habitat lands. Looking further into the eco- bank. This might best be accomplished in conjunction with nomic future, however, the SENE Study has determined, wetland preservation, flood plain zoning, scenic river desig- as discussed in detail in Chapter 2, that maintenance of the nation (see discussion in Extensipe Outdoor Recreation sec- natural landscape is, to a large degree, in the economic in- tion), expansion of state forest and parks or of wildlife terest of the region. Therefore, the recommended program management areas. below seeks maximum protection of these lands at the least cost. Alternative Plans Recommendations Obviously the provision of land for hunting and fishing is primarily an environmental goal. Each of the aforemen- The recommended program seeks acquisition of the most tioned alternative measures is oriented toward the acquisi- significant wildlife habitats and protection of others tion and preservation of the best wildlife habitat in the re- through legislative channels. In order of importdnce, the gion. Together they constitute an extremely expensive recommendations are: environmental plan. An alternative which sought to maxi- mize economic development would, at best, favor more 12. Acquire SENE's most important upland and intensive use of existing lands rather than acquisition. It wetland wildlife habitat. To ensure the TABLE 6.2 WILDLIFE HABITATS SUGGESTED FOR PUBLIC ACQUISITION (In Priority) Possible Priority Area Location Acreage Region State IN MASSACHUSETTS: 1 1 Parker-Little River Newbury 1800 Wetland area 2 2 Hockomock Swamp Bridgewater 6000 3 3 North River tidal Marshfield/ estuaries Scituate 5 4 Essex Marshes behind Essex 3000 Castle Neck 5 Sandy Neck Area Barnstable 6 E. Sandwich Wetlands Sandwich Harbor 7 S. River Wetlands . Marshfield 8 Eliminaie in-holdings 2000'. in Northeast & Crane Pd. Groveland management areas 9 Dyke Meadow area Marshfield 1000 10 Chartley Brook Attleboro 1000 Region State IN RHODE ISLAND: 4 1 Great Swamp & vicinity South Kingston- 1000 additional Richmond acres 6 2 Rockville Meadows Management area 3 Narrow River Tidal Narragansett Estuaries 4 Winnapoag Pond Westerlv 5 Area between Truston & Kingston 600 Northwestern comer of Green Hill Pond 6 Undeveloped uplands to Charlestown the southeast of Perryville trout hatchery, south of Route 1 7 Wetlands along Blackstone Cumberland,etc. River Acreage not available 6-16 continued productivity of important wildlife 4. Mattapoisett River habitats', Massachusetts Department of Fisher- S. Wading River ies, Wildlife, and Recreational Vehicles and/or 6. Winnetuxet River The Audubon Societies, and other private and public interests should purchase choice areas Important Rhode Island Streams: listed in Table 6.2, if not currently protected by scenic, conservation, or agricultural ease- 1. Pawcatuck River System (Pawca- ments. Both upland and wetland habitats tuck and Queens Rivers) should be purchased for a variety of species 2. Ponagansett River production. Consistent with Study policy of 3. Flat River protecting Critical Environmental Areas, other state purchases should focus on wet- 14. Acquire public access to ponds. The state lands. Acquisition of wetlands might occur - natural resources agencies should make every in two stages. Within the next 5-10 years the effort to acquire access to ponds 10 acres and responsible state agencies could acquire a ring greater (great ponds, public water supply, of surrounding uplands and within 10-20 reservoirs, and other ponded waters) which years, the wetlands themselves. have significant fishery resource capability. Suit- able areas are identified for each planning area 13. Acquire SENE's most important streambanks. in the Study's inventory information, available Rhode Island Department of Natural Re- from the NERBC offices. sources and Massachusetts Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Recreational Vehi- 15. Enforce wetlands legislation and local zoning cles should acquire public access to streams regulations. Taken cumulatively, communi- (minimum 20 foot widths per streambank) ties throughout the SENE region have a major listed below, which have high potential for responsibility in protecting wetlands. Consist- cold water fisheries production. ent with the Study policy of limiting flood damages through nonstructural methods and Important Massachusetts Streams: of protecting Critical Environmental Areas, towns should zone or acquire wetlands and 1. Ipswich River flood plains, and enforce existing wetlands 2. Palmer River protection legislation. 3. Mashpee River EXTENSIVE OUTDOOR RECREATION The Situation Activities within this recreational category include nature that opportunities are publicly accessible for extensive out- study, wilderness camping, informal picnicking and trail door recreation and recommends ways to protect Critical ' uses such as hiking, trail biking, cross-country skiing. Ex- Environmental Areas for extensive outdoor recreation uses. tensive activities (walking for pleasure, viewing, nature study) are also important in urban environs, and open The Solutions space and greenbelt planning are essential for meeting these needs. One attribute links them all: the require- ment for publicly access 'ible lands of exceptional environ- Alternatives mental quality. If this requirement is to be fully satisfied by 1990, some 150,000 acres will have to be made publicly Alternative measures for assuring extensive outdoor recrea- accessible for extensive outdoor recreation, in addition to tion opportunities include: (a) developing Boston Harbor the 220,000 acres already available. To reiterate a point in and Narragansett Bay Island Parks; (b) making recreational the introduction to this chapter, the region's unspoiled use of publicly or privately owned but inaccessible urban wetlands, flood plains, agricultural soils, and unique cultural resources; (c) acquiring Critical Environmental Areas; and natural sites included in SENE Category A and B Critical (d) limited public access to water supply watersheds; (e) Environmental Areas @see Chapter 3) aremore than adequate multiple use of trails; and (f) scenic rivers legislation. Wet- to meet the demand. This section explores ways to guarantee lands legislation is another measure; it protects resources for possible future acquisition. It is discussed in the Wild- 6-17 lifeand Fresh Water Fisheries section of this chapter, and available means, including outright purchase when feasible, more extensively in Chapter 8,,F7ooding andErosion. as well as improving and increasing the efficiency of existing areas. Developing Boston Harbor and Narragansett Bay Island Parks. Islands in Boston Harbor and Narragansett To improve their urban recreation opportunities they Bay offer excellent opportunities for satisfying swimming, could - camping, picnicking, and extensive outdoor recreation de- 0 Retain appropriate tax title land for recreational use. mands from Boston to Providence, if adequate inexpensive, 0 Solicit land donations. public transportation can be provided. The Massachusetts 0 Rehabilitate phased-out sanitary land fills. Department of Environmental Management and the Metro- 0 Make multiple use of underutilized publicly owned politan District Commission have acquired 13 islands, have lands such as some public works parking areas, yards, implemented plans for three of the islands with water taxi and other vacant land associated with city public service among them and developed comprehensive facilities. plans for recreational development of the remaining islands. 0 Investigate agreements with private schools, YMCA's, In addition, legislation authorizing $20 million to set up a Boys' Clubs, or other groups, whereby the city would commission to further the Boston Harbor Islands Park is be- assume part or all of the operation and maintenance ing introduced to the U. S. Congress. The Rhode Island De- responsibility in exchange for programmed use. partment of Natural Resources is currently negotiating the 0 Make multiple use of highway corridors for biking acquisition of surplus naval property among the Narragansett and walking trails. Bay Islands. Both state parks would provide a mixture of 0 Improve access to existing urban park areas through recreation facilities which would stimulate local economies improved transportation and pedestrian and bike and would protect these regionally significant island resources. overpasses. Both island park systems together could meet as much as 10 percent of the total 1990 regional needs for swimming, pic- Urban park planning, a topic not part of the Study's re nicking, camping, shellfishing, and extensive outdoor recreation, sponsibility, is also important for improving the environ- much of which comes from low-income inner-city families. mental quality of large metropolitan areas. 1he Housing The islands offer extensive resources-nearly 5,000 acres in and Community Development Act described earlier in this Narragansett Bay and over 1,000 acres in Boston Harbor - chapter is a convenient source of funds for these urban close to the two large cities. Considering the major needs park programs. these projects could help satisfy, the costs of developing the island parks are surprisingly small, each amounting to Gaining Access to Critical Environmental Areas. only several million dollars - the cost of a mile of highway The safest way of assuring that the public could use natural or part of a town's sewer system. Participants in the SENE resources for extensive outdoor recreation is by public ac- Study planning area workshops strongly favored new acqui- quisition. Chapter 3 has pointed out that Critical Environ- sitions of recreational resources and fiscal support for the mental Areas (SENE Category A and B lands) such as beaches, states to get their programs underway. wetlands, flood plains, and critical erosion areas can be protected without significant impairment to the region's Finally, preserving these islands - replete with natural and economic health. The state recreation agencies could ac- historic beauty - has two major regional implications. quire 150,000 acres of the total available areas for exten- First, by absorbing urban demands, pressures on resources sive outdoor recreation. Workshop participants favored in other parts of the region will be lessened, thereby making acquisition of new natural areas. This option has been them more useful for meeting tourist demands. Second, if most notably recommended for the acquisition of wet- past trends continue, enriching the quality of life in these lands and the edges of forests and fields in the Wildlife metropolitan areas could have important economic multi- and Fresh Water Fisheries section of this chapter and plier effects of attracting and holding residents and businesses. for fragile barrier beaches in the Pawcatuck and South Shore planning area reports. Making Recreational Use of Publicly or Privately Conservation and public easements are yet another means of Owned but Currently Inaccessible Urban Resources. of gaining public access for recreation, and the legal and Cities in SENE's three metropolitan areas are sorely lacking institutional climate in Massachusetts is particularly favor- urban parks. The Massachusetts Access to Parks Program able in this regard. One law (Chapter 21, Section 17 C) provides transportation for inner city dwellers to rural discussed earlier in the Swimming section, exempts land- parks. The SENE Study encourages the continuation of owners from liability for injury to persons using land for this successful program. The cities of Boston, Cambridge, recreational purposes. Another program (under Chapter Somerville, Chelsea, Brookline, Providence, and Pawtucket 184, Sections 31 and 32) authorizes any governmental could begin a major program of increasing recreation op- body (with the approval of DEM) or private charity (with portunity within the urban centers of SENE through every the approval of DEM and the municipality) to acquire 6-18 conservation easements. When state and federal funds of highly scenic, quasi-wilderness areas amidst the most are used, the landowner must be willing to open the land densely populated part of New England. In the past, the to some public use. This program helps to contribute op- issue of permitting recreational use of these water supply portunities for walking, nature study, riding, and other watersheds has repeatedly implied unrestricted public use low-intensity recreational activities. of these lands for swimming, boating, and perhaps even camping. One possible danger of water-contact recreational Rhode Island should develop similar legislation and pro- use, particularly of the reservoir, is viral and bacterial con- grams and thereby promote acquisition of easements for tamination. Research into methods for removing these conservation and recreational purposes. kinds of contaminants from water, referenced in Chapter 7 of this report, could lead to solutions of this problem. Mill ponds are one kind of Critical Environmental Area 'Until the time such methods have been validated, water- which, at least in Massachusetts, offer great potential for contact recreational use of distribution reservoirs ("primary satisfying extensive recreational demands. They are reservoirs" where water is stored after treatment and prior scattered throughout the SENE region and are remind- to distribution in the water supply system) is not recommen- ers of America's Industrial Revolution (see Chapter 2). ded for Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Moreover, before Two problems need to be solved however: they presently such an intensive use policy could be implemented, the lia- are inaccessible to the public; and many of the old mill bility of water authorities for water quality degradation dams are in a terrible state of disrepair. Mill ponds were would have to be modified substantially, a measure not created in the latter part of the 19th century when the widely favored by Study participants. MW Acts authorized private mill developers to seize lands important for the production of water power by eminent However, evidence in the literature increasingly indicates domain. The logic was that the production of power was that multiple use of domestic water supply. lands is possible in the public interest. Now that most of them have been without significant effects on health and safety. For ex- abandoned, the question remains, to whom do access ample, lands adjacent to storage reservoirs ("secondary rights, reversionary rights, first choice to gain water reservoirs" where water is stored before it is treated and rights belong. The extent to which such mill ponds would distributed) could be used in a hirrited fashion for casual satisfy recreational demands should be substantiated as a activities such as hiking, picnicking, viewing, and nature basis for developing new legislation to gain public access study. Naturally, the suitability of watershed lands for rights. such uses would have to be ascertained on an individual basis. But these rights @annot be gained without some assur- ance that the dams are safe. Experience has shown that Costs of treating reservoir water to assure purity for subse- for most dams in disrepair, the owners have no interest or quent drinking vary with the location, nature, and extent finances to repair them, and that the choice is for the state of activity and whether the reservoir is a storage or distri- to breach them. To insure their recreational and flood con- bution impoundment (the latter requires more treatment trol functions, the Commonwealth must develop and pur- than the former). However, additional treatment costs sue a program to acquire, repair, and maintain private should be small, perhaps a few percent of the total water small dams, where it is in the public interest. bill. Although these costs might discourage water authori- ties, the authorities should be able to recoup costs with Limited Public Access to Water Supply Watersheds user-fees, permits, or transfer of funds otherwise slated for Many people in the United States and throughout the acquisition. The states should be able to supplement their world draw their water from rivers and lakes that are used funds. for navigation, for all forms of recreation, and for waste Widespread aesthetic and/or limited recreational use of disposal. Among water authorities in the Northeastern SENE's water supply reservoirs, especially of those near United States, however, exclusive use of the watershed for cities, can contribute significantly to satisfying needs for water supply has become traditional. Local water authori- natural open spaces which intensify with inflation and ties, legally responsible for injurious degradation of water high costs of energy. One of the best examples is the Scituate quality, implement public health rules and regulations pro- Reservoir complex in Rhode Island with an area of 15,000 mulgated under Massachusetts General Law Chapter 111, acres. To ascertain the amount of demand which could be Section 160 and under Rhode Island General Law Chapter satisfied on water supply reservoirs, more information is 46-14. In both states, swimming is,prohibited. Theoreti- necessary. States should amend any existing inventories of cally, other recreational uses may occasionally be allowed, reservoirs and other water bodies with data about reser- but in practice they are effectively excluded. Hence, pub- voir lands such as ownership, legal status, the amount of lic access is usually prohibited on lands adjacent to domes- adjacent upland open spaces, and access rights. tic water supplies. One result of the tight regulation has been the preservation Multiple use of water supply. lands makes efficient use of land sa aside for public services. It also offsets the need 6-19 to acquire separate parcels of land to satisfy recreational Scenic Rivers Legislation. The National Wild and needs. It would not require changes in existing statutory, Scenic Rivers Act (PL 90-542) provides a National Wild regulatory or institutional structure. There are, however, and Scenic Rivers System which includes free-flowing two elements absent in the decisions on multiple use of streams and adjacent land that has "wild, scenic, or recre- watershed lands. The first is a comprehensive institutional ational values". The Act also restricts projects that would mechanism for assuring participation of recreation, muni- alter the characteristics of such rivers. The legislation au- cipal, and public health officials in guiding the development thorizes federal acquisition of not more than 100 acres per of watershed land policy. The second is factual guidance mile on both sides of a river included in the system. SENE about the nature, appropriate location, and extent of rec- rivers might have difficulty qualifying under this national reational activities for case by case decisions about recrea- program because they are short and often heavily developed. tional use. Review of existing policies by citizens and pub- lic agencies and research into the extent of permissible uses A more promising alternative to the federal system is better would provide local water authorities with a broader base use of existing state programs. Chapter 21 Section 17B of upon which to make a decision concerning multiple recrea- the Massachusetts General Court, the Scenic and Recreational tional uses. Rivers Act, enables the Commissioner of DEM to order the protection of whole portions of scenic and recreational Multiple Use of Trails. Trail-related activities (hiking, rivers and contiguous land. The legislation regulates, re- biking, snow-mobiling) are gaining popularity as outdoor stricts" or prohibits dredging, filling, removing, polluting, or recreation activities. Careful planning of trails is extremely altering streams or lands within 100 yards on either side of important if needs are to be met with minimal environ- a designated river's natural banks. To date, no rivers in the mental impact. Certain trail uses are incompatible with Commonwealth have been so designated, although currently Critical Environmental Areas, as in the instance of dune there are efforts to define guidelines. In Rhode Island, the buggies on fragile barrier beaches. Further, certain trail Freshwater Wetlands Act accomplishes a similar objective. uses are incompatible with one another, as in the instance Chapter 2-1, Sections 18-24, of the Rhode Island General of motor bikes and horses. It is important to assess all of Assembly restrict the use of streambanks, i.e., an area the different kinds of needs and identify locations suitable within 200 feet or within 20 feet elevation above a flowing in terms of environmental impact. body of water. BOR has identified a number of trail opportunities in SENE BOR has identified portions of several rivers in the SENE for the development of a region-wide system of connecting region which have special scenic and recreational value - trails. For example, Bostonians might hike or bike to the the Ipswich, Charles, North, South and Taunton Rivers south shore areas of Massachusetts Bay or even to the tip of in Massachusetts and the Wood, Beaver, and Pawcatuck Cape Cod, largely through abandoned rail rights-of-way and Rivers in Rhode Island. The Massachusetts DEM could in- public lands. The forested highlands of western Rhode Is- itiate the scenic rivers system which protects up to 100 land and eastern Connecticut could be made accessible to yards of natural river banks and could acquire adjacent the Rhode Island coast by a continuous trail linking the streambanks for recreational use. The Rhode Island DNR many public parks and forests found in that area. could begin acquiring access to streambanks already pro- tected by wetlands legislation. Alternatively, Rhode Island Trail Advisory Committees in both states are authorized to could pursue efforts to develop its own scenic rivers legis- suggest the location of possible trails and how they might lation. be used. The Rhode Island Trail Advisory Committee (TAC) includes hikers, horseback riders, bicyclers, snow- Alternative Plans mobilers. The five regional Massachusetts Trail Advisory -Committees, composed of similar membership will recom- Any program designed to enhance opportunities for exten- mend feasible trails and uses and will help distribute in- sive outdoor recreation experience will make important con- formation. tributions to the preservation of environmental quality of the SENE region. Again, however, as explained in Chapter 2, In addition to the committee efforts, the Departments of any effort to preserve or enhance the environmental quality Transportation in both states have advanced the possible or amenity value - of SENE is likely to have long-range construction of bike-ways by applying for funds available beneficial economic effect. Two alternative plans can be through a special highway trust fund. In Massachusetts, developed in this case, based primarily on public cost. A the Public Access Board could assist in the legal procedures plan stressing environmental values would place primary of acquiring public access as, likewise, could the Rhode emphasis on acquiring the harbor islands and Category A Island Public Rights of Way Commission, with expanded and B resources, expanding the trails system, and designating authority. Costs of acquisition, development, and mainten- scenic rivers. A plan stressing economic efficiency would ance could be alleviated by concentrating on already exist- place its emphasis on acquiring the harbor islands, using ing routes. urban resources, making use of watershed lands, and in- 6-20 creasing use of existing trails. areas, including parks, playfields, and play- grounds. (Arther details are in planning area Re commendations reports dealing with the Boston, Worcester, and P@ovidence Metropolitan areas - see Three themes should be applied when implementing most Boston Metropolitan, Blackstone and Vicin- of the recommendations below: (a) absorb demands from, ity, andNarragansett Bay, respectively.) and increase the quality of life in, cities; (b) make increased use of land already publically owned; and (c) seek multiple, 19. Implement or develop scenic rivers legislation. environmentally-sensitive use of Critical Environmental Massachusetts should implement the exist- Areas. In order of priority, the recommendations are: ing Scenic Rivers legislation by establishing a scenic rivers system and considering the 16. Develop the Boston Harbor Islands and designation of the Charles, Ipswich, and Narragansett Bay Island Parks. The Taunton Rivers as initial components, in Massachusetts Department of Environmental that order of priority, as well as consider- Management and the Metropolitan District ing the North and South Rivers. Rhode Commission should continue executing plans Wand should develop similar legislation to develop Boston Harbor Islands Park. The and include the Wood, Beaver, and Pawca- U. S. Congress should pass legislation author- tuck Rivers. Both states should acquire izing federal funds to further these develop- access for recreation, especially along ments. The R. 1. Department of Natural Re- scenic river stretches. sources should execute plans to develop the Narragansett Bay Islands Park. 20. Expand existing forests and parks near urban centers. The Rhode Island Department of 17. Develop guidelines for limited recrea- Natural Resources and, in Massachusetts, tion on selected secondary reservoir the Metropolitan District Commission and lands. The Department of Natural Resources Department of Environmental Management, in Rhode Island with the Statewide Planning should expand existing state forests, parks, Program, and the Massachusetts Department of and reservations near urban concentra- Environmental Management should promote tions, particularly Douglas State Forest low-intensity recreational use of water supply near Worcester, John Curran and Snake watershed lands. Working with the Massachu-. Den State Forests near Providence, and setts Department of Environmental Quality the Blue Hills and Middlesex Fells Reserva- Engineering, the Rhode Island Department of tions near Boston. In Massachusetts considera- Health, and the U. S. Environmental Protection tion should be given to some form of cost-sharing Agency, they could develop guidelines, controls, for municipal services. and forms of assistance to local water authori- ties which can be used on a case-by-case basis to 21. Develop a regional trail system. The plan for low-intensity recreational use of Rhode Island Department of Natural Re- secondary reservoirs. sources and Massachusetts Department of Environmental Management, in coopera- 18. Make multiple use of urban lands. Core tion with local governments and state cities in the Providence and Boston Metropoli- Trails Advisory Committees, should de- tan areas should begin a major program of in- fine and publicize a regional trail network creasing recreation opportunity using all means using existing trails, utility rights-of-way, available including outright purchase and in- rail abandonments, and exceptional creasing the efficiency of existing recreation natural corridors. PRIORITIES During the previous discussion, several problems have re- ized. Third, meeting certain kinds of recreational demands peatedly emerged. First, many of the region's residents will require obtaining public access to, or acquiring, new have difficulty getting to the most significant recreational natural areas. During the time funds are being raised, these opportunities. Second, the full potential of many existing areas should be protected from competing land uses. recreational facilities or opportunities (marinas, state beaches, water supply watershed lands) is not being real- The 21 recreation recommendations (also listed by title in 6-21 the "Overview") are solutions to these and other problems. local economies, while meeting recreational needs. To organize these solutions into a strategy for meeting rec- reational needs, the SENE Study has classified certain re- The boating and recreational advisory committees will prob- commendations according to priorities: highest priority; ably be most effective in terms of helping to meet recrea- high priority; and other priority. Recommendations having tional needs in the long-term. Meeting boating needs for no indication of priority are as important as priority recom- small-boaters and salt water fishermen requires more urgent mendations, but not as urgent. The criteria used to set action. A large number of boats can be accommodated these priorities include: portion of needs met, particularly by means of boat ramps. These facilities are compatible urban needs; degree of economic efficiency; and consis- with certain Critical Environmental Areas and require tency with the Study's themes of guiding growth to Devel- relatively lower expenditures. Therefore, recommenda- opable Areas and protecting Critical Environmental Areas, tion 8 to construct boat ramps and fishing piers also ranks of enhancing environmental quality to enchance economic among the high priority recommendations. This recom- growth, and of maximizing the use of ongoing programs mendation complements recommendation 4 to secure and existing institutions. public access to the shoreline. There are two highest priority recreation recommendations: High priority recommendations for meeting extensive recommendation I - expand facilities at existing state outdoor recreation needs are recommendation 17 to per- beaches and parks; and recommendation 16 - develop mit limited recreation on secondary reservoir lands and Boston Harbor and Narragansett Bay Island Parks. The recommendation 18 to make multiple use of urban lands. first recommendation received highest priority because it Both involve making more efficient use of existing pub- would meet a significant portion of future swimming licly owned areas. The potential recreational resources - needs, particularly from urban areas. It also maximizes municipally owned water supply reservoirs, school yards, the use of existing facilities. The recommendations to de- transportation corridors, and tax title urban lands - would velop the island park systems merit highest priority because be convenient opportunities for meeting the large urban of the variety of recreation needs met; these islands are ac- recreation needs. Publicly accessible open spaces and cessible to two of the three largest sources of recreation numerous urban parks would contribute to the quality of needs in the region - Boston and Providence; and because life in these areas. of the positive protection of Critical Environmental Areas. Because both these recommendations improve the accessi- Recommendation 19 to implement Massachusetts scenic bility of outdoor recreation opportunities for urban dwel- river legislation or develop similar legislation in Rhode lers, they help to improve the quality of life in the urban Island nierits high priority as an additional safeguard centers. The combination of these values in the case of the for protecting Critical Environmental Areas and as a islands parks recommendation was judged by Study partici- means of setting aside recreational options for future pants to far outweigh the large public expenditures required. development and use. There are seven high priority recommendations. Recom- The three other priority recommendations are essential for mendation 4, acquire public access to the shoreline at fre- meeting future recreational needs, but for the expendi- quent intervals is important to meet a variety of coastal tures, will likely have somewhat lower benefits than the recreation needs, without increasing public expenditures highest and high priority recommendations. They are: for beaches, bathhouses, marinas, etc. 11, expanding state parks near tourist centers, and near urban centers, (19), and 12, acquiring SENE's most im- portant wildlife habitats. The expansion of state parks is Recommendations 5 and 10, for recreation and boating important for ensuring that a major portion of camping, advisory committees, are important because there is the picnicking, and extensive outdoor recreation needs is met opportunity to meet more recreational demands at existing near the source of demand, and it appears to be more privately owned facilities, but only if there is the incen- cost-efficient than the alternative of acquiring and develop- tive for the operators to provide for them. Both states ing new state parks. The wildlife acquisitions would not have programs to encourage tourism, wherein lies the ex- only meet a significant portion of wildlife enthusiasts' and pertise for stimulating private recreational enterprise. If hunters' needs, but are also important for carrying out the properly implemented, this approach would help stimulate Study's theme of protecting Critical Environmental Areas. IMPLICATIONS If the recommended program is carried out, what difference cially? In this program the three perspectives tend to will it all make, environmentally, economically, and so- overlap, but the greatest advantages are probably social 6-22 The anticipated growth in recreational requirements cannot nomic future. Socially, meeting the anticipated needs be entirely satisfied, but can be accommodated, although fully can mean an additional 10-15 days annually of out- careful planning must occur in order to harmonize with, door swimming, picnicking, boating, camping, fishing and and make dual use of, Critical Environmental Areas in en- hunting for those who will be living here in 1990. That vironmentally sensitive ways. Meeting all of the currently represents a total SENE-wide participation of about 80 unmet portion of anticipated 1990 recreational demands million days annually. This figure ranks with total annual would yield an estimated economic value in the range of a attendance of all professional sporting events throughout quarter of a billion dollars annually. More importantly, the United States. The year 1990 may seem far away, but meeting these demands will improve the region's attractive- most of the programs and policies recommended in this ness as a place to live and work and thereby help it draw chapter require that we act now. and hold the skills essential for its services-oriented eco- 6-23 !Jf' AL 12 Marine Management CHAPTER 7 MARINE MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 The Setting 7-1, OFFSHORE FISHERIES 74, The Situation 74, Foreign Offshore Fishing Activity 74, The State of the Domestic Fishing Industry 74, The Fishing Regulation System 7-6, Marketing Underutilized Species 7-6, Related Environmental Issues 7-8, The Solutions 7-8, Alternatives to Assure Future Fishing Sup- plies 7-8, Continue the Existing International Commission for Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF) 7-8, Improve and Strengthen ICNAF 7-8, Enact a U. S. Interim 200 Mile Economic Zone 7-9, Alternatives for Improving the Domestic Fishing Industry's Competitive Base 7-9, Continue the Present Situation 7-9, Increase Tariffs on Imported Fish Products 7-9, Governmental Subsidies to the Fishing Industry 7-9, Coordinate Components of Fishing Industry in Mafor Fishing Ports 7-9, Allow Privately Financed Purchase of Foreign-Built Boats 7-9, Improve the Market for Underutilized Fish Species 7-9, A ccommodate Fishing Industry Facilities Through Improved Coastal Planning 7-9, Alternative Plans 7-10, Recommendations 7-10, Implications 7-11, SHELLFISH AND AQUACULTURE 7-11, The Situation 7-11, Shellfish Production 7-11, Aquacultural Development 7-12, Institutional Constraints on Aquaculture 7-13, Wastewater Use Research 7-13, The Solutions 7-14, Alternatives 7-14, Delegate Management of Shellfish to the State 7-14, Increase State A ss istance in Massach usetts for L ocal Shellftsh Management 7-14, Develop Market for Underu tilized Shellfish Species 7-14, Research Removal of Vinis and Bacteria to Enhance Shellfish Habitats 7-14, Site New Wastewater Discharges away from Estuaries 7-14, Subsidize Aquaculture Industry Using State and Federal Funds 7-14, Enact Specific Aquaculture Legislation in Rhode Island 7-14, Increase State Guid- ance for Aquaculture Development 7-14, Recommendations 7-14, Implications 7-15, PORT DEVELOPMENT 7-16, The Situation 7-16, Port Development in Boston and Providence 7-16, Dredging Projects and Dredged Materials Disposal 7-16, Need for Coordinated Port Planning 7-17, The Solutions 7-17, Alternatives for Port Development 7-17, Continue to Plan Local Port Improvements on an Individual Basis 7-17, Plan Port Development Based on a Regional Study 7-17, Recommendations for Port Development 7-18, Alternatives for Dredged Materials Disposal 7-18, Treat Dredged Materials 7-18p Incineration 7-18, Dispose Dredged Ma terials on Land and Expand Federal A u th ority in This Regard 7-18, Create A rtificial Islands 7-18, Ban A 11 Dredging 7-18, Con tin ue Dispo sal to Ocean Waters 7-18, R ecom- mendations for Dredged Materials Disposal 7-19, Implications 7-19, OFFSHORE SAND AND GRAVEL EXTRACTION 7-19, The Situation 7-19, Market and Environmental Considerations 7-19, Offshore Mining Technology 7-20, The Solutions 741,Alternatives 7-2 1, Use Near- Shore Small Conventional Bucket Dredges 7-21, Use Hopper Dredges without Onboard Processing Capa- bility 7-21, Use Hopper Dredges with Onboard Processing and De- Watering Capacity Operating in Far- Shore Areas 7-21, Recommendations 7-2 1, Implications 7-22, URBAN WATERFRONTS 7-22, The Situation 7-22, The Solutions 7-23, Alternatives 7-23, Recom- mendations 7-24, Implications 7-25. CHAPTER 7 MARINE MANAGEMENT The Setting For over 350 years, life in Southeastern New England has Resources (R.I. DNR) and Fisheries, Wildlife, and Recrea- been shaped and guided by the sea - socially, culturally, tional Vehicles (Massachusetts) cooperate with.Sea Grant economically. The places which have been so closely tied research and development projects with technical assistance to the sea - Newburyport, Gloucester, Boston, New Bed- to the fishing industry. These states also rcgulate the in- ford, Newport and Nantucket - are all in the Southeastern dustry by'issuing licenses'. The Rhode Island DNR has also New England Study region. As a result, any water and assisted fishermen by issuing experimental gear and develop*. related land resources study, if it is to be useful in this re- ing.primary data on fisheries populations to aid in species gion, must deal with marine and coastal issues. The same management. degree of sensitivity which is focused upon the planning of fresh water and related resourceis should also be devoted SheHfish & Aquaculture. Not enough clams or scallops to the region's salt water and related resources: its marine can be harvested to supply the demand, yet these are an environment. underdeveloped resource. Pollution has closed many recrea- tional shellfish flats, especially those near urban centers. There has been no overall coordination of problem-solving In Massachusetts, the lack of consistent management for marine-related issues. Coastal zone problems for indi- practices from town to town further reduces overall shell- vidual states are now being addressed through federally fish productivity. Aquaculture, as a means of meeting,excess supported coastal zone management programs. The SENE demands, is potentially a viable industry, given proper Study has identified the following marine-related issues to development conditions. be of regional and New England-wide significance: fish- eries, shellfish and aquaculture, port development, offshore There is little direct federal involvement in shellfish and sand and gravel mining, and urban waterfronts. aquaculture. The Environmental Protection Agency does have some regulatory authority with respect to water quality Fisheries. The region's fishery resources have been seri- and its affect on the preservation of shellfish beds. Another ously depleted by inadequate offshore management. In the indirect federal insurance of high quality shellfish beds is U. S. there are several agencies and programs which are that funding for coastal wastewater treatment plants favors attempting to unravel the problem. plants which have non-estuarine discharges. At the federal level, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric The states also have a role. Rhode Island, through the DNR, Administration (NOAA of the Department of Commerce) controls its coastal shellfish beds through overall policy has the primary role in helping to maintain the fisheries. guidelines. Massachusetts allows individual communities to Through the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) it retain control under state health guidelines and provides monitors local fisheries landings and administers quotas to some technical assistance. Massachusetts has legislation preserve the fisheries. In addition NMFS conducts fish pro- which regulates aquaculture, while Rhode Island has very cessing inspections on a voluntary basis at the request of limited and outdated regulations. the fish processor. There are at least two NMFS programs which assist fishermen in financing commercial, vessels. The Local control in Massachusetts is carried out by municipali- Fishing Vessel Capital Construction Fund Program allows ties which manage their shellfish resources. While limited owners of commercial vessels of 5 net tons or over to defer technical assistance is available from the states, it is not federal income tax on income earned by the vessel, and widely used by the municipalities. thereby accelerates an ability to accumulate funds for use on fishing vessels. The Fishing Vessel Obligation Port Development. Once a leader of world maritime Guarantee Program aids in financing or refinancing up to and mercantile trade, SENE ports have been left in the 75 percent of the construction, reconstruction, or recon- backwash of modem day shipping activities. Major capital ditioning commercial vessels of at least 5 net tons or over. investments, backed with regional cooperation in distribu- NOAA's Ne 'w England Fisheries Development Program tion and marketing, are needed if the region is to compete assists in creating technical base for marketing underutilized in today's maritime trade. Careful study of economic and species. NOAA funds various research and development environmental tradeoffs will be needed, each having implica- projects at local universities, which are attempting to tions at the local, state, and regional level. Yet policy for develop linkages to the industry for implementation through such regionally important facilities is set by local vote in the Office of Sea Grant. The states' Departments of Natural the narrow perspective of town meetings. 7-1 Federal agencies such as the Maritime Administration and for on-going harbor debris removal studies, the Depart- (MARAD), conduct overall review of port development ment of Transportation (DOT) for highway construction, activities and set national guidelines for shipping operations and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for waste- and facilities. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers oversees water treatment plant construction. Sometimes these the planning and construction of commercial shipping and efforts have resulted in creative reuse of waterfront build- recreational boating channels. Environmental considerations ings and facilities, inviting business and recreational activi- regarding the disposal of dredged materials are in need of ties side by side. But in many other cases, redevelopment further research. has not been sensitive to the potential for multiple uses of central waterfront locations. Yet ongoing state coastal zone NOAA, through the Office of Coastal Zone Management, is and land use planning programs in Massachusetts and Rhode setting guidelines and providing funds for the state coastal Island offer a basic framework for ensuring efficient and management programs, in Massachusetts, the Office of sensitive use and reuse of urban waterfronts. Coordinated Coastal Zone Management and in Rhode Island the Coastal with local planning and development activities, these cur- Resources Management Council. Massport is the most active rent approaches can be effectively linked regionally to put local agency involved in port development operations, new life in urban waterfronts. having developed major container terminal facilities,. Various deepwater oil tanker mooring systems at offshore In the various aspects of marine management discussed in sites have also been under discussion. this chapter, several of the fundamental concepts covered in Chapter 1, Goals and Approach, and Chapter Z The Offshore Sand and Gravel Mining. As onshore prices Setting, have been used to provide a framework. Those of sand and gravel rise, offshore sources will become more chapters describe, for example, the importance of the economically feasible to exploit. Currently not enough is environment to enhancing the region's economy, and that known about environmental impacts to the marine ecosys- existing knowledge, programs, and institutions can provide tem, although near-shore mining may have adverse im- tools for achieving results. Chapter 3, Guiding Growth, pacts. outlines a rationale and policies for protecting Critical Environmental Areas, many of which should be taken into At the federal level, the Bureau of Land Management (BLM account when dealing with such issues as fisheries, shellfish, and sand and gravel mining. The approaches, described in in the Department of Interior) controls the licensing of off- this chapter, take these principles into account. Although shore mineral rights for both sand and gravel and oil, in references are also made in this chapter to several other waters adjacent to the Massachusetts and Rhode Island ter- portions of this report, Chapter 11, Tying the Recommen- ritorial areas. dations Together, can be referred to in order to determine The state coastal zone management programs will be the the implications of the recommendations in this chapter, agencies most apt to exert an interest in the control of off- on those described in other chapters of this report. shore mining at the state level. Rhode Island is already investigating such guidelines, while Massachusetts is push- This chapter will now deal with the following topics: off- ing for the development of analytical methods for deter- shore fisheries; shellfish and aquaculture; port development; mining need and supply before granting licenses. offshore sand and gravel extraction; and urban waterfronts. Current problems of supply and demand, alternative mea- Urban Waterfronts. The decline of SENE's ports and sures for meeting demand, and a recommended program of water-powered manufacturing activities has left many ur- management actions are presented within an overall objec- ban industrial waterfront areas in decay. With the region's tive of maintaining the region's renewable marine resources rapid population growth, pressures have increased for the at a level sufficient for sustained future use, and developing redevelopment of waterfronts for multiple uses, combining the region's non-renewable marine resources in an environ- business, industry, residential, and recreational facilities. mentally sensitive manner, In recent years, attention has focused again on urban Other coastal marine issues are exan-dned elsewhere in the waterfronts as central and attractive locations f6r business report. For analyses of coastal flooding, beach and shore- and industry, and as exciting places for tourism and recre- line erosion, and coastal wetlands, the reader is referred to ation. Spurred by the availability of federal funds, several Chapter 8. Recreational boating, swimming, salt water cities on their own have initiated major renewal and re- sportfishing, and coastal access are discussed in Chapter 6. development efforts which have fficluded reuse of areas Discussion of the region's petroleum needs and policies along the waterfront. Funds have come from the Depart- which affect the delivery and distribution of oil are found ment of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) for ur- in Chapter 9. The SENE region's combined coastal and ban renewal, the Corps of Engineers for flood protection marine issues are shown on Figure 7.1. 7-2 Coastal area as designated by Massachusetts & R.I. Coastal wetlands Regional recreation area Declining fish industry Primary fisheries port Secondary fisheries port ..... Deepwater terminal proposals \C:7 (gj Tank farm New or expanded shipbuilding facility &AssAc#vsErrs W. Major boating areas Historic urban waterfronts A r L A N r/ c OCZA N k9 t @4, N. r XJ RASSAC CAPE COO AAY v ------ L ffA#rucxIrr souNo --&A srrr %23 SOUND ol 2 1 8 MILES E-Y@ @ KILOMETERS 4 16 NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS MARINE MANAGEMENT NO. SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND PROBLEMS& RESOURCES 7.1 WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 7-3 OFFSHORE FISHERIES The following analysis of key fisheries issues, a display of fish processing and wholesaling in the southern New England alternative measures for resolving the issues, and the recom- region generated over $63 million in 1965. Moreover, com- mended actions program are aimed at two objectives: (1) mercial fishing activities rank among the highest of all maintaining the fisheries resource to assure future supplies; coastal zone economic activities in terms of regional out- and (2) improving the competitive standing and economic put and personal income multipliers. health of the domestic fishing industry. Foreign Offshore Fishing Activity. The Situation Since 1960 many foreign nations have mounted a massive Long before the American Revolution, SENE fishermen assault on groundfish, oceanic species, and squid in waters were working the productive offshore fishing grounds on off the Northeast coast of the United States. In 1961, the Georges Bank, which lies some 50 to 200 miles east-southeast Soviet Union began exploratory fishing on Georges Bank, of the Massachusetts coast. The commercial fishing industry and by 1962 over 500 Soviet vessels were actively fishing was. at. one time a major industry in the region, but in the for herring and groundfish. The success of the Soviet last several decades, it has declined dramatically. trawler fleet in 1961-1965 (more than 480,000 metric tons in 1965 alone) influenced the development of fleets in From their 19W landings, which totaled nearly 550 million Poland, East Germany, and Romania, all of which appeared pounds, the SENE fisherie.-, declined to 314 million pounds in the two years that followed. By 1968, Spain, Japan, and by 1972. Massachusetts was hardest hit by this decline, West Germany were also fishing off the U. S. Atlantic Coast losing 63 percent of its total landings by 1972. If this rate and more recently, Bulgaria, Greece, France, Italy, and of decline continues unchecked, SENE landings will fall to Cuba have begun to harvest these waters. roughly 165 million pounds by 1990, or less than a third the 1960 volume. According to Massport estimates, $27 Using highly advanced equipment, and through the force million in annual payrolls, 27,000 jobs, and $160 million of sheer numbers, the foreign fleets have become highly worth of vessels could be jeopardized in Massachusetts by efficient competitors with the deteriorating domestic a continuation of the present situation. fishing industry. Foreign overfishing has been blamed for dramatic declines of haddock, yellowtail, and herring, the According to a report prepared for the R.I. Coastal Resources preferred foodfish on historically productive fishing grounds. Council, Newport and Point Judith Harbors are the excep- Figure 7.2 illustrates the impact of this overfishing, display- tions to this trend. Newport Harbor has attracted landings ing the high foreign landings beginning in 1962 and the con- from other ports in the region. The success of Point Judith current steady decline in landings from SENE ports. The Harbor can be directly attributed to the Point Judith Fisher- impact of a concentrated effort on a particular species, had- men's Cooperative iwhich has developed an efficient system dock, is superimposed to illustrate graphically the pressing of marketing tailored to the needs of the fishermen and a need for some kind of resource management in order to unified approach am 'ong all facets of the fishing industry. head off a similar depletion of other species. As haddock This approach is innovative, unusual but highly successful disappeared, concentrated fishing efforts and resulting and should be viewed as a model for other commercial dramatic declines have moved to yellowtail flounder (19 68- fishing harbors in the SENE region. 69) and ocean perch (1971-73). If combined foreign and domestic landings continue without adequate controls, the Despite declines in most parts of the SENE region, the entire fishery will be jeopardized and an important world fishing industry remains an important part of the region's food source will be lost. economy. During the 1969-1972 period, NMFS has estima- ted that the average annual value of total finfish and shell- The State of the Domestic Fishing Industry. fish landings for the SENE coastal zone was over $56 million (Massachusetts $45.8 million, Rhode Island $11 The decline of the domestic fishing industry cannot be at- million). As a SENE coastal zone economic activity, com- tributed solely to foreign overfishing. Many other factors mercial fishing is second only to recreation in terms of affect competitive ability. From the point of view of dis- value of transactions. For example, offshore fishing, fish tance from port to fishing grounds and distance from port processing and boatyard activity (directly related to com- to market, New England, is in a far better position than mercial fishing)'generated over $12 million in transactions other competitors. Moreover, the local processing system to 1971 on Cape Cod alone. University of Rhode Island is fairly efficient. In addition, the region and the nation Professor Neils Rorholm. estimated that the commercial benefit from a tariff on imported fish products. activity in shellfish and finfish harvesting, frozen and fresh 7-4 700- All species Haddock only 600- All countries except Lis. 500- 400- LL 300. co X Mass.& R.I. 200- All pountries 100- U.S. 0 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 YEAR OF LANDING NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS COMPARISON OF FISH LANDINGS NO. SENE VS, FOREIGN FLEETS 7.2 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 7-5 The key negative factors are the costs of capital, labor, and every effort to rejuvenate the industry. For this reason the management, and the volume of imported fish. Operating Study considered strengthening the industry as a planning costs of New England's fishing vessels are much higher per objective rather than a planning alternative. unit of fish landed than those of the region's competitors. Foreign vessels are modern, efficient, and, more often than The Fishing Regulation System. not, heavily subsidized by their governments. To complicate matters, the cost of building a vessel in this country is twice that of construction in some foreign countries. However, Management and utilization of fishery resources in the American fishermen cannot buy foreign-built boats. The waters off Southeastern New England are formally regu@ Jones Act forces them to buy from higher cost, domestic lated by the laws of adjacent states, federal agencies, and ship builders. This situation - the high cost coupled with the International Commission for Northwest Atlantic high downpayment requirements - has forced many New Fisheries (ICNAF). Present management within the ter- England firms to buy foreign vessels and fish out of ritorial seas lies mainly with the states. Because polici6, Canadian ports. interests, and authority often differ from one state to another, conflicting and inefficient regulations often The greatest cost in the New England fishing industry is result. Moreover, the roles of state and federal government labor. Of the gross catch profits, typically 40 percent goes in management beyond the territorial sea have not been to the boat owner(s) and 60 percent to the crew, after trip clearly defined. However, ICNAF, established in 1974 to expenses have been deducted. In addition, 10 percent of manage and preserve the fisheries beyond the U. S. conti- the boat share (or 4 percent of gross after trip expenses) is guous zone (3-12 miles), set up its first overall quota sys- paid to the captain. To attract labor, the fishing industry tem for preserving Georges Bank haddock stocks in 1970. must be able to pay higher wages than can be obtained from Unfortunately, these lirnitations were implemented too onshore job opportunities. late. In recent years, the United States has led efforts to ensure the preservation of stocks at productive levels for Other U. S. industries have traditionally faced lower foreign those species of primary domestic concern. Figure 7.3 maps wages, but have been able to compete through efficient the locations of some of these key domestic fish species operation and substitution of capital for labor. In the traw- and their spawning grounds. ler fleet, however, only 32 percent of the gain from in- U. S. fishermen resent the presence of foreign fishing vessels creased use of capital goes to the vessel (with 40 percent off the U. S. coast, assuming that the resource adjacent to profit share). Moreover, the New England fishing industry their coast belongs to them. Agreements reached at several is facing considerably higher cost of capital than its foreign Law of the Sea -Conferences, however, point out that except competitor. Higher cost of labor, vessels, gear, and operating for "creatures of the shelf' and andromous species, fisheries capital represent the key problem in the New England fish- resources beyond the 12-mile contiguous fishing zone are ing industry, and one of the prime reasons for its inability an international resource and are not "owned" by the United to compete against subsidized fleets. States. As stated earlier, it is one of the SENE Study's offshore Recent federal legislation (i.e., the Studds-Magnuson Bills: fisheries objectives to improve the competitive standing and HR 8665 and S 1988) would change the contiguous zone economic health of the domestic fishing industry. A case boundary to 200 miles offshore or the edge of the conti- might be made, since we already import 70 percent of the nental shelf. This would give the U. S. jurisdiction over the fish we consume, for allowing the fishing industry to simply "go under." The direct impacts on employment and cer- key offshore fisheries. However, current and scheduled tain other economic parameters would probably have only International Law of the Sea Conferences are considering a minor effect on total regional income. From a broader equitable means for all nations to benefit from off-bottom point of view, however, the impacts would be considerable ou.ter continental shelf resources, while maintaining the and unacceptable. Much of the cultural background of the principle of the right-of-free-passage for high seas navigation. SENE region - its social habits, its institutions, the tourism Some officials feet that a unilateral 200-mile declaration by "draw" it has - can be directly or indirectly attributed to the U. S. could be counterproductive at this time from an the tradition of fishing and seafaring. To allow the further international perspective, while others point out that the decay of the commercial fishing industry would jeopardize resources will be jeopardized if the U. S. waits any longer. much of the character of the region. With one of the world's best fishing grounds immediately adjacent to the region, it Marketing Underutilized Species was the Study's conclusion that much potential exists for improvement of the status of the industry and its share in Many of the traditionally popular fish commonly found the regional economic picture. Coupling this with the off the New England coast have been harvested near, or predicted increase in demand for fishfoods, it is clearly in beyond, their capacity to sustain their populations. At the the regional, national, and international interest to make same time, however, while the tastes of the American people 7-6 T2- 70' ATLANTIC COD p HADDOCK 14- GENERAL DISTRIBUTION GENERAL DISTRIBu N fp AS MAJOR SPAWNING AREAS MAJOR SPAWNING :RE D d 711- 14' 72- TO- - - TO' 64- T- b YELLOWMIL FLOUNDER 41- ATLANTIC HERRING 41- GENERAL DISTRIBUTION GENERAL DISTRIBUTION UT'oN MAJOR SPAWNING AREAS o of of 40' r NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON,MASSACHUSETTS NO. I OFFSHORE FISHERIES 7.3 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND I" DISTRIBUTION WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY are often highly particular, per capita consumption of fish the marine food production system and spawning cycle. in 1973 was at an all time high - 12.6 pounds. Moreover, Estimates made within the region, notably by the Woods to meet that demand, imports of fish reached 70 percent of Hole Oceanographic Institution, indicate that as much as total consumption. However, the consumers' "favorite fish".. 70 percent o *f the commercially valuable marine fishlife is in are only a very small portion of the potentially valuable some manner dependent on the continued health of the and marketable,foodfish species. region's network of saltmarshes and estuaries. Elements of recent national legislation - the Federal Water Pollution There are three underutilized resources which seem to have Control Act Amendments of 1972, the Coastal Zone Man- good marketing potential. These are offshore.crabs, squid, agement Act, and the Marine Protection Research and and mixed finfish species such as sea herring, dogfish, small Sanctuaries Act - deal directly with the relationships silver hake, red hake or butterfish. Many of these mixed between coastal wetlands and marine life. finfish are caught regularly, often averaging 20 to 30 per- cent of current trawl landings, but because of low relative In addition to saltmarshes and estuaries, productive off- value never make it to the marketplace. shore habitats and spawning grounds face possible damage from offshore sand and gravel niining and outer continen- The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration tal shelf (OCS) oil and gas development. The pace of such (NOAA) has recognized the potential economic boost for development, notably the acceleration of OCS drilling acti- the industry that could be realized if new markets could vities, threatens to outstrip efforts to provide adequate be developed for such species. NMFS's New England Fish- marine biological and oceanographic baseline data from eries Development Program seeks to find a market for the which to determine short-ahd long-term environmental and, three key under-utilized resources - crab, squid, and mixed in the case of the offshore fisheries, economic impacts. finfiph - to reduce the share of the domestic market which Further discussion of these issues and recommendations to foreign imports have captured. Several developments are solve some of these problems can be found in Chapter 3, important to note. Guiding Growth; Chapter 8, Flooding and Erosion; and Two pilot plants, one in New Bedford, Massachusetts, and Chapter 9, Locating Key Facilities. one at Point Judith, Rhode Island, have been processing Jonah and red crabs, with technical assistance from the The Solutions New England Program. In the case of red crab, a ready market appears to exist; however, with squid, the evidence Alternatives to Assure Future Fishing Supplies. is that considerable domestic market work is needed, although there is a strong export market. The SENE Study has dual objectives for offshore fisheries as described in the lead paragraph of this section. The Recent progress in more effectively separating fish flesh alternatives listed below are presented to maintain the fish- from the "frame" or skeleton has made it possible to recover eries resource to assure continued future supplies. more of the edible product. This process opens the poten- tial for extensive use of a variety of species now discarded Continue the Existing International Commission or used for purposes other than human consumption. The for Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF). Since New England Fisheries Development Program is developing a form of fisheries control currently exists through.ICNAF, a method for handling mixed species catches of fish at sea, it could obviously continue to function in its present role. part of which may be used to make fish blocks from which ICNAF's regulations are designed to contribute to the wise fish portions and fish sticks can be produced. More research use of marine resources, and to rninin-tize conflicts between is needed, however, to develop an automated system to fisheries and other marine resource users. Current ICNAF process large quantities of small irregular sized fish and to regulations are aimed at sustaining yields through such sort them into groups. devices as quotas, closed seasons and-fishing areas, and net mesh size controls. More often than not, however, these Related Environmental Issues. regulations have been too little too late. Moreover, they appear to be generally unenforceable. The loss of, or threat to, vital saltmarsh, estuarine, and off- shore marine habitats has become an increasingly important Improve and Strengthen ICNAF. This may be a better issue - one which relates directly to the objective of assuring alternative for assuring adequate future fishery resources. future supplies of fish. Strearrdining the monitoring and quota setting systems would help that body to deal with issues in a more timely The filling, dredging and pollution of the region's salt- manner. Once the system of regulation setting has been marshes and estuaries in response to development pressures streamlined, strict enforcement measures would be along valuable coastal lands may have a critical impact on necessary if the regulations are to have any validity. How- 7-8 ever, given past performance, it is highly unlikely that likely be more important. Besides, subsidized boats niigh agreement on regulations or enforcement measures could be not inspire the care and attention a privately-owned boat reached in time to provide adequate protection for the would receive. Such a situation could prove unsafe and threatened fishery resource. would not spark the initiative of the industry to pull itself up by its bootstraps. For these reasons, it was felt that Enact a U. S. Interim 200 Mile Economic Zone. emphasis should be placed upon creating conditions which In light of the inability of ICNAF to respond to the issues, would enable the fishing industry to rehabilitate itself, yet another alternative is unilateral action. An economic though not on governmental subsidies. zone is distinct from a 200-mile limit in that the economic zone guarantees rights of passage to all vessels provided they Coordinate Components of Fishing Industry In do not engage in fishing activities, and to fishing vessels Major Fishing Ports. The experience of the Point Judith provided they operate within the regulations for maintain- Cooperative mentioned earlier in this section indicates that a ing harvests at a level which will permit sustained yields. unified approach to the fishing industry is the most success- Enforcement is provided under such a system through fines, ful. even during a period of decline. Those involved in market- ship quarantine, or cargo confiscation. ing, processing, fishing, leasing, and vessel ownership and maintenance in the SENE region's other harbors should also Alternatives for Improving the Domestic Fishing join forces in coordinating their efforts and sharing re- Industry's Competitive Base. sources to support the local industry. Such unity will result in a greater degree of flexibility and efficiency of Several internal and external forces are interacting to create operations. the present condition of the domestic fishing industry. Several alternatives exist which would have varying degrees Allow Privately-Financed Purchase of Foreign- of effectiveness in resolving these problems. Those listed Built Boats. Wider availability of vessels would enable are designed to improve the competitive standing and the industry to improve its fishing fleet. Since vessels built economic health of the domestic fishing industry. in foreign yards are lower-priced than domestic-built boats, fishermen in depressed fishery areas (who would otherwise Continue the Present Situation.. The fishing industry be unable to afford a new boat), should be allowed to pur- could attempt to continue holding its own against the im- chase foreign vessels. Modifying the Jones Act would permit pacts of large, subsidized foreign fishing fleets and their this. Two controls should be considered if this action is high-volume landings. This option would not necessarily implemented: (1) limit the privilege to states experiencing a maximize returns or benefits to the region from its import- depressed fishing industry; and (2) prohibit the use of fed- ant offshore resource. Major econon-de opportunities in eral funds to be applied toward such purchases. wholesale, retail, supply, and related marine activities would be foregone and, quite possibly, a significant sector of the Improve the Market for Underutilized Fish industry displaced. As was earlier noted, in Massachusetts Species. NOAA's New England Fisheries Development $27 million in annual payrolls, 27,000 jobs, and $160 million Program is studying the potential marketability and pro- worth of vessels could be jeopardized by a continuation of cessing of several species. The industry could actively de- the present situation. For these reasons, it was felt that velop a promotional campaign to educate the consumer to efforts should be made to improve present conditions. use these new species. The Development Program estimates that an increase of 3 percent in the region's landings each Increase Tariffs on Imported Fish Products. Tariffs year could be worth nearly $18 million in 10years to the would help to reduce the effect of foreign subsidies, thereby fishermen. While this is not, in and of itself, a panacea for giving U. S. fishermen a more equitable basis for competing the industry, it is felt to be a sound start towards making with foreign fleets in the domestic market. The setting of it more viable. the tariff certainly should be made with regard to keeping all fish products prices attractive in relation to costs of Accommodate Fishing Industry Facilities Through either food products. The revenues collected could be ap- Improved Coastal Planning. The state Coastal Zone plied to the management of the offshore fisheries resource. Management Programs could provide technical assistance to local planning officials. Guidelines should be developed Governmental Subsidies to the Fishing Industry. for designing local land use orzoning bylaws which regulate The federal government could designate the SENE region as commercial fisheries' shore-based activities, such as proces- a depressed fisheries area and provide direct subsidies to the sing plants and docking or transshipment facilities. In pre- region's fishermen. However, there would be resistance from paring such local ordinances, special care should be given to various governmental agencies due to the cost of such a pro- Critical Environmental Areas, such as SENE land use gram in relation to national benefits. In addition, priorities Category A or B lands, especially those vital estuarine areas for subsidizing other industries, such as railroads, would which are supportive of the offshore fisheries. 7-9 Alternative Plans rights of passage to all vessels provided they do not engage in fishing activities, and to fishing vessels This Study has attempted to present alternative plans for provided they operate within the regulations for each subject area which emphasize either environmental maintaining harvests at a level which will permit enhancement or national economic efficiency and regional sustained yields. This recommendation would pro- economic development. Most of the alternatives presented vide better control over the offshore resource base above, however, satisfy both economic and environmental as an interim measure pending final proposals by plan considerations. the Law of the Sea Conference. For example, establishing a 200@mile economic zone would 2. Adopt national fisheries management policy enhance environmental considerations by providing better and program. A national management policy and control over the offshore fisheries and preserving the re- program should immediately be adopted by Congress source. In the long-run this would reduce the cost of locating which could be administered by the Department of and catching fish and also increase the size of the catch. It Commerce through the National Marine Fisheries would also allow SENE's fishing industry to compete on a Service (NMFS) with U. S. Coast Guard monitoring more equitable basis and allow long-term world use of the and enforcement assistance, in order to manage resource as a food source. the offshore fisheries resource. These federal agencies should work in conjunction with the states In addition, increased U. S. control over the fishing grounds of Massachusetts and Rhode Island to consider could stimulate econoniic development of underutilized re- establishing a joint federal-state management pro- sources while depleted stocks are rebuilding. However, be- gram allowing limited foreign entry, quota enforce- fore the harvest of these resources can become a reality, the ment, seasonal or species control limitations and fishermen must develop a market for the catch. This involves fishing gear specifications within the 200-mile consumer education through promotional advertising on economic zone. The objective of the preceding the part of both government and industry. actions would be to increase the supply and variety of fishery products without depleting stocks of In order to foster an economically healthy, yet relatively any given species. independent and efficient industry, loans at low interest rates should be favored over direct subsidies or grants for 3. Increase tariffs on imported fish products. vessel construction. Nonetheless, lifting the restrictions on The U. S. Congress should selectively adjust tariffs purchase of foreign-built vessels would not only bring on imported fish and related fishing items so as to modern vessels within reach of many SENE fishermen, but lessen the impact of foreign fleet subsidies by their could establish better competition among domestic boat governments on the U. S. market price of fishing yards. Such activity will enhance the economic develop- products. ment of the region, although it increases the need for quotas or controls on harvests. 4. Allow privately financed purchase of foreign it can be seen, therefore, that in the case of offshore fish- built fishing boats. Congress should consider eries, environmental controls coupled with some govern- amending the law prohibiting the purchase and mental priming of the pump will reap important economic importation of foreign-built fishing vessels to allow returns to the region. In this instance, environmental objec- their use specifically in depressed fisheries states if tives go hand-in-hand with economic development. purchased with private capital. Federal monies should not be granted for purchase of such foreign Recommendations vessels. 5. Improve market for underutilized fish species. In summary, to maintain a valuable fisheries resource The SENE commercial fishing industry, with for the world and American consumer, and to provide technical assistance from National Marine Fisheries a strong economic base for the region's fishing industry, Services under the New England Fisheries Develop- the following actions are recommended in order of ment Program, should actively develop a domestic priority: market for underutilized fish species by applying innovative marketing techniques in educating the 1. Declare interim offshore 200-mile economic public to the use of new fish stocks. zone. The U. S. Congress should extend, as soon as possible, the nation's jurisdiction over fisheries 6. Accommodate coastal fish facilities through to 200-miles offshore or to the edge of the contin- improved planning. The state Coastal Zone ental shelf. The economic zone concept guarantees Management Programs, in cooperation with 7-10 Departments of Community Affairs, should de- coastal communities, leading eventually to pressures to iso- velop guidelines and provide technical assistance late them. The various processing activities associated with to local planning boards. Such assistance should be the fishing industry have in the past suffered less than total provided when making land use or zoning bylaws acceptance, but the negative externalities of smell and waste for shore-based support services for commercial generally associated with them are less undesirable than fisheries, such as fish or shell-fish processing plants, those of many other industries. These fishing related in- or updated docking and transshipment facilities. dustries are subject to relatively less expensive and less com- Such planning should also carefully consider plicated anti-pollution technologies than many of the more Critical Environmental Area (Categories A and B) complex industries. In addition, commercial marine fishing so as to protect those estuarine resources which is one economic activity for which there is no alternative to are of vital importance to the commercially locating in the coastal zone. Thus, to some extent, the har- valuable offshore fisheries. bor facilities required by the fishing fleets will compete with other coastal industries and some private recreational uses. Implications In general, however, the facilities associated with the fishing industry are compatible with many recreational uses, and Implementation of these actions would be a major step most other industrial activities which do not depend on toward regenerating the offshore fishing industry, which, waterfront sites can find alternative locations within the despite its decline, still represents a significant economic region. activity for the SENE region as a whole. Perhaps of overriding social significance is the inescapable Increased and longer-term availability of a wider variety of fact that as world food shortages become more acute, man- fish products and stimulation of -spin-off benefits such as agement to preserve fisheries as a significant world food increased employment in related industries would contrib- resource could become increasingly important. Con- ute both to the economy of the region and the well-being tinued use of the Georges Bank fishing grounds as a world of its people. While increased cost to the consumer would food source will at least partially close this food gap, but result from increased tariffs on imported fish and from only if careful management practices for sustained yield capital improvement cost to rebuilding the domestic fish- and economic optimum yield are rigidly enforced. Fish ery, these costs are not likely to be of such a magnitude as products are important sources of protein used as human to preclude fisheries products from continuing as relatively foods, farm feeds, and farm fertilizers. The United States low-cost food commodities to the consumer. should assume responsibility for the preservation of this significant resource, but will have to give careful regard In time, given enlightened management and federal support, to international interests, perhaps by allowing some form a healthier, more ' stable fishing industry could regain its of international participation in developing fisheries stature as a major force in the economy of the region, mak- management regulations. Control and management of ing a significant contribution to regional income and gener- the SENE region's offshore fisheries would have far- ating development of related processing, storage, and ship- reaching implications in preserving an international food ping facilities in existing ports. supply, as well as aiding the restoration of the SENE fishing industry. It is possible that as fishing fleets modernize, they will be considered by some as less aesthetically desirable assets to SHELLFISH AND AQUACULTURE The Situation Shellfish Production The value of shellfish beds in the SENE region has been est- 2,700 acres of clam flats throughout North Shore, worth imated to be in the order of several hundred thousand dollars. in excess of $2,780,000 each year. Narragansett Bay has In the Ipswich-North Shore planning area alone, four towns the most productive shellfish beds in Rhode Island, and in 1970 had a combined total of over 2,000 acres of the estimated annual values of this area appears to be productive shellfish beds producing an annual crop worth roughly $10 million. There are over 37,000 acres of more than $1.7 million. There is estimated to be a total shellfish beds in SENE, many of which cannot be used of 252,000 bushels of harvestable clams on more than to obtain shellfish for human consumption because of 7-11 sewage and other pollution sources. However, the estima- along the region's coast but are not utilized to any great ted cost of technical assistance and improved manage- extent. This valuable resource enjoys wide use in Europe ment on the remaining hats appears to be far less than and could become more popular here by a vigorous educa- the potential value of shellfish harvest foregone. tional drive. In some European countries, the mussel is preferred to soft-shell clams and there may even be a The major problem with shellfish production in Mass- potential for developing an export market. Although tastes achusetts is management (a local responsibility) which is of American people are very particular, they are responsive exercised unevenly from town to town. While some to innovative, low-cost, and healthful products. towns can afford to hire trained personnel to manage their shellfish beds, more often than not, the extent of The existing acreages of available flats may be sufficient to local management is the sale of commercial digging cover recreational shellfish demands through 1990, although licenses. As might be expected, the impact of this man- that demand cannot accurately be measured for Rhode agement system is fragmentation of authority and in- Island since there is no recreational shellfish licensing. How- consistent regulations from town to town, resulting in ever, commercial diggers are not able to fulfill the out-of- the underutilization of a valuable resource. state demand for clams. Moreover, increased yields through better management and pollution abatement would still This is not the case in Rhode Island, where the state has not provide enough clams to meet this commercial demand. the responsibility of managing shellfish beds. The dif- As a result, interest in developing local aquacultural opera- ficulty in this state is the lack of information about tions in order to capture a portion of this market is increas- harvesting. A recreational shellfish license which the ing and is therefore examined below. Rhode Island legislature will consider early in 1976, for residents and non-residents would provide information Aquacultural Development crucial to management of the resource. Practiced extensively elsewhere in the. world, aquaculture In both states, municipal, industrial, and private discharges only recently was determined to be econornically feasible of water pollutants, and the recent regular outbreaks of in the United States. Given the harsh environmental con- paralytic shellfish poisoning ("red tides") have tempor- ditions in New England several criteria have to be consid- arily closed thousands of acres of shellfish beds. However, ered prior to initiation of culture activities, according to rigid enforcement of federal and state water quality legis- research at the University of Rhode Island: lation and the construction of more advanced waste treat- ment facilities with deep ocean outfalls (See Chapter 5, (1) Develop only those species which are Water Quality) should have the effect of reopening long indigenous to the region or are capable of closed shellfish areas, perhaps as much as tripling the avail- adapting to physical extremes associated able resource. with the region, unless onshore closed "Red tides," however, are not well understood and despite systems are to be attempted; intense state and private research efforts, we know practi- (2) 1 imit operations to those species with cally nothing about either the causes of the blooms of proven reproductive capability in capacity; deadly dinoflagellates or the methods for stopping them. In a so-far successful program aimed at maintaining harvest (3) Utilize species which reach a marketable opportunities, municipalities in Massachusetts, under the size within two years (i.e. have a fast supervision of the Division of Marine Fisheries with the growth rate and have simple larval develop- approval of the Department of Public Health, is "relaying" ment stages); quahogs and oysters from polluted flats to clean and under- populated areas. Private experiments in re-oxygenating (4) Develop species with potential for having a barren shellfish beds through spray-jetting the bottom suitably high price and good sales market- sediments have also been successful on a small scale. This ability; and revitalizes the clam flats and allows new crops to be seeded, although such revitalization can occur naturally in some (5) Utilize species which can be sustained on barren flats. In addition, steps are being taken to convert readily available and inexpensive feeds. the chief reason for the closure of shellfish flats - polluted Several species meet most of these requirements and could wastewater effluent - to a substance useful for shellfish be the initial "targets" for aquacultural emphasis in New propagation. I England. These include the hard shell clam (quahog), east- Interestingly, extensive beds of edible blue mussels exist ern oyster, and Coho salmon. It has recently been reported 7-12 that the American lobster has bome eggs in captivity, al- water at mean low tide ... not within any harbor line, for though additional difficulties in rearing this species to the purpose of.oyster culture and the oyster business." How- marketable size still need to be overcome. Aquacultural ever, no more than one acre in any one lot or parcel may be operations in Buzzards Bay and on Cape Cod have enjoyed leased to any one person or firm. initial success, although they are relatively small in scale at the present time. While the above law may allow for limited aquaculture enterprises, it has many drawbacks: (1) there is a residency Extensive culture operations require large land areas for requirement; (2) the area available for lease is limited to ponds, whereas intensive culture utilizes dense propagation econoniically unfeasible size; (3) the problem of conflicting per unit area. Because of the limited availability of suitable uses (such as recreational and navigational uses) is not ad- coastal land in SENE, intensive culture is almost mandated dressed; (4) no protection is offered to the potential aqua- by both environmental and economic considerations. If culturist's racks, rafts, or floats; and (S) only oysters, not such intensive operations are not carefully monitored, ' shellfish in general, are mentioned. wastes could lower water quality and thereby threaten the surrounding resources. Appropriate regulations to minimize Wastewater Use Research. Related to the growth of environmental impacts should be clearly spelled out prior the aquaculture industry is the possibility of using munici- to enabling aquacultural operations. pal and industrial wastewater effluents as a stimulus to the growth of fish and shellfish. The federal Environmental The SENE Study has identified several locations which Protection Agency has published proposed rules for the appear to have high potential for aquacultural operations, approval of pollutant discharges in connection with an but which should be investigated thoroughly to determine aquaculture enterprise. The regulations are intended to their suitability. The criteria used to identify these areas authorize, on a selective and carefully-controlled basis, include the following: degree of protection from wind and discharges which would otherwise be unlawful in order to waves; area large enough to support commercial operations; determine the feasibility of utilizing by-products in waste- depth -- less than 15 feet of water at high tide; existing water to grow aquatic organisms which can be harvested, water quality; and compatibility with nearby land and while at the same time protecting other beneficial uses of water uses. The areas suggested for further study include: the water. Brigg's Harbor in North Scituate, South River estuary, Dux- bury Bay, and Plymouth Bay in the South Shore planning Over the past four years the Woods Hole Oceanographic area; Winnapaug, Quononchontaug, Ninigret, Green Hill, Institute has experimented with, and succeeded in, using Potter, and Point Judith Ponds in the Pawcatuck planning secondary treated wastewater to propagate shellfish. The area; Cape Poge Bay, ponds on the south shore of Martha's two major obstacles to using this technique in New England Vineyard, in the Cape Cod planning area; Sippican Harbor, are climatic changes and viral and bacterial contamination. Mattaooisett Harbor, and Nasketucket Bay, in the Buzzards To overcome the former, preliminary research has shown Bay planning area. that power plant cooling water effluent is a fairly reliable and inexpensive source of heated water which stimulates Institutional Constraints on Aquaculture. One of rapid growth of cultured organisms. Knowledge about the the main deterrents to development of aquaculture as a latter obstacle is incomplete. Finding techniques to remove viable commercial enterprise in SENE has been the con- bacterial and viral contaminants from wastewater could fusion and uncertainty over the use of public waters for have widespread application in the field of public health. aquaculture farms. In 1973, the Massachusetts legislature This kind of research requires continuous funding until somewhat alleviated the confusion by passing an aquacul- such time as a successful solution is found. Careful research, ture law. Massachusetts General Laws Ch. 130 � 68A sustained by adequate and continuing funding, is therefore authorizes towns and cities to grant licenses to individuals essential not only for the advancement of this technique to cultivate shellfish through aquaculture. for aquaculture, but also for advancements in the field of Unlike Massachusetts, Rhode Island has made no provi- public health. I.Attle can be done on practical application of sions for aquaculture. Chapter 20-10-1 of the Rhode Island this technology until the problems are solved and the Depart- General Laws does allow the director of the Department ment of Health, Education, and Welfare and the Food and of Natural Resources to lease to any inhabitant of the Drug Administration approve the use of secondary treated state, or to any c ,orporation chartered in the state, "any wastewater for shellfish aquacultural operations. piece of land within the state, covered by four feet of tide- 7-13 The Solutions Site New Wastewater Discharges away from Es- tuaries. Until such time as viral removal is practicable, new Alternatives coastal wastewater treatment facilities which incorporate deep ocean outfalls should be built to reduce the number of Within the objective of improving the quality and quantity shellfish flats closed due to municipal discharges in coastal of shellfish in SENE through natural and aquacultural pro- waters. Although costly, benefits would be realized not only duction, a number of alternative resources were examined. to shellfish, but also to recreation activities. However, these alternatives are difficult to classify in pure 66economic" or "environmental" terms due to their multiple Subsidize Aquaculture Industry Using State and effects and impacts. Each alternative is therefore discussed Federal Funds. While this would contribute toward the as to its individual economic or environmental implications. objective of increasing the quantity of shellfish available in the SENE region, state agencies feel that it is inappropriate Delegate Management of Shellfish to the State. for public monies to be applied for private gain. They also Already the case in Rhode Island, the Massachusetts noted that specialized technical assistance services and Divisions of Marine Fisheries could also be designated as development loan programs were already available. the primary control of shellfish beds in order to obtain mini- mum irregularities and maximum utilization of the resource. Enact Specific Aquaculture Legislation in Rhode A state recreational shellfish license could provide some of Island. A basic need to set the stage for the young aqua- the resources for the operation of such a management and culture industry are clearly framed laws regulating the enforcement program. While this alternative might help activity. Massachusetts has such legislation which could achieve uniforniity in shellfish management, costs to sup- serve As a guide in developing a legislative package for port such a program would likely be high. Because of Rhode Island. additional problems with staffing and the strength of the home rule tradition in New England, this alternative was not Increase State Guidance for Aquaculture Develop- considered operationally or politically feasible at this.time. ment. Both states, through their marine management agencies, could be funded to assist communities and private Increase State Assistance in Massachusetts for Local groups in planning for aquaculture activities. In cooperation Shellfish Management. This alternative would upgrade with the on-going coastal zone management programs, present management techniques used at the local level in potential coastal sites niight be identified, increased techni- Massachusetts. Moreover, it could be partially paid for by cal assistance might be provided to towns, and research on requiring increased local recreational shellfish license fees. innovative re-use of wastewaters could be supported. This alternative provides the opportunity for towns to con- Improved technical assistance for aquaculture development tinue in their present managerial role, but as recipients of would assist local economic development by providing increased technical assistance from the states to establish co- better conditions for such operations. ordinated shellfish management programs. Costs would be shared on a pro-rated basis. Recommendations Develop Market for Underutilized Shellfish Species. Of the alternatives available, the following program of Potentially valuable and marketable shellfish, such as the actions is recommended for improving management in blue mussel, could be promoted for domestic use in order SENE. to more efficiently utilize available resources. Such promo- tion would enhance local economies by providing new shell- fish harvest opportunities. 7. Increase state technical assistance in Massa- chusetts for local shellfish management. Research Removal of Virus and Bacteria to Enhance Massachusetts should upgrade local manage- Shellfish Habitats. Methods for detecting and removing ment of shellfish resources by increasing Divi- virus and bacteria during the wastewater treatment process sion of Marine Fisheries technical assistance to could minimize closure of shellfish beds due to health re- the towns. strictions which result from municipal wastewater discharges. This might also allow the eventual use of wastewater for 8. Increase shellfish license fees in Massachu- aquacultural purposes, therefore being an environmentally setts and require recreational licenses in sound method for recycling previously unused wastes. Viral Rhode Island. The Departments of Fisheries, and bacterial contamination is a major obstacle to peni-dt- Wildlife, and Recreational Vehicles in Massachu- ting recreation near water supply reservoirs (See Chapter 6). setts should urge coastal towns to increase user Findings about cost-effective methods for treating this kind fees for shellfish licenses commensurate with of contamination in wastewater could illuminate similar the demand for local resources in order to sup- problems faced by water managers. port improved technical management programs. 7-14 The Rhode Island Gen ,eral Assembly should fishing rights, access, etc.; (f) rental and fee pass legislation requiring recreational shellfish structures; (g) safety provisions and requirements, licenses for residents and non-residents. The such as markers for rafts, racks, etc.; (h) offenses licensing program should be administered and subsequent penalties; and (i) relation of through the Rhode Island DNR. aquafarming laws to existing fisheries laws. 9. Develop underutilized shellfish market 13. Investigate potential aquacultural sites. The Departments of Natural Resources (R.I.) The Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries and Fisheries, Wildlife, and Recreational and the Rhode Island Division of Fish and Wild- Vehicles (Mass.) should actively encourage the life, in conjunction with state coastal zone man- harvesting of edible shellfish, such as the blue agement programs, should verify the stability of mussel, for both recreational and commercial various locations for aquacultural operations. use. A public education program, with National The SENE Study's preliminary list mentioned Marine Fisheries Service funding, using innova- previously in the Regional Report and the tive media techniques would greatly assist in appropriate planning area reports are a strong developing public awareness at the local level. beginning for this investigation. 10. Research removal of virus and bacteria to 14. Increase technical assistance to towns for enhance shellfish habitats. EPA should aquaculture management. The Massachu- accelerate research into the detection and re- setts Division of Marine Fisheries should be moval of viral contamination during the wastewater funded to take a more active role in proiiding treatment process. This would minimize closure technical assistance to communities in identify- of shellfish beds due to health considerations ing suitable sites and in developing suitable local resulting from municipal wastewater discharges management controls to maintain the area's and allow the eventual use of wastewater for potential for aquaculture. Once aquacultural aquacultural purposes. (see below). permits are applied for, the Division of Marine Fisheries should assist the communities by 11. Site new wastewater discharges away from evaluating the applicant for the necessary estuaries. Until such time as the removal of technical, financial, and administrative qualifi- virus and bacteria is feasible, the Water Quality cations prior to the granting of licenses. Branch of EPA, in conjunction with the Rhode Island Division of Water Supply and Pollution 15. Increase research on use of wastewater Control and the Massachusetts Division of Water for aquaculture. The New England Re- Pollution Control should consider giving approval gional Commission, with technical support only to designs for new coastal wastewater by the states, should increase research into treatment facilities which incorporate deep the feasibility of using heated cooling water ocean outfalls in order to reduce the number of from existing or proposed coastal atomic shellfish flats closed due to municipal discharges. power plants (such as Pilgrim Atomic or the proposed Charlestown, Rhode Island In addition to the above recommendations on shellfish man- plant), to support aquaculture activities. agement, the following actions are recommended to produce These agencies should also emphasize sup- a more favorable basis for aquacultural operations: port for accelerated research such as that under way at Woods Hole Oceanographic 12. Enact aquaculture legislation in Rhode Institute which is investigating the feasi- Island. Rhode Island should enact legislation bility of using treated wastewater effluent similar to that passed in Massachusetts in 1973. for aquacultural purposes. Such legislation should include the following elements: (a) definition of aquafarming; (b) Implications acknowledgement of responsibilities regarding water quality; (c) definition of power to grant As was described in Chapter 2, The Setting, and again in and revoke leases and licenses with provisions the Offshore Fisheries section of this Chapter, the fisher- included for explicit definition of lease duration ies industry is an important segment of the region's eco- conditions at an administrative level; (d) methods nomic base. Shellfish harvesting provides important for applying, advertising for, assigning, renewing, local income and tax benefits to local coastal areas as transferring, etc. leases; (e) rights to be conferred well. Implementation of these recommendations to in- or withheld, such as navigation, recreational crease availability of shellfish resources will help strength- 7-15 en and stabilize the economies of many of SENE's could also stimulate local economies by providing a coastal communities. An improved-yield shellfish in- labor-intensive employment base and increase the vol- dustry, supplemented by aquacultural production, ume of shellfish available to the commercial trade. PORT DEVELOPMENT The Situation Once world leaders, today Southeastern New England's tem for handling petroleum product deliveries and distri- ports are being left in the backwaters of international bution in SENE and the New England region as a whole. trade. The reversal has been due as much to changes A study done for the Massachusetts Port Authority sug- within the region as to changes in world trade. The shift gests a multiple-use deepwater crude oil terminal to away from a manufacturing to a service economy, empha- serve the eastern Massachusetts, southern New Hamp- sis on low-sulphur fuels, sharply decreasing coal receipts, shire and Maine market area. Several oil companies have growth in the scope and efficiency of highways and truck- recently expressed interest in refinery construction in New ing services have had as much effect as have the changes England and Massport has temporarily shelved the study in ship sizes and drafts and world trading patterns. until such time as it has received a firm commitment from a major oil company. While petroleum tonnage dramatically increased in the past years, general cargo tonnage moving through SENE Energy receiving facilities are the major port development ports has been declining steadily since World War II, re- concern in Providence as well. In addition to oil terminals, sulting in loss of job opportunities in the region and ex- the largest liquid natural gas (LNG) facility on the East cess capacities at conventional piers, transit sheds, and Coast has been proposed for the Providence area, and one warehouses in each port. 600,000 barrel capacity tank has been constructed. If completed, it would consist of three storage tanks with a Within SENE, dry cargo movements have shifted from total capacity of 1,800,000 barrels, served regularly by six sea to land. Many of the region's once active ports - large LNG carriers. These vessels run almost 1,000 feet in Newburyport, Salem, New Bedford, Fall River and New- length, 135-145 feet in width, carry 125,000 cubic meters port - have become virtually inactive. Today, activity of liquid gas, yet have only a 36 foot draft, fully loaded. concentrates in Boston and Providence, first and fourth busiest ports in New England, respectively. Due to limited expansion capability and potential incom- patibility with adjoining residential areas at the Providence Port Development in Boston and Providence. LNG site, some Rhode Island officials are giving considera- tion to concentrating future LNG storage at the surplus The advent of containerization has revolutionized cargo Navy property in Davisville. Although some of the Davis- transport throughout the world. In New England, only ville site is subject to coastal flooding, LNG tanks on diked Boston has been able to raise the capital necessary for two and filled sites (possibly even using dredge material) is a competitive container facilities. The newer facility at real alternative. Several options are being considered, in- Mystic River, Charlestown, is operated by Massport. The cluding: (a) deepening the existing channel to 40 feet older facility at Castle Island, South Boston, is operated along its 216 mile length to the Davisville docks; (b) deep- by Sea Land Service, Inc. ening the same channel I 1h miles to Quonset Point docks with a pipeline to Davisville; and (c) a deepwater terminal Petroleum receipts region-wide have shown similarly at Gould Island with a 5-mile pipeline to Davisville. drastic increases which threaten to overtax existing port facilities. During 1972, over 1000 trips by large tankers Dredging Projects and Dredged Materials Disposal. were required to transport petroleum products into SENE's major ports. Current projections by the U. S. Navigation needs within the port of Boston include the Army Corps of Engineers show that continued use of the deepening of the Mystic River, Reserved Channel, and present class of tankers now servicing the region's ports Inner Harbor Channel to 40 feet, and the possible deep- would require about 1,600 trips by 1980, 2,200 trips by ening of the Outer Harbor main channel. The Chelsea 1990, and as many as 5,400 trips by 2020. The rapidly River Channel, which serves nine oil tanker berths and worsening harbor congestion and the world trend toward other facilities, cannot be deepened beyond its current larger deep-draft tankers point to the need for a new sys- 35-foot depth without endangering existing petroleum 7-16 wharves and piers. Dredging of the 40-foot Main Ship abilities and existing infrastructure. These proposals have Channel to Providence (previously delayed by litigation been made in a policy vacuum, without analysis of the concerning the location of satisfactory dredged materials strengths of each port from a regional viewpoint. Such an disposal sites) is presently scheduled to be completed by analysis could help determine whether or not the current mid-1976. Other dredging projects proposed by the development of LNG facilities on Narragansett Bay might Corps of Engineers through 1985 include Cape Cod Canal, be complemented by petroleum facilities development Fall River, New Bedford, Newburyport, Plymouth and near the Boston metropolitan area. Point Judith Harbors and Buttermilk Bay, on Cape Cod. Channeldr edging releases polluted sediments deposited The Solutions by industrial wastes, municipal sludge discharges, and Alternatives for Port Development combined sewer overflows. There is little undisputed data on the long-term effects of dredging and disposing of Within the objective of modernizing the SENE region's these sediments which have high concentrations of heavy metals and other toxic materials. The U. S. Army Corps port facilities and improving the region's marine trade po- of Engineers has researched the implications of dredged tential, several alternative measures were examined. materials disposal and found that, in many cases, the ad- Continue to Plan Local Port Improvements on an verse effects of the accumulation of oxygen demanding Individual Basis. Port authorities and economic develop- material and heavy metals may continue long after dis- ment commissions could continue to plan improvements posal operations have been terminated. An additional problem is that present equipment available to the dredg- for local port facilities and promote private investment on ing industry does not support technical and economical an individual basis. The Massachusetts Port Authority, for transport of dredged materials further than 10,000 feet example, has been highly successful in its port development from any dredging location. A five-year nationwide study activities and this success can be expected to continue. Yet of dredging and disposal problems is currently being con- to continue individual port planning without evaluation of ducted by the Corps of Engineers. In addition, the Corps regional forces is economically wasteful, often sacrificing has undertaken a special inventory of potential dredged economies of scale which might be derived from specializa- materials disposal sites for Rhode Island and Massachusetts tion. through the SENE Study. Possible sites up to three miles inland and in a zone 3 to 15 miles from shore have been Plan Port Development Based on a Regional Study. identified using aerial photography for the Boston Harbor A study of the region's port capabilities and opportunities, and Narragansett Bay areas. as they relate to other New England ports could yield multi- ple benefits. In addition to the conventional economic im- Need for Coordinated Port Planning. plications discussed earlier, such a program could result in the renovation of some of the blighted urban waterfront Certainly the biggest problem facing SENE port opera- land now bordering the region's major ports. (See Urban tions today is the general lack of coordination of port Waterfronts Section, this Chapter). The key elements development schemes, terminal construction plans, and of such a study might include the following considera- inland distribution systems, particularly for petroleum. tions. In a market as distinct as SENE's, the region's ports would be more efficient if they were planned jointly to (a) Accelerating the development of container ship complement each other. Planning for development of facilities in Boston as warranted. With immediate future key facilities at ports best equipped to handle a access to major highway systems to the rest of New given commodity would benefit the shippers, the ports, England, the port of Boston could become a major and the region as a whole. Detailed regional economic general cargo center. analysis is needed to determine the extent that regional port planning should play to serve both SENE and New (b) Developing an economically feasible and envi- England. ronmentally acceptable deep water petroleum There have been many proposals recently, for example, terminal. Both proposed sites near Boston and for development of deepwater terminals for both the in Narragansett Bay should be evaluated in these terms: a deepwater offshore terminal would a]- greater Boston and Providence-Narragansett Bay area. At leviate existing and projected tanker congestion this time it is not clear if just one or both facilities are and the threat of spills in both the Port of Boston necessary to meet the region's needs, and the picture and in Narragansett Bay; coupled with a pipeline is further clouded by indecision about similar proposals distribution system to major population centers - outside the SENE region. Moreover, there is no evidence Worcester, Providence, and Fall River/New as to which site is the most suitable in terms of port cap- Bedford - these central petroleum receiving 7-17 facilities could provide for the region's oil needs under way requires time and money. Treatment of in a safer and more efficient manner than is dredged materials is expensive because of the need to de- currently the case. velop sophisticated new facilities which have high opera- tional and maintenance costs. The process has not been (c) Possibly developing Narragansett Bay as an LNG used to date in the New England area. Center. Centralizing LNG storage and distribu- tion on Narragansett Bay would capitalize on the Incineration. Burning rapidly oxidizes pollutants in existing Algonquin Gas infrastructure, the Davis- dredged materials. This may be effective for small projects, Ale development potential, and the Bay's but the danger of air pollution must be weighed very relatively deep water. carefully. Recommendations for Port Development Dispose Dredged Materials on Land and Expand Federal Authority in this Regard. Dumping dredged In light of the preceding options and considerations, the materials at sites on land has been used to a limited extent following action is recommended to maximize regional in the SENE region. However, the potential for pollution economic efficiency with regard to port development: of ground water is considerable and this Study has urged maximum development of ground water in the region 16. Plan a regionwide port development. (Chapter 4, Water Supply). The envi rorimental impact of Massachusetts and Rhode Island, as well as any such purposes would, of course, need careful consider- Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Maine, ation. through the New England Regional Commis- Obtaining suitable land disposal sites for materials from sion, and with assistance from the New Eng- authorized navigation projects has proved to be problem- land River Basins Commission, should jointly atic. Because there is no federal authority to pay for land undertake a regional port planning program. disposal sites, the Corps of Engineers must rely on dona- Federal participation should include the tions of private landowners or compensation with munici- Corps of Engineers, Department of Com- pal funds. This process requires negotiations which often merce, U. S. Coast Guard, and the Maritime delay the project, prolong the problem, and frequently Administration. The central objective of the force the Corps to select sites judged second or third best program should be to determine the most in terms of environmental, economic and social criteria. economically efficient port development sys- Congress should consider expanding federal navigation tem for meeting the region's petroleum needs, authority to permit federal acquisition of or payment for and to some extent its shipping and cargo dis- land disposal sites. tribution needs. The study should also con- sider: (a) the various navigation projects pro- posed to serve petroleum distribution facili- Create Artificial Islands. The construction of islands by ties, existing or potential power plants, or diking and filling an area with dredged materials is an attrac- possible refineries which might be constructed; tive possibility, especially if the site is near the dredging area and (b) cost-sharing measures that would be and the dredged material has good bearing capacity. Combin- submitted for consideration by Congress, con- ing this concept with the need for power generation could cerning federal assistance for local port plan- help lessen the pressure for the siting of such key facilities ning purposes, and federal assistance to state in coastal areas, as well as eliminate a portion of the large authorities for port improvements. volume of dredged materials which could need disposal. However, in some past instances this measure has proven Alternatives for Dredged Materials Disposal. socially objectionable because of unsightly appearance and odors. Regardless of the direction taken by the region's port de- cision makers, dredging will be required in several harbors Ban All Dredging. This action would have serious and dredged materials will have to be disposed of. Here repercussions for both the regional economy and naviga- again, a number of alternatives are available: tional safety, and was therefore not considered viable. Treat Dri@dged Materials. Treatment of dredged mate- Continue Disposal to Ocean Waters. Transporting rials is a process which decomposes organic materials. dredged materials from the excavation site to an offshore However this may have mixed environmental effects. The disposal area has been questioned due to potential ad- addition of chemical oxidizers, such as chlorine, to treat verse impacts on fisheries. Yet, of all currently available material prior to dredging may be toxic to the surround- alternatives, ocean disposal of minimally-treated mate- ing ecosystem. Conversely, aeration of highly organic rials appears to be the least costly and may also be the material may be quite beneficial. Getting this technique least environmentally damaging. Unless new technologies 7-18 are developed it may continue to be the only viable alter- disposed of within any ocean sanctuary native. as defined by state or -federal law. Heavily polluted dredged materials and industrial Recommendations for Dredged Materials Disposal. wastes which would unduly burden the aquatic environment should be placed in In the 1975 summer the Corps of Engineers, as authorized inland diked areas, or containerized and under Section 404 of the 1972 Federal Water Pollution buried in designated disposal areas. Control Act, issued for public review final interim regula- tions for dredge and fill activities. Regulations would re- d. Sidecast dredging of clean dredged material quire a permit from the Corps with state participation for will continue to be permitted in selected such activities in coastal and inland waters and contiguous areas. lands. Possible sites identified by the Corps of Engineers, and re- Until new procedures become law, the SENE Study sug- ferred to under the alternatives section, above, can be used gests: as a starting point for selecting appropriate disposal sites. 17. Continue interim dredged materials dis- Implications posal procedures. Until new techniques for dredged materials disposal are developed, If for no other reason than the extremely high capital the recommended policies regarding offshore costs involved, future port development plans will have to disposal for the SENE Study area are: be regionwide in scope. No one port can be expected to be internationally competitive without support of the a. As is present practice, all proposed dredg- region as a whole. Competitive port development pro- ing projects shall first have exhausted all grams resulting in duplication of facilities, in spite of re- possibilities for safe on-land disposal of gional traffic projections which indicate limited region- dredged material. wide demand, are in neither the national or regional eco- nomic interest. In the long-run they may not even be in b. All offshore disposal sites must be clearly the local interest. Implementation of the Study's recom- identified with buoys marking only those mendations on port development in New England will approved sites. This is standard practice permit a degree of control over liquid and bulk com- for all dredging projects. modity handling in the region and could give a significant c. No polluted dredged material (as defined boost to the region's shipping and cargo industries. by EPA and the state agencies) shall be OFFSHORE SAND AND GRAVEL EXTRACTION The Situation Although the rate of increase in demand for sand and Market and Environmental Considerations gravel is beginning to slow as highway and building con- struction tapers off, the overall demand for these products According to studies by Schlee in 1968 and Manheim in can still be expected to increase in the next few decades. 1972, quantities of sand and gravel sufficient to meet the While Rhode Island appears to have sufficient onshore region's needs for several thousand years exist off the coast sand and gravel deposits to meet its needs if properly man- of the Northeastern United States. Whether these offshore aged, Massachusetts, specifically the Boston Metropolitan deposits are ever mined or not will depend upon two fac- area, does not (see Chapter 9, Locating Key Facilities). Sand to.rs: (1) the delivered cost of sand and gravel from onshore and gravel used in the Boston area is trucked in from more deposits; and (2) the degree of public regulation to mini- rural districts or hauled by rail from as far away as south- mize adverse impacts of offshore mining operations. ern New Hampshire. The steadily increasing transportation costs of these construction materials has made the hereto- Price increases of conventionally mined sand and gravel fore uneconomical extraction of offshore deposits more from June 1973 to June 1974 ranged from 10 to 50 per- attractive in recent years. cent in SENE. Moreover, in June 1974, the price of 7-19 washed and screened concrete sand was $2.33 per ton in cantly increased the efficiency of mining in depths exceed. the high-demand Boston metropolitan area. In contrast, ing 100 feet. industry experts now estimate that by 1976 far-shore sand and'gravel could be extracted, processed, and de- Just as the need for sand and gravel minerals is increasing, livered dockside at $1.00 per ton. Adding transportation Rhode Island is beginning to take some steps toward regu- to this dockside cost, far-shore sand and gravel could be lating marine mineral extraction. The Coastal Resources competitive up to 30 to 40. miles inland from port of Management Council has prohibited sand and gravel mining entry. for commercial purposes in state waters, but not for beach replenishment or navigational dredging. This moratorium The degree to which offshore sand and gravel mining will last until the Council feels sufficient data are available affects the marine environment varies considerably by about how extraction can occur without conflicts with site. Some effects are known to be minor and temporary, other uses of tidal waters. In fact, the Council is sponsor- others major and permanent, while for others little is ing a 2 year research project concerning the effects of known. Three areas of potential conflict exist: fisheries; extraction activities on the marine environment, particu- recreation; and navigation and communications. larly benthic communities. This information is valuable for determining the appropriate degree of regulation for Gven the importance of both the commercial and extraction activities. sportfishing industries to the SENE region, offshore iriining will require careful scrutiny and more information than is In Massachusetts, the Ocean Sanctuaries Act gives the presently available. From the research which has been Commonwealth the authority to regulate any kind of done to date, it appears that if mining is restricted to far- exploration, development, or activities, including sand shore waters, away from near-shore shellfish beds and deli- and gravel extraction, in designated areas along Cape Cod cate spawning grounds, detrimental effects to the fisheries Bay and the Islands, the North Shore, and Buzzards Bay, would be minimal. but falls short of designating the responsible agency. Un- til such time as the authorized agency is spelled out, the The SENE region's coastal beaches are a major tourist at- Coastal Zone Management Program is the appropriate traction and thus a valuable economic as well as environ- agency to determine the appropriate degree of regulation mental attribute. According to initial investigations in for commercial extraction activities in various coastal 1973 by University of Rhode Wand, near-shore mining waters. in depths up to 80 feet is likely to upset the delicate natural equilibrium maintaining the natural contours of When a survey of marine ecosystems along the Massachu- existing beaches. Mining of deposits beyond the 80 foot setts shoreline has been completed, the CZMP should de- depth appears to have little effect on active beach move- cide which are critical and require restrictions, particularly ments. Additional research sponsored by the R. I. in terms of sand and gravel extraction activities. Ongoing Coastal Resources Management Council will help deter- research sponsored by the Rhode Island Coastal Resources niine more precisely the effects of such activities on Council about the affects of mining coastal waters on the the marine environment. marine environment will contribute information essential for developing such regulations. Much of the SENE coastline is heavily traveled by commer- cial, mili-tary, fishing, and recreational vessels, and the po- Offshore Mining Technology. tential conflict between sand and gravel mining operations and such marine traffic generally is greater nearer the shore. Technological advances in offshore sand and gravel mining Similarly, pipelines, sewage outfalls, and cable crossings have resulted largely through the development and expan- line the bottom of many of the region's bays. In virtu- sion of the industry in the United Kingdom (U.K.). The ally every case, removal of such facilities to permit sand sand and gravel vessels currently in use- range in length from and gravel mining would be economically unjustifiable. 150 to 350 feet and have cargo capacities of 500 to 10,000 tons. Most of the vessels are suction hopper dredges equipped It should be clear from the above that the best information with centrifugal pumps designed to work in waters up to currently available indicates certain environmental and eco- 100 feet deep. High quality gravel is being found in deeper nomic limitations to near-shore mineral extraction opera- water however, and many vessels are converting to jet- tions. The mining industry appears to have anticipated assisted suction pumps or pure jet pumps in order to take these problems and has focused its attention and develop- advantage of gravel beds in 100-150 feet of water. ment on far-shore mining. In addition to the need to reduce conflicts with other uses, the industry is interested in far- Theoretically, unlimited dredging depths can be achieved shore mining because: (1 ) far-shore waters currently lie with this type of equipment. Dredged material is separated outside of state jurisdiction; (2) ocean transport. costs are and washed using underwater vibrating screens. Separated low; and (3) recent technological developments have signifi- materials are discharged into a mechanically clean hopper 7-20 tank and de-watering equipment allows dry materials to be Use Near-Shore Small Conventional Bucket Dredges. unloaded dockside. This eliminates frequent fouling from This system will require loading on barges for unloading in onboard seawater, previously a problem with dredges. port, dockside processing, washing, and storage facilities. Moreover, harbor pollution from seawater discharges, and Commercial trading section hopper dredges scheduled for the significant environmental effects outlined earlier would operation around the world by 1975 range in capacity from constitute unacceptable problems. 600 to 4,500 cubic meters. Larger dredges (up to 15,000 tons) are available. However, few coastal markets in the Use Hopper Dredges without Onboard Processing United States are capable of consuming such large amounts Capability. These large vessels could operate in either of aggregate on a sustained basis. Industry experts suggest near- or far-shore waters, would cause essentially the same that a dredge with a hopper capacity of approximately problems as conventional dredges, but of a greater magni- 7,000 tons is the most economical size unit to operate. tude. One such dredge could dqliver as much as 1.5 million tons annually, operating at sites as much as thirty to forty miles Use Hopper Dredges with Onboard Processing and offshore. This is an amount equal to roughly 75 percent De-Watering Capacity Operating in Far-Shore Areas. of Rhode Island's total 1972 consumption of sand and This approach, although initially expensive, would cause gravel, or roughly 10 percent of the projected consumption minimal environmental problems and require less complex for SENE region in 1980. dockside facilities. The amount of onshore processing required for marine sand and gravel products depends upon the level of tech- Recommendations nology employed on the mining vessels. Highly auto- mated shipboard operations (currently used in the U. K.) In the event that conventional onshore sand and gravel de- are capable of producing a complete-range of washed and posits are no longer available in supplies sufficient to meet sized aggregate products for delivery at port. The economic the region's construction needs, or offshore mining becomes and environmental considerations appear to favor on-board economically competitive, the following recommendations processing, although it is not possible from available data to are presented to facilitate such ventures and protect the compare the dollar costs of such an operation to the alterna- surrounding marine envirorianent: tive of onshore processing. It is also not known to what ex- tent washing with fresh water to remove all, or some, salt 18. Develop policy and program regulating from sand and aggregate is a requirement for use in asphalt commercial mineral extraction activities in or cement. Initial experiments using salt-water-washed ag- coastal waters. The Rhode Island Coastal Re- gregate in concrete have met engineering standards, but the sources Council and the Massachusetts Coastal Zone industry is cautious. If fresh water washing operations are Program should continue efforts to define a policy required, the economic and environmental costs will obvi- and program regulating commercial sand and gravel ously increase. extraction in coastal waters. Massachusetts' efforts to identify critical marine ecosystems and Rhode As far as the industry is con*cerned, the key factor in deter- island's support of efforts to determine the effects mining the feasibility of offshore mining is the existence of of mining activities on the marine environment are a market within thirty miles of the unloading facility cap- essential for defining such regulations. able of consuming enough sand and gravel to make the operation profitable. 19. Coordinate future federal leasing of far-shore sand and gravel sites with coastal zone man- agement programs of adjacent states. The Solutions The Bureau of Land Management of the U.S. Department of the Interior and the National The objective of this portion of the SENE findings is not to Marine Fisberies Service of the National Oce- provide the region with sand and gravel from offshore de- anic and Atmospheric Administration, should posits, but shbuld such deposits at some point be needed, coordinate the licensing of far-shore sand and to extract them at the least economic and environmental gravel operations with the coastal zone man- cost to the people of the region. Accordingly ,several al agement programs of adjacent states in order ternatives seem to be available. to minimize conflicts among programs. Such Alternatives licensing should consider the following criteria as requirements: (a) living resources should not be jeopardized by construction or operation of According to the best information availabie on the indus- mining devices; (b) mining operations should be try, three primary offshore mining systems appear to timed to occur in waters not used as seasonal exist: 7-21 spawning areas by fish; and (c) operators should Implications be required to use latest equipment such as trailing suction hopper dredges capable of on- In light of the direct relationship in mineral extraction board processing. between closeness to shore and potential environmental damage, it is in the best economic and environmental 20. Develop predictive modeling techniques for interests of the SENE region for the states to virtually offshore sand and gravel operations. The prohibit near-shore mineral extraction. The existing above participants should seek funding for a Massachusetts marine sanctuaries legislation regulates ac- study to develop an interdisciplinary predic- tivities in almost all of the state's coastal waters except tive model capable of identifying post-9pera- Boston Harbor. Implementation of these recommenda- tional biological, chemical, and physical ef- tions would assure both states equal protection. How- fects of mineral extraction on living and non- ever, the program is also designed to support the far- living marine resources at alternative extrac- shore mining operator, should such extraction be needed, tion sites. The Rhode Island Marine Experi- by providing sensitive site selection mechanisms and clear ment Station is half-way to completion of a operating criteria and regulations. By clarifying operat- study for predicting environmental impacts ing standards and identifying approved extraction sites, of offshore mining. These kinds of efforts the program of recommendations provides opportunities should help produce operational guidelines for extraction while being sensitive to the importance for industry regulation in order to improve of these same far-shore waters to the region's fishing offshore mining techniques and minimize industry, Thus,- implementation would be to both the adverse impacts on the fisheries resource. environmental and economic advantage of the region's people. URBAN WATERFRONTS The Situation Perhaps one of the SENE region's most unique resources It was a picture that ... can be more easily is its urban waterfronts. They provide exciting visual di- imagined than described." versity and a variety of activities not found elsewb;re. Boston, embraced by the Harbor, still retains much of its The potential to recapture the waterfront's vitality lies maritime flavor. It spills down in an easy walk from the just beneath the surface. Most of the SENE region's port State House on Beacon Hill; through the newly completed cities have a curious but stimulating ambience of old and and ultra-modern Government Center; past the eighteenth- new, of progress and history, juxtaposed in a comfortable century Colonial State House, Faneuil Hall, and Quincy pedestrian scale. Nearly every historic port city - Glouces- Markets; to Long Wharf and the ever-changing, always ter, Salem, Plymouth, Nantucket or New Bedford, Provi- active, harborfront itself. Beyond lie the undeveloped is- dence, and Newport - have grown from early bonds to lands of the Outer Harbor, major recreational resources the sea. Most retain this sense of history in varying de- languishing in scattered profusion within eyeshot of grees alongside newer development. Beacon Hill. Today despite the run-down condition and inaccessibility A contemporary account of the 1840's is a helpful remin- of the urban waterfront, the residents still persevere. They der of the values many are trying to reclaim for waterfront fish from rattling bridges. They spend their lunch hours areas: on decaying docks. They sunbathe beneath monolithic oil storage tanks. For many, just being able to view a sliver of "Our wharves ... were in every truth water parks the harbor from their windows providesa reassuring sense for the people, and conta .ined no end of object of open space. lessons. On pleasant Sundays whole families re- -sorted thither. On holidays and special gala occa- But what led to the decay? The explanation seems to be sions they were immensely attractive; each vied tied to the absence of a tradition of intensive multi-use with the other in all manner of decoration. Every of urban lands, in contrast to the heritage of European description of craft from sloop to a full-rigged cities such as Stockholm or London. America, with its ship, was rich in display of canvas and bunting... vast amounts of land, offered cheaper development altema- 7-22 tives inland. These inland areas offered open space and and carry out programs for wise use of urban waterfront amenities which the waterfronts with their commercial/ areas. industrial character did not seem to offer. But now even suburban and exurban lands are relatively expensive and The Solutions increasingly remote. The remaining activity along the waterfront is now considered attractive and recognized as The federally assisted Coastal Zone Management Program, an important component of a varied urban life. And the waterfront offers an expanse of open space relatively rare for which both Massachusetts and Rhode Island have re- as more and more areas are built up. ceived funding, can serve as a vehicle for developing the planning and integrating management mechanisms that are The process of decay along urban waterfronts has left a required. Within the framework of the Coastal Zone Man- tremendous amount of land abandoned, both publicly and agement Program, coastal urban waterfronts should be privately owned. Yet there appear to be no structural im- defined as areas of "Particular concern", and accorded pediments to active waterfront use. From an architectural the same attention and funding priority as critical eco- and construction standpoint, waterfronts can be developed logical or environmental resource areas in the non-urban economically. In fact, the juxtappsition of urban and na- portions of the coastal zone. tural landscapes provided at the waterfront has a strong, Similarly, inland urban waterfronts deserve equal attention almost magnetic, appeal for a variety of legitimate uses - with regard to planning and development. While passage of housing, restaurants, parks, marinas, office space, and tra- a National Land Use Act would facilitate consideration of ditionally water-based industries. Furthermore, people are inland waterway resources, appropriate federal agencies, now indicating a willingness to pay even more than the such as HUD, should support state management programs average market rate for housing and office space on the for inland waterways that parallel the coastal zone pro- waterfront because of the amenities offered. grams. Much can be done to restore SENE's urban waterfronts. Alternatives De principal stumbling blocks appear to be administra- tive and institutional. We need to expand the public aware- ness and appreciation of the unique problems and oppor- Based on an investigation of eleven urban waterfront areas tunities of urban waterfronts, including commercial, his- in the SENE region, there are three possible approaches for toric, and recreation features, as well as natural features. initiating and carrying out land use planning, and for con- With an informed and aware population, priorities need to trolling urban waterfront activities: to be given to the urban waterfront and to appropriate land (1) Planning and development control activities uses along the waterfront. We need to create new institu- could be carried out primarily by local govern- tional mechanisms, or innovatively apply existing ones, ments; which, coupled with dynamic leadership, can balance local, regional, and state concerns, and resolve conflicts between (2) Local and state (or substate regional) jurisdic- public and private sectors as well as between various govern- tions could share responsibility; and mental levels. Local governments need strengthened plan- ning, regulatory and renewal capabilities, and there is a (3) State (or substate regional) jurisdictions could need for a strong regional or state role in land use deci- be the principal decision makers in the process. sions having greater than local implications. A stronger governmental role should be supported by increased public Reliance on the functioning of private market forces or and private investment. Such investment would be con- utilization of direct state or federal controls are conceiv- sistent with the concentration of commercial and recrea- able theoretically, but are unlikely alternatives for urban tional markets in urban areas, plus the existing infrastruc- waterfront planning and development control activities. ture which can bring down some costs of development. While the economic forces of the private market are a Although several cities and towns have initiated or carried fundamental component in any urban waterfront planning out sound programs for waterfront development or re- and development process, a reversal of the more than newal, their success has occurred in spite of, rather than fifty-year tradition of major public involvement in plan- because of, current institutional and public policy. Most ning and development actions is beyond reasonable con- successful programs appear to have resulted from a fortui- sideration. Although various agencies of the federal tous combination of private economic forces, concerned government are heavily involved in funding state and local private citizens and public officials, and the creative use programs, setting and enforcing environmental standards, of the state and federal assistance programs. The basic regulating and maintaining navigable waterways, and the legal tools exist. These give existing local, state, and use of federally-owned lands, direct federal control would federal agencies broad powers and authority to plan, fund, be contradictory to the recent federal policy of state and substate leadership in planning and management. 7-23 In short, the most likely course in the SENE region is to processing; boat yards; public access for focus on the role of local, regional (substate), and state- sport, solitude, and water related recrea- wide agencies. tion including swimming, boating, fishing, water skiing,surfing, and scuba diving; Recommendations irreplaceable fresh water and estuarine salt marshes, flood plains, and wildlife In light of the previously discussed options, the following refuges. actions are recommended in order to enhance the reuse of urban waterfronts in a rational and balanced manner: b. Water-Using Uses: These require large volumes of water for industrial 21. Coordinate local waterfront planning and purposes or make some use of water development. Municipalities should prepare transportation, but do not require di- and inventory or plan for the long-term use, or rect waterfront locations. Examples reuse, of waterfront areas. In undertaking such include port storage, especially bulk fuel activities, towns should give special consideration storage such as gas and oil which rnay be to factors such as the protection of flood prone easily piped to inland storage locations; areas, the preservation and enhancement of his- wastewater treatment plants; pollution toric sites and buildings, the provision of public control facilities. access easements (both physical and visual) in new development, building height, and so forth, c. Complementary Uses: These posi- consistent with Critical Environmental Areas as tively influence urban waterfront qual- specified in Chapter 3, Guiding Growth. ity and may be planned and located so as not to conflict with water-dependent By integrating master planning and development control uses. Examples include commercial ac- functions in urban waterfront areas, local governments can tivities, particularly fish markets, res- focus public interest and concern on relevant development taurants, and retail stores, which draw issues and establish administrative framework at the local on, and add to, tourist trade and other level. waterfront activities; transportation, to the extent that it is intended primarily Local waterfront master plans should incorporate appropri- to service priority uses; residential hous- ate implementation procedures. These could include revi- ing, if it provides public access to, and sions to local ordinances and the creation of urban water- along, the water's edge; education- front special districts such as that adopted by the Town of oriented institutional uses. Plymouth, Massachusetts. High priority land uses, as defined by the master plan and statewide guidelines, can be encour- d. Low-Priority Uses: These neither aged, while low priority land uses can be prohibited, or per- require, nor complement, water- mitted by variance only. dependent uses and have neutral or detrimental effect on scarce waterfront While primary responsibility for initiating and carrying out resources. Their waterfront location land use decisions should remain at the local level, the state has been determined by non-water- should perform the following critical functions. related. economic factors such as inex- pensive former mill space, good trans- 22. Provide guidance and set criteria for priority portation, and site access. Examples waterfront uses. Massachusetts and Rhode include general storage facilities; trans- Island, through their coastal zone planning pro- portation, particularly railroads and ex- grams or state land use planning programs, pressways whose water's edge location should develop urban waterfront planning and isolates large stretches of urban water management guidelines and criteria for decid- frontage, and which are not designed ing priorities for uses to be incorporated into to service priority waterfront uses. local waterfront master plans. In arriving at priorities for waterfront uses, state programs 23. Review and coordinate waterfront use should include the following considerations: at state and substate regional level. Massachusetts, through its regional plan- a. Water-Dependent Uses: These require ning agencies, and Rhode Island, through direct land-water interface and should re- its Statewide Planning Program and De- ceive first priority. Examples include port partment of Community Affairs, should facilities and shipping; fishing and fish exercise their powers to review and re- 7-24 vise major waterfront development pro- waterfronts vis-a-vis other competing re- posals of more than local concern. Such cipients of financial aid. review and revision should be coordinated with state coastal zone management pro- e. Review federal agency programs and grams when coastal projects are involved. funding patterns in view of regional Impact statement reports should be pre- or statewide funding priorities and rec- pared which document anticipated ef- ommend adjustments where appropriate. fects and outline corrective measures re- quired to eliminate, or reduce, adverse 24. Support state and local waterfront devel- impacts. Specifically, state and substate opment plans. The U. S. Congress and The regional planning agencies should: Office of Management and Budget should approve adequate federal funding for state a. Review, concur in, and assist in fi- coastal zone planning programs and for nancing the preparation of local other planning programs which enhance waterfront mister plans, zoning or- waterfront redevelopment. Other federal dinances, and related implementation planning programs and project develop- procedures to the extent that region- ment activities should be consistent al or statewide interests are involved. with state or regional policies, as well as with local needs, expressed in urban b. Review and approve the location waterfront plans and programs. Excep- and design of major development tions in the national interest should be projects or other major changes in land agreed to in the context of state coastal use or activities having significant ef- zone programs and statewide land use fects in more than one local jurisdic- programs or policies. tion. Implications c. Mediate major conflicts or differ- ences between governmental jurisdic- Implementation of coordinated local and state approaches tions that may result from, or affect to waterfront use should help to minimize fragmentation local land use decisions. of decisions in waterfront areas while recognizing the ap- propriate roles of the different levels of government. Agree- d. Coordinate the allocation of regional ment on appropriate guidelines and priorities should help or statewide development and funding to reduce conflicts between uses and increase the chances assistance programs (including land for a variety of uses along urban waterfronts. acquisition, physical facility, and admin- More sensitive and sensible use of waterfronts will reinforce istrative assistance programs) and articu- the use of existing infrastructure and help to reutilize urban late regional or statewide funding prior- areas which have considerable economic and aesthetic ities regarding the importance of urban potential. 7-25 j 5 Ov, 4W, 44v VA O@N f, 'A" vs, 1, At 44 Flooding and Erosion CHAPTER 8 FLOODING AND EROSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 The Setting 8-1, COASTAL AND INLAND FLOODING 8-1, The Situation 8-1, Extent of Flood Damages 8-1, Causes of Flooding 8-2, Principal Existing Flood Control Structures 8-4, Ongoing Federal Programs 8-5, Housing and Urban Development 8-6, Corps of Engineers 8-6, USDA Programs 8-6, National Weather Service 8-6, Ongoing State Programs 8-7, The Solutions 8-7, Alternatives 8-7, Controlling Uses of the Land Using Non- Structural Controls 8-8, Bringing the River (or Ocean) Under Control Using Structures 8-8, Protection of Existing Development Already Subject to F76oding 8-8, Alternative Plans 8-8, Recommendations 8-9, Non-Structural Recommendations 8-9, Structural Recommendations 8-1Z Implications 8-13, INLAND EROSION 8-13, The Situation 8-13, The Solutions 8-13, Alternatives 8-13, Alternative Plans 8-14, Recommendations 8-14, Implications 8-14, COASTAL EROSION 8-14, The Situation 8-14, The Solutions 8-15, Alternatives 8-15, Alternative Plans 8-15, Recommendations 8-15, Implications 8-16, CHAPTER 8 FLOODING AND EROSION The Setting Southeastern New England, with many of its major popula- passed Water Resources Development Act in which Section tion centers clustered along the coastline, is particularly sus- 73 authorizes federal cost sharing for non-structural solu- ceptible to tidal flooding. The region has a long history of tions. One of the three major examples in the country of severe damage from hurricanes and "northe asters." In con- the kinds of non-structural measures that could be con- trast, damages from inland riverine flooding are local in sidered under Section 73 authority, is in the SENE region. nature and usually less severe, largely because there are still The Corps of Engineers Charles River Watershed Project extensive inland wetlands in the region which serve as na- (authorized prior to the passage of Section 73) calls for tural valley storage areas holding and slowing unusually high federal acquisition of over 8400 acres of wetlands. Al- flood flows. If they resist the temptation of filling and de- though implementation of Section 73 has presently been veloping these wetlands and flood plains, the people of the deferred by the'Office of Management and Budget (OMB), SENE region have the opportunity to minimize future application of the cost sharing authority is expected to be riverine flood damages. However, in the Pawtuxet and an important factor in using non-structural solutions, es- Blackstone planning areas, wherepast flood damages have pecially in flat riverine areas and exposed coastal areas been high and fewer natural valley storage areas occur, where structural measures are often not economically other solutions will have to be considered. feasible. Flood control policy has been set at the national level by The conclusions of Chapter 3, Guiding Growth, provide the such directives as Executive Order 11296 and related flood basis for the recommendations in this chapter. Flood plains, hazard evaluation guidelines. The Department of Housing wetlands, coastal flood hazard areas, beaches, and critical and Urban Development's National Flood Insurance Pro- erosion areas are all classified as Critical Environmental gram has reinforced the growing realization around the Areas - lands which are either too fragile to support any country of the need to recognize the importance of an- development, or whose development would constitute a ticipating and avoiding flood damages. Planning and con- hazard to public health and safety. At the same time, struction programs of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreation, .has shown that many of (including major structural protection projects such as these critical areas can serve to meet important recreation dams, dikes, and diversions), related programs of the Soil needs throughout the region. Chapter 10, Strengthening Conservation Service (in the U. S. Department of Agri- the Management System for Natural Resources, presents culture), as well as state laws to protect wetlands and the relationships between implementation aspects of this some coastal areas, and local zoning and other regulations, chapter's recommendations and those of other report chap- offer the basic framework for flood plain management. ters. Chapter 11, Tying the Recommendations Together, describes the implications of recommendations in this Strengthening these current programs is the recently- chapter to those described in other chapters of this report. COASTAL AND INLAND FLOODING This section of the chapter examines the extent of the Study (NAR) of the Corps of Engineers, average annual dam- flooding problem in SENE, and focuses on ways to con- ages in the SENE region were about $ 10 million in 1966. trol appropriate uses of inland and coastal flood plains, As indicated above, SENE's major cities - Providence, Fall within the context of a comprehensive flood plain man- River, New Bedford, and Boston - are particularly vulner- agement planning process which considers both structural able to coastal storms. The same is true for the dozens of and non-strucLum-1 measures for reducing flood damage. smaller communities which line the SENE coastline. Ac- cording to the NAR Study, the worst damages have been caused by hurricane tidal flooding. The hurricane of Aug- The Situation ust 1954, for example, caused flood damages estimated at $70 million along the Rhode Island Coast and within Narra- Extent of Flood Damages gansett Bay. In fact, Narragansett Bay, and Providence in particular, is a classic example of an area highly susceptible According to the North Atlantic Regional Water Resources to tidal flooding. It is a large, low-lying urban area, at the 8-1 end of a funnel-shaped estuary. In addition, it is at the additional $9 million of damages. This is again because the mouth of a river with relatively heavy and rapid runoff. 100-year level is expected to rise, meaning higher flood Finally, it is an area of substantial tidal range and opposite stages. a long fetch of deep water, where huge storm waves can be generated. These factors, combined with the fact that Within the Blackstone and Vicinity planning area, riverine Rhode Island's coastline is in the historical track of hurri- flood damages have been more severe than anywhere else in canes, explain, to a great degree, the reason for the area's the Study region. The 1955 flood caused $65.5 million in past history of'high tidal flood damages. damages in the planning area. A recurrence of the 1955 flood of record in the Blackstone River basin would result in dam- While the southern coast of SENE is susceptible to hurri- ages estimated at more than $26 million (in 1972 dollars). canes, the most frequent causes of tidal flood dama'ges in Elsewhere in the planning area, a recurrence of the 1968 the northern coast communities - from Newburyport to flood of record would today cause damages exceeding $1 Plymouth, Massachusetts - are the region's famous "north- million in the Ten Mile River Valley, $300,000 in the Woon- easter" coastal storms. A 1960 Corps of Engineers report asquatucket Valley and only $100,000 in the Moshassuck describes the tidal flooding and wave action effects of the Valley. Without the existing structures, however, the dam- December 1959 northeaster on shoreline structures, protec- ages in the entire planning area would total $88.8 million. tive installations, beaches, private properties, highways, and A list of coastal and inland flood damage centers is pre- utilities. According to that report, the storm caused total sented in Table 8.1 and also shown in Figure 8.1. estimated damages of $6 million along the coast, including $1 million in Boston. Causes of Flooding Although riverine flooding has occurred in many communi- The major contributing factor to the steadily increasing ties in the SENE region (see Table 8.1 and Figure 8.1), only flood damages in SENE is the region's traditional pattern two planning areas, the Pawtuxet and Blackstone and Vi- of settlement. As discussed in Chapter 2, Yhe Setting, cinity, have had serious inland flooding. Based on flood SENE's coastal waters and inland streams were major losses experienced in the lower nine miles of the Pawtuxet transportation routes and largely determined the location River (Cranston, Warwick, and West Warwick, Rhode Island) of industrial and secondary development. During the the Corps of Engineers has estimated that a 100-year fre- rapid industrialization of the region in the 19th century, quency flood would cause nearly $15 million in damages the level topography of the flood plain was - as it con- today, and nearly $18 million in 1990 even with no growth, tinues to be - highly valued for commercial, industrial, thereby reflecting changes in flood stage created mainly by and residential development. The encroachment of urban urbanization elsewhere in the watershed. New development development on the flood plain has, in several parts of the above the 1970 100-year flood level would be subject to an region, increased the normal rate of precipitation runoff TABLE 8.1 INLAND AND COASTAL FLOOD DAMAGE CENTERS Inland Flood Damage Centers Coastal Flood Damage Centers Ipswich Northbridge Ipswich estuary Providence River Wilmington Uxbridge Lynn Harbor - Saugus Riverside Millville Revere Cranston Boston Blackstone Warwick Cambridge Cumberland Hull Greenwich Bay Newton North Providence Wickford Harbor Quincy Scituate Point Judith Milton North Attleborough Middletown Walpole Attleboro Wareham Newport Braintree Seekonk Marion Lower Narragansett Bay Weymouth East Providence Mount Hope Bay and Fall River Southern Coast of Rhode Island Brockton Warren Taunton Bristol Cranston Barrington West Warwick Lincoln (RI) Warwick Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers 8-2 River & coastal flood plain areas 100 acres or more Major inland & coastal wetland areas JA Critical coastal erosion 0 Storm damage areas J# (approximate location) it- MASSACMUSErrS I M A*bw *Ar A. t T A rLA#ric OCEAN r 0 A. mug ISL ------- 4 ^J CAPE COD SAY _rT r ....... t@ % .......... 11. ZZ- I for #Amr&ocxEr sommo A /4 16- A &LOCII ISLAND ........ Sol/No 0, MILES V KILOMETERS 1@iN NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS WETLANDS& FLOOD PLAINS NO. SA 1: SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND EROSION &STORM DAMAGE AREAS WATER ANDRELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 8-3 and reduced the capacity of the region's rivers to handle Wetlands have a number of other important values. Some higher flows from spring thaws and heavy rainfall. Table wetlands overlie valuable sources of ground water. They 8.2 presents estimated inland and tidal flood plain acre- are among the most productive environments for plants and ages for each of the ten SENE planning areas, based on a wildlife. Coastal wetlands act as stabilizers of shore- I 00-year frequency storm. Altogether, the SENE region lines and first line buffers for storms and flood damage. has an estimated 340,000 acres of tidal or inland flood Moreover, wetlands offer important recreational, scenic, plains, roughly 12 percent of the total area of the Study aesthetic, and educational values. region. Flood plains are included in map category "B" on Plates 1, 2, and 3, found at the back of this report. The sensitivity of wetlands to destruction by any kind of development is great. Draining, filling, or paving destroys Also contributing to the region's increasing flood damages a wetland's ability to store water and therefore destroys is the steady destruction of upstream wetlands which, un- its value for flood control, ground water recharge, or wild- der normal circumstances, serve to retain and slow sea- life habitat. Even development on the higher areas sur- sonal or storm-related flood flows. In 1970, the SENE rounding wetlands can cause pollution, erosion, or other region had nearly 29 1 000 acres of fresh water wetlands problems which disturb the effective functions of wetlands. (including some 67,000 acres of open fresh water wet- lairds) and 44,500 acres of coastal wetlands. These figures Table 8.2 displays the relative distribution of wetlands in represent a decline of 6 percent of the region's open fresh each of the ten planning areas of the SENE Study region. water wetlands and a loss of nearly 14 percent of the salt Figure 8.1 shows the location of major wetland areas. Wet- water wetlands since 1960 (see Table 3.1 in Chapter 3). To- lands are included in map category "A" - Critical Environ- gether they constituted about 12 percent of the total area of mental Areas - on Plates 1, 2, and 3 found at the back of the Study region. As might be expected, those planning areas this report. Both Rhode Island and Massachusetts have experiencing the-most severe flooding are also the areas established innovative new legislation for the protection of with the least remaining -upstream wetlands. Only 7 percent valuable wetlands. These programs and their current weak- of the land area of the Pawtuxet planning area and 9 per- nesses are discussed in the Ongoing Programs section which cent of the Blackstone and Vicinity planning area is in wet- follows. lands. This fact, plus hilly topography in the Blackstone planning area, tends to reinforce the occurrence of high Principal Existing Flood Control Structures flood flows. In contrast, approximately 18 percent of the land area of both the relatively flat Ipswich-North Shore In those few areas of the SENE region which have histories and Taunton planning areas is in wetlands. of flooding, a number of major flood control structures TABLE 8.2 DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR FLOOD PLAINS AND WETLANDS IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND (in 1000's of acres) Inland Tidal Total Freshwater Saltwater Total Planning Area Flood Plains Flood Areas Flood Plains Wetlands" Wetlands Wetlands Ipswich-North Shore 20 24 44 33 15 48 Boston Metropolitan 39 8 47 46 1 47 South Shore 15 15 30 12 5 17 Cape Cod & Islands 8 8 11 15 26 Buzzards Bay 18 18 36 27 5 32 Taunton 33 3 36 60 60 Blackstone & Vicinity 40 1 41 37 37 Pawtuxet 16 0.5 16.5 13 13 Narragansett Bay 21 21 42 21 2 23 Pawcatuck 28 11 39 31 1 32 Total 230 109.5 339.5*** 291 44 335*** Negligible Includes both open and wooded wetlands. Some wetlands areas (A resources) are also included in flood plain areas (B resources). For the region as a whole, all B resources not in A resources total an estimated 420,500 acres (see also Chapter 3, Guiding Growth). These figures are rough estimates based on 1970 data supplied by the Corps of Engineers. 8-4 have been built or are under construction. A major por- expected to significantly reduce damages which may be tion of the costs of these projects has been federally funded. caused by a recurrence of floods of record in the region's These structures, listed in Table 8.3, are primarily in the major riverine and tidal flood damage centers. Apparently, Blackstone planning area, the region's principal riverine state and local officials in those areas where major coastal flooding damage center. flood control structures have been deauthorized prefer to take non-structural steps to reduce future losses, and to Two Corps of Engineers coastal hurricane survey reports some extent, accept a degree of tidal flooding damages were published in the mid-1960's, one for Rhode Island rather than make further public investments in structural and the other for Massachusetts. In both reports, the solutions. Division Engineer concluded that no further federally sup- ported structural protection projects could be justified at Ongoing Federal Programs the time. Flood plain management policy has been stated at the fed- Despite the extremely high tidal flooding damages incurred eral level with such directives as Executive Order 11296 in Rhode Island and coastal Massachusetts, four flood and related flood hazard evaluation guidelines, which called damage reduction projects are being considered for deauth- on all federal agencies to recognize flood hazards in their orization by the Corps of Engineers due to lack of non- construction and grant programs. Further, the U. S. Water federal financial support. In Massachusetts, the Wareham- Resources Council has provided national direction for inte- Marion project (Buzzards Bay planning area) has been pro- grating many federal programs through its Unified National posed for deauthorization. Authorized in 1962, this was a Program for Flood Plain Management, which calls for full $6.6 million project (1965 estimate). In Rhode Island, consideration of non-structural, as well as structural, tech- three projects are being considered for deauthorization: niques in evaluating flood control projects. The EPA and Pawtucket (in the Blackstone and Vicinity planning area) U. S. Department of Agriculture also have policies to pro- authorized in 1944 with an estimated 1974 cost of just tect the nation's wetlands. under $1 million; Point Judith (in the Narragansett Bay planning area) authorized in 1962 with an estimated 1966 More recently, this national direction has been reinforced by cost of $7.4 million; and Westerly (in the Pawcatuck plan- the passage of the Water Resources Development Act of ning area) authorized in 1965 with an estimated 1974 cost 1974, in which Section 73 requires that any federal agency of $10.9 million. The Governor of Rhode Island has re- engaged in the survey, planning, or design of any project quested that alternative measures be explored before the involving flood protection give consideration to non-struc- three Rhode Island projects are deauthorized. In addition, tural alternatives to prevent or reduce flood damages. It a $2.5 million tidal flood control project, proposed and also authorizes federal cost sharing in non-structural project authorized for Narragansett Pier, Rhode Island, has been costs. Implementation of Section 73 has been deferred by officially deauthorized, again because of lack of non- OMB until concerned agencies, under the aegis of the U.S. federal support. Water Resources Council (WRQ, have considered questions of sound methods of economic analysis of non-structural The major projects completed or under construction, com- alternatives. bined with a number of smaller local protection works, are TABLE 8.3 MAJOR FLOOD CONTROL PROJECTS IN SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND Planning Total Cost Date Project Area ($million) Completed Charles River Dam Boston Metro $40.0* Amelia Earhart Dam Boston Metro 17.0*** New Bedford Buzzards Bay 18.6 1966 Fox Point (Providence) Blackstone 15.9 1966 Worcester Diversion Blackstone 6.0 1960 West Hill Dam Blackstone 2.4 1961 Upper and Lower Woonsocket Blackstone 14.0 1959-66 Projects Estimated cost. Under construction Includes $6 million for a pumping station and related equipment and engineering costs. dam was completed in 1969; the pumping station is scheduled for completion in 1976. 8-5 Section 73, by authorizing federal cost sharing for non- after the major storm of March 1968, the PNB will have structural measures, offers federal agencies the opportunity as its initial emphasis the development of comprehensive to actually carry out non-structural projects. While federal flood management programs. Priority is being given to agencies have been considering non-structural measures as the Pawtuxet, and the Blackstone-Ten Mile-Woonasqua- part of their planning processes, these agencies have fre- tucket-Moshassuck basins, which suffered the most exten- quently chosen structural measures for federal implemen- sive damage in the 1968 floods. Preliminary drafts of the tation, recommending associated non-structural measures final reports for these two planning areas are expected in for state, local, and private action. This is because the 1976. authorities under which federal agencies have participated in flood control projects have been worded in such a way The Corps is attempting to broaden the PNB Study in ac- as to require that non-structural solutions would be a non- cordance with newly promulgated guidelines for urban federal responsibility. An important exception is the studies, to include wastewater management, urban flood Charles River Study, of the Corps of Engineers, which control and flood plain management, municipal and in- calls for federal acquisition of the important natural val- dustrial water supply, extensive flood protection, naviga- ley storage areas of the Upper Charles as a multi-purpose tion, water related recreation, and conservation of fish project for flood control, recreation, and fish and wild- and wildlife resources. The reoriented study requires con- life management. Previously, federal authority for fund- finnation by the two states and the federal EPA. ing flood control projects was often based on the provi- sion by non-federal participants of the costs of lands, USDA Programs. The federal Soil Conservation easements, rights-of-way, and utility modification and Service (SCS in the U. S. Department of Agriculture) relocations. Examples of non-structural measures now is studying several projects under PL-566, which author- being considered for cost sharing under authority of izes SCS to develop flood plain management and flood Section 73 are land acquisition, open space preservation, damage reduction programs. Under study in the Woonas- permanent evacuation and relocation, warning systems quatucket portion of the Blackstone planning area are and temporary evacuation, and flood proofing. one multi-purpose structure for recreation and flood con- trol, two floodwater retaining structures, and some stream Other major federal programs for flood control and flood channel work. Two flood retaining structures and some damage reduction are described below. channel improvements are under consideration for the Moshassuck. On the Ten Mile River, a PL-566 investiga- Housing and Urban Development. Under the tion includes study of the Bungay River flood control National Flood Insurance Progratri, administered by the reservoir and the Manchester Pond diversion. Further federal Department of Housing and Urban Development discussion of these projects is contained in the planning (HUD), state and local communities with flood prone area reports. properties are required, as a condition of future federally related financial assistance for building, construction, or The U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) also par- acquisition within the'HUD-identified flood hazard area, ticipates in. three Resource Conservation and Development to participate in the Program by adopting adequate flood (RC&D) Projects in the SENE region. Areas covered are plain ordinances with effective enforcement provisions. the three Connecticut towns in the region, all of Rhode New development in areas of special flood hazard would Island, and Bristol, Plymouth, Barnstable, Dukes, and not be excluded, but would be subject to special con- Nantucket Counties in Massachusetts. These programs are structi on and building material requirements, more care- flexibly designed to bring federal and, to some extent, ful siting and drainage, special treatment of wastewater state expertise to rural localities to manage a variety of disposal systems, and elevation of the first floor above resource problems. The programs have been project- the level of the 100-year flood. All Massachusetts and oriented and include the following categories: critical area Rhode Island communities have been declared flood treatment, flood prevention, water-based fish and wildlife prone. Each state has designated contacts to assist mu- and recreation developments, land drainage, accelerated nicipalities in meeting HUD requirements. soil surveys and other services; technical and financial as- sistance is available under the program. The projects are Corps of Engineers. The Corps of Engineers is con- joint efforts of state natural resources agencies, conserva- ducting a number of flood control studies such as Sec- tion districts, and regional planning agencies, assisted by tion 205 flood control studies, the Charles River Water- the USDA, and other federal, state, county, and local shed Program, the Quincy coastal stream studies, and agencies and groups. the PNB Study. The PNB (Pawcatuck-Narragansett Bay) Study area covers nearly five SENE basins: The Pawca- National Weather Service. Hurricanes no longer sweep tuck (except the south coast of Rhode Island), Narra- ashore without warning. New aids available to the National gansett Bay, Pawtuxet, Blackstone-Ten Mile-Woonas- Weather Service Hurricane Center include photographs from quatucket-Moshassuck, and Taunton. Authorized shortly NASA's Applications Technology Satellites, an improved 8-6 pattern for aircraft reconnaissance, and a computer pro- (5) The present Act will not protect many areas gram to identify the coastal area most likely to be affected. which are potentially major sources of fresh Combined with improved radar coverage, the new tech- water supply; and niques permit watch times up to 36 hours and warning times of 15 to.1 8 hours. New forecasting techniques devel- (6) Due to budgetary and manpower limitations, the oped by the Hartford River Forecast Center and the addition number of Natural Resource Officers is not ade- of a well located radar at Chatham, Massachusetts in the quate for the enforcement needs of the entire late 1960's have materially improved both the accuracy of state. the flash flood warning service and the precision of the stage and crest forecasts for locations on the major streams An additional weakness regarding the agricultural exemp- in the SE14E area. tion has been corrected by the adoption in June 1975 of an amendment allowing the exemption only for those Ongoing State Prograrns agricultural lands actively devoted to.such uses. At the state level there are several programs for protecting Similar evaluation Was made of the Rhode Island Coastal natural valley storage areas. In Massachusetts, these include Wetlands Act, Intertidal Salt Marsh Act, and Fresh Water the Wetlands Protection Act and the Massachusetts Self- Wetlands Act. Recommendations resulting from these Help Program. In Rhode Island the programs include the analyses are included in a subsequent section of this Fresh Water, Intertidal Salt Marsh, and Coastal Wetlands chapter. Acts, the Green Acres Land Acquisition program, and spe- cial components of the state's coastal zone management State Departments of Public Works can be requested by program. Additional federal sources of financing,.some- municipalities to conduct studies and carry out flood pro- times used in conjunction with these state programs, are tection projects. But in recent years, in Massachusetts for the Land and Water Conservation Fund, a program author- example, state funding has not been approved. ized through the National Historic Preservation Act, revenue sharing, and the Migratory Bird Conservation Fund. The federal and state programs described above can go a long way toward keeping down future flood damages. But As discussed in aapter 3, Guiding Growth, the critical unless present rates of development in flood plain and nature of wetlands as a resource has long been recognized wetland areas are actuaUy curtailed, flood losses could in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and both states have well approach the NAR estimates. developed innovative programs for their protection. De- tailed analysis of the Massachusetts Wetlands Protection The Solutions Act (Chapter 13 1, Section 40) done for the Study identi- fied several inadequacies in the present law which, if cor- rected, would make the law even more effective: According to the Corps of Engineers' North Atlantic Re- gional Water Resources Study (NAR), average annual flood (1) The present law is unclear regarding Conserva- damages are expected to increase from $ 10 million in 1966 tion Commission authority to conditionally to $60 million by 2020 if development continues in classic grant, or completely deny, an application to patterns and no flood damage reduction steps are taken. alter a wetland; The NAR Study developed two plans to reduce these dam- ages, one emphasizing an environmental quality objective, (2) The present law limits the review of the Con- the other an economic efficiency and regional development servation Commission to the area and activity objective. Under the environmental plan, the 2020 flood covered by the application, rather than to the damages would be reduced from $59.12 million to $6.33 entire watershed or aquifer; million, $44.29 million reduced through non-structural measures, and $8.5 million through structural measures. (3) Conservation Commissions for the most part, Under the economic plan, 2020 damages would be reduced have neither the necessary training and expe- to $6.02 million, $42.13 n-dllion through non-structural, and $10.97 million through structural measures. rience to properly administer the law, nor the financial resources to hire outside consultants; Alternatives (4) Although the legislation presently includes penalties for violations, illegal activities persist. Using the NAR findings for guidance, the SENE Study con- This situation suggests a need for stronger sidered three basic methods of meeting the objective of re- penalties. ducing flood damages: (a) controlling uses of the land (non-structural solutions); (b) bringing the river (or ocean) 8-1 under control through structures; and (c) protecting people terrain, extensive wetlands, and numerous small tribu- and buildings already in the flood plain. Each of the alter- tary streams, offer no suitable major dam sites. Moreover, natives is discussed below. state and local officials have begun to express a preference for non-structural controls where such measures can re- Controlling Uses of the Land Using Non-Structural solve flooding problems. ,In Narragansett Bay, the scene of Controls. The principle behind land use controls or "non- extensive tidal flood damages in the past, the Corps of structural measures" is to keep people away from flooding, Engineers' 1965 Hurricane Survey Report indicated that rather than flooding away from people. The philosophy be- the most effective protection for Bay communities hind these measures is that it is unwise, indeed generally would be a series of barriers across the Lower Bay. The futile, to try to place a natural system, such as a river and project met with considerable local opposition because its watershed, under structural control, These non-structural of concern that the barriers would hinder navigation and land use control measures include flood plain zoning, wet- the ecology of the Bay, and would be unacceptably costly. lands protection, subdivision regulations, and building code The Corps' PNB Study, however, may provide further in- restrictions. Recent federal initiatives (as detailed in the sight into those areas of Rhode Island where structural Ongoing Programs section above) have stressed that it is far flood controls will provide protection to development of more economically efficient to prohibit adverse development major economic significance. from entering the flood plain in the first place, than to pro- vide disaster assistance and ultimately construct flood con- Protection of Existing Development Already trol structures after the fact. The National Flood Insurance Subject to Flooding. There are several measures for Program does require adequate flood plain zoning with ef- protecting or reducing damages to people and their build- fective enforcement provisions. ings already in the flood plains. Flood proofing is severely limited in its application by cost. Even where economi- Because of its importance to flood damage reduction, several cally feasible, lack of firiancial assistance can limit its use. options for wetland protection were investigated. The alter- It should, however, be more widely used as cities and towns native of giving full control of wetlands to the state was re- pass new flood plain ordinances and building code modifi- jected because, while it would have an effect similar to the cations to qualify for the flood insurance program. Relo- action discussed under the recommendations section below, cation was found to be uneconomical as strictly a flood it provides no mechanism for local participation. The al- damage abatement measure. But where recreational and ternative of allowing full control of wetlands by municipal- other benefits could be derived as well, particularly along ities was rejected because existing local incentives are strong beaches, relocation of flood prone buildings becomes much for development and weak for protecting natural valley stor- more feasible. Weather modification was rejected mainly age areas. Municipalities have always had the right to control because changing nature assumes a risk considered unac- wetlands through zoning, but few have made significant at- ceptable. tempts to protect wetlands in the past. The alternative of recommending regulatory agencies to control development One of the beneficial ways of trying to ameliorate the of wetlands was rejected because, while in theory it is an damaging effects of storms and flooding is a proper warn- ideal solution to reduce the loss of wetlands, it would be ing service which seeks to improve the observation, under- difficult to organize and implement such a program. In addi- standing, and prediction of storms. It also includes the tion, two other approaches to wetland protection were the dissemination of knowledge quickly and widely, as well as formation of regional conservation commissions made up guiding the community in its use. Such a system ensures of representatives of each conservation commission in the tremendous benefits but it needs sufficient money and region; and innovations in zoning by-laws, such as a model personnel to operate. While the many benefits to the com- aquifer by-law which could also protect some wetlands. munitibs are difficult to evaluate, estimates of average an- nual flood losses avoided because of warnings range from Bringing the River (or Ocean) Under Control 30 to 40 percent (based on two studies of New England Using Structures. The major types of structural con- sites outside the SENE region). The National Weather trolling measures applicable to SENE basins are flood Service estimates its annual cost in providing the flood water diversions, sea walls and dikes, and dams and flood warning service to all of the SENE area at $30,000. control reservoirs. These corrective flood control mea- sures remove, retard, or contain, excessive runoff during Alternative Plans riverine flooding, or block rising tidal floods. Other structural measures considered possible were removal of The recommended policies and actions are based on analy- dams, channel improvement, and urban redevelopment. sis of two feasible alternative plans. The first alternative plan was aimed at reducing flood damage costs below ex- However, the generally low topography of the SENE isting levels using solutions which maximized reduction of region is particularly unsuitable for most structural solu- flood damage costs. Included were actions and policies to tions. Areas such as the Taunton planning area, with flat protect development from flooding using structural solu- 8-8 tions, requirements of ihe National Flood Insurance Pro- Areas particularly appropriate for development of such gram, and protection of some natural valley storage areas - comprehensive flood plain management programs include whichever yielded max I@mum benefits. The second alterna- the Ipswich River and the Neponset River in Massachu- tive plan accepted a higher degree of damages and was aimed setts. As mentioned earlier, such programs are being de- at keeping current levels of damages from rising; there was veloped for five SENE planning areas as part of the PNB not as much emphasis on reducing costs as in the first al- Study. All such programs should be developed in close ternative. Policies andlactions were designed to protect cooperation with states and municipalities, and be co- flood prone areas from development with an emphasis on ordinated with related programs such as the National non-structural solutions including maximizing flood plain Flood Insurance Program, forecasting services of the and wetlands protection. National Weather Service, state wetlands acts, state land use planning programs, and for coastal areas, with state Recommendations coastal zone management programs. Completed flood plain management programs should be made part of state To summarize, the recommended policies and actions con- level land use and coastal zone management programs. tain elements of both alternative plans. However, non- These management programs offer an opportunity for as- structural measures am, emphasized wherever possible. There suring that the flood plain management recommendations are several reasons for ihis approach: (1) it is sensitive to the are carried out. Actions by federal and state agencies natural roles that wetlands and flood plains play in flood should be consistent with these flood plain management water retention and their particular susceptibility to the programs. damaging forces of nat:pre (as further indicated in SENE's classification of bothv@etlands and flood plains as critical The specific recommendations of the SENE Study are di- resources); (2) it reflects the finding in Chapter 3, Guiding vided into (a) non-structural and (b) structural measures. Growth, that future growth in the region can be accommo- dated without using wetlands or flood plains; (3) it takes Non-structural Recommendations. The description advantage of the relative importance of non-structural of the recommendations which follow presents actions first measures in reducing flood damages, as demonstrated by for flood plains and then for wetlands in particular. There the NAR analysis (reducing some 75 percent of estimated are several non-structural measures applicable to the future damages); (4) it; recognizes the importance of Sec- SENE area. It is recommended to: tion 73 of the Water Resources Development Act of 1974 which authorizes federal cost sharing in non-structural 2. Adopt local flood plain zoning to regulate solutions; (5) it recognizes that a number of structural new flood plain construction. Munici- measures that have beOn under consideration since major palities should adopt flood plain zoning to recent storm damages have occurred have already been prevent adverse development in flood prone approved, or are still under study; and (6) it notes that areas (particularly in the 100-year floodway) non-structural measur6s generate multiple benefits in as defined under the National Flood Insurance terms of recreation, water supply, and preservation of Program. landscape quality. Only where existing development is of significant importance to the economy or social Municipal flood plain zoning regulations should take ad- well-being and non-striictural solutions are not practical vantage of guidelines and restrictions under state wetlands should structural measures be used. legislation, scenic rivers designation, soils map information, I etc. Zoning in those municipalities with coastal flood prone In keeping with the Siudy recommendation in Chapter 3 areas should complement the state coastal zone management that flood plains be cl 'assified in category B and wetlands programs as those programs are developed. HUD is consider- in category A, the overall SENE policy is: ing new ways of delineating coastal storm hazard areas in order to make the mapping process and insurance rates 1. Prepare flood plain programs with non- more accurately reflect local conditions. Maps upon which structural emphasis. Comprehensive the zoning is based should include, in addition to the 100- flood- plain management programs should year flood level and floodway: wetlands, storms of record, be developed for riverine and coastal flood- erosion areas, barrier beaches, beaches, scenic river zones, ing areas. Such programs should make use and soils information. of non-structum solutions wherever possible. There are three important reasons for this approach: This approach is designed to protect undeveloped flood (a) the development capability analysis of Chapter 3 has plains and wetlands in their natural state. It is intended shown that, for the region as a whole, there is enough land that balanced considel ration be given to structural solutions to accommodate expected development without encroach- and that such measures be used selectively where non- ing on Critical Environmental Areas which include flood structural solutions ire no longer available. plains; (b) flood plain lands can be used, as described in 8-9 Chapter 3, for other important uses, such as agriculture Other, less expensive means of acquiring land include pur- and recreation, which do not alter or increase channel capac- chase of development or conservation easements, purchase ity; and (c) ongoing flood control studies have shown that through sale and saleback or leaseback, and purchase with predicted growth outside the present 100-year flood plain life tenancy. is expected to raise future flood heights. Acquisition could also be considered for buffer lands Together with flood plain zoning, around important wetlands. Financing could be sought through the several programs mentioned in the previous 3. Establish local regulations to control runoff subsection on ongoing programs. Additional sources of and erosion. Municipalities should establish federal funding may become available through the cost subdivision regulations and building code re- sharing provisions of Section 73. strictions which include control of the effects of stormwater runoff to control erosion and Unique natural and cultural sites are included by the SENE sedimentation; included in the regulations Study in its Critical Environmental Area classification (cate- should be guidelines for on-site water deten- gories A and B). Unique cultural sites on flood plains could tion basins in new construction to reduce be protected by public purchase or other restrictions fi- peak runoff, which can also serve as ground nanced through the National Historic Preservation Act. water recharge basins and perhaps recrea- Those wetlands and flood plain areas designated as tional ponds. unique natural sites have also been proposed for protection; techniques are discussed in a report on the Natural Areas These regulations and restrictions should be consistent Project of the New England Natural Resources Center. Fur- with, and meet the requirements of, the National Flood In- ther discussion on acquisition of flood plain and wetland surance Program. These regulations should also requir e areas is contained in Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreation. that local interests submit for approval by the Town Plan- ning Board and Conservation Commission any proposed 6., Locate in existing safe buildings in the flood alteration or modification of existing roadways, utilities, plain. Where development outside the flood and bridge or culvert openings which could affect drain- plain is not feasible, municipalities should en- age characteristics. courage private interests to consider locating in existing safe buildings in the flood plain, To reinforce local flood plain zoning and regulations, rather than permitting new construction in appropriate agencies should: the flood plain. 4. Provide technical assistance to local officials. Flood proofing, especially of existing buildings, is particu- larly appropriate where only moderate flooding is expected, Programs to assist local planning boards, town councils, where other types of flood protection are not feasible, or and conservation commissions in mapping zoned areas and where activities requiring a waterfront location need some in carrying out the intent of the regulations, have been set degree of protection. All wastewater treatment plants in up jointly by such agencies and organizations as the Massa- flood prone areas must be flood proofed. chusetts Executive Office of Environmental Affairs, the Rhode Island Department of Natural Resources, regional 7. Require relocation out of flood plains where planning agencies, the Massachusetts Association of Con- appropriate. Local regulations and state servation Commissions, and the Massachusetts Federation guidelines should also require, as they are re- of Planning Boards, all in cooperation with the County viewed or expanded, relocation of facilities Extension Service. Flood plain identification studies are presently located in areas vulnerable to flood- conducted by the SCS, Corps of Engineers, and U. S. ing where structural protection is not avail- Geological Survey. able or practical and where flood proofing is more expensive than relocation. S. Acquire significant flood plains and wetlands. States or municipalities should acquire flood High priority for planning attention and funding for relo- plain areas (including wetlands) for uses not cation should be given to state and -federally-financed fa- subject to flood damages or for maintenance cilities such as hospitals and schools, and particularly those in an undeveloped state. structures in the flood way- Because it is expensive, acquisition should be used where Through flood plain zoning and building code restrictions, multiple benefits are achieved. Among the considerations for acquisition should be public and private costs avoided, 8. Discourage reconstruction or redevelop- the economic impact of removal from the real estate tax ment after storm damage. Municipali- rolls, and the need for public access to the shoreline. ties should discourage or prohibit recon- 8-10 I struction or redevelopment after substan- 0 The Department of Environmental tial storm damage, particularly in high Quality Engineering should authorize hazard storm areas and along barrier the conservation commission to require beaches. any landowner to submit plans for all activity planned or anticipated by him Further, within a reasonable time period on land in the immediate area of the pro- 9. Update and establish flood warning and posed action, to prevent piecemeal evacuation programs. Municipalities, development. The landowner would guided by siate-level Civil Defense pro- be prohibited from submitting addi- grams, should review, update, and in tional applications for such activity some cases establish, programs for warn- for a specified time period from the ing and evacuation. date of the original application. Al- ternatively, local conservation com- Such programs shoul d take advantage of the forecasts and missions under supervision of the warning systems of t -he National Weather Service, including state Department of Environmental NWS-directed self-help programs. For example, on the Quality Engineering should be em- basis of weather patterns approaching conditions similar to powered to review the entire water- the 1938-1960 period when several major hurricanes hit shed or aquifer to assess the maxi- the East Coast, the NWS in June 1975 alerted the Defense mum development which will be Civil Preparedness Agency to advise state and local govern- permitted in the area, and landowners ments in the Northeast to check their storm warning would be assigned a proportional de- systems. To permit the National Weather Service to ex- velopment right. pand its flood and stbrm surge prediction services: 1 0 The Soil Conservation Service should 10. Increase fi@inding for storm forecasting. provide federal technical assistance to Congress should provide funding to sup- the conservation commissions through port additional stream gauging and pre- the Conservation Districts. cipitation stations operated by the National W@ather Service, the Corps of 0 Additional staff in the State Depart- Engineers, and the U. S. Geological ment of Environmental Quality En- Survey. gineering should be provided to ad- minister and enforce the Inland Wet- A principal component of municipal zoning regulations lands Program (Chapter 131, Section and building code restrictions should be restriction of 40A), and especially to complete development in wetlands, particularly those wetlands identification and mapping of wet- which are in the flood plain. A special study of the lands. strengths and weakn 'esses of existing state wetlands laws has yielded the following series of important and detailed 0 The legislature should amend the act recommendations. to increase maximum penalties under the act to $5,000 for each day of fl- 11. Amend and Strengthen administration of legal activity, beginning upon violation wetlands laws. of a valid court order, and may be made retroactive except in cases where In Massachusetts it is recommended that: wetland delineation is already a matter of record, Or the legislature could pro- The legislature s ould amend the Wet- vide aftemative penalties such as either lands Protection Law to expressly pro- mandatory restoration of the land for vide that an application may be denied violation of the act or contempt if tile proposed action would cause sig- citations. nificant damage to the protected area and there is no possible way to prevent 0 The legislature, with cooperation from such damage. Alternatively, the Depart- the Water Resources Commission, ment of Environmental Quality Engin- should amend the act to include as eering could, through its regulations, protected areas, major aquifers or empower conservation commissions to potential water supplies susceptible deny anl application. 8-11 to ground water pollution and associ- "taking", setting the limits of per- ated recharge areas. missable regulation consistent with current judicial interpretation. This � The legislature should create regional con- would be applicable not just to the servation commissions empowered to ex- Wetlands Laws, but to other regula- ainine an entire watershed, wetland area tory situations as well. or aquifer and set limitations on the maxi- (In a landmark case in Wisconsin - mum amount of development in the Just v. Marinette County - the court watershed or wedand area. ruled that the restriction on filling a wetland was designed to prevent � The Division of Water Resources and the harm to the natural status quo of Attorney General should prepare a model the environment, as opposed to be- aquifer by-law and supporting memoran- ing designed to produce a public dum of law for innovative use under local benefit. Therefore filling could be zoning by-laws. restricted under the state's police power, not requiring compensation For wetlands in Rhode Island, it is recom- to the landowner.) mended that: 9 Local assessors should reassess re- � Additional staff should be provided to stricted wetlands under the Fresh the State Department of Natural Re- Water and Coastal Wetlands Acts sources to administer the Fresh Water for purposes of property taxation, Wetlands Act. to reflect lower values. � Using the existing inventory and sur- 0 The Coastal Resources Management vey of wetlands, baseline data should Council's enabling legislation should be developed and used to establish a be amended to provide penalties rating system for designating critical for violation.of its regulations in- fresh water wetlands of the state. Re- cluding regulations for salt marshes. strictive orders should be used to pro- Authority for enforcement should tect the most critical areas. include the power to arrest and fine violators. � The results of an inventory and rating 0 The Enforcement Division of the system of coastal wetlands, now being Department of Natural Resources carried out, should be implemented us- should be expanded to reflect the ing restrictive orders for the most criti- expanding authority of the Coastal cal wetlands. Resources Management Council. � Consistent with judicial interpretation Structural Recommendations. In built-up and of "taking" situations, provisions for heavily used areas such as the Pawtuxet and Black- compensation and a statutory defini- stone planning areas, storm and flooding damages tion of a"'taking" should be added to are already severe, and natural storage area protec- the Fresh Water and Coastal Wetlands tion and other non-structural measures are often not and Intertidal Salt Marsh Acts. Above adequate. the broad definition of "taking", the legislature should appropriate funds A number of the structural measures under consideration to enable damages to be paid to a in the region have already been approved or are still under restricted landowner as provided un- study and evaluation (such as for the Pawtuxet and Black- der existing law, to encourage use of stone planning areas). Instead of making specific recom- the Coastal Wetlands Act. mendations for structural projects, the SENE Study in- cludes discussion of the proposed projects and suggests 0 To clarify, standardize, and provide where they should be coordinated with other programs uniformity in the application of or reconsidered in light of preferred non-structural mea- compensation to restricted land- sures where available. owners the State legislature should enact a statutory definition of a 8-12 12. Construct flood protection projects requirement that such structures can be proposed only selectively. To reduce future flood dam- where the area to be protected is of high value. Further, ages, the Corps of Engineers, Soil Conser- future or ongoing studies should be required to include a vation Service, and state and local authori- comparison of the cost of proposed flood control works ties should!continue to consider the selec- with the cost of purchasing or acquiring easements on tive construction of protection projects flood hazardous lands. Where it is shown that such ac- only where@ protecting an area of greater quisitions are in the public interest, federal and/or state than local significance, where the cost is funds should be made available for the purchase of land less than acquisition of the flood plain and/or easements in flood hazardous areas, and for mak- area, or where non-structural solutions ing relocation and flood proofing of existing structures are no longer available. Recreation, fish viable alternatives to structural measures. Application of and wildlife, water supply, and water Section 73 of the Water Resources Development Act of quality considerations should continue 1974 will be an important factor in making non-structural to be taken into account in the formula- measures more competitive than they have been. tion and selection of each project. Implications Maintenance of existing structures is also a part of an over- all flood plain management program. Growing interest in In sum, the policy of applying non-structural measures and support of reha 'bilitating mill dams is being expressed wherever possible in the context of comprehensive flood by municipal officials and citizen groups. Dam mainten- plain management programs is expected to minimize ance together with 'Coordinated operation would help to future flood damages. This approach is designed to work keep the limited flood retention capacity of mill ponds with, not against, the natural, roles that flood plains and intact, as well as offer recreation opportunities and, in wetlands play in accommodating the forces of nature. some cases, small sc@,ale power generation. This policy also deals with the reality that in many in- stances in this region structural solutions are not feasible. Protective structure's can provide direct protection against Such a policy will also be a significant step toward pro- loss of property aloi,i the coastline, and can help increase tecting the physical beauty of the region's landscape ; 9 property values and@ tax revenues. Individual project and which, as was discussed in Chapter 2, is expected to be in engineering costs may be high, thereby reinforcing the the long-term economic interest of the SENE region. INLAND EROSION The Situation Inland erosion and se'dimentation are generally not major proper logging road location, and stabilization could be problems in the SEN@ region, compared to non-glaciated used. Technical assistance is available from the local Con- areas such as in Maryland and Virginia. However, localized servation Districts and the Departments of Natural Re- problem areas are assolciated with the development of open sources in the Executive Office of Environmental Affairs in and forest lands. The Soil Conservation Service has identi- Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, through fied the Narragansett! Bay planning area as having the most the cooperative Federal-State Forestry Program, and serious erosion problems in SENE. These problems apply through Resource, Conservation and Development both to agricultural Ihnds and to lands undergoing develop- Projects. ment. Provisions should be made for the retention of optimum The Solutions amounts of vegetative cover for watershed protection on all areas undergoing residential, highway, and industrial de- Alternatives velopment and construction. Developers should prepare and follow plans designed to minimize the deterioration Conservation land treatment practices have proved effec- of the hydrologic balance and the resulting erosion by tive in reducing erosio.n on agricultural and forest lands maintenance of vegetative cover during development. They and on urban fringe lands. Laind treatment practices should utilize the natural landscape in their planning for such as contour farming, cover cropping, terracing, critical environmental purposes. Where necessary, developers and area planting, diversi ons, pasture and hayland management, contractors should apply erosion control measures such as 8-13 temporary debris basins, desilting basins, seeding and ordinances. Municipalities, assisted by the mulching of exposed areas, temporary diversions, and U. S. Department of Agriculture, the Execu- forest buffer zones during construction. Adequate plan- tive Office of Environmental Affairs in Massa- ning prior to construction and close supervision of con- chusetts and the state Department of Natural struction operations are needed to control sources of Resources in Rhode Island, should establish sediment. local sediment and erosion control ordinances. Alternative Plans A model of such ordinances is included in the more detailed information available through the Study. Cities and towns Alternatives considered for protecting inland erosion with existing high and medium development pressure (see areas will now be discussed. (a) Establish municipal sedi- Chapter 3, Guiding Growth, in the planning area reports) ment and erosion control ordinances. Such ordinances, should be among the first to implement this recommenda- added to existing building codes and subdivision regulations tion. In municipalities which are almost completely built and adequately enforced, would be sufficient to control the up, such as Providence, Boston, Newton, and Everett, there problem. (b) Establish appropriate forest buffer zones within is little need for these ordinances. 200 feet of streams and lakes through public acquisition of land and municipal shoreline ordinances. This alternative Alternatives (b) and (c) are also recommended selectively in also applies to protection of water bodies which are included appropriate planning area reports. in SENE resource category B (see Chapter 3, Guiding Growth (c) Control forest road erosion by proper road location and stabilization activities such as seeding and ditching. Implications Recommendations Local action supported by state and federal technical assistance can control the localized instances of inland The intensity of the problem will vary with the amount of erosion and sedimentation throughout the region. Such development expected. To control erosion from construc- action should also reduce water quality degradation due to tion sites throughout the region, it is recommended to: runoff and sedimentation, and should help to protect open space and wildlife habitats. 13. Establish local sediment and erosion control COASTAL EROSION The Situation The most severe storms to hit the coast of the SENE region beaches, many of which are currently developed and used are hurricanes, making coastal erosion damages particularly to capacity. Increases in beach demand combined with serious for the planning areas in the southern portion of continual erosion of many beaches suggests that existing the region - the Pawcatuck, Narragansett Bay, Buzzards Bay, beaches may not be able to accommodate future patron- and the Cape Cod and Islands planning areas. This section age. Additional discussion of beaches considered for fur- addresses ways to reduce unnaturally increasing rates of ther study for protection and restoration is contained critical coastal erosion. in Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreation. The Corps of Engineers has approximated lengths of criti- The National Park Service is currently developing a new cal coastal erosion areas (erosion of about 3 feet or more resource management policy pertaining to national sea- per year). These are displayed in Table 8.4 and in Figure shores. The policy is designed both to serve present visi- 8 J. Negligible amounts of coastal erosion were measured tors, and to preserve these areas in an essentially natural for the Taunton, Blackstone (Providence Harbor area), and state. Such a management strategy reflects a philosophy Pawtuxet planning areas, which have little coastal shore- of living with, and adjusting to, natural events, and ac- line. While the extent of erosion is particularly severe knowledges the vital role natural processes play in the along the southern coastline of the region, there are also Jong-term preservation of areas such as the Cape Cod serious erosion spots along the eastern Massachusetts shore- National Seashore. line such as along Plum Island in the Ipswich-North Shore area and the northern portion of the South Shore planning In Rhode Island, the state Coastal Resources Manage- area. ment Council has adopted, as part of its coastal zone Much of the critical erosion is occurring along coastal management program, a set of regulations and official maps for regulating barrier beaches. However, overlapping ment - was considered for the most part an unwise, even jurisdictions with municipalities and the Department of futile, investment of public funds, except in those few Natural Resources, together with continued challenges to areas where the area protected was regionally significant. the Council's barrier beach authority, have weakened the Finally, a plan emphasizing environmental preservation - potential strength of the new barrier beach regulations. a rigid coastal zone management program precluding future encroachment on marshes and barrier beaches and encour- The Solutions aging restoration of natural impediments to erosion-formed the backbone of the recommended plan outlined below. Alternatives Recommendations A number of alterriati'@e measures were considered for Coastal beaches and critical erosion areas were included protecting or enchanc 'ing the coastal areas. (a) Planting with along with wetlands in the SENE Critical Environmental' beach grass and fertilizin Areas as Priority Protection Areas (resource Category A) ,Dug areas of the existing dunes, to reduce wind erosion. ne stabilization with beach grass requiring the greatest degree of protection from develop- will reduce loss of sand into lagoons and estuaries and en- ment. This approach reflects the fragile nature of these hance shellfish beds. (b) Restoration and protection of areas and the dynamic role that uninterrupted natural pro- beaches by direct sand placement (artificial nourishment) cesses play in the long-term evolution of the areas, as des- and construction of back-up dikes of sand and gravel, rock cribed in Chapter 3, and is consistent with the proposed or concrete walls, and, rock groins, where required: (c) Pro- National Park Service policy pertaining to national sea- tection of erodible bluffs with rock revetments, sea walls, or shores. bulkheads. More receni tly, the possibility of using floating breakwaters to reduce Ishoreline erosion has received some Consistent with, and in conjunction with, the preceding attention. Restored beaches and protected dunes would act recommendations on managing coastal flood prone areas as a first line of defense for marshes and lagoons and develop- is the following recommendation: ment beyond. Increased beach area would allow greater use by bathers. 14. Manage critical erosion areas through state coastal zone programs. State Alternative Plans legislatures should ensure that state coast- al zone management program areas of jur- Within the context of the alternative measures discussed isdiction include coastal wetlands, barrier above, several alternative plans were examined. A plan to beaches, and the coastal flood prone areas "do nothing," to allow present patterns of development as defined for purposes of the National and steadily increasing rates of erosion to continue, was Flood Insurance Program. rejected as being in ne'ither the economic nor environmental interest of the region.@ A plan stressing restoration and pro- In the case of Rhode Island, the Coastal Resources Man- tection of critical shoreline areas through extensive struc- agement Council (CRMC) does not have jurisdiction over tural controls, thus permitting further development - the entire area subject to coastal flooding, even with the technically a plan emphasizing future economic develop- special jurisdiction of coastal wetlands and barrier beaches TABLE 8.4 DISTRIBUTION OF CRITICAL COASTAL EROSION Annual Rates of Erosion Planning Area Feet Miles Ipswich-North Shore 12,600 2.4 Boston Harbor area 1,200 0.4 South Shore 25,900 4.9 Cape Cod and Islands 291,850 55.3 Buz7ards Bay 1,200 0.9 Narragansett Bay 35,200 6.7 (including Block Island) (31,000) (5.9) Pawcatuck (includes South 8,800 1.7 County shoreline) 376,750 71.4 Source: These figures represent rough estimates provided by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Total does not add due to rounding. 8-15 above the high water mark. Extension of the CRMC's ment programs. Priority should be area of jurisdiction to include the I 00-year flood prone given to areas experiencing critical areas would go a long way in integrating the effective ap- rates of coastal erosion (3 feet or plication of a number of related programs in areas of more per year). coastal influence. In Massachusetts, the area subject to coastal management jurisdiction should include the 100- Possible studies of the need to artificially nourish eroding year flood prone area. beaches with sand are discussed in Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreation. Only where beaches have potential for recre- Consistent with a coastal zone management program: ation benefits should beach nourishment be considered. It must be kept in mind that beach nourishment, if done at 15. Protect critical erosion areas through all, must be done carefully so as not to aggravate or trans- local regulations. Coastal municipali- fer erosion problems. Also, it should be recognized that ties should include, on their flood hazard such action will not eliminate the causes of erosion and will maps prepared for the National Flood therefore require periodic replenishment. Insurance Program, wetlands and areas subject to critical rates of erosion including However, in some cases, structural approaches to control- barrier beaches and dunes. Town zoning ling coastal erosion may be justified: ordinances, building codes, and subdivi- sion regulations should expressly prohibit .17. Construct erosion control projects develo 'pment in these areas and should in- selectively. where non-structural tech- clude other protective regulations to guard niques are not effective in slowing accel- against use which would accelerate natural erating rates of erosion, such as for eroding erosion rates. bluffs, the Corps of Engineers, Soil Con- servation Service, and state and local au- Such regulations should incorporate the protective regula- thorities should consider the selective tions and restrictions of state wetlands laws, and in the construction of erosion control projects. case of Rhode Island, barrier beach regulations. The Rhode Island Supreme Court has ruled that the state anct Areas other than eroding beaches and unique natural sites municipalities can limit beach access on a non-discrimina- can be considered for this type of protection. These pro- tory basis if the shore area was endangered by overutiliza- jects should apply methods as similar as possible to natural tion. Similarly, in Massachusetts, municipalities have the ones, in order to avoid aggravating or transferring erosion right to restrict access to lands under their jurisdiction. problems. Another coastal restoration effort could include: Broad authority given to Massachusetts conservation com- missions would include limitation of access to, and use of, 18. Build or restore salt marshes. The conservation lands held by the town. Corps of Engineers, the Executive Office of Environmental Affairs in Massachusetts, The HUD flood insurance program should encourage in- the Department of Natural Resources in corporation of those areas serving as important buffers Rhode Island, state Departments of Public to storm damages by including wave height and velocity Works, and coastal zone management pro- in the guidelines for defining flood hazard areas. grams should follow carefully the ongoing and proposed pilot projects in salt marsh Further, states, municipalities, and conservation com- construction or restoration in the neigh- missions should: boring states of New York, Connecticut, and Maine with the view that, if these 16. Encourage natural stabilization of projects are successful, Massac -husetts and coastal erosion areas. Munici- Rhode Island should also consider under- palities, conservation commissions, taking them. and the states, through their coastal zone management programs, should Implications encourage such stabilization measures as vegetative cover, snow fences, dis- In sum, an approach which seeks to protect fragile coastal carded Christmas trees, and board walks to areas from critical erosion, using non-structural means, is to slow the effects of wind and wave consistent with maintaining the natural character of the erosion, particularly on dunes and bar- coastal region with benefits both to recreation and open ier beaches. Funding support could space preservation, and to tourism and other economic come through implementation funds activities dependent on maintaining the natural beauty for the state coastal zone manage- of the region. 8-16 Aw eel Ile, vel VII J ar ISO "job AJ Locating Key Facilities CHAPTER 9 LOCATING KEY FACILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 The Setting 9-1, ONSHORE SAND AND GRAVEL EXTRACTION 9-2, The Situation 9-2, The Solutions 94, Alternatives 9-4, Importing Sand and Gravel from Outside the SENE Region 94, The Substitution of Crushed Stone for Sand and Gravel 9-4'Offshore Min ing of Sand and Gravel 94, Iden tify ing and Preparing a Plan for Seq uen tial Uses of Onshore Deposit Sites Within the Region 94, Alternative Plans 9-5, Recommendations 9-5, Implications 9-6, ELECTRICAL POWER 9-6, The Situation 9-6, The Energy Crisis and Projecting Demand 9-7, Meeting Future Power Needs 9-7, Cost Implications of Alternative Sites 9-7, State Institutional Arrangements for Siting 9-9, The Solutions 9-9, Demand Management Measures 9-9, Efficient Pricing of Electrical Power to Reflect the Marginal Costs of Supply 9-9, Revising the Rate Structure 9-9, Alternatives for Power Plant Siting 9-10, Continue the Present Siting System 9-10, Create One-Stop Coordinated Federal-State Permitting 9-10, Establish ftogram of State Identification and Protection of Potential Power Plant Sites 9-10, The Technological Innovations Alternative 9-10, Alternative Plans 9-11, Recommendations 9-11, Demand Management and Con- servation 9-11, Siting 9-1Z Implications 9-12, PETROLEUM FACILITIES 9-12, The Situation 9-13, Market, Environmental, and Economic Considerations 9-13, Institutional Considerations 9-15, The Solutions 9-16, Derrand Management 9-16, Facilities Alternatives 9-16, Delivery 9-16, Refining 9-16, Distribution 9-16, Alternative Plans 9-17, Recommendations 9-17, Demand Management 9-17, Facilities Siting 9-18, Facilities Conflguration 9-18, Implications 9-19, SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 9-19, The Situation 9-19, The Solutions 9-20, Land Disposal Site Selection to Minimize Leachate Infiltration 9-20, Established Landfill Operations Regulated to Minimize Impact 9-20, Encourage Community Participation in State Solid Waste Recovery Programs 9-20, Recommendations 9-20, Implications 9-20. CHAPTER 9 LOCATING KEY FACILITIES The Setting The production of pow, er, the ready availability of fuel, the in the state. The Council reviews utility forecasts and can extraction of sand and.gravel for construction and the dis- either accept, reject, or conditionally approve proposals for posal of wastes are crucial to the continuing health of the new generating facilities. In Rhode Island. the Coastal economy of Southeastern New England. And yet there are Resources Management Council has the authority to re- few uses of the land more controversial. view, modify. set conditions for, approve or reject pro- posals for power plants, except those proposed by the state's Port Authority and Economic Development Cor- The extraction of sand and gravel can be noisy, dirty, and poration, which are reviewed by the General Assembi y bring with it heavy equipment traffic. Power plants, re- Federal involvement is complex. Reviewing various fineries, and solid waste disposal sites are unsightly, and aspects of each power plant proposal are the U. S. Army are potential polluters. Considering the generally negative Corps of Engineers, the Environmental Protection Agency, effects such key facilities have traditionally had on the the Nuclear Regulatory Commission (formerly AEC) for physical landscape, a ','put them in somebody else's back- nuclear plants, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric yard" attitude prevails in most communities. However, Administration, the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, the from the standpoint of public health, we would be worse Federal Aeronautic Administration, and the Federal off without these facilities than we are with thern - at Power Commission. This multitude of review authority least for the foreseeab 'le future. The objective then, is to and the delays which have resulted have prompted requests determine how badly 'we need these facilities and then to for a simplified "one-stop" review of power plant pro- locate them in a manner wl-tich minimizes their effects on posals. our landscape. Petroleum Facilities. In siting petroleum refineries and The key issue is siting, Where do we site those new facib- related facilities the petroleum industry generally tries to ties we legitimately need? The impacts of a new power deal directly with local officials. Their economic lever- plant, a sand and grave@ I operation. a solid waste processing age is, after all, pretty powerful. But, as with the siting of center are much greater than local. Such strategic facilities electrical power plants, state involvement and control is not only serve the needs of more than just the town, they on the increase. In Rhode Island, the Coastal Resources affect the daily lives of more than just local townspeople. Management Council can review, accept or reject refinery A brief look at who makes these siting decisions is a good and related development proposals. Once again, however, introduction to the key problem in meeting SENE's needs if the proposal originates with the Port Authority and Eco- for these vital facifitie,s. nomic Development Corporation, the General Assembly can override the Council's decision. Massachusetts, on the Sand and Gravel. The, authority for regulating the extrac- other hand, does not have a central clearinghouse or con- tion of sand and gravel is essentially a local one. Town trol agency for petroleum facility proposals. The state's zoning regulations define where extraction is permitted, if Energy Facilities Siting Council regulates electrical power at all, but the permit requirements regulating operations and natural gas facilities but, as yet, has no authority over and post-o pe rational @ite restoration vary widely from petroleum facilities. Federal agencies involved in the re- town to town so thatpo uniform policy can be said to view process include the Corps of Engineers, U. S. Coast exist. State interest and responsibility is fragmented among Guard. Environmental Protection Agency, Federal Energy the respective state [email protected] of Public Works and the Administration, and the President's Council on Environ- Rhode Island Department of Natural Resources and Massa- mental Quality (for the impact statement required). chusetts Department of Environmental Quality Engineer- ing, and, in Massachusetts, the Office of the State Geologist Solid Waste Management. Recognizing that solid wastes as well. There is little;federal involvement. can be an opportunity, instead of a nuisance, both Massa- chusetts and Rhode Island have begun programs to recover Electrical Power. En@rgy shortages, always a problem in these "resources". Rhode Island has established a Solid New England, have gr ,eatly intensified in recent years. TMs Waste Mana ement Corporation. The program, yet to be 9 fact, plus an awareness of the broad environmental impacts funded by the legislature, will improve local management of energy production; have brought about a gradual in- and lead to regional recovery of valuable wastes. In Massa- crease in state control of power plant siting. Massachusetts chusetts, an interagency planning unit has proposed a re- has established an Energy Facilities Siting Council to con- gional solid waste recovery program which is scheduled for trol the siting of plants generating 100 megawatts or more implementation in 1976. 9-1 The institutional considerations involved in the siting of each and institutions, with some new additions, can provide tools of these key facilities are discussed in detail in this chapter. for achieving results. Chapter 3, Guiding Growth, outlines a This chapter addresses, for each activity in turn: assessing the rationale and policies for protecting Critical Environmental current situation and reviewing projected demands for these Areas, many of which should be taken into account when services; examining several ways of meeting these demands; dealing with issues related to siting or managing key facili- and finally suggesting a series of measures to meet the re- ties such as power plants or refineries. The approaches des- gion's legitimate needs most reasonably. cribed in this chapter, take these principles into account. Although references are also made in this chapter to several This chapter uses as a framework, several of the fundamental other portions of this report, Chapter 11, Tying the Recom- concepts covered in Chapter 1, Goals and Approach, and mendations Together, can be referred to in order to deter- Chapter 2, 77ze Setting. These chapters describe, for exam- mine the implications of the recommendations in this chap- ple, the importance of the environment to enhancing the ter, or those described in other chapters of this report. region's economy, and that existing knowledge, programs, ONSHORE, SAND AND GRAVEL EXTRACTION Sand, gravel, and stone are mined in substantial amounts of Mines, production of sand and gravel in the region was in Southeastern New England and are a vital component in 15.3 million tons in 1970. The demand projections for the the growth of the region's economy. It is a SENE Study future vary from 23-28 million tons in 1990 and 33-49 mil- objective to assure adequate supplies of these materials at lion tons in 2020 (Table 9.1). Similarly, production of the lowest economic and environmental cost, But-surpris- crushed stone was 6.2 million tons in 1970 and its demand ingly little is known about the location of potential de- is expected to be 10.5-13.7 and 17.4-27.9 million tons in posits in the region - deposits required if we are to con- 1990 and 2020, respectively (Table 9.2). tinue to grow. Without them, construction aggregate, now a relatively small portion of total construction cost, will The demand for sand and gravel and crushed stone is "de- become an increasingly important building restriction. rived" demand. That is, it is dependent on decisions made With the construction industry already reeling from the in the construction industry which, in turn, are based on effects of inflation, the result of cost increases and short- the orders of individual firms and government for new con- ages of material could be a further slow down of the re- struction. Road construction, which accounted for almost gion's economy. 50 percent of the total sand and gravel consumption in Rhode Island and 30 percent in Massachusetts in 1972, is The Situation not expected to continue at the same pace as during the 1960's and early 1970's. Indeed, the 1972 figure for According to the U. S. Department of the Interior, Bureau' Massachusetts cited above represents a 25 percent decrease TABLE9.1 PROJECTED POPULATION AND DEMAND FOR SAND AND GRAVEL IN SENE (1980-2020) Sand and Gravel Demand PopulationU Low projection Per capita Low projection Per capita Year (thousands) (thousand tons) (tons) (thousand tons) (tons) 1980 6,833 19,857 2.91 22,001 3.22 1990 7,905 23,196 2.93 28,086 3.55 2600 8,993 26,535 2.95 34,263 3.81 2010 10,228 29,873 2.92 41,274 4.04 2020 11,594 33,212 2.86 1 49,038 4.23 OBERS projection, Series C. Straight-line projection of sand and gravel production in the years 1959-70. Projection based on regression of tons of sand and gravel against population for the years 1959-70. 9-2 from 1971. To a somewhat lesser degree, increases in ur- effect on price. Price increases from June 1973 through ban industrial and residential demand for construction ag- June 1974 ranged from 10 to 50 percent. Moreover, in gregates is also expecied to be lower compared to the June 1974, price of washed and screened concrete sand peak rates of the sixties. Furthermore, the projections in varied from approximately $2.35 per ton in Charles River Tables 9.1 and 9.2 are@-, based on Series C projections, higher Basin to $ 1. 10 per ton in the Ten Mile River Basin. While than the recently -available Series E. In view of these con- some price differences are undoubtedly caused by varia- siderations, the projec@ 'tions cited above may be somewhat tions in operating efficiency, the cost of transportation over-estimated. Yet even if they are, the general lack of (10 to 12 cents per ton per mile) between mining sites information on the lo@ation and availability of sand and and points of processing and distribution plays a major gravel deposits compli Icates the task of providing sufficient role. Commonly, transportation costs double every 8 to 12 construction aggregate to meet future needs. truck miles, or 50 railroad miles, or 125 barge miles. But the distance between supply and demand, and thus the While sand and gravel,deposits were inventoried in transportation costs, increases as mu .ch becausk of regula- Rhode Island in 1964;@ no accurate survey exists for the tions against extraction imposed by the cities and towns as Massachusetts portion of Southeastern New England. Even from depletion of existin deposits. Municipal zoning ordi- with an accurate survey, however, it is necessary to dis- 9 tinguish between dep @ sits which technically exist and nances commonly divide land use into four categories: (1) 9 rural or agricultural; (2) residential; (3) commercial; and those which are actually available for extraction. Available (4) industrial. The activities permitted or proscribed for information is especia 'Ily weak on the relationships between specifically zoned areas are generally well defined, and the stratified drift deposits - the usual source of sand and where sand and gravel extraction is permitted, specific lot gravel - and ground water recharge. Finally, preemptive sizes, hours of operation, haulage routes, depth of excava- uses of the land and restrictive local ordinances prevent many safe potential d'6posits f .rom being developed. tion, slope control,and so forth are often indicated. The re- alization that land suitable for sand and gravel operations It is estimated that, fr Iom a regionwide point of view, suffi- may occur in areas not specifically zoned for mining activity has led to the provision in some areas for "special excep- cient sand, gravel, and rock suitable for crushing exists to tions" to the zoning regulations. meet needs for the next fifty years. The supply potential, however, is extremely site-local. While one producer may Some towns require that operating plans be filed, but the have, or be negotiatid 'g for, holdings which would last degree of specificity of these plans is not always spelled another twenty or thirty years, another nearby may have out by municipal ordinances. Restoration of a site may be no further possibility1for sand and gravel leases, and may required, but what is meant by "restoration" may be open have to turn to crush6d stone as a source of aggregate, a to a wide range of interpretations. Similarly, some munici- I move which necessitates large capital expenditures for palities require performance bonds ranging from $500 to new equipment. And, that means higher cost to the con- $7,500 an acre to ensure that operational and post-opera- sumer. tional requirements are met. Non-compliance can result The depletion of exisiing sites and the longer distances be- in fines or cancellation of permits. However, not all muni- tween new supplies and demand centers has had a sharp cipalities require such bonds, and there is much latitude TABLE 9.2 PROJECTED POPULATION AND DEMAND FOR CRUSHED STONE IN SENE (1980-2020) Estimated crushed and broken stone demand Population-/ Low projection Per capita High projectionV Per Capita Year l(thousands) (thousand tons) (tons) (thousand tons) (tons) 1980 6,833 8,245 1.21 9,372 1.37 1990 7,905 10,532 1.33 13,762 1.74 2000 8,993 12,819 1.43 17,936 1.99 2010 10,228 15,106 1.48 22,863 2.24 2020 11,594 17,393 1.50 1 27,928 2.41 Source: Sureau of Mines L/ OBER,S projection, Series C. Straig@t-line projection of 11 year historical crushed and broken stone production (1960-70). Projection based on regression of crushed and broken stone against population for the years 1960-70. 9-3 in many of the requirements and in the amount of fines, In many cases crushed stone would not be a satisfactory so that no uniform policy concerning operational or post- substitute for sand and gravel. Moreover, while sites favor- operational requirements can be said to exist. Some cities able for crushable stone do not generally have as high a and towns permit extraction, but prohibit export of the commercial value as do sand and gravel sites (because they finished product outside of the municipal boundaries, thus are often less favorable for other forms of development), limiting the availability of the resource to the region. the higher private costs of extraction and of processing These factors - restrictive regulation, escalating costs, and equipment, make crushed stone higher priced than natur- diminishing economically feasible sites - have had the ef- ally occuring sand and gravel. Social costs of stone produc- fect of directing public attention to the exploitation of al- tion and crushing are also higher. Besides having the extern- ternative sources for meeting the demand at the lowest alities that are associated with a conventional sand and gravel possible cost. operation, the noise from blasting and pneumatic drilling makes a crushed stone operation less compatible with dense- ly populated areas. As a result of these factors, crushed The Solutions stone is not considered an adequate, or acceptable, alterna- tive to naturally occuring sand and gravel. Alternatives Offshore Mining of Sand and Gravel. This alterna- tive may offer a very attractive alternative to onshore The Study considered four alternative measures for meeting mining. Urge quantities of sand and gravel are known to demand: importation of materials from outside the region; exist off the shores of the Northeastern United States. substituting crushed stone for sand and gravel; offshore These sources could be sufficient to meet the needs of the mining; and identifying, protecting, and sequencing the use region for several thousand years. Except for coastal of onshore deposits within the region. dredge and fill operations and beach restoration programs, Substitution of other materials, using near-shore reso Iurces, there is currently no extensive exploitation of offshore mineral resources in the SENE Study area. Although in- reducing demands and not meeting the need were not con- dustrial speculation has been aroused, no leases will be is-- sidered to be viable alternatives for satisfying projected sued by the federal government Until present disputes over needs. Substitute materials, such as marine muds, although ownership rights to the outer continental shelf (OCS) ad- technically feasible, were not considered practical sources jacent to the individual states are resolved. A detailed dis- for meeting the large needs of the construction industry in cussion of the issues and opportunities for offshore sand the region. Near-shore mining was suspected to have some and gravel mining is found in Chapter 7, Marine Manage- negative environmental and, over the long-term economic ment. effects. Some small demand reduction might be feasible without serious social or econon-de disruption, but either Identifying and Preparing a Plan for Sequential major reduction in demand, or not meeting that demand, Uses of Onshore Deposit Sites within the Region. would have major adverse impacts on the economy and, This alternative would provide for extraction before the consequently, on the quality of life in the region. land is preempted for other uses, for post-operation site rehabilitation, and planned final development of the site. This alternative suggests that sand, gravel, and crushed importing Sand and Gravel from Outside the SENE stone production is a legitimate interim use of land which Region. This alternative is attractive in the sense that requires uniform protective zoning. It further suggests residents of the -Study area would no longer be concerned that extraction sites, if properly reclaimed, can provide with active mining operations, and disturbances to the land open space, recreation areas, and space for commercial from mining would cease. However, there is no guarantee and industrial development. The alternative is technically that other areas would supply these needed materials to feasible. In recent years the technology of extraction has this region. Aversion to mining operations is by no means improved to the point where the industry can operate unique to the people of this region. Moreover, since trans- profitably even under strict standards of performance. portation is such a large proportion of the price at construc- The National Sand and Gravel Association has produced tion site, such supplies would carry a significantly higher detailed standards and guidelines on site utilization and re- price, and, thus would have a significantly negative im- habilitation, simultaneous excavation and rehabilitation, pact on the regional economy. and pre-operational site planning, The Substitution of Crushed Stone for Sand and There are, however, certain legal stumbling blocks to en- Gravel. This is already a practice in parts of the SENE forcing a sequential land use plan. The power of local region - notably northeast of Boston in the Lynn-Saugus zoning is sufficient to require that minerals be extracted area. However, to meet the region's sand and gravel needs, before other economic uses of the land are made without stone production would have to at least triple and it is not being construed as a "taking". Furthermore, the issuance known whether available deposits could produce this much. of an extraction permit can make site rehabilitation a 9-4 condition for approva '1. However, it is not within the The recommendat ions follow the policy articulated in power of local zoning; to require that. once extraction Chapter3, Guiding Growth, that the identification and has occurred, the land must be restored and developed to protection of sites for regionally significant facilities such another specific use _' such as recreation space, commer- as sand arid gravel pits, is as important to the future of cial, or residential dev'elopment. Thus a sequential use SENE as protection of Critical Environmental Areas. .,master plan" for mineral sites. if based on regulation through the local police powers, constitutespa -taking with- The state is the most logical entity to govern and monitor out compensation". the sequencing of rr@ning and site redevelopment. Under the program, the state would assure uniformity and Alternative Plans standardization of operations, provide a level of assist- ance to municipalities and the indLiStry not available to Three alternative plans were examined for meeting the re- the towns themselves and, further, can reconcile compet- gion's needs for sand,,gravel, and stone, each utilizing one ing interests between towns. As a political reality the state or more of the measures described above and emphasizing is the only institution capable of adopting this policy. either an economic cl@velopment or environmental en- hancement objective.1 The major elements of the program include a comprehen- I sive inventory of extractable minerals in both states, the With the First plan, mining would be greatly reduced or establishment by state statute of minimum operating and eliminated in the Study area. The pricc of aggregates would site rehabilitation standards, local permitting of individual rise substantially. However, a more important considera- operations under state minimum standards 'and with state tion than price, ultimately, would be that with the heavy technical assistance, and state permitting of operations in- dependence upon outside sources this plan entails, there volving more than one municipality. The implementation could be no assuranc6 of adequate supplies of aggregate. of this policy to ensure extriction before preemption, and It is a situation not e n@tirely unlike New England's petrole- encourage sequential use should continue to be through um predicament. Failure to meet the region's needs could local zoning regulation, adopted pursuant to the afore- well deter needed construction projects, further depress- mentioned state standards. ing the already dismal construction industry. Moreover, to the extent that air, water quality and recreational facilities. Following extraction and restoration, to overcome the mass transportation, power generation and other public legal taking issue and yet guarantee appropriate sequential 0 services, depend to some degree on the availability of use of the site, the state should encourage and provide cer- sand, gravel, and storie for construction, even the environ- tain incentives (through planning assistance) to the muni- mental quality objective would, in the long-term. be cipality for rezoning the site to commercial, residential, threatened. or public use, consistent with the economic needs and en- A second plan, emphasizing short-term economic gains and vironmental aspirations of the community. low price, would stress the exploitation of mineral deposits In light of the above discussion, the SENE Study makes closest to their point-, of consumption, with little regard for the following recommendations: costly measures for protecting the environment, reclaiming mined-out lands, or r 'egulating operations to reduce the I .Centralize minerals management authority. "nuisance" value associated with them. I Authority for managing mineral resources To a large degree, this has been the industry's approach to needs to be centralized in each state. Accord- the problem in the p Iast. But is has not resulted in low ingly. the Massachusetts General Court and prices. Rather, it has increased the public hostility to- Rhode Island General Assembly should desig- wards mining operations and has resulted in dwindling nate the Department of Environmental availabflity of the minerals and sharply increasing prices. Quality Engineering and the Department of Natural Resources, respectively, as the ap- Recommendations propriate agency for mineral resources policy- making, monitoring, and regulation. A third, and recomnliended program, is based on the Study's 2. Conduct state mineral resources survey in conclusion that, to a! large extent, mineral resources in the Massachusetts. To determine the location, region can be extracied and used for the public's benefit quantity and quality of sand, gravel, and stone without causing una 'cceptable environmental damage, or be- deposits the Massachusetts Department of En- ing a nuisance to the great majority of the region's people. vironmental Quality Engineering should con- The program takes t 'he view that sand and gravel mining duct, with the assistance of the U. S. Geological can be the first step in a carefully developed plan for multi- Survey, a detailed survey of potential extraction ple uses of land in areas under heavy development pressure. sites. The survey could be conducted simultane- 9-5 ously with the survey of ground water and re- clarnation pursuant to the minimum charge recommended in Chapter 4, Water Sup- standards. ply, This study has high priority and should be 6. Begin staged state reclamation of abandoned initiated by 1977. extraction sites for recreational use in Once the authority for managing mineral extraction has areas deficient in recreational opportuni- been centralized, a minerals management program ties as indicated in Chapter 6, Outdoor 15 should be implemented consisting of, but not limited to, Recreation the following: Implications 3. Create minerals public education program, Implementation of these recommendations would eliminate the fragmented authority for minerals management in the aimed at encouraging municipalities to pro- two states and go a long way toward assuring an adequate tect, through zoning, sites identified in the supply of reasonably priced construction aggregate for the minerals survey for extraction. region. The program serves both the region's needs for con- tinued economic growth and provides a measure of protec- 4. Promulgate minimum statewide operating tion from the traditionally negative social and environmen- and rehabilitation standards for min- tal effects of mineral extraction. Moreover, it recognizes eral extraction to assist local permitting. that land close to sources of demand for sand and gravel is already under heavy development pressure and provides a S. Provide state guidance to municipalities in system for ensuring,that, once extraction is completed, the establishment of a permit program, site is returned to the market place in condition suitable for regulating mining operations and site re- redevelopment. ELECTRICAL POWER' It is byrio means unanimous, but it is probably safe to say In 1970, the energy requirement in the SENE service area that there are few things which people would rather not was about 25 million megawatt hours or about 40% of the have in their back yard than a power plant, whether nuclear total requirements of New England. Consumption in- or fossil. And yet, like it or not, we are tremendously de- creased in SENE to 26.2 million megawatt hours in 1971, pendent upon abundant and cheap energy, especially elec- and according to the Federal Power Commission's most trical energy. And, by all accounts, to a greater or lesser recent figures, it can be expected to increase to 47.1 mil- extent, we will be more so in the future, because electrical lion megawatt hours in 1980 and 85.0 million megawatt power's share of the region's total energy demand is ex- hours in 1990. These figures represent a steady decrease in pected to increase steadily in the next several decades. The the average annual rates of growth from 7.3 percent in the Study region is technically self-sufficient in power genera- decade from 1960-1970, to 6.8 percent in the period from tion today, though it is, of course, linked to other power 1971-1980 and 6.1 percent in the decade from 1980-1990, facilities throughout the Northeast. To meet tomorrow's The Federal Power Commission (FPQ currently estimates needs we need to know how much power we need, whe- that the average annual rate of consumption will decrease to ther we can generate it without harming ourselves or our 4 percent or less by 2020. surroundings, and to what degree we can, or should, look to others to supply us. To serve the public's consumption of 26.2 million mega- watt hours in 1971, the utilities in SENE had to provide for a peak market demand of nearly 5,000 megawatts. The Situation (Energy consumption = capacity multiplied by the number of operating hours in a year.) In addition to that capacity, To determine power consumption and future peak demands they are required to maintain a reserve capacity of approxi- in the SENE region, any utility serving any portion of the mately 25 percent. By 1990, according to the FPC, the Study area was included. As a result, the SENE "service utilities in SENE will have to provide for a peak market area" is approximately 10 percent larger than the 4,400 demand of almost 16,000 megawatts plus the 25 percent square mile Study region. reserve. 9-6 safety regulations has become such a difficult problem The Energy Crisis and Projecting Demand that a significant amount of slippage is occurring in the It is entirely possible that these projected demands will be schedule for additions to the region's generating capacity, significantly less than anticipated at present for 1990, par- Among the factors affecting market costs are: land ticularly if recession, conservation efforts, and inflation prices; variations in transmission line distances and their continue. Many economists claim that electricity consump- associated land costs; the cost of labor material, services tion will steadily decrease as increases in costs continue to and money; changes in the scope of the project; and escalate the cost of electricity. It is true that electricity schedule slippage. consumption, especially in the commercial sector, is, at present, slightly price elastic. Realistically, however, de- Of the total plant capital (assuming $2,000 per acre and mand is responsive to much more than price: personal in- 500 acres per site) approximately 0.3 to 0.4 percent repre- come, population growth, technology, public policy, con- sents investment in land. Moreover, since land is a norr- servation programs, changes in style and taste, and the cost depreciable asset, the final impact of land costs on elec- and availability of alternative sources of energy. Without tricity rates would be even less. Therefore, changes 'in other fuels for consumers to switch to, they may have no location are not likely to change the relative weight of alternative but to use electricity - whatever the price. land costs in any considerable manner. .Boston Edison's decision to postpone construction of Transmission line costs include the costs of land and land Plymouth Unit #3 is based in part on a decline in the rights, towers, poles, cables, construction, and engineer- growth of electrical demand. However, it also reflects the ing. Excluding land costs, a current rule of thumb for growing financial dilemma of the power industry in the transmission line costs is $160,000 to $200,000 per Northeast. The industry's inability to secure the capital mile for a 345 kv line. Assuming one 345 kv for each needed to meet planned additions to the region's genera- 500 mw of generating capacity, this implies approxi- tion capacity, if it continues, will be a serious threat to the mately $320,000 to $400,000 per mile of transmission reliability of the region's power supply. line for a 1,000 mw-generatirig plant. Adding land costs Utimately, however excessive analysts may feel these pro- at 45 acres per mile at $2,000 per acre would raise this total to $410,000 to $490,000 per mile of transmission jected rates of consumption increase may be, one fact is line. To assess the impact of differences in transmission undeniable: consumption of electricity will continue to line costs related to distance, on final cost, consider a increase. range of sites for which the range in distance factors is fifty miles. Depending on the range in land costs and Meeting Future Power Needs line costs assumed, a 50-mile increase in transmission dis- tances would add 4.5 to 8.5 percent to the total unit cost Whether the annual growth rate for electricity is 2 percent per kilowatt hour. or 6 percent annually, SENE will need more electricity. Assuming that there are no areas elsewhere in New England Perhaps a more serious cost problem from the point of view willing to accept the burden of providing power to plants to of reliability of the existing and planned expansions of the meet SENE's needs, and that SENE does not wish to sig- region's generation capacity is the staggering increase in nificantly decrease the reliability of its power by signifi- capital costs. Power plant capital costs have risen from an cantly increasing power importation, a considerable in- average $119/kilowatt in 1965 to $558/kilowatt in 1974. crease in generating capacity will be required in the future. Plymouth #1 of Boston Edison, a 665 mw nuclear plant completed in 1972, cost $350/kilowatt. This represents an With residual oil as much as 40 percent higher in SENE increase of something over 18 percent per year compounded and the rest of New England than elsewhere in the nation, annually. and coal switching technologically and environmentally nettlesome, large future generating plants are expected to The cost of labor and materials and the unavailability of be nuclear powered. Major new generating units pro- capital has caused serious slippage in planned additions to posed in, or near;the SENE region (Plymouth, Mass., the generation system. The slippages have, in turn, re- Seabrook, N.H.) are all nuclear, as are the Federal Power sulted in higher costs due to inflation. It is a vicious circle. Commission's long-term (post-1990) suggested additions To compensate for delays it is likely that plant capacity to the region's generation capacity. Existing power plant reserves will be decreased with a resulting decrease in the sites and those proposed by the utilities or suggested by reliability of the system. the FPC are displayed in Figure 9. 1. Cost Implications of Alternative Sites It was not within the scope of this Study to present a detailed discussion of environmental and safety costs. Most of what is known of these effects is familiar. Much re- The cost of new capital and of meeting environmental and mains to be researched. While the precise impacts of ther- 9-7 Existing plant 0 Scheduled or proposed plants for 1984 El Additional sites which have been considered to meet 1990 needs ell, (actual site location not yet determined) Type of generation- Number of units - Type of generation: i@ C internal combustion F fossil steam H hydroelectric G gas turbine N nuclear eml- AW4- OAr F t A rtAwrtc OCEAN 2 viii. IF .-Son rcnc@ F5 CAPE coo OAr F1 'h ....... . FJ F2 71 F #AvrIvc&rr saujup B40CX IS4AAID SOVIVD OL, MILES &T----@ KILOMETERS 4 a 16 NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS EXISTING BULK AND PEAKING POWER PLANTS; NO. 9.1 SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND PROPOSED BULK POWER PLANT SITES - 1990 WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 9-8 mal discharges to the ocean are unclear, we know they are has responsibilities for rate setting) to act as the primary at least locally significant. At the same time the difficulty agency of the executive branch in all energy matters. of disposing of radioactive wastes and the long-term ef- fects of continuous low level emissions build-up in the food The Coastal Resources Center at the University of Rhode chain may be of far greater concern than the thermal load- Island, which serves as the technical arm of the CRMC, ing problem. A collective decision must be reached as to is currently making a study of the most suitable sites for how much risk society will accept in return for the bene- power plants in Rhode Island. The study will take into fits of nuclear energy. One suggestion receiving considera- consideration the basic standards and criteria that apply tion is that coal be used as an interim fuel source for gener- to a '11 projects, as set forth in the enabling legislation of ating power until the safety of nuclear power is assured. the CRMC: (a) the need and demand for various activi- However, whether coal is available in SENE, as currently ties and their impact upon ecological systems; (b) the suspected, or has to be imported from other coal producing degree of compatibility of various activities; (c) the areas in the nation, widespread interim use of coal could capability of coastal resources to support various activi- have significant negative environmental impacts. At the ties; (d) water quality standards set by the Department same time the negative social impacts from not meeting the of Health; (e) consideration of plans, studies, surveys, region's power needs could be more serious. This decision inventories' and so forth, prepared by other public and must be reached. at the highest levels of government and private sources; (f) consideration of contiguous land with the fullest possible public debate. uses and transportation facilities; and (g) consistency with the state guide plan. State Institutional Arrangements for Siting. In De- cember 1973, the Massachusetts legislature passed an en- The Solutions abling act creating the Electric Power Facilities Siting Council, renamed the Energy Facilities Siting Council in Perhaps no issue has received greater attention in recent August 1974. The Council has the authority to control months than production and consumption of power. The the siting of power plants of 100 mw or more in the state. following measures appear to be viable alternatives for Under the act, each electric company must file with the meeting future needs. Council by December 31, 1975 a ten-year long-range fore- cast with respect to the electric power needs of its market Demand Management Measures area. Such forecasts will include propos ials for construc- tion of power plants, and the Council will either accept, In the face of worldwide concern about the availability reject, or conditionally accept the forecast, after public of fuel resources, the simultaneous multiplying of safety hearings are held. If plans are accepted, electric com- and environmental risks, and the spiraling cost of pro- panies may proceed with their planned construction of a viding new technologies, it becomes clear that it is in the power plant. In the event that any other state agency or national welfare to reduce the rate of consumption growth department, or any local agencies or departments, attempt before counting up the new power plants we need. to block such construction, the electric company may ap- ply to the Council for a "Certificate of Environmental Efficient Pricing of Electrical Power to Reflect Impact and Public Need". If granted, the certificate would the Marginal Costs of Supply. In peak power de- override the power of all other state agencies and the electric mand periods - November to February and July to utility would receive permission for the construction of the August seasonally, as well as during daily peak periods - facility. The Council may also reject or conditionally ac- demand exceeds base load generating capacity. To meet cept an application for a Certificate. Public hearings must that need, peaking technologies such as gas turbine and be held in connection with an application. The Council pumped storage facilities must be brought "on line" at does not, however, have the authority to inventory and higher marginal costs. secure for future development potential power plant sites in the state. Placing a premium on peaking power - peak load pricing- would have the effect of discouraging power demand during In Rhode Island, the Coastal Resources Management Coun- on-peak periods, smoothing demand peaks, reducing the cil (CRMC) has the authority to review, modify, set condi- need for "standby capacity," and reducing the average cost tions for, approve, or reject proposals for power plants. per kilowatt hour to the utility over an annual period. The -However,. should the proposal be made by the state's savings in cost could be passed on to consumers or be used Port Authority and Economic Development Corporation, to improve environmental control technologies. the Rhode Island General Assembly has final review and authority over the CRMC, The CRMC does not appear to Revising the Rate Structure. Under the present rate have the authority to secure sites for future development. structure, the more electricity a heavy user consumes, the A five-person staff is being created under the direction of less he pays per kilowatt hour. The question of rates the Chairman of the Public Utilities Commission (which is a complex one, complicated by the fact that increases in 9-9 fuel adjustment clauses have all but eliminated benefits Establish Program of State Identification and large users gain from decreasing block rates. It may well Protection of Potential Power Plant Sites. This be, however, that traditional economic theory - charging step would guarantee the state and its people that sites are less per unit the more the customer buys - may no longer chosen with greatest possible attention to development cap- be in the best economic interest of the nation when ap- ability, environmental impacts, and the mood of the local plied to energy consumption. The subject requires imme- community to such development. Such a state planning diate study. process would be more costly initially than the existing system but, once sites have been identified and steps According to the recently released Ford Foundation Energy taken to secure them for the future, the benefits of de- Policy Project, adoption of these and other measures - creased litigation and costs to.consumers; would be far stringent fuel performance standards for new cars, encour- greater. aging more efficient space heating and cooling, revising building codes and standards - could slow the total energy To facilitate decision making on the siting of such key fa- consumption rate to two percent per year by 1985. And cilities as power plants, whether nuclear or fossil, signifi- while one may question the target date or quibble over the cant guidance can be obtained from the SENE Study's most realistic percentage, the basic question is clear: to detailed resource capability analysis. The Study has sur- what extent can we reduce our overall energy consumption veyed and mapped the land resource characteristics of rate in the Study region, and thus our total demand for the entire land area in the Study region. As discussed in electrical power, without crippling the economy? A state Chapter 3, Guiding Growth, the result of this analysis program of public education stressing specific measures for was the classifying of SENE's lands on the basis of limita- reducing power consumption would be the key in any de- tions and opportunities for development. While the Devel- inand management effort. opment Capability Maps are not sufficient for detailed en- gineering and design, they are especially useful for recon- Alternatives for Power Plant Siting naissance study to locate sites with the least potential for resource conflicts. A number of alternatives to the current system of reviewing power plant proposals exist: Using the resource capability data, complex and contro- versial siting decisions can be facilitated and impacts Continue the Present Siting System anticipated and minimized. In a hierarchy of land use measures, the Study places the same emphasis on identi- One alternative is to continue siting power plants based on fication and acquisition of sites for such key facilities as existing procedures. The current system, however, is reac- power plants as it does on protection of Critical Environ- tive rather than direct, and the approvals process is frag- mental Areas. Both are important to the continuing eco- mented. Two problems loom largest. The initiative for nomic health of the region. finding a site is left to the utility, and recent history has il- lustrated that the utilities have not always been good judges The Technological Innovations Alternative of either the development capability of the site or the social atmosphere surrounding it. The result has been lengthy de- Another alternative is to look to new technology to meet lays in bringing new capacity on line, thereby greatly in- future energy needs. The reasoning is attractive, straight- creasing the overall cost and decreasing the overall reliability forward, and popular: if we can put a man on the moon of the system. Second, the approvals process -- getting we can find clean, safe ways to meet our future power clearance from all federal and state agencies involved - is needs. There is a good bit of truth in such reasoning, but maddeningly fragmented, and may not be any safer for there are limitations as well. The Study endorses increased being so. Again, the result is increasingly longer lead funding for research and development in badly needed times and costs, with the added problem of weakness in alternative energy sources: wind, solar, magnetohydro- design and operations control. dynamics, use of waste heat, and others. Yet it also recog- nizes that even were breakthroughs imminent, which they Create One-$top Coordinated Federal-State are not, it would take many years to implement them ex- Permitting. To resolve some of the problems caused tensively. The purpose of the Study is to recommend eco- by lengthy delays under the existing permitting process, nomically realistic and environmentally safe measures for many advocate a "one-stop" permit system, under which meeting SENE's power needs until new technology can proposals would be cleared through a single agency re- take over, probably not before 1990. The Study concludes sponsible for seeing that all permit requirements have that nuclear power, supplemented by fossil and solar, de- been met. Advocates point to greatly reduced lead times veloped under the strictest controls available, and sited in and thus lower cost. Opponents claim that adequate public the least damaging areas of the region, is the most realistic scrutiny could easily be bypassed and that such an agency's technology for meeting near- and mid-term needs, but urges decision would be difficult to overturn. caution against heavy long term reliance on nuclear powgr 9-10 until the legitimate questions raised as to its safety have consumption rate reduction. In light of been resolved. the Ford Foundation's Energy Policy Project findings and recent national conservation initia- Alternative Plans tives, it would be appropriate for each state Energy Office to provide technical assistance In light of the foregoing, the following alternative plans to commercial and industrial interests on en- were investigated to meet the region's power needs, one ergy consumption rate reduction as an element maximizing economic development and another environ- in the public awareness program. mental quality. 9. hnplement conservation measures. Among One, the plan emphasizing economic development, would the measures which should receive state favor power plant sites and generation technologies with endorsement and implementation are: the least cost, the most efficient operation, and making the greatest contribution to the regional economy. Since the 0 significant tax credit incentives for Study area is well endowed with saline cooling water, this energy consumption reduction mea- plan calls for Southeastern New England io become a net sures in the residential, commercial, exporter of power to New England as a whole. The plan and industrial sectors; would give special priority to location of power plant sites, would permit thermal loading of coastal waters and a degree o revision of building codes to include of air and water contamination under special variances, and mandatory increases in insulation would allow transmission preference over aesthetics. requirements and standards in new Another plan, emphasizing environmental quality, re- buildings; places economic goals with maximum environmental 0 mandatory reductions in lighting, security and would cause it to be more beneficial for space heating, and cooling levels in SENE to become a net importer of power from elsewhere all public and commercial buildings; in New England. This plan would place fewest demands on the resources of the Study area but would simultane- 0 labeling and taxing low efficiency, ously reduce the reliability of service, reduce efficiency, high energy use appliances; and create substantially higher costs. Recommendations 0 use of waste heat in the design and operation of all new private and public The recommended program emphasizes energy conserva- buildings; and tion and demand management with a general goal of base 0 utilization of processed refuse as fuel load self-sufficiency, prefers nuclear base load generation supplement in fossil fuet plants. for at least the period to 1990, stresses fossil power for peaking generation, provides siting guidance, and empha- 10. Revise pricing policy. To bring rate schedules sizes expansion of existing sites to limit impact and achieve more in line with the full marginal costs economies of scale. The program includes the following of supplying power, the Massachusetts and programs and priority actions: Rhode Island Public Utilities Commissions Demand Management and Conservation. While ad- should encourage state legislation to: ditional generation capacity will be required to meet SENE power demands, much can be done to slow the rate establish a schedule to encourage of consumption: substitution of off-peak for peak power consumption, either through 7. Create state energy conservation education premium pricing for peak use or program. Top priority should be given in each cut-rates for off-peak use; state to the creation of a wide ranging public and education program aimed less at exhortations of 0 explore the cost-justification for conservation and more on specific measures for adjusting the energy-inefficient reducing consumption. decreasing block rate schedule for 8. Provide state technical assistance on energy heavy power users. 9-11 Siting. To assure the availability of suitable sites for newal programs or new suburban future generation capacity. development. 11. Identify and secure power plant sites 16. Provide interim recreational use of unde- for the future. The Rhode Island Gen- veloped power plant sites. The eral Assembly and Massachusetts General state siting agencies under expanded Court should expand the authority of authority should provide interim the Coastal Resources Management Coun- recreational uses of sites secured for cil and Energy Facilities Siting Council, future development of power plants. respectively, to permit those agencies to identify and secure sites for future devel- 17. Simplify licensing procedures. To opment, to the extent possible. The goal simplify the licensing procedure pursuant of the region should be to minimize de- to the recommendations of the state- pendency on external sources of supply. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) 12. Avoid Critical Environmental Areas for 1975 Workshop on Federal-State Coop- future sites. The state siting agencies eration in the Environmental Review should avoid areas within SENE resource and Hearing Process, both the states categories A and B for generation fa- and NRC should establish liaison offi- cility siting. Sites in category C should cers to coordinate review, conduct be very carefully reviewed for environ- joint hearings, and coordinate in the mental, economic, aesthetic, and social preparation of impact statements. impact. Implications 13. Maximize development at existing power plant sites. Wherever possible the Implementation of these recommendations would recog- state siting agencies should require full nize both the vital part electrical power plays in the expansion of development capability maintenance of public health and welfare, and the po- at existing facility sites and/or redevel- tential risks of power plant development. It is felt that opment at abandoned sites. the recommendations constitute a realistic program which will provide adequate electrical power under 14. Upgrade or phase out inefficient plants. fairly rigorous, yet practical, demand management Existing near-urban fossil units should guidelines to meet the needs of the people of South- be phased into a peaking program to eastern New England in a manner which supports con- minimize their use. Units presently tinued economic development and assures social well- violating air quality standards, or op- being. Moreover it provides a mechanism for streamlining erating under variances, should be up- the siting and licensing process through efficient and co- graded immediately or retired. ordinated state and federal action. Finally it places priority on the provision of suitable sites now to meet future gen- 15. Put lines underground during urban re- eration requirements at the least cost to the environment and development. A program of selective social well-being. By recognizing the importance of undergrounding of existing overhead siting regionally significant facilities such as power plants, transmission and distribution lines while at the same time recognizing the importance of should be established by power com- Critical Environmental Areas, both the region's economic panies in concert with large urban re- and environmental goals will be served. PETROLEUM FACILITIES The United States is the most oil hungry nation in the only part of the world more dependent on foreign oil world and New England is the most oil hungry region in than New England was Japan. the nation. With only six percent of the nation's popula- tion, New England accounted for over 20 percent of its The Study does not attempt to add to studies already oil'consumption in 1972 - over 1.1 million barrels per underway to determine for the New England Governors day. Indeed, during the last two months of 1973, the the economic and environmental impacts of deepwater 9-12 ports or refineries. Rather, the purpose of this section is exploration. Following the announcement of which of the to provide some insight into the nature of petroleum de- nominated tracts will be offered for leasing and the com- mands, mechanisms for managing these demands, and pletion of environmental impact statements, lease sales guidelines for siting major facilities should that decision be are likely to be held in August, 1976. made, in a manner which is economically sensible and environmentally safe. The states are not without resources to help cope with the onshore impacts of OCS oil and gas exploration and The Situation development. Both Rhode Island and Massachusetts are developing coastal zone management programs under the Of the 31.2 million tons of petroleum products received at 1972 Act, 'and both are members of NERBC's regional Southeastern New England's ports in 1972, 27 percent was coastal zone and OCS task forces. Also, $6 million are gasoline, 31 percent was distillate (primarily #2 home heat- now available nationwide through the Office of Coastal Zone Management for OCS impact planning - $3 million ing fuel) and 42 percent was residual oil (used in power in FY75 supplemental funds and $3 million in FY76' plants and industry). Moreover, SENE consumers paid as funds. In addition, two bills passed in the Senate - much as 40 percent more for some of these products than S.586 amending the Coastal Zone Management Act and consumers elsewhere in the nation. S.521 amending the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act It would be logical to assume that anyone with that big a - establish "Coastal Energy Facility Impact Funds" and corner on the demand for a product would try to achieve provide annually $ 100 million nationwide for planning some degree of control over the supply of that product. for the impacts from the exploration, development or Yet there are no refineries in SENE, nor in all New Eng- production of energy resources, and $200 million to land for that matter. New England is so far away from the ameliorate impacts resulting from exploration and pro- nearest refinery that pipelines are not feasible and oil prod- duction of energy resources. There are no state match- ing requirements. ucts must be shipped by tanker. And SENE's developed ports, as elsewhere in the nation, are so small and shallow The region's, inordinate dependence upon foreign supplies, they are unable to accommodate today's modern deep the potential of Georges Bank, and the nature of increases draft tankers. The result is numerous small tanker calls, in demand projected for the future, have made parts of heavy harbor congestion, frequent "nuisance" spills, and SENE the target of a barrage of proposals for developing a steadily increasing probability for a spill of major propor- petroleum receiving.and refining facilities. Proposals have tions. Existing storage facilities, with an average of seven been made by a number of entrepreneurs, including several inventory turnovers annually, are nearly used to capacity independent oil companies, at least one state government and are reaching the point of being unable to safely meet agency - The Massachusetts Port Authority (Massport) demand. and other interests as diverse as Greek shipping com- By the second month in 1974 the Arab oil embargo had panies, and a local dairy products company. These propos- begun to significantly affect the normal course of economic als are shown on Figure 9.2. Notable in their absence are events in the nation, and SENE's consumers were beginning the major oil companies. to realize how dependent on foreign oil they were. In fact, Market, Environmental and Economic Considera- of the 1.1 million barrels per day consumed in New Eng- tions. land in 1972, 360,000 barrels, or one-third of the consump- tion, were directly imported from foreign refineries. In ad- A number of factors serve to explain the failure of past re- dition, 25 percent of the products which were domestically finery development proposals and the industry's lack of refined were from foreign crude. As a result New England, interest. According to the recent report "Effects on New and SENE in particular, is directly or indirectly dependent England of Petroleum-Related Industrial Development" upon foreign imports for almost 50 percent of its needs. prepared by consultants for the New England Regional This makes the region particularly vulnerable to foreign Commission (NERCOM), the major stumbling blocks cutbacks. nationwide, but felt more keenly in New England, include: the political instability of foreign oil supplies; uncertain The nation's vulnerability to changes in the foreign federal and regional energy policies; high cost of invest- supply situation has spurred interest in potential oil and ment; uncertain market conditions; other financial con- gas reserves on Georges Bank, the renowned fishing straints; and environmental opposition. grounds on the outer continental shelf (OCS) off Cape Cod. The process of exploring and developing these The NERCOM report asserts that "except for the long- potential reserves has already been set into motion. The term possibility of extensive Georges Bank production, it Department of the Interior offered nearly 16 million is unlikely that extensive petroleum-related industrial de- acres, and the oil industry subsequently nominated velopment will occur" in New England. From a national nearly I I million acres, of the North Atlantic OCS for perspective, and particularly from the point of view of the 9-13 @ Existing Petroleum Receiving Terminal (other than power plant sites) Proposed Deepwater Terminal Proposed Refinery f arm 4kN MASSACMIStrrS OWN AWPO VA Y A, T@7 A r i A ri c ocrA# Y- L k .$LA CAPE COD DAY V I LA f Y-T. k' L SAY AfANrVCXCT S&4V#D 11 @__bv .......... PO RLOCK tSLAND ... S00#0 MILES KILOMETERS NEW ENGLAND RIVER BASINS COMMISSION FIG. BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS No. EXISTING AND PROPOSED SOUTHEASTERN NEW ENGLAND PETROLEUM FACILITIES WATER AND RELATED LAND RESOURCES STUDY 9-14 major oil companies, this conclusion is, no doubt, accurate. most or all of their exploration requirements: Boston, the New England, however, is unique in that a major portion Fall River-New Bedford area, and Narragansett Bay. of its market is dominated by highly entrepreneurial and independent oil companies - "home based" companies To help the New England states cope with the complexities with more to gain from regional refining than the majors, of OCS-related industrial development, NERBC has begun a whether their crude originates on Georges Bank or from study on the "Development and Application of a Method- foreign sources. ology for Siting Onshore Facilities Associated with OCS Development". The program is funded through the Re- Should refinery development occur, Southeastern New sources and Land Investigations (RALI) program of Inter- England is likely to be the center of activity. SENE con- ior's U. S. Geological Survey. sumes over 50 percent of the oil consumed in New England and demand is expected to increase at the rate of 5.3 per- Several recent studies indicate that the economic benefits of cent annually to 1985, decreasing to 3.4 percent thereafter. petroleum-related industrial development are notespecially It is strategically close to Georges Bank. Market scale and significant from a regional perspective. The NERCOM study distribution logistics are favorable. Developable land exists. has found that: Consequently, it is useful to examine the requirements and likely effects of petroleum-related development. (1) Georges Bank production and local refining will not lower the price of oil products for the con- By far the greatest physical effects of oil refineries are on sumer; land. For example, a 250,000 bbls/day refinery requires 1,000 to 1,500 acres, including necessary 40-day storage (2) It is unlikely that any find on Georges Bank would capacity and "green belt" treatment. Similarly, expansion be large enough to make New England an exporter of existing tank farms, located near offloading terminals of petroleum products; in major product demand centers, may require large tracts of scarce urban and urban/coastal land. Terminal develop- (3) Potential direct and indirect employment from a ment, whether coastal (as in Narragansett Bay) or offshore 250,000 bbls/day refiriery would total roughly (as o.ff Nahant, Massachusetts) may require a degree of 1,500 people. Depending on the nature of a find dredging, with the potential problem of disposing of par- on Georges Bank, total related employment could tially polluted marine sediments. Distribution of refined reach 10-12,000 people, most of them local. The products may result in significant disruption during con- induced employment would be regionally insig- struction in the case of pipelines and a higher probability nificant but could have dramatic local impacts; of oil spill occurrences in the case of coastal tankers. (4) Local tax benefits could well be offset by the cost Water is also a major limiting factor. Under current tech- of required municipal services; and, nology a 250,000 bbls/day refinery will use roughly 10.5 million gallons per day for cooling and processing. Ac- (5) Regional refining, even with Georges Bank devel- cording to the NERCOM report, only three rivers in the opment, would not appreciably increase the se- market area - the Merrimack, Androscoggin, and Con- curity of oil product supplies in SENE or the rest necticut - could meet this demand. Alternatively, an air- of New England. cooled plant would require only 3.4 mgd., primarily for process water. Despite this somewhat gloomy forecast, some industrial development will occur in SENE during the OCS exploram. The air pollution effects of refinery operation are also tion and development stages, and it is clear that the states significant. Again, according to the NERCOM report, will need to establish systems for reviewing development unless significant advances are made in hydrocarbon emis- proposals and, perhaps, for identifying and securing poten- sion control technology, air quality standards will be ex- tial development sites able to meet the needs of the indus, ceeded regularly in normal refinery operations. try with a minimum of environmental disruption. As indi- cated in Chapter 3, Guiding Growth, it is a policy assump- With lease sales for the North Atlantic OCS expected within tion of the Study that protection of potential sites for key a year, the impact of exploration-related development is al- facilities is as important to the future of the region as the ready being felt in SENE. Among the requirements of ex- protection of Critical Environmental Areas. ploration are: a small amount of land, primarily office and warehouse space; harbor and pier facilities for roughly 30 Institutional Considerations boats; a twenty foot channel; highway, air, and rail trans- portation access; and helicopter facilities closest to the drill- While the siting and operation of a refinery, for example, ing sites (Nantucket has already received inquiries). The have been shown to have little effect on the region as a industry apparently sees three areas in SENE as meeting whole, the local effects are considerable. With this kind 9-15 of leverage the industry's best bet for siting is to bring a sector through public awareness programs. Setting a per- proposal directly to the locale. The very nature of the cent goal for slowing the rate of consumption of energy petroleum industry's intensely competitive production, may be unrealistic. Yet much "fat" remains to be trimmed refining, distribution, and marketing activities, combined - the potential for reducing petroleum demands exists. In- with local economic leverage, appears to minimize coord- deed, after the tight winter of 1973, we are already accel- ination with state or regional siting agencies and plans. erating consumption today. Nevertheless, both states are taking steps to handle indus- try proposals. Facilities Alternatives In Rhode Island, a potential conflict in power plant and The following discussion presents several alternative steps refinery siting authority between the Coastal Resources under each of the major facilities in the petroleum system. Management Council (CRMC) and the Port Authority and Economic Development Corporation (PA-EDC) appears to Delivery. Alternative measures for delivering crude oil in- have been resolved. It has been determined that CRMC clude pipelines, coastal tankers, and deepwater terminals. has authority over PA-EDC for such siting decisions. Ac- Delivery by pipeline of either crude or'refined product to cording to an "observation" by the Rhode Island Attorney SENE from the nearest petroleum facilities center (New General, the State General Assembly can review, accept, or Jersey) would be extremely costly and is commonly dis- reject a PA-EDC proposed power plant or refinery over counted. Harbors now receiving coastal tankers - Boston, CRMC's opposition. However, CRMC has final authority Providence, Fall River, Weymouth, Salem, and Cape Cod over proposals not originating with the PA-EDC. And, in Canal - are expected to experience heavy traffic conges- addition to its utility regulatory functions, the Public tion in the next decade. Based upon anticipated petro- Utilities Commission will also have responsibility for de- leum receipts, vessel trips would increase from 1,000 trips veloping a comprehensive state energy program. in 1972, to 2,200 trips in 1990, and 5,400 trips in 2020. And, as stated earlier, the greater the small tanker traffic, In Massachusetts, the state's Electric Power Facilities Siting the greater the likelihood of collision and spills. Recog- Council, created in December, 1973, had its authority ex- nizing the limitations, then, of pipelines and tankers for tended by amendment in August 1974. Under the amend- delivering product to New England, planners in the region ment, the renamed Energy Facilities Siting Council has ad- have begun to turn to deepwater terminals - coastal, as in ditional authority over natural gas facilities. In September the case of Narragansett Bay, and far offshore, as in the 1975 the Council's authority was further extended to in- case of Massport's proposal off Nahant, Massachusetts. clude review of siting proposals for major petroleum- Technology is well developed and several options exist. related facilities. The Massachusetts General Court, how- Immobile facilities include: artificial islands, sea island ever, has failed to date to provide the Council with the berths, and marginal piers; mooring facilities include con- funds to permit it to adequately perform its duties. ventional buoy, single point buoy, single anchor leg, and single point swivel pier. The advantages, explained earlier, The Solutions include among others, reduction of traffic, and ability to tranship or offload the largest vessels with speed and rela- Demand Management tive safety. While the majority of recommendations described below Refining. To preclude preemption of valuable coastal, deal with facilities siting and configuration, much can be and especially coastal/urban lands, from other uses and done to significantly decrease the rate at which we con- to protect critical or environmental resources generally sume petroleum and other energy sources. As described in more prevalent in such areas, potential refinery sites are the section of this chapter dealing with electrical power, a preferred inland, close to existing labor and demand cen- recent Ford Foundation study claims that we can reduce ters, and in areas already served by transportation, com- the rate of growth of petroleum consumption to two per- munication, water supply, and wastewater infrastructure. cent per year. Indeed, the oil shortage in New England depressed demand, according to the Massachusetts Port Authority, from 4.3 percent in 1972 to 2.4 in 1973. Whe- Distribution. Again, coastal tankers are a possibility. Yet ther that level could have been continued longer, without if the region's goal is to lessen coastal tanker trips and the causing major disruption to the region's economy, is unclear. probability of accident, then clearly pipeline distribution In 1973 the incentive for demand reduction was price. In systems are preferred. Though it is unlikely that any refin- the future we will have to develop more imaginative incen- ery within SENE would have a solely SENE market, distri- tives. Insulation standards for new construction can be up- bution by pipeline in the Study area would be preferable graded, tax deductions can be made available for voluntary from an economic as well as strictly environmental point measures to decrease consumption, the states can establish of view. and promote dernand management goals in every economic 9-16 Alternative Plans trol. The program assumes that the environment would be best served by a deepwater port and pipeline distri- Three alternative plans were examined, each maximizing to bution system and strict controls over refinery opera- a greater or lesser extent economic development and envi- tions. It further assumes that a significant degree of re- ronmental quality objectives. duction in the rate of growth of demand can be attained by innovative state action. A plan emphasizing national and regional economic devel- opment was investigated which would capitalize on the re- An important limitation of this program should be noted. gion's deepwater near-shore and offshore port potential and The New England Regional Commission, working with abundant coastal land close to major marketing and distri- other agencies throughout the region, is developing a bution areas. Under this plan, priority for land allocation study of the regional energy and facilities siting situation is given to refinery and related heavy industrial develop- in New England. The results of this study will not be ment at sites closest to delivery and market areas. With available until later in 1975. Further, the specific regional SENE developing as a net exporter of refined products to policy implications will not be decided by the New Eng- New England and the nation, significant national economic land governors until some time later. The following benefits could be attained. Regional short and mid-term recommended program was developed without the bene- economic benefits, in terms of additional employment and fits of detailed regional analysis, but nevertheless presents growth of regional income, would be considerable. Under a course of action designed to balance certain national such a plan, however, no significant degree of supply assur- economic efficiency objectives and environmental quality ance or cost savings would be gained. Even with federal air goals within the best interests of regional economic effi- and water pollution control standards, degradation of the ciency and social well-being. The following programs and Study area's environment would occur. The emphasis on actions are recommended, generally in order of priority: allocating land to industrial development would have import- ant opportunity costs to other users of land. Demand Management. While a number of op- tions of varying severity are available - and more often In contrast, another plan emphasizing environmental quality than not untested - the following appear most socially would eliminate SENE and New England as a whole from feasible: further consideration for refinery and related heavy devel- opment. Under this alternative, SENE would continue to 18. Revise building standards. The Massa- be a 100 percent importer of refined oil products, and an chusetts Department of Community extremely high degree of state controlled demand manage- Affairs, and the Rhode Island Statewide ment would be essential. Petroleum consumption quotas Planning Program and Department of would have to be established for all uses, special tax de- Community Affairs, should promulgate ductions would be granted for insulation improvements, revised standards for new buildings with building specifications would undergo marked revision for a view to improving upon heating and insulation standards, strict transportation, particularly cooling system efficiencies. The building automobile, restrictions would be established (and petrol- code provisions in each municipality in eurn pricing would increase markedly to stifle demand). the Study area should be revised to meet The program would also include the development of one these standards. Care should be taken, deepwater terminal for receiving refined products to however, that such standards do not serve eliminate the threat of spills within existing and crowded to discourage efforts to rehabilitate exist- harbors. Distribution would be exclusively by under- ing old buildings. ground pipelines. Environmental quality would be pre- served but the economy could suffer. Likewise, no con- 19. Provide tax incentives for conservation. tribution to national economic efficiency could be made Liberal state tax deductions should be under the plan. The escalation of cost would be felt established for voluntary domestic, most keenly by lower income groups and a steady de- commercial, and industrial energy con- crease of social well-being of a significant sector of the servation improvements, whether to region's population would be inevitable. heating and cooling systems or insula- tion. State excise taxes could, for ex- Recommendations ample, be set so as to encourage pur- chase of small cars. Between these two extremes, a significant number of options remain. The recommended program involves de- 20. Provide energy consumption reduction mand reduction, strict control over development if it technical assistance. Both states should occur, deepwater port development, pipeline should establish energy conservation distribution, and maximum feasible environmental con- technical assistance and energy aware- 9-17 ness public education programs to guidance from the Environmental Pro- bring consumption in line with con- tection Agency, the Corps of Engin- servation goals. eers, NERCOM, NERBC, and the 21. Fund mass transit systems. Both Federal Regional Council, the states should establish standards and cri- states should tap state highway funds teria for petroletun facilities siting (the general fund in Rhode Island) to and operation, maximizing environ- provide significant expansion of rail, bus, mental protection. and rapid transit systems in order to ef- fect substantial reductions in commuter 26. Use SENE development capability analyses automobile use and attendant gasoline in siting decisions. As a general rule demands. (A 1974 referendum in Massa- no key facility should be considered on chusetts has already approved this con- resources mapped by the SENE Study under cept.) Critical Environmental Area Categories A or B (SENE Plates 1, 2, and 3). Very Facilities Siting. To improve the existing system for sit- careful investigation of environmental ing major petroleum facilities, the following steps are recom- effects should be undertaken before mended: any facilities are constructed on De- velopable Areas Category C. [Categories 22. Establish state siting authority in Rhode described in Chapter 3 of this report.] Island. The legislature should author- ize Rhode Island Statewide Planning Facilities Configuration. The Study believes that the Program to approve or reject refinery fact that many decision makers view the development of proposals and survey and protect petroleum facilities as inevitable to some degree is not a potentially feasible sites for future reason for resigning the decision making authority to the development. industry, but for strengthening state policy guidelines to assure that such decisions are made in the best interests of SENE and New England as a whole. Consequently, basic 23. Strengthen state siting authority in policies concurred in by the SENE Study are: Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Energy Facilities Siting Council 27. Establish deepwater port(s); evaluate each should be funded and staffed im- individually. As a matter of state mediately to permit it to perform policy, deepwater port(s) should be the its legislatively-mandated review preferred method of petroleum de- authority over energy facilities. The livery, eclipsing coastal tankers where- Council should -also be authorized, ever feasible, with the distance offshore funded and staffed to permit it to determined individually, based on the inventory and secure potential technical and environmental considera- development sites for the future. tions of each site. Blanket statements on distance from shore for such facili- 24. Consider regionwide implications of siting ties should be avoided. Any decision as decisions. Both states should to the advisability or inadvisability of evaluate specific siting decisions in individual deepwater port siting propos- the context of the policy implications als should await the completion of the of the New England Regional Com- regional port study recommended else- mission and the New England River where in this report. Basins Commission's regional energy facility siting studies. Regional policy 28. Locate refineries inland near infrastruc- issues should be resolved by the New ture. Should their need be determined, England Governors. Moreover, future refineries, storage facilities, and related siting decisions of the above mentioned industrial development should be lo- agencies should be made in considera- cated inland by the state siting agencies tion of both the statewide and region- in areas already served by necessary wide implications of petroleum facilities transportation, water supply, and waste- siting. water services. 25. Establish standards and criteria for refin- 29. Distribute refined products by pipeline. ery siting and operation. With Distribution of refined products should 9-18 be via underground pipeline wherever ment of the economic, social, and environmental costs and practicable and along well identified benefits of petroleum-related industrial development was corridors. not within the scope of this Study. Like it or not, we must admit that, for at least the reasonably near future, 30. Use most advanced technologies. State SENE and the rest of New England will continue to be siting agencies should ensure that opera- dependent on oil - oil which we neither produce nor re- tion of any and all facilities use the most fine. Should the region's decision makers, upon reviewing advanced environmentol control tech- the results of these and other impact studies, determine it nologies available. to be in the best interests of the region to provide regional refining capacity, it is felt that the recommendations above Implications provide a practical framework for policy making, one which provides a modest response to national pressures while mini- In view of the complexity of the problem and the broad mizing negative social and environmental effects within the regional implications of siting decisions, an exact assess- region. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT Finding a way to dispose of the tremendous amount of solid Yet in spite of improvements, neither state can claim com- waste we generate daily is one of the most, perplexing prob- -plete success in regulation enforcement. In Rhode Island, lems facing a region as populous as Southeastern New Eng- 71 percent of the 35 municipal sites do not meet sanitary land. And while the Study was not intended to be a.defirii- landfill standards. In Massachusetts, 80 percent are defi- tive investigation of how these wastes are managed in the cient. region, the consequences of improper solid waste disposal - on water resources requires that at least some investigation The major problem at unacceptable disposal sites is water be made. The solid waste disposal problem is both a pollution. Because they are "unwelcome neighbors", nuisance and an opportunity, and both states in the many of the landfills are located on land no one wants, SENE area have begun to recognize that the objective such as marshes and flood plains. Water flowing through in solid waste management is not so much getting rid the material in these sites picks up phosphates, chlorides, of waste as it is recovering and using wastes to meet some and other pollutants, producing a leachate which can be of our needs. highly contaminating to strearns and ground water aquifers. The Situation Recently, however, both states have devised new statewide solid waste management plans in an effort to better handle Solid waste disposal sites throughout Massachusetts and the problem. In Massachusetts, an interagency planning Rhode Island handled 7.5 million tons and roughly unit has proposed a statewide solid waste recovery sys- 590,000 tons respectively in 1973. By 1980 those fig- tem on a regional basis. Implementation is scheduled to ures are expected to climb to 8.7 million and begin in 1976 and full statewide operations are to be in 717,000 tons, respectively. Despite these demands, dis- swing in 10 or 15 years. posal sites are disappearing. In the SENE portion of Massachusetts, for example, 51 out of the 147 munici- pal disposal sites have a life expenctancy of only five The state plan proposes a joint venture of state, municipal, years. To the vast majority of the people of the region, and regional governments with private enterprise. Through solid waste disposal is a non-issue. You put your waste their combined efforts the system provides for the collec- in bags, set them out on the street and they are taken tion, hauling, transfer, processing, and disposal of all solid away. Yet the trends are quite clear. With more wastes waste material generated within Massachusetts. Provisions and fewer sites SENE is running out of places to dispose will be made in the system for the handling of special and of its refuse and garbage. hazardous wastes. In the last decade open dumps have largely been replaced Local governments will be responsible for collecting muni- by what are nominally, at least, sanitary landfills. Both cipal solid wastes at their sources, transporting solid wastes Massachusetts and Rhode Island have regulations for the to either a municipal or district transfer station, and process- maintenance of disposal sites under the enforcement of ing waste at municipal transfer stations. The state's respon- each state health department. Regulations were revised in sibilities will include transport of waste from district to re- Rhode Island as recently as November 1974. gional facilities, adniinistration of district and regional fa- 9-19 cilities, and the regulation, inspection, and enforcement of solid waste disposal as recovery technologies are refined. all aspects, of waste handling. Where land is available, a sanitary landfill is usually the most economical method of solid waste disposal, and the Private responsibilities will include collection and transpor- initial investment is low compared with other disposal tation of wastes, processing and reclamation of solid waste, methods. Furthermore, a sanitary landfill can receive all operation of municipal, district or regional facilities, and types of solid wastes, eliminating the necessity of sepa- secondary materials industry development. rate collections. It is also a complete disposal method, as opposed to incineration or composting which require ad- Rhode Island has established a Solid Waste Management ditional treatment or disposal operations. Corporation and although a bond issue was defeated in the 1974 elections, the Corporation recently received funding Encourage Community Participation in State to proceed to the next phase of planning. The Rhode Solid Waste Recovery Programs. Clearly sanitary Island program is publicly managed with the state contract- landfills are, like dumps before them, only a stopgap ing with private operators for services. Municipalities must solution. As non-renewable resources become more dispose of wastes at a licensed disposal facility within their and more scarce, solid waste recovery becomes more boundaries or use a facility made available by the Corpora- and more appealing. tion. The Department of Health continues to monitor the programs. Resource recovery has the potential to generate revenues which will reduce the cost of disposal in the future, as Resource recovery is key to both systems. Material which well as the potential to reduce the amount of land that can be recovered includes ferrous metals, aluminum, other would otherwise be required for landfilling. non-ferrous metals, and glass. The largest and most valu- able resource, however, is that portion which can be Recommendations converted to fuel that can be used to produce electricity. It is estimated that 15 percent of the energy consumed by 31. Enforce existing sanitary landfill regula- Massachusetts utilities in the process of generating elec- tions. Whenever alternative solutions tricity could be recovered by burning processed wastes exist, each state health department with coal or oil. should strictly enforce existing sanitary landfill regulations. The Solutions 32. Fund the Rhode Island Solid Waste Management Corporation. The Land Disposal Sites Should be Selected to Mini- General Assembly should move at mize the Infiltration of Leachate into Surface and once to provide at least partial fund- Ground Water. Selection and operation of solid waste ing to the Solid Waste Management disposal sites in accordance with existing sanitary landfill Corporation for staff and continuing regulations of both states could prevent future degrada- planning. tion of water resources. Physical barriers such as clay lay- ers, polyethylene sheets, and asphalt liners could also be 33. Accelerate local participation in recovery used to minimize the ground water contact by trapping the programs. The Study strongly endorses leachate. each state recovery program and urges Besides keeping leachate from reaching any aquifers or speedy participation by municipalities. streams, other provisions which should be incorporated Implications include daily coverage to prevent rodent and insect prob- lems, spreading and compaction of incoming refuse, and The existing management programs, with the above slight venting for methane gas. adjustments to detail, will be adequate for meeting the needs of SENE's growing population and refuse problem. Established Landfills Should be Operated Under At the same time, the new programs will contribute sig- the Appropriate State Regulations to Minimize nificantly to the improvement of the region's environment Impact. Proper management can make sanitary landfill and, as a result, to the quality of life of the people of the operations both an acceptable and effective means of region. 9-20 Al A se, qy"', LAI g I'S i, IA , K j 6 MY F ag -4 -A Fz Strengthening the Management System for Natural Resources CHAPTERIO STRENGTHENING THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR NATURAL RESOURCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 The Setting 10-1, A Strategy for Natural Resources Management 10-1, Some Key Assumptions 10-1, Elements of a Strategy for State Leadership 10-2, The State Role 10-2, The Federal Role 10-2, The Role of Regional Agencies 10-2, The Ideal: A State Resource Policy Mechanism 10-3, The Real: Significant Opportuni- ties in Current Ongoing Programs 104, Massachusetts 10-5, Rhode Island 10-6, Federal and Interstate 10-7, Recommended Strategy 10-7, Guiding Principles 10-8, Alternative Approaches to Key Elements of a C om- prehensive Resources Management Program 10-8, Massachusetts 10-10, Rhode Island 10-16, An Index for Decision Makers 10-20 to 10-28. CHAPTER 10 STRENGTHENING THE MANAGEMENT 0 SYSTEM FOR NATURAL RESOURCEIZ) The Setting How Natural Resources Policy is Made and Implemented The Legislature and Governors of both Massachusetts and Natural Resources, the Coastal Resources Management Rhode Island are responsible for setting a broad policy Council, and the Water Resources Board. framework for the state. Within that context, the Execu- tive, through various administrative departments, refines It is the local level at which many specific resource deci- those policies and develops programs to implement them. sions are made. Local governments prepare land use and resource plans, make primary decisions with regard to The federal government too, sets broad environmental land use, and construct water and wastewater facilities. policies. But by and large, its role has been limited to the Substate regional planning agencies in Massachusetts administration of grants, guidance and review of state ensure the coordination between towns of local plans programs, technical assistance, and in some cases, per- and policies. forming direct, substantive resource management activi- ties. Interstate regional agencies, such as the New Eng- Most of the specific recommendations of the SENE Study land River Basins Commission, the New England Re- presented in the preceding chapters can be implemented gional Commission, -and the New England Governors' promptly under existing laws and by existing local, state, Conference, provide coordination between states and and federal government agencies, and the private sector. reinforce their efforts to develop integrated programs. In other cases, modifications in the authority of indi- vidual agencies may be required; these are discussed in State agencies directly concerned with the formulation earlier chapters and are presented in "An Index for Decision and implementation of natural resource policy and the Makers" in the concluding section of this chapter. delivery of programs include, in Massachusetts, the Cab- inet, the Secretary of Environmental Affairs with the The purpose of this chapter is to outline, in the context Coastal Zone Management Program and the Department of public institutional and governmental arrangements, of Natural Resources, and the Secretary for Communities suggestions for securing the integration of policies and and Development with its Department of Community major programs so that the conflicting array of human Affairs; and in Rhode Island, the State Planning Council wants and needs - for a decent environment in which and Statewide Planning Program, the Department of to live and a productive and stable economy - are served. A STRATEGY FOR NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT Some Key Assumptions This discussion of ways to implement the SENE Study diminishing the opportunities for choice recommendations is based on several key assumptions: and variety in lifestyle; (1) Natural resource policies must be developed (3) Governmental action to achieve these ends is in coordination with econornic and social necessary and desirable. Guiding growth ef- policies; fectively depends on the integration of pri- vate actions and the authority and responsi- (2) Encouraging growth patterns based, in part, bility of all levels of government; and, on natural resource development capability, and water resources in particular, is desirable. (4) The state is the appropriate level of govern- The process by which land is consumed can ment to provide leadership in pursuit of that be guided so as to protect Critical Environ- integration. It can regulate private actions, mental Areas and maximize the efficiency of guide, assist, and review efforts of local public investment in infrastructure, without government; coordinate state government 10-1 actions; and guide federal actions except in the context of economic, social, and en- where overriding questions of national in- vironmental goals of the state; terest are involved. (2) Formulate and execute natural resources Elements of a Strategy for State Leadership plans and programs as elements of an overall strategy for effective manage- The vast majority of the recommendations in the SENE ment of the total natural resource base Study are directed to agencies of the two states. This em- of the state. The state structure should phasis on state leadership is consistent with traditional be capable of identifying relationships constitutional principles of the role of the states in the among functional programs (water re- federal system. Moreover, it is consistent with the policy sources, fish and wildlife, outdoor recre- of the current Administration and Congress to strengthen ation, etc.) and of relating these to the the state role in resource decision making. This is clearly overall strategy; the intent of much recent federal legislation, from Reve- nue Sharing programs to the Water Pollution Control Act (3) Develop a focal point within state gov- Amendments of 1972 and the Coastal Zone Management ernment capable of: (a) assessing rela- Act of 1972. The latter, in fact, declares that "the key tionships among natural resource pro- to more effective protection and use of the land and grams, securing their integration, and water resources of the coastal zones is to encourage the monitoring performance against overall states to exercise their full authority over [those] lands natural resources strategy; (b) stimulating, and waters. . (� 302(H)). guiding, and assisting political subdivisions of the state in natural resources decision Finally, the Study's emphasis 'on state leadership is con- making; sistent with policies established by the states themselves. Both the New England Governors' Conference and the (4) Assure access for effective participation by New England River Basins Commission have explicitly local governments and private citizens, and recognized and adopted a policy for natural resources interests in formulation and execution of management emphasizing the states as the integrating state programs; and level of government. In its resolution of December 15, 1972, the Governors' Conference recommended that: (5) Support and participate in cooperative pro- grams to secure effective natural resource "Each state should review and, as necessary, management in interstate and regionwide strengthen its organizational structure and contexts. planning processes to secure integration of land use, coastal zone, water quality, and The Federal Role. To reinforce these efforts the related natural resource management pro- Commission also recommended that "the federal agencies grams consistent with the environmental, administering programs of assistance to states for natural social, and economic goals of the state, and resources planning and management activities... should should support and participate in coopera- offer positive assistance to integration of natural resources tive programs to solve interstate and multi- decision making at the state level," and suggested a num- state resource problems through appropri- ber of ways in which that could be done. These included: ate regional mechanisms." integrated grants, consolidated grants, and block grants; placing greater responsibility on the federal regional ad- The New England River Basins Commission recognized ministrators and regional field offices; performing spe- the pivotal role of the state in its report "Strategies for cific tasks for the states as consultants; and operating Natural Resource Decision Making" approved Decem- through the Governor in establishing patterns of federal- ber 6, 1972. According to that report "The Commission state cooperation, or through the state in establishing re- recognizes and endorses the evolution of a rational strat- lationships with its political subdivisions. egy for natural resource decision making. The strategy recognizes the state as the dominant level of government, The Role of Regional Agencies. At the regional level, acting within the framework of national policies and with it was recognized that agencies such as the New England assistance from the federal government." Regional Commission, the Federal Regional Council and the New England River Basins Commission should design The State Role. The steps the Commission recom- their programs to strengthen state integration and leader- mended the states take included the following: ship in natural resources management and to assure that the interests of the region are taken into account. To do (1) Design overall natural resource strategies this, it was suggested that communications be strengthened 10-2 with respect to specific natural resource programs - among (8) Although it must have adequate resources-, the states, and between federal and state administering it should be funded within the financial agencies - to exchange information, technical assistance, capabilities of the federal and state gov- and to resolve interstate problems. ernments. Thus the SENE Study's heavy emphasis on state leadership The effectiveness of such a mechanism is hinged upon the in resource management is not really novel. It has already tools available to it to coordinate and implement its poli- been agreed upon at several levels of government. The key cies. Probably the most encompassing of these "tools" is to that leadership is coordination among the three tiers of the planning function although budgetary and program government - coordination in planning, state agency pro- review capability is also important. The SENE Study too, gram review, budget review, project review (environmental is important here, because it provides the frame of refer- impact statements), direct regulation and provision of in- ence within which those planning and review acitvities formation and technical assistance. What kind of mechan- can be conducted by such a mechanism. ism is needed to achieve this level of coordination; how can resource management programs be integrated with Because of the scatteration of functional planning activities, other state programs? securing integrated management responsive to state policy is difficult. While each state has existing mechanisms The Ideal: A State Resource Policy Mechanism to supply planning coordination (in Rhode Island the State Planning Council; in Massachusetts the State A state mechanism for coordinating resource management Planning Office Ph the Department of Administration policy would ideally consist of the following: and Finance and the Cabinet serve this function), the question of the degree of consolidation of planning re- (1) It must be responsive to strong policy direc- sponsibility under the Governor is a perennial issue. tion and leadership by the state and be con- Although that issue is not addressed in detail here, it sistent with, and supportive of, ongoing is sufficient to note the importance of planning at the state programs; state level and to the Governor's Office to ensure uni- form planning assumptions. The Executive, as the (2) It must have the capability to assimilate state's chief policy maker must be provided with the information, analyze problems, provide capacity to monitor, review, modify', or develop plan- coordination, and specify actions to be ning elements to avoid having to reconcile results hard- taken by or on behalf of the state; ened in concrete. (3) While it ought to be established under exist- One of the oldest of the various planning programs is ing legislative authority and within an exist- the '701' Program administered by the Department of ing institutional framework, such a program Housing and Urban Development (HUD). '701' Funds should be sufficiently flexible to allow it support the development of management capability for to evolve and develop greater management the state's decision making system, including state plan- responsibilities at some future date; ning offices with administrative and budgetary functions. HUD's '701' funds are also used for substate physical (4) It must provide the opportunity to involve planning programs. The State Comprehensive Outdoor all levels of government and interests: fed- Recreation Plan (SCORP) funded by the Bureau of eral, interstate, state, substate regional, Outdoor Recreation in the Department of the Interior, local, and private citizens; is another planning program which leans more heavily to providing a resource perspective in the planning pro- (5) It ought to take advantage of the extensive cess. State water and related land resource planning public and scientific involvement in re- programs are funded under Title III of the Water Re- source planning developed during the sources Planning Act of 1965. Water quality planning couze of the SENE Study; programs are funded under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (FWPCA), adminis- (6) It should have adequate ties to, and rela- tered by the Environmental Protection Agency. Other tionship with, the forthcoming state re- plans are being prepared for transportation and energy source programs and thework of the facilities. SENE Study; The Coastal Zone Management (CZM) program is one of (7) It should have a small professional staff, the few planning programs which does provide funds for responsible for planning, public informa- an integrated approach to resource planning, at least with tion and education activities; and respect to the area defined as the Coastal Zone. Adminis- 10-3 tered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- The review capability would also include the A-95 Project tration, the CZM program links not only,water and land Notification and Review System, which sets up specific planning but provides a means to integrate management requirements for the review by "planning and development activities as well. clearinghouses" of certain proposals or projects in which the federal government is to be involved. This review Although the states nationally have been looking to federal attempts to evaluate grant applications in terms of other land use legislation as a source of money and as an impetus plans, projects, or policies, and to obtain comments from to coordinate various functional planning activities, the other interested parties. defeat of this legislation has forced the states to look else- where to meet this need. The existence of the Section 208 Particularly in Rhode Island, the capital budgeting process program under the FWPCA of 1972, designed to integrate or the programming of the expenditures of capital over land use and water supply with water quality planning, time, and the "X-95" review process in which the state does much to provide the necessary structure to integrate Director of Administration must review and approve an resource planning activities. application for federal funds in the state, are appropriate vehicles to help secure program integration. The '208' program provides for areawide wastewater man- agement planning in areas which, as a result of urban in- The process of obtaining funds, including planning grants, dustrial concentrations and other factors, have substantial from multiple federal sources through a single application water quality control programs. Funding will be for plan- to the Federal Regional Council, under the Integrated ning and management of a comprehensive @rogram con- Grant Administration program and as adopted under the trolling local government and industrial wastewater, storm Joint Funding Simplification Act (P. L. 9 3 -5 10) is another and sewer runoff, non-point source pollutants, and land use vehicle to assist state coordination. and water supply as it relates to water quality. An import- ant requirement of the plan is the establishment of a man- Finally, the review capability should also include project agement program to ensure that the plan is implemented. review. Notable examples of this type of review are the Both Massachusetts and Rhode Island have taken steps to National Environmental Policy Act and the Massachusetts enter the program and some regional bodies have already Environmental Policy Act which require environmental been approved for funding. impact analysis of major public projects prior to project approval. With adequate funding assured by the 208 grants, the ques- tion of coordination between areawide programs remains. The Real: Significant Opportunities in Current In Rhode Island, because the entire state is expected to be Ongoing Programs designated as a single 208 area this will not be a problem. In Massachusetts however, where there are to be 15 areas Existing government agencies already have some of the receiving 208 funds, there is a need to ensure uniform tools needed to carry out many of the recommendations planning bases and to coordinate between 208 planning made in the SENE study. Both states have already estab- agencies. The Commonwealth has recognized this and is lished a mechanism for overall environmental, social, and working closely with individual 208 agencies to ensure economic policy coordination. Moreover, the ongoing provisions for appropriate state participation. Input at natural resource planning and management programs in the policy level, such as review by the Cabinet and sub- each state provide a significant degree of interagency groups such -as its Technical Committee, is necessary to coordination. A general description of approaches to state ensure integrated implementation of state policy. resource management follows. Various review procedures are also capable of giving policy In Massachusetts, as in Rhode Island, responsibility for es- bodies the ability to keep abreast of programs and projects tablishing a broad policy framework and for leadership and thereby coordinate the implementation of policy. Any rests with the respective state Governors. The Governor mechanism which is to integrate social, economic, and en- being the state's chief elected official, plays the central vironmental policies must have the capacity to participate role in formulating substantive resource management policy in such review procedures. within that framework. At the program level, this review would include the pro- The two other branches of state government also play im- gram budget review process, which involves a review of portant roles in the formulation of resource management the projected allocation of funds by programs, rather than policy. The Massachusetts General Court and the Rhode the traditional allocation by object classification. For the Island General Assembly through their legislative, budget- policy maker, knowing the level of funding by program ary, and other ancillary activities often develop and articu- can clearly show priorities and level of effort to be de- late state policies in conjunction with, or in response to, voted to the various programs. those expressed by the Governor. One example of this 10-4 capability is in the work of the Massachusetts Special Com- eering, responsible for environmental health, pollution mission on the Effects of Growth Patterns on the Quality control, water supply, water quality, and sanitation of Life in the Commonwealth, commonly known as the programs; (2) the Department of Environmental Manage- Wetmore Commission. In examining alternative state strate- ment including natural resources and solid waste pro- gies, the Commission's views will have a substantial impact grams; (3) the Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and on the passage of any comprehensive land use law in Massa- Recreational Vehicles; (4) the Department of Food and chusetts. While the judiciary is less able to directly pro- Agriculture; and (5) the Metropolitan District Commis- nounce policy, its role is important too, because it may sion. In addition-, a system to decentralize the EOEA's ultimately decide the legality of various elements of state activities through substate administrative field offices, policy and programs, coordinated with the state's substate district efforts, is pending legislative action. Massachusetts. Until recently, Massachusetts relied on an executive office, cabinet-level, Resources Management Policy Council (RMPC) to refine and coordinate policy. It One of the most important programs of EOEA, and one was created by Executive Order Number 103, in 1974, to which demonstrates the degree of integration necessary formulate policy and to make certain that resource poli- for effective resource management, is the Coastal Zone cies are made with reference to other social and economic Management Program (CZMP). The program has re- concerns. The RMPC was composed of the Secretaries of ceived initial federal planning funds, is -in the beginning Administration and Finance, Communities and Develop- stages of plan and program formulations, and has estab- ment, Consumer Affairs, Educational Affairs, Transporta- lished a citizen participation structure. A Coastal Re- tion and Construction, Human Services, Manpower Affairs, view Center has been established in the interim to identify and Environmental Affairs. It directed the Common- significant activities to review major projects and to for- wealth's participation in coastal zone, air quality, water mulate action recommendations within the coastal zone, quality, land use, and rural development programs. Work- pending completion of an approved Coastal Zone Manage- ing through inter-agency task forces, the RMPC coordina- ment Plan for the state. The Center serves as a forum for ted the preparation and submission of the State's water the development of information relating to the coastal quality management program under the Federal Water zone, and facilitates the decisions of those now perform- Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972. In addition, ing governmental functions. the RMPC developed a set of uniform substate adminis- trative districts for agency field operations, and submitted The Executive Office for Communities and Development its proposals on this subject for legislative and executive (EOCD), through the Department of Community Affairs approval. RMPC's Land Use Task Force formulated (DCA), acts as liaison between the state, the federal gov- plans for various state approaches to managing critical ernment and regional planning agencies. The DCA is also areas and controlling developments of greater than local authorized to provide guidance to the state's political concern. subdivisions in the development of land use plans. EOCD's Department of Commerce and Development (DCD) is au- Under the current Administration however, the full Cabinet, thorized to prepare a comprehensive plan for the economic as it is organized to deal with resource management issues, development of the state. performs the functions previously assumed by the RMPC. At this level, resource management policy can be effec- Other state level programs have been developed protecting tively formulated and evaluated in relation to state social wetlands, requiring environmental impact reports on public and economic development policy. Moreover, it provides projects and activities, and establishing an Energy Facilities a forum for the evaluation of economic and social pro- Siting Council, authorized to review utility companies' grams within the context of state resource management long-range plans and proposed site locations for power programs. plants. The Martha's Vineyard Law, recently enacted, sets up a process to designate areas of "critical planning con- Mile resource policies are formulated by the Cabinet, cern" and to screen "developments of regional impact". they are carried out through programs of the Executive These efforts represent concerted attempts to execute re- Office of Environmental Affairs (EOEA). Under reor- source plans and programs as elements of an overall state ganization currently in progress, the EOEA will combine strategy. the present Department of Natural Resources, the envi- ronmental functions of the Department of Public Health, At the substate level, the advisory regional planning agen- the solid waste programs of the Department of Public cies, eight of which exist in SENE, provide a link to local Works, the Department of Agriculture, and the Metro- governments by overseeing local planning programs and in politan District Commission. In addition to the Office the A-95 review process. In addition to the regional plan- of the Secretary, EOEA includes five departments: ning agencies, the state is currently in the process of stand- (1) the Department of Environmental Quality Engin- ardizing its substate administrative districts to provide a 10-5 uniform geographic framework not only for planning, but of the State. The Department of Natural Resources over- also for coordination and, most important, the delivery of sees a wide variety of programs for parks and recreation state programs. Not only will this decentralize state activi- areas, forests, fish and wildlife, agriculture, land acquisi- ties, it will allow local governments to meet federal require- tion, and wetlands. Water quality control, air quality con- ments and opportunities for "cooperative regionalism." trol, and solid waste are regulated by the Department of Health. The Port Authority and Economic Development Through these programs, policies set in a coordinated state Corporation (PAEDC) of the Department of Economic context are translated through administrative and regional D6,elopment constructs and develops utility facilities and agencies into action. The Coastal Zone Management Pro- port projects to further the State's economic growth. gram provides a focal point capable of "assessing relation- PAEDC projects must conform, however, to requirements ships among natural resource programs, securing their of the Coastal Resources Management Countil and the State integration, and monitoring performance against overall Guide Plan. natural resources strategy," as well as providing the means by which local, state, and federal governments can inter- A limited vehicle for interagency coordination is the Water relate. For that portion of the State not in the coastal Resources Board (WRB), which is presently responsible for zone, EOEA serves this function. Both could use the long-range water resource planning in the State. In some SENE Study to provide the substantive link between re- cases, the Board's responsibility for long-range water source capability analysis, demand analysis, and manage- planning conflicts with the role of the SPC as the final ment recommendations. arbiter of long-range policy. The WRB approves water supply distribution systems, and within certain statutory Rhode Island. Long-range resource management policy limitations, is authorized to acquire sites and construct set by the Governor in Rhode Island is integrated and co- facilities for water supply. ordinated through the State Planning Council (SPQ and its planning arm, the Statewide Planning Program (SPP). The Coastal Resources Management Council (CRMC) also Coordination of agency activities and preparation of the serves to integrate state resource management policies. It State Guide Plan are the two major vehicles through which has authority to plan, manage, and regulate the State's policy integration occurs. The SPC is composed of the resources in the coastal region through the formulation, Director of Administration, as chairman, and nine other implementation, and operation of various programs con- heads of state departments and agencies, five officials of sistent.with the State Guide Plan as well as with water local government, and non-voting representatives of fed- quality standards set by the Department of Health. The eral agencies. Subsequent to Executive Order Number 23, CRMC issues permits for alteration of intertidal salt the SPC's membership was expanded to- include ten citi- marshes and any work in, above, or beneath, the water zen representatives. Through its Technical Committee, areas under its jurisdiction. Its activities extend as well which monitors work in progress, and reviews all major to certain land uses and activities where there is a reason- studies and development projects, the SPC can coordinate able probability of conflict with the coastal environment, planning and development activities of governmental agen- including, but not limited to: power generating and de- cies at all levels and of the private sector. Should the SPC salination plants; chemicals or petroleum processing, trans- be given greater review responsibilities, such as those des- fer, or storage; minerals extraction; wastewater treatment cribed earlier, the services it might perform as a mechanism and disposal; and solid waste disposal facilities. It is also to coordinate and implement state policy would be greatly the State's coastal zone management agency under the enhanced. federal coastal zone program. The State Guide Plan is composed of framework functional One problem for the state is the dispersion of the environ- plans for land use, water quality management, transportation, mental functions among some twelve state administrative recreation, economic development, historic preservation, agencies. The overlap in regulatory responsibility for water and water and sewer service. The,State Land Use Policies quality maintenance for example, is a potential area of con- and Plan has been completed, reviewed by the public and flict. However, mutual interests can be served without dup- officially adopted by the SPC . Statewide Planning Program fication if there is sufficient cooperation and coordination activities are assisted by federal grants through the integrated among the agencies concerned. Greater coordination is pos- grant administration program; for example, the SPP proposed sible by combining environmental functions under the re- the State's application for coastal zone planning funds, though sponsibility of one agency as is being done in Massachu- the Coastal Resources Management Council will develop the setts, or by strengthening the coordination function which management program. SPP also coordinates as the A-95 SPC serves to enable it to act as the State's environmental review agency for the State. "clearinghouse." Implementation of policies developed by the State Plan- The State Planning Council also can provide the necessary ning Council is left to specific administrative departments leadership to coordinate overall resource policies within 10-6 the context of other state social and economic programs. federal system. In addition to this coordination, the fed- The SPC role could be strengthened by incorporating long- eral government also provides technical assistance, fund- range water resource policy making, and by improving co- ing, or direct resource management activities. These in- ordination with the CRMC and with other departments, clude: flood control, navigation improvement, erosion where that is necessary. The State has recognized the need protection (Corps of Engineers, Soil Conservation Service), to guide growth based on resource capabilities and has ex- water quality improvement (EPA), fish and wildlife enhance- pressed that need through the-preparation of the State Land ment (USFWS), land acquisition programs (BOR, NPS), Use Plan and Policies. The Statewide Planning Program is and regulation of power facilities (FPC), to name a few. capable of assessing and directing relationships among vari- ous functional resource programs, and its role should be Cooperation between the states and with the federal strengthened in this regard. agencies can be even more effective through other regional New England institutions. Through the New England Re- By using resource capability information developed by gional Commission, programs are formulated to strengthen SENE, the State Planning Council and the Statewide regional economic development. The New England River Planning Program could ensure a consistent starting point Basins Commission provides a vehicle to contribute directly for agency program development and provide additional to the development of regional and interstate aspects of resource management program guidance. natural resource programs undertaking analysis of regional needs and issues, providing information, developing com- Federal and Interstate. The role of the federal gov- prehensive management programs for the region, and as- ernment in environmental management reinforces state sisting in development and review of state programs with resource management integration efforts. An example is special reference to regional and interstate water and re- the administration of the coastal zone management pro- lated land aspects. Finally, the New England Governors' grams. Integrated grant administration and greater dele- Conference, composed of the six New England governors, gation of authority to regional field offices also demon- also can coordinate state policies with regard to natural strates greater federal emphasis on state control. The resources. existence of the Federal Regional Council (FRQ too, of- fers the states better access to federal funds and services. While there is no one mechanism which can look at the In fact, the FRC wa� established to develop closer work- SENE region as a whole, a new SENE-wide institution is ing relationships between federal grant-making agencies both unrealistic and unnecessary. Rather, it is necessary to and state and local governments, and to approve federal reinforce and strengthen current linkages, capabilities, and coordination of the grant system. Since federal agencies activities. Existing institutional arrangements must pro- are participants with the relevant states, the New England vide the process by which integration of state activities River Basins Commission is also available to help accom- can occur. plish objectives of specific state programs through the RECOMMENDED STRATEGY Given the institutional framework set forth above, and Cabinet and in Rhode Island, the State given the role of the state interagency policy councils, it is Planning Council. the current responsibility of the Cabinet in Massachusetts and the State Planning Council in Rhode Island to review As the agents through which management strategies are de- and adopt in whole, or in part, the resource management vised, these bodies can ensure coordination between the policies and programs of the SENE Study, and to guide state and other levels of government. They have staff and program development for specific functional recommen- coordinative capabilities, as well as access to resource in- dations by State administrative agencies within the con- formation and data, and with some modifications could text of the State's overall social and economic, as weltas include public and scientific input. Federal linkages exist environmental goals. to various degrees and program coordination, where neces- sary, between states would be most effective if carried out 1. Maximize use of existing resource policy at this level. institutions. The resource management policies and programs recommended by After considering these policies, the state interagency the SENE Study should be reviewed and, councils should implement major policy recommendation based on that review, policies the states of the SENE Study by adopting and endorsing as appro- feel appropriate should be adopted by priate, specific policy positions. such institutions in Massachusetts as the 10-7 Even with these organizations, which have a broad mandate Regional bodies, consisting of politically responsive to coordinate and implement resource management policies appointees of member municipalities, and supported by and programs, modifications to the institutions which have adequate staff, ought to arbitrate conflicts between more specific responsibilities may be necessary to guide neighboring local governments and review and regulate growth effectively. developments of regional impact in those situations where a regional perspective is essential. The regional regulatory New legislation will be necessary to do this. At the very authority ought to be accompanied by comprehensive, least, guiding an area's growth requires a degree of control longer range planning responsibilities, even if limited to by, and direction from, a level of government which can reviewing and making various local plans compatible. balance the needs of more than one community, beyond Because existing regional institutions as presently structured the traditional relationship between the state, the region, are incapable of performing most of the functions which and the municipality. such a system would allocate to them, they must be modified or new institutions must be developed, to make Guiding principles. The following general principles them more visible and politically accountable. ought to form the basis of any effort to realign the balance of powers between the state and its political subdivisions: The state role would involve the formulation of a basic policy, based on local and regional input and the integration (1) Municipalities should cany out, through of land use and development policy within the context of existing legal powers, their traditional role in social, economic, and environmental policies. The state making land and water resource use decisions should administer the policy through regional instrumentali- of local significance and should be able to ties and local government to the maximum feasible extent increase their effect on land and water re- and should provide technical and financial assistance to the sources decisions having regional or state regions and municipalities. impact; The following approaches offer alternative ways of striking (2) There should be a regional perspective with this balance. It should be remembered that they are not respect to greater than local land and water mutually exclusive, and that desirable features of one may resource use decisions, with the state co- be used in combination to form entirely new alternatives. ordinatingand settinggeneral policy and standards; and, Alternative Approaches to Key Elements of a Comprehensive Resources Management Program (3) More effective use of present and po ten tial direct state planning regulatory functions A wide array of more specific approaches to translating state should be made with respect to land and policy into action programs could be devised as elements of water resource use decisions of overall state a management program. To recommend any definitive set interest. of approaches would certainly be premature in advance of thorough public debate over alternatives. However, the The precise institutional form that will embody these Study has investigated, and presents here, a number of ap- principles ought to be determined by each state, acting proaches to stimulate this discussion, to illustrate certain through its legislative process. The Study firids however, considerations in one approach or another, and to charac- after extensive public review, that the general institutional terize the comprehensive management approach suggested framework should be premised on a system of decision- by this report. The approaches are summarized in Table making which moves up one level of goverwrient if per- 10.1. formance at the next lower level does not meet prescribed criteria. Planning and regulatory decisions should be made Two common threads run through the approaches pro- at the most decentralized level appropriate, without sacrifi- posed. The first is that growth must be guided based on cing the necessary perspective of the decision to be made. resource capabilities, and second, that there must be Approach ID of the following alternatives, most nearly greater involvement on the part of all governments in for- embodies these concepts. mulating policy, developing plans, setting standards, and reviewing lower level decisions with respect to environ- Active involvement of municipalities in the bulk of land mentally and economically sensitive issues. use and development decisions of local significance, is at the foundation of this structure. An increase in technical In this era of frequent government reorganization, the and financial assistance or changes in enabling authority utility of the following approaches should not be tied to may be necessary to allow localities to be more responsive specific named agencies. Rather, such references should to local needs. be taken to imply an institution or agency with the func- 10-8 TABLE10.1 ALTERNATIVE APPROACHES TO KEY ELEMENTS OF A COMPREHENSIVE RESOURCE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM MASSACHUSETTS ISLAND RHODE ... ........ ... ... . ......... ......... State: Cabinet promulgates development DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES FOR :::"'.State: SPC promulgates development guide- guidelines; reviews state agency proposals BY LOCAL GOVERNMENTS lines; reviews local permits and state under expanded Mass. Environmental Identifies requirements of developments Of agency proposals. Policy Act. regional impact, and matches them with Region: Screens municipal permits for con- site criteria X sistency with the guide. ::,.0Public and private development consistent Local: Issues development permits consistent with guidelines are facilitated i,`@Local: Issues development permits consist- with the guide. Directs public and private development ent with the guide. State: State law making mandatory local ..:..MANDATORY LOCAL PLANNING AND .,..'.State: State law making mandatory local planning and controls in accord with state :iiii ZONING planning and controls in accord with state criteria. State legislation requiring municipalities to criteria. Region: RPA review of municipal program. designate and regulate critical environmental State review of municipal program Local: Municipalities formulate and admin- areas and developments of regional impact Municipalities formulate and admin- X. ister plans; regulate development. ister plans; regulate development. State and regional actions guided by local plans. N.- X, State: Cabinet establishes standards and :.-.STATE DESIGNATION AND LOCAL REG- @@@State: SPC establishes standards and des- designates areas. ULATION OF CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL ignates areas. Region: RPA acts if municipality in default. AREAS OR AREAS OF CRITICAL CONCERN Critical areas to include: areas for social Local: Municipal'administration of consistent TO THE STATE or economic development. Critical areas include: critical environmental development controls. X: ....Local: Municipal administration of consist- importance to the public wel- ent development controls. areas; areas of fare; areas affecting or affected by key facilities. X. State: Cabinet designates, establishes standards STATE OR REGIONAL REGULATION OF @@@State: Newly created Resources Management and regulations for uses in critical areas. CRITICAL AREAS WITH MUNICIPAL Council designates, establishes standards X Region: RPA regulates if designated by Cabinet;:::::: ADMINISTRATION and regulations for uses in critical areas (RPA might designate and establish standards State designations, standards and regula- i@ (RMC would be similar to the CRMC). for areas, as an alternative to the state.) tions for protecting, managing and devel. The RMC and CRMC would grant permits Local: Municipal administration of state reguta- iii@: oping critical areas. for development in these areas. tions; if fails to do so, state through RPA Critical areas include: critical environmen- X"Local: Development would continue to be would assume regulatory control. tal areas. regulated by municipalities as well. State: Cabinet establishes policies and REGIONAL MANAGEMENT OF WATER AND (No substate regional guidelines possibly through WRC. :.-.'RELATED LAND RESOURCES governments in Rhode Region: Prepares water management plan; 0 Critical areas include: water and water Island, therefore provides technical assistance; carries out related land. concept not applicable.) operations or construction of facilities. Water supply coordinated with waste water Local: Negotiates formation of regional management. authorities. Substate regional management. State: State planning, management, and :.*'-.'*STATE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF '@@i@@State: State (SPP - SPQ plans the integrated permit granting through a series of state- :,::.RELATED LAND RESOURCES management of water and related land level regional agencies (like MDQ. Pervasive state role, resources, including long range planning Critical areas include: Water an Region: Advisory role. d water for the water resource. "B and Solid related land. Waste Management Corporation would X construct, operate and carry out management activities to implement state plans and policies. Local: Continues present function where Advisory role. conforms to state plans. Notes: SPC - R.I. State Planning Council RPA - Regional Planning Agency SPP - R.I. Statewide Planning Program WRC - Water Resources Commission RMC - Resources Management Council MDC - Metropolitan District Comm. CRMC - R.I. Coastal Resources Management Council WRB - R.I. Water Resources Board 10-9 tional capabilities suggested in the context of a particular Using the SENE Study as a data base and applying its approach. In Massachusetts, for example, most functions methodologies to develop guidelines and to identify formerly carried out by the Resource Management Policy areas, the Cabinet could coordinate the identification Council have now been assumed by the full Cabinet. Ref- and designation of areas suitable for various kinds of de- erences thereto in the following approaches should be velopments of regional impact (e.g. power plants, high- taken to mean the Cabinet as it is organized to deal with ways, and waste disposal facilities) and other categories of resource management issues. developments which, because of their size or nature, are likely to have environmental, economic, or other impacts Finally, one of the most important limitations on any of greater than local consequence. Areas, which because management scheme is how it distributes its costs and bene- of their regional significance, are not to be developed, fits. Windfall gains may accrue to some, windfall losses to could also be designated. others, as a result of government decisions, unless mechan- isms exist for redistributing, or at least integrating, such These studies will be conducted on the basis of inputs results. This may be true for entire communities, no less from state and regional agencies concerned with economic than for individuals, as when, for example, one munici- development and environmental protection, as well as pality bears the burden of regional open space requirements from representatives of local government and interested and thereby incurs a disproportionately heavy loss of pro- public and private sector sources. These studies will in- perty tax revenues. There also is constant pressure on clude consideration of the range of site characteristics that municipalities, given the present property tax structure, to may be relevant in deciding the location of categories of increase development or "ratables" at the expense of pro- facilities or developments. Access to, and impact upon, tection for critical environmental areas. Land values, too, water resources are further variables that would be con '- may be pushed up or down as a result of official actions and sidered as relevant to such decisions. Based on.data gen- policies. Institutions should take full cognizance of such erated by these surveys, the Cabinet could prepare, pro- impacts and ameliorate their inequities. The right of a mulgate, and, as the need arises, revise, a "development private owner to secure compensation when his property guide ". This guide could be used by all agencies and de- is taken by eminent domain, the right of public access to velopers, both public and private, in initiating, evaluating, publicly subsidized amenities, Vermont's recently enacted permitting, funding, or undertaking particular future de- capital gains tax on land sales, and proposals for property velopment proposals. Proposals for the development of tax-base revenue sharing are examples of equitable methods key facilities or developments of extra-local impact that by which this issue has been resolved. The role that fiscal are advanced consistently with the criteria and procedures policy plays must be considered in any of the following set forth in the guide, could be expedited by streamlined approaches, and mechanisms should be designed to recon- permit procedures, and with a minimum of additional cile such inequities. impact analysis. Conversely, development proposals lack- ing such consistency would have to be justified by full Massachusetts. The Massachusetts approaches presented impact analysis, and might have to run the gamut of multi- demonstrate two major themes of a management program: ple reviews by different agencies. For this purpose, the (1) the balance of resource management powers between Massachusetts Environmental Policy Act (MEPA) would be the state and its municipalities; and (2) the possibility of extended to cover municipal and private developments of indirectly guiding growth through comprehensive pro- more than local concern that were advanced inconsistently grams for protecting the water resource. By comparing with the "development guide". In short, a stronger burden the various approaches, the essential elements of conflict of proof would fall upon a developer with respect to any or complementarity between arrangements can be charac- proposal that appeared to lack such consistency. Regional terized. The various approaches are not mutually exclusive. planning agencies (RPA's) could conduct the initial screen- They do illustrate, however, different starting points from ing to determine if pending municipal development permits which one might proceed to construct institutional arrange- were consistent with the guide; the Cabinet itself, or-its ments. designee, would conduct a similar screening with respect to development proposals advanced by state agencies. If the reviewing agency determined that the proposed project IA. State development guidelines for use by local govem- was inconsistent in the guide, it could so certify to the per- ment. Under the first approach, a development guide mitting agency, and a full-scale impact analysis would then would be prepared which would direct certain kinds of have to be prepared and reviewed for adequacy before the development to possible sites, identified, based on stated development could proceed. criteria, as being suitable for such development from the standpoint of resource capability. Proposals contrary to The advantages of this approach are several. This approach the guide would have to undergo extensive impact analy- would be premised upon the adoption of SENE Study pol- sis before approval. icy recommendations for development and protecting 10-10 Critical Environmental Areas. It would build upon the State and regional agencies would be expected to nominate criteria for guiding development that are advanced in earlier some areas for critical designation, to make inputs to local chapters of the Study. The guide could, for example, re- plans, and to furnish technical assistance to localities in fine and extend the Study's analysis of criteria to identify performing the foregoing tasks. In addition, the concerned future power plant sites to maintain regional self-sufficiency. RPA could review the consistency of proposed municipal This approach would not impose an authoritative site-sufficiency. plans with the statutory criteria and with any established master plan on the state, but would provide a flexible set state or regional plans for development of capital infrastruc- of criteria for evaluating proposed development in terms ture (e.g. transportation networks, waste management fa- of its environmental, economic, and other impacts. In cilities). Such plans will have been formulated so as to re- conjunction with an extended MEPA, the guide could have flect the maximum possible degree of consensus among substantial persuasive force. The development guide pre- municipalities and RPAs. If the RPA objected to a muni- pared by the Cabinet would be a definitive expression of cipal plan on grounds of inconsistency with the statute or state policy and norms for evaluating the efficacy of cer- with a larger state or regional plan, and the municipality tain stated development types. As new development types failed to correct it, either party could appeal the matter to are identified, or as additional data regarding land use cap- the courts for final determination under normal judicial abilities becomes known, the development guide could be procedures. If the municipality failed to adopt- an accept- revised and updated. able plan within the time prescribed by statute or judicial decree, the RPA would be authorized to prepare. such a Since the guide would not attempt to select sites for spe- plan, which the municipality would then have to adminis- cific development projects, but would instead create a ter until such time as it developed an acceptable plan of its process for matching sites with needs as basic economic own. supply and demand factors interact, it is more likely to be acceptable than more authoritative regulations. Until a municipal plan was adopted, developments of re- gional impact and developments affecting areas of critical ne disadvantages of this alternative are as follows: im- environmental concern, as defined by the statute, would pressive resources and expertise would be required to pre- have to be preceded by submission of environmental im- pare a useful and persuasive development guide along the pact reports to local permit-issuing agencies, and by public lines here envisaged. Some types of relevant information hearings thereupon which would include required partici- will be impossible, or prohibitively costly, to obtain. As a pation by any relevant state or regional agency. This re- practical matter, many aspects of the guide may be only view process could be streamlined and shortened, however, tentative or advisory, and frequent revisions 'may undermine once an acceptable municipal plan was in effect. At any the justification for using it to impose heavier burdens of time, judicial review of a municipal grant or denial of a proof and administrative procedures on some developers development permit could be obtained by an adversely af- and not on others. Moreover, to effect the revisions of ad- fected person on grounds that the municipal action was in- ministrative procedure articulated in this approach may consistent, either with the statute itself, or with an applic- require controversial modifications of statutory authority able plan developed pursuant to the statute. of existing institutions. Municipalities would be expected to exercise, where appro- The second approach in this set relies primarily on local priate, any or all of their existing po-wers over land use in initiative. discharging the responsibilities here envisaged for them. Those powers include master planning, flood plain cluster, I B. Mandatory local planning and zoning. Under this ap- and environmental impact zoning, as well as the more tra- proach every municipality could be directed by statute to ditional forms of zoning and subdivision controls; admin- adopt a plan designating (1) areas requiring protection and istration of wetlands protection laws; enforcement of health those requiring management for development, and estab- codes relating to land disposal of wastes; prescription of lishing procedures for regulating developments in, or affect- performance standards for the conduct of land-based or ing such areas; and (2) developments of regional impact land-disturbing activities; and acquisition of properties for according to criteria specified in the statute; and (3) setting purposes of public reFcreation or conservation. forth a program of long-range capital development that will serve to channel residential and economic growth in In subsidizing, permitting, or undertaking activities of vari- accordance with the time-phased provision of municipal ous kinds and in exercising other powers already granted to services. The statute could specify criteria to be applied by the state by law (e.g., with respect to wetlands and scenic municipalities in formulating and administering such plans, or recreational rivers), the state will be guided by locally especially criteria for incorporating consideration of state formulated plans to the maximum extent feasible. Excep- and regional interests in the local decision making process. tions to this rule would be recognized only for overricing Full public participation in both planning and regulatory reasons of state policy (e.g., equitable distribution of low- decisions at the local level could also be required. 10-11 income housing) expressed through formal action of the (1) Priority Protection Areas (Category A): highly Legislature. fragile resources, which have the lowest toler- ance for development and highest value for The advantages of this aiternative are several. This ap- water resource protection; proach (which largely reflects the new Colorado law) comes closest to continuing the tradition of primary local responsi- (2) Other Protection Areas (Category 13): re- bility for land use control, and assumes that municipalities sources relatively tolerant to specific types and can do the job under pressure from the Legislature, with densities of development and having high value help and guidance from state and regional agencies. This for water and related resource management; approach would take advantage of existing local authority and to regulate and manage use of critical areas such as flood plains, and would restrict state and regional planning ini- (3) Developable Areas Requiring Management tiatives to inherently extra-local interests. (Categories C, F, & G): resources capable of absorbing varying degrees of development. Comprehensive planning at the local level through an open planning process, such as here envisaged, along with local The above categories, which include "water related lands" regulation of development in accordance with statutory as defined in Chapter 3, fall within what the Study has criteria, may well be worth a try before attempting any defined as Critical Environmental Areas requiring protec- substantial shift of power over land use from local to state tion and Developable Areas requiring management. or regional levels. It is assumed that localities would be able to strike the best balance between developmental and Simultaneously with the identification of areas of state- environmental objectives, taking into account the desires wide concern and the promulgation of guidelines for the of the citizenry whose voices are most clearly heard in successive identification of areas of regional and local con- local councils. At the same time, through consultations, cern, the Cabinet could promulgate standards for the pro- technical assistance, planning for capital improvements of tection or development of designated areas, and for the regional, or statewide significance and judicial review, state regulation of activities therein. Municipalities could then and regional agencies with broader perspectives would still be required to formulate special zoning and subdivision be able to exert substantial influence ovef local performance. ordinances, selective restrictions or prohibitions on de- velopment and waste disposal, and other protective regu- The disadvantage of this approach is that it is likely to prove lations, consistent with the state standards, for all desig- cumbersome, time-consuming, and inefficient. Unless con- nated critical areas lying within their respective boundaries. sistent standards are developed such as those of the SENE Upon approval by the Cabinet, each set of proposed muni- Study, this approach would run the risk that decisions of cipal controls would have the force of law, and would numerous municipalities may be inconsistent with one an- thereafter be administered by the municipality. If a mu- other and contrary to state or regional needs. nicipality fails to submit to Ahe Cabinet a. set of controls responsive to the state Standards, the Cabinet could order The next approach gives the state a greater role in desig- the appropriate RPA to prepare the necessary controls for nating areas to be protected. the municipality to administer. Only in the event that neither the concerned municipality nor the RPA developed IC. State designation and local. regulation of Critical a satisfactory set of controls within a reasonable period of Environmental Areas. In an alternative approach, the Cabi- time, would the Cabinet itself prepare them for the muni- net could supervise a process for the identification and cipality to administer in those critical areas. protection of areas deemed to be of critical environmental concern from state, regional, and local perspectives. This Once areas of critical concern had been identified and a would be done on the basis of inputs from all interested local regulatory program was in effect, the issuance or state agencies, and the public, to ensure interagency and denial of any development or use permit affecting such an interdisciplinary coordination. area would be appealable by any interested person to the RPA. Upon such appeal, the RPA could be empowered to The Cabinet could initiate this process by designating areas review, reject, or modify any permit determination it of critical concern to the state, such as important resource deemed to have been made inconsistently with the apph- sites, based on work already done by the Department of cable set of controls. Further, the RPA could itself be em- Community Affairs and the SENE Study on identifying powered to initiate, on its own motion and on similar Critical Environmental Areas. The Cabinet could then sug- grounds, the review of any local permit determination. In gest how they might be protected and promulgate guidelines its discretion, the Cabinet could designate an appropriate for the RPAs and municipalities to follow in designating state entity to provide a further level of review of RPA de- areas of regional and local concern. Critical areas qualifying terminations, upon petition by any interested or aggrieved for designation under this model would basically be of three party showing the importance of the issues at stake. More- kinds: over, all public development would be subject to the same 10-12 set of approved standards, and proposed projects could be all interested agencies and the public, the Cabinet.could be reviewable by the Cabinet upon petition of any interested statutorily empowered to list particular areas for proposed party. designation as areas of critical environmental concern in accordance with guidelines or criteria to be set forth in Yhe advantages of this alternative are as follows. Because of the enabling law and based on the designations and man- the broad jurisdictional scope of its composition, the Cabinet agement recommendations for "priority protection areas," is,the most appropriate entity to oversee and resolve inter- "other protection areas", and "developable areas requiring disciplinary and interagency disputes occasioned by the im- management" already developed by the SENE Study. Such plementation of this critical area program. For the staff areas might be confined at first to the coastal zone, bearing capabilities needed to carry out the program, the Cabinet in mind the Federal Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) could utilize the diverse manpower talents of its several of 1972 and the state coastal zone program; later, inland constituent state agencies, or expand the technical capa- areas could be added in consistent ways to the list. The. bilities of its own staff. Cabinet could directly zone each designated area for parti- cular uses and propose regulation for restricting or controll- Again, this alternative would take maximum advantage of ing development therein (responsively to the management the work identifying Critical Environmental Areas already program specifications set forth in section 305(a) of the done by the SENE Study. Under this alternative, every level CZMA). A further set of regulations could be proposed for of government - state, local, and sub-state regional - is controlling developments of regional impact, wherever given a role in the designation of areas to be preserved; the located within the state. These sets of proposals could be level of government most appropriately concerned with a submitted to the Legislature for review and, if not dis- potential problem area does the designation for that area. approved within ninety days by the relevant committee of The alternative also preserves municipal initiative in deter- either branch, could override any inconsistent municipal mining what development controls will be applied to criti- ordinances and could be binding upon.all state, regional, cal areas, in line with traditional concepts of local control and local agencies. In the course of preparing the state over land use. zoning scheme, the Cabinet would review municipal ordinances for the required consistency, and, if found to By confining the state's role to the designation of critical be adequate, the municipality would continue to administer areas of state concern, to the establishment of flexible them. standards for regulating land use in such areas, and to the limited review of actions taken or not taken, pursuant to With some adaptations, this design could be modified to Wch directives, this alternative avoids the objections that emphasize a regional or areawide approach to protecting would be raised to any more pervasive state role in deter- critical areas. In this variation, regional planning agencies mining patterns of development or in indirectly regulating could identify areas of critical planning concern and adopt land use. standards for their protection, management, or development. RPAs, with additional authority granted by the Legislature The disadvantages of this alternative are as follows. The could then administer consistent controls or could ensure procedures for producing critical area designations and that localities administer such controls. Under this varia- for achieving implementation of the envisaged regulatory tion, provision should be made for an appeals procedure format are complex and time consuming. Unless interim from decisions of the regional or local body to a state-level development controls are implemented, it is likely that administrative body or to a court of law, and to grant many areas that would otherwise fall within the critical standing to affected RPAs or neighboring communities. catalogue will be developed before designations are made and ongoing controls are adopted and approved. Even An areawide approach to critical areas is in line with some the limited roles envisaged for the Cabinet and RPA's current directions in the state, the Martha's Vineyard Law under this alternative are likely to be opposed by muni- and the Franklin County Bill being the most notable ex- ciplaities and developers on traditional grounds or as a amples. The Martha's Vineyard Law establishes a twenty- matter of public policy, it may be necessary to provide a one member regional commission which passes on all ap- state fund for compensating owners and municipalities plications to construct developments of regional impact whose property is made subject to development restric- (defined, in part, as "the types of development which tions that impair its market value or revenue generating because of their magnitude or the magnitude of their capacity. effect on the surrounding environment, are likely to present development issues significant to more than one com- The last approach gives the state regulatory authority munity of the island of Martha's Vineyard"). The Com- over critical areas. mission also designates "districts of critical planning con- cem" and oversees local regulation of these districts. Such ID. State or Regional regulation of critical areas with arrangements appear to be more responsive to local con- municipal administration. On the basis of consultations with ditions, would provide a means only one step removed 10-13 from municipalities to reconcile local and regional objec- policies respecting growth and land use; (3) allocation of tives, and would leave the majority of land use decisions the resource among competing or conflicting instrearn and to the authority of local government.. withdrawal uses, whenever and wherever it is not sufficient to satisfy all demands simultaneously; and (4) regulation of Municipalities would be charged in the first instance with activities on the land through performance standards.de- administering the state-set controls in designated areas signed to protect the water resource, in all phases of the falling within their respective jurisdictions. In case of re- hydrologic cycle, against degradation or excessive deple- peated failure by a municipality to apply the state regula- tion. In all cases, the most sensitive question of inteibasin tions, the Cabinet could assume direct regulatory control resource allocation could be resolved by legislative action. of a designated area or class of developments, or designate Such plans and policies could be proposed after consulta- the relevant RPA to assume such control. tion with all interested agencies, including the RPAs and the public. 7he advantages of this alternative are as follows. This al- ternative (for which a rough precedent exists in Hawaii law) With these objectives in view, an interagency body would outlines a direct, efficient, and expeditious way of asserting prepare a program guide for water resources management the state's interest in the protection of critical areas and in throughout the state, which would acquire authoritative the guidance of significant development. The responsibility status upon review and approval by the Cabinet. Such an would be shared between the Executive Branch, through interagency body might be the Massachusetts Water Re- the Cabinet and the Legislature, which adequately repre- sources Commission (WRC), if it were given adequate au- sents local interests. Localities would also be given a prime thority and staff. The guide could include: (1) identifica- opportunity to implement state strategy. tion of water and related land resource projects proposed for development, expansion, or management by state Although some restructuring of RPAs may be necessary, agencies within the foreseeable future, together with en- which would be resolved politically by the Legislature, the vironmental and economic impact analysis of the alterna- reform suggested here may be far less than other options tives considered and institutional and fiscal strategies for presented. As a practical matter, the RPAs' experience, implementing the preferred alternatives; (2) guidelines and staff, resources and familiarity with their areas make them regulations that the WRC and the Department of Health likely candidates to assume greater responsibilities. would follow (the latter to retain its regulatory power over the purity and safety of public water supplies). in reviewing The disadvantages of this alternative follow. State interven- application from regional or local agencies for approval to tion of this magnitude, even if confined to carefully chosen develop or expand their own sources of supply; (3) guide- areas and developments of critical concern to the state itself, lines and regulations for allowing multiple use of water departs severely from the tradition of primary local control bodies and adjacent lands, and for protecting water qual- over land use. Objections might be raised to:dictation from ity against adverse impacts of land use, including land the top down, without having sufficiently resorted to pro- disposal of wastes; (4) integration of basin plans for water. cesses of accommodation and consensus-formation among quality control into larger basin plans for protecting and all concerned agencies and the public. In particular, the ab- managing the entire water resource; and (5) designation of sence of local participation in the development of the en- particular water resources as of critical state,c6ncern, based visaged controls might well eliminate this alternative as on those identified by the SENE Study including fragile or. politically unfeasible. non-renewable resources that are in jeopardy-of depletion, or degradation or salt water intrusion (e.g., the Cape Cod The second set of approaches demonstrates an indirect ap- aquifer) and waters subject to competing or conflicting de-. proach to guiding growth through comprehensive programs mands that cannot be simultaneously accommodated. for the protection of the water resource. The first offers a regional emphasis; the second illustrates centralized state Substate regional or areawide entities would be the primary management. Both are based on the development of inte- vehicles for implementing state-set policies and would pre- grated long-range policies for management of water resour- pare specific water management plans consistently with the ces in all phases of the hydrologic cycle. guide to allocate and protect the waters of a region. By legislative mandate, ground waters would be included, in. 2A. Regional management of water and related land re- whole or in part, within the definition of waters subject to sources. Under this approach, a state interagency body, public regulation. The regional plan would establish and representing all agencies concerned with the protection and allocate intrabasin water uses in harmony with other func use of the state's waters, would plan and set standards with tional plans developed regionally; identify needed facilities respect to: (1) the quality, quantity, and the availability for water resource management; establish regulations to be (timing and placement) of the water resource; (2) coordina- observed by local authorities in permitting ground and sur- tion of water resource development with demographic and face water use, subsurface disposal, sewering and sewer 'con- economic growth, consistently with any applicable state nections; and articulate performance standards forconserv-, 10-14 ing water and controlling polluted runoff from land devel- appear to be the leading candidates for regional resource opments and land disturbing activities, especially as these planning activities in Massachusetts, continue to be or- may affect water resources of critical state concern. ganized on an essentially one-town, one-vote basis. Politi- cal parochialism may prevent them from developing and A key agency for assisting in the implementation of regional implementing regional plans of the caliber contemplated by flow managernent plans could be a regionally based environ- this approach. It may be necessary to reform the RPAs mental service authority, RESA, which would perform the which may be politically difficult to achieve, if it means following functions: (1) render technical assistance to opera- any loss of individual municipal autonomy to the regional tors of water management and wastewater management fa- entity. Similar objections may be raised to the concept of cilities; (2) monitor such operations for conformance with the RESA, and owners of land above ground water can be applicable state or federal standards; and (3) on request, expected to resist any attempts to compromise their claims contact with any public or private entity to plan, rinance, to unrestricted control over this resource. construct, or operate any water supply or waste management facility. As discussed in an earlier Chapter 4, Water Supply, The second approach in this pair involves greater state such authorities could be created through intermunicipal management. negotiation and agreement. The managing board of each RESA would include technically qualified personnel as 2B.. State planning and management of water and related well as representatives of the region, the localities within land resources. In a variation of the above approach, an it, and the public. Responsibility for taking enforcement interagency council, such as the Massachusetts Water Re- action against violators would continue to reside primarily sources Commission (WRC), after consultation with other in other state agencies. interested state, regional, local agencies, and the general public, would prepare an integrated master plan for water Ae advantages of this approach are many. As pointed out resource management:and protection of lands critical to in earlier chapters on water supply and water quality, there the protection of water in the Commonwealth. This plan is a need to integrate management of all phases of the water would contain all the elements described in the previous resource. This approach, and the one following, could be option. However, in this approach, the WRC would ad- used as the means by which such integration could occur. minister a use-perrnit system over water and related land resources. No person could make use of such a resource, Development of regional capabilities for overall water re- nor conduct any land development or activity that might source planning and management is a natural extension of degrade it, without obtaining a permit from the WRC. the planning roles that may be assigned to regional agencies The plan, together with programs, and regulations for im- pursuant to Section 208 of the Federal Water Pollution Con- plementing it, would be reviewed and approved by the trol Act Amendments of 1972. This approach recognizes Cabinet. the advanced state of water quality planning and manage- ment. Moreover, most, if not all, of the existing regional A statewide Massachusetts environmental service agency' planning agencies have already gained exposure through (MESA), or a series of regionally-oriented state agencies their water and sewer planning and their A-95 review roles, like the Metropolitan District Commission (MDQ, would to many of the water-related technical and political issues be primarily responsible for implementing the approved within their regions. state plan. The MESA (or MDCs) would exercise functions, powers, and duties similar to those described for the RESA This approach envisages only a partial centralization of under the previous option. This means that the state itself power over water resources at the state level. Specific would become heavily involved in undertaking management planning for use of the resource could mainly be done by measures, and in administering regulatory controls over both the regional agencies which may be in the best position the quality and quantity of the resource. to harmonize multiple environmental and developmental objectives, and to mediate between state, federal, and local The RPAs would continue to play advisory roles in water interests in resource management. The RESA, working in resource planning. Municipal agencies and intermunicipal close cooperation with both state and regional agencies, districts for wastewater management and water quality con- should be able to promote economies of scale, administra- trol could continue to function, but only in accordance tive coordination, and technical expertise in the manage- with the WRC's plans and under supervision of the MESA. ment of water resources. Local initiative in the development Local initiatives and municipal controls over water related of water and related land resources would be preserved, to land use would be left intact, but would be subject to the maximum extent consistent with the recognition of supervening state powers to protect, allocate, and manage legitimate state and regional interests in the extra-local the water resource. consequences of resource use. The advantages of this approach, like the preceding one, 7'he disadvantages of the approach are that RPAs, which are that it would provide an opportunity to integrate long- 10-15 range water quality management and water-supply develop- 1 A. State development guidelines for use by local gov- ment as conceived in earlier chapters of the Study. Location ermnent. Similar to the Massachusetts approach I A, state of water reservoirs, for example, could be coordinated with development guidelines would be prepared to address spe- the development of treatment facilities. Moreover, this cific types of development which cannot be adequately approach could provide efficiency in realizing the state's controlled at the local level. Guidelines would be promul- legitimate interest in the quality and allocation of the gated to direct certain kinds of development to possible water resource. Given the maze and geographic scale of sites, identified on the basis of resource capability criteria. interrelated problems, including some highly technical The location, criteria and requirements of particular kinds ones, there are those involved in the management of the of development would represent an expression of state state's waters who believe that the state itself must pro- development policies as set forth in the State Guide Plan tect and control this resource with a firm hand. At the and the State Land Use Policies and Plan. same time, accountability to a variety of private and public interests can be built into the design by requiring The State Planning Council (SPQ would adopt and pro- interagency consultations and public participation at mulgate the guidelines, which would be prepared by the key stages of the planning and implementing process. Statewide Planning Program (SPP), based on work al- ready done by the state and the work of the S ENE Study The vesting of primary planning and support functions on in identifying critical areas and criteria for categories of the state level will achieve greater uniformity than that development, and any further studies which may be neces- attainable through use of the regional institution des- sary. The guidelines developed by the SPP would assess cribed in the previous approach. the impacts and resource requirements of various kinds of developments of regional impact and compare them with 77ze disadvantages are that a powerful state agency in the the range of site characteristics which may be relevant in field of water resource management may be perceived as deciding their location. The guidelines would be based on too great an affront to the tradition of local autonomy. inputs from state agencies concerned with economic de- Such an agency would, moreover, require an enlarged velopment and environmental protection, as well as from bureaucracy. The fact that state decisions regarding wa- representatives of local government and interested mem- ter pollution control, water supply, and critical area bers of the public and private sector. management would have profound influence on growth and land use is also likely to engender substantial political The guidelines would be used by all agencies and developers, opposition. both public and private, in initiating, evaluating, permitting, funding or undertaking particular development proposals. Some of the state powers suggested here, for example, to Development proposals advanced consistently with the allocate water supply and multiple use of the water re- guidelines could be facilitated by streamlined permit pro- source - may encounter constitutional challenges based cedures. Proposals which are not consistent with the guide- upon established riparian rights. Constitutional challenge lines would be more carefully scrutinized for potential ad- may also be expected to any wholesale declaration that verse effects. Possibly other incentives such as funding or ground waters belong to, and are subject to allocation technical assistance would be withheld from those propos- by, the Commonwealth. These issues may require als which were inconsistent with the guidelines, lengthy litigation before the state can proceed with any master water resources plan. Municipalities would retain their authority for development permits, although they would be expected to apply the Rhode Island. Unlike Massachusetts, Rhode Island is a guidelines developed by the State. Consistent with its role small state with little tradition of regional government in the A-95 review process and the integrated grant adminis- existing between the state and its municipalities, with the tration program, the Statewide Planning Program would exception of regional councils of government such as that conduct screenings to determine if pending municipal de- which exists in Blackstone Valley, created under R.I. Gen. velopment permits as well as development proposals ad- Laws Ann. � 45-43. Moreover, the relevant institutions vanced by state agencies were consistent with the guidelines. particularly the Statewide Planning Program (SPP), the State Planning Council (SPC), the Coastal Resources Man- The advantages of this approach are as follows. Insofar as agement Council (CRMC), and the Water Resources Board the State Land Use Policies and Plan including State devel- (WRB) - have no precise counterparts in Massachusetts. opment policies and general statewide guidelines has been For these reasons, a different array of institutional possibi- adopted by the SPC, this approach would reflect current lities must be tailored to Rhode Island. As set forth below, state efforts. Moreover, this approach would build on the they are organized under two major categories: (1) the criteria for guidingdevelopment that are advanced in control of land uses of critical planning concern, with earlier chapters of the Study, such as the criteria to iden- varying degrees of state and local responsibility; and (2) the tify future power plant sites in ways consistent with water centralized management of water and related land resources. and related land resource characteristics. The guidelines 10-16 would also provide uniformity of approach to developments pursuant to the'.sta6 standards for designated areas within of regional impact or in special problem areas which have their respective jurisdictions. common characteristics, even though located in different political jurisdictions. Further, the guidelines adopted by Areas of critical concern to the state would be legislatively the SPC would be a definitive expression of state policy defined but might include: (1) Priority Protection Areas and norms for evaluating the efficacy of certain develop- (category A): highly fragile resources which have the low- ment types. est tolerance for development and the highest value for water resource protection; (2) Other Protec tion Areas Finally, since the guideline would not select specific de- (category B): resources relatively tolerant to specific types velopment sites but would create instead an advisory pro- and densities of development and having high value for cess for matching sites with needs, is not likely to be seen water and related resource management; (3) Developable as a great affront to the tradition of home rule. Areas Requiring Management (categories C, F, and G): resources capable of absorbing varying degrees of devel- The disadvantages of the approach are as follows. By the opment; (all of which are included in the Study's defini- same token, the fact that the guidelines may only be ten- tion of areas requiring protection and those capable of tative or advisory may undermine effective implementa- development), as well as (4) areas directly iffecting, or tion of state development policy. Considerable resources affected by, major existing or planned key facilities or de- and expertise may be necessary to. prepare a useful and velopments of regional impact (e.g., those described in persuasive set of guidelines. Finally, although this ap- Chapter 9); and (5) areas wl-deh, for reasons of state eCo- proach could be used as an entire state program, it would nomic or social policy, have been accorded a high, priority appear to be more useful as a component of a broader for development or redevelopment. The state standard- program. Guidelines alone might leave the state without setting agency or agencies would review the mandated lo- adequate authority to regulate some matters of clearly cal controls for such areas and, where proposed controls state concern. were deemed to be inadequate, would make recommenda- tions for their improvement. If the state recommendations The second alternative vests primary responsibilities with were not complied with within a specified time, or local localities. ordinances were inconsistent, the state would prescribe the required controls for the municipality. Developments lo- I B..Mandatory local planning and zoning. A contrasting cated in, or affecting, the designated areas would be regu- approach based on local controls under state initiative lated by permit systems administered by the concerned would apply to Rhode Island the framework outlined in municipalities, consistently with the, approved set of con- approach I B for Massachusetts. (See 1B above under trols. The state would stand prepared to acquire, or to Massachusetts.) assist a municipality in acquiring, the appropriate rights to any area designated for maintenance in a natural state The distinguishing features of this approach in the Rhode with little or no development. Island setting would be the absence of a regional inter- mediary between the state and its municipalities, and the Issuance of use or development permits by municipalities performance by SPP-SPC of those functions which in pursuant to this scheme would be appealable by interested Massachusetts would be assumed by the RPAs. The ad- or aggrieved parties to the appropriate state agency for re- vantages and disadvantages enumerated there would also view. Upon such appeal, the state agency would be em- hold true for Rhode Island. powered to veto or to modify any perniit it determined to have been issued inconsistently with applicable standards. The next approach poses a more influential state role in Further, the state agency would itself be empowered to critical areas management. initiate, on its own motion, the review of the issuance of any local permit which it suspected of being in derogation IC. State designation and local regulation of areas of of applicable standards. The denial of a development per- critical concern to the state. This approach would mit by a municipality would not be appealable to, or re- charge a state agency with the responsibility to desig- viewable by, the state agency. All local and state agency nate areas of critical concern and to establish standards determination would, however, be subject to judicial re- for protecting, managing, and developing those areas. view after all administrative remedies had been exhausted. The most likely agency for the role of designating these areas and establishing standards for their protection or The advantages of the approach are that it would provide a development would be the Statewide. Planning Program, direct and efficient method by which state interest in en- subject to guidance, review, modification, and approval vironmental protection and economic development can be by the State Planning Council. Municipalities would expressed through a unified state planning process. This then formulate zoning and other development controls, approach would retain initiative for guiding local develop- -10-17 ment at the municipal level, while promoting the state's The advantages of this approach are that with an adequate broad interest in protecting critical environmental areas. definition of the jurisdictional zones to be regulated by The state and the towns would each exercise controls at a these two agencies, and with a viable mechanism (namely, scale, and through mechanisms, consistent with their the SPQ for resolving conflicts occasioned by regulatory interests. activities affecting both zones, this approach offers a comprehensive, statewide strategy for accommodating de- Because the review patterns contained herein (e.g., double velopmental and environmental issues. This approach fur- veto) are familiar elements of existing programs for coastal ther respects the existence of CRMC as a functional agency and inland wetlands protection, this approach has an insti- and would preserve or strengthen its role. Municipalities tutional precedent and a major redistribution of power at, would continue to regulate land use outside of areas of or between, state and local government levels would not be critical environmental concern, and would share the regu- necessary. State-set standards for protecting critical areas latory responsibilities with RMC or CRMC within such could be flexible and sufficiently general for towns to areas. Moreover, a substantial portion of the planning readily tailor them to particular local circumstances. that must guide CRMC and RMC activity has already been done by the Statewide Planning Program. CRMC and This approach is consistent with some of the organizational RMC could take over from SPP the further development precepts expressed in the Rhode Island State Land Use of such planning pertaining specifically to coastal and in- Policies and Plan, in the 1972 Coastal Zone Management land areas, respectively. This approach is also consistent Act, and in some of the national land use control proposals. with the Coastal Zone Management Act and other federal land use related legislation. 77ze disadvantages of this approach are that it would necessitate significant statutory revisions to empower SPP- The disadvantages of this approach are that RMC would SPC to set and enforce standards, and well might encounter impose an additional administrative burden on the state opposition to the degree of state control it envisages over and could complicate existing interagency relationships. local determinations. It could also be perceived as inconsistent with traditional local prerogatives in matters of land use allocation and, The last alternative would vest the state with greater regu- possibly, would not be responsive to local needs and latory authority. priorities. ID. State regulation of critical areas with municipal admin- The final approach demonstrates an option to integrate istration. In a variation of the above alternative, a Resour- planning and management of water and related land re- ces Management Council (RMQ would be created to formu- sources with other resource policies, as the State is pres- late plans consisting of designations, standards, and regula- ently attempting to do. (Since no regional government tions for protecting, managing, and developing inland areas exists in Rhode Island the regional management alterna- of critical environmental concern based on designations pre- tive applied in Massachussetts is not applicable to the sented in the SENE Study, and would implement these' State.) through appropriate regulatory controls. The Coastal Re- sources Management Council's (CRMC) mandate would 2A. State planning and management of water and related continue in a parallel role with respect to a defined coastal land resources. Under this approach, greater emphasis zone. Both sets of plans would be reviewed by the State would be placed upon the State Planning Council (SPQ Planning Council for consistency with state policy as ex- to formulate overall policies and plans for protecting the pressed in the State Guide Plan and would be binding upon environment, and for integrating the management of the municipalities, overriding inconsistent municipal. ordinances water and related land resources of the state. The State- or actions. wide Planning Program would be responsible for, the prep- aration of an integrated, long-range water resources plan, The RMC would be newly established by legislative author@ including water supply, wastewater management, solid ization with the regulatory powers suggested here. Powers waste disposal, and the prevention of improper land ac- of the CRMC would also be strengthened to equip it for a tivities to protect the water resources of the entire state. similar role. CRMC's staff would be removed from the DNR This plan might contain all of the elements proposed and brought under the direct control of the CRMC itself. In above in Approach 3A for Massachusetts. This plan addition to any required municipal permit, a development would be. incorporated into the comprehensive State falling within the regulated categories would also have to be Guide Plan, for which the SPC is already responsible. approved by the issuance of a permit from either the RMC The SPC would ensure that all plans for environmental or CRMC. The grant or denial of such a permit would hinge resource management are consistent with one another upon the consistency of the proposed development with ap- and with other components of the State Guide Plan. plicable sets of plans and guidelines, and would be appeal- able to the courts upon petition of any interested party. As a first step to bringing this about and consistent with 10-18 current efforts in the state to integrate long-range func- in approach 3A and 3B for Massachusetts, this approach tional policy making in the State Planning Council, the would integrate management of the water resource in all responsibility for long-range water resources planning phases of the hydrologic cycle, as suggested earlier in would be transferred to SPP-SPC from the Water Re- Chapters 4 and 5 on Water Supply and Water sources Board (WRB). The WRB would retain its existing Quality. responsibility for project planning in the field of water supply, and would acquire a parallel responsibility with respect to wastewater management. The Solid Waste Cor- By articulating a structure for strong state direction poration (SWC) would carry out responsibilities for solid of environmental and economic affairs, conducted con- waste and sludge disposal as they bear on the protection sistently with the State Guide Plan, this option suggests of water resources. All project plans of the WRB and the a strategy for meeting objections stated by some in the SWC would be reviewed by the SPC for consistency with State that the State's existing efforts in the field of en- the State Guide Plan, guaranteeing the implementation of vironmental protection and water resource management the water resource plans. Monitoring wastewater manage- are uncoordinated and in some cases, internally incon- ment facilities operated by the WRB or municipal agencies sistent. would continue to be the responsibility of the Department Since the WRB would construct wastewater management of Health (DOH). The Public Utilities Commission would regulate waste treatment rates as it now does supply rates. facilities for a municipality or group of municipalities only when the latter proved unwilling or unable to do so, As at present, acquisition, construction, and management as required by the water resources plan or by the DOH of water supply sources and water resource projects would water quality standards, direct state intervention in local only be done by or with the approval of, the WRB. The matters would also be kept to a minimum. WRB would acquire additional responsibility for waste- water management facilities. The WRB might itself con- Since the planning and implementation of water manage- struct water supply facilities in advance of demand. And, ment for all municipalities within the state would derive where a municipality or group of municipalities proved from a comprehensive state planning perspective, a more unwilling or unable to provide needed water supply or coherent approach to management of the resource would wastewater management facilities in accordance with the be achieved than under any less centralized approach. On state plan, the WRB would be authorized to construct, this basis, the WRB would be able to encourage and/or operate, maintain, and/or lease them as necessary for effect regional solutions to management problems where that municipality or region. Similarly, with appropriate a proliferation of local responses is not deemed desirable. funding the SWC could operate a solid waste disposal pro- This approach would require only moderate adjustment of gram in the state, and could coordinate its efforts with the jurisdictional interests of existing agencies. The extension o WRB through the SPC. Establishment of specific water f quality standards and administration of regulatory pro- the WRB's present mandate over. water supply into the grams to achieve and maintain them would still be carried wastewater management field provides a degree of co- out by DOH. Moreover, DOH's input would be decisive on ordination unaddressed in current institutional structures. Consolidation of long-range policy planning in the State all aspects of the long-range water resources plan affecting the purity and safety of the resource. Planning Council would provide greater integration between land use, water supply, and water quality policy making. To the extent that the development of water resources would influence other growth, assuring that water resource This approach reflects, with.some limitations, the recom- operations are carried out consistently with state policy mendations of the Governor's Environmental Task Force. will also assist the implementation of other elements of the State Guide Plan. However, if the state is to assume 7he disadvantages of this approach are as follows. To the a comprehensive role in the management of natural re- extent that this alternative is perceived as an intrusion into sources, greater decision making authority would have local matters and prerogatives, the role of the State Planning to be vested in a particular agency to ensure implementa- Council and the extension of the WRB's power to waste- tion. In this case, for example, the SPC could be given water management may encounter legislative opposition. responsibility to coordinate programs, to resolve conflict, Further, a state master plan for management of the entire to compel appropriate agency activities and to veto in- water resource may appear too rigid and too centralized consistent ones, subject to final approval by the Gover- an exercise of state power. nor. If the SPC is to accept these responsibilities, then Difficulties may be encountered, on the other hand, in de- the membership of the SPC should be enlarged to include fining the respective roles of the WRB and the DOH, and other state agencies. In this way, the state will not only formulate natural resource policy, but also implement it. in coordinating their roles, with respect to activities or developments that affect both the quality and quantity of 7he advantages of this approach are as follows. Again as the Water resource. 10-19 AN INDEX FOR DECISION MAKERS The last part of this chapter sets forth some of the major such things as administrative tasks, changes in policy, addi- recommendations of the SENE Study and the actions tional funding, or modifications in existing authority. necessary to carry them out. It is organized by level-- of The public and its elected officials will find this a -useful government charged with particular responsibilities and tool to specify the things which particular agencies can do will serve as means by which implementation activities to move the SENE program into action as well as to moni- can be graphically portrayed. Implementing actions tor the degree to which specific recommendations are be- are setforth in specific terms but, by and large, include ing implemented (See Table 10.2). 10-20 TABLE 10.2 AN INDEX FOR DECISION-MAKERS OF MAJOR ACTIONS (Priorities fisted next to recommendations: 9 highest priority; o high priority; * other priority) OMMENDATION 9 Increase and integrate protection Improve management of Develop- Prefer local ground water 9 Protect existing water sources. of Critical Environmental Areas: able Areas. to intermunicipal surface priority, and other protection water to interbasin trans- ACTOR areas. fers as sources of water supply. Congress Appropriate funds for acquisition under existing programs. Federal DOT, USDA (SCS, FS); EPA; HUD; EPA; DOC (NOAA); USDA ACOE: Identify potential sup- Agencies ACOE; DOI (NPS, BOR); HUD: (SCS, FS): Provide technical and plies in need of protection as Provide technical and financial financial assistance to states and part of ongoing NEWS activities, assistance to state and local govern- municipalities for planning and and recommend appropriate ment through existing programs, management. means of protection. (including runoff and sediment standards, flood hazard and soil studies, the flood insurance pro- gram, acquisition programs, and through the regulation of dredged or fill material in navigable waters under P.L. 92-500). State Appropriate funds for acquisition; Enact legislation to create a manage- Legislatures clarify authority for innovative ment system to establish state growth land use controls; reform tax law and development policies, to identify to create incentives to preserve critical areas, to establish criteria for agricultural land; establish a pro- location of key facilities, and to re- j gram of "agricultural districts" if view significant developments. appropriate. State MA DEM; RI DNR: Acquire MA Cabinet; RI SPC: Adopt state MA WRC; RI WRB: MA WRC, DEM; RI WRB: Estab- Agencies significant critical areas; use per- policies for growth and development Adopt policy which lish a program to encourage mits and regulations to the rnaxi- formulated by MA OSP and RI SPP; encourages municipal- municipalities to maintain exist- mum feasible extent to protect Promulgate policies for the location ities to supply future ing sources by acquiring key critical areas. MA DEQE; RI DOH: of key facilities, and for the acquisi- water using in-basin sites, limiting water consumption Protect reservoir sites through exist- tion of sites for preservation or de- ground water and through pricing and 'education, ing regulations; review plans to en- velopment. regional in-basin surface investigating advanced technology sure the location of sewer outfalls MA EOEA; RI DNR: Adopt devel- water before considering and administering existing pro- away from swimmable areas. opment policies and standards for interbasin transfers of tective regulations. activities hazardous to water re- water by requiring use sources, (including sanitary landfill, of in-basin water before salt storage, industrial wastes, agri- granting approval of cultural runoff, and sand and gravel any interbasin transfers. mining below the aquifer level.) Local Adopt appropriate land use con- Adopt ordinances which permit land Use ground water and in- Develop, adopt, and enforce land Government trols to protect critical areas based development according to resource tertown surface water, be- use regulations consistent with on regional and state standards; capability; Plan infrastructure to fore using interbasin trans- state policy to protect water Join flood insurance program; ac- guide growth and development. fer as sources of water sources. quire, in fee or easement, designated supply. REC ACTOR significant critical areas. Other MA RPA's; RI SPP; Develop and MA RPA's; RI SPP: Plan and review MA RPA's; RI SPP; Assist state promulgate protective policies and the location of infrastructure to and local government in identify- development standards for critical guide growth; Review developments ing potential water supply sources areas; Identify significant sites to be of regional impact. for protection and in developing protected. protective measures. TABLE 10.2 (Contd.) a Expand MDC sources by completing Encourage substate regionalization Continue non-degradation 9 Emphasize treatment of urban the Northfield Mountain facility. of water supply systems. in areas now swimmable- stormwater overflows. Carry out conservation measures. fishable. 9 Accelerate federal grants for Plan the Millers River facility. municipal wastewater treatment. Congress Appropriate federal cost-share, con- Appropriate additional funds sistent with the recommendations under Section 201 of P.L. 92-500 previously adopted by the New Eng- for federal cost-sharing of most land River Basins Commission in the cost efficient means in individual 1980 Connecticut River Basin Plan. situations. Federal ACOE: Evaluate environmental EPA: Develop and adopt EPA: Provide technical and finan- Agencies impact of diversion facilities; Con- national guidelines on cial assistance to state and local struct diversion facilities once non-degradation under government to administer pro- project approved, consistent with P.L. 92-500, Section 304. gram; Review project proposals to the recommendations previously ensure public access at facilities adopted by NERBC in the 1980 and new rights-of-way. ACOE: Connecticut River Basin Plan.. Participate in wastewater manage- ment studies (Eastern Mass., Merrimack,.PNB). State Appropriate state cost-share through Enact legislation to encourage re- Appropriate additional funds as Legislatures issuance of bonds; Enact law to gional water systems through inter- required to provide state cost- create a mecham*sm with Connecti- town cooperation; Review and ap@ share. cut to resolve riparian conflicts, prove non-local regional supply consistent with the recommenda- development proposals. tions previously adopted by NERBC in the 1980 Connecticut River J Basin Plan. K) State MA EOEA: Examine the technical MA WRC; RI WRB: Adopt policy MA DEQE; RIDOH: MA DEQE; RI DOH: Designate Agencies feasibility (economic and environ- to encourage regionalization among Regulate discharges areas for treatment of urban mental) and timing of other altema- municipalities. through "NPDES" stormwater runoff; process tives for meeting the long-range MA WRC, DEQE; RI WRC, DOH: program to prevent grants and provide fmancial water resource needs of MDC, within Coordinate regionalization of local deterioration of the assistance to localities for con- the context of state policy, and pre- supply system development; Review quality of stream water struction of facilities; ensure pare a plan before a final decision and approve establishment of re- above the most up- public access and provision of on the Millers River diversion is gional systems. stream municipal dis- rights-of-way. made. charges. MA MDC: Acquire water from the MA EOEA; RI DNR & Northfield Mountain diversions; DOH: Encourage down- Immediately institute water con- stream negotiation for servation measures and improve low flow regime; En- maintenance of the distribution courage Protection of system; Monitor quality of diverted steambank buffer strips. water, especially for radioactive contamination. Local Continue to protect and conserve Towns to negotiate and cooperate Identify candidate areas; Design, construct, and operate Government developed and potential municipal with one another; Petition legisla- Adjust adjacent zoning; treatment plants; Appropriate supplies. ture and state agencies to approve Adopt erosion controls. local share of construction costs. system; Establish system by agree- Provide appropriate public access ment. and rights-of-way to facilities. Other Proposed Regional Systems: De- MA RPA's; RI SPP; velop water supply cooperatively. Identify and evaluate candidate zones as part of 1208' studies, under P.L. 92-500, Section 208. TABLE 10.2 (Contd.) RECOMMENDATION o Continue current industrial per- o Begin regionwide stormwater and o Make towns responsible 9 Expand facilities at existing mits program. wet-weather stream sampling. for scavenger waste state beaches and parks. disposal. Congress Appropriate, funds for federal share of costs. Federal EPA: Continue moriftoring and EPA: Provide fu .rids to states for BOR: Provide techii -ical and Agencies approving state programs under water quality monitoring programs financial assistance to states and section 402, P.L. 92-500. under Section 106 of P.L. 92-500. towns; DOT: Provide financial and technical assistance to state to study transportation access to public facilities. state Appropriate additional Appropriate funds for state Legislatures funds to enforce existing share of costs. legislation. State MA DEQE; RI DPH: Continue MA DEQE; RI DOH: Begin year MA DEQE RI DOH: MA DEM; RI DNR: Provide Agencies industrial pollution permits pro- round stream sampling as first Enforce existing legisla- increased capacity at existing gram (National Pollutant Discharge step to develop a plan for non- tion requiring towns to beaches, and acquire additional W Elimination System). point source abatement program. be responsible for proper undeveloped beach areas for disposal of septic tank recreation; with state DOTs: wastes with additional Study feasibility ofincreased funds and staff. public transportation to, and expansion of parking facilities at, public beach areas. Local Establish and enforce Appropriate local share of costs Government regulations to dispose to acquire undeveloped areas of waste within state to expand existing beaches and guidelines. parks. Other TABLE 10.2 (Corit'd.) REC ATION o Form state Boating Advisory o Construct public boat ramps and o Develop Boston Harbor 9 Declare interim offshore 200- Committee. fish piers. Wand and Narragansett mile economic zone. Bay Island Parks. * Adopt national fisheries manage. ACTOR 0 Make multiple use of ment policy and program. urban lands for recreation. Congress Appropriate funds for federal Appropriate funds for Enact law to extend nation's share of costs under existing federal share of costs jurisdiction to 200-mile offshore programs. under existing programs. by legislative action. Establish national fisheries man- agement policy including: limited foreign entry; quotas; seasonal or species controls; fishing gear specifications. Federal BOR: Provide technical and BOR: Provide financial DOT (USCG): Enforce fishing Agencies financial assistance to states and technical assistance. limits law; monitor program. and towns. DOC (NMFS): Administer pro- gram implementing policy. State Appropriate funds to support Appropriate funds for state share Appropriate funds for Legislatures Creation of comiyattee. of Costs. state share of costs. State MA DOC; RI DED; (with public MA Public Access Board-, Rl DNR: MA DEM, MDC; RI DNR: Agencies works, coastal zone and natural Construct boat ramps and fishing Implement current plans t-i resource agencies and private piers to productive salt water to develop Harbor islands 4@, citizens): form a Boating Ad- fishing areas for use by the and Bay Island Parks; Pro- visorY Committee to advance the general public, vide funds for acquisition orderly development of boating, of multiple purpose to identify marinas near centers of recreation land. high demand for expansion and to encourage utilities, private industries, and private recreational businesses to take actions con- sistent with the boating policies developed by the Committee. Local Appropriate local share (if costs Participate in implementa- Government and construct ramps and piers at tion of plans; Increase local beaches or facilities. recreation opportunities in urban areas by acquiring Parks and recreation areas, and allowing multiple use of public lands. Other Citizens: Encourage formation of and join Boating Advisory Com- mittee as described in state agencies above. OMMEND ------ ACTOR TABLE 10.2 (Cont'd.) RECOMMENDATION Carry out study to develop a o Coordinate local waterfront planning o Prepare flood plain pro- Adopt zoning to regulate region-wide port development and development. grams with non-structural new flood plain construction. emphasis. Congress Appropriate funds for Study. Appropriate funds to state CZM Appropriate funds for programs. implementation of non- structural flood manage- ment programs. Federal ACOE; DOC (MARAD); DOT OCZM: Approve funding of water- ACOE; USDA (SCS); HUD; Administer National Agencies (USCG): Participate in joint front renewal programs as part of DOI (USGS, F&WS, Flood Insurance Program. study with state, NERCOM & State Coastal Zone Management BOR); NWS; HUD: Pro- WRC; ACOE; USDA (SCS); NERBC, and local governments. Programs under P.L. 92-583. vide technical and finan- HUD: Accelerate delineation cial assistance to com- of flood hazard areas,. munities for flood plain management. State Authorize state participation in Enact legislation creating manage- Appropriate funds for Enact legislation providing that Legislatures study and appropriate funds for ment structure for coastal zone state share of costs of the state would enforce regula- state share of costs. management; Appropriate state programs. tions upon failure of the locality share of funds. to adopt regulations. State MASSPORT; MA DPW; RI DED: Coastal Zone Planning Progianis in MA EOEA; RI SPP: MA OSP, EOEA; RI SPP: Pro- tJ Agencies Participate in Study. MA & RI: Develop urban waterfront Prepare flood plain vide guidelines and technical LA planning and management guidelines management (non- assistance to localities; review and criteria. structural) programs; delineation of flood hazard provide technical assist- areas; issue permits. for flood ance to municipalities. plain development under Coastal zone planning current legislation. programs: Prepare plans for coastal flood areas. Local Participate in Study. Plan and develop urban waterfront Develop and implement Adopt flood plain zoning to Government renewal programs with funds avail- non-structural flood plain prevent further flood plain de- able from the Community Develop- management programs velopment; Qualify for, and ment Act (P.L. 93-383). consistent with state and participate in, National Flood federal guidelines; Qualify Insurance Program. for, and participate in, National Flood Insurance Program. Other NERCOM, NERBC: Undertake MA RPAs; RI SPP: Review and MA RPA's; RI SPP; Assist MA RPA's; RI SPP: Delineate joint port planning study, for the revise local plans where impact may communities in qualifying flood hazard areas. region: (See Chapter 7 for scope be of. greater than local concern. for the flood insurance of study). programs; Provide assist- ance in developing non- structural programs. TABLE 10.2 (Cont'd.) RECOMMENDATION Establish regulations to control 0 Manage critical erosion areas 0 Centralize minerals 0 Create state energy conservation runoff, erosion, and sedimentation. through state coastal zone programs. management authority education programs; set state in state. energy goals. Congress Enact legislation establishing tax incentives for private conversion to new energy sources. Federal USDA (SCS, FS): Provide tech- DOC (OCZM): Approve and fund DOI (USGS, BOM): Pro- FEA: Initiate an energy conserVa- Agencies nical assistance to state and local state coastal zone plans and manage- vide technical assistance to tion program; establish regional governments; control agricultural ment programs. states in developing or energy conservation goals; de- and forest soil losses through USDA (SCS): Provide technical and strengthening state min- velop public education programs. structural and non-structural financial assistance to states and erals extraction policies. methods. municipalities. State Ensure coastal zone management Adopt state minerals Enact legislation establishing tax Legislatures agency of state (MA CZMP; RI extraction policies; incentives for private conversion CRMC) has adequate jurisdiction designate appropriate to new energy sources. to include critical areas in the state agency for mineral coastal zone. resources policymaking, monitoring, and regulation. (Possibly the MA DEQE, and the RI DNR.) State MA EOEA; RI DNR: Develop MA DPW; RI DNR: Encourage Designated state agency: MA & RI EPO: Establish public Agencies guidelines for local control of stabilization of coastal erosion create minerals public education programs; set energy erosion, sedimentation and areas; inspect and maintain education program; provide consumption rate reduction runoff; inspect and maintain existing beach control structures; guidance to municipalities goals. beach control structures. MA CZMP; RI CRMC: Prepare to establish a permit pro- coastal zone plan and recommend gram; promulgate statewide Other Agencies: begin imple- management program. operating and rehabilitation mentation of energy conserva- standards; begin staged re- tion policies, clarnation of abandoned extraction sites. Local Adopt local land use controls con- Encourage stabilization of, and Adopt local regulations Develop municipal energy con- Government sistent with state guidelines to establish regulations for, coastal which conform to state servation goals. prevent erosion and sedimentation. erosion areas. standards to allow mineral extraction. Other NERCOM: Continue develop- ment of energy awareness pro- gram. TABLE 10.2 (Contd.) RECOMMENDATION Identify and secure power plant o Establish petroleum facilities o Revise building standards o Fund Rhode Island solid waste sites for future use; avoid critical siting authority in Rhode to improve heating-cooling management program. environmental areas for future Island and strengthen the one efficiency. sites; maximize existing site in Massachusetts. ACTOR capabilities. o Establish deepwater port(s), evaluate sites midividually, locate refineries inland near infrastructure. Congress Federal FEA: assist in the identification DOT (Coast Guard): Administer FEA: Provide technical EPA; USDA (SCS): Provide Agencies of appropriate sites. Deepwater Port Act of 1974 (P.L. assistance to states and technical assistance for locating 93-627). municipalities. and reclaiming dumps and landfills. State Expand authority of MA Energy Expand authority of MA Energy (RI) Provide funding. Legislatures Facilities Siting Council and RI Facilities Siting Council and RI Statewide Planning Program to Statewide Planning Program to identify and secure future power enable them to survey and secure plant sites. potential sites for petroleum facilities. State State siting agencies: Avoid State siting agencies (MA EFSC; MA DCA; RI SPP: Pro- RI SW Corp: Prepare budget; Agencies Critical Environmental Areas for RI SPP): Identify potential mulgate revised standards select disposal sites using SENE future sites; wherever possible, sites for petroleum facilities; for buildings to improve resource criteria; inventory land- require expansion of existing Locate refineries, storage facilities, heating-cooling efficiencies; fill operations; reclaim abandoned facilities; Identify and secure and related development inland, MA & RI EPOs: Set energy landfills. future power plant sites. in areas served by transportation, consumption reduction water supply, and wastewater goals; establish implementa- services; Secure sites for develop- tion strategy. ment through acquisition or regula- tory measures. MA's RI EPOS: Adopt and implement policy of deepwater ports as preferred method of petroleum distribution. Local Adopt building codes con- Develop land use controls to re- Government sistent with state guidelines. strict landfill operations. Other NERCOM; NERBC: Assist in the Oil Industry: Develop deepwater State Home Builders Asso- identification of appropriate sites. ports and refinery facilities in ciation: develop improved accord with public policy. construction methods for heating-cooling efficiency. ACTOR@ TABLE 10.2 (Cont'd.) OMMENDATION e Maximize use of existing resource policy institutions to strengthen the management system for ACTOR natural resources. Congress Federal Support state efforts to integrate Agencies resource management policy- making with social and economic policy of the state by providing appropriate technical and financial assistance. state Adopt legislation to establish or Legislatures modify the existing natural re- sources management system, to allocate responsibilities to sub- state regional or state bodies while relying on municipalities to make the bulk of land use decisions. 00 State MA Cabinet; RI SPC: Review re- Agencies source management policies and programs recommended by the SENE Study and adopt appropriate state policies to implement them; provide guidance to program ad- ministrators to ensure consistent implementation; consider and recommend for adoption by the legislature one of the alternative management approaches proposed by the Study (See Chapter 10 text). Local Continue to administer current Government legal powers over land use. Other NERBC; NERCOM; Gov. Conf.; FRC: Support state efforts; pro- vide interstate regional cooperation. Substate RPAs: Exercise regional perspective over greater than local resource decisions. INI .AWN ng the Reco,@ @mendations Together CHAPTER 11 TYING THE RECOMMENDATIONSTOGETHER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Relationships of Objectives, Goals, Recommendations, Activities I 1 -1, How Planning Objectives Achieve the Goal 11 -1, How Recommendations Satisfy the Planning Objectives 11-1, How Activities Satisfy the Recommendations 11-9, How Agencies Carry Out the Activities 11-11, The Relationship of Study Objectives to National Criteria 11-11, How The SENE Study Objectives Relate to National Criteria 11-11, The Major Conclusions and the Study Goal 11-17, How the Major Conclusions for SENE Were Reached 11 -17. CHAPTER 11 TYING THE RECOMMENDATIONS TOGETHER This chapter has several purposes. First, it describes how 0 The activities are carried out by designated agencies, the SENE program is systematically tied together in a some to oversee programs, some to carry them out. hierarchy of goals, planning objectives, and responsible agencies. Second, the chapter evaluates the SENE program in terms of broad national criteria. 0 The overall Study goal is achieved by satisfying its component planning objectives; Last, the chapter observes the entire program and reflects 0 The planning objectives, in turn, are satisfied by on how the three major conclusions, that run like master implementing their supporting recommendations; themes through the recommendations, evolved from the 0 The recommendations are implemented by carrying Study. out certain activities; and, THE RELATIONSHIPS OF OBJEC- TIVES, GOALS, RECOMMENDATIONS, ACTIVITIES How Planning Objectives Achieve the Goal As stated in Chapter 1, the principal goal* of the SENE 128 recommendations. They are. listed in the left column of program was taken from the Plan of Study, prepared be- Table 11.1 under the planning objective they satisfy. Each fore the Study began. It was approved by the U. S. Water recommendation is given in its short form as listed on the Resources Council and reads: back of the Overview. The full text of the recommendations can be found in the appropriate chapters. As explained fur- "To identify and recommend actions to be taken ther in the legend at the end of Table 11. 1, the symbols on by all levels of government and by private interests the left of the recommendations indicate their relative im- to secure for the people of the region the full range portance in the SENE program. of uses and benefits which may be provided by balanced conservation and development of the re- The first set of columns in Table 11.1 indicates the relation- gion's water and related land resources." ship between recommendations and planning objectives. For example, the recommendation number I (GG-1) under Guid- To achieve this goal, the Study was broken down into the ing Growth (Chapter 3) is "Protect critical environmental seven broad functions which Chapters 3 through 9 of this areas, priority protection (Category A), and other protection report describe. The functions generally correspond to areas (Category B)." Reading horizontally, the symbols (ex- the principal traditional subdivisions of comprehensive plained at the end of the table) show that this recommenda- planning for water and related land resources. To give tion has a direct beneficial effect on the planning objectives them focus, each function (Chapter in this report) is des- of five of the seven chapters. Recommendation GG-1 was cribed in terms of a single broad "planning objective". designed to guide growth, of course, but it also directly The seven planning objectives have been stated in their benefits Chapter 4, Water Supply, by protecting well sites appropriate chapters. They.are repeated in the left col- and wetlands, Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreatio 'n, by protect- unin of Table 11. 1. In general, each planning objective ing beaches and wetlands, Chapter 7, Marine Management attempts to satisfy a need (solve a problem), subject to by protecting wetlands and shellfish areas, and Chapter 8, the constraint that solutions must be environmentally, f7ooding and Erosion, by protecting wetlands, beaches, and economically, and socially acceptable. Satisfying the plan- critical coastal erosion areas. Recommendation GG-I also ning objectives achieves the overall study goal. indirectly benefits'waterquality by protecting wetlands, which can be effective buffers for the protection of water How Recommendations Satisfy the Planning quality. The recommendation is shown as having little Objectives or no net effect, however, on the objective of Chapter 9, Locating Key Facilities. Protecting Category A and B areas To satisfy the planning objectives, the SENE Study proposes makes it even more difficult to locate these facilities. On the As also indicated in Chapter 1, a second goal was to produce a compilation of base data. The., first goal is met by the SENE Study recom- mendations which are being discussedhere in Chapter 11. The second goal is satisfied primarily by the SENE Study files described in Chapter 1, Z-1 I 0 (n 0 0 4@- @c PO -4 r- @j CD > 0 CD ID *Q CD 40 -d C. 0 tTj 0 = Q M IF, 02-8 'a W,< -,, 9 a x CD - 5 n CD CD CD 0 . 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Legislation 0 Regionalizatio@- Research & Development Private Investment Project Development zz ZW Z t:@ z z z Pp 50 W ;0 S, 0 Overseeing 0 Env CD -00 @@ t= on z CD 0 tz @0 0. = L tg- 5 CD En W W W W Carrying Out 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M p . . . . @p r4 0 4 W n > M @p z 4 OQ CD 0 r- r- 1 0 0 0 00 =1 -1Z 5 ,-Iwo 4-2 0 CDp CD 0 0 cr 0- ". r-- 0 0. EL g as. co- F= A 4 ;'@ ;A <D CD r- o- CD P CD 0 z 4151. M p E; q :'3 CD CD W- 5' 0 @- @! & Z z 0 gt. 5 @,- C: 0 0 CD z CD I. - 0. aN :Q C a w 0, V . t = @S, 1 0 0,0 CD 0 1 F= 5 a M V .0 tv CD 06 CD C"t Do a t. 6- 5, @,, _,- -0 -G, , " o CD , 0 :g co 0 CD Cr =Q 0- 1-1 0 p 0 Iq I", Z to CO M 00 0 W RQ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3. Guiding Growth W 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4. Water Supply 0 * 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 * 0 5. Water Quality 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 6. Outdoor Recreation SCE 0 0 00 09 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 7. Marine Mapagement 0 0 0 0 8. Flooding & Erosion 0 9. Locating Key Facilities Further Planning Management & Control z Acquisition Legislation Regionalization z Research & Development z Private Investment Project Development Z 0 0 > Cl tv t@ S V tv 0, tv z z t:@ 0 = 0 0 pc IV Overseeing IL C.-I CA En @n Cn W W ITJ Irl It Carrying Out 00 0 0 0 0 0, 0 0 IL 0 @O PO 0,- taw W m t" 'CIO CD 01 m .0 UQ 0 0 g, EEL. 20.", 0 56. 0 ir 0 -0. 0 or W p. I. R. 0 0 F 5r m 0, 8 In. s- 0 F p "r CD 0. 0 i - @3 a 0 02 t3 9.0 =@ 9 Im. 6, 4 0 0 9. to 0 A 0 0 GQ in 0 Er 0 0 0 0 0 CD 0 CD 0 0 0 0 0 0 3. Guiding Growth 4. Water Supply 0 0 0 5. Water Quality Cm 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 6. Outdoor Recreation 0 7. Marine Management 0 0 0 0 8. Flooding & Erosion 9. Locating Key Facilities Further Planning Management & Control 0 z Acquisition Legislation 0 Regionalization z Research & Development 1-3 -z "o C@ Private Investment Project Development zop,4 IVx 0 0 tv t:@ t@ tz V n n e) t:) tv n V t:@ n V 2@ z z z9Z > > m z N ozoz 01 tz z z 'G r W V U Z F W m z n Overseeing tv Z tV > 4 4: Carrying Out 0 RP, *0 ,.0 00 10 90-4 0%(A4@w,, @j p . . . . . . 06 0 tj 0 PH g 00 g 9@0 0 0, 0 @80 0 :,3 -0 g 70: A , r- a, 9 b C-D 8 "1 t "0' 11 'D 0, M'. ,p 0 0 El @,. = -@ =. L@' 31. :, O'J I - 01 V @.& @r CP 0 0 0. 00 00: CD 0 JA CD 100 0 1 - - 0. CL poo E, -- :@w ' 0 CD CD -,p n. j a M on 01 C'D Cb* W, CD CD _n 0 CDM 0 0 M :3 C, CD CD 00 CD 5. @ w p C,0 sa E. OQ 0 q A, g =1 00 -C@ CD J., CD 1 0 .0 CD 0 r- CD 0 R N = 0 1, 0 IQ CD p aCD Ilk 0 10 CWD 0 fD =1 UQ C. 0 CD CD 0 @3 0 0 0 0 3. Guiding Growth 4. Water Supply 5. Water Quality 0 0 00 0 6. Outdoor Recreation 0 00 0 0 0 7. Marine Management 0 8. Flooding & Erosion 2 0 0 0o 0 0 0 0 0 9. Locating Key Facilities Further Planning Management & Control Acquisition Legislation -0 Regionalization S. Research & Development z Private Investment p Project Development tv tv t:1. tj nN Nr. 0 O@O Z z z z > > > P> @41- > > - t:@U > > > *@ = C, 0 C, MW Overseeing M M M 40 :9 1.00 :Tj '171 CA M -TI -1 Carrying out TABLE 11.1 INTERRELATIONSHIPS AND SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF SENE STUDY RECOMMENDATIONS.(CONTINUED) Planning Objectives## Moor Activity Types Principal Agencies V 1Z 0 0 = 2 0 6 = CY 0 0 0 A r- Planning Objectives and Numbered Recommendations @D 06 FLOODING AND EROSION (Chapter 8) Planning Objective: To reduce flood damage in the region, both riverine and coastal; and to reduce critical coastal erosion. Recommendations Flooding COE,USDA 01 . Prepare flood plain programs with non-structural emphasis. 0 0 0 DNRs F, S, M 2. Adopt zoning to regulate new flood plain construction. 0 0 0 Mass. Cab., SPE S, M 3. Establish other local regulations to control runoff erosion. 0 0 Munici Ipal S, M 4. Provide technical assistance to local officials. 0 USDA,DNRs F, S 5. Acquire key flood plains and wetlands. 0 0 0 0 0 * DNRs S, M 6. Locate in existing safe buildings in the flood plain. 0 Municipal M 7. Require relocation out of flood plains where appropriate. 0 0 0 DCAs, DNRs S, M 8. Discourage reconstruction or redevelopment after storm damage, 0 0 0 Municipal 9. Update and establish flood warning and evacuation programs. 0 10. Improve storm forecasting abilities. 0 NOAA,NWS F 11. Amend and strengthen administration of wetland laws. 0 0 0 0 MGL, RlJGA DNRs S 12. Construct flood projects selectively. 0 DPW, DNRs COE,USDA F, S Erosion 13. Establish inland sediment and erosion control ordinances. a 0 USDA 'DNRs M 014. Manage critical erosion areas through state coastal zone programs. 0 0 0 CZMP, CRMC S *15. Protect critical coastal erosion areas under local regulations. 0 0 CZMP. CRMC M *16. Encourage natural stabilization of coastal erosion.areas. & 0 0 CZMP, CRMC M 17. Construct erosion control proiects selectively. 0 COE USDA DPVs DNRs F, S, M CZO CRMC 18. Build or restore salt marshes. 0 COE MRs F, S CZ&@, CRMC LOCATING KEY FACILITIES (Chapter 9) Planning objective: ro proviae certain vital services to society - - power, fuel, construction materials, solid waste disposal - - in a manner which supports continued economic growth and minimizes the negative environmental impacts such facilities have traditionally had. 0 0 0 0 * ;b * 0 0 0 0 0 0 zmr 0 0 00 09 @A :I,- !-o W t- P @0 90 9' P 6j, 9 w -0 Z 0 C 0 0 r. 0 0 ID CD CD 0 10D CD a FD lgg z 0" CD 0 0-. . V a CD 2-0 C, 0 C'@ 00 '3 OQ Cr 5,0 "- -g 0 0 0 .@t 5e A ,, " - w P. - - -- S, Cp 0 11 CD = @1 - t, 0 .!@ ,,@ " ;- 0 0 1 0 t3 0 CD rom 0 0 0 Bn 0 "PQ 5 1 0 0 0 2 0 0 ".OQ 0. "0 CD OR CD w 0 CD CD 0 -.0,0 .4 qQ < ti t" 9 0 0 0 Z 0 'al 0 CD 0 ::r Q. =0: 0 0.a W dQ =S qQ "o 0, 00 CD ts 04 w CD CD P.-A. 0 8 :Q 0 f. go'. 0 0 -0 0 CD 0. 1%, .1 0 0 mo H, 0 -E CD 0 QO 0 0 z - t2i 0 00 0 0 3. Guiding Growth w I 4. Water Supply 0. 0 00 0 0 00 0 0 5. Water Quality 0 0 0 0 0 6. Outdoor Recreation ST 0 0 0 00 0 7. Marine Maliagement 0 0 8. Flooding & Erosion 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 a 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 q!q 0 9. Locating Key Facilities Further Planning W Management & Control 0 R z Acquisition rA Legislation lt:@ T 0 Regionalization z Research & Development Private Investment M Project Development tTj m AM X V U tv t@ t@ w @11 . .0 . 4 x r. 411 qM1 zzzz-ZF > 0 En F > e ? @ V @* V V C, p > ?,. 0 n 0 w 0 rw)C) ;0@ CA n n M tv z Overseeing 0:9 m ? z > 0 rA -11, @0 wwwwww Carrying Out TABLEIIJ INTERRELATIONSHIPS AND SELECTED CHARACTERISTICS OF SENE STUDY RECOMMENDATIONS* (CONTINUED) Planning Objectives#* Major Activity Types Principal Agencies .0 E 0 0 0 'a - U m W - U 0 S cod V 43 0 0 Planning Objectives and Numbered Recommendations --t w) %0 rZ 06 C@ 2 U LOCATING KEY FACILITIES (Chapter 9) (Cont't) 0 28. Locate refineries and related development inland near infrastructure. 0 0 EFSC, CRMC S 29. Distribute refined products by pipeline wherever feasible. 0 0 0 EFSC, CRMC S 30. Use most advanced technologies in facilities operation. 0 0 e EFSC, CRMC S Solid waste management 31. Enforce existing sanitary land fill regulations. 0 0 0 0 DPH, DOH S 0 .32. Fund the Rhode Island solid waste management program, 0 RIGA S 31 Accelerate participation by municipalities in state program. 0 'o 0 0 8o STRENGTHENING THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR NATURAL RESOURCES (Chapter 10) Planning objective: To ensure appropriate action taken with regard to planning recommendations. Recommendation 1. Maximize use of existing resource policy institutions. 0 0 0 0 Mass. Cab., SPC- S 0 10 The priority of the recommendations is indicated by the symbol preceding it: e Highest priority recommendations (18 each) o High priority recommendations (27 each) Other priority recommendations (40 each) Blank Remaining priority recommendations (43 each) Elements of the planning objectives column of the matrix are scored as follows: * The recommendation has a net primary or direct beneficial effect (high positive correlation) on the indicated objective. * The recommendation has a net significant but secondary or indirect beneficial effect (low but significant positive correlation). Blank The recommendation has little or no net effect on the objective (no significant correlation). The recommendation has a net significant but secondary or indirect adverse effect (low -but significa..nt negative correlation). The recommendation has a net primary or direct negative effect (high negative correlation). 44* Abbreviations for agency names are listed in Table 11.3. *The responsibilities of the Massachusetts Department of Natural Resources have been re-organized to several new departments, including Departments of Environmental Quality Engineering, Environmental Management, and Fisheries, Wildlife and Recreational Vehicles within the Executive Office of Environmental Affairs. Since the distribution of responsibilities is still evolving, the former reference ,to DNR has been retained for ease in reading Table 11.1. other hand, defining these critical environmental areas and far behind Guiding Growth, is Water Quality. identifying their general locations on maps increases the That chapter is strongly related to Guiding probability that these sites will not be considered by indusm Growth and Outdoor Recreation and mod- try. On balance, these two effects are judged to offset each erately related to Water Supply and Marine other. Management. In a similar manner, all the other approximately 900 rela- 0 All of the chapters show about the same degree tionships between individual recommendations and planning of interrelationship. objectives were characterized. One of the recommendations - in Marine Managem Ient - appears that it could have a net negative effect on a planning Reading vertically, the first set of columns, Table 11.1 shows objective. The important point is that this conflicting value how each planning objective is affected by every recommen- has been identified, rather than that it reveals a lack of dation in the SENE program. For example, the planning planning consistency. Therefore, it signals the potential objective of guiding growth is helped substantially by indi- for conflicts in the implementation of certain recommen- vidual recommendations under every other objective, such dations, signaling the need for further refinement as the as the recommendations under Locating Key Facilities (be recommendation is implemented. Thus, Recommendation cause of their control of growth-inducing infrastructure) 18 for Chapter 7, Marine Management ("Develop state policy and Flooding and Erosion (because they discourage devel.. and program regulating mineral extraction activities in coastal opment in flood plains). waters") is shown to have a net direct negative effect on the planning objective for key facilities. By denying this close- The pervasiveness of symbols showing primary and second- in source of sand and gravel to a metropolitan area like ary beneficial effects in different parts of the matrix point Boston, other alternative sources, possibly equally undesir- up several broad strategic-level interrelationships between able, must be used. In implementing this recommendation, the chapter objectives: therefore, public administrators are cautioned to take a par- � Guiding Growth is by far the most strongly re- ticularly broad look to compare the total environmental, lated to other chapters. The intensity of this economic, and social implications of alternative sources interrelationship is not surprising, however, be- than could be examined in this Study in formulating this marine management recommendation. The recommendation cause Guiding Growth was'basically designed to was put forth based on the belief that it will withstand such be an organized, integrated response to the land- examination, but it is recognized that review from other per- related needs of the other chapters. That re- spectives is also necessary. sponse is the underlying foundation of the strategy for guiding growth suggested in Chap- How Activities Satisfy the Recommendations ter 3. Each recommendation can be characterized as calling for � The second most interactive chapter, though one or more of the general types of activities described i Table 11.2. TABLE 11.2 TYPES OF ACTIVITIES USED IN CATEGORIZING SENE STUDY RECOMMENDATIONS Type of Activity Meaning Further planning (FP)* Collection and analvsis of more detailed local data and formulation of specific functional plans Management and @ontroi (M&C)- Restrict certain activities by employing land use tools, setting standards, and/or licensing Acquisition (A)* Purchase of full land usage rights in fee simple or lesser rights such as easements and options Legislation OL)* Modify eidsting laws or pass new laws at federal, state, or local level to-be consistent with plan recommendations Regionalization (R)* Have one agency perform or oversee activity for several local units Research and develop-mea (R&D)* Advance level of technology and improve practical application Private investment (Pl)* Stimulate the investment of private capital Project development (PD)* -Impkment specific local plans including project construddon Correspond to abbreviations on table I I.I. 11-9 TABLE 11.3 @ AGENCIES AND LEVELS OF GOVERNMENT RESPONSIBLE FOR OVERSEEING AND CARRYING OUT SENE STUDY RECOMMENDATIONS Agencies & Levels of Government Times Cited as Name Abbreviation Overseeing Agency Mass. General Court MGC 5 R. 1. General Assembly RIGA 7 Mass. Department of Natural Resources "DNRs" 53 R. 1. Department of Natural Resources "DNRs" 50 Mass. Water Resources Commission WRC 1 R. 1. Water Resources Board WRB 12 Mass. Department of Public Health DPH 8 R. 1. Department of Health DOH 16 Mass. Metropolitan District Commission MDC 2 R. 1. Statewide Planning Program SPP 11 Mass. Department of Transportation 14DOTs" 2 R. 1. Department of Transportation "DOTs" 2 Mass. Public Access Board PAB 2 R.I. Right of Way Commission ROWC I Mass. Coastal Zone Management Program CZMP 11 R. 1. Coastal Resources Management Council CRMC 20 Mass. Department of Public Works "DPWs" 3 R. 1. Department of Public Works "DPWs" 3 Mass. Department of Commerce and Development "DCDs" 2 R. I. Department of Community Development 11DCDs" 2 R. 1. Department of Economic Development DED 2 Mass. Department of Community Affairs DCA 7 R. 1. Department of Community Affairs DCA 7 Mass. Energy Policy Office "EPOs" 4 1- 1. Energy Policy Office "EPOs" 4 Mass. Public Utilities Commission "PUCS" 4 R. 1. Public Utilities Commission "PUCS" 4 Mass. Energy Facilities Siting Council EFSC 9 Massachusetts Cabinet Mass Cab 5 R. I. State Planning Council SPC 4 R. 1. Division of Rivers & Harbors DRH 1 Congress Congress 5 Department of Interior DOI 1 Environmental Protection Agency EPA 8 United States Geological Survey USGS 2 Corps of Engineers COE 11 National Marine Fisheries Service NMFS 4 Bureau of Land Management BLM 2 Department of Agriculture (Soil Conservation Service) USDA 6 National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration NOAA I National Weather Service NWS I Federal Power Commission FPC 1 Federal Regional Council FRC 1 New England Regional Commission NERCOM 2 t4ew England River Basins Commission NERBC 1 Municipalities M 5 Boating Advisory Committee BAdC 1 Mass. Regional Planning Agencies RPA's 5 Levels of Government Carrying-out Activities Abbreviation Times Cited Federal F 36 Interstate regional 1 1 State S 107 Intrast-ate regional R 12 Municipality M 48 Private, industry, other P 2 The responsibilities of the Massachusetts Department of Natural Resources have been re-organized to several new departments, including Departments of Environmental Quality Engineering, Environmental Management, and Fisheries, Wildlife, and Recreational Vehicles within the Executive Office of Environmental Affairs. Since the distribution of responsibilities is still evolving, the former reference to DNR has been retained for ease in reading Table 11. 1. 11-10 The middle columns of Table 11.1 indicate the type(s) out each one of the recommendations. To have of activity that most closely describes the recommenda- listed them all with their many interrelationships tions. Thus, Recommendation GG-1, "Improve protec- would have been unwieldy and would have de- tion of critical environmental areas, priority protection tracted from the strength of the individual recom- (Category A) and other protection areas (Category B)," mendations. is characterized as "management and control" on a "regional" basis. Tabulating downward provides a (2) Many of the recommendations (Example: Chap- general appreciation of the types of activity being rec- -ter 8, Flooding and Erosion, Recommendation ommended by the Study. For example, management *2, "Adopt zoning to regulate flood plain and control is the principal activity in 76 of the 128 construction") are obviously intended for local recommendations. The least applicable of the major implementation. But to have recommended that activities is legislation, with only 10 citations. The "All municipalities adopt. . ." would have so di- number of citations for the activity types shown in the luted the responsibility that little, or at best the table are as follows: sporadic and uneven implementation; would have resulted. Activity Type Citations (3) To overcome these problems, the SENE Study management control 76 cites specific agencies to oversee each individual regionalization 49 recommendation. It would be their responsi- further planning 45 bility to carry out the program execution. These research and development 24 agencies are listed in the next to last column of private investment 23 Table 11.1. The key for agency abbreviation is project development 24 in Table 11.3. acquisition 14 legislation 10 (4) The levels of government most instrumental in carrying out the recommendations are listed in The following statement, in terms of these major activi- the last column of Table 11. 1. In the text they ties, can be used to summarize the SENE program: are occasionally cited in the complete form of the recommendations, but most of the time they "The SENE Study recommends a management and are implied. control program, %ith emphasis on more detailed regional planning. It is backed up by a moderate (5) Governments, especially those at state and local and balanced mixture of research and development, level, reorganize frequently. Indeed, Massachu- private investment, and projects, and a minor setts will soon complete a major reorganization. amount of acquisition and legislation. The SENE Study recommendations are intended to have greater permanence. Therefore, when How Agencies Carry Out the Activities citing an agency the words "and future successor agencies assigned similar functions" are always The recommended activities are specifically directed to implied. an "actor' in every case, in an effort to fix responsibility for action. The format was developed for several reasons: Table 11.3 lists all the overseeing agencies cited in Study recommendations arranged in the frequency with which (1) Many levels of government agencies and non- they are mentioned. The table also lists the levels of gov- governmental groups are involved in carrying ernment principally involved in carrying out the recom- mendations. THE RELATIONSHIP OF STUDY OB- JECTIVES TO NATIONAL CRITERIA How the SENE Study Objectives Relate to National Criteria Thus far, this chapter has described how the SENE pro- goals, objectives, recommendations, activities, and gram is tied together systematically in a hierarchy of agencies. 11-11 To evaluate how the SENE program objectives relate to grating the elements of the program. broad national and regional objectives, the Study examined The PAS are designed to demonstrate the contribution of objectives expressed in a number of national and state pro- plan recommendations to four "accounts" - national eco- grams such as the: nomic development, environmental quality, regional devel- � Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 opment, and social well-being. The PAS list lengthy support- � National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 ing criteria designed to be used for more detailed studies 9 Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of than for Level "B" studies like the SENE Study. A sim- 1972 plified, interpretive condensation of those criteria particu- � Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 and related larly relevant to the SENE Study is presented briefly de- Committee Reports fined in Table 11.4. � Rural Development Act of 1972 Table 11.5 applies th Iese general water resources criteria to � U. S. Water Resources Council, Principles and the seven SENE Chapter functional planning objectives. Standards Using the same set of symbols employed in Table 11.1, the � Proposed federal land use bills net impacts are scored as directly beneficial, indirectly bene- � Massachusetts Wetlands Act ficial, no significant net effect, indirectly adverse, and di- � Massachusetts Environmental Policy Act (MEPA) rectly adverse. The brief remarks explain the basis for the � Martha's Vineyard Land Use Act scoring. � Proposed Nantucket Sound Islands Trust � Rhode Island Statewide Land Use Plan According to the evaluation in Table 11.5, four SENE plan- ning objectives - guiding growth, locating key facilities, out- All have many elements in common. The Principles and door recreation, and water quality- - make the most signifi- Standards (PAS) of the U. S. Water Resources Council, cant contribution to the listed criteria - four accounts perhaps more than the others, provided a model for inte- (Table 11.4). TABLE 11.4 GENERAL CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING WATER RESOURCES PLANS* Component of National Economic Development Account 1. Cost Effectiveness - - the degree to which the program is the most cost effective approach to the supply of required physical goods. Components of Environmental Quality Account I .Open Space - - the amount of land get aside for non-urban development purposes. 2. Ecological Systems and Sensitive Lands - - the management and control of lands which cannot be developed without permanent loss of important resources. 3. Water Quality - - the degree to which water quality approaches swimmable-fishable waters. 4. Containment of Facilities and Growth - - the degree to which facilities and growth are concentrated to avoid environmental degradation. Components of Regional Development Account 1. Employment Levels - the increase in employment opportunities. 2. Cost of Living - - the reduction in the household costs for taxes, power, energy, and other household goods. 3. Economic Stability and Diversification - - the region's ability to withstand cyclic changes in the economy or impacts on a single industry. 4. Competitive Attractiveness - - the region's ability to increase its competitive appeal as a place to live and Work Components of Social Well-Being Account 1. Urban/Rural Mx - - the continuation of the existing mix between urban and rural development levels. 2. Flexibility for Long-Range Response - - the range of options left open for further planning considerations. 3. Local Autonomy - - the amount of decision-making responsibility remaining with local levels. 4. Income Distribution - - the increase in the income of low income groups relative to middle and upper income groups. 5. Recreational Opportunities - - the supply and range of choice for outdoor recreation. 6. Legal and Institutional - - the ease of administering the program... 7. Political - - the probable popularity of the program. Criteria correspond to those used in Table 11.5. Components of the four accounts of the U.S. Water Resources Councirs Principles and Standards. 11-12 TABLEILS SENE STUDY PLANNING OBJECTIVES VERSUS GENERAL WATER RESOURCES CRITERIA* (Chapters 3,4,5, and 6) SENE Planning Objectives General Water Resources Criteria GUIDING GROWTH (Chapter WATER SUPPLY (Chapter 4) To meet: WATER QUALITY (Chapter OUTDOOR RECREATION (Components of specified WRC 3) To protect the critical water municipal needs for adequate supplies 5) To achieve swimmable- (Chapter 6) To meet 1990 re- accounts).** and related land resources of of fresh water in the most economi- fishable waters by 1983 creational needs in economically, SENE while accommodating cally feasible and environmentally wherever realistically attain- environmentally, and socially economic activities by guid- sound manner. able, economically, socially, acceptable ways. ing growth. and technically. NATIONAL ECONOMIC o Costly but probably very cost Encourages use of more econon-dcal By far, most costly set of re- o "Intensive-use" programs for DEVELOPMENT efficient. Clustering, higher ground water. But, thereby imposes commendations. Is generally swimming and urban parks are Cost Effectiveness densities and maximum use of regulatory land use measures. Pro- cost effective in emphasis on highly cost effective. "Extensive- infrastructure promote great ef- bably no net effect. non-degradation, on treating use" programs have low effective_@ ficiencies in public services and combined sewer overflow, ness. Assuming recommended private spending. and on controlling pollutants priorities are followed net effect at source. is positive. ENVIRONMENTAL aRecommends preservation of o Encourages restricted use of o Encourages streambank *Encourages c ntrol or aquisition QUALITY 1/3 of SENE area with tight watersheds and aquifer recharge buffer strips. of open space for extensive recrea- Open Space restrictions on development. areas. tional uses. Ecological Systems and *Explicitly defines, maps and. 0 Encourages restricted use of water- *Emphasizes anti-degradation o Encourages control of wetlands, Sensitive Lands protects sensitive water re-: sheds and aquifer recharge areas. in,areas now swimmable-fish- beaches and streambanks. source lands as part of highest able. Improves water quality priority recommendations. for aquatic life. Water Quality *Controls location of develop- *Controls use of watershed lands and eProgram is specifica IIly designed SIMPToves region's capacity to ment with significant impacts aquifer recharge areas. Proposes re- to improve water quality. provide recreation for the pop- on water quality. gional water management agency. ulace. Containment of facilities 0 Directs growth to develop- No significant net effect. *Full use of design capacity of No significant net effect. and growth able areas with concentration existing sewers encourages around existing infrastructure. higher densities in present urban areas. REGIONAL DEVELOP- *Makes region more attractive No significant net effect, Some adverse effect on mar- No significant net effect. MENT to industries which use profes- ginal high-polluting industries. Employment Levels sional and highly skilled labor. Indirect beneficial effect on others, especially services. Cost of Living No net effect - removes some No significant net effect o Increases industry costs by Because of improved transporta- land from tax base, but makes about one percent. tion and maximum use of exist- better use of existing facilities. ing facilities, costs of recreation at least maintained. Economic Stability and No significant net effect. o Minor negative effect in terms of 6 Minor negative effect in terms o Increases region's capacity to Diversification higher costs to types of industry that of higher costs to types of indus- draw and hold skills it needs. use much w ate . try that use much water. Competitive Attractiveness *Emphasizes resource No significant net effect. 0 Improves attractiveness of o Designed to enhance public amenity value of the region. water bodies. opportunity for participation in outdoor enjoyment. Key for Table 11.5. D initions for criteria based on WRC components in Table 11.4. efin e The recommendation has a net primary or direct beneficial effect. o The recommendation has a net significant but secondary or indirect beneficial effect. Blank The recommendation has little or no net effect on the objective, i5 The recommendation has a net significant but secondary or indirect adverse effect. The recommendation has a net primary or direct negative effect. TABLE11.5 SENE STUDY PLANNING OBJECTIVES VERSUS WATER RESOURCES CRITERIA (Chapters 3,4,5, and 6) (Continued) General Water Resources Criteria GUIDING GROWTH WATER SUPPLY WATER QUALITY OUTDOOR RECREATION SOCIAL WEI,LeBEING o Attempts to contain rate of ex- No significant net effect. No significant net effect. No significant net effect Urban/rural Mix pansion of urban areas. which protects rural areas. Flexibility for Long-range sPreserves future land use o Urges preservation of all water o Non-degradation policy o Encourages control and non- Response option. source options, ground water as preserves options. development of A and B areas well as surface water. for possible future recreational use. Local Autonomy o Seeks to retain local auto- o Strongly encourages we nf local o Due to broad geographic im- Centralizes planning and nomy but calls for state ground water and nearby surface pacts, pollution control central- management of regional facilities guidance. water. But also proposes regional ized at state level. but leaves to local initiative pro- water management agencies. tection of resources fbir future ac- quisition and development. Income Distribution Enhances land values in some No significant net effects. No significant net effects. o Makes outdoor recreation more areas while limiting values of accessible to urban dwellers at other areas through use restric- lower costs than present. tions.. Decreases cost of growth to local taxpayers by maximum use of existing services. Recreational Protects resources for meeting Some limited opportunities for 0 Improves water quality for *Program is specifically de- Opportunities near - and long-term recreational recreation in watershed lands. water-based sports. Encourages signed to improve outdoor re- needs@ low -flow augmentati on and creation. streambank buffer strips. Legal and o Will increase planning and reg- Nosignificant overall effect des- *All tools have been legally Requires changes in public policy Institutional ulatory responsibilities of state pite some problems in regionali- tested and accepted. Some regarding private enterprise, use of and local decision makers. zation. problems obtaining region- storage reservoir lands, and access alization. to the shoreline. Political Guiding growth is contro- Appeal for local self sufficiency has *Endorses prese 'nt program o Possibly the most visible of the ersial but-gaming acceptance. been well received. Some problems which is of proven popularity. study's recommendations.. with Connecticut over water diver- sions and possibly with regionaliza- tion. Key for Table 11.5. Definitions for criteria based on WRC components in Table 11.4. * The recommendation has a net primary or direct beneficial effect. * The recommendation has a net significant but secondary or indirect beneficial effect Blank The recommendation has little or no net effect on the objective. U The recommendation has a net sigrufficant but secondary or indirect adverse effect. 9 The recommendation has a net primary or direct negative effect. TABLE 11.5 SENE STUDY PLANNING OBJECTIVES VERSUS GENERAL WATER RESOURCES CRITERIA* (Chapters 7,8, and 9) SENE Planning Objectives General Water Resources MARINE MANAGEMENT (Chapter 7) To FLOODING AND EROSION (Chapter 8)To LOCATING KEY FACILITIES (Chapter 9) Criteria maintain the region's renewable marine re- reduce flood damages in the region, both To provide certain vital services to society - - (Components of specified sources at a level sufficient for sustained riverine and coastal; and to reduce criticil power, fuel, construction materials, solid WRC accounts)** future use, and to develop the region's non- coastal erosion. waste disposal - - in a manner which sup- renewable marine resources in an environ- ports continued economic growth and mentally sensitive manner. minimizes the negative environmental im- pacts such facilities have traditionally had. NATIONAL ECONOMIC No significant net effect. Adverse in encour- o Encourages use of existing safe structures, dis- *Cost effective in promoting resolution of DEVELOPMENT aging federal subsidies of uncompetitive local courages development subject to costly floods, prolonged indecision on essential regional Cost Effectiveness fishing industry. Beneficial in studying ports benefits public through new opportunities and issues. from regional viewpoint. lowered public expenditures. ENVIRONMENTAL No significant net effect. o Encourages non-development of flood plains No significant net effects. QUALITY Open Space thereby making much more open space available. Ecological Systems and *Encourages preservation of wetlands and shell- *Encourages preservation of wetlands, wildlife Because A and B lands are protected, Sensitive Lands fish areas. Recommends operational quidelines habitat and important recreational access points ecological systems are taken into ac- for the development of marine resources. in flood plains. count while providing regional facilities. Water Quality o Encourages siting new sewerage discharges No significant net effects. *Encourages control of location, ope tion away from estuaries, control of dredged mater- and discharges from electric power plants, ials, and urban waterfront planning. petroleum facilities and solid waste facilities. Containment of Facilities o Encourages the use of existing waterfront o Encourages use in some cases (revitalization o Encourages development where infrastruc- and Growth facilities where appropriate rather than new of existing flood plain development) but dis- ture exists which tends to concentrate construction elsewhere. courages new flood plain growth. growth. REGIONAL DEVELOP- No significant net effect though could pro- No significant net effects. *Encourages resolution of decisions now MENT mote local fishery by reducing its foreign inhibiting business initiatives. Employment Levels competition. Cost of Living No significant net effect. Reduces cost of living by reducing public ex- eEncourages decisions to provide essential penditures and private losses. infrastructure rather than let shortages be- come future economic crises. Economic Stability and o Improves viability of regional fishery. No significant net effect. 0 Improves business stability by providing Diversification Studies possibility of improved port for future requirements under generally facilities. defined conditions. Competitive attractiveness o Improves amenity value of urban water- o Encourages flood plain protection thereby *Provides needed services in way that pre- ftonts. preserving wildlife and recreational oppor- serves physical attractiveness of the region. 11 tunities. Key for Table 11.5. befinitions for criteria based on WRC components in Table 11.4. * The recommendation has a net primary or direct beneficial effect. * The recommendation has a net significant but secondary or indirect beneficial effect. Blank The recommendation has little or no net effect on the objective. J The recommendation has a net significant but secondary on indirect adverse effect. 9 The recommendation h as a net primary or direct negative effect. TABLEILS SENE STUDY PLANNING OBJECTIVES VERSUS GENERAL WATER RESOURCES CRITERIA* (Chapters 7,8, and 9) (continued) General Water Resources Criteria MARINE MANAGEMENT FLOODING AND EROSION LOCATING KEY FACILITIES SOCIAL WELL-BEING No significant net effects. No significant net effects. No significant net effects. Urban/Rural Mix Flexibility for Long- No significant net effects. No significant net effects. o Preserves sites, the need for which range Response may be eliminated by future techno- logical advances. Local Autonomy ost measures require national or o Power to implement flood control remains o Increases regional considerations but international implementation. at local level but should be consistent with maintains local and citizen roles in state land use and coastal policies. decision-making. Income Distribution 6 Consumer will likely pay higher costs No significant effects. No significant net effects although for fish products. urges study of pricing policy revisions so that rates rise with consumption. Recreational Opportunities o Encourages restoration of urban water- *Protects potential access points andwcnic and o Encourages recreational use of front including increased public access. water quality values of recreational rivers. abandoned sand and gravel sites, and interim recreational use of undeveloped electric power plant sites. Legal and Institutional 'i Requires action of international level and Requires stronger enforcement of existing i Requires complex quasi-governmental industrial subsidies, legislation, authorities and can expect constant court suits. Political 6 No significant regional effect.. Boundary Discourages developers seeking new flood a The nature of all resource allocation declarations may have international rami- plain sites but popular because of cost decisions for key facilities makes fications. efficiencies and other public benefits. this controversial regardless of the recommendation. Key for Table 11.5 Definitions for criteria based on WRC components in Table 11.4 * The recommendation has a net primary or direct beneficial effect. o The recommendation has a net significant but secondary or indirect beneficial effect. Blank The recommendation has little or no net effect on the objective. 6 The recommendation has a net significant but secondary or indirect adverse effect. 4F The recommendation has a net primary or direct negative effect. Reading Table 11.5 horizontally indicates that the SENE 9 cost of living I program as a whole scores very high in the environmental * urban-rural mix 1 quality and regional development accounts as compared 0 political I to the two accounts for national econon-dc efficiency and o income distribution 0 social well-being. * local autonomy I 0 legal and institutional -3 If the scoring were weighted +2 to. -2 from directly bene. ficial to directly adverse, the following measures of the The following statement, in terms of these general criteria, contributions of the recommendations would result: can be used to summarize the general implications of the SENE program. General Water Resources Criteria. Scoring -7he SENE Study recommends a program that gives ecological systems and sensitive lands 12 balanced and strong emphasis to ecological systems water quality 9 and sensitive lands, water quality, outdoor recre- outdoor recreation 9 ation, and competitive attractiveness. It gives mod- competitive attractiveness 8 erate emphasis to open space, flexibility for long- open space 7 range response, containment offacilities and growth, flexibility for long-range response 7 cost effectiveness, employment levels, and economic containment of facilities.and growth 7 stabilization and diversification. It has little signifl- o cost effectiveness 5 cant effect on the cost of living, the urban-rural employment levels 4 mix, political harmony, and income distribution. economic stabilization and To some degree it reduces local autonomy and may diversification 3 encounter some legal and institutional problems. THE MAJOR CONCLUSIONS AND THE STUDY GOAL How the Major Conclusions for SENE Were Reached High on the list of unanswered problems as the Study got the mostimportant factor in maintaining the regions eco- underway were: nomic viability. � How best to handle anticipated major conflicts It is recognized that the SENE program is not an economic between environmental and econoniic aspirations? plan, and therefore no claim is made that the recommen- dations, if implemented, will greatly improve the SENE � How best to handle problems of growth? economy. It does appear, however, that the recommended approach is an efficient strategic water resource alternative, 0 How best to get whatever the Study recommended for the long-range health of the SENE economy. Succinctly actually carried out? summarizing this line of thinking is the SENE Study's first overall conclusion - ENHANCING THE ENVIRONMENT ENHANCES THE REGION'S ECONOMY. Chapter 2, The Setting, shows that the SENE economy is no longer directly dependent on water for power for in- Demographic and land use studies showed rather conclu- dustry. The trend shows a drop in the pollution generating sively that forthe forseeable future the overall growth in and water using manufacturing processes with an attendant SENE is clearly not limited by the region's water and re- sharp rise in the service sector of the economy. Though lated land resources. There is enough space, for example, some have argued that a relaxation of environmental im- to accommodate all growth at least to the year 2020, even provement programs would assist the economy, in the SENE at the spectacularly high rate of land consumption of the region this would seem to be out of phase with an increas- last decade. The limitation is more a social one. Do the ingly service-oriented future. Enhancing, not degrading the residents of this region want essentially all of the Boston major asset SENE has - its physical environment - may be Metropolitan, North Shore, and South Shore planning 11-17 areas urbanized over the next five decades? Or do they if any, new authorities or agencies would be required to get want to leave selected open areas near where their children their individual portions of the program carried out. The will work and play? Through public workshops it was results showed that the basic organizations, authorities and learned that people strongly preferred the latter. They want, tools already exist. Performance, not new and novel insti- and are on the verge of demanding, guidance to bring about tutions, should be emphasized. As was mentioned above, the second type of future, not the first. They look to ef- the SENE program requires very little new legislation. To forts such as the SENE Study to formulate strategy to bring lend conviction to its conclusion that existing agencies can, it about. Chapter 3, the land capability maps in the rear and must do the job, this Study has gone to unusual lengths pocket, many of the recommendations, and the second ma- to explicitly identify lead agencies. Undoubtedly, the jor SENE Study conclusion are a response to that demand - states and the federal government will adjust these responsi- anticipated GROWTH CAN BE ACCOMMODATED, BUT bilities to some degree. The assumption is that, upon review, IT NEEDS GUIDANCE. the lead agencies will either assume responsibility, see that another agency does so, or thoughtfully and publicly con- From the beginning, a major concern was whether existing clude that the given recommendations should not be imple- knowledge was sufficient to act and, if so, how recommen- mented. dations could be implemented. Existing knowledge has been known to be generally adequate, but implementation will be This-leads to the third and last major conclusion of the more difficult. Innovative institutional arrangements, public SENE Study - E3aSTING KNOWLEDGE, PROGRAMS, relations efforts, and other means were examined. Planners AND INSTITUTIONS CAN PROVIDE THE TOOLS FOR at all levels of government, working on many different func- ACHIEVING RESULTS, BUT SOME CHANGES ARE tions, all independently and collectively, were asked what, NEEDED. 11-18 MA TY 7@ 0 (00 A4 Appendix: Environmental Staterner Methodology 0 Review ofthe Report APPENDIX ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ES-1 Summary i, ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT ES-1, Description of the Proposed Actions ES-2, Relationship to Existing Programs ES-7, The Probable Impact of the Proposed Actions on the Environ- ment ES-7, Alternatives to the Proposed Actions ES-9. Probable Adverse Environmental Effects Which Cannot Be Avoided ES- 12, The Relationship Between Local Short-Term Uses of Man's Environment and the Maintenance and Enhancement of Long-Term Productivity ES-13, Irreversible and Irretrievable Com- mitments of Resources ES-13, Comments Received ES-13, METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M-1 BACKGROUND M-1, Definition of a Level B Study Mw2, Other Major Legislative and Ongoing Program Requirements M-3, NERBC Approach M-3; The SENE Study: Key Participants M-4, New England River Basins Commission M4, Coordinating Group M-4, Study Management Team M-5, Study Manager M-5, CYtizen Advisory Committee M-5, Basin Advisory Committees M-6, Developing Study Recommendations M-6, Develop Environmental and Socio-Economic Framework M-6, Develop Resource Inventory Analy- sis M-6, Formulate Preliminary Single-Purpose A Iternative Plans M-7, Formulate Preliminary Muld- Purpose Alternatives M- 7, Review and Refine Preliminary Multi-Purpose Alternatives, Produce Best Economic and Best Environmental Plans, and Formulate a Recommended Plan M-8, Evaluation M-8, Review and Transmit Final Plan M-8, How the SENE Study Can Be Used by Decision Makers M-9, INDIVIDUAL METHODOLOGIES FOR FUNCTIONAL AREAS M-9, The Setting M-9, Guiding Growth M- 10, Development Pressure M-1 0, Tabular Land Use Data M-1 0, Environmental Holding Capacity M-1 0, Critical Environmental Areas and Management Areas M-1 0, 01tical Environmental Areas Requiring Protection M-11, Developable Areas Requiring Management M-12, Preempted VseAreasM-12,Pto- duction ofDevelopment Capability Maps M-12, Water Supply M-1 2, Water Quality M-1 3, Outdoor Recreation M- 16, Boating M-14, Salt Water Fishing M-14, Hunting and Fishing M-14, Swimming M-14, Marine Management M-1 4, Offshore Fisheries M-14, Shellffih and Aquaculture M-14, Port Development M-15, Offshore Sand and Gravel M-15, Urban Waterfronts M-15, Flooding and Erosion M- 15, Locating Key Facilities M-16, Strengthening the Management System for Natural Resources M-16, MATERIAL WRITTEN FOR OR CONTRACTED BY THE SENE STUDY M-17 THROUGH M-24. REVIEW OF THE REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RR-1 MAJOR COMMENTS ON THE DRAFT SENE STUDY REGIONAL REPORT AND DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT RR-1, Overall Report RR-1, Accuracy of Massachusetts agency designations RR-2, Manufacturing sector RR-2, Limits to population growth and alternatives to guide growth RR-2, Accommodating growth on developable lands without controls RR-2, Capability of ur- ban lands for absorbing more growth RR-3, Clustering,of development RR-3, Protection of agricultural lands RR-3, Air quality and development RR-3, Accuracy of SENE Development Capabilities Maps RR-4, Northfield Mountain and Millers River Diversions RR-4, Existing water resources RR4, Refinery use of water supplies RR-4, Regional water supply systems: Weweantic River and the Lakeville Ponds RR-4, Regional water supply systems: Abington-Rockland-Brockton relationships RR-5, Vessel Wastes RR-5, New methods for waste disposal RR-5, Industrial discharges RR-5, Scavenger wastes RR-5, Emphasize recreation RR-5, Emphasize urban water quality restoration RR-6, Land and Water Conservation Fund RR-6, Limited recreational use of water supply watershed lands RR-6, Recreational boating harbors RR-6, National Park Service RR-7, State beaches and parks RR-7, Public right in Massachusetts to use the foreshore RR-7, Public Access to Critical Environmental Areas RR-8, Prohibiting near-shore sand and gravel mining RR-8, Dredged materials disposal RR-8, Aquaculture RR-8, The declining fishing industry RR-8, Port planning RR-9, Wetlands RR-9, Additional subjects related to Flooding and Erosion RR-9, Electricity rate structure RR-9, One stop power plant permitting process RR- 10, Nuclear power RR-l 0, Petroleum facilities RR-1 0, Adequacy of the existing institutional arrangements to guide growth RR-10, Local vs. regional vs. state involvement in resource decision making RR-10, Clarity and usefulness of tables in Chapter II RR-I 1. SUMMARY ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT Southeastern New England Water and Related Land Resources Study Draft (X) Final Responsible Agency: U.S. Water Resources Council New England River Basins Commission For Additional Information Contact: R. Frank Gregg, Chairman New England River Basins Commission 55 Court Street Boston, MA@ 02108 617-223-6244 or Warren D. Fairchild U.S. Water Resources Council 2120 L Street, N.W. Washington, D.C. 20037 202-254-6442 1. Name of Action (X) Administration Action Legislative Action 2. Brief Description of Action The New England River Basins Commission is submitting to the U.S. Water Resources Council, for transmittal to the President and by him to the Congress, a report rec 'ornmending policies and actions for balanced conservation, management, and development of the water and related land resources of Southeastern New England. The report contains a series of policies and structural and non-structural solutions in the following areas: water supply, water quality, land use, outdoor recreation, sport fisheries and wildlife, offshore fishing, port development, dredged materials disposal, urban waterfront use, sand and gravel extraction, flooding and erosion, electrical power, petroleum facilities, and solid waste management. Actions are directed to all levels of government and private interests for eastern Massachusetts, all of Rhode Island, and three municipalities in southeastern Connecticut. 3. Summary of environmental impact and adverse environmental effects. Environmental Impact Study objectives, as outlined in the Principles and Standards of the U.S. Water Resources Council, were to enhance environmental quality and national economic efficiency. In sum, the recommended policies and actions which make up the SENE program can result in a significant net benefit to the environment of Southeastern New England. The Study's lead recom- mendation is to increase protection of critical environmental areas. Such action will directly benefit (i) water supply by protecting well sites and wetlands; (ii) outdoor recreation by protecting beaches and wetlands; (iii) marine management by protecting wetlands, estuaries, and shellfish areas; and (iv) flooding and erosion by protecting wetlands, flood plains, beaches, and critical coastal erosion areas. The Study's second lead recommendation - manage areas suitable for development - will not only reinforce protection of critical environmental areas, but will also decrease the cost of development by guiding growth to lands which can support develop- ment, and within those lands to areas already served by essential water, sewer, and transportation services. Adverse Environmental Effects. Net environmental benefits of the recommendations are expected to be strongly positive. Environmental impacts were considered as part of the planning process throughout the Study in order to eliminate adverse or irretrievable impacts and to actively enhance environmental quality wherever possible. One of the 128 recommendations'- to develop programs regulating mineral extraction activities in coastal waters - appears that it will have a net negative effect on the planning objective for providing key facilities. However, the recommendation was formulated to control adverse environmental effects that near-shore mining is expected to cause on shellfish beds, delicate spawning grounds, and the delicate natural equilibrium maintaining the natural contours of existing beaches. 4. Summary of Major Alternatives Considered. A number of alternatives were proposed and evaluated for each of over 15 subject areas of study and for each of the 10 geographic planning areas in the Southeastern New England region. These alternatives, which included no-action options, ranged from a non-structural, non-regulatory approach to various levels of development. Formu- lated to meet expected needs for water and related land resources, these alternatives are summarized in the environmental statement. In many cases, elements of the alternatives were combined to form the recommended policies and actions. 5. Comments. Comments and views have been requested from the Governors and key agencies in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, as well as Maine, New Hampshire, Venriont, and New York; the head of each federal department or agency and each interstate agency which has a representative to the New England River Basins Commission, as well as appropriate federal agency offices listed in Appendix III of the NEPA guidelines. Copies of the complete report and Environmental Statement have been sent to interests throughout Southeastern New England including: U.S. Senators and Congressmen, state senators, regional planning agencies, 213 town planning boards, town managers or mayors, conservation commissions, and several hundred individuals and groups. Comments specifically on the Environmental Statement were received from the Department of Agriculture, Department of the Interior, Department of Commerce, the Environmental Protection Agency, and the Federal Power Commission. Considerably more agencies and individuals reviewed and commented on the full Study report. Their comments and changes made in response to them are included in the chapter on Review of the Reports. 6. Draft Statement to CEQ: May 5, 1975 Final Statement to CEQ: [To be subniitted by the U.S. Water Resources Council at the time of transn-dttal to the President and the Congress.] ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT Introduction This chapter takes the form of an "overview" impact and related materials. statement, and is designed to meet the requirements of Sec. 102(2)(c) of the National Environmental 0 the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Policy Act. Further, it takes into account the require- Amendments of 1972, and related materials. ments and the intent of the Massachusetts Environ- mental Policy Act, as amended. 0 various versions of the pending National Land Use Policy Act. The Council on Environmental Quality has pointed out that where a number of agencies have formulated 0 the Martha's Vineyard Land Use Act. new policy initiatives and have explored a broad range of alternative actions, an overview statement 0 the proposed Nantucket Sound Islands is appropriate. When actions are made later to im- Trust. plement specific Study recommendations, these actions will need more detailed 102 statements, but 0 the proposed Rhode Island Land Use those statements should refer to the overview state- Policies and Plan. ment for a discussion of the general policy issues. Furthermore, agencies and individual projects dis- By far the most significant of these sources was the Pfinci- cussed in the SENE Study Report can use this over- ples and Standards (PAS). Under the PAS, the New England view environmental statement together with the River Basins Commission has used a systematic approach SENE Study Reports to guide their review. for integrating environmental, economic, and social factors in planning for water and related land resources. As part of The principal source of information for this section this approach, the Commission has evaluated environmental is drawn from the detailed evaluation of the alter- impact, plan alternatives, beneficial and adverse effects, natives and recommendations in the Study reports. and has encouraged all levels of government, as well as non- This evaluation draws on the four-account system of government representatives, to actively participate through- the U. S. Water Resources Council's Principles and out the planning process. As a result, the consideration of Standards: national economic efficiency, environ- environmental factors is reflected throughout thefinal mental quality, regional development, and social well- report as well as in this environmental statement. being. These considerations were explicit throughout the planning process, from formulation and evaluation There are eight sections according to the guidelines in pre- of alternatives, to preparing and finalizing the rec- paring environmental statements: ommended policies and actions. The criteria for evaluation were synthesized from guidance obtained A. Description of the proposed actions; from many sources. In addition to the Principles and B. Relationship to existing programs; Standards (PAS), the most notable of these sources C. The probable impact of the proposed actions were: on the environment; D. Alternatives to the proposed actions; � various guidelines for the preparation of E. Probable adverse environmental effects environmental statements (EIS) required which cannot be avoided; under the National Environmental Policy F. The relationship between short-term uses Act of 1969 (NEPA). The EIS require- and long-term productivity; ments were aJso incorporated by the G. Irreversible and irretrievable commitments Water Resources Council in its formula- of resources; and tion of the PAS. H. Review Comments. � various guidelines for the preparation of The discussion in each of the sections that follow will be in environmental impact reports required the same order as the chapters of the SENERegional Report: under the Massachusetts Environmental Guiding Growth, Water Supply, Water Quality, Outdoor Policy Act. Recreation, Marine Management, Flooding and Erosion, and Locating Key Facilities. 6 the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, ES-1 A. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROPOSED ACTIONS The description of the proposed actions is the publication environmental areas; (2) manage areas suitable for develop- of a report which recommends policies and actions to be ment guiding growth to where facilities already exist or are followed to achieve wise and balanced use of Southeastern planned; and (3) regulate development having regional New England's water and related land resources. This report impact. These steps constitute a way to allocate lands to contains the findings and conclusions of the Southeastern meet development needs of the future without sacrificing New England Study, a three and a half year study con- valuable resources which contribute to a high quality of life. ducted by an interagency team of federal, state, regional, local, and private sector representatives. The New England As part of the first recommendation, the region's water River Basins Commission provided the leadership and co- bodies, well sites, inland and coastal wetlands, critical ordination for this team of participants. erosion areas, beaches, fish spawning areas, shellfish flats, and estuaries have been classified Priority Protection Areas The Southeastern New England Study Area (Category A resources). The region's flood plains, prime agricultural lands (for non-forest and forest production), The southeastern corner of New England, consisting coastal flood hazard areas, unique natural and cultural sites, essentially of Rhode Island and eastern Massachusetts, is proposed reservoir sites, and upland erosion areas have been home to nearly 50 percent of New England's population on classified second priority OtherProtection Areas (Category barely 7 percent of its land. Nearly 80 percent of the B resources). Together they form the Critical Environmental region's approximately 5 million people have settled in the Areas in the region - those lands either too fragile to sup- region's four urban centers of Boston, Providence, Worcester, port any development or whose development would con- and New Bedford/Fall River. The average population den- stitute a hazard to public health and safety, The Study has sity for the region is about 960 persons per square mile, produced maps (Development Capability Maps) which compared to averages of about 180 for New England as a depict the location of these Critical Environmental Areas whole and 607 for the nation. Yet this coastally-oriented throughout the region. For each category of Critical Environ- region still has significant expanses of open space-extensive mental Area, the Study has proposed ways in which re- forests, broad wetland networks, crop and pasture lands. sources can be protected. Projected growth by the years 1990 and 2020 is expected to put pressure on these open space areas and on fragile Priority Protection Areas (Category A) resources. Finding ways to accommodate the sometimes conflicting demands for conservation and growth was the 0 Protect water bodies from non-point source goal of the Southeastern New England Study. pollution by having municipalities, regional planning agencies, and states develop stand- Study Actions and Purposes ards for con tro 1 of ru noff and sedim ent, subdivision regulations requiring storm- Basic findings of the Study are three: water detention ponds, and methods of ground water recharge. Streambank and lake (1) Enhancing the environment enhances the shore buffer strips should be obtained. region's economy. 0 Protect wetlands by acquisition and regulation (2) Anticipated growth can be accommodated, of development. but should be guided to protect fragile resources and make development more efficient. 0 Protect critical erosion areas by ordinances prohibiting development and any other use (3) Existing knowledge, programs, and institutions that creates health and safety problems or with some changes, can provide tools for achieving accelerates erosion rates. results. 0 Protect beaches and their immediately ad- These key findings are reflected through the Study's recom- jacent lands by erosion control regulations, mendations, which are summarized on the following pages. prohibition of development, or acquisition for recreational use. Guiding Growth 0 Protect estuaries, fish spawning areas, and shellfish f7ats, though not shown on the The Study has identified three key steps that planners can Development Capabilities Maps, but available take to guide the region's future growth: (1) protect critical in.Study files, by prohibiting outfalls of ES-2 wastewater treatment facilities, power plants, 0 Manage best upland wildlife habitat (C2) or any other major producers of effluent in and areas of high landscape quality (C3) by these locations. Prohibit dredging, sand and zoning ordinances limiting residential de- gravel mining, installation of pipelines, and velopment to extremely low density, or by any other disturbing activity within these encouraging clustering. In high landscape area& quality areas large scale developments should not be located on bluffs or hilltops, Other Protection Areas (Category B) but should be absorbed in forested regions or lower areas to lessen their visual impact. 0 Protect riverine and tidalflood plains by prohibiting further development and dis, Manage land with ledge andlor steep slopes couraging reconstruction after substantial by zoning ordinances and subdivision regu- storm damage Acquire key flood plains lations to limit residential densitiex for public use& Manage land with severe septic system (C4) Protect agricultural sites by state legisla- limitations by zoning ordinances and sub- tion that clarifies authority for local division regulations limiting residential agencies to enact transferable develop- densities unless sewers are present. Higher ment rights, reform tax laws, and provide densities with sewers should be encouraged for limited acquisition of development because many of the other land resource .rights, for highest priority land& categories are only suitable for low density use. 0 Protect unique natural and cultural sites by acquisition of conservation or historic 6 Manage lands with moderate (F) to no easements, development ri@qhts, orfee septic system (G) limitations by regulating simple, financed by the National Historic development on moderate soils according Preservation Act and other public and to sewer availability; elsewhere no restric- non-profit fund& The use of other tions are necessary, with enforcement of 'techniques is described in the Natural existing regulations. Areas Project ofNew England Natural I@esources Center. Maximize Public Investment Efficiency Options. Wherever possible and desirable, guide growth to maximize use of 0 Protect proposed reserpo ir sites and their existing infrastructure such as water, sewer, and transporta- related watersheds, through prohibition tion services, to achieve desired patterns of future growth; of all but low intensity uses such as agri- and use clustering, planned unit development, and impact culture orforestry. Monitor the use of zoning to increase the efficiency of resource use and decrease tributaries and their bank& the cost of public investments in services. Clustering and other higher intensity land uses can result in savings of up The second major recommendation - to manage areas to 50 percent in energy, water, sewer service, and transporta- suitable for development - contains two basic points. tion needs, according to CEQ's recent publication, The Cost Develop According to Resource Capability. Those lands of Sprawl While sufficient land for continued sprawl exists, the Study findings suggest that it may no longer be respon- suitable for development to varying degrees of intensity sible either fiscally or environmentally to encourage such under several different levels of management control were development. classified by the Study as Developable Areas (Category C, F, and G resources shown on Development Capability The third major recommendation is to regulate develop- Maps). The region's future growth must be guided to these ments having regional impact. Establish criteria for eco- lands to prohibit destruction of Critical Environmental nomically and environmentally suitable sites for key facilities, Areas. large scale developments, or growth inducing developments and major public facilities, all of which have greater than 0 Managh*gwund water recharge areas (CI) local impact. To prevent preemption by other uses of the for aquifers necessary for local water sup- most critical sites, acquire or designate them for future ply by: zoning ordinances and subdivision public use, and lease or specify interim uses. regulations restricting development density, regulation of septic systems, and mainten- ance of water level. ES-3 Water Supply Water supply recommendations were designed to meet their supplies. To meet the rapidly expanding needs of the municipal needs for adequate supplies of fresh water in the Metropolitan District Commission (MDC) in the greater most economically feasible and environmentally sound Boston area, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers has recom- manner. The recommendations can be divided into three mended two additional diversions from the Connecticut groups. The first group consists of general recommendations River Basin: one via the Northfield Mountain pumped which should apply throughout the region. The second storage hydroelectric plant, and the second from the tribu- group applies to municipalities relying wholly or partially tary Millers River Basin. The Study has concluded that the on ground water sources, while the third group of recom- Northfield Mountain diversion should proceed at once to mendations refers to municipalities whose needs are met by meet immediate needs and that planning of the Millers surface sources. River diversion should be carried out. Simultaneously conservation practices should be implemented and study Those recommendations relating to the region are: of additional alternatives should continue. In Rhode Island, the Study recommends that construction of the � Prefer local ground water to intermunicipal Big River Rese rvoir, should begin immediately to provide surface water development, and intermuni- additional supplies to the Providence water supply system. cipal surface water to interbasin transfer in However, in general, the Study recommends development order to maximize local self-sufficiency. of in-basin resources to the maximum extent economically and environmentally possible. Reliance on local sources of � Maintain existing water resources and ac- water is expected to extend the period of time that the quire key watersheds and potential well recommended out-of-basin supplies can serve expected sites. needs, and will preserve flexibility in water supply policies. � Limit water consumption through educa- tion and water-saving technology. Water Quality � Study advanced technologies leading to The objective of the SENE Study recommendations for new sources of water, and encourage the water quality is to achieve swimin able -fishable waters by regionalization of surface water supply 1983 wherever realistically attainable economically, socially, systems: New or expanded regional sys- and technically. The recommendations generally follow tems should be established in the Ipswich current state plans, especially for the 10 planning areas. River, Taunton, Brockton, Providence, Second, the recommendations recognize the technological southeastern Rhode Island, and South reality that non-point sources are still not well understood, Shore areas. while at the same time recognizing our rapidly increasing respect for their significance. The SENE Study has formulated recommendations for towns which rely either wholly or partially on ground water. The recommendations therefore have two thrusts - pre- For these towns, the recommendations, listed in their gen- servation and restoration where most attainable. The eral order of priority, are as follows: individual policy and action recommendations that com- prise the water quality program are presented below: � Survey ground water location, quantity, and availability. Preservation. Immediate priority is given to ensuring that no additional water quality degradation be allowed in areas � Restrict activities hazardous to ground of high quality water. Five recommendations are listed be- water quality. low in what is perceived to be their general order of import- ance in meeting the above-stated objective of the recom- � Monitor saltwater encroachment in mended program. coastal aquifers. 0 Stress non-degradation in areas now � Provide recharge basins to capture storm swimmable-fishable. runoff, limit withdrawal to prevent serious stream depletion, and establish state 0 Carry out current state anti-degradation ground water boards. policies. The SENE Study has proposed additional recommendations 0 Attenuate runofffrom new urban develop- for municipalities relying on surface water systems for ments. ES4 � Negotiate acceptable low-flow regimes 0 Securing public access to the shoreline with upstream communities. at frequent intervals and most fre- quen tly near cities. � Provide streambank buffer strips. 9 Preparing guidelines for local water author- Restoration. Nine recommendations are set forth to restore ities to permit limited public recreational existing water quality. They are listed below in what is use of secondary (storage) water supply perceived to be their general order of importance in meeting reservoir lands, at least for picnicking, the objective of the recommended program. hiking, fishing, and low-intensity outdoor activities. � Emphasize treatment of urban stormwater flows, 0 Designate parts of the Charles, North, Ipswich, Taunton, and South Rivers � Accelerate federal grants for municipal as Massachusetts Scenic Rivers; and wastewater treatment. the Wood, Beaver, and Pawcatuck as Rhode Island Scenic Rivers. � Continue current industrial permits pro- grams. e Develop new recreational boating harbors at Salem, Plymouth, and in Narragansett � Begin regionwide stormwater and wet- Bay. weather stream sampling. 0 Study the possibility of adding sand to 12 � Make towns responsible for scavenger beaches to combat erosion and increase waste disposaZ beach area � Determine municipal sludge disposal Marine Management policy on a plant-by-plant basia The principal objective of this portion of the SENE Study � Place burden on industry for disposing was to maintain the region's renewable marine resources at of hazardous wastes. a level sufficient for a sustained future use, and to develop the region's nonrenewable marine resources in an environ- � Study and define the landfill leachate mentally sensitive manner. problem Offshore Fishing. The thrust of the recommendation is to � Provide pumpout facilities and treatment maintain a valuable fisheries resource and to provide a for watercraft wastes. strong economic base for the region's fishing industry. The following actions are recommended in order of priority: Outdoor Recreation 0 Declare interim offshore 200-mile Economic Zone The U.S. Congress should extend, as The protection and management of Critical Environmental soon as possible, the nation's jurisdiction Areas through the Study's proposals for guiding growth overfisheries to 200-miles offshore or to should provide land to satisfy some of the demand for the edge of the continental shelf hunting, hildng, canoeing, sport fishing, and certain low- intensity forms of outdoor recreation. To satisfy the 0 Adopt a national fisheries management region's other more intensive recreational needs by the policy and program. year 1990, 20 specific actions were recommended. ffighest priority was given to the following: 0 Increase tariffs on imported fish products, * Acquire and develop the Boston Harbor 0 Allow privately financed purchase of Islands and Narragansett Bay islands Park. forekn-built boats. 0 Increase capacity at existing beaches and 0 Improve the market for underutilized fish improvd public transportation to major species. beachea 0 Accommodate coastal fish facilities Other high priority recommendations include: through improved planning. ES-5 0 The states'Coastal Zone Management 0 Develop predictive modeling techniques Programs, in cooperation with Depart- for offshore sand and gravel operations. ments of Community Affairs, should develop guidelines and provide technical Urban Waterfronts. In order to enhance the use and reuse assistance to local planning boards. of urban waterfronts in a rational and balanced manner: Shellfish and Aquaculture. In Massachusetts, recommenda- 0 Coordinate local waterfront planning and tions include increased technical assistance for local shell- development. fish management, and increased user fees for shellfish licenses, Rhode Island should enact shellfish license legis- 0 ftovide state-level guidance and set criteria lation. Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Recreational for priority waterfront uses. Vehicles in Massachusetts, and the Department of Natural Resources in Rhode Island should actively encourage the 0 Review and coordinate waterfront use. harvesting of edible shellfish, such as the blue mussel, for both recreational and commercial use, developing under- 0 Provide federal support of state and local utilized species. The EPA should accelerate research into waterfront development plans. the detection and removal of viral bacteria during the waste- water treatment process, and wastewater discharges should Flooding and Erosion be moved away from estuaries until such time as the re- moval of viral bacteria is feasible. To mitigate the region's flooding and erosion problems within the existing system of state and federal programs, In addition to the above recommendations .on shellfish the Study recommends both structural and non-structural management the following actions are recommended to measures. However, non-structural flood plain management produce a more favorable basis for aquacultural operations: measures are emphasized wherever possible. The recom- Rhode Island should enact legislation similar to that passed mendations include: in Massachusetts; both states should identify potential aqua-. 0 Prepare comprehensive basinfloodplain cultural sites, increase technical assistance to towns for management programs aquaculture management-, and increase research on the use of wastewater for aquaculture. 0 Full participation in the National Flood Insurance Program is urged for all com- Port Development. In order to maximize regional economic munitie& efficiency, the Study recommends creation of a regionwide port development strategy. A regional port planning pro- 0 Prevent further development or redevelop- gram should determine the most economically efficient port ment in inland or coastalflood prone areas development system for meeting the region's shipping and and coastal erosion areas. cargo distribution needs. Also recommended is continued use of interim dredged materials disposal procedures, until 0 Strengthen state wetlands legislation. new disposal techniques are developed. 0 Acquire key wetlands and flood plain areas Offshore Sand and Gravel Extraction. In the event that conventional onshore sand and gravel deposits are no longer 0 Selectively construct flood control projects, available in supplies sufficient to meet the region's construc- tion needs so that offshore mining becomes economically Locating Key Facilities competitive, the following recommendations are presented to facilitate such ventures and protect the surrounding The planning objective for locating key facilities was to pro- marine environment: vide certain vital services to society - power, fuel, construc- tion materials, solid waste disposal - in a mannerwhich � Develop policy and program for regulating supports continued economic growth and minimizes the mineral extraction activities in coastal negative environmental impacts such facilities have tradition- waters. ally had. � Coordinate future federal leasing of far- For four vital services - onshore sand and gravel, electrical shore sand and gravel sites with coastal power, petroleum facilities, and solid waste disposal - siting zone management programs for adjacent is the key issue. For power and petroleum, the importance site& of siting is matched by the need to match consumption. The key recommendations are: ES-6 � Immediately establish energy demand man- 0 Fund the Rhode Island Solid Waste Man- agement and conservation programs in each agement Corporation. state. � Establish comprehensive energy facilities 0 Conduct Massachusetts mineral survey. siting authofity in Rhode Island and strengthen the one in Massachusetts; Strengthening the Management System for Natural secure sites for the future. Resources � Centralize minerals management authority The Study recommends maximum use of existing resource in each state's natural resources agencies; policy institutions. The resource management policies and encourage sequential land use program. programs recommended by the SENE Study should be re- viewed, and appropriate state policies adopted by the - Other high priority recommendations include: Governor's Cabinet in Massachusetts and the Rhode'lsland State Planning Council or their successors. 6 Study the electrical rate structure to eliminate decreasing block rates. Population Projections 0 Maximize development at existing power Projections of future trends in population, income, and plant sites. employment were originally derived from the OBERS Series C projections developed for the federal Water Resources 0 Upgrade or phase out inefficient power Council by the Economic Research Service (ERS) of the plants. U.S. Department of Agriculture, in conjunction with the Bureau of the Economic Analysis (BEA, formerly the Office Provide one-stop power plant licensing. of Business Economics) in the U.S. Department of Com- merce. Later in the Study new OBERS projections, Series E, Locate future petroleum facilities inland were developed by ERS and BEA. These projections reflect near infrastructure. a continuation of the low population birth rate level which the nation is now experiencing, rather than the higher � Distribute refined products by pipeline. 1960-1970 national growth rate on which the Series C projections were based. The resulting lower population � Enforce existing landfill regulations. figures were adopted by the Study. B. RELATIONSHIP TO EXISTING PROGRAMS The design of existing programs, the workings of existing which will be helpful to the states in meeting their respon- institutions, and the requirements of current laws as well as sibilities for managing land and water resources, including significant-pending legislation served as important starting requirements of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act points for the Study. Current laws and guidelines and the Amendments of 1972 and the Coastal Zone Management pending National Land Use Policy Act provided direction Act of 1972. At the same time, the Study has also recog- for the Study's development capability analysis as well as nized the importance of local resource decisions in town evaluation. The Study has recognized the leadership of the halls, through conservation commissions, planning boards, states in natural resources matters, and has endorsed many and zoning boards of appeals. The Study's recommendations ongoing state resource management programs. The con- are formulated to build on existing programs, requirements, clusions of the Study are specifically presented in a way and institutions wherever possible. C. THE PROBABLE IMPACT OF THE PROPOSED ACTIONS ON THE ENVIRONMENT As mentioned earlier, the net environmental impact of the beneficial. Environmental analysis was an integral part of recommended policies and actions is expected to be strongly the planning process. Evaluation of alternatives with respect ES-7 to environmental criteria, as well as economic and social achievement of swimmable -fishable waters everywhere. criteria, is woven throughout all Study analyses. Economic benefits should accrue through increased recreation and tourism, improved value of waterfront Guiding Growth locations and some increase in shellfishing. Probably the most important economic benefit is less tangible - making Protecting Critical Environmental Areas will enhance the SENE a more appealing place for attracting and holding the overall environmental quality of the region. If future growth professionals and highly skilled workers it will need in the can be directed to those lands most capable of supporting future. As a result of a trend toward a more service -oriented it, the traditionally negative effects of development - erosion, economy, direct demands on SENE waters, both as a flooding, loss of wildlife habitat and open space, pollution medium for waste assimilation as well as for supply, may or loss of water supplies - can be mitigated. The recommenda- be significantly lower in the future. Pollution problems tions, if implemented, will also have significant positive resulting from industrial by-products may not exponentially effects on national economic efficiency, chiefly by reducing increase as has been the trend in the past. Thus, the outlook the resource and public investment costs of growth. Savings for improvement in water quality in SENE may be some- in construction costs, energy consumption, and in the costs what better than many might perceive today. of expanding and constructing new infrastructure such as water and sewer lines and roads, can be gained by using Outdoor Recreation existing excess capacity and clustering new development. The outdoor recreation recommendations are designed to Water Supply make dual use of Critical Environmental Areas in environ- mentally serisivite ways. Meeting expected demands for Once the approaches in Guiding Growth have been developed, recreation will improve the region's attractiveness as a place water supply policy can be used as a tool to bring about to live and work, and thereby providing for the leisure greater economic efficiency and environmental quality in activities of an increasingly services-oriented economy. the SENE region. Patterns of land use which protect recharge Providing additional recreation opportunities in and near areas and which use existing infrastructure such as water the urban areas of SENE, together with providing improved public transportation to major beaches and recreation areas supply systems enhance the environmental and economic will minimize auto-associated air and noise pollution as well aspects of life in this region. Furthermore, coordinated water as energy consumption. Increasing t ,he areas open for public supply and water quality planning can provide more efficient recreation will probably increase visitation and, therefore, methods of water management and environmental protection. impact on soil, water, land, and wildlife in those areas. But The efficient use and protection of existing sources of water, these impacts are expected to be below what can be expected coupled with careful planning and development of additional to occur by 1990 without the SENE Study recommendations. sources, should provide the residents and industries of the SENE region with an adequate supply of reasonably economical, high qualit@ waLer over the next 50 years. Marine Management Maximum use of in-basin resources will maintain local autonomy and will preserve future options for flexibility Implementation of these actions would encourage preserva- in water supply policies. In addition, advanced technology tion of wetlands and shellfish areas, reinforcing the Tecom- may allow the region to develop new sources of water with- mendation to protect Critical Environmental Areas. The out placing increased stress on its natural resources. recommendations would enhance water quality by en- couraging the relocation of wastewater discharges away Water Quality from estuaries, controlling disposal of dredged materials, and planning urban waterfront use. Implementation of Environmentally, swimmable-fishable waters will be these actions would be a major step toward regenerating achieved by 1983 wherever realistically attainable, eco- the offshore fishing industry which, together with the nomically, socially, and technologically. Economically, the increased availability of shellfish resources, should help to key point in examining the recommendations comes in the strengthen and stabilize the economies of many of the realization that all waters in the region cannot - and in region's coastal communities. some cases should not - reach swimmable as well as fishable levels. Instead, the recommendations emphasize One of the Marine Management recommendations, to de- preserving existing swimmable waters and achieving the fine policy and program regulating coastal mineral extrac- swimmable-fishable goal elsewhere, where reaching this tion activities, appears that it will have a negative effect on goal would be most beneficial in relation to the costs in- the planning objective for providing key facilities. However, curred. Preservation of existing high quality waters will this recommendation was formulated to avoid a number lower pollution control costs in the future. Total costs may of potential adverse impacts: if mining is restricted to far- well be in the $5 billion range, not nearly as high as the shore waters, away from near-shore shellfish beds and ES-8 delicate spawning grounds, detrimental effects to valuable Growth); (2) it reflects the finding that future growth in commercial and sports fisheries would be minimal. Near- the region can be accommodated without using wetlands or shore mining in depths up to 80 feet is likely to upset the flood plains; (3) it notes that non-structural measures delicate natural equilibrium maintaining the natural con- generate multiple benefits in terms of recreation, water tours of existing beaches. Further, the recommendation is supply, and preservation of landscape quality. Only where designed to avoid potential conflict between sand and existing development is of significant importance to the gravel mining operations and marine traffic, pipelines, economy and non-structural solutions are not available wastewater outfalls, and cable crossings. should structural measures be used. Flooding and Erosion Locating Key Facilities The policy of applying non-structural measures wherever possible in the context of comprehensive flood plain These recommendations would protect water quality by management programs is expected to minimize future flood encouraging the control of location, operation, and discharge damages, recognizing that flooding and erosion are natural from power plants, petroleum-related facilities, and solid processes that cannot be expected to be controlled or waste facilities. Because Critical Environmental Areas are prevented. This approach is designed to work with, not to be protected, ecological systems are taken into account against, the natural roles that flood plains and wetlands while providing regional facilities. Energy conservation play in accommodating the forces to nature. This approach measures should reduce some impacts by reducing or post- (1) is sensitive to the natural roles that wetlands and flood poning several plants until forms of power generation are plains play in flood water storage and their particular sus- available which have fewer adverse effects. ceptibility to the damaging forces of nature (as further indicated in the SENE Study's classification of both wet- In sum, all recommended policies and actions are expected lands and flood plains as critical resources; see Guiding to have a minimal net adverse environmental impact. D. ALTERNATIVES TO THE PROPOSED ACTIONS Each recommendation of the SENE Study was selected Critical Environmental Areas from consideration for most from a number of alternative measures and alternative plans forms of development, permitting future development and representing different combinations of those measures. relatively unrestricted use of most other lands, yet assuring Alternatives are discussed in a separate section in each of integrated maintenance of the future quality and quantity the major chapters in the Regional Report and further in of water resources. The third alternative seeks to guide each of the 10 planning area reports. hi most cases, the growth on the basis of the ability of the region's water and recommendations draw from elements from each of the related lands to support a variety of forms of development, alternatives formulated. to increase the efficiency with which public investments in services needed to accommodate growth are made, and to Guiding Growth control the location of those forms of development having major impacts on the region's water and related land The Study examined three alternative strategies for guiding resources. the future growth of the region to guarantee the protection and wise use of its water and related lands: (1) Continuing Water Supply current programs and regulations; (2) Increasing protection of Critical Environmental Areas; and (3) Improving manage- ment of Developable Areas. In order to satisfy the objective of meeting municipal needs for an adequate supply of fresh water, the SENE Study has considered a number of alternative measures: (1) managing These three alternatives approach the problem of accom- water demand; (2) developing ground water; (3) developing modating needed growth and protecting valuable resources surface water; (4) achieving self-sufficiency; (5) using from decidedly different directions. The first recognizes emerging technology; (6) improving water resource manage- that in many ways state and local governments in Massachu- ment; (7) making interbasin transfers; (8) expanding or setts and Rhode Island have a history of leadership in re- forming regional systems; and (9) improving institutional sources management. This alternative emphasizes continued arrangements. In order to meet the 1990 and 2020 water use of available tools to manage the future growth of the needs in Southeastern New England, the Study considered region. The second alternative seeks simply to remove certain two alternative plans incorporating these measures. One ES-9 plan would emphasize maximum use of conservation and Another plan sought a lesser goal - attainment of swim- demand management, along with the maintenance and mable-fishable waters on the basis of priorities set by cost development of local ground water supplies. In addition, effectiveness. The plan recognizes that the intangible nature this plan would attempt to make each basin in the region of many of the benefits of improved water quality make as self-sufficient as possible. The other plan would stress strict cost-benefit analysis impossible. Under cost effective- the goal of providing all of the region's required supply at ness, even though one has not measured the implications of the lowest possible cost. full or partial attainment of a goal, he will seek the least costly path to that goal. As applied in priority to a water Water Quality quality program, one would first accomplish those things A series of alternative measures were considered in improv- that would produce the most swimmable-fishable waters ing water quality in the region. Alternative measures for per dollar of combined public and private expenditure. This reducing the severity of urban stormwater and combined approach places increased emphasis on anti-degradation sewer problems include: (1) stormwater sampling; (2) policies, on doing much more about urban stormwater run- attentuation to runoff, (3) better street cleaning; (4) off and non-point sources, and on increasing the efficiency separation of combined sewers; (5) in stream controls; with which existing wastewater treatment plants operate. (6) off system storage; and (7) treatment. General approaches The plan would also reduce emphasis on some of the most for solving municipal wastewater problems include: (1) costly municipal and industrial wastewater abatement pro- additional sewering; (2) higher degree of treatment; (3) grams. Clearly, under such a plan achievement of Class B better effluent disposal methods; (4) better sludge disposal waters would be delayed well into the future. methods; and (5) greater regionalization. For disposal of hazardous wastes, the Study considered (1) land burial; Outdoor Recreation (2) deep well injection; (3) ocean dumping; and (4) incin- eration. The principal alternative measures for minimizing The Study considered several alternatives for meeting out- seepage problems are: (1) establishing and enforcing criteria door recreation needs. The three major alternatives for and compliance procedures; and (2) increasing use of dry satisfying future beach needs were (1) adding facilities to disposal systems. The principal alternatives for disposal of existing parks and beaches including improved public septic pumpings are: (1) disposal at existing wastewater transportation to beach areas; (2) securing public access to treatment plants; (2) land spreading; (3) drying beds; (4) the shoreline; and (3) acquiring new beaches for state parks. lagoons; and (5) land filling. To minimize in stream prob- One plan using these measures emphasized limited use of lems, particularly in heavily used streams with little flow, beaches by promoting public access to the shoreline. A four alternative measures were considered: (1) low flow second plan drawing on these alternative measures attempted augmentation; (2) dredging of benthic deposits; (3) aeration; to achieve maximum satisfaction of mass demands for high and (4) treatment. To handle domestic wastes generated on intensity beach use for residents and tourists alike. watercraft the alternative measures were: (1) flow-through devices providing primary treatment and disinfection; (2) holding tanks; and (3) restricted usage. Two principal alternative 's for satisfying boating needs are (1) private investment in marina development; and (2) Several alternative plans were developed using these mea- public investment in boating facilities. One plan applying sures with varying emphasis. One plan sought to achieve these measures would concentrate on expanding the capa- swimmable-fishable waters everywhere by 1983, lower than city of existing marinas. A second plan would involve the primary goal of the Federal Water Pollution Control guidance about suitable locations and development. This Act Amendments of 1972, which called for the elimination plan would meet a smaller portion of the boating demand of all discharges of pollutants to navigable waters by 1985. than the first approach, but would maintain a higher regard This plan gives equal priority to point and non-point sources for environmental quality. of pollution. Treatment, rather than separation, would be the only alternative to solving the combined sewer overflow Alternatives for meeting camping and picnicking needs are problem. Moreover, some kind of breakthrough in under- (1) expanded use of existing facilities; and (2) private de- standing the significance, distribution, and means of abating velopment of new campground and picnicking facilities. non-point source pollution would be needed. If such a break- Six alternatives were considered for fish and wildlife: through could be made, a major abatement program would (1) acquire wetlands; (2) acquire upland wildlife manage- have to be developed, accepted, funded, and executed. ment areas; (3) provide public access to privately-owned Clearly the social and environmental benefits would be very wildlife habitat; (4) use of wetland legislation; (5) acquire high, But so would the costs. Until a better idea of the public access to ponds; and (6) acquire streambank access. nature and scope of the non-point source problem can be developed, the exact cost of the program cannot be estimated. Alternative measures for assuring extensive outdoor recreation ES-10 opportunities include: (1) developing Boston Harbor and Alternatives for dredged materials disposal were: (1) treat- Narragansett Bay Island Parks; (2) making recreational use ment of dredged materials; (2) incineration; (3) land of publicly or privately owned, but inaccessible urban disposal; (4) creating artificial islands; (5) banning all resources; (3) acquiring Critical Environmental Areas; dredging; and (0) continued disposal to ocean waters. (4) limited public access to water supply watersheds; (5) multiple use of trails; and (6) scenic rivers legislation. Two Three systems for offshore sand and gravel mining were alternative plans were developed, based primarily on public considered: (1) near-shore small conventional bucket cost. One plan would place primary emphasis on acquiring dredges; (2) hopper dredges without onboard processing the Boston Harbor and Narragansett Bay Islands and Critical capability; (3) hopper dredges with onboard processing and Environmental Areas, expanding the trails system, and dewatering capacity operating in far-shore areas. designating scenic rivers. A second plan would stress a lower . . I cost combination of acquiring the Harbor and Bay Islands, Three basic approaches were considered in initiating and using urban resources, making multiple use of watershed carrying out land use planning and development control lands, and increasing use of existing trails. activities in urban waterfront areas: (1) planning and development control activities could be carried out primarily Marine Management by local governments; (2) local and state (or substate re- gional) jurisdictions could share responsibility; (3) state (or substate regional) jurisdictions could be the principal A number of alternatives have been proposed in the several decision makers in the process. sections of this chapter. Alternatives for assuring future fishing supplies were: (1) continue the existing International Flooding and Erosion Commission for Northwest Atlantic Fisheries (ICNAF); (2) improve and strengthen ICNAF: and (3) enact an interim Several measures were considered for reducing flood 200 mile economic zone. Alternatives for improving the damages: (1) land use controls (such as flood plain zoning, domestic fishing industry's competitive base: (1) continue wetlands protection including serious state and local con- the present situation; (2) increase tariffs on imported fish trols, subdivision regulations, and building code restrictions); products; (3) coordinate components of fishing industry (2) structural controls (such as flood water diversions, sea- in major fishing ports; (4) allow privately-financed purchase walls and dikes, dams, and flood control reservoris); and of foreign-built boats; (5) improve the market for under- (3) protection of existing development (flood-proofing, utilized fish species; and (6) accommodate fishing industry relocation, weather modification, warning systems). These facilities through improved coastal planning. various measures were combined into two alternative plans: one aimed at protecting development from flooding using lowest cost measures, and another designed to protect flood A number of alternative measures were considered for shell- prone areas from,development. fish and aquaculture: (1) delegate management of shellfish to the state; (2) increase state assistance in Massachusetts Alternative measures for inland erosion areas were: (1) for local shellfish management; (3) develop market for under- establish town sediment and erosion control ordinances; utilized shellfish species; (4) research viral and bacterial (2) establish forest buffer zones within 200 feet of streams removal to enhance shellfish habitats; (5) move wastewater and lakes; and (3) control forest road erosion by proper discharges away from estuaries; (6) provide state and federal road location and stabilization activities such as seeding and subsidies to "seed" the aquaculture industry; (7) enact ditching. specific aquaculture legislation in Rhode Island; and (8) increase state guidance for aquaculture development. Alternative measures considered in protecting or enhancing the coastal areas were: (1) planting and fertilizing with Several alternative measures for port development were beach grass; (2) direct sand placement (artificial nourish- examined: (1) port authorities and economic development ment) and construction of backup dikes of sand and gravel, commissions could continue to plan improvements for local rock, or concrete walls, and rock walls; and (3) protection of port facilities and promote private investments for local port erodible bluffs with rock revetments, seawalls, or bulkheads. facilities on an individual basis; and (2) redevelop the Also considered were floating breakwaters and marsh region's two major ports based on a regionwide assessment restoration. These measures were combined into three of individual port capabilities and development opportuni- alternative plans. One plan, to do nothing, would allow ties by (a) accelerating the development of container ship present patterns of development and steadily increasing facilities in Boston if proven advantageous, (b) developing rates of erosion to continue. Another plan stressed restora- an economically feasible and environmentally acceptable tion and protection of critical shoreline areas through deepwater petroleum products terminal with a pipeline extensive structural controls, thus permitting further distribution system to major population centers, and (c) development. A third plan proposed a rigid coastal zone developing Narragansett Bay as a liquid natural gas (LNG) management program precluding future encroachment on center, if proven advantageous. ES-1 I Critical Environmental Areas such as marshes and barrier degree of state controlled demand management would be beaches, and encouraging restoration of natural impedi- essential. ments to erosion. Alternative approaches for solid waste management were: Locating Key Facilities (1) land disposal sites should be selected to minimize the infiltration of leachate into surface and ground water; (2) For onshore sand, gravel, and stone extraction the Study established landfills should be operated under the appropri- considered four alternative measures: (1) importation of ate state regulations to minimize impact; (3) communities materials from outside the region; (2) substituting crushed should be encouraged to participate in state solid waste stone for sand and gravel; (3) offshore mining; and (4) recovery programs. identifying, protecting, and sequencing use of onshore deposits within the region. Also considered was the sub- Strengthening the Management System for stitution of other materials, using nearshore materials such Natural Resources as marine muds. The Report sets out several alternative approaches to Alternatives for managing the demand for power include: implementing key Study recommendations. Designed to (1) efficient pricing of electrical power to reflect the mar- assist the states in translating policy into action, each alter- ginal costs of supply; and (2) revising the rate structure. native approach illustrates a slightly different balance Alternatives for power plant siting were: (1) continue the between state, substate regional, and local resource man- present siting system; (2) create one-stop coordinated agement decision making. For each state, the approaches federal-state review of proposals; (3) establish a program of illustrate three concepts: protection of Critical Environ- state identification and protection of potential power plant mental Areas, control over developments of regional impact, sites. and the degree to which long-range water resources planning can be a tool for guiding growth. Alternative measures for meeting petroleum requirements were: (1) delivery - by pipeline, coastal tanker, or deep- The approaches are: (a) state development guidelines for water terminals; (2) refining - inland or coastal; (3) dis- use by local government; (b) mandatory local planning and tribution - coastal tankers or pipeline distribution. One zoning; (c) state designation and local regulation of Critical alternative plan, using these measures, would give priority Environmental Areas or areas of critical concern to the for land allocation to refinery and related heavy industrial state; and (d) state regulation of critical areas with munici- development at sites closest to delivery and market areas. pal administration. Two more approaches demonstrate the A second alternative would eliminate 1he SENE region and possibilities of indirectly guiding growth through compre- New England as a whole from further consideration for hensive water resources management programs: (e) regional refinery and related heavy development. Under this alter- management of water and related land resources; and (f) native, the SENE region would continue to be a 100 percent state planning and management of water and related land importer of refined oil products, and an extremely high resources. E. PROBABLE ADVERSE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS WHICH CANNOT BE AVOIDED As mentioned previously, net environmental benefits of the growth, locating key facilities, outdoor recreation, and water recommendations are expected to be strongly positive. quality. Taken together, Study recommendations score high Environmental impacts were considered throughout the in the environmental quality and Tegicinal development planning process, with the express objective of eliminating accounts as compared to the two accounts for national any adverse and irreversible impact wherever possible, economic efficiency and social well-being. In sum, SENE together with actively enhancing environmental quality and Study recommendations for protecting Critical Environ- other beneficial impacts. mental Areas, and guiding growth to other areas which can support development, are expected to be highly beneficial General criteria for evaluating SENE Study recommendations to the environment. were drawn from the components of the four accounts (national economic efficiency, environmental quality, One of the 128 recommendations - to define policy and regional development, and social well-being) of the U. S. program regulating coastal mineral extraction activities - Water Resources Council's Principles and Standards. appears that it will have a net negative effect for providing Evaluation based on the listed criteria shows that four key facilities. By regulating this close-in source of sand SENE planning objectives score particularly high - guiding and gravel to a metropolitan area like Boston, other ES-12 alternative sources, possibly equally undesirable, might near the shore may conflict with commercial, military, have to be used. fishing and recreational vessels; and with pipelines, waste- water outfalls, and cable crossings. The degree to which offshore sand and gravel mining affects the marine environment varies considerably by site. Some effects are known to be minor and temporary, others major In implementing the recommendation, therefore, public and permanent, while for others little is known. Three areas administrators are cautioned to take particularly broad of potential conflict exist: fisheries, recreation, and naviga- look to compare the total environmental, economic, and tion and communications. Mining in near-shore waters social implications of alternative sources than could be could cause detrimental effects to valuable shellfish beds examined in this Study in formulating the recommendation. and spawning grounds and is likely to upset the delicate The recommendation was put forth based on the belief that natural equilibrium maintaining the natural contours of it will withstand such examination, but it is recognized that existing beaches. And sand and gravel mining operations review from other perspectives is also necessary. F. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LOCAL SHORT-TERM USES OF MAN'S ENVIRON- MENT AND THE MAINTENANCE AND ENHANCEMENT OF LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY The recommended policies and actions have been formulated that of towns which have abandoned their local ground specificially to ensure that the cumulative and long-term water sources for other supplies. Another example is the impacts are beneficial in nature. SENE Study recommenda- identification and acquisition of sand and gravel sites. The tions are designed to ensure that resources contributing to recommendations reflect the view that sand and gravel the quality of man's life and environment are safeguarded niining can be the first step in a plan for sequencing land for future generations and that options for future actions use in areas under development pressure. After sand and are maintained. An example is the Study's recommendation gravel have been mined and the land restored, communities to maintain and protect local ground water resources which (with state guidance) can rezone the areas for subsequent offer the most economical source of water supply. Such an uses consistent with economic needs and environmental approach to maintain and protect such water supply options aspirations. can, if properly managed, retain a flexibility greater than G. IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENTS OF RESOURCES The Study recommendations were formulated with a goal sheds are designed to avoid an irretrievable commitment of to avoid irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources - in this case, development on regionally signifi- resources. In fact, recommendations to protect, Critical cant reservoir sites. Acquisition of key watersheds is recom- Environmental Resources are expected to maintain the mended to preserve future options for development for natural functions of resources such as wetlands and to extend water supply resources. The classification system is also the capacities of other resources through conservation designed to group resources which have "like" characteristics measures and study of new technologies. For example, the into categories which can be protected and managed in ways SENE Study classification system and related recommenda- which take into account their capabilities and suitabilities tions to protect proposed reservoir sites and their water- for certain uses. H. COMMENTS RECEIVED Comments on the Study report including the draft environ- as well as Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New mental statement were sought from the Governors and key York; the head of each federal department or agency and agencies in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, each interstate agency having a representative to the New ES-13 England River Basins Commission, as well as appropriate managing the natural resources of the area." The Environ- federal agency offices listed in Appendix III of the NEPA mental Protection Agency judged the report "complete and Guidelines. Comments were sought from interests through- accurate," and rated the impact statement as "LO-1," out Southeastern New England including: U.S. Senators and Lack of Objections - - Adequate, with the understanding Congressmen, state senators, regional planning agencies, "that the rating is interpreted as a rating of the planning 213 town planning boards, town managers or mayors, study and is not to be interpreted as compliance with conservation commissions, and several hundred individuals NEPA for the recommended actions... This latter point is and groups. key to the interest on the part of the Interior and Agricul- ture Department reviews for additional details in the im- Brief comments specifically on the Environmental State- pact statement regarding impacts, alternatives, and ment were received from the Department of Agriculture, irreversible commitments of resources. As noted in the Department of the Interior, Department of Commerce, the Introduction, the statement takes the form of an "over- Environmental Protection Agency, and the Federal Power view" statement with a focus on the policy aspects of the Commission. Considerably more agencies and individuals Study. Later actions to implement specific Study recom- reviewed and commented on the full Study report. Their mendations will require more detailed 102 statements, which_ comments and changes made in response to them are would generate more specific information to permit included in the chapter on Review of the Report. elaboration of the details requested above. Many of the actions cannot be evaluated more fully until further studies Comments were for the most part favorable. The Depart- are performed. Most importantly, the Study recommenda- ment of Commerce review called the draft statement, to- tions were formulated with the requirements of NEPA in gether with the Regional Report, "a positive approach to mind. ES-14 METHODOLOGY The methodology of a planning process is, in many ways, basic organizational structure of the Study will be outlined. as significant as the final product itself. A knowledge of the Participating federal, state, and.regional resource planners, prernises with which the SENE Study began, and of the as weld as citizens and the scientific community were course of action which was followed during its development grouped into various levels of management to coordinate can lead to a better understanding and evaluation of the their contributions. The SENE Study consisted of a num- Study's firral report. Furthermore, the methodolbgy serves ber of phases, each of which had specific objectives. Ibis as a guide for. future work; it is a framework which other chapter will briefly describe each of these phases, listing studies can build upon or modify to meet their specific the publications produced during each step. Next, the objectives. chapter will summarize the individual methodologies used by Study participants to produce the material contained in each of the chapters of the Regional and Planning Area Re- This chapter will attempt to outline.the SENE Study's ports. This discussion will provide a perspective on the methodology, beginning with the background and events development and the final products of each functional area which led to the Study's formation. Several sections win covered by the Study. Finally, a listing by chapter will show deal with the Study's relationship to federal legislation and the kind of information generated by Study participants to ongoing federal and state programs. In addition, the for each of the chapters in the various reports. BACKGROUND The Southeastern New England Water and Related'Land local, and non-govemmental plans for the Resources Study was the first major "level B" study development of water and related land initiated by the New England River Basins Comn-dssion. resources in its area, river basin, or group During March 1968, heavy flood damages attracted regional of river basins; attention to southeastern New England. In May of that same year, the Commission resolved to undertake a com- (2) Prepare and keep up to date, to the extent prehensive study of the water and related land resources of practicable, a comprehensive, coordinated, Narragansett and Little Narragansett Bays as its first sub- joint plan for federal, state, interstate, regional study, This resolution was approved by the federal local and non-govemmental development Water Resources Council and the New England Governors' of water and related resources: Provided Conference. Subsequently, in August 1968, the Study area that the plan shall include an evaluation was expanded to include coastal drainage areas in Mass- of all reasonable alternative means of achusetts, so that the Study region coincided with the achieving optimum development of water North Atlantic Regional (NAR) Study's Subarea 9. This and related. land resources of the basin or expansion consolidated the heavily industrialized and basins, and it may be prepared in stages, populated eastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island areas, including recommendations with respect both characterized by their small coastal streams and their to individual projects. close association with marine resources. Delays in funding postponed the initiation of the Study until January 1971, (3) Recomrnend long-range schedules of priorities when Plan of Study preparation formally began. for the collection and analysis of basic data and for investigation, planning, and con- The basic authority for the SENE Study is Section 201 (b) struction of projects. (2) of the Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 (PL The Southeastern New England Study was given top priority 89-80). This section states that, among its other duties and responsibilities, the Commission shall: among the Commission's programs in the context of Section 20 1 (b)(3), and is a key element of the comprehensive, co- (1) Serve as the principal agency for the co- ordinated, joint plan for New England as called for in ordination of federal, state, interstate, Section 201(b)(2) above. M-1 Definition of a Level B Study A "level B study", such as the SENE Study, is a preliminary, The Study serves to provide a uniform purpose or reconnaissance level, water and related land plan for a for multi-objective efforts by tying these various selected region or river basin. The Study identifies and re- programs together. The Study is designed to commends actions to be taken by all levels of government make maximum use of existing info imation and by private interests to secure, by balanced conservation arrayed so that it can be economically updated and development of SENE's water and related resources, and amended as conditions change. The Study the full range of uses and benefits for the people of the is also designed to use a high degree of judge- region. mental planning. The SENE Study is both a process and a plan. By bringing 0 The Study is to concentrate on problems of a together citizens and government officials at all levels - critical nature in the near- and niid-term periods federal, state, regional, and local - the Study serves as a (1975 to 1990). forum for discussing resource problems and management solutions for the region. By drawing on existing data and 9 The Study will support land use, coastal zone comparing ongoing programs, the Study has developed a management, and rural area development plan- method of analyzing resource information, establishing ning efforts. action priorities, and reflecting resource capabilities in formulating action recommendations. The Study is designed to identify and examine alternative methods, programs, projects, and At the same time, the record of Study analysis, data maps, uses of water and related land resources. Impacts alternatives considered, implications of various alternatives, of a beneficial or adverse nature will be deter- and recommended actions constitutes a management pro- mined only to the extent necessary to ensure gram: a report recommending management actions for the selection of proper alternatives. Plans may Southeastern New England. These recommendations, by vary widely in scope and detail. The Plan should serving as a guide to decision makers and a basis for future identify those projects and program alternatives resource analysis, become part of the ongoing process after which merit further study. the Study itself is done. e The Study seeks to provide solutions which The following concepts describe the requirements and achieve positive econornic and environmental functions of a level B study. They have been drawn from effects. several sources, including: the Water Resources Planning Act of 1965 and its related guidelines P@inciples and e All alternatives must be based on reasonable Standards, and several policy statements, various working assumptions of investment capabilities of the papers, and special annual reports on the more recent federal, state, local, and private concerns who Section 209 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act are to carry out the plan. Plans should seek to Amendments of 1972, which calls for level B studies for all balance funding commitments among the basins in the United States. These concepts are as follows: various levels of government. � The Study is the principal vehicle for securing Plans must be presented in terms of local desires federal, federal-state, and interstate cooperation and priorities, including recognition of the national in the analysis of natural resources manage- interest. ment issues on the basis of hydrologic or other regions. The end product will have substantial intrinsic value for many users because the recommended � The Study is designed to draw together existing plan should: plans, projects, and other resource management - maximize multi-purpose opportunities; programs at all levels of government. - minimize duplication of future efforts and land use conflicts; � The Study is designed to identify major issues - serve to crystallize public opinion as to and conflicts at regional and subregional levels desired alternatives; and to develop the means for dealing with them, - show which progiams and projects are to including priorities. Problems unresolved, needs be recommended for detailed (level C) unmet, and opportunities foregone, will also be planning; recorded. Problems and needs will be rated in terms - save money because of coordinated of severity; consequences of not solving problems efforts. will be indicated. M-2 The SENE Study has made every attempt to meet'the above Coastal Zone Management Act requires definition of areas requirements in a variety of ways. For example, in the water of particular concern with priorities of permissible water quality chapters, Study participants have used existing state and land uses. The U. S, Congress has also considered, but and federal programs, plans, and projects in the formulation did not pass, a National Land Use Policy Act. While the of their recommendations. The Study has been designed to Act has not been signed into law, there are several elements identify major wdter quality issues in the region, among in tht various versions which were consistent with the them combined sewer problems and municipal and industrial approach taken in this level B study. In addition, the Rural wastewater discharges. Furthermore, both the economic and Development Act has called for a land and water use and environmental effects of recommendations have been con- conservation needs inventory. sidered. In an effort to maximize the effic ient use of funds for wastewater management, the Study has recommended The above pieces of legislation, together with the National the preservation of existing high quality streams and coastal Environmental Policy Act, form the key elements of a policy waters as well as the restoration of polluted waters. Each for natural resources decision making. The New England element of the SENE Study has been developed with these River Basins Commission has applied these policy elements kinds of guidelines and requirements in mind. and appropriate planning requirements to its own process in order to make the SENE Study responsive to the most recent directives to be useful to resource decision makers, particularly on the state level. In addition to these directives, Other Major Legislative and the Study has also drawn particularly on elements of the Ongoing.Program Requirements Federal Flood Insurance Act, the Massachusetts requirement to prepare environmental impact reports, and Massachusetts Since the SENE Study began, several pieces of legislation and Rhode Island laws to protect inland and coastal wetlands. which reinforce or supplement a number of key Study con- cepts have been signed into law. For example, the Federal The basic aspects of the Commission's planning approach Water Pollution Act Amendments of 1972 call for the con- to which these legislative program elements apply are: sideration of both the water supply and water quality as- inventory and analysis, alternatives and recommendations, pects of water quality planning. Moreover, they require the evaluation, and coordination, all of which include public examination of the relationship of land use with point and participation. These components will be covered in greater non-point sources of pollution, such as in Section 208. The detail in a foll6wing section. NERBC Approach The Commission's approach to level B planning is to in- the various land use bills have called for con- corporate aspects of all the major legislative directives sideration of interstate aspects of land use described in the preceding section. Essential to this approach issues involving two or more states, coordination is the concept of joint planning - the product is prepared of management plans for land and water re- by federal and state participants with cooperation from sources in the state's coastal zone, and co- citizens and local officials. ordination of the land use program with state, federal, and local agencies, and with state and The need for truly joint planning - as required by the local agencies in other states for interstate Commission's enabling legislation - has been reinforced by areas. several requirements of recent legislation: The Commission, through the SENE Study, has sought to � the Secretary of Commerce will not approve a meet these requirements in several ways. For example, the state coastal zone management program unless Study has concentrated on regional and interstate issues the views of federal agencies principally affected and conflicts, has attempted to coordinate the actions of have been adequately considered; federal and state agencies, and has provided an interdisciplin- ary and comprehensive perspective on resource management � federal agencies conducting activities affecting problems. the coastal zone or developmental projects in the coastal zone must ensure that such activities or In dealing with the region as a whole, Study planners have projects are, to the maximum extent practicable, applied uniform criteria throughout the SENE region allow- consistent with approved state management ing a consistent basis for viewing common problems and programs; and interstate issues. The Study has drawn on plans and decisions M-3 of local, regional, state, and federal levels of government. New England River Basins Commission. The NERBC mem- In addition, Study planners have taken advantage of com- bership has served as the general policy-maldng body for plementarities in policies or actions wherever possible and the SENE Study. With regard to the Study, the Commission's have indicated conflicts wherever appropriate. functions include: (1) developing general policy and ob- jectives, particularly with issues of regionwide significance; The SENE Study: Key Participants (2) requesting adequate funding and manpower for agencies and committees participating in the Study; (3) resolving problems which cannot be handled at lower levels of the hi order to develop recommendations in orderly and SENE Study organizational structure; (4) reviewing and efficient manner, the Plan of Study outlined a comprehen- adopting the final recommendations for SENE and trans- sive organizational structure for the SENE Study's manage- mitting them to the Governors of Massachusetts, Rhode ment and implementation. Island, and Connecticut, and to the Water Resources Council for transmittal to the President and Congress. The preparation of the Study represents the cooperation of many participants (Table 1). Successful implementation of Coordinating Group. The Coordinating Group (CG) was sound management plans for the region will depend on the chaired by the states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island involvement of representatives of all levels of government along with the Chairman of the Commission, who presides and of private interests. In this spirit, the Study adopted an at the Coordinating Group meetings. Among these mem- organizational structure which encouraged participation not bers were the Departments of Agriculture, Army, Commerce, only by federal and state agencies - the members of the Housing and Urban Development, Interior, and Transpor- Commission - but also by regional planning agencies, local tation; the Environmental Protection Agency, and the governments, and citizens representing a wide range of Federal Power Commission. Other representatives worked business, environmental, research, and scientific interests. with the group on an ad hoc basis. They included the New England Regional Commission and the Department of the Central to the organizational structure is the concept of Navy. In addition, the Chariman of the Citizen Advisory joint planning - federal and state representatives worked Committee served as an ex offlicio member. together to prepare positive management recommendations for a full range of major resources uses. Agency representa- The Coordinating Group has been responsible for the policy fives participated at both the policy and technical levels and overall direction of the SENE Study. In particular, it according to the structure shown in Figure 1. has been in charge of: (1) the direction, formulation, and TABLE I STUDY PARTICIPANTS Federal - State National Park Service (NPS) New England River Basins Commission (NERBC) U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Department of the Navy (DON) Federal Department of Transportation (DOT) Department of Agriculture (USDA) U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Economic Research Service (ERS) State Forest Service (FS) Massachusetts Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Executive Office of Environmental Affairs Department of the Army Department of Community Affairs Corps of Engineers (CE) Water Resources Comrriission Department of Commerce (DOC) Rhode Island Bureau of Domestic Commerce (BDQ Statewide Planning Program Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) Connecticut Maritime Administration (MARAD) (Through the NERBC member: Department of Environmental National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Protection) including the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Interstate Federal Power Commission (FPQ New England Regional Commission (NERCOM) Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Department of the Interior (DOI) Advisory Groups Bureau of Mines (BOM) Citizen Advisory Committee (CAQ Bureau of Outdoor Recreation (BOR) Regional Scientific Task Force (RSTF) Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) Basin Advisory Committees (BACs) M-4 selection of the recommendations; and (2) major questions The SMT, together with the Study Manager and his staff, concerning planning methodology, scheduling, interagency provided the nucleus for technical direction, coordination, planning relationships, budgeting, and resolution of con- and review of the planning activities. The team had primary flicts between alternatives. responsibility for developing the recommendations and acted as the major technical and decision making body re- Study Management Team. The Study Management Team garding Study organization, operation, and plan develop- (SMT) was led by a member of the Commission staff - the ment. Study Manager - and included representatives of the states Study Manager. The Study Manager was designated by the of Massachusetts and Rhode Island; the Departments of Commission and had primary responsibility and authority Xgriculture, Army, Commerce, Housing and Urban Develop- ment, Interior, and Transportation;' the Environmental Pro@ for the day-to-day conduct of the Study. He served as tection Agency; and the Federal Power Commission. Ad chairman of the Study Management Team and as executive hoc members included federal and state agency personnel secretary of the Coordinating Group. Members of the Study who worked on the Study but did not have major respon- staff included resource planners, a citizen participation. co- sibility for a specific study element. Also working with the ordinator, and several assistants and secretaries. During the SMT were staff members of regional planning agencies, field course of the Study, the staff was housed in separate offices office personnel of state agencies, and other professionals at 408 Atlantic Avenue, Boston. These offices will be closed from academic and research institutions. when the final Study reports are forwarded to Washington, D.C. File material will be retained in Commission offices at 55 Court Street, Boston. Citizen Advisory Committee. Throughout the planning pro- NERBC cess, the technical experts and staff have incorporated I citizen viewpoints into the Study. The regional group of COORDINATING GROUP citizen participants, the Citizen Advisory Committee (CAQ, includes representatives from conservation, business, NERBC, MASS. & R. I., Co. Chairmen industry, real estate, and education. To increase public participation, a group of scientists, the Regional Scientific Task Force (RSTF), was also created, though it merged USDA FPC with the CAC rnidway through the Study. Members of both CE HUD the CAC and RSTF were appointed by the Chairman of DOI EPA the Commission. DOC NERCOM CAC DOT The fun ction of the CAC has been to give the SENE Co- Study Mana-ge-77 ordinating Group a regional perspective on resource pro- blems, their possible solutions, and their priorities. In addition, CAC/RSTF members had a primary responsibility Planning and for stimulating citizen involvement in the Study's planning Support Staff process. Initially the CAC/RSTF membership included two representatives from each of the ten planning areas, plus STUDY MANAGEMENT TEAM about a dozen scientists and special interests. Because the Study Manager, Chairman. meetings were open, the membership gained others over the years, so that eventually the mailing fist totalled 65 Mass BOR NOAA (NMFS) members. RI NPS BEA To accomplish their goals, the CAC/RSTF formed three HUD FWS DOT EPA BOM FPC sub-comniittees for Goals and Objectives, Public Review, SCS USGS and Public Participation. The Goals and Objectives sub-com- ERS DOT mittee merged with the Public Review sub-comn-dttee after FS BDC its initial purpose was complete. The Public Participation CE MARAD and Public Review sub-comn-dttees met periodically to help I organize the Basin Advisory Committee meetings (see below). F _615ZEN ADVISORY commifm The CAC/RSTF worked on these tasks primarily during quarterly meetings when they discussed the Study's findings from a professional and political viewpoint. Minutes of these Regional Scientific B meetings - several of which lasted two days - have pro- Task Force vided valuable information in shaping the Study's findings. FIGURE I SENE STUDY ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Furthermore, the CAC/RSTF donated their time most M-5 generously in developing and in transmitting review com- (8) Review and transmit recommended plan with ments to the staff for several versions of the regional and major economic and environmental plans planning area reports. detailed to provide a basis for choice. Basin Advisory Committees. Basin Advisory Committe es Each of these phases was designed to include an element of (BAC's), one for each of the ten planning areas, provided flexibility, allowing changes to be made in the methodology the Study with a representative sampling of local public. if circumstance s during the, course of the Study required issues and interests. Members of each BAC include repre- them. In general, however the Study was able to conform. sentatives from town offices such as water and sewer com- to these broad guidelines. A brief description of each of the rrussions, conservation commissions, planning boards, above phases should provide some insight into the develop- industrial development commissions, and private organiza- ment of the SENE Study's recommended program. tions such as watershed associations, sportsmens' clubs, builders' associations, chambers of commerce, and the (1) Develop Environmental and Socio-Economic Frame- League of Women Voters. In all, about 4000 people in the work. The Framework is a two-volume report covering region received invitations to workshops and hearings, and basic Study data and assumptions. It served as the uniform others learned about them through the media. foundation for resource inventory and analysis. Moreover, the Framework formed the basis for evaluating plan alter- BAC's met during at least three phases of the Study: early natives and recommendations. to define local problems and opportunities; midway - to examine the Study's proposed alternatives; and toward the The environmental portion of the Framework contains an end of the Study - in informal hearings to comment on the estimate of the maximum population limits consistent with draft recommendations and their correspondence to citizen the existing environmental character of each community in preferences. A total of 900 citizens had attended the nearly the SENE region. These limits -@- called environmental hold- two dozen meetings by the end of the second phase of the ing capacities - were bas@d on a review of wetlands, flood Study. Interested citizens received background information plains, soils characteristics, distribution of open and forested prior to the meetings. This was the basis of worksheets and lands, and "amenity zones." Because of a lack of consensus questionnaires which they completed during the meetings. on their accuracy and utility, however, the environmental The results of these materials were then tabulated and used holding capacity figures were not used during the last in developing the Study's recommendations. phases of the Study. The environmental section of the Framework also contains, in a separate volume, the listings Developing Study Recommendations of unique natural and cultural sites for each town in the region. The recommendations for Southeastern New England have been derived by a series of planning phases covering three A second section of the Framework, the socio-economic and one-half years. This methodology has been outlined in portion, presents historical population, income, and employ- Section 5 of a separate document entitled the Plan of Study, ment figures, in addition to a description of historical land and consists of the following phases: use patterns. The socio-economic section also contains pro- jections of future trends in the above categories. These (1) Develop environmental and socio- figures were originally derived from the OBERS Series C economic framework; projections developed for the federal Water Resources Council by the Economic Research Service (ERS) of the (2) Develop resource inventory and analysis; U.S. Department of Agriculture, in conjunction with the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA, formerly the Office of (3) Formulate preliminary single-purpose Business Economics) in the U. S. Department of Commerce. alternative plans; Later in the Study, new OBERS projections, SERIES E, were developed by ERS and BEA. These projections re- (4) Formulate preliniinary multi-purpose present a continuation of the low population birth rate level alternative plans; which the nation is now experiencing, rather than the higher 1960-1970 national growth rate on which the Series (5) Review and refine preliminary multi- C projections were based. The resulting lower population purpose alternatives; figures have now been adopted by the Study in all phases of its work. (6) Produce a best economic and a best envi- ronmental plan and formulate a recommended (2) Develop Resource Inventory Analysis. The SENE plan; region was originally separated into 14 hydrologic units; these were later combined into ten planning areas (see (7) Evaluation; and Figure 2. 1, Chapter 2, Regional Report): M-6 Ipswich-North Shore mation and analysis. Moreover, they p@roposed preliminary Boston Metropolitan alternative actions for each of two future assumptions. The South Shore first assumption anticipated a higher level of population Cape Cod and Islands growth (OBERS projections) than the second, and placed Buzzards Bay particular emphasis on meeting economic objectives. The Taunton second assumption was based on-lower levels of population Blackstone, Ten Mile, (Environmental Holding Capacity) and stressed high environ- Woonasquatucket-Moshassuck mental standards and goals. In the single-purpose reports, Pawtuxet these assumptions were known as the economic and environ- Narragansett Bay mental alternative futures, respectively. These "first-cut" Pawcatuck alternatives were formulated solely in response to the needs of each study element. Therefore, the alternatives of one During this second phase, the Study Management Team element in many cases lacked a continuity or correspondence (SMT) gathered water and related land infori-nation for with alternatives from other elements. They were, however, each of the ten planning areas and mapped the data at an important basis for possible actions and formed the I inch = 1 mile. Resource subjects were arranged into 18 focus for multi-purpose planning. Discussions of the study elements, listed in the Plan of Study. The demand for methodologies for many of the single-purpose reports may these resources and their availability was also analyzed be found in the last section of this chapter. during this phase of the Study. During the single-purpose planning phase, an evaluation The SMT used two mapping scales: table was prepared for each set of alternatives. The tables summarized positive and negative aspects of six types of A mapping scale of approximately I inch = I mile impacts - social, technical, economic (national and regional), (1: 62,500) was selected as appropriate for initial environmental (including considerations called for under the resource analysis. This scale provides a presenta- National Environmental Policy Act), legal and institutional, tion format of manageable size while ensuring and political. This brief evaluation served to sort out alter- that the complex inter-disciplinary problems can natives which provided benefits of little or no consequence, be dealt with in a meaningful way. while identifying and consolidating complementary alterna- tives suggested by more than one study element. For reporting purposes, information developed for the I inch = I mile scale was summarized on maps (4) Formulate Preliminary Multi-Purpose Alternatives. having a I inch = 4 mile scale (1:250,000). These For the fourth phase of the Study's development, the SMT maps were used, along with more detailed informa- began to integrate the eighteen study elements into three tion, in the next two phases of Study, to be described categories: water use, land use, and water related land use. below. Integration permitted further identification of complemen- tary planning opportunities, in which alternatives could be Although the identification of individual towns and formulated to achieve multiple benefits. In preparing three the relationship of alternative proposals to these multi-purpose reports (one for each category) for every plan- towns is somewhat difficult to see at the I inch ning area, the SMT considered regionally significant limiting 4 mile scale, this scale provides a manageable factors, issues and problems, and evaluation criteria. The method for determining regional issues and for members also developed a compatibility matrix showing summarizing elements of the regional plan. conflicts and complementarities between single-purpose alternatives and between preliminary multi-purpose alter- The inventory activity concentrated on obtaining and natives. "Phase d'alte rnative s" were also considered in an assembling both qualitative and quantitative resource attempt to resolve conflicts within or among study elements. data, using existing information as much as possible. A list For example, if a valuable sand and gravel resource con- of the maps prepared for the SENE Study may be found in flicted with a proposed reservoir site, the Study could re- the Data Map Inventory at the end of this chapter. commend sand and gravel extraction before, and in con- junction with, construction of the reservoir. Resource infor- (3) Formulate Preliminary Single-Purpose Alternative mation on 1 inch = 4 mile maps is also contained in each Plans. Drawing upon the inventory data, maps, and analysis, multi-purpose report. SMT members prepared single-purpose reports for each of the 18 stbdy elements in each of the planning areas. These Summaries of the multi-purpose reports served as the basis reports and the agencies responsible for them, are designated for discussion at a series of workshops held throughout the "Inventory Reports" in the list of "Material Written for or SENE region. Through these workshops, the SMT obtained Contracted by the SENE Study" at the end of this chapter. a sense of the problems and issues of importance to the The single-purpose reports summarized the inventory infor- citizens of each planning area. M-7 (5) and (6) Review and Refine Preliminary Multi-purpose their own preferred combinations of actions. Alternatives, Produce Best Economic and Best Environmental Plans, and Formulate a Recommended Plan. As a transitional step between multi-purpose planning and arriving at the recommended plan, the SMT members met for several Following these workshops, the SMT and SENE Study staff important working sessions. At these sessions they: assembled the two best plans -both policies and specific actions stressing either economic or environmental altema- � defined the environmental and econoniic objectives tives - and the recommended plan for the region and the for the planning areas and for the region as a whole; planning areas. More often than not, the recommendations were a combination of both economic and environmental � chose specific criteria to be used to evaluate the alternatives, providing opportunities for economic develop- effectiveness of each plan alternative according ment which were nonetheless consistent with the region's to the objectives; environmental standards and goals. Further discussion of the recommendations may be found in Chapter I of the � set out the general and specific assumptions Regional Report, Goals and Approach. used; and It is this recommended set of actions and policies for the � specified needs in quantitative and qualitative region and the planning area which serve as the basis for this terms. Regional Report and the 10 Planning Area Reports. They were subject to extensive review during the 90-day public review period and were modified based on comments re- SMT members then referred to multi-purpose reports for ceived from government and non-government reviewers. resources that could be used to meet basin or regional ob- jectives. They considered both structural and non-structural (7)- Evaluation. Each of the two best plans formulated to alternatives to meet needs for 1990 and 2020. Where alter- maximize either the national economic development objec- natives could not be formulated to completely meet the tive or the environmental quality objective was evaluated needs, partial solutions were considered, or the needs were under the four-account system of the Principles and Stand- modified (demand reduction alternatives). ards. Using key indicators for each account, Study partici- pants examined the alternatives to determine their implica- During this same period the SMT began working on pre- tions on national economic efficiency, environmental paration of regionally significant problems, issues, and alter- quality, regional development, and social equity. This natives from a multi-purpose viewpoint. Priorities for each evaluation formed the basis of the Environmental State- objective or component of the objective were established ment, also included the Regional Report. from both a planning area and regional standpoint. Chapt er 11 of the Regional Report, Tying the Reeommen- The multi-purpose reports and the preliminary regional dations Together, examines the relationship of the SENE planning effort served as the basis for comprehensive plan- Study's recommendations to its stated objective. In ad- ning, the final integrative phase in which a regional perspec- dition, the chapter evaluates the Study's objectives in light tive was developed and in which recommended alternatives of 16 water resources criteria. Such an evaluation helps to were coordinated across study elements. During this phase, determine the impact that the SENE Study's recommenda- consideration of land use parameters played a major role in tions could have on the four accounts of the PKnciples and integrating single-and multi-purpose information, because Standards discussed above. they covered Critical Environmental Areas, key facilities, and other factors concerning both resource capability and (8) Review and Transmit Final Plan. The draft Regional policy guidance. All these factors have been combined on Report and the draft Environmental Statement along subregional resource confIguration maps which illustrate with the 10 planning area reports were carefully revised development capability of lands in SENE. Best preliminary during the 90-day review period. Immediately following comprehensive alternatives under both future assumptions, this review period, a revised report was submitted to the called A and B alternatives, were summarized on maps for New England River Basins Commission for final review and both areal extensive and site specific actions. These "best approval. After additional modification required as a result plan" maps, together with questionnaires, formed the of the Commission's final review, the SENE Study docu- foundation for discussing alternatives to be chosen for the ments, including recommendations, are being forwarded recommended plan at the "midway" series of citizen work- for subsequent action to the Governors and legislators of shops held throughout the region in the spring of 1974 the participating states, the federal agencies in the region (see discussion on BACs, above). The questionnaires allowed and in Washington, D. C., and to the U.S. Water Resources citizens to choose between alternatives A and B or from Council for transmittal to the President and the Congress. M-8 How the SENE Study Can Be Used by Decision and the Congress can use Study findings in re- Makers viewing and approving authorizations and bud- The SENE Study has been designed to be useful to many gets for actions recommended by the Study. interest groups and decision makers at all levels of govem- States can use the Study as a guide for program ment. It is essential to point out, however, that the Study and budget decisions by comparing cross cannot be "everything to everyone". Individuals or agencies functional problems, issues, and possible solu- are bound to disagree with some of the recommendations tions based on information aggregated at a of this Study, be they specific actions or general policy common level of detail. statements. Nevertheless, the SENE Study is also bound to contain information and recommendations which will be of State and federal agencies can use results in judging significant value to the same individuals or agencies. A Study and project proposals of other agencies for positive approach to the SENE Study recommendations is their appropriateness and consistency with a com- imperative. Decision makers should use the information prehensive program. and implement the recommendations with which they feel States can use the Study as a vehicle for de- comfortable. If, however, they disagree with actions or veloping their coastal zone management pro- policies recommended in the Study, they must be certain grams as a source of data and recommendations, to decide upon a suitable solution for the situation the coordination with other federal and state pro- Study has described. The SENE Study can thus perform a grams, and as a means of achieving citizen parti- two-fold function: it can serve as a guideline for future cipation. resource use, but it can also be a catalyst for additional ideas which may not necessarily coincide with its original State agencies can use Study data and analysis recommendations. as a means to coordinate and achieve agreement for interstate problem areas or issues, such as Some of the ways in which decision makers can use the defining non-point poll .ution sources or develop- SENE Study are outlined below: ing abatement programs under the 1972 Federal � Government agencies at all levels can use Study Water Pollution Control Act Amendments. analysis and recommendations as an informa- Study data and analysis can be applied by state tion base displaying one overall management agencies in establishing guidelines and criteria picture in which they operate. for designating and regulating areas of in Iore � Further, government agencies at all levels can than local concern. apply the Study perspective to shape and carry out their own coordinated and complementary States can use the text and maps to develop a planning and action programs. list of questions which may be appropriate regarding state and federal environmental � The New England River Basins Comniission and impact requirements. the U. S. Water Resources Council can use the Study results as-a component of regional com- Citizens can use Study recommendations as a prehensive, coordinated joint plans. guide for working with federal, state, regional, and local government in effecting management � The federal Water Resources Council can use actions. Study recommendations as a basis for reviewing the compatibility of individual federal agency Citizens can also use Study data and analysis to plans with comprehensive management programs. make judgements about new action proposals � The federal Office of Management and Budget that arise after the Study is completed. INDIVIDUAL METHODOLOGIES FOR FUNCTIONAL AREAS The following material summarizes the sources and general The Setting, Chapter 2 methodology used by the various technical experts who participated in the Study. The form in which this material Economic material in this chapter was based upon a number is presented is based on the likelihood that some readers of special economic reports prepared for the Study: may desire more background on several of the specific Economic Considerations for Water and Related Land Use techniques or sources used. Further information can be Planning in Southeastern New England by Thomas obtained by contacting the New England River Basins Grigalunas, University of Rhode Island Department of Commission or the agencies specified in each discussion. Resource Economics; Considerations Relative to the Intro- M-9 duction of Economic Criteria into the SENE Study, by framework. Data in the form of statistics were assembled Barry C. Field, University of Massachusetts Department of by the Economic Research Service of the U. S. Department Resource Economics; and An Economic Analysis of Coastal of Agriculture; this is the source of statistics for the tables Resource Allocation in Southeastern New England, by included in the chapter. Gregory A. Vaut, University of Rhode Island Department of Resource Economics. The 1971 aerial photo survey conducted by Dr. MacConnell of the University of Massachusetts was used for the land Guiding Growth, Chapter 3 use inventory, data collected in 1960 were interpolated using MacConnell's 1951 survey data, the 1971-1972 data, This discussion describes the following: (1) development and several 1960-65 surveys done by other sources for por- pressure, tabular land use data, and environmental holding tions of the area. Originally, the 1971 MacConnell survey capacity in order to provide some background information; contained 110 land use categories. That classification system next it describes (2) critical environmental and management was modified by the NERBC staff for direct use in a level B areas. The classification of resources by the system used in water and related land resources study which required a this Study is fundamental to most of the recommendations system useful for the 1: 62,500 rather than the 1: 24,000 found in other chapters in the SENE Study reports. mapping scale. The 110 categories were grouped into 19 categories. Of particular importance was a modification Development Pressure made to the residential land uses, in which four categories of residential uses were broken out. These categories permit The development pressure measure formulated was used in the water resources planners to make inferential statements about the existing land use configuration and the likelihood the report as a general indicator of priority need for recom- that sewers or public water systems will be necessary, based mended actions. on density. Further information on the uses of this 1 inch The seven indices listed in Chapter 3 were adapted by Justin = I mile information is available at NERBC. Gray Associates from a model used by the Federal Highway Environmental Holding Capacity. During the planning pro- Administration for making population and employment cess, concepts were developed to establish population cap- projections. The auto accessibility index was computed for acities for each municipality as a basis for functional single- 1970 by the U. S. Department of Agriculture by the Econom- purpose planning. A measure of the Environmental Holding ic Research Service using factors related to size of munici- Capacity of each community was developed to establish its palities and the travel time between communities. The com- population capacities. These capacity figures were used in munities were ranked for each variable and the ranks were some of the single-purpose reports, particularly for estima- summed to establish composite ranks. The communities ting water supply needs. A system was formulated by the were then divided into categories. University of Massachusetts (under contract with the National Park Service), using Community Functional Finally, development districts which described areas which Environments and amounts of developable land. More would likely continue to contain urban growth including information on the technique used can be obtained from the infrastructure were established at one point during the Environmental Base Study. A later elaboration by Justin Study. An approach which would have concentrated regional Gray Associates and the University of Massachusetts (under growth within areas of existing development was brought contract with the National Park Service) considered amounts before Study participants for discussion. The objective was of different categories of developable land with varying to achieve the greatest efficiency in the use of existing development capacities and development pressures. Neither infrastructure, to protect critical environmental areas, and of these systems was used in the final report to express to allow time to develop growth plans for the remaining population ceilings for communities. However, the EHC area. This concept was not used in the recommended pro- concept contributed to the Study's determinations of gram for a number Of reasons. The objectives were achievable development capacity by approximating the balance be- through much less drastic means. The excess capacity of the tween various degrees of land development and resource region's infrastructure is no greater within the defined protection. development district than outside the districts, and protec- tion of critical areas is more efficiently done through direct measures aimed at those areas. Limiting development to Critical Environmental Areas and certain communities would create socio-economic implica- Management Areas. tions and political and legal questions that made the con- cept unfeasible in the form in which it was developed. On the basis of five criteria, discussed in Chapter 3, water and related land resources in the SENE region were Tabular Land Use Data. The first stages of work involved grouped into one of three major development capability the gathering of data and the development of a conceptual classifications: Critical Environmental Areas Requiring M-10 Protection; Developable Areas Requiring Management; and Urban Lands discussion, this section) to determine those Preempted Use Areas. Within these classifications, there are in agricultural or other open use. In this Study, those lands seven sub-categories, labeled A through G which further over 50 acres in size were mapped. describe development capabilities. The information for each of the resource categories was developed by a number of agencies using existing data and' surveys to produce I inch In addition, the U. S. Forest Service (U.S.D.A.) also con- = 1 mile (1:62,500) scale maps. The selection of the factors ducted an analysis of forest land suitability using the map- used to classify the resources was influenced both by the ped land use data described in the section entitled "Tabular Study Management Team and the Citizens Advisory Com- Land Use Data." An index of forest land suitability was mittee. The following resources are among those classified. assigned to each town and also summarized for each of the ten planning areas for five potential uses: Critical Environmental Areas Requiring Protection. (1) Dispersed recreation use capacity; Wetlands (Category A). Open wetlands were mapped (2) Wood products production capability; through aerial photographic interpretation by Dr. Mac Con- nell of the University of Massachusetts from 1971 aerial (3) Wildlife habitat potential; photos. Wooded wetlands were added by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers from U. S. Geological Survey maps. (4) Natural amenities and landscape variety Generally, only those wetlands over 20 acres were mapped in (environmental influence); and, this Study, except in some cases where a large number of smaller wetlands located in the same area increased their (5) Waste water renovation capacity (spray significance. effluent). Well sites (Category A). Well sites were mapped by the U. S. The criteria for assessing forest land suitabilities, in the SENE Geological Survey (USGS) from their data files and existing Study included, but need not be limited to, the following records, except in the Massachusetts portion of the Black- factors: stone basin and in the Ipswich-North Shore planning area, 9 Total forested area, in acres where field checks were made. On Cape Cod, water superin- tendents and consulting engineers provided new information. * The functional environmental index Reports developed by the Environmental Protection Agency were also used. 0 Tree heights Beaches (Category A). Beaches were identified through 0 Density aerial photographic interpretation by Dr. MacConnell of the University of Massachusetts, from 1971 aerial photos. 0 Percent of hardwood cover Beaches were also identified by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers from field inspections and from U. S. Geological 9 Miles of forest edge (open/forest, water/forest, river/ Survey topographic maps. forest, and wetland, water and river/forest) Critical erosion areas (Category A). The U. S. Army Corps 0 Major soil types in each town of Engineers identified critical erosion areas from previous reports and from low level oblique aerial photographs of 0 Predominate forest cover type and their number the coastline. 0 Number of unique natural sites Flood plains (Category B). Using existing data from large- scale mapping efforts, along with methods which approxi- * Number of ground water wells mated depths of flooding in unmapped areas, the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and the U. S. Department of 0 Aquifer recharge potential Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (SCS) developed the limits of the 100-year flood plain on U. S. Geological Sur- * Acres devoted to wood products production vey (USGS) quadrangle sheets. Field checks were made to determine any changes since the USGS maps were published. * Extensive uses of forest land (wood products, surface water and underdeveloped areas) Class I and 11 prime agricultural soils (Category B). The U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (SCS) Based on the above analysis each of the ten planning areas mapped prime agricultural soils. Class I and 11 soils identified was rated from poor to fair to good and low to medium to by SCS soils data were correlated with land use data (see high, as applicable, for each of the following forest land use M-1 I suitabilities: efficient recreation, wildlife, wood products, Ledge and/or steep slope (Category CS). Soils with ledge and environmental influence. within three feet of, or on, the surface, and soils with slopes of over 15 percent, were identified by the U. S. Department Unique natural and cultural sites (Category B). These sites of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service from their survey were mapped for the National Park Service (U. S. Depart- data. ment of the Interior) by the University of Massachusetts Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Plan- Preempted, Use Areas. ning. Unique sites were identified on the basis of existing information which various agencies or experts felt were of Urban areas (Category E).,Urban areas were mapped through cultural or special value to society. One of the sources used aerial photographic interpretation by Dr. MacConnell of the was the New England Natural Resources Center's informa- University of Massachusetts, from 1971 aerial photographs. tion. Criteria used for identification and other sources con- The original classification system used at 1:24,000 was sulted are listed in the Environmental Base Study, com- collapsed to 19 mapping categories for single-purpose pleted by the Department of the Interior, which is on file report maps at one inch = one mile (1:62,500) scale. The at the New England River Basins Commission. four residential categories as well as commercial, industrial, and institutional land uses were combined into one category Developable Areas Requiring Management. - urban areas - for the one inch = two mile (1: 125,000) Development Capabilities Maps (plates 1, 2, and 3). High yield aquifers (Category Q. High yield aquifers were mapped by U. S. Geological Survey from their records, Production of Development Capability Maps except in the Massachusetts portion of Blackstone basin where reconnaissance mapping of stratified drift areas was Production of the Development Capability maps began by carried out. The maps show stratified glacial deposits most combining the single-purpose resource maps into three maps favorable for wells capable of yielding 300 gallons per for each planning area. Mapping categories included "Critical minute (gpm) or more, except in the Cape and Islands, Environmental Areas", consisting of all A and B resources Blackstone, Woonasquatucket, and Narragansett Bay basins, (B resources included those overlapping with A resources) where different definitions were used, due to variations in and "Developable Areas", consisting of all C, F, and G hydrology (see USGS studies for more detail). Aquifers resources (includ Iing those overlapping with A, B, and other shown are normally prime recharge areas; additional areas C resources). Complete definitions of all the above- adjacent to these may also be recharge areas for these mentioned resources may be found in Chapter 3 of the aquifers. Regional Report. Best upland wildlife habitat (Category C2). These lands On the I inch = 2 mile scale of the Development Capability were identified by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (U. S. Maps, the A resources were mapped first. B resources were Department of the Interior) as those corridor areas exhibit- then mapped, eliminating any B areas overlapping A areas. ing the greatest habitat diversity (based on the relationship Next C resources were mapped, eliminating C areas over- of water bodies in conjunction with wetlands, forests, or lapping A or B resources. farm lands, and soil productivity), thereby having the greatest potential for wildlife species diversity. These cor- The definitions and the data sources used for the mapping ridors are generally along major rivers. of each category have been described above. The principles Landscape quality areas (Category C3)- Members of the and the resulting classification system used in the SENE Department of Landscape Architecture and Regional Plan- Study are transferable elsewhere in the nation. For example, ning at the University of Massachusetts determined and those definitions of A, A and the C categories dealing with mapped landscape quality areas. Using a one mile square soil or geological characteristics are transferable to any area grid, visual and cultural qualities were judged for each outside SENE. However, upland wildlife habitat and high square mile on the basis of: (a) diversity of land use; landscape quality are examples of those characteristics (b) change in elevation between the highest and lowest which have been defined on the basis of the attributes of points; and (c) number of unique sites present (see discus- the SENE region; they would probably require modification sion above and also the Environmental Base Study). for areas outside of SENE where resource characteristics might differ. Severe, moderate, or no septic system limitations. (Cate- gory C4, F and G). Data on soils were compiled by the Soil Water Supply, Chapter 4 Conservation Service from their survey data. Soils categorized as having severe septic system limitations due to slow per- Development of a recommended water supply program for meability, excess wetness, or stones, are listed and described the SENE Study area began with the collection by the U. S. in the single purpose general soils report. Environmental Protection Agency of base year inventory M-12 data from records of the Massachusetts Department of ground water systems, respectively, and after additional Environmental Quality Engineering (the former Department needs were calculated, a survey of planning reports pub. of Public Health), the Rhode Island Department of Health, lished between 1960 and 1973 was conducted. This survey and the Rhode Island Water Resources Board; regional plan- identified proposals designed to supply water to different ning reports published from 1968 to 1973; and telephone areas within the SENE region. Alternative plans obtained contacts with a number of water supply superintendents from the survey, with some additions and modifications, throughout the area. Information on 1970 average and maxi- were then evaluated in light of the following planning mum day water demands, population served, and produc- goals: (1) A sufficient quantity of water to supply pro- tion capacity was collected for each public water system in jected 1990 demands (maximum day demands in communi- the region and special note made of particular problem ties relying solely on ground water sources); (2) A high areas. Use was also made of a SENE Study Corps of Engine- quality supply, free from potential sources of contamina- ers report on Climatology and Hydrology, which included tion; (3) The most efficient allocation of local and regional information on climatology, streamflow, peak discharge water supply resources; (4) Maximization of local and frequencies, rainfall analysis, low flow duration studies, and regional economic efficiency; and (5) Maintenance and the development of storage-yield relationships. Based on enhancement of existing environmental quality. population projections provided by the Bureau of Economic Analysis, U. S. Department of Commerce, 1990 and 2020 Input from the citizens participation program and using water demands for all area towns were estimated using the planners' best professional judgements, selected alterna- three different methods. These included two methods tives were combined in a recommended water supply plan developed by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, one using for the region which best fulfilled the planning goals within the North Atlantic Regional Regression Equation (NARRE), the restraints of ongoing programs. another a I percent annual increase in daily per capita consumption. Because the 1 percent method consistently Water Quality, Chapter 5 yielded the highest estimates of demand when applied to future population numbers, this approach was selected for The first step in development of the water quality program safety's sake. In addition, an approach which assumed a was an inventory of the current status of conditions and 0.5 percent annual increase in per capita water consumption proposals. This consisted of a review of state reports on after 1990 was also used for some 2020 demand projections. water quality standards throughout the region and a com- pflation of municipal treatment plant data contained in state Description of the ground water resources in SENE was and regional planning agency reports. Industrial discharges provided by the U. S. Geological Survey. A literature search were likewise compiled using federal discharge permit and review was made for each of the SENE planning areas, applications and information gathered from state reports and reports summarizing the physical description of the and personnel. Continuous updating has been done as more ground water hydrology and its physical interrelationships current information has been made available from ongoing with other resources were prepared for each planning area. state efforts. Municipal ground water supply quality and quantity infor- mation for the 1970 base year was obtained from U. S. The next step in the plan development process consisted of Geological Survey records, state agencies, and other sources. a review of all available planning which had been done in Analysis of favorability for ground water development to the region pertaining to water quality control. A major input meet future needs were made on a town by town basis. The was water and sewer planning done for the U. S. Department additional maximum day demands for 1990 were compared of Housing and Urban Development by regional planning to the areas of undeveloped aquifers in each municipality, agencies. These plans, design projects for specific construc- potential infiltration recharge to these aquifers, hydraulic tion works, and state "basin plans" were reviewed and their conductivity and thickness of the aquifers, and the record adequacy assessed with respect to the requirements and of exploratory investigations in these and geologically goals of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend- similar aquifers. ments of 1972. In addition, social, technical, environmental, economic, political, institutional, and other legal aspects of Existing and potential ground water and ground water each alternative were considered, as well as input from the related management problems, conflicts, and opportunities citizen participation program. were identified and explained. Various possible alternative solutions to these were sought in hydrologic literature, and Outdoor Recreation, Chapter 6 adapted and presented in the ground water management reports. The first step in preparing the recreation components for the SENE Study was an inventory of existing resources done After future demands were compared to existing safe yields bythe Department of Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recrea- and present pumping capacities of surface sources and tion (BOR). Prime sources of supply information for both M- 13 states were the State Comprehensive Outdo or Recreation Salt Water Fishing. Recreational salt water fishing data were Plans (SCORPs). Other sources supplemented these figures, collected by the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). such as town plans and campground directories for private Aerial surveys and ground checks done by the Massachusetts supply information. Where voids or inconsistencies in data Division of Marine Fisheries documented numbers of fish existed an averaging process was utilized. and boats, and Rhode Island reports covered present use data. Projections were based on the proportion of popula- Three major factors were used to estimate demand for tion forming the demand reported by the 19 70 National recreation facilities in terms of activity days: projected per Survey of Fishing and Hunting. Alte matives and recom- capita participation rates in selected activities, population, mendations stemmed from interviews with state personnel. and a facility coefficient to estimate the percentage of The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) also provided demand to be met by specific facilities. Participation rates information from a report on marine sportfishing within were based on the North Atlantic Regional (NAR) Study the study of Marine Resources of the Offshore and Coastal which, in turn, was derived from the census data reported Zone of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Data were obtained in the 1965 Survey of Outdoor Recreation for New England. from the NMFS laboratory in New Jersey. (For further explanation of these procedures, see the Plan- ning Aid Report, Outdoor Recreation Needs, available at Hunting and Fishing. Demand for hunting and fresh water NERBC or in the BOR Northeast Office files.) Projected fishing was measured by USFWS using New England partici- facility requirements (demand) as established by the above pation rates reported in the 1970 National Survey of Fishing method was then compared to supply as inventoried in order and Hunting, license sales data, numbers of unlicensed to determine future needs. fishermen and hunters. Demands for nonconsumptive use of fish and wildlife were estimated on the basis of national A number of recreation related problems warranted more participation rates reported in the same report. detailed study and the following planning aid reports were prepared by BOR: An Urban Perspective: A Conceptual Swimming. Existing state and local plans were used by Rail System, Scenic and Recreational Rivers; and The BOR to identify potential solutions for general recreation Private Sector in Outdoor Recreation. deficiencies. For swimming, field reconnaissance was under- taken to evaluate both existing and potential resources. The In evaluating alternatives, an estimate was made by BOR Corps of Engineers identified coastal beaches with potential of annual recreation benefits (in dollars), and other social, for being developed by sand nourishment, erosion protection, environmental, and indirect economic benefits; BOR also and provision of facilities. made estimates of acquisition, development, and other in- direct costs. The dollar benefit values were assigned to Marine Management, Chapter 7 recreation days on the basis of the following factors: the quality of the activity; the degree to which opportunities to The activities in connection with the various subjects dis- engage in a number of activities are provided; proximity to cussed in the Marine Management Chapter took place in the urban concentration; and the uniqueness of the resource context of comprehensive and joint planning as described and availability of water-oriented rf,,;reation opportunities. earlier in this chapter. The main sources of information The recommendations were made on the basis of this used are described below. evaluation and considering the promimity to urban need Offshore Fisheries. A study of Marine Resources of the Off- concentration, and on the quality of the resource. The shore and Coastal Zone of Massachusetts and Rhode Island program was aimed at balancing these latter two elements - was prepared by the National Marine Fisheries Service as well as providing "in-city" and "near-city" recreation (NMFS) using internal data and data from the International opportunities, and protecting and using these areas of out- Commission for Northwest Atlantic Fisheries. standing quality wherever they occur. Boating. A complete inventory of recreational boating Shellfish and Aquaculture. The main source of information facilities and the existing fleet, by harbor, was carried out was the NMFS Marine Resources Study, license sales statis- by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. This was made from tics, town maps in some areas including Cape Cod, and re- a series of low level oblique aerial photographs taken of all ports of the Division of Marine Fisheries on major harbors recreational harbors and mooring areas along the Massachu- and estuaries. In Rhode Island, a full survey was made of setts and Rhode Island coast. The increased demand for Narragansett Bay, and commercial harvest figures and each planning area was determined assuming that the per- various studies were used. State shellfish wardens were centage of the population creating the demand in 1990 interviewed in both states. Data on aquaculture, also con- would be approximately the same as in 1970. Investigations tained in the Marine Resources Study, were obtained by the of potential sites for increasing boating capacity were made, National Marine Fisheries Service from Marine Research using maps and coast charts, aerial photographs, and Incorporated, in Wareham, Massachusetts. existing data on channel conditions. M- 14 Port Development. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers other tributaries (usually less than 5 square miles of drain- reviewed water-borne commerce statistics for the SENE age area). ports and adjacent ports. Using past trends and projections for economic growth, future demands for commercial The next step was to evaluate the flood damage in the 10 navigation were developed. An analysis of existing channels planning areas. Available damage figures from past floods and port facilities was then accomplished to determine their were updated to reflect new flood protection projects and capability for meeting future demands. additional development in flood prone areas. Damage figures were obtained from flood control studies where they have The NMFS report on Ocean Disposal, part of the Marine been recently completed, or from rough estimates made on Resources Study, covered disposal of dredged materials at the basis of a field check. offshore sites. Data for this report were obtained primarily from EPA publications. Possible site locations for inland An analysis was then made of the wetlands in each basin as disposal were studied by the U. S. Army Cold Regions they related to flood damages. The area of each wetland on Research and Engineering Laboratory (CRREQ and the the maps was measured (for wetlands approximately 20 New England Division Corps of Engineers (NED). This was acres or larger) and the total wetland area for each town an independent project aided by SENE funds. CRREL and and drainage basin was compiled. Large wetland complexes NED, using aerial photographs for the Boston Harbor and were identified and basins in which wetlands play an Narragansett Bay areas, identified possible disposal sites up important role in minimizing flood damage were identified. to three miles inland and in a zone 3 to 15 miles from shore. A general evaluation of the wetlands in each basin was developed, and alternatives were formulated to provide a The dredged materials disposal sites have been identified framework for evaluating the importance of each wetland. using NASA RB-57 photograph images flown at 60,000 feet with a resolution of 15 feet. Each identified site is to Use was also made of a Crops of Engineers report on The provide a data base for specific proposals for land disposal of Effects of Urbanization on Peak Runoff This report develops dredged materials. Because the composition of dredged a method of determining the increased flood heights caused materials can vary within the limits of each dredging pro- by the increased urbanization within a watershed. A table ject, detailed evaluation of possible dredged materials showing the increased flood heights expected at 16 USGS disposal sites is not possible until the proposed dredged gauging stations in 1990 using the SENE population pro- materials are analyzed. However, the final report may con- jections was compiled. tain general recommendations demonstrating how the study data can be used to help locate potential sites for dispostal Finally, possible solutions were investigated. These solutions of dredged materials in the SENE region. included flood control dams, walls and dikes, flood water diversions and channel modifications. Non-structural Offshore Sand and Gravel. NERBC and NMFS using available solutions were also investigated, particularly for areas where information such as reports produced by the Coastal Re- damages had not yet reached serious proportions. These sources Center at the University of Rhode Island developed included flood plain zoning, preservation of natural valley the content of this portion of the Marine Management storage, flood proofing, early warning systems, and removal chapter. of flood prone structures. Recommendations were made to either reduce flood damages or prevent a significant increase Urban Waterfronts. Information for this portion of the of damages. chapter was developed by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill on contract to NERBC. Much of the material, obtained by Tidal flooding was investigated by the Corps of Engineers personal interview, is available in the Urban Waters Special by comparing damages from past storms to those that Study, available at the NERBC offices. would be expected in a recurrence of similar storms. Prior Corps of Engineers reports on tidal flooding were reviewed Flooding and Erosion, Chapter 8 and any changes that have occurred since they were published were noted. hi areas where federally-supported structural The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers completed a hydrological protection was not feasible, alternative approaches for flood analysis based on a review of records for each major stream. damage reduction were considered. These consisted of This included river flow data from USGS gauging stations, various structural and non-structural solutions for state and recorded high water marks from past floods, and descriptive local governments. Locations of areas of coastal erosion material on past floods. Using these data, the known hydro- were identified by reviewing existing reports on coastal logic characteristics, and projected growth in each river erosion, which covered only limited sections of the coast- basin, estimated flood levels for a 100-year frequency flood line, and by aerial observation of the rest of the coastline. were determined. Flood plain delineation was carried out An engineer with experience in coastal erosion flew the by the Corps for mainstream rivers and major tributaries Massachusetts and Rhode Island coastline, and a series of and by the Soil Conservation Service for P1_5 66 areas and low level oblique aerial photographs were taken. Once the M-15 seriousness of the erosion was determined, general altema- report on petroleum included in the single purpose navigation tive approaches to minimize the harmful effects of this study and a study prepared for the Massachusetts Port erosion were developed. Authority by Arthur D. Little, Inc., Raytheon, and Frederic R. Horres, Inc.: A Preliminary Economic and Environmental Upland erosion and sedimentation data and alternatives Study of Alternative Methods of Supplying Petroleum were supplied by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Products to Eastern Massachusetts. Conservation Service, with the assistance of the U. S. Forest Service and the Economic Research Service. Solid Waste. A special study prepared by Thomas Pontes "A Solid Waste Management Review of the Southeastern Locating Key Facilities, Chapter 9 New England Region ", was the basis for the Study's recom- mendations along with reports prepared by the states of Onshore Sand and Gravel. A survey was madeby the U.S. Massachusetts and Rhode Island and by regional planning Department of the-Interior, Bureau of Mines, of the mineral agencies. producers within the Study area, to obtain information per- taining to supply and demand, environmental factors, and water and land use. Overlay maps of potential resource Strengthening the Management locations were prepared from published and unpublished System for Natural Resources, U. S. Geological Survey surficial geology and ground water Chapter 10 maps, and a Rhode Island aggregate survey report. Zoning regulations available from the Massachusetts Division of Natural Resources and the Rhode Island Statewide Planning The Legal and Institutional element of the SENE Study Program were used in the portion of the report covering investigated first the legal and institutional implications of regulations affecting the mineral industry. specific recommendations of the SENE program as well as selected issues which the program attempts to address. Two methods were used to develop projected demand for Secondly, it sought to develop information relating to the aggregate calculated for benchmark years to 2020. A straight- means by which the program may be implemented. line projection of tons produced in the years 1959-1970, based on U. S. Bureau of Mines data, is headed "low To meet these objectives, a preliminary analysis of tentative projection". The second projection, calculated by using recommendations was conducted to identify selected issues regression analysis of tons of sand and gravel produced and particular recommendations requiring legal and/or (dependent variable) against OBERS Series C projections of institutional study. Once identified, this information was population (independent variable) for the same period, is framed in five major subject areas, namely: the Design of a headed "high projection". Legal and Institutional Structure for Management of Significant Water Resources; Wetlands Administration; A special report prepared by J. Sutinen and L. Nicholson of Fiscal Policy and Water Related Land Use Controls; Methods the University of Rhode Island, Department of Resource to Ensure Access to Natural Resource Areas; and Proposed Economics, The Economics of Sand and Gravel Mining in Legislation Relevant to the SENE Study. NERBC contracted Southeastern New E-igland was also used. with consultants for th6 preparation of reports on each of the above issues. These reports consisted essentially of Electrical Power. A single purpose plan report on power review and critique of existing laws and institutions of was prepared by the Federal Power Commission, New York relevance to the particular topic. Once prepared, these Regional Office, which contains descriptions of sources and reports were reviewed by the NERBC - SENE Staff and criteria used. A special report "The Economics ofPower appropriate Study Management Team members. They form Plant Siting in Southeastern New England" was prepared the basis for discussion of legal and institutional ramifica- by J. M. Gates, N. F. Meade, and J. G. Sutinen of the tions of specific recommendations in the various functional University of Rhode Island Department of Resource chapters of the Regional Report. Economics. Reports prepared by the University of Rhode Island Coastal Resources Center on power plant site consi- On a second level, after preliminary review of substantive derations at Charlestown, Rhode Island were also used. Study findings, the legal and institutional framework was identified which enabled the major Study findings to be Petroleum. Studies providing background material and data carried out. After sketching the parameters of this effort, included the MIT Georges Bank Petroleum Study and sub- the Study contracted with two consultants, one of whom sequent related Sea Grant Studies, the NERBC Regional was charged with the responsibility for the design of in- Report entitled "The Oil Issue" (vol. 5, no. 2, 12/7 3), the stitutional arrangements and the other was given responsi- National Marine Fisheries Service Report on oil and gas bility for identifying an implementation process or strategy. included in the Study of Marine Resources of the Offshore Material was prepared based on consultation with state and and Coastal Zone of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. A federal officials and agencies and on appropriate laws and M-16 legislative documents. Revisions were made as a result of ment Team prepared several versions of matrices which were review by the Study participants in the course of an overall used to evaluate the compatibility and conflicts and positive review of the SENE Study program. This material forms and negative impacts of: recommendations to various land the basis of Chapter 10 of the Regional Report. use categories; recommendations to objectives; and recom- mendations and priorities for planning areas and for the Tying the Recommendations Together, SENE region. Chapter I I The material contained in Chapter 11 is the res .ult of work This chapter synthesizes the evaluation process used through- by several consultants as well as the NERBC-SENE staff, out the Study, the framework for which has been described based on information developed initially by the Study in the first portion of the Methodology. The Study Manage- Management Team. MATERIAL WRITTEN FOR OR CONTRACTED BY THE SENE STUDY The following fist of documents and maps represents the The Setting - Chapter 2 material which was produced during the course of the SENE Study. This list is organized by subject, following the Base Reports order of the chapters in the Regional Report. General Infor- mation and Citizen Participation publications are also Environmental Quality Elements of a Water and Related included at the end of the list. Land Resources Plan; Ervin H. Zube, Amherst, Mass., The Inventory Reports listed under most of the chapter June, 1971 headings are single-purpose reports covering functional Environmental Base Study; University of Massachusetts, areas such as water supply, water quality, outdoor recrea- for the National Park Service; August 1972 tion, etc. Inventory reports on the subjects listed below are available for each of the ten planning areas in the SENE Socio-Economic and Environmental Framework, Vol. 1: region (e.g., Ipswich-North Shore, Boston Metropolitan, Base Report; Vol. II, Tables; March 1973 South Shore, Cape Cod, Buzzards Bay, Taunton, Black- stone and Vicinity, Pawtuxet, Narragansett Bay, Paw- Data Books and Population Projections (adjusted OBERS catuck). The number in parentheses which follows each and Environmental Futures projections) SENE, June, listed Inventory Report is its "Study Element" number. For 1974 example, the Inventory Report on Related Land (under The Setting - Chapter 2) is Study Element 2.02. These Inventory Reports numbers are an internal code used during the course of the Study for reference purposes. C?imate, Meteorology, Hydrology, Water Quality, Geology and Ground Water Availability, Producing Multi-purpose reports, listed under Guiding Growth, Chap- Agencies: CE, SCS, USGS, EPA (2.0 1) ter 3, were prepared to integrate the single purpose reports into three categories: Water Use, Land Use, and Water Related Land, Producing Agencies: SCS, USGS, CE, Related Land Use. These three types of reports are also HUD. (2.02) available for each of the Study's ten planning areas. Special Reports, Economic Abbreviations have been used to indicate many of the agencies which produced reports or maps. The full titles of Economic Considerations for Water and Related Land Use these agencies may be found on Table I of this chapter. Planning in Southeastern New England, Thomas Grigalunas, Department of Resource Economics at the University of Goals and Approach - Chapter I Rhode Island; June, 1973 Southeastern New England Water and Related Resources Considerations Relative to the Introduction of Economic Study; Plan of Study, Vols. I& II, April, 19 72. CHteria into the SENE Study, Barry C. Field; Sept. 1973 M-17 Data Maps Land Use for each planning area SURFICIAL GEOLOGY(drift, till, marsh) [1:250,000]. Water Related Land Use for each planning area Sources: Corps of Engineers files, USGS map for glacio.' fluvial deposits, Producing Agency* CE. (3.03) Summaries of each of these reports are also available INDIVIDUAL BASINS [1:62,500]. Set of 21 maps made Special Studies from a composite of USGS quadrangle maps without topo- graphy. Maps cover each river basin and the coastal zone in Remote Sensing Land Use and Vegetative Cover in Rhode SENE. Title blocks and borders are included. Sheet size of Island, William P. MacConnell, Department of Forestry and 30 x 40". Producing Agency: NERBC. Wildlife Management, University of Massachusetts, 1974. SENEArea [1:250,0001. One map each showing basin (3.05) boundaries, major rivers, state boundaries. Sheet size Data Maps 34 x 32". Producing Agency: NERBC. SENE Area [ I approx. 4.8 mi.] . Entire area with b asin RELATED LAAD - SOILS - GENERAL SOILS (23 boundaries delineated in red, rivers delineated in black, and classifications) [1:62,500]. Sources: Existing Soils Sur- basin names in red. Sheet size 24 x 36". Producing Agency. vey Reports, Field Mapping sheets and field trips. NERBC. Producing Agency: SCS. SENE POPULA TION CENTERS [I approx. 5 mi.]. RELA TED LAND - SOILS: SLOPE [ 1: 62,5 00 Shows study area boundary, major cities by name with (0-80,8-150, 15 0 and greater, unclassified urban). 1970 population figures next to the name. Producing Sources: Interpretation from General Soils map and Agency: NERBC. USGS Quad Sheets 1:24,000. Producing Agency: SCS. POPULA TIONDENSITY [ 1 approx. 5 mi.]. Overlay RELATED LAND - DEPTH TO BEDROCK showing SENE with five categories of population density. (dominant soils, 3 feet; co-dominant soils, 3 feet; Producing Agency: NERBC. dominant and co-dominant soils, 3 feet; unclassified) [1:62,500]. Sources: (Same as above). Producing RIVER BASINS [1" = approx. 5 mi.]. Delineates and Agency: SCS. names all river basins in the SENE Study area. Producing RELA TED LANDS - DEPTH OF SEASONAL HIGH Agency: NERBC. WATER TABLE (shallow; deep and moderately NERBCREGION [page size]. Map of New England shallow; deep to shallow; deep; unclassified). Sources: delineating the 11 major basin areas. Producing Agency: (Same as above ). Producing Agency: SCS. NERBC. LAND USE PA TTERNS, ALLOCATIONS AND VSGS QUADRANGLE INDEXMAP [1: 125,000].Quad- MANAGEMENT -LAND USE [1:62,500] rangles delineated within the basins. Producing Agency: FS. One for each of 10 planning areas. I - Residential One (RI) WATERSHED BOUNDARIES [1:24,0001 Hydrologic [less than Y4acre lots plus multi-family, apts., boundaries on USGS maps for Mass. only. Producing tenements, etc. - greater than 4 dwelling Agency: SCS. units/acre] ; 2 - Residential Two (R2) [single and multi-family if they cannot be Guiding Growth - Chapter 3 separated on Y4to -1h acre lots - 24 dwelling units/acre] Inventory Reports 3 - Residential Three (R3) [single family on lots greater than Y2acre Land Use Patterns, Allocations, and Management: MAPC including I acre lots and clusters of homes Consulting for Dept. Housing and Urban Development. in rural areas - less than 2 dus to I dwelling (3.06) unit/acre] ; 4 - Residential Four (R4) Multi-purpose Reports [lots larger than 1 acre and estates of 3 acres and more - less than I dwelling unit/acre] Water Use for each planning area 5 - Commercial (C); 6 - Industrial (1) M-18 7 - Extractive (E) General Soils Maps. Producing Agency: SCS. 8 - Transportation (T) 9 - Public, Institutional (PI). SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS - 10 - Open Space Recreational (OSR) LAND USE QUALITY (subregions A-G - see 11 - Agriculture - Cropland (AC) explanation on subregions in Single-Purpose 12 - Agriculture - Pastureland (AP) Report 3.06, available from NERBC. [ 1: 62,500 13 - Forest (F) Sources: Univ. of Mass. interpretation - 1 " = I mi. 14 - Open Transitional Land (OT) Producing Agency: Univ. of Mass. for NPS. 15 - Disposal Sites (DS) 16 - Wetlands Inland (WI) POPULA TION GR 0 WTH TRENDS [ 1 ap pro x. 17 - Wooded Wetland (WW) 5 mi.] . Overlay showing 6 categories of population 18 - Wetlands Salt Water (WS) growth trends in SENE. Producing Agency: 19 - Water (W) NERBC. Sources: Air photos, 1970 University of Massachusetts 1:20,000 interp. placed, on 1:24,000 USGS Quad FUNCTIONAL ENVIRONMENTS (FF) Sheets. Producing Agency: MAPC for HUD. [1:62,500]. Unique natural and unique cultural sites in SENE (by town). Producing Agency: LAND USE PATTERNS, ALLOCATIONS& Univ. of Mass. for NPS. MANAGEMENT- TRANSPORTATION SYSTEM (limited access highway and access points; major ENVIRONMENTAL BASE STUDY [1: 62,500]. arterial; passenger railroad and stations; freight Functional environments of each town in SENE railroad; transit and stations; airport; ferry ter- area. Town lines delineated and (FE) written in. minal). [1:62,500]. Sources: Official State Producing Agency: Univ. of Mass. for NPS. Transportation Map 1973. Producing Agency: HUD. FOREST COVER & WETLANDS MAP (For all ten planning areas) [ 1: 62,5 001. Producing Agency: LAND USE PA TTER NS - ZONING MAP FS. (residential; commercial; industrial; institutional; open space). [1:62,500). Sources: Most recent FOREST INDUSTRIES [1:250,000]. Primary and town zoning by-laws and town plans. Producing secondary cover types. Producing Agency: FS. Agency: MAPC for HUD. FOREST USE (IPSWICH PLANNING AREA) SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS - [1:250,000] . Areas designated by size of circle TO WN FUNCTIONA L EN VIR ONMENTS showing acres by town of forest land, public (center city; intermediate city; fringe city; forest management, and use of forest land for wood town clustered; forest town dispersed). [1: 62,S001 . products, surface water supply and developed Sources: See page IV of Environmental Base Study, public recreation. Producing Agency: FS. available from NERBC. Producing Agency: Univ. of Mass. for NPS. GENERALIZED FOREST TYPES [Approx. 1: 1,000,0001 . Major vegetational cover types. SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS - Producing Agency: FS. UNIQ UE-NA TURAL AREAS (federal; state; private & serni-public; Audubon; Trustees of PUBLIC OWNERSHIP MAP Reservations; municipal; private; unknown). [1:62,500] Producing agency: FS. [1:62,5001. Sources: (Same as above). Producing Agency: Univ. of Mass for NPS. EXISTING DE VELOPMENT AND RELA TI VE ACCESSIBILITY [1:500,000]. Producing SPECIAL ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS - Agency: JGA for HUD. UNIQUE CULTURAL AREAS (historic; national register; state; local; archeological; educational). DEVELOPMENT CAPABILITIES MAPS [1:62,500]. Sources: (Same as above). Producing [1: 125,000]. Plate 1: Greater Boston and North Agency: Univ. of Mass. for NPS. Shore; Plate 2: Southeastern Massachusetts; Plate 3: Rhode Island and the Blackstone. See RELA TED LANDS - LIMITA TIONS FOR Chapter 3 - Guiding Growth for a full discussion SEPTIC TANK SEWERAGE DISPOSAL of the maps afid their purpose. Producing Agencies: (slight; slight and moderate; slight, moderate and NERBC and JGA/Wallace Floyd Ellenzweig, Inc., severe; severe; not classified). [ 1: 62,5001 . Sources: January, 1975. M-19 Water Supply - Chapter 4 Water Quality - Chapter 5 inventory Reports Inventory Reports Ground Water Management; Producing Agency: Water Quality Control; Producing Agency: En- U.S. Geological Survey (3.03) vironmental Protection Agency (3.02) Water Supply; Producing Agency: Environmental Health Aspects; Producing Agency: Environmental Protection Agency (3.04) Protection Agency (3.16) Special Reports, Economic Special Studies Economic Implications of Water Supply and A Solid Waste Management Review of the South- Demand Issues in Southeastern New England eastern New England Region; Thomas Pontes, 1974. Nathanial Clapp, Consulting Engineer; May 1974 (summary available) Water Quality in Southeastern New England - a Planning Report; Environmental Protection Special Reports, Legal and Institutional Agency, 1974. Legal and Institutional Arrangements for Water Data Maps Supply Service in the Southeastern New England Area; Edward R. Kaynor, U. Mass. Water Resources WATER QUALITY (present & proposed water Research Center, July 1974 quality) [1:62,500]. Sources: Water Quality Standards, State of Mass. 1967. Producing Data Maps Agency: EPA. GR 0 UND WA TER MANA GEMENT - EXISTING AND PROPOSED SEWER SER VICE GR 0 UND WA TER R ECHA R GE AREA S AREAS (existing & proposed sewer services; (ground water reservoir & recharge areas; ground wastewater discharges). [1:62,500] . Sources: water recharge areas; till & bedrock; municipal & Camp, Dresser, McKee Report 1967 Permit industrial supply wells & yield in Millions of Applications, 1971. Producing Agency: EPA. gallons per day). [1:62,5001. Sources: Field work and USGS reports 1962-1967. Producing Agency: EXISTING WATER QUALITY [1" = approx. 5 USGS. mi.]. A set of 3 overlays showing existing water suitable for all uses except bathing and shellfishing, WATER S UPPL Y - EXIS T2NG WATER S UPPL Y and water suitable for most uses. Producing SOUR CES & SER VICE AREAS - 196 7 (existing Agency: EPA. well sources; existing surface water sources; existing water service area) [1:62,500] . Sources: PROPOSED WATER QUALITY [I" = approx. Camp, Dresser, McKee Report 1967 Producing 5 mi.] . A set of 3 overlays showing proposed Agency: EPA. water quality under the three categories listed above - Producing Agency: EPA. WATER S UPPL Y - PO TENTIA L WATER SUPPLY SOURCES & SER VICEAREAS - 1990 CITIES AND TOWNS HA VING COMBINED (proposed reservoirs; proposed service areas) . SEWER FACILITIES [1" = approx. 5 mi.]. Over- [1:62,5001. Sources: (Same as above). Producing lay locating by dot and name all towns in SENE Agency: EPA. with combined sewer facilities. Producing Agency: EPA. PROPOSED WATER S UPTL Y SYSTEMS FOR 1ADIV]DUAL TOWNS AND CITIES - 1990 POSSIBLE WASTEWATER TREATMENT [1: 500,0001. Producing Agency: EPA. SYSTEMS AND FACILITIES [1:500,0001. Producing Agency: EPA. EXISTING AND PROPOSED WA TER SUPPL Y TRANSFERS AND PROPOSED RESERVOIRS - 1990 [1:500,000]. Producing Agency: EPA. M-20 Outdoor Recreation - Chapter 6 Inventory Reports Fish and Wildlife; Producing Agency: U. S. Fish and FISH AND WILDLIFE HABITATS - WILDLIFE Wildlife Service (3.07) HABITAT CORRIDOR (best corridor - greatest habitat diversity; better corridor - diversity of Outdoor Recreation; Producing Agency: Bureau of habitat; good corridor - habitats lack water area, Outdoor Recreation (3.08) poor soils; special corridor - federal, state, or con- servation group areas to protect development; Special Reports, Legal and Institutional urban corridor - devoted to min-made structures but have wildlife of interest to residents) Methods to EnsureAccess to NaturalResource [1:62,500]. Sources: 1:24,000 interpretation& field survey, and Dept. of Natural Resources, Areas, Tom Arnold and Francis Cameron, 1974 Mass. Producing Agency: USFWS. Planning Aid Reports (prepared by U. S. Depart- ment of the Interior, Bureau of Outdoor Recrea- FISH AND WILDLIFE - FRESH WATER tion, Northeast Regional Office) FISHERIES (cold water fishery; warm water fishery; salt water portion) [1:62,500] . Sources: Existing Outdoor Recreation Areas 1:24,000 interpretation and field survey, and Outdoor Recreation Needs Dept. of Natural Resources, Mass. Producing 77ze Private Sector in Outdoor Recreation Agency: USFWS. Scenic and Recreational Rivers Recreation Trails; A Guide for Action FISH AND WILDLIFE - SAL T WA TER SPOR T An Urban Recreation Perspective FISHING (anadromous stream; salt water fishing Data Maps areas) [1:62,5001. Sources: Field checks. Pro- ducing Agency: USFWS. RECREATION (general parks administration - L = local, P = private, C = commercial; forest or INLAAD WETLAND MANAGEMENT - wildlife preserves; beaches; marinas; boat launch QUALITY OF WILDLIFE WETLANDS (best; areas & public access sites; roadside parks & picnic better; good; publicly owned land) [ 1: 62,500]. groves; federal lands) [ 1: 62,500] . Sources: Bureau Sources: 1951-52 Univ. of Mass. Land Use Maps of Outdoor Recreation statistics & maps, State- 1:31,360 USGS topo maps, limited field inspection. wide Comprehensive Outdoor Recreation Plan for Producing Agency: USFWS. Mass (SCORP). Producing Agency: BOR. NA VIGA TION S UMMA R Y OF EXISTING AA VIGA TION (yacht club; marina or boatyard; DEVELOPMENT & FUTURE GR 0 WTH PO- public landing; public ramp; oil terminal; power TEN77A L OF NA VIGA TION FACILITIES plant termin al; historical or training station ter- (high growth potential; moderate growth potential; minal; Coast Guard station; anchorage areas; chan- low growth potential) [ 1: 62,5 00] . Sources: CE nel improvement) [1:62,500]. Sources: Corps of Engineering Reports, Aerial photos 1971, National Engineers reports, aerial photos 1971, National Ocean Survey charts, USGS maps 1:24,000 and field Ocean Survey charts, USGS maps 1:24,000 and inspection. Producing Agency: CE. field inspection. Producing Agency: CE. COASTAL RESOURCES - OWNERSHIP& USE SIGNIFICANT PUBLICL Y OWNED REC- (public - public recreation; public - military or REA TION & CONSER VA TION AREA S restricted; private - public recreation; private - (Parks, forests, management areas and sanctuaries private beach; private - commercial-industrial; of over 300 acres are located. Shellfish areas, public - wildlife reservation) [1:62,500]. Sources: stocked trout streams and ponds are also delineated) 1971 Aerial photos, CE reports, USGS, 1:24,000 [1:250,000]. Producing Agency: USFWS. topo maps, field inspection. Producing Agency: CE. M-21 Marine Management - Chapter 7 Inventory Reports Data Maps Navigation; Producing Agency: Corps of Engine- FL OOD PLAIN AND STREAMFLO W MAN_ ers (3.10). A GEMEN'T - EXISTING RESOURCES (main- stem flood plain [estimated 100-yr. flood]; USGS Coastal Resources; Producing Agency: Corps of Gauging Station; mainstern dam; major damage area; Engineers (3.11). flood plain zoning) [1:62,500]. Sources: Field inspection, CE reports, SCS reports, USGS stream Special Studies gauging records, USGS topo maps. Producing Agency: CE. An Initial Assessment of the Deepwater Coastal Zone, Paul Kirshen, December 1971. COASTAL RESOURCES - PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS& TIDAL FLOODING Marine Resources of the Offshore and Coastal (erosion conditions, critical; erosion conditions, Zone ofMassachusetts and Rhode Island, Chris- non-critical; beach areas; areas subject to tidal topher Mantzaris, National Marine Fisheries Service, flooding) [1:62,5001. Source: 1971 aerial photos, July 1974. CE reports, USGS 1:24,000 topo maps, field inspection. Producing Agency: CE. Urban Waters Special Study, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, January 1975. STREAMFL OW OF MAJOR RIVERS [ 1 approx. 5 mi.]. Map showing basin boundaries, Data Maps rivers, basin names, location of gauging stations and high and low flow graphs for each major river. MARINE MANAGEMENT [1:500,0001. Pro- Producing Agency: NERBC with agency informa- ducing Agency: NERBC with agency information. tion. OFFSHORE FISHING GROUNDS [ 1 in. = 20 mi.]. PRESENT FLOOD DAMAGE AREAS AND Producing Agency: NMFS. WEILAND AREAS [ 1: 500,000]. Producing Agency: NERBC with agency information. Flooding and Erosion - Chapter 8 Locating Key Facilities Chapter 9 Inventory Reports Inventory Reports F`lood Plain Zoning and Streamflow Management; Power; Producing Agency: F .ederal Power Producing Agency: Low Flow Assessment Report; Commission (3.12). Corps of Engineers (3.01). Inland Wetlands Management; Producing Agency: Minerals; Producing Agency: Bureau of. Mines Corps of Engineers (3.09). (3.13). The Economics of Power Plant Siting in South- Irrigation and Drainage; Producing Agency: Soil eastern New England, J. M. Gates, N. F. Meade, Conservation Service (3.14). J. G. Sutinen, Department of Resource Economics at the University of Rhode Island; June 1974 Sediment and Erosion; Producing Agency: Soil (summary available). Conservation Service (3.15). An Economic Analysis of Coastal Resource Special Reports, Legal and Institutional Allocation in Southeastern New England, Gregory A. Vaut; June 1974 (Summary available). Changes in the Wetlands Law; Tom Arnold and Francis Cameron, 1974. The Economics of Sand and Gravel Mining in Southeastern New England, J. Sutinen and L. M-22 Nicholson, Department of Resource Economics, each "subregion". Subregion I (Greater Boston) is University of Rhode Island, June 1974 (sum- composed of the Ipswich-North Shore and Boston mary available). Metropolitan planning areas. Subregion 11 (South- eastern Massachusetts) includes the South Shore, Data Maps Cape Cod, Buzzards Bay, and Taunton planning areas. Subregion III ( Rhode Island and the Black- POWER - PRIMEMOVERS (location of genera- stone) contains the Blackstone and Vicinity, Paw- tion stations) [1:62,500]. Producing Agency: tuxet, Narragansett Bay and Pawcatuck planning Federal Power Commission. areas. The maps cover topics of: SUITABILITYZONE - BASE LOAD POWER Preliminary Proposed Environmental and Econo- PLANT SITING (inland rural; inland urban; mic Water and Related Land Use Actions - AREAL coastal rural; coastal urban) [1:62,500] . Sources: EXTENSIVE Interpretation by Federal Power Commission. Producing Agency: FPC. Preliminary Proposed Environmental and Econo- MINERALS - POTENTIAL SAND AND mic Water and Related Land Use Actions - SITE GRAVEL RESOURCE AREAS (areas of potential SPECIFIC AND TO WNWIDE commercial deposits; areas of no commercial General Information Publications value) [1:62,5001 . Sources: Geological Survey data (see hydrological data, Ground Water Man- agement). Producing Agency: BOM. Water and Land for People in Southeastern New England, pamphlet, 197 1. Producing Agency: 1980 PO WER FA CILITIES [ 1 approx. 5 mi. NERBC. Overlay showing generating plants and intercon- necting transmission lines for 1980. Producing Southeastern New England Water and Related Agency: FPC. Land Resources Study; newsletter July 1973. Producing Agency: NERBC. EXISTING BULK AND PEAKING POWER PLAATS; PROPOSED BULK POWER PLANT SITES - 1990 Tomorrow is Today: Planning With the People in [1: 500,000]. Producing Agency: FPC. Southeastern New England; handbook, November, 1973. Producing Agency: NERBC. Strengthening the Management System for SENE map overlay packet; Spring 1974. Produced Natural Resources, Chapter 10 by Stephen Logowitz for NERBC. Special Reports, Legal and Institutional You Live Here; pamphlet, Spring 1974. Producing Design of Legal and Institutional Structure for Agency: NERBC. Management of Significant Water and Land Use An Annotated Bibliography of Major Water and Issues, Ed Selig, 1974. Related Land Resource Studies in Southeastern New England; July 1971. Vols. I & 2. Producing Fiscal Policy and Related Lands Control, Tom Agency: NERBC. Arnold and Francis Cameron; 1974. Proposed Legislation Relevan tto the SENE Study, Citizen Participation Publications Peter Freeman, 1974. Tabulations Implementation of the SENE Study, Development Sciences, Inc.; 1974. Major watershed problems seen by public work- shop participants in each of the SENE planning Tying the Recommendations Together, area watersheds. Chapter I I Citizen-preferred solutions, by planning area Data Maps Maps were prepared at a scale of 1:250,000 for M-23 Meeting Summaries News release summaries of public workshops for Regional Citizen Advisory Committee meeting each watershed, discussing major watershed issues. minutes. News release summaries of second series public workshops, discussing possible solutions. Document Summaries Minutes of third series of public workshops Tabloid with draft recommendations. Available commenting on the 90 day review draft. in large quantities. M-24 REVIEW OF THE REPORT T followi ived, and revised he ng is a summary of major reactions to the draft Study reviewed each of the comments rece report for Southeastern New England and.the draft Environ- the draft report and the draft Environment Statement pre- mental Statement by members of federal, state, and inter- paratory tu final publication, in the light of these review state agencies, local governments, citizen groups, and indivi- comments. It should be noted that the minutes of all dual citizens. public meetings, copies of prepared testimony submitted at those meetings, and copies of all correspondence received Review and comment on the, draft report for Southeastern during the public review period, have been submitted under New England and the draft Environmental Statement by separate cover to the U.S. Water Resources Council for the general public and representatives of all levels of govern- transmittal to the Council on Environmental Quality. In ments throughout the region took-place during a 90-day addition, tapes of all eleven public meetings are on file at review p@riod,ftom May 4, 1975 to August 5, 1975. To the office of the New England River Basins Commission, implement this review process, the following measures were 55 Court Street, Boston, Mass. taken: Follow Iing is a summary of what the staff believed to be the (1) 1500 copies of the draft report were distributed most significant comments on the draft report and the draft to local, regional planning@, state, interstate, and EnvironmentalStatement, together with a description and federal officials as well as to 208 libraries,'75 sampling of those making the comment and a staff response citizen groups, 18 U.S. senators and congress- to that comment. Many other changes were also made, men, and 90 state senators. however. (2) Copies of the draft regional report and the MAJOR@COMMENTS ON THE DRAFT SENE draft Environin ental Statement were provided STUDY REGIONAL REPORT AND DRAFT to.the Council'on Environmental Quality, and ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT a summary of the draft Environmental State- ment was printed in the May 16, 1975 edition of I SUBJECT: Overall Report the Federal Register.. Public and official response to the overall draft (3) 15,000 copies of a 28. page newspaper summari- report was highly positive. The majority of zing the' recommendations of the plan were di@- criticisms stemmed from: 'Aributed throughout the region. (a) local interests which would be adversely (4) A serie S* of 11 public meetings was held on affected by SENE Study proposals for weekday evenings during the months of regional recreation facilities to help meet May and June. the very large unsatisfied needs for SENE's largeurban population; (5): S,everal smaller working session meetings were. held with citizens, private organizations, (b) interest groups and individuals who categorized and public officials to assist the staff in the report as either economically or environ- revising specific recommendations at issue.' mentally extreme; and, (6) Oral public testimony at the 11 public (c) misinterpretation of the text. meetings was tape recorded and summarized. SENE Response: (7). 275 letters were received and responded to regarding the draft report and draft Environ- (a) generally revised the draft report to accommo- mental Statement. date intense local attitudes; 'During the two months following the close of the 90-day (b) except for some clarification and toning, the review period, the staff of the Southeastern New England posture of a balanced report was maintained. RR- I Terms such as "Environmentally sensitive SENE Response: areas, ecology, economic viability, economic efficiency, and unsatisfied social needs" were The Solution section of Chapter 3, Guiding retained as valid indicators of some of the Growth was revised to indicate that the scope of principal, occasionally competing, thrusts of the Study did not permit including such considera- the report; and, tions as population control by regulation of birth rate or migration patterns, which, among other (c) Clarified the text in many places. factors, should be a part of a program for plan- ning limitations on growth. 2. SUBJECT: Accuracy of Massachusetts agency designations It is difficult in a comprehensive study which deals with the entire spectrum of water and related land The Commonwealth of Massachusetts felt that the resource issues to designate complex alternatives recent major reorganization of that state's govern- which are mutually exclusive. The alternatives ment was not adequately reflected. were modified to more clearly reflect three basic- ally different approaches: the first alternative em- SENE Response: phasizes continued use of available tools on an ad hoc basis to manage the future growth of the The eleven reports were revised, using the new region (essentially a "no action" alternative); names of all Massachusetts agencies where men- the second alternative goes a step further by de- tioned, about 500 times throughout the regional fining certain Critical Environmental Areas and and planning area reports. removing these areas from consideration for most forms of development (yet relatively unrestricted 3. SUBJECT: Manufacturing sector use and development of most "other lands" is permitted); and the third alternative suggests The tone of the text in Chapter 2, The Setting, managing development on those "other lands" - was believed by the Associated Industries of Massa- Developable Areas - most capable of supporting chusetts and Energy and Research Development it (no new controls other than current programs Administration to leave the impression that the and regulations would be used for protecting manufacturing had been omitted as a viable sec- critical water and related lands). tor of SENE's economy. S. SUBJECT: Accommodating growth on developable SENE Response: lands without controls The intent of the Study was not to eliminate In separate, but related comments, several reviewers manufacturing from consideration as an impor- including the Sierra Club, Association for the Pre- tant sector of the economy. Additional text was servation of Cape Cod, and Department of the -placed in Chapter 2 which recognized the im- Interior, were concerned that the Study conclu- portance of providing a balanced economic mix sion that enough developable land exists to accom- of various sectors which, when accompanied by modate growth in SENE through the year 2020 services, can provide employment to keep pace may be interpreted by development interests as with ordinary population growth in the number meaning that no control is necessary on such lands. of jobs for low skilled labor. SENE Response: 4. SUBJECT: Limits to population growth and alternatives to guide growth The staff agfees that such interpretation from the text was possible. However, the Study approach Department of the Interior and Zero Population and recommendations were designed to protect Growth believed that the Study had ignored Critical Environmental Areas (land which should limiting population growth in the SENE region. not be developed) and to manage and guide growth Interior and the Massachusetts Coastal Zone on all other lands, including Developable Areas, in Management Program also wanted the alterna- the Southeastern New England region. Therefore, tive approaches selected by the Study to guide this tone was added to "The Implications of the growth to be clarified. Development Capability Analysis for Accommo- dating Growth" section and to recommendation number 2, "Improve Management of Developable Areas" in Chapter 3, Guiding Growth. RR-2 There it was emphasized that the recommendation controls and engineering practices. This explana- has three parts which deal with management of tion was added to Chapter 3 in the section entitled developable areas, both within existing developed "Develop According to Resource Capability." The areas, as well as in areas yet to be developed: there flexibility suggested in that table includes standard are no developable areas in which management of zoning patterns as well as clustering options. some kind is not required. 8. SUBJECT: Protection of agricultural lands 6. SUBJECT: Capability of urban lands for absorbing more growth The Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Sierra Club, and Rhode The Department of the Interior, Massachusetts Island Statewide Plarming Program believed further State Senator William Saltonstall, the Massachu- emphasis and clarification was needed on the charac- setts Coastal Zone Program, the Sierra Club, and ter of prime agricultural lands in SENE and on the others felt that more emphasis was necessary in ways these lands would be protected. Chapter 3, Guiding Growth, on the opportunity for absorbing more growth in."Pre-empted Use" SENE Response: categories which include already urbanized por- tions of the SENE region. Forests were added to the agricultural products SENE Response: dependent on the fertility of prime agricultural lands. In addition to production of food and fiber, The discussion of "Urban Areas" in the Pre-empted the role of prime agricultural lands in providing Use category was enlarged to include an elabora- important ground water recharge areas and land- tion of the major problems which exist for re- scape diversity (reflective of Southeastern New developers. A discussion about how the recom- England's heritage) was also stressed. The portion mendations and policies put forth in the SENE of recommendation number 1, "Protect Critical Study reports can be applied to these areas was Environmental Areas," dealing with prime agri- also added. The portion of recommendation cultural sites was substantially revised. The num- number 2 "Improve Management of Developable ber of approaches which could be used to protect Areas" which deals with maximizing the use of agricultural lands was increased from four to ten. excess capacity of existing infrastructure was These additions along with changes in wording modified. It now reflects the importance for reflect input received during the SENE Study re- local or state agencies of dealing with lands which view period from the above reviewers, and bene- are vacant and suitable for development or re- fit as well from the input the Massachusetts development. Department of Agriculture received during public meetings held to review the Commonwealth's 7. SUBJECT: Clustering of development suggested Policies and Programs for Food and Agriculture in Massachusetts. Several reviewers, notably, Energy and Research Development Administration, Department of the 9. SUBJECT: Air quality and development Interior, and U.S. Department of Agriculture, believed that the Study was suggesting only Both the Environmental Protection Agency and clustering as a way to overcome adverse econo- the Department of Transportation, and the muni- mic and environmental damage in Chapter 3, cipality of Winthrop, Massachusetts, believed Guiding Growth. additional discussion of the relationships of air quality to development were necessary. SENE Response: SENE Response: The Study recommendations, particularly with respect to its presentation of development guide- References to ongoing air quality programs were lines in a table entitled, "Suggested Guidelines made in the beginning of Chapter 3, Guiding for Use of Developable Areas" were designed to Growth, in The Setting and in the section en- present a high degree of flexibility for the titled Regulate Developments of Regional Im- developer. The guidelines were designed to be pact. These references underscore the necessity used within the existing framework of land use for effective coordination of development among all responsible agencies. RR-3 10. SUBJECT: Accuracy of SENE Development SENE Response: Capabilities Maps Discussion of the diversions was re-written in order While most reviewers acknowledged the accuracy to endorse the 1980 Connecticut River. Basin Plan's and usefulness of the Study's Development Capa- recommendations and to report activities under- bilities Maps, problems did surface during the re- taken in compliance with these recommendations, view period, notably: wetlands missing on the west as well as conditions yet unsatisfied. bank of the Kickernuit River, R.I. (Kickemuit River. An additional section, discussing alternatives to the Council); the upper stretch of the Charles River diversion, Was added to Chapter 4, Water Supply. missing (Charles River Watershed Association); It was concluded that while these alternatives might several ponds missing from the Town of Easton provide long-term solutions to the MDC's water (Easton municipal authority); more accurate in- supply problems, they could not remove the need formation now available for Nantucket (Nantucket for the Northfield Mountain diversion and were not Planning and Economic Development Commission). presently feasible as replacements for the Miller's There were suggestions that these colored plates be River diversion. The recommendation now reads: updated. "Expand MDC sources by completing the North- SENE Response: field Mountain facility and carrying out coriserva- tion measures; plan the Millers River facility." The maps were developed using the best available 12. SUBJECT: Existing water resources information which has been synthesized and reduced in scale several times. Inevitably occasional small, Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management Program although still important inaccuracies occur in the suggested that the recommendations involving the process. maintenance of existing resources be strengthened. The purpose of the maps is to suggest a concept and SENE Response: system for characterizing development capabilities of natural resources and for providing a start in iden- The discussion explaining the importance of tifying their location. The scale and level of detail maintaining existing water supplies in Chapter 4, is inappropriate for site planning. Further, they Water Supply, was strengthened, and the recom- have been designed for gaining a regional perspec- mendation for the maintenance of existing re- tive of resource capability using one scale and a uniform classification system. A notation will be sources was changed to highest priority category. added to each of the remaining 4500 colored 13. SUBJECT: Refinery use of water supplies plates reflecting these points. 11. SUBJECT: Northfield Mountain and Millers River The Sierra Club commented that the SENE Study Diversions should include refinery demands for water supplies in its calculations of future water needs. Many reviewers noted that the SENE Study has SENE Response: neglected to repeat the qualifications of the 1980 Connecticut River Basin Plan with regard to de- The problem is beyond the scope of the SENE velopment of the Northfield Mountain diversion Study especially since the size and siting of energy and subsequent diversions from the Connecticut related facilities in the SENE region is uncertain. River and its tributaries. This was suggested by. Water for all industrial use, including new indus- Connecticut River Ecology Action Corporation, Citizens Advisory Group of Connecticut. River: triesjs considered in the factor of a I percent per capita increase in water use per year. Supplemental Study, Massachusetts Executive Office of Environmental Affairs; and Connecti- 14. SUBJECT: Regional water supply systems: Weweantic cut Valley residents. River and .the Lakeville Ponds They also felt that additional consideration should. Some reviewers voiced concern over the potentially be given to alternative sources of water supply, other harmful environmental consequences of the recom- than the Northfield Mountain and Millers River mended diversion of. the Weweantic River to the diversions. Lakeville Ponds in order to serve the New Bedford Water Department. This comment was specifically RR-4 from City of New Bedford, Southeastern Regional Sierra Club,.and many attending the Spring 1975 Planning and Economic Development District, and public meetings voiced support for this step. concerned residents. SENE Response: SENE Response: The text :in Chapter 5, Water Quality, was After additional investigation, it was deterimined clarified and amplified wherever the previous des . that the New Bedford Water Department should cription seemed inade .quate for conveying both. the. develop potential ground water supplies in New potential of the methodsand the most significant Bedford and Acushnet to supplement its existing problems that must be ovelcome if.such methods. safe yield, rather than divert the Weweantic. This are ever to come into widespread use.. change was made in Chapter 4, Water Supply. IS. SUBJECT: Industrial discharges 15. SUBJECT: Regional water supply systems: Abington- Rockland-Brockton relationships All industrial discharges ., not just the major dischar- ges, should be controlled according to Ecology Old Colony Planning Council and Town of Action for Rhode Island and Sierra Club. Abington disagreed with the Study's recommenda- tion that the Abington-Rockland Joint Water SENE Response: Works should join with the Brockton Water Com- mission in a regional water supply system. The Study staff concurs. The text in Chapter 5, Water Quality, was rewirtten to correct the im- SENE Response: pression given by previous wording. The National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System program The Study replaced this recommendation in of the Environmental Protection Agency requires a Chapter 4, Water Supply, with one suggesting permit for all discharges. that flood skimming of Howard and Pine Brooks and the Jones River in Kingston should be ex- 19. SUBJECT: Scavenger wastes plored to augment Silver Lake, Brockton's source of supply. The Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management Program suggested that the state, not munici- 16. SUBJECT: Vessel wastes palities, should be made responsible for providing adequate disposal facilities for scavenger. wastes Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island obtained from septic tanks. believed that the Study recommendation of hold- ing tanks for treating vessel wastes is too strong in SENE Response: light of continuing federal uncertainty as to the best.solution. On-board treatment devices may be It is believed that the municipalities, who operate preferable to holding tanks/pumping out facilities. the waste treatment facilities, are in the best posi- tion to provide. this badly needed service. Therefore SENE Response: the recommendation in Chapter 5, Water Quality, was not changed. The uncertainty about the best solution for vessel wastes has to do with present levels of technology 20. SUBJECT: Emphasize recreation for on-board treatment, which are inadequate. The recommendation in Chapter 5, Water Quality remains The SENE Study should place greater empha sis unchanged, although revision is advised in light of on improving water quality for recreational pur- ffiture improved technology. poses, according to the Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management Program and concerned resi- 17. SUBJECT: New methods for waste disposal dents in the region. The Study should place strong emphasis on more SENE Response: unconventioaril methods of waste. disposal such as land irrigation, dry disposal methods, commercial It Is believed that the stated objective of achieving use of sludge as a fertilizer, combustion of sludge "swimmable, fishable waters by 19$3 wherever as an economical source of power, and instrearn realistically attainable economically, socially, and aeration. Ecology Action for Rhode Island, technically" was the strongest emphasis possible.' RR-5 This objective when met will improve the water water and salt water resources should first be quality for recreational purposes. developed. 21. SUBJECT: Emphasize urban water quality restoration (b) The Supervisor of Water Supply, City of Worcester, commented the main duty of water The Massachusetts Coastal Zone Program and authorities is to supply potable drinking water Ecology Action for Rhode Island believed !hat and they are too understaffed to manage reser- since most of the SENE population is concentrated voir areas for recreation, particularly those where the water is most degraded, restoration of near urban centers. these areas to swimmable quality should be given the highest priortiy, not anti- de gradation in gen- (c) Trout Unlimited and the Rhode Island Depart- erally rural areas. ment of Fish and Wildlife believed that recrea- tional use of reservoir lands should be allowed SENE Response: but should be limited and controlled by a per- mit system. Rhode Island Statewide Planning The staff concurs with intent of comment. Howw Program suggested that studies of the recrea- ever, the SENE Study has concluded that the re- tional impacts on water quality are needed. gion can gain many more recreation days and miles of clean water quickly, per dollar spent, by SENE Response: emphasizing anti-degradation and restoration of only marginally substandard waters than it can by (a) New emphasis was added in Chapter 6, Outdoor attempting to solve (and probably unsuccessfully) Recreation, to reiterate that low-intensity use of the worst problems first. Efforts to make Boston reservoir lands should be planned for the future and Providence harbor areas swimmable in the to meet low intensity recreational demands, not near future are apt to be defeated by extremely water-based recreational demands. Demand pro- high costs. jections calculated both by the SENE Study and by Rhode Island Statewide Planning Program 22. SUBJECT: Land and Water Conservation Fund indicate there will be real needs for low-intensity recreation in the future which could be met by The Department of the Interior believed that the use of lands adjacent to storage reservoirs. states' problems in getting Land and Water Conser- vation Funds cannot be solved simply by increasing (b) and (c) the level of federal funding. It is felt that state offi- Controlled use can be achieved by new and co- cials can be imaginative in the way they match ordinated efforts on the part.of several existing Bureau of Outdoor Recreation monies and the agencies. A multi-purpose group (health offi- legislatures must be willing to authorize matching cials, water authorities, natural resources plan- expenditures. ners) should prepare guidelines for consistent management and decide on the most effective SENE Response: funding source (permit system, user fees) to cover new costs. The text in Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreation, now suggests that states investigate funding sources like 24. SUBJECT: Recreational boating harbors the Housing and Community Development and that legislators recognize the importance of states' (a) The Department of Interior and various muni- role in matching Fund monies. The suggestion that cipal officials commented that the rationale the federal government (either Interior or Congress) behind proposed regional marinas should be review the effectiveness of the Land and Water Con- explained and the environmental suitability of servation Fund Program, including the possibility of marina developments must be examined on a a sliding fee scale, was retained. case-by-case and within a regional context. 23. SUBJECT: Limited recreational use of water supply (b) Massachusetts Audubon Society, Association watershed lands for the Preservation of Cape Cod, Trout Un- limited, and municipal officials throughout the (a) The Rhode Island Water Resources Board com- region commented that marinas are nuisances mented that recreational pressures in Rhode and the solution is not to encourage the deve- Island presently do not indicate the need to lopment of boating facilities. use water supply reservoirs, and other fresh RR-6 (c) The estimates of potential slips and moorings if pressures for greater recreational use increase in the planning area reports seem consistently beyond the present level. high (general comment). 26. SUBJECT: State beaches and parks SENE Response: (a) Local management and protection of coastal (a) The text now states that public marinas are badly beach areas is preferable to state acquisition needed and, to take advantage of public invest- and development as regional facilities, parti- ment, they should be developed in areas where cularly barrier beaches in Duxbury (according services already exist and which are central to to Duxbury Beach Association, Gurnet-Saquish the demand and in environmentally non-sensitive Corporation, municipal officials, and local areas. The suggestion that the proposed state- residents), Marshfield (according to Humarock wide boating advisory committee assess the Civic Association, Coastal Area Advisory Coun- suitability of increased boating development in cil, and municipal officials), Westport and a cove-by-cove, harbor-by-harbor study was added. Dartmouth (according to Slocums River Asso- ciation, South Westport Property Owners Im- (b) There is a general trend of increasing demands for provement Association, officials and com- recreational boating facilities and they cannot be missions from both towns, Southeastern ignored. However, an effort was made to re- Regional Planning and Economic Development emphasize that the demands be met primarily by District, and 1500 residents), and Quonochontaug enlarging the capacity of existing marina areas Beach in Westerly_@, R.I. (according to municipal instead of encouraging development of new officials and local residents). marinas. (b) The above mentioned also insisted that no (c) Tables where estimates of potential slips and expansion of existing state park and beach moorings appear were modified to point out boundaries and no new acquisitions should be that the figures are not intended as aboslute allowed because of the strain on municipal recommendations. The figures are preliminary services and local environmental quality. (The estimates which should be refined in the boating same groups as 26(a) commented on this point, potential study mentioned in (a) above. plus officials in Douglas Mass.). 25. SUBJECT: National Park Service SENE Response: (a) The role of the National Park Service (NPS) (a) Recommendations for state acquisition of Duxbury in satisfying recreational demands was not Beach in the South Shore area, and Quonochontaug clearly specified. Beach in the Pawcatuck Planning Area and a six mile stretch next to Horseneck Beach were changed to (b) The National Park Service also felt that the local and/or private protection of coastal Critical importance of the Cape Cod National Seashore Environmental Areas. If this form of management for satisfying regional recreational demands does not successfully satisfy public and private needs, and the future of its management policies is the issue of state acquisition will again arise. Further- not spelled out. more, state acquisition of appropriate beach areas not presently accessible to the general public and SENE Response: capable of sustaining intensive use should be con- sidered. (a) A discussion of the NPS, including the Natural and Historic Landmark Program was added to (b) Chapter 6 of the Regional Report suggests that the Chpater 6, Outdoor Recreation. proposed state recreational advisory committee investigate methods for state sharing of costs of (b) While the National Seashore is the largest access, traffic control, facility development, etc. recreational facility in the SENE region, present management policies for low-intensity 27. SUBJECT: Public right in Massachusetts to use the uses mean that its capacity to satisfy the re- foreshore gion's recreational demands and tourist re- creational demands is limited. The text was Massachusetts Water Resources Commission and revised to suggest that the present policy Sierra Club noted that use of the area between the should be reviewed and revised in the future RR-7 mean high and mean low watermark (the foreshore) research.which suggests the environmental implica- is unconstitutional. tions may not be simply a function of depth were added. The recommendation dealing with near- SENE Response: shore mining was changed to suggest that, state's coastal zone management efforts should assess new Recommendations dealing with public access to the results and develop policies and program regulating foreshore were modified. Reports now urge improved mineral extraction activities in coastal waters. public access to the Massachusetts coastline through various alternatives, among them*the on-going work 30.. SUBJECT: Dredged materials disposal of the Special Legislative Commission on the Availability. and 'Accessibility of Public Beaches and the consideration. According to the Corps of Engineers, finding that the state share costs of access, traffic control, etc., in suitable sites for the disposal of dredged inaterials return for general access to.town beaches. is problematic because federal agencies cannot purchase land sites. The Corps suggested.a new 28. SUBJECT: Public access to Critical.Environmental recommendation that Congress should, consider Areas expanding federal navigation authority to.acquire land or reimburse local interests for use of land. (a) The Department of the Interior noted that the sites for disposal of dredged materials. use of easements for satisfying extensive out- door recreation demands was overlooked. SENE Response: (b) Massachusetts Water Resources Commission and A discussion about the problems of land disposal Charles River Watershed Association pointed out sites was added, as was the suggestion that Congress that mill ponds are Critical.Environmental Areas consider expanding the Corps authority to acquire which serve flood. protection, recreational, and land disposal sites. Because opportunity for final possibly power purposes,. but maintenance of public review had passed, a new recommendation was mill dams is sorely neglected. not added. SENE Response: 31.SUBJECT: Aquaculture (a) A discussion of conservatibii-and public easements Massachusetts Division of Marine Fisheries, munici- was added in Chapter 6, Outdoor Recreation, as -.Pal officials, and Association for the Preservation one way to gain public access for extensive out- of Cape Cod commented that several sites recomm door recreation activities... mended for additional study for aquaculture are im- portant for recreational purposes, and the two (b) A suggestion was added that-the Commonwealth activities'are conflicting. Massachusetts Division of act on a program to repair and maintain small Marine Fisheries noted that aquaculture will not dams, and that public rights@ to use mill ponds dramatically increase commercially Valuable living be regained when the public interest can be clearly marine resources. demonstrated. SENE Response: 29. SUBJECT: Prohibiting near-shore sand and gravel mining The areas of greatest regional recreational importance The Corps of Engineers pointed out that insufficient were deleted from the list of potential aqtiaculture information exists to conclude that the states must @sites. No,changes.were made which would discourage consider legislation restricting near-shore (depths aquAculture because of the potential. for iric-re. Iased. less than 100 feet) minerals extraction activities. The shellfish resources in New England has.not beer! fully Corps believed that recommendations restricting tested. mineral extraction activities in neanshore waters should be deleted. 32. SUBJECT: The declining fishing industry SENE Response: (a) City of New Bedford and Ecology Action for Rhode Island commented that the discussion Analysis of economic and environmental impacts of federal assistance programs is out of date of mining in depths beyond 80 to 100 feet are pre- and incomplete. Further, the recommendation: liminary, but indicate certain negative economic for improving the Fisheries Management Loan and environmental impacts. References to on-going RR-8 Fund is inaccurate becuase the Fund has been SENE Response: indefinitely impounded. The Study included this special section on wet- (b) Rhode Island Division of Fisheries and Wildlife lands legislation both because of the importance and Ecology Action for Rhode Island disagreed of wetlands to a number of resource areas (such with the statement that the Port of Point Judith as flood control, fish and wildlife habitat, open is in a state of decline. space preservation, and recreation), and because wetlands were continuing to be lost at an alarm- (c) Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management Program ing rate despite the enactment of protection suggested that some of the burden for improving legislation. The analysis performed for the Study, the fishing industry should be taken off the should- and contact with a number of citizens, local, and ers of the federal government. state officials confirmed the need for strengthen- ing several aspects of the existing legislation includ- SENE Response: ing its administration. Several corrections of fact were made in response to comment during the (a) The recommendation for expanding the Fisheries review period, but recommendations remained Management Loan Fund which has been impounded essentially the same. indefinitely was deleted and discussion of two new federal programs which aid financing fishing boats 35. SUBJECT: Additional subjects related to flooding and was added in Chapter 7, Marine Management, erosion (b) and (c). Discussion about the Point Judith Fishing Review comments included requests for including Cooperative was added to explain why the Port of additional subjects in the chapter: small dams, Point Judith is flourishing. This lead to a new al- impact on the tax base of purchase of key wetlands ternative for improving the fishing industry in other and flood plain lands, and changes in the Depart- ports by urging coordination of various com- ment of Housing and Urban Development process ponents. of delineation of coastal flood plain areas. 33. SUBJECT: Port planning SENE Response: Associated Industries of Massachusetts commented Language was added to the chapter referring to: (1) that regional port planning may reduce competim multiple values of small dam retention and mainten- tion among New England ports which may in turn ance. (2) considerations for public purchase of wet- reduce their vitality. The Corps of Engineers sug- lands and flood plain lands, and other less expensive gested more detailed economic analysis is needed acquisition techniques such as conservation case- to determine the extent that regional port planning ments; and (3) new ways being considered to define is needed to serve SENE and New England. coastal flood plains to reflect local conditions,@more accurately. SENE Response: 36. SUBJECT: Electricity rate structure The goal of regional port planning is to revitalize ports by making the most efficient use of existing The suggestion in Chapter 9, that the decreasing port facilities, not to interfere with competition block rate structure be reversed was questioned by or the vitality of ports. The text in Chapter 7 now several sources, notably Boston Edison, Associated suggests that the first part of the planning effort Industries of Massachusetts, and NEPOOL. Several should be an economic analysis. suggested the discussion of rationing was inappro- priate. 34. SUBJECT: Wetlands. SENE Response: Several comments were received regarding the section of wetlands administration in Chapter 8, Insufficient information exists to make such a recom- Rooding and Erosion, including the need for re- mendation, but the text was revised to urge imme& form of the wetlands legislation, if at all. ate study of the rate issue (already underway in Massachusetts). Moreover, it is recognized that be- cause the fuel adjustment costs are so high, espec- ially for heavy users, that the decreasing block rate "reward" may no longer be significant. RR-9 37. SUBJECT: One-stop power plant permitting process SENE Response: There was universal agreement from all sectors, The section was substantially rewritten. although both from conservation groups and power indus- the recommendations remain substantially un- try, that while the existing system is often unwiedly changed. and expensive it at least provides ample opportunity for public scrutiny. All concerned were cautious of 40. SUBJECT: Adequacy of the existing institutional changes. arrangements to guide growth. SENE Response Massachusetts Forest and Parks Association, Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management Pro- Personal contacts were made with government gram, and the Sierra Club felt that there are officials, conservation groups and power industry certain disabilities with existing institutional to define most troublesome portions of existing structures if growth is to be guided in a different permit review system. Based on new guidelines way than has been done in the past. Simply developed by a Nuclear Regulatory Commission stating that the existing system could provide federal-state workshop on the environmental re- the tools to achieve results is not quite accurate. view process, the recommendation was modified to focus on simplication of, and federal-state SENE Response: coordination in, the Environmental Impact Statement hearing process. Institutional changes are, the staff agreed, neces- sary and important. While the draft report suggests 38. SUBJECT:* Nuclear power that some changes were necessary and offers al- ternative forms for such change, the point was While some respondents, notably power and not made strongly or clearly enough. Language industrial interests, were favorably impressed was added to the Summary and Chapter 10 to with acknowledgement that near future power emphasize and clarify the fact that new enab- needs will be met by nuclear generation, the ling authority, new legislation, and additional Sierra Club, Massachusetts Forest and Parks funds will be needed if we are to change the pro- Association, and others spoke strongly against cess for managing growth. Also, the point was accepting the safety risks nuclear power entails. added that, while the Study offered alternative Concern was voiced over: (1) transportation approaches or models of various relationships which and disposal of radioactive wastes; (2) low level could exist between the state, the region, and the emissions; (3) security; and (4) insufficient at- municipality, a final decision on the re-alignment tention to other alternatives. of powers is a political decision, arrived at by each state acting through its legislature. SENE Responses: 41. SUBJECT: Local vs. regional vs. state involvement in The discussion of alternatives and risks of nuclear resource decision making. generation was strengthened to some degree, but basic policy was substantially unchanged. The Several groups, including the Department of Study's greatest emphasis was, and is, on the role Transportation, Massachusetts Forest and Parks conservation can play in substantially reducing Association, Massachusetts Coastal Zone Manage- need for additions to the generating capacity in ment Program, the Sierra Club, and Ecology Ac- the region. tion for Rhode Island, raised the issue of the respective roles and responsibilities of the state, 39. SUBJECT: Petroleum facilities the region, and the municipality in guiding growth. There is a strong tradition of home rule Several state agencies and private groups suggested and broad state responsibility which should be that the Petroleum Facilities section of Chapter 9 reconciled. be updated to reflect new developments, new in- formation, and newly funded impact planning pro- SENE Response: grams. There was agreement that their respective roles RR-10 must be clarified. Language was added in Chapter final choice will still be up to the States. 10, Strengthening the Management System for Natural Resources, to indicate the following 42. SUBJECT: Clarity and usefulness of tables in points: local input is extremely important in the Chapter 11. land use planning and control process, although local interests must sometimes be balanced against regional impacts and state policy. Part of the rea- There were very few comments on Chapter son that growth has been misguided in the past is 11, Tying the Recommendations Together, that local development decisions with impacts other than criticism from the Department of which go beyond the boundaries of that commun- the Interior and Federal Power Commission ity have been made without input from other (FPQ on the clarity and usefulness of the communities which are affected. At the very tables. Interior felt that components of least, guiding an area's growth requires a degree objectives had been confused with factors of control by, and direction from, a level of to be evaluated in a system of accounts as government which can balance the needs of called for in the Principles and Standards (PAS). more than one community beyond the tradi- FPC also criticized the lack of distinction be- tional relationships between the state, the region, tween highest and high priority recommendations and the municipality. Municipalities however, and the lack of narrative to explain why various will continue to make the bulk of land use deci- entries had been made. sions. Models for this kind of arrangement exist in the American Law Institute's Model Land SENE Response: Development Code, and the Martha's Vineyard Law, which relies on a regional commission for Since the Chapter had been prepared with the help certain kinds of development decisions. In fact, of some of the same consultants who had assisted the Study uses these examples which formed in drafting the PAS, the staff felt that the tables did the basis of the approaches found in Chapter reflect an adequate understanding of components of 10. Given the principles of state, regional and objectives and evaluation criteria. Regarding explana- local involvement, suggested specifically by tion of priority ranking, these indications were Massachusetts Coastal Zone Management made to provide a quick, summary view of which Program, and set forth explicitly in the text, recommendations might be acted on first. Addi- and after extensive public reivew, the Study tional detail was not developed by the Study endorsed a particular approach which most Management Team as part of the Study Process. closely embodies these concepts - but the RR-1 1 Representatives of Contributing State And Federal Agencies FEDERAL-STATE RHODE ISLAND Department of Transportation Rhode Island Statewide Planning Program Federal Highway Administration: Stanley R. Daniel W. Varin, Chief**; Patrick V. Fingliss*; Lou Davis**; Charles L. O'Donnell" (to October 1975). New England River Basins Commission David. U.S. Coast Guard: Capt. Bernard Thompson* (to R. Frank Gregg, Chairman**; Robert D. October 1973); Capt. Alvin P. Durgin, Jr.* (October Brown, Staff Director** Southeastern New Coastal Zone Management Program England Study Staff: Robert Kasvinsky, Coastal Resources Management Council: 1973 to August 1974); Cdr. C. R. Lindquist* (to Study Manager*; Jane F. Carlson; Cornelia John Lyons, Chairman. February 1974); Capt. Royal E. Grover, Jr.* (as of V. H. Ferber; Alan Jacobs; Ernesta Kracke; Coastal Resources Center: Stuart 0. Hale; Mal- August 1974); Rear Admiral James P. Stewart" (as James Luty; William Mahoney; Priscilla colm Grant. of October 1975). Newbury; William E. Nothdurft; William Water Resources, Board: Robert Russ"; Peter Environmental Protection Agency E. Richardson; Philip Tabas. Calese*. Water Quality Branch; Walter Newman, Chief**; Roger Duwart*; Clyde Shufelt*. New England River Basins Commission CONNECTICUT Water Supply Branch: Jerome Healey*; Stephen R. Frank Gregg, Chairman"; Robert D. Brown Department of Environmental Protection Lathrop*; Alma Rojas* (to February 1974). Staff Director"; Robert Kasvinsky, Study Man: Joseph Gill, Commissioner"; Robert B. Taylor, Di- Department of the Interior ager*; Jane F. Carlson; Cornelia V. H. Ferber; Alan rector* of Water Compliance. Roger Sumner Babb** (as of December 1974); Mark Jacobs; Emesta Kracke; James Luty; William FEDERAL Abelson" (to June 1973); Kenneth Young" (to Mahoney; Priscilla Newbury; William E. Nothdurft; @;partment of Agriculture May 1974); William Patterson** (as of September William E. Richardson; Philip Tabas. 1974); Robert B. Ryder* (as of May 1975). Soil Conservation Service: Dr. Benjamin Isgur**; Bureau of Mines: Robert D. Thompson*; Joseph New England Regional Commission Philip H. Christensen"; Stephen Claughton*. Krickich* (to March 1974); Peter Morey* (as of Thomas Fitzpatrick"; Tirath Gupta* (consultant); Economic Research Service: John Green*. March 1974). Robert Bogen*. Forest Service: Kenneth Johnson"; Sam Becker* BIureau of Outdoor Recreation: James Donoghue* (to December 1973); Neil Larnson* (to March 1974); (to March 1973); Eric Finstick* (to September 1974); MASSACHUSETTS Douglas Monteith* (as of March 1974). Alan Hutchings* (as of September 1974); Earl Executive Office of Environmental Affairs Dr. Evelyn Murphy, Secretary" Department of Commerce Nichols (as of September 1974). National Weather Service: Norman L. Canfield** Fish and Wildlife Service: Melvin Evans**; Roy Coastal Zone Management Program (to September 1975); Albert Kachic**; Joseph i. Landstrom*; Dewey Castor; Dave Ferguson; Fred Matthew Connolly"; Dan Calano*. Brumbak. Benson; Tom Oliver. Department of Environmental Management National Marine Fisheries Services: Russell T. National Park Service: David Clark"; David Kim- (formerly Department of Natural Resources) Norriss**; Christopher Mantzaris*. ball; Richard Giamberdine. Arthur W. Brownell, Commissioner" (to February Bureau of Economic Analysis: Henry DeGraff; University of Massachusetts (consultants for 1975); Dr. Bette Woody, Commissioner" (as of Gene Janisch. NPS): Ervin Zube; Julius Gy Fabos; R. Jeffrey Riot- June 1975). Maritime Administration: William S. Cham- te*. Division of Water Resources: Charles Kennedy"; bers**; Robert L. Safarik. U.S. Geological Survey: Michael Frimpterl Emerson Chandler* (as of June 1974); Clinton Wat- Department of Defense, Department of the Army, Federal Power Commission son* (to June 1974). Corps of Engineers Martin Inwald*; Jonas Barish*. Water Resources Commission: Robert E. Laut- Planning Division: Joseph Ignazio, Chief** (to June zenheiser. 1974). Department of Community Affairs Policy and Long Range Planning Branch: Law- Policy level Coordinating Group Lewis S. W. Crampton, Commissioner" (to Feb- rence Bergen, Chief**; (As of June 1974); John Technical level Study Management Team ruary 1975); David Terry*. Landall*; Gardner Blodgett*; Paul Pronovost. Plan Formulation Branch: Steven.Onysko Resources Management Policy Council Coastal Development Branch: Harvey Minsky Vincent Ciampa. Department of Housing and Urban Development Department of Environmental Quality Engineer- David Prescott" (to September 1974); Sheldon Gil- ing berl** (as of September 1974); JGA/Wallace, Floyd, Division of Environmental Health (formerly De- Ellenzweig* (consultants). partment of Public Health): George Coogan. Division of Water Pollution Control: Tom Mac- Mahon"; Dick Young*; Al Cooperman*. REGIONAL PLANNING AGENCIES CITIZEN ADVISORY COMMITTEE AND Merrimack Valley Regional Planning Commis- REGIONAL SCIENTIFIC TASK FORCE sion Gordon Abbott, Milton, Ma.; Dr. Daniel Aldrich 111, Margaret Concannon; Stephen Aradas North Dartmouth, Ma.; Nancy Anderson, Reading, Metropolitan Area Planning Council (also HUD, Ma.; Arthur Barnes; West Newton, Ma.; Gerald SENE Study Consultants) Beals, Easton, Ma.; Leo Bouchard, Smithfield, R.I.; James Miller; Lawrence Brennan; Bob Joseph (to Prof. Derek Bradford, Providence, R.I.; Jack Con- May 1974). way, Hanover, Ma.; John Davis, Pawcatuck, Conn.; Peter Donovan*, Brighton, Ma.; Charles E. Downe, Old Colony Planning Council West Newton, Ma.; Dr. Madge Ertel, Amherst, Ma.; Daniel Crane; Robert McMahon. Dennis Ducsik, Cambridge, Ma.; Michael Everett*, Cape Cod Planning and Economic Development Providence, R.I.; Dr. John W. Farrington, Woods Commission Hole, Ma.; Barbara Fegan, Chairman, South Robert Robes; Paul Doane. Wellfleet, Ma.; Michael Frucci, Hyannis, Ma.; Dr. Frederick Glantz, Boston, Ma.; William Graves, Dukes County Planning and Economic Develop- Raynham, Ma.; Rolf Hardy, Boston, Ma.; Robert A. ment Commission Harpell, Cumberland, R.I.; Alfred Hawkes, Provi- Robert Kornives, dence, R.I.; Paul Hicks, Providence, R.I.; Dorothy Nantucket Planning and Economic Development Hunnewell, Wellesley, Ma.; Nancy Hustvedt, Commission Woburn, Ma.; John Kellam, Providence, R.I.;Walter William R. Klein. Kelly, Waltham, Ma.; Dr. Bostwick Ketchum*, Central Massachusetts Regional Planning Com- Woods Hole, Ma.; Paul Klotz, Westerly, R.I.; Ken mission Lagerquist, Seekonk, Ma.; Maurice Leduc, Coven- David H. Kellogg; James Arnold. try, R.I.; Frank Lee, Boston, Ma.; Elwood Leonard, Ashton, R.I.; Glenn McNary, North Falmouth, Ma.; Southeastern Regional Planning and Economic Dr. Sanford Moss, Westport, Ma.; Herbert Nicker- Development District son, Gloucester, Ma.; Ed Plumley, Westboro, Ma.; William Toole; Eric Savolainen; Steven Smith; Spencer Potter, Jamestown, R.I.; Ted Prall, Boston, Alexander Zaleski. Ma.; Martha Reardon, Quincy, Ma.; James Rogers, Southeastern Connecticut Regional Planning Lexington, Ma.; Dr. Neils Rorholm*, Kingston, Agency R.I.; Neil Ross, Kingston, R.I.; John T. Scanlon, Richard B. Erickson East Greenwich, R.I.; Dr. William Seiferl*, Cam- bridge, Ma.; Roland Sherman (to May 1975), Wor- CONSULTANTS (not otherwise shown) cester, Ma.; Barbara Sjoberg, Pawtucket, R.I.; Urban Waters Special Study Frederick Smith*, Cambridge, Ma.; Reed Stewart, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill Marshfield Hills, Ma.; Merlin Szosz, Foster, R.I.; Dr. Clarence TarzweU*, Wakefield, R.I.; Marshall Economic Analysis Taylor, West Somerville, Ma.; Jens Thornton, Quin- Nathaniel Clapp, Barry C. Field; John M. Gates; cy, Ma.; Bruce Tripp, Woods Hole, Ma.; Ivan Valie- Thomas Grigalunas; J. G. Sutinen; Gregory A. Vaut. la, Woods Hole, Ma.; Thomas Weaver, Kingston, Legal and Institutional Analysis R.I. *RSTF Member Thomas Arnold; Morton Gorden, Development Sci- ences, Inc.; Frances X. Cameron, Interface; Edward R. Kaynor; Edward Selig. Planning Analysis William V. McGuinness, Jr.; Robert Gidez and Paul Merkens, Intasa; Harry Schwartz. Public Participation Survey Research Program; Stephen Logowitz. @, 57 3 6668 14105 7473