:proceedings of a conference. Volume II United States.Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control(1975:Pensacola, Fla.) Washington:U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Planning and Standards,[1977] Estuarine pollution United States Congresses. Estuaries United States Congresses. Estuarine biology United States Congresses. Coastal Zone 1 /,de37, Information Center ESTUARINE: POLLUTION CONTROL AND A SSESSMENT Proceedings of a Conference VOLUMEII1 WTAL -zoNE 5z TJ E 0 -v-III ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL AND ASSESSMENT Proceedings of a Conference VOLUME II 's% ,o U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY OFFICE OF WATER PLANNING AND STANDARDS WASHINGTON, D.C. U. . c ,Fr"-RTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA i- t \ r.- r. atF '.it' CES CENTER c '* ,J ,. t. "" a i FSON AVENUE ..., Ir.-L.10N, SC 29405-2413 Property of CSC Library The contents of this publication do not reflect official policies of either the Environmental Protection Agency or any other goverinetal' unit. Statements contained herein are to be ascribed solely to their authors. !ferd ZY ''O v. - CONTENTS VOLUME II PORTS OTHER POLLUTANTS Factors Bearing on Pollution Control in U.S. Ports Located in Estuarine Areas- ...................529 Oil Pollution in the Coastal Environment - ------- 385 Located in EstuarineAreas John W. Farrington Factors Bearing on Pollution Control in West Consequences of Oil Pollution in the Estuarine Coast Estuarine Ports- . ........................545 Environment of the Gulf of Mexico 401 C oast Estuarine Por ts Lewis R. Brown Solid Waste Disposal and its Relationship to Estuarine Pollution---- ------------ 409 THE PUBLIC'S ROLE Hans A. Feibusch Sea Grant Estuarine Studies ------------------ 555 Impact of Chlorination Processes on Marine Leatha F. Miloy Ecosystems 415 William P. Davis, D. P. Middaugh Escarosa: the Anatomy of Panhandle Citizen In. ' -'. . volvement in Estuarine Preservation .-- --- 567 The Impact of Synthetic Organic Compounds on Thomas S. Hopkins Estuarine Ecosystems -..---------------.------ 425 The Role of the Public in Texas Estuary Protec- Jeffrey L. Lincer tion 581 Trace Metals in the Oceans: Problem or No?__- 445 Vernon Smylie Earl W. Davey, Donald K. Phelps The Role of Citizen Action Groups in Protecting Pollution in Nation's Estuaries Originating from and Restoring Wetlands in California - --------- - 593 the Agricultural Use of Pesticides --------- - 451 Fred S. Farr Ming-Yu Li The Impact of Offshore Petroleum Operations on LEGAL ASPECTS Marine and Estuarine Areas---- ---------------.. 467 Keith G. Hay Land Use Controls and Water Quality in the Estuarine Zone ------------------- ------- 607 Marc J. Hershman RESEARCH APPLICATIONS Structuring the Legal Regulation of Estuaries 617 The Effect of Estuarine Circulation on Pollution Angus MacBeth Dispersal .............................. 477 HugoB.Dispersal------------------------------------ 4 Estuarine Management-the Intergovernmental Hugo B. Fischer Dimension ----------------------- 629 The Crucial Role of Systematics in Assessing John J. Bosley Pollution Effects on the Biological Utilization of Basic Factors of Population Distribution Affecting Estuaries- -------------------------------------487 Demand for Water Resources --------- 637 Melbourne R. Carriker John C. Becher Bacteria and Viruses-Indicators of Unnatural Environmental Changes Occurring in the Nation's Estuaries -------------------------- 507 ESTUARINE ECONOMICS Rita R. Colwell Economic Analysis in the Evaluation and Manage- National Estuarine Monitoring Program ---- ---- 519 ment of Estuaries ---------------------------- 659 Philip A. Butler John H. Cumberland A Brief Assessment of Estuary Modeling-Recent Establishing the Economic Value of Estuaries to Developments and Future Trends - ------------- 523 U.S. Commercial Fisheries----- --- ---- 671 R. J. Callaway Dennis P. Tihansky, Norman F. Meade iii IV CONTENTS CONCLUDING REMARKS Organizational Arrangements for Management of Seven Ways to Obliteration Factors of Estuarine Atlantic Coast Estuarine Environments ------687 Degradation ------------------723 Maurtce P. Lynch Joel 'W Hedgpeth Evaluation of Water Quality in Estuaries and Interactions of Pollutants with the Uses of Coastal Waters-----------------701 Estuaries--------------------739 Wzllsam J Hargm, Jr TR ugene (Cronrn 7 -' J Ag OTHER POLLUTANTS OIL POLLUTION IN THE COASTAL ENVIRONMENT JOHN W. FARRINGTON Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Woods Hole, Massachusetts ABSTRACT Petroleum and petroleum products such as fuel oil and lubricating oil are very complex mixtures of chemicals with individual compounds numbering at least in the tens of thousands. This very com- plex chemical mixture is introduced into the already complex system of interacting physical, chemical, biological, and geological components which constitute the marine environment. Thus, the investigation of the impact of oil pollution on the marine environment is a difficult undertaking which will require much more research before some of the potentially most serious problems are fully understood. INTRODUCTION 1973, 1974) leading to the first draft, that areas of controversy remain. It is also clear from reading Oil pollution in the estuarine and coastal environ- these same reports and reviewing current literature ment is the subject of many strong political, eco- that significant progress towards understanding the nomic, and environmental arguments. The advent inputs, fate, and effects of oil in the marine environ- of new and/or expanding refinery operations, port ment has been achieved. facilities, deepwater oil terminals, offshore drilling and production, pipelines, ocean dumping, and tanker traffic requires an understanding of the im- OBJECTIVES pact of accidentally or intentionally discharged oil on the coastal zone environment. The objectives of this paper are as follows: on the coastal zone environment. A major portion of our knowledge about oil pollu- 1) To provide a summary of available information. 1) To provide a summary of available information. tion has been obtained during the past five years. The acquisition of this knowledge was catalyzed by such well publicized incidents as the massive Torrey limited knowledge Canyon oil tanker spill, the Santa Barbara oil well 3) To suggest information which can be of use in blowouts and smaller but extensively studied spills making management decisions regarding the estu- arine and coastal environment. such as the West Falmouth, Mass., oil spill (Anon., 4) To suggest some approahes towards providing 4) To suggest some approaches towards providing 1971; Smith, 1968; Straughan and Kolpack, 1971; the further information needed to adequately under- Blumner et al., ,971a). stand and/or monitor oil pollution. The findings of many oil spill studies and labora- tory and field surveys of oil pollution are subjects A review and discussion of the engineering aspects of serious debate within the scientific community, of the prevention, control, and abatement of oil pol- and also within the governmental, public, and private lution will not be attempted. They are subjects sectors of the world. The controversy involving better treated by someone more knowledgeable in seemingly conflicting reports about the impact of the field of engineering. Readers interested in these oil pollution resulted in the convening of a study topics will find them discussed in the Proceedings group by the National Academy of Sciences to of the Conferences on the Prevention and Control of ascertain the state of our knowledge with respect Oil Pollution (API, 1969 1971, 1973). to the inputs, fates, and effects of oil pollution in the marine environment and to point to areas in need of further research. The study group met SOURCES OF INFORMATION in -May 1973. The report will be issued late in 1974 or early 1975 after more than a year of debate and There are numerous sources of published informa- revision. It is clear after reading the final drafts of tion about oil pollution. These sources include news- this report and also the background papers (NAS, paper accounts, technical reports, and refereed scien- 385 386 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL tific journal publications. Generally, the latter is Table 1.-Estimate of petroleum and petroleum hydrocarbon inputs to the the information source most highly regarded for its marine environment accuracy and objectivity. Scientific journal articles (Millions of metric tons per year) are usually rigorously reviewed by the authors' peers World U.S. prior to acceptance for publication. There are numer- ous scientific journal articles dealing with oil pollu- Normal Operations Offshore Production a-............. ----.... 0.02 0.003 tion. There are, however, far more technical reports Transportation I reporting on oil pollution studies. The preponderance Load on top tankers - .. ..- 0.31 0.05 of technical reports is the result of the need to get Non-load on top tankers 0.77 0.12 Dry docking -........................... 0.25 0.039 information to decision makers, including the public, Terminal operations .-- - ----- ---...i - 0.003 0.0004 as rapidly as possible. If a scientist waited for the Bilges bunkering .--- --.... 0. 0.078 normal review and publication process in a scientific Coastal Refineries a -0..... .. ..2 0.03 Coastal Mlunicipal Wastes a I- - ----------------0.3 0.10 journal he would experience a delay of approximately Coastal Non-Refinery Industrial Wastes a ----- 0.3 0.10 6 to 18 months after writing a report of the study. Urhan Ro. .- - ------ 3 010 River Runoffb - - - --------- 1.6 0.53 The demands for information often require a more Atmosphere 0- .- - 0.6 0.18 rapid transfer process from the arena of science to Natural Seeps b . . l - 0.6 0.12 that of decision makers. But a penalty is paid. The Accidents a dOffshore production .-. . ....... . .-......-0.06 0.01 peer review process is circumvented unless the deci- Tankers - 0.2 0.03 sion makers arrange for peer review of the report. Non-tanke-s .-. 0,.10 0.02 They are well advised to do so, including peer review 6.113 1.510 of this report. It is fortunate that, as previously mentioned, the a Esti6mate wiih high confidahce trtiftlO subject of oil pollution in the marine environment b stimate with modest confideick 'aling. I Estimate with low confidedee rating, has recently been reviewed by the National Academy of Sciences study group. Readers interested in a Table 2.--United States petroleum ahd 0 tfoloulm hydrocarion iriluts to the detailed review of the subject are referred to the a eSidiit Background Papers for this study and the Final Report (NAS, 1973, 1974). There are also several Million Metric % of Tdns per Year Total other reports from workshops, symposiums, or con- ferences, and books which provide a broad review of Offshore Production the literature or contain in one collection several Normal operations -. 0,003 0.20 papers on recent progress (API, 1969, 1971, 1973; Accdents 001 0.66 Duce and Parker, 1974; Goldberg, 1972 a, b, c; Subtotal -.. ..... ... . ' 0.013 0.86 Ketchum, 1972; SCEP, 1970; Smith, 1974; NAS, Tankers 1971; Mathews et al., 1971; Hoult, 1969; Boesch, Normal operations 0.209 13.84 et al., 1974). Accidents - 0,03 1.99 Two large collections of references dealing with Subtotal ..-. ........- . 0.239 14.73 oil pollution studies are those of the Oil Spill Infor- Non-Tankers mation Center, University Library, the University Bilges bunkering -. .. ..... 0,078 5,17 of California, Santa Barbara; and the Plymouth Accidents------------ 0.02 1.32 Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association of Subtotal - 0.098 6.49 the United Kingdom. I have avoided listing an ex- CoastalRefineries-0.03 0.99 tensive bibliography because there are over 2,000 Coastal Municipal Wastes ....- .... 0.10 6.62 references dealing with the various aspects of oil CoastalNon-Refinery Industrial Waste 0.10 6.62 pollution contained in the files of the two biblio- URirn Runoff ..- 0.13 6.62 graphic collections, books, reports, and papers cited Atmosphere -.-.-.-.-.-.-.- 0.18 11.92 above. Rather key references or references to reviews Natural Seeps 0.12 7.95 are given. Subtotal ...- ............... 0.10 Total --------.-.--------------.... 1.51 SOURCES OF OIL INPUT TO THE UNITED STATES COASTAL ZONE for each source. Figure 1 provides a graphical pre- sentation of the pathways of oil input to the marihe There are several sources for oil entering the environment. Table 1 compares the estimates for marine environment. These are given in Tables 1 the world input and those fbr the United States and 2 along with the estimated annual input rate inputs. Table 2 presents the United States input in OTHER POLLUTANTS 387 NON-ACCIDENTAL ACCIDENTAL the inputs from tanker operations. The largest input NORMAL OPERATION INPUTS INPUTS in tanker operations is from ballasting operations. These normally should occur at sea well away from . TANKERS 0,R, S [ OFFSHORE ' SHIP coastal areas. How much of this input actually OTERS L CRILLINGc O RE COLISI Nreaches the coastal areas is a complex function of VESSELS CRAFT PROOGOTID LOADING, U-NLOADING the physical, chemical, and biological weathering URBAN o X k and degradation of the oil and also the surface cur- POLLUIO rent system off the coast. My guesstimate is that s \\STr ORM very little of the total tanker discharge reaches the STORM S U.S. coast although the portion that does in the tWASTE 0XMUNICI Lform of tar particles, tarballs, or slicks may be OIT UNICIPAL ]API Shaesthetically unpleasing and contribute to the total ,pIL SEWERS impact of oil pollution on the ecological integrity of IND_, UST RIA,,L the coastal zone. EFFLUENTS 9 ; 6) The atmospheric input figure given in Table 2 is the estimated U.S. input to the world oceans. The input to the coastal zone from dry fallout and rain ! ( SEEPS ) is some unknown fraction of the value in Table 2. /sO I r 7) The input from rivers and from land opera- FIGUE 1.-Pathways of oilinput. tions contiguous with the U.S. coastal waters is substantial and accounts for 57 percent of the total input. terms of annual input rates and the percentage of 8) The effect of the input from the various sources the total input in each category. can be quite different. For example, accidental spills Several important points about these tables are: are point source and point in time inputs which 1) The orlinput values and some of the United may have immediate acute effects and long term Stahes d input values weakn sec of the chronic effects. Municipal or industrial effluents on States input values were taken directly from the the other hand may have no measurable immediate NAS (National Academy of Sciences) report (1973, i impact but may have long term chronic effects as 1974). Other values for the United States input lpc u a aeln emcrncefcsa 1974). Other' values for the United States input the concentration of the petroleum chemicals builds were calculated from values given in the NAS report. up in the ecosystem receiving the input. 2) The, estimated input rates are in some cases up n the ecosystem receiving the input approximations with ' wide6 'range of uncertainty. The NAS report ranked 'thl estimates according to Management Decisions Suggested the degree of confidence in the yalue given. These by the Input Data rankings are given in Table 1. i 3) These estimates are giotil or national averages. Several important points relating to the control The relative importance of the various sources of of oil pollution discharges are suggested by our cur- oil entering the marine environment varies with geo- rent knowledge of oil inputs to the coastal zone. graphical location and time. For example, a large 1) The largest category of inputs is the chronic well blowout would be a massive input of oil to a dribbling of oil into the coastal zone by industrial given location and even when averaged over a 10 and municipal effluents, urban runoff, and river year period bof time would result in the offshore runoff from inland areas. Thus a substantial amount drilling and production accidental input category of oil will be discharged to the U.S. coastal zone dominating inputs for that geographical location. regardless of whether it is transported to the coastal 4) The largest inputs of oil are from normal zone via tanker or produced by offshore wells in the operations and are intentional discharges Acci- U.S. coastal and continental shelf waters. Unless dents account for only 4 percent of the U.S. input steps are taken to reduce it this input will increase and 6 percent of the world input to the marine as our oil consumption increases. environment. Management decisions which would have a signifi- 5) Oil tanker operations account for 16 times gs cant effect in reducing this input are: much oil input as offshore production for the U.S., and 20 times as much for world inputs. a. Reduce per capita oil consumption. When considering the oil inputs to the coastal b. Encourage re-refining or reuse of waste oils. zone, as opposed to the total marine environment, This would reduce inputs and help conserve some consideration must be given to the location of a valuable natural resource. 388 ESTUARINE 'POLLUTION CONTROL c. Require the application and/or development inology. 'This is not the case. The- former" is in its of technology to reduce the. amount of oil in infancy as a technique. industrial: effluents, including refinery efflii- The success of passive tagging in actually proving ents. This applies both to effluents discharg- beyond a reasoinable doubt the source: of a spill ing directly to streams, rivers, or coastal depends on having a complete collection of all pos- waters and those discharging to municipal sible sources. Then the analytical chemi't applies sewers. . - increasingly more sophisticated analytical techniques - : - until the parameters of one potential source match 2) Drilling and producing oil in offshore areas is the parameters of the spi 1'sample. However,';if the safer for the total marine environment than import- actual source is'not present in the, sample collection ing equal quantities of oil because current estimates incorrect identification could result. It could be that are that approximately 0.014 percent of'oil produced a further application of more sophisticated cheinical offshore is discharged to the marine environment, analysis 'would haive shown that in' fact the source whereas about 8 times as much Or -0.11 pericent of was not among the collection of possible sources. the oil transported by tanker i's discharged to the Passive tagging can be used to eliminate possible marine environment. This assumes that oil produced sources and give a probability estimate of the source. offshore from a given location is piped ashore and The status of passive tagging in criminal or civil refined dr used there without subsequent transporta- court cases involving oil pollution has yet to be tion by sea to other locations. The statement must extensively tested. The technique is of use in proving also be qualified in that it is assume'd that the impact potential sources of a mystery oil spill were not the of 'accidental spills and chronic small inputs from actual source. The technique used, in conjunction oil tankers and from offshore production 'and drill- with other corroborative evidence may provide suffil ing have' similar effects per 'unit' amount of oil cient evidence to identify the source of a spill. Aside input. Finally, this statement does not take into from the legal aspects, passive,tagging may provide account the ecological-damage which may resultiin some estimate of the extent ancs severity of oil pol- coastal areas due to the construction 'and mainten- lution from a known source such as a refinery: efflu- ance of pipelines and onshore;facilities. ent, producing well, or accidental spill of known origin. ' .' ..- . The scientific and technical aspects "as well as IDENTIFICATION OF SOURCES' - - limitations of passive tagging are discussed in detail OF MYSTERY OIL SPILLS by Zafiriou et al. (1973), Gruenfeld (1973),'Lynch v)- - ' - ^ - and Brown (1973), Miller (1973), .and Coakley Mystery oil spills for which the source is unknown (1973). account for 30 percent of the oil spills in United ' . -. States waters (NAS, 1973, 1974). There are two potential means by which the source of mystery oil AT A OF TRANFER AND FATES OF OIL INPUTS spills can be identified. The first method is active MARINAE ENVIRONI NPTS . tagging of oil tanker cargoes, pipeline loads., and storage tank, contents with microscopic spheres or -special chemicals. The size of the bureaucracy neces- A basic understanding .of the various pathways sary to ensure accurate records renders this method of transfer and fate of oil inputs has been arrived at impractical. from laboratory studies, field. studies, and the appli- The second method involves detailed chemical cation of existing scientific knowledge of processes analysis of the spilled oils and potential sources. in - the . marine environment. These pathways sand The chemical parameters are theh compared and fates are diagrammed in Fig. 2. Fundamental ques- the best match of a potential source with the spilled tions which are yet to be satisfactorily answered oil is attempted. This techniqie 'is called ''j.assiVe about transfer pathways and fates are ; tagging" and makes use of the unique chemical . - composition of each oil to distinguish oils one from · What portions of oil inputs follo w each of the another and match oils from source and spill sam- various pathways of trafhsfer? . . - ples. The technique is also referred to as "finger- - What are the rates of biochemical and chemical printing,"' which is perhaps unfortunate. MAiany non- degradation of whole- oil and components' of dil scientists in the field of oil pollutioncontrol have during the various stages of movement through the mistakenly equated "fingerprinting" in identifying marine environment? - - mystery oil, spill sources with fingerprinting in crim- . What are the finial rates' of removal of; oil -by OTHER POLLUTANTS . 389 PHOTOCHEMICAL eVAPORATION Kolpack, 1971; NAS, 1973, 1974; Blumer et al., REACTIONS 1970). Man also plays an important role in this ROCKS ' \X / I CLEAN UP I process by dumping oil polluted sediment from har- ROCKS OPERATIONSI bor dredging and sewage sludge in coastal areas BEACHES TARBALLS R such as the New York Bight (Farrington, 1974). IPARTICULATE E (PARTICLES) The result of the natural or manmade processes is I MATTER .I Z L t to spread the oil polluted sediment and thus the $ ii < t affected area increases even though dilution proc- - INGESTION eY [ /GDISSOLUTION esses may ameliorate the effects somewhat. KIISEDIMENTSI , Biodegradation of Oil X BIOCHEMICAL /BR IAL Extensive research has been aimed towards a OXIDATION IGEOCHE JCALE better understanding of the biodegradation of oil , DEPOSIT and individual classes of compounds, and individual RATE ? compounds found in oil (NAS, 1973, 1975; Davis, 1967; Zobell, 1969; Ahearn and Meyers, 1973). The FIGURE 2.-Fate of oilinputs. majority of these studies are laboratory studies. There is little doubt that several species of micro- biochemical and chemical degradation, and by deep organisms, e.g. bacteria and yeasts, will completely burial in sediments? degrade certain components of oil given the right conditions in' the laboratory or in the field. It has been established that the rate of degradation will Physical-Chemical Processes depend on many factors such as the concentrations of nitrate, phosphate,. and dissolved oxygen in the M[any of 'the processes which act on the oil result water, the presence of other organic compounds, - water, the presence of other organic compounds, in a fractionation of the oil and selective removal of and the history of previous exposure of an area to certain components from the marine environment oil inputs. more rapidly than others. Lower molecular weight Bacteria capable of partially degrading oil have components of the type found in kerosene, gasoline, been isolated from severl locations in the world's and in varying concentrations of crude oils and fuel oceans. However, the rate at which the degradation oils will evaporate more rapidly than the heavier of oil will proceed in the various types of coastal molecular weight components such as those making areas is unknown. Also questioned is the potential up the bulk of lubricating oils. The lower molecular pathogenicity towards marine organisms for some weight components are also more soluble than the species of bacteria which might increase in number species of bacteria which might increase in number heavier molecular weight molecules. For exampl9, near or in an oil spill area (NAS, 1974). Likewise, several experiments (Boylan and Tripp, 197f; little is known about the toxicity of the chemicals Frankenfeld, 1973; API, 1974) have shown that produced by microbial degradation of oil. In fact, when No. 2 fuel oil is placed in contact with sea- we have only rudimentary knowledge of the bio- water, the aromatic hydrocarbons of the fuel oil are chemical pathways and products of the biochemical dissolved or accommodated in the water to a greater degradation of oil (NAS, 1973, 1975; Davis, 1967; extent than are the saturated hydrocarbon compo- Zobell, 1969; Ahearn and Meyers, 1973). nents of the oil. The adsorption of oil onto or into suspended sediments and subsequent washing with water can Oil inr Marine Organisms: result in fractionation of the oil with some coinpo- Input, Retention, nents adhering more readily to the sediments than Release, Metabolism others (Meyers, 1972). However, this may not always occur. Mixing of a No. 2 fuel oil with sedi- The pathways of oil incorporation into marine ment by wave action and turbulence resulted .in organisms are outlined in the left portion of Figure 3. essentially intact oil being incorporated into sedi- Oil may enter marine organisms by ingestion of ments (Blumer et al., 1971b). contaminated food, Oil may also enter marine orga- , Once oil is incorporated into sediments it may.be nisms from water across membrane surfaces such transported to other areas by resuspension and trans- as gills. . port of the oil polluted sediment (Straughan and Data collected in three independent studies sug- 390 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL _ :1. COATING Aside from the few measurements mentioned above DIREDUCTE RESISTALL CE (Blumer, 1971), there are no studies of the retention OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL of petroleum hydrocarbons taken up under condi- STRESSES. e.g. TEMPERATURE of petroleum hydr ocarbon s taken up under condi- DISEASES, OTHER POLLUTANTS tions of massive inputs to the organisms' habitat by oil spills. There are also no studies on the uptake, SOLUBLE .1 $ 2. OIL INGESTED OR INCORPORATED retention, and discharge of petroleum hydrocarbons OIL EMUSIIEDO ACROSS MEMBRANES. e g. GILL l/ASUDREFACT KILL E Svia ingestion with food. The studies cited above do A. DIRECT KILL DISSOLVED OR B. SUBLETHAL EFFECTS provide a good model for future studies of longer ACCOMODATED iPLANKTON 1. REPRODUCTIVE FAILURE INTO WATER / 2. CHEMICAL COMMUNICATIONS duration which could test the effects of years of 3. STRESSED AT DISADVANTAGE exposure to chronic inputs of oil via uptake across TO OTHER SPECIES e.g. ABILITY TO AVOID PREDATOR membrane surfaces from water or ingested with food. AND TO CAPTURE PREY. question L b these studies 4. DISRUPTION OF MIGRATION An important question for which these studies SHELLFISH e.g. SALMON provide some insight is whether or not there is food WORMS web magnification of oil pollutants. An example of food web magnification is the process where oil pol- EFFECTSON MARKETING O concentration would COMMERCIALLY VALUABLE SPECIES lutants of X concentration pnytoplankton would become 10X concentrated in the zooplankton which 1. TAINTING-ASTHETICALLY UNPLEASANT 2. HUMAN HEALTH HAZARD - POTENTIAL eat the phytoplankton, and 100X concentrated in HAZARD: LITTLE KNOWLEDGE the fish which eat the zooplankton. This process FIGURE 3.-Pathways of oil incorporation into marine life would occur if the zooplankton and fish, the higher and effects on marine life. members of the food web, accumulated all the pol- lutant they ingested and did not metabolize or gest that oil incorporation into shellfish and fish is discharge a portion of the pollutant. This process, reversible to some extent when the shellfish or fish if operative, would mean that many commercially are placed in clean water for a period of time valuable species of marine organisms which are (Stegeman and Teal, 1973; Lee et al., 1972 a, b; higher members of the food web may concentrate Anderson, 1973). Most, but not all, of the oil taken petroleum pollutants to the extent that adverse up from water by the shellfish was discharged within effects would ensue There is also the question of weeks to months. Indications, however, from a lim- whether concentrations would reach a limit which ited number of analyses for one experiment reveal would adversely affect the human consumer. The that oysters exposed for two months to oil from an data collected in these and two other studies (Burns oil spill did not appreciably reduce their oil pollut- and Teal, 1971, 1973) suggest that food web mag- ant content even after 180 days in cleaner waters. nification is not operative for some communities of The fact that this experiment gave somewhat dif- marine organisms. ferent results than the other experiments may be a result of the heavy dosage of oil experienced by' the Application of Existing Knowledge shellfish under spill conditions. Fish tested in the laboratory partially metabolized BIODEGRADATION OF OIL INPUTS several different aromatic hydrocarbons of the type found in crude and fuel oils (Lee et al., 1972b). Investigations of the feasibility of seeding oil Mussels, however, did not metabolize these com- spills with bacteria shown to be capable of degrading pounds under similar laboratory test conditions. oil in the laboratory have been initiated (Miget, (Lee et al., 1972a). This points to the obvious R. J., 1973). This has been suggested as only a last danger of extrapolating from one class or species of resort approach by the NAS report (1974). The organism to others. Furthermore, caution should be benefits accrued from releasing an essentially un- exercised in extrapolating from the few compounds controlled chain of unknown events are far out- tested to other compounds in petroleum since dif- weighed by the potential hazards at this time. ferences in the molecular structure of compounds Applications of existing knowledge about biodeg- can have profound effects on the rates at which the radation of oil may find widespread use in the near compounds are metabolized, if they are metabolized future. Biodegradation of oil in industrial effluent at all. holding ponds, tanker ballast waters either in tanks The above studies provided several replicate tests on the ships or in holding facilities on shore may be of the uptake of petroleum hydrocarbons from water a feasible method of partially cleaning up this type by marine organisms and the retention and release of input to the marine environment while it is still once these organisms are placed in clean water. concentrated at its source (NAS, 1974). OTHER POLLUTANTS 391 PATHWAYS OF TRANSFER AND FATi an integral component of their environment, this same exposure may affect the adjacent marine en- It is known to some degree how oil pollutants vironment in varying degrees. move through the marine environment and where An additional important point to make regarding they tend to accumulate. This information facilitates oil pollution of marine organisms consumed by man surveys of the extent and damage of the oil inputs is that negative indications of oil pollution by taste to the marine environment. It also provides input panel tests have occurred even when the shellfish to models which attempt to predict the movement tested contained at least 2 ppm (wet weight) of oil -of oil spills and their severity and extent. pollutants from a No. 2 fuel oil spill as determined Another application is in the evaluation of the by chemical analysis (Blumer et al., 1971b). The advantages and limitations of methods of treating chemicals responsible for the adverse taste may be or cleaning up oil spills. For example, the use of metabolized or released more rapidly than the bulk non-toxic emulsifiers (see later section on effects) of the oil pollutants in the organisms. Therefore, or dispersants on an oil spill would result in increased negative taste panel tests do not assure the'absence dissolution of the oil and accommodation into the of oil pollutants. Furthermore, there has yet to be water column, adsorption into particulate matter, a study to calibrate taste panel tests with seafood and incorporation into sediments. On the one hand containing known concentrations of oil. this might further the biodegradation of the oil by increasing mixing of oil, nutrients, oxygen, and nat- Recommendation urally occurring microbial populations capable of Recommendation degrading the oil. On the other hand, it would spread It is essential that further research be conducted It is essential that further research be conducted oil throughout the water column and sediments, potentially increasing the extent and severity of the on the transfer of oil pollutants into marine orga- potentially increasing the extent and severity of the nss attoigo h oltnswti h toxic effects on organisms. The incorporation of sig- nisms, partitioning of the pollutants within the nificant quantities of the oil into sediments could organisms, metabolism within the organisms, and niog heexo eof ian area tof the oil and have cudrelease or discharge of oil pollutants once the orga- prolong the e axposur e ofanarato thelin o i lan d havenisms are no longer exposed to the oil pollutants in an adverse effect on the bottom dwelling organisms. their habitat. This information is basic to under- Resuspension of the sediment and transport to other the ht s fortion ai n areas would increase the size of the affected area. standing the effects of oil pollution on marine The use of sinking agents to remove the slick from organisms, to understanding pathways of transfer surface waters would also result in the incorporation and fate of oil pollutants in the marine environment, of the oil into sediments and thus may not be ad- and to understanding if, when, and how oil pollutants accumulate in seafood. visable for the same reasons cited in the previous accumulate in seafood. paragraph. Of course, in cases where dangers from fire or extensive damage from coating of boats or MEASUREMENT OF AND beaches is the primary concern then the use of sink- CURRENT LEVELS OF OIL POLLUTION ing or dispersing agents would be advisable. IN THE UNITED STATES COASTAL ZONE The discussion in the preceding paragraphs under- AND CONTINENTAL SHELF lines the point that prevention of accidental dis- charges is preferable to cleanup operations. Like- Analysis of Marine Samples wise, it is clear that research and development.con- to Detect Petroleum Pollution cerned with physical contamination and cleanup of oil spills should continue. oil spills should continue. Discussions of the procedures used and the prob- lems encountered in analyzing marine samples for quantities of oil not visible to the eye are given in Summary several references (NAS, 1973; NAS, 1974; API, 1969, 1971, 1973; Goldberg, 1972b; Goldberg, Once oil is released to the marine environment it 1972c). The discussions are of a very technical is subjected to multiple processes and moves via nature and are best summarized for a report of many pathways through the marine environment, this type as follows: Research during the past few years has documented beyond any doubt that the absence of a visible oil 1) Several cases have been reported in which slick in no way assures the absence of oil in the petroleum hydrocarbons from accidental spills and underlying waters, sediments, or organisms. Further- from chronid inputs have been detected. more, oil incorporated into sediments may persist 2) No one method of analysis will provide reliable for years (Blumer et al., 1970). Since sediments are estimates of the concentration of the entire range of 392 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL petroleum compounds. Fuel oils and crude oils are Table 3.-Concentrations of petroleum pollutants in water, sediments, and complex mixtures of compounds with wide molecu- organisms of the coastal and continental shelf areas of the United States lar weight ranges. There has yet to be a complete Water: less than 2 pg/liter to 50 pg/liter analysis of a single crude oil. 3) There are marked differences between hydro- Sediments: less than Ipglg dry weight to 3500 pg/g dry weight carbons biosynthesized by organisms and hydrocar- Organisms: less than 1 ,g/g wet weight to 230 pg/g wet weight bons in petroleum. The latter are very much more complex than the former and include a wide variety Tar on Beaches: East Coast (1969)--5 g/meter to 8 g/meter Florida, Miami Beach to West Palm Beach (1973)--avg. of of compounds which have not been found in orga- 5.4 gfmeter nisms in laboratory culture experiments or in areas California (1961)-3 to 100 g/meter where there is little or no petroleum pollution. How- ever, many sources exist for small amounts of hydro- NAS (1973, 1974), and references therein. carbons in marine samples: biological processes, geo- chemical processes, pollution processes. Careful at- tention to recognizing the possible inputs from these nism samples have been reported in the literature sources is needed in order to detect man's input of to date exclusive of reports of visible sheens on petroleum pollutants. In areas where natural oil the water. seeps occur, this problem is extremely difficult. The fact that there are so few published measure- 4) Reports of the presence or absence of petroleum ments of the extent and severity of oil pollution in pollution should be carefully evaluated to be certain sediments and organisms in United States coastal that the methods of chemical analysis employed waters probably testifies to the difficulty of making would indeed provide the information claimed to analytical measurements to detect petroleum pollu- have been obtained. tion. (Goldberg, 1972a). Present Concentrations of EFFECTS OF OIL Oil Pollutants in U.S. Coastal ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT and Continental Shelf Areas Aesthetic Effects There are a limited number of measurements of oil pollutants in the water, sediment, and organisms The coating of beaches, shorelines, and recrea- of the United States coastal zone. Only a few loca- tional and commercial boats and ships by spilled tions have been sampled more than once. In addition oil is an obvious adverse effect. This represents a to the lack of data, it is difficult to compare one financial loss to boat owners and to the recreational area with the other because of the differences in and aesthetic value of a shoreline (NAS, 1974; methods of analysis and criteria for distinguishing Butler et al., 1973). oil pollutant hydrocarbons from hydrocarbons pres- ent due to biogenic or contemporary geochemical processes. Despite these restrictions the data do Biological Effects provide estimates of the present concentrations of oil pollutants and are given in Table 3. These data Toxic EFFECTS are taken mainly from the NAS Report with elimi- nation of the data for coastal areas of other countries Toxic effects involving the death of the organism and for deep sea samples. exposed to oil may occur soon after exposure to the General- conclusions which can be drawn from oil slick or to oil components transported through these -data and the data given in the NAS Report the water or via sediments as indicated in Figures from which they were summarized are as follows. 2 and 3 and previous discussions. Toxic effects may 1) Oil pollutants have been detected in sediment, also occur at later dates as the concentrations of oil water, and organisms in areas of large oil spills. in the organisms increase or the oil is transported 2) Oil pollutants have also been detected in sedi- to new areas. ment, water, and organisms from areas where no Toxic effects generally can be divided into two large spills have occurred in the past months or categories: effects from smothering in the oil, or years. These areas are near sources of small spills effects from oil taken into the organisms or absorbed and chronic dribbling inputs. into the organisms from water or sediments. Toxic 3) No more than an estimated 300 analyses for effects have been reported for spilled oil and from petroleum pollutants in sediment, water, and orga- studies in the laboratory (NAS, 1974). OTHER POLLUTANTS . 393 SUBLETHAL AND CHRONIC EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS effects in other functions such as reproduction and metabolism. These effects do not directly result in the immedi- 4) Blue mussels which were juveniles in the area ate death of the organism exposed to oil. There are of the West Falmouth oil spill at the time of the numerous ways that oil can have an adverse effect spill developed almost no eggs or sperm the next on marine life without the result being immediately season (Blumer et al., 1971a). The development of apparent in the form of dead plants or animals. The .sand dollar eggs has also been shown to be adversely types of effects in this category which have been affected by oil in the laboratory studies (Parker, observed or suspected as -being important for indi- 1974).-effects on reproduction. vidual organisms are effects on: 5) Effects at the cellular and organ level in clams have been reported. Soft shell clams from .an area near an. oil spill had a higher incidence of gonadal Fertilization and development tumors than soft, shell clams from a control area Growth (LaRoche, 1973)-effects on cells and organs and Metabolism-photosynthesis and respiration probably on reproduction. Behavior Cells and organs EFFECTS ON THE COMMUNITIES Some specific examples of the above are given OF MARINE ORGANISMS below. A more detailed presentation: is given in the NAS Report (1974). Closely related communities of organisms may 1) The reduction in the intake and metabolism also be profoundly affected. For example, effects of phytoplankton detritus by mussels (Gilfillan, on marsh grasses may cause the marsh to be an 1973)-an effect on metabolism. unsuitable place for the crabs and mussels which 2) Reduction in the rates of photosynthesis of live in the marsh. Effects on worms in the sediments phytoplankton cultures (Kauss et al., 1973; Parker, can affect the fish which feed on the worms. Many 1974). This is' an interference with the process by worms also play an important part in sediment which carbon dioxide is converted to food for the stability. Their tubes contribute to holding the sedi- major part of marine life-an effect on-metabolisnm. ment in place. If the worms are killed and the tubes 3) Interference with the chemical communication decay the sediment may be easily eroded and the between marine animals. Many marine animals com- polluted sediment transported to other areas. The municate with one another via chemicals given off movement of the sediment will disturb other orga- to the water, i.e. odors. Some predators are attracted nisms living on the bottom even though they might to their prey by smell. One study has shown a sig- not have been directly affected by the oil. nificant adverse effect on the finding of food by a predator (Jacobson and Boylan, 1973).. Chemical communications or chemotaxis are also OIL SPILLS important to the reproduction of some animals. Male lobsters are attracted to feminale lobsters .for One of the most heated controversies regarding reproductive purposes by a chemical released by the oil pollution is that surrounding studies of the bio- female. Low concentrations of chemicals resulting logical effects of oil inputs to the marine environ- from oil in the water may interfere with this process. ment. The controversy is due in part to a seeming A third area where chemical communications is contradiction of the reported effects or lack of effects important is in the areaof migration to home rivers when comparing studies of oil spills. The contra- by anadromous fish for the purpose of spawning. diction -arises when one does not carefully read One laboratory study has shown that oil in seawater reports -and take into account two basic sets of repels salmon from entering the water of their home factors for oil spill studies. stream (Rice, 1973). : The first set of factors pertains to the oil spill The significance of these' studies is that they itself. These factors were set forth by. Straughan demonstrate the potential effects that low concen- (1972) and have recently been restated (NAS, trations of oil in water might have if -a spill or 1974). They vary from spill to spill and influence chronic release occurred at the time of year when the effect and fate of the spilled oil. They are: marine animals were entering the reproductive phase. The effects on predator-prey interactions Type of oil spilled would be important throughout the year. These Dose of oil in a given.area - are effects on behavior which result in adverse Physiography of the area of the spill 394 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Weather conditions at the time of the spill have shown, as one might expect, that concentrations Biota of the area of the spill of oil at which biological effects occur can vary from Previous exposure of the area to oil pollution fuel oil to fuel oil and crude oil to crude oil when Exposure to other pollutants tested against one species. The studies have also Treatment of spill, e.g. use of emulsifiers, dis- shown that different species and adults and juveniles persants, or sinking agents of the same species vary in their susceptibility to toxic effects when tested against the same oil. A second set of factors influencing oil spill stud- ies are: ies are: EFFECTS OF OFFSHORE DRILLING AND PRODUCTION 1) A spill is not predictable as to its location and time. In the past, studies of spills have been of the The question of the long-term effects of offshore nature of getting out into the area with the best drilling and production on fisheries is one which has available means at hand and studying what could no easy answer. Certainly, the fisheries in the Gulf be studied within the expertise of the scientists in- of Mexico have not been destroyed and are a viable volved. In an ideal situation this would involve sector of the economy. This experience suggests at biologists, chemists, geochemists, geologists, meteor- first glance that no long-term effects have been ologists, and physical oceanographers. Such a team noticed. However, for the sake of argument I pro- of scientists is rarely sitting around waiting for an pose the following scenario: Prior to offshore produc- oil spill to happen and as such it is difficult for tion in the Gulf of Mexico the fisheries there were them to drop everything they are doing and head at a very low level of productivity due to natural out for the field or immediately begin laboratory causes. During the past 30 years or so the fishery studies. would have increased in productivity potential by a 2) The different methods used to study oil spills, factor of 10. However, because of some unknown the different animals or plants studied, and differ- and undetected effect of the oil* production the ences in the duration of the study vary from one fishery only increased in yield by a factor of 2. This spill to the next. Thus, the task of trying to com- factor of 2 suggests by itself that the oil production pare studies from one spill to the next is a frustrating had no long-term effect and may have been some- one somewhat akin to comparing measurements of what beneficial. However, we cannot state for cer- distance in kldlometers to measurements of distance tain that there was no effect, since in reality we do in miles without having more than a foggy idea of not know what the fishery potential would have the conversion factor. been without the oil production. The hypothetical factor of 10 which was used for the sake of the argu- The oil spill studies to date have shown that ment might have been realized without the presence spilled oil does adversely affect some marine orga- of the offshore drilling and production activities. nisms (NAS, 1973, 1974). The effects vary in Likewise, it may be argued on a hypothetical basis severity and duration. Complete recovery may take that without the offshore drilling and production years and is not related to whether or not there are rigs the fishery may have declined due to natural visible concentrations of oil present. causes. Without knowledge of natural fluctuations in fisheries it is impossible to conclude whether or not offshore production adversely affects fisheries. LABORATORY STUDIES Several other factors suggest caution when using OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS the Gulf of Mexico fisheries as an example for advocacy of drilling and production in other areas. A comparison of laboratory studies of the effects The oil produced may have a much greater effect of oil on marine organisms suffers from many of the per unit weight than the oil produced in the Gulf same restrictions cited in the above section on oil of Mexico. The fisheries may be of a different type spills. A variety of oils have been tested on a variety and dependent on species much more susceptible to of marine organisms under a variety of laboratory the effects of oil. The combined effects of oil and a conditions. different environment may be more severe. However, several studies have been conducted It is certain that pipelines coming onshore and under conditions similar enough or conducted in the support facilities on shore can have a severe effect same laboratory so that the following comments on coastal areas if not properly managed (St. Amant, can be set forth (NAS, 1973, 1974). The studies 1972). 396 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL more spectacular. It is known that offshore drilling consumption of oil. Since this does not seem likely, and production discharges only a small fraction of programs to reduce the dribbling of oil into the the total oil input to the marine environment. It is marine environment should be instituted. Reuse or also known that the major input of oil to the marine re-refining of waste oils is an example of a program environment is the result of the chronic dribbling which would help to reduce inputs and conserve a losses which accompany present methods of using oil. valuable resource. 2) A reduction in ship accidents might be accom- plished by better traffic and safety regulations. Re- Pathways of Transfer duction in the amount of oil spilled in an accident and Fates of Oil Inputs to the MF arine Environment might be accomplished by the construction of false bottom tankers. The use of the false bottoms as It has been demonst;rated onc$ again that the segregated ballast tanks would, also reduce the cliche "out of sight, out of mind" should not apply amount of oil entering the marine environment to environmental problems. The disappearance of from tanker ballasting operations. A detailed discus- an oil slick does not mean that the oil has dis- sionofthissubjectisgivenintheFinalEnvironmen appeared from the marine environment. Oil inputs tal Impact Statement, Maritime Administration move by a variety of pathways through the marine Tanker Construction Program (NTIS, 1973). environment and are affected by many processes. 3) Offshore drilling and production with its at- The ultimate fates of oil discharged to the marine tendant risks appears to be safer in the long run environment are chemical or biochemical degrada- for the marine environment as a whole than import- tion, and/or buirial at depth in sediments. Our ing an equal quantity of oil. This argument assumes knowledge is mostly of the qualitative nature of that the oil produced offshore is piped ashore and these movements and processes. Extensive quanti- not transported elsewhere. tative estimates of rates of movement and rates or If we assume that we will continue to consume processes affecting oil inputs are still lacking. oil and even increase consumption, then we should proceed with offshore drilling and. production as ,soon as the problems with coastal land use plans, Effects of Oil jurisdiction over offshore operations, and socio- on the Marine Environment economic problems are resolved. The arguments about the longrterm- effects of The known or suspected effects are diagrammed offshore drilling and production involve such large in Fig. 3. The aesthetic effects are obvious. The segments of the marine environment that satisfac- immediate toxic effects are also apparent from stud- tory answers will only be obtained by conducting ies of accidental oil spills. Subtle long-range chronic the experiment. That is, conduct the offshore drilling and sublethal effects are known in a few cases and and production in such a manner as to ensure close suspected in many others. Effects can be at the monitoring and control. Given close monitoring and level of cells and organs, whole organisms, or com- accompanying research in the laboratory and the munities of organisms. field there is a good chance of averting an ecological The chronic long-term effects of offshore drilling catastrophe before it occurs. This does not mean and production are largely guessed at or suspected. that all adverse effects will be detected, but rather The long-term environmental hazards or the long- that any effects which escape the monitoring and term safety of offshore drilling and production are control processes mill be small and acceptable in both unproven. return for the benefit of the oil resource utilization. Human health hazards resulting from eating oil Human health haoards resulting from eating oil It should be emphasized the sacrifice of the long- contaminated seafood are suspected but not yet term potential productivity of the offshore fisheries proven. resource is, not advocated. In fact, this would be a primary consideration of any research and monitor- APPLICATIONS OF ing program. OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE 4) The knowledge of pathways of transfer and fate of oil inputs is sufficient to provide an evaluation 1) It appears that the major sources of oil input of some methods of combating oil slicks. In addition, to the marine environment have been defined. It is -the movement of oil slicks and oil in the marine clear that the only hope of a significant reduction environment is sufficiently documented to be of in the major oil input to the marine environment some use in making first approximation models of in the immediate future is a reduction in the total the fate of oil, spills (MIT, 1973). OTHER POLLUTANTS 395 EFFECTS OF REFINERY EFFLUENTS treated and explained as the problem of radionuclides AND OIL DISCHARGED in seafood is treated and explained. Average inputs IN EFFLUENTS FROM or average consumptions should not be used. Rather, MUNICIPAL AND STORM SEWERS care must be taken to ensure that all segments of the population are protected (Bowen, 1974). Investigations of the effects of oil refinery efflu- A cceptable level for oil in seafood should not ents have shown that release of effluents in sheltered be set simply because the average New York resident tida watrs klledneaby mrsh lant (Baerbe set simply because the average New York resident tidal waters killed nearby marsh plants (Baker, is exposed to 200 times or more carcinogens from 1971). Refinery effluents released to waters exposed other sources. Rather, the acceptable risk level, if other sources. Rather, the acceptable risk level, if to rapid flushing characteristics had little noticeable there is one, should take into account the Maine effect (Baker, 1973). However, only a few segments shellfisherman who eats far more shellfish and may of the community of marine life were investigated. be exposed to far less carcinogen input from other No studies of the effects of oil discharged by sources. sewage and storm sewer effluents have been con- ducted. It would be difficult to unravel the effects of the oil from the effects of the other chemicals in Summary these effluents. Documented studies of the effects of oil on marine organisms are limited in number. The data available SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS show that different oils have different degrees of effects on organisms. Effects range from immediate There is concern that oil pollutants and other lethality to subtle long-range effects. The effects of pollutants such as PCBs will act in concert such asingle oil vary from species to species and within that their combined effects are more severe than a species vary from adult to juvenile. predicted from the sum of their effects when acting O knowledge of the subtle sblethal and chronic individually. No reports of such studies have been effects of oil is severely limited. Data from a fe published to date. effects of oil is severely limited. Data from a few published to date. studies provide a basis for concern. Certainly, fur- ther studies are warranted based on the data col- Human Health Considerations lected on these problems. It is impossible to decide at present whether or The most significant potential human health haz- not offshore fisheries suffer long-term adverse effects ard is the consumption of seafood contaminated from offshore drilling and production. The data with oil. There are at present no standards for decid- needed is not available and will be extremely difficult ing if a particular concentration of oil in seafood to obtain. represents a human health hazard. A very emotional controversy centers around the SUMMARY OF MAJOR AREAS carcinogenic potential of oil contamination of seafood OF PROGRESS TO DATE (Anon., 1974). The NAS Report (1974) states- "That the amount of one carcinogen, benzopyrene, The last five years have provided significant over- entering the oceans from oil is small compared to all advancement in our knowledge of the input, fate, the amount released into the total global environ- and effects of oil in coastal and continental shelf ment from other sources." The report further states areas. There has also been a significant increase in "Our knowledge of the properties of all the constitu- the awareness of oil pollution in the public, gov- ents of petroleum is not complete and therefore ernm ental, and industry sectors. New laws and ernmental, and industry sectors. New laws and there might be some dangerous materials present regulations have resulted as well as research and de- in petroleum that are still unidentified." ein petroleum that are still unidentified." velopment of new technology to reduce oil pollution. The manner in which the NAS report (1974) ap- proached the problem of carcinogens in seafood could be misleading to the public and decision makers. The Inputs report places emphasis on the point that the con- sumption of oil contaminated seafood by the average Our knowledge of the sources of oil entering the consumer would expose the consumer to a very small marine environment is now at the stage where we amount .of carcinogens relative to the amount he can estimate their relative importance and begin is exposed to from other sources such as air pollu- studies to better quantify the inputs. It is known tion. I submit that the problem of consumption of that accidental inputs are a small fraction of the carcinogens in oil contaminated seafood should be total input even though accidental spills are much OTHER POLLUTANTS 397 5) We have a fair understanding of the immediate reducing costs. Samples would be collected from toxic effects of oil. We also have a suspicion and in several locations within study areas and control some cases rudimentary knowledge of the subtle areas. However, only samples from key representa- sublethal and long-term chronic effects of oil on tive locations would be analyzed to determine if marine life. The foundation has been laid for future adverse effects and/or increased petroleum contain- studies to detail the concentration levels and envi- ination were present. If such increases or effects ronmental conditions at which oil will affect marine were detected, then the entire sample set for that life. season or year could be removed from archives and 6) It is known that seafood consumed by man analyzed to determine the geographical extent and can be contaminated by oil. This should stimulate severity of the effect or increase. research to set acceptable levels for human consump: tion. In this regard, it is essential that the worse Cost of Oil Pollution Research possible case be considered for the consumption of oil-contaminated seafood. The experience in protect- The sophisticated types of investigations which ing seafood consumers from radionuclides should be are needed to understand the inputs, fates, and used as a guide (Bowen, 1974). Use of an average effects of oil pollution in the marine environment rate of consumption of oil contaminated seafood to require substantial funds. For example, the costs arrive at a decision whether there is a serious public for collecting, analyzing and reporting data on the health hazard may expose a segment of the popula- level of petroleum pollutants in samples of water, tion to unwarranted risk. sediments, and organisms from four sampling sites in an offshore production area and two control areas RESEARCH AND MONITORING NEEDS would be about $180,000 per year if sampling were conducted four times a year. If the costs of biological Any study of marine environmental quality prob- analyses, geological and physical oceanographic stud- lems is based on current knowledge of biological, ies are added and the total multiplied by monitoring physical, chemical, and geological processes in the of three potential offshore drilling and production marine environment. Continued and increased fund- locations on the Atlantic Continental Shelf, then ing of research towards understanding these basic the cost would be about $2.5 million per year. These processes in the marine environment is absolutely estimates are based on current costs of obtaining essential for short-term and long-term protection such data in research programs and may be re- and upgrading of marine environmental quality. duced somewhat by concentration of activities Research into general aspects of oil pollution and reduction in cost per analysis because of the problems or in specific areas should be conducted large volume of analyses needed. in a manner which is scientifically sound and flexible enough to pursue interesting and relevant problems SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS as they develop. Available funds should be primarily FOR RESEARCH AND MONITORING funneled to scientists via research grants. This mechanism is preferable to the Request for Proposal Inputs (RFP) route which seems to be gaining favor in government environmental research management. mntrn fvraiiyo nus government environmental research management. 1) Reliable identification, quantification, and Research grants written by scientists and reviewed monitoring of variability of inputs. by their peers have a better chance of producing 2) Development and application of better remote useful scientific information than the RFPs issued monitoring capabilities. in the field of oil pollution research. More extensive measurement of the extent and Measurements severity of oil pollution in United States waters is needed. Measurements should be made in a manner 1) Development and/or application of reliable which will provide answers as to pathways of trans- methods for detecting and quantifying oil pollutants fer, rates of transfer, processes of transfer, and fates in water, sediment, and organisms. of oil inputs in the marine environment. 2) Application of these methods in conjunction MIeasurements in areas of offshore production, oil with investigations. of biological effects, transfer ports, and refinery locations as well as control areas processes, and fates of oil inputs. remote from these locations are needed to detail 3) Wider geographical coverage and time series man-induced and natural fluctuations. Monitoring measurements of oil pollutants in the marine envi- should make use of sample archiving as a means of ronment. 398 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Transfer and Fates A mechanism for ensuring quality of oil spill of Oil Pollutants studies and at the same time involving competent scientists in oil spill studies is as follows. 1) Development of models for predicting move- Provide funding to a few key laboratories for ment and fate of oil spills and chronic oil inputs. laboratory and field studies on the effect and fate This should be undertaken for harbor areas handling of new refinery discharges and offshore production. large volumes of oil cargoes, offshore drilling and This would ensure that a good solid nucleus of re- production areas, oil storage areas, and pipeline search scientists and associated facilities would be routes. actively engaged in oil pollution research. When an 2) Research to better document the rates of bio- oil spill occurred which, in the judgement of the degradation of oil in situ in the marine environment. Environmental Protection Agency project officers This includes research to identify pathways of me- and the research scientists, was of interest from the tabolism or chemical reaction and the effects of the point of view of gaining some knowledge about the products of these processes. fate and effects of oil spills then a study team could 3) Research to better understand the uptake, be formed by the expansion of the existing research retention, metabolism and release of oil pollutants team. from marine organisms. This includes further re- This plan does away with the need for "instanta- search as to whether or not food web magnification neous" emergence of a research team at the time an of oil pollutants is operative and, if so, when and oil spill study is desirable. where. 4). Research to quantify the rates and processes affecting movement of oil through the marine Laboratory and Field Studies environment. The understanding of inputs, transfers, effects, and fates of oil inputs which is needed for effective Effects management of oil inputs and protection of the marine environment will only be obtained by both 1) Toxic effects measurements. laboratory and field studies. For example, field 2) Long-term chronic, lethal, and sublethal effects measurements will provide an estimate of the exist- measurements both in the laboratory and in situ. ing concentration levels of oil. Laboratory bioassays 3) Research on human health aspects of oil pollu- can then proceed to determine if these have a long- tion of seafood. Needs to be resolved as soon as term effect. Conversely, laboratory studies can pro- possible. This is a very emotional issue and one vide an estimate of the acceptable concentration which places federal, regional, state, and local health level of oil in the marine environment. Field studies authorities in a quandry. They have no guidelines to can establish how close the current concentration use in deciding when to restrict or allow consumption. levels are to the acceptable concentration level and 4) All studies of effects should be accompanied by project when closer control of inputs will be needed reliable controls and quantitative measurements. in a given area. Furthermore, it is impossible to reconstruct an entire natural ecosystem in a labora- Oil Spill Studies tory. Field studies are essential to investigate effects on large segments of ecosystems or entire ecosystems. I have read several final or draft reports of oil spill studies conducted by contractors to the Envi- REFERENCES ronmental Protection Agency. Most reports were of Ahearn, D. C. and S. P. Meyers. 1973. 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Decade of Ocean Exploration Baseline Conference, May Environmental Affairs 1:54-73. 24-26, 1972. IDOE, National Science Foundation, Wash- ington, D.C. Blumer, M., H. Sanders, J. F. Grassle, and G. R. Hampson. 1971. A small oil spill. Environment 13:2-12. Goldberg, E. D. (convener) 1972b. Marine pollution monitor- ing: Strategies for a national program. Deliberations of a umr M J. Sass G. Souza H Sanders J. R. Grassle and workshop held at Santa Catalina Marine Laboratory of _Blmer, M .- , J sG. . S sJ . Gthe University of Southern California Allan Hancock G. Hampson. 1970. The West Falmouth oil spill. Technical Foundation, October 25-28, 1972. Sponsored by the Report 70-44 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Woods Hole, Mass., Unpublished manuscript. D e partment of Commerce, Washington, D .C . Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Blumer, M., G. Souza, J. Sass. 1971b. Hydrocarbon pollution Goldberg, E. D. (ed) 1972c. A guide to marine pollution of edible shellfish by an oil spill. Marine Biology 5:195-202. Gordon and Breach, New York. spillBoesh, D. F., C. H. Hershner, J. H. Milgram. 1974. Oil the Gruenfeld, M. 1973. Identification of oil pollutants. A review spills and the marine environment. Papers prepared for the Energy Policy Project of the Ford Foundation, Ballinger of some recent methods. p. 179-193 in API (1973). Publishing Company, Cambridge, Mass. Publishing Company, Cmbridge, Mass. Hotlt, D. P. (ed) 1969. Oil on the sea. Plenum Press. Bowen, V. T. 1974. Transuranic elements and nuclear wastes. Oceanus 18:43-54. Jacobson, S. M. and D. B. Boylan. 1973. Seawater soluble fraction of kerosene: effect on chemotaxis in a marine snail, Boylan, D. B. and B. W. Tripp. 1971. Determination of Nassarius obsoletus. Nature 241:213-215. hydrocarbons in seawater extracts of crude oils and crude oil fractions. Nature 230:44-47. Kauss, P., T. C. Hutchinson, C. Soto, J. Hellebust, and M. Griffiths. 1973. The toxicity of crude oil and its components Burns, K. A. and J. M. Teal. 1971. Hydrocarbon incorpora- to freshwater algae. p. 703-714 in API (1973). tion into the salt marsh ecosystem from the West Falmouth oil spill. Technical Report No. 71-69, Woods Hole Oceano- Ketchum, B. H. (ed) 1972. The water's edge. Critical prob- graphic Institution, Woods Hole, Mass. Unpublished lems of the coastal zone, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. manuscript. LaRoche, G. 1973. Analytical approach in the evaluation of Burns, K. A. and J. M. Teal. 1973. Hydrocarbons in the biological damage resulting from spilled oil. p. 347-374 in pelagic Sargassum community. Deep Sea Research 20: NAS (1973). 207-211. Lee, R. F., R. Sauerheber, and A. A. Benson. 1972. Petroleum Butler, J. N., B. F. Morris, J. Sass. 1973. Pelagic tar from hydrocarbons: Uptake and discharge by the marine mussel, Bermuda and the Sargasso Sea. Publication No. 10, Ber- Mytilus edulis. Science 177:344-346. muda Biological Station for Research, St. George's West, Bermuda. Lee, R. F., R. Sauerheber, and G. H. Dobbs. 1972. Uptake, metabolism, and discharge of polycyclic aromatic hydro- Coakley, W. A. 1973. Comparative identification of oil spills carbons by marine fish. Marine Biology 17:201-208. by fluorescence spectroscopy fingerprinting. p. 215-222 in API (1973). Lynch, P. F. and C. W. Brown. 1973. Identifying sources of petroleum by infrared spectroscopy. Environmental Science Davis, J. B. 1967. Petroleum microbiology. Elsevier Pub- and Technology 7:1123-1130. lishers, New York. Duce, R. A., P. L. Parker (ed). 1974. Pollutant transfer to the Mathews, W. H., F. E. Smith, and E. D. Goldberg' eds). marine environment. Deliberations and Recommendations 1971. Man's impact on terrestrial and ocean ecosystems. of the National Science Foundation, International Decade of Ocean Exploration Pollutant Transfer Workshop, January 11-12, 1974. IDOE, National Science Foundation, Meyers, P. A. 1972. Ph.D. Thesis, Graduate School of Washington, D.C. Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, R.I. 400 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Miget, R. J. 1973. p. 221-306 in Ahearn and Meyers (1973). Smith, J. '1968 (ed'. 1968. Torrey Canyon pollution 'and marine life. Report by the Plymouth Laboratory of the Miller, J. W. 1973. A multiparameter oil pollution source Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. identification system. p. 195-203 in API (1973). Cambridge University Press, London. MIT Offshore Group. 197? Georges Bank study. Smith, R. E. (ed). 1974. Proceedings of conference/workshop on marine environmental implications of offshore drilling NAS. 1971. Marine environmental quality. Suggested ret Eastern Gulf of Mexico, 1974. State University of Florida search programs for understanding man's effect on thee of Oceanography, St. Petersburg, Fla. oceans. Ocean Affairs Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. St. Amant, L. S. 1972. The petroleum industry as it affects marine and estuarine ecology. Journal of Petroleum Tech- NAS. 1973. Background papers for a workshop on inputs, nology, p. 385-392. fates, and effects of petroleum in the marine environment. Volumes I and II. Ocean Affairs Board, National Academy Stegeman, J. J. and J. M. Teal. 1973. Accumulation, release, of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1974. and retention of petroleum hydrocarbons by the oyster Crassostrea virginica. Marine Biology 22:37-44. NAS. 1974. Petroleum- in the marine environment: Inputs, techniques for analysis, fates and effects. Ocean Affairs Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., Straughan, D. 1972. Factors causing environmental change 1974Board, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., after an oil spill. Journal of Petroleum Technology, p. 250-254. National Technical Information Service Report No. EIS 730725-F. 1973. Final environmental impact statement, Straughan, D. and R. Kolpack (ed). 1971. Biological and Maritime Administration Tanker Construction Program. oceanographical studies of the Santa Barbara Channel oil United States Department of Commerce. spill 1969-1970. Volumes I and II. Sea Grant Publication No. 2 Allan Hancock Foumdation, University of Southern Parker, P. L. 1974. Experimental design for an environmental California, Los Angeles, Calif. program: Hydrocarbon analysis in an oil producing area. p. 279-289 in Smith (1974). Zaifirou, O. C., J. Meyers and R. Bourbonniere. 1973. Oil spill-source correlation by gas chromatography: An experi- Rice, S. D. 1973. Toxicity and avoidance tests with Prudhoe mental evaluation of system performance. Proceedings of Bay oil and pink salmon fry. p. 667-670 in API (1973). the Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills, 1973. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, SCEP. 1970. Man's impact on the global environment, assess- D.C., 153-159. ment and recommendations: for actionf, 1970. Report'of the study of critical environmental problems. MIT Press, ZoBell, C. E. 1969. Microbial modification of crude oil in the Cambridge, Mass. sea. p. 317-326 in API (1969). : ., i: CONSEQUENCES OF OIL POLLUTION IN THE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT OF THE GULF OF MEXICO". LEWIS R. BROWN M ississippi State University Mississippgi State, M ississippi ABSTRACT Incidences of oil pollution have been recorded for over 200 years, but only within the last 10 years has public attention been focused on the problem. Initially, the concern was for the aesthetic and acute effects; but attention has now been largely redirected toward low-level chronic effects, especially those posing a human health hazard. Other areas of increasing concern are the potential synergistic action of oil in conjunction with other pollutants and the long-term chronic effects of oil on the ecosystem. Data available in the literature have served to identify the potential prob- lems, but definition and resolution must await additional data. -More emphasis must be placed on. translating scientific data into 'information utilizable for making estuarine management decisions. INTRODUCTION acteristic alone makes it extrerriely' easy to detect oil, even to an unskilled observer, and it is interesting to The estuaries, unlike true marine. or freshwater note that the Federal Sheen Regulation takes ad- habitats, continually vary in salinity, and chemical vantage of this characteristic. Unfortunately, there composition and concentration (Christmas, 1973; are water-soluble constituents in crude oil, and it Odum, et al., 1974). It has been shown that these has been shown that these compounds can have a factors influence the toxicity of oil (Gilfillan, 1973; deleterious effect on some biological species (Gilfil- Tagatz, 1961). Further complicating an assessment lan, 1973; Nuzzi, 1973; Brocksen and Bailey, 1973; of oil pollution on the estuarine ecosystem is the Katz, 1973). Therefore, the lack of a visible sheen fact that some biological species inhabit the estuary does not insure that there is no damage to the ecosys- only at certain times of the year (e.g., shrimp), tem resulting from oil pollution. while other permanent inhabitants (e.g., oysters) Ever since 1754 there have been reports on oil have different life stages present at different times pollution (Nelson-Smith, 1973). The Torrey Canyon of the year. Coupling these characteristics with the incident in 1967 served to focus worldwide attention interaction of other pollutants, the complexity of on the problem of oil pollution, and there has been the problem is clearly illustrated. an almost overwhelming number of papers on oil While all estuarine areas are under constant threat pollution since that time. While it has been major of damage from oil pollution, particularly in terms of oil spills as the Torrey Canyon and Santa Barbara the acute effects caused by major disasters, the that have been responsible for the intense interest estuarine areas of the gulf coast are uniquely sus- in the impact of oil pollution on the environment, ceptible to low-level, long-term, chronic pollution it is ironical to note that these major spills account because of the shallowness of the coastal waters and for only a fractional amount of the oil added to the the comparatively small tidal action. Considering environment each year. By and large, the huge the fact that the gulf receives 60 percent of- the quantities of oil that find their way into the estuaries drainage of the contiguous United States (Geraghty, of the gulf coast have gone unnoticed by the public. et al., 1973) and many years are required for recycl- Only recently the public has been aroused to the ing the waters of the gulf, the precarious position potential health hazards of low-level oil pollution. of the gulf coast estuaries is evident. For example, a 1973 report (Anonymous, 1973; Crude oil is not a chemical compound but consists Hites and Biemann, 1972) on the presence of a of thousands of chemically identifiable compounds variety of organics (including some from oil) in the and no two crude oils have the same composition. Charles River must have caused some public con- Fortunately, or unfortunately as the case may be, the cern, particularly in view of the speculation on the addition of an extremely small amount of oil to water possibility of biological magnification of potentially will cause a visible sheen. Fortunately, this char- toxic compounds. Even more recently, press releases 401 402 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL have resulted from the EPA report on the New VALUE OF CURRENT INFORMATION Orleans water supply, linking pollutants contained in FOR ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT drinking water derived from the Mississippi River to From a standpoint of the acute effects of oil, there cancer (Anonymous, 1974a; Anonymous, 1974b). are numerous reports on laboratory studies and field Mercifully, the articles did not speculate on the po- investigations of accidental spills (Blackman, 1973; tential biological accumulation of these compounds Cimberg, et al., 1973; Chan, 1973; Straughan and in seafood. This problem will be addressed in more Abbott, 1970; Holme, 1969; Holmes, '1969; Mackin, detail later in this report. 1973; Jones, et al., 1969; Stebbings, 1970; Anony- The widely circulated article by columnist Jack mous, 1956; Spooner, 1969; Straughan, 1969; Burns Anderson emphasized the possible connection be- and Teal, 1971; Valery, 1968; North, 1967; Mackin tween oil pollution and the almost hysterically feared and Sparks, 1962; Hay, 1974; Battelle Memorial disease, cancer (Anderson, 1974). It is not the pur- Institute, 1967; Blumer, et al., 1970). These accounts pose of this report to delve into the moral and/or have documented the fact that crude oils and petro- legal aspects of this disclosure (Seltzer, 1974), but leur products will kill a wide variety of biological merely to illustrate vividly one of the major areas in species. Whil need of immediate scientific research. In the eyes of mining or predicting the extent of damage to a given many people, the fouling of beaches and the death of area, the amounts of oil required to produce acute large numbers of birds after a major oil spill shrink effects are sufficiently large that they are completely to insignificance in comparison to the threat of in-dpoint alone. gesting cancer-causing compounds in seafood or Obviously then the information is of little value in drinking water. formulating water quality criteria, effluent stand- Ecological disaster is ecological disaster, no more, ards and so forth no less. The causative agent is inconsequential in this respect, and pesticides and mercury already have of oil can cause a myriad of long-range, chronic bnrinow is being oil can cause a myriad of long-range, chronic been brought to the public attention. Oilnwisbeing effects and may even pose a serious human health emphasized as the perpetrator of ecological doom. haard (Blumer, 1969; Tarzwell, 1970; Nelson- The facts of the case are that the fundamental prin- Smith, 1970). This has caused a considerable amount ciples of nature which govern the behavioral, phys- of concern in the public sector. iological and genetic phenomena are the same ir- Laboratory studies are generally carried out under respective of the toxicant involved. The problem controlled conditions and are useful in identifying really becomes more one of quantitation and study and defining potential problems. The data from this of the causative agent rather than one of identifying type of investigation also are valuable in designing and studying some strange new biological principles. field experiments, but it is hazardous to project Admittedly, there are some differences in specifics, laboratory findings into usable information from a bite ly uther arexisti differenoed inthp ec ies , decision-making standpoint. In the case of oil pollu- but by utilizing existing knowledge, the cost and tion, laboratory studies have identified a multiplicity time required to obtain the data necessary for mak- of problems that may occur in the estuaries but have of problems that may occur in the estuaries but have ing estuarine management decisions can be signifi- not completely defined these problems. cantly reduced. Data from field investigations on the long-range There are many facets to the problems of oil pol- effects from oil spills are of very limited value for a lution in the estuarine environment which will not variety of reasons, including: (1) the lack of ad- be addressed in this report. The quantities and equate ecological baseline data for the area; (2) the sources of oil input and its fate in the environment is iripact of cleanup operations; (3) the lack of estab- the subject of another paper for this report. Methods lished control areas required for comparative pur- of treating oil wastes, cleanup procedures after acci- poses; (4) the inability to deploy sufficiently large dental spills and the impact of oil drilling and pro- teams of competent experts within the required time duction operations are not considered in this report. frame; and (5) the nonuniformity of methodology e this report. and techniques employed by investigators. As a re- The purpose of this report is to (1) comment on sult of these defects, there is an understandable the usefulness of available information on oil pollu- difference of opinion among investigators as to tion from a standpoint of estuarine management; (2) the long-range effects from these oil spills. While highlight some of the developing areas of concern; differences of opinion are healthy and are to be and (3) make concrete recommendations concerning expected, in some cases existing data are manipu- future research needs. lated to prove a given position on the damage caused OTHER POLLUTANTS 403 by oil pollution rather than objectively interpreting munity on the possible links between oil pollution the data as it exists (Mackin, 1973). Surely, many of and cancer. There is agreement that considerably these seemingly conflicting points of view will be more research is needed before a true assessment can resolved in the foreseeable future. be made. To date the available data have offered very little These problems are particularly germane to the information of direct value in making estuarine gulf coast for reasons cited earlier: the continual in- management decisions, but have identified some of put of large volumes of pollutants, the long residence the areas of developing concern. Following is a brief time, and the utilization of seafood resources from summary of the information available in four of the this region. more important areas of concern. To date, the data available only have served to identify this most important problem, but have not made available the kinds of information required for ComPote ntially Carcin ogeni c making estuarine management decisions. Compounds in Oil The potential health hazard that could arise from Oil as a Concentrator the biological magnification of carcinogenic com- of Other Toxicants pounds from oil has been mertioned previously. Highlights from the scientific literature will help to Potentially, the role of oil as a concentrator of put the problem in better perspective and serve to other toxic materials may outweigh its other effects illustrate some of the complexities involved. In the in terms of contributing to the human health prob- first place there are reports relating constituents of lem. For example, one study has shown that the oil to cancers in a number of fish species (Battelle concentration of mercury in oil was 4,000 and 300,000 Memorial Institute, 1967; Tarzwell, 1970). Addition- times greater than it was in sediments and water, ally, there are reports that potentially carcinogenic respectively, taken from the same area (Walker hydrocarbons are widespread in the marine environ- and Colwell, 1974). Further, increased oil content ment, even in plants and animals taken from areas of -sediment samples was associated with increases considerably distant from any known oil pollution in zinc, chromium, lead, copper, nickel, cadmium, (Nelson-Smith, 1973; ZoBell, 1971; Newman and and mercury (Walker and Colwell, 1974). Olson, 1974). This raises the question as to the source The problem of biological magnification of pesti- of the compounds involved, and it has been pointed cides and its potential significance to the health of out that many carcinogenic hydrocarbons are pro- the ecosystem and to human health has already been duced by various species of bacteria, algae and higher mentioned. In this respect, a recent report on the plants (ZoBell, 1971; Borneff, et al., 1968). Labora- action of oil slicks as concentrators adds a new di- tory studies have demonstrated that microorganisms mension to the impact of oil on the ecosystem. are capable of degrading these carcinogenic com- Aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, and possibly lindane, hep- pounds (ZoBell, 1971). tachlor expoxide, and chlordane were identified from The fundamental principle of preferential utiliza- samples taken from surface slicks, but were not in tion of nutrients by bacteria is well established,'and detectable amounts in the seawater samples from it has been shown that this occurs in the case of oil the same area (Seba and Corcoran, 1969). (Phillips, 1972); furthermore, many of the most The implications of the concentrating character- resistant compounds pose the greatest potential istics of oil for both toxic heavy metals and pesticides health hazard. Therefore, the basic issue involved is are obvious. what really happens in the environment. The re- ports on the persistence of many of these carcinogenic Effect of Environmental Factors compounds tend to support the view that their on Oil Pollution biodegradation in nature is a slow process. Bioaccumulation of many pesticides, particularly It is a well established fact that the physical, the chlorinated hydrocarbons, has received con- chemical, and biological structure of a system has a siderable attention by the scientific comimunity. significaht effect on the action of a given toxicant- There is reason to believe that the same phenomenon oil is no. exception. For example, the toxicity of oil would be observed with components of oil, and, in- increases as the oxygen concentration (Battelle deed, there are reports to this effect (Nelson-Smith, Memorial Institute, 1967; Kontogiannis and Barnett, 1973; ZoBell, 1971). 1973) or salinity (Rice, 1973) decreases. Differences of opinion exist in the scientific corn- The point to be made here is that there is an ur- 404 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL gent need to understand the action of oil under other pollutants on the whole situation,' it 'would different environmental conditions, since' the facts appear that a complete understanding of the impact indicate clearly that while a given level of oil may be of oil on the estuarine environment is impossible both ecologically tolerable under one set of circumstances, scientifically and economically. it could be disastrous under other conditions. The immensity of the overall problem makes it ev- ident that a considerable effort must be put forth in establishing the areas of priority and coordinating Long-term Impact of individual research. Otherwise, as past experience Oil on the Ecosystem 0- !has demonstrated, there will be a. proliferation of small programs resultingin information that is From the literature, a multiplicity of responses to difficult, if not impossible, to use effectively -for oil would be expected and have, indeed, been re- managing the estuaries. The urgency of the situation ported.' Such things as diminishing growth rates in cannot be overemphasized: ' phytoplankton (Mommaerts-Billiet, 19'73), phys- In terms of priorities, emphasis should be placed iological stress and degeneration of gill tissue and on gaining a better understanding of the long-term muscle il oysters' (Clark, et al.,' 1974), changing chronic effects of oil pollution rather than studying respiratory rates in salmon and striped bass" (Brock- the acute effects resulting from major accidents. As sen and Bailey, 1973), and altering behavioral pat- indicated earlier, the acute effects are obvious andy terns (Rice, 1973; Ecological Research Series, 1973; by definition, are iof a short duration, while the Boylan and Tripp, 1971) are but a few of the vast long-term chronic effects may remain for many array of oil pollution effects. years and may not manifest themselves-.until -ir To gain some concept of the potentially cata- reparable damage to the area has been ,done. More· strophic effects of oil pollution on the ecosystem, specifically, the following problem areas' are in it is necessary only to draw an anialogy to the work urgent need of extensive research, condueted in such on pesticides. a fashion ;that- the data are utilizable for making 1') Gross changes are not required to bring about estuarine management decisions directed: toward untimely extinction of a species. ' maintaining our estuaries in a healthy viable state.. 2) A slight lowering of the primary productivity by reducing photosynthetic capability would reduce dramatically the productivity of the entire ocean. Areas of Research 3) Changes in migratory habits, .feeding areas, or spawning grounds would jeopardiie the current fishing industry. ''1) Problems directly related to, human health (par- 4) Slight changes in reproduction ritual could up- ticularly cancer). Projects in this' category should set the balance of the ecosystem. generate data 'on the fate of carcinogens from oil in All biology is geared to survival of the species and the environment, assess the role'6f oil in contributing is reflected in a buildup of resistance to pollutants or carcinogens to the environment, establish the likely other adverse conditions that may well exact penal- pathways of biological magnification to seafoods for ties in other species-including man. For example, it htman consumption, establish standards in regard has been shown that mosquitofish that have acquired to maximum levels allowable in the environments a resistance to insecticides will accuimulate these from which' human seafoods are harvested, and compounds to such high levels that they are fatal establish methods 'and standards for allowable con- to higher members of the food chain (e.g., birds and centrations of various constituents in seafoods for snakes) (Ferguson, 1967). - ' ' : human consumption. A minor effort also should be put 'forth to examine ways of reclaiming polluted areas and to develop additional miethods of pre- RECOMMENDATIONS FOR THE FUTURE venting pollution in regard to the carcinogens'inoil. 2. Oil as a concentrator of other :toxic pollutants. When one considers the fantastic complexities of With the widespread presence of many kinds of the estuarine ecosystem with its highly complicated agricultural (pesticides)'and industrial (heavy met- interactions, the literally'thousands of coampounds als) pollutants already present in fhe environment; present' in cruide oil, the impact of environmental knowledge'of the interaction of these materials with conditions on the effects of oil on the system, the oil is'of vital concern. Numerous laboratory studies multiplicity of responses 'elicited from the presence have been conducted on the impact of various pol- of 'oil on the various organisms, and the impact of lutants on a wide array of biological specimens but; OTHER POLLUTANTS 405 essentially, no studies have been made on these Types of Research materials in the presence of oil. Efforts Required The specific questions to be answered are: (1) To formulate effectively the overall kind of pro- Does oil concentrate these other pollutants from the gram required to meet the needs, three general environment, and (2) Does oil enhance the uptake of types of investigations are needed. other pollutants by the biota. The major thrust . Labora investigations. any of the problems should be investigations in the field and/or in pilot can be handled effectively by individual researchers plant systems as described below. To a lesser degree, working in individual laboratories, but there should some laboratory investigations should be conducted be some overall coordination of the specific objec- to determine if oil and these other pollutants act tives to be accomplished, though not necessarily the independently, synergistically, or antagonistically. procedures to be employed. In other words, these A closer coordination with other research programs problems could best be answered by a grant type could decrease substantially the cost of these studies program, where the emphasis is on the creativity and by a merging of efforts. expertise of the individual scientist. These results 3. Long-term chronic effects of oil on the ecosystem. will serve as vital inputs to larger programs con- The list of problems in this category is rather long ducted under more natural conditions. Their value and priorities vary considerably from investigator to cannot be minimized in terms of their contribution investigator. Emphasis should be placed on the more to the effective long-range management of the estu- long-lasting, potentially disrupting influences that aries. may last for generations, rather than the shorter- 2. Pilot plant investigations. Conceptually, the use term effects for which there is evidence of quick of pilot plant systems is routine in the engineering recovery and which are thus concerned primarily profession. These systems are necessary to test the with a single generation. validity of laboratory findings on a more realistic Furthermore, the data should be generated in such basis. a form as to be useful in estuarine management de- For oil pollution studies, the pilot plant could take cisions and, as a general rule, should include both the form of either an artificially constructed im- laboratory and field experimentation. Some of the poundment in the field or a natural area that can be more important questions needing attention are: regulated and controlled. Under these circumstances (1) Does oil cause any genetic changes; (2) Does a physically and biologically manageable system oil alter reproductive processes; (3) Does oil increase with a minimal amount of perturbations from outside susceptibility to disease or increase the virulence forces can be studied. The system would more closely and/or numbers of pathogens; and (4) Does oil approximate the natural environment and increase interfere significantly with vital behavioral char- the reliability of predictions based on the results of acteristics. Of necessity, most of these studies will the investigations. require multi-year efforts. There seems to be little doubt that investigations It is probable that much valuable information of this nature have the greatest chance of generating could be obtained by the long-term monitoring of the useful estuarine management data in the shortest environment after a catastrophic spill. It is highly time frame. These efforts must involve large teams of important that an immediate post-spill evaluation competent scientists iorking in a well-planned co- be made by a coordinated team of competent sci- ordinated program. Unquestionably, large amounts entists; this evaluation could serve as a yardstick of money will be required, but the cost effectiveness both for immediate effect and for long-term recovery. will be an order of magnitude greater than if smaller 4. Effect of environmental conditions on oil toxicity. programs are conducted simply on the basis of multi- Because of the constantly changing conditions in the ple use of control data alone. For example, the anal- estuary, information concerned with the impact of yses for oil in the water column and sediments are these various parameters on oil pollution is required time-consuming and expensive, and if diffjerent in- in order to manage the estuaries effectively. The vestigators are working in different locations or on effects of salinity and temperatures are but two of the different organisms, each would require the same parameters that can change significantly ihe im- analyses. pact of oil on the ecosystem. The major value of this 3. Investigations of accidental oil spills. As indicated information is in determining the time and condi- previously, two of the major reasons for the limited tions wherein the estuaries are most vulnerable to value of the data derived from investigations of oil; it will be useful in establishing operational pro- accidental oil spills are (a) lack of adequate pre-spill cedures within the estuaries. baseline data, and (b) the inability to deploy the 406 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL desired scientific staff in time to maximize the value maintain and/or reclaim our estuaries as a healthy of the data obtained. While this report is directed viable resource. toward the impact of oil on the estuarine environ- One cannot help but be impressed, in a negative ment, it should be realized that a thorough under- way, by the lack of usefulness of the data on oil standing of the ecosystem is necessary for the most pollution in terms of estuarine management. To useful management of this valuable resource. This date, the major value of the research has been in understanding also is of vital importance in deter, identifying the potential long-range problems that mining the impact of pollutants other than oil (e.g., could result from oil pollution of the estuaries. The pesticides, thermal pollution, and so on). Economics fact that an ecological catastrophe has not occurred dictates that only representative areas can be sub- is fortunate and an increased research effort on oil jected to these kinds of investigations, but years pollution should reduce significantly the probability will be required before meaningful data are obtained. of such an event. The translation of scientific data In this connection, it should be pointed out that into information utilizable for making estuarine the institutions of higher learning are an excellent management decisions must be accelerated and source of expertise and resources for this type of more emphasis must be placed on determining the undertaking. While having the scientific guidance of costs (both monetary and ecological) as well as the senior scientific personnel, much of the work can benefits of the various solutions to the oil pollution be handled by graduate research assistants. In this problems. fashion, not only will the scientific aspects of the program be met economically, but also this plan REFERENCES offers the obvious spin off value of contributing to the badly-needed reservoir of trained environmental Anderson, Jack. 1974. "Cancer-in-seafood report censored scientists for the future. Pursuing this line of reason- from oil study." In: Jack Anderson Writes, Clarion-Ledger, ing further, there is every reason to believe that June 2, 1974. many of these same people could become a functional Anonymous. 1956. "Report on oily substances and their part of the environmental response teams that are effects on the beneficial uses of water." California State needed to investigate accidents. Since the total Water Pollution Control Board, Sacramento, Calif. pub. environmental team already would be in contact and familiar with the ecosystem involved, the Anonymous. 1973. "Finding organic water pollutants." problems of an effective response would be min- Technology Review in Environmental Monitoring. p. 67. imized. In other words, these university environ- ized. In other words, these university environ- Anonymous. 1974a. "Environmental study links cancer to mental teams will be most valuable to the govern- water pollution." Clarion-Ledger, Nov. 8, 1974. ment and/or industrially contracted response teams in terms of formulating the specifics of the in- Anonymous. 1974b. "Quality of drinking water draws con- vestigation, supplying some of the scientific direc- ern." C&EN Nov. 18, 1974. pp. 4448. tion, and making available many kinds of highly Battelle Memorial Institute, Richland, Wash. 1967. "Oil specialized equipment and facilities. There is every spillage study literature search and critical evaluation for reason to believe that this kind of interdisciplinary, selection of promising techniques to control and prevent damage." A report prepared for the U.S. Department of multi-institutional program can be mounted success- Commerce. pp. 6-15 thru 6-18. fully in an economically practicable and scientifically meaningful fashion. Blackman, R. A. A. 1973. "The Dona Marika oil spill." Marine Pollution Bulletin, 4(12) :181-182. SUMMARY Blumer, M. 1969. "Oil pollution of the ocean." Oil on the Sea. D. P. Hoult (Editor), Plenum Press, N.Y. pp. 5-13. If the amount of oil entering the environment Blumer, M., G. Souza, and J. Sass. 1970. "Hydrocarbon each year were reduced to zero, the problems associ- pollution of edible shellfish by an oil spill." Marine Biology, ated with oil pollution would disappear with time. 5:195-202. While this may be desirable idealistically, it is cer- Borneff, J., F. Selenka, H. Knute, and A. Maximos. 1968. tainly unrealistic. More emphasis on preventing "Experimental studies on the formation of polycyclic accidents, improved technology in containing and aromatic hydrocarbons in plants." Environ. Res., 2:22-29. accidents, improved technology in containing and cleaning up accidental spills, and an accelerated Boylan, D. B., and B. W. Tripp. 1971. "Determination of effort to reduce the input of oil from all sources will hydrocarbons in seawater extracts of crude oil and crude reduce significantly the danger from oil pollution. oil fractions." Nature 230:44-47. The literature clearly indicates that a substantial Brocksen, R. W., and H. T. Bailey. 1973. "Respiratory effort must be put forth immediately if we are to response of juvenile chinook salmon and striped bass ex- OTHER POLLUTANTS 407 posed to benzene, a water-soluble component of crude Kontogiannis, J. E., and C. J. Barnett. 1973. "The effect of oil." In: Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention oil pollution on survival of the tidal pool copepod, Tigriopus and Control of Oil Spills. American Petroleum Institute, californicus." Environ. Pollut. 4:69-79. Washington, D. C., pp. 783-791. Mackin, J. G. 1973. "Effect of oil spills on marine communi- Burns, K. A., and J. M. Teal. 1971. "Hydrocarbon incorpora- ties." In: A Review of Significant Papers on Effects of tion into the salt marsh ecosystem from the West Falmouth Oil Spills and Oilfield Brine Discharges on Marine Biotic oil spill." Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Communities. Texas A&M Res. Found. Project 737, Feb. Hole, Mass. Ref. No. 71-69., pp. 1-14. 1973. pp. 10-79. Chan, G. L. 1973. "A study of the effects of the San Francisco Mackin, J. G., and A. K. Sparks. 1962.."A study of the effect oil spill on marine organisms." In: Proceedings of Joint on oysters of crude oil loss from a wild well." Publications Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills, Ameri- of the Institute of Marine Science. 7:230-261. can Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. pp. 741-759. Mommaerts-Billiet, F. 1973. "Growth and toxicity tests on Christmas, J. Y. (Editor). 1973. Cooperative Gulf of Mexico the marine nanoplanktonic alga Platymonas tetrathele Estuarine Inventory and Study, Miss. Mississippi Marine G. S. West in the presence of crude oil and emulsifiers." Conservation Commission. Environ. Pollut. 4:216-282. Cimberg, R., M. Steven, D. Straughan. 1973. "A reinvestiga- Nelson-Smith, A. 1970. "Effects of oil on marine plants and tion of Southern California rocky intertidal beaches three Animals." In: Water Pollution by Oil. Peter Hepple and one-half years after the 1969 Santa Barbara oil spill: (Editor). Elsevier Publishing Co., New York. pp. 273-291. A preliminary report." In: Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills, American Pe- Nelson-Smith, A. 1973. "Oil Pollution and Marine Ecology. troleum Institute, Washington, D.C. pp. 697-701. Plenum Press, New York. pp. 95-98. Clark, R. C., Jr., J. S. Finley, G. G. Gibson. 1974. "Acute Newman, M. S., and D. R. Olson. 1974. "A new hypothesis effects of outboard motor effluent on two marine shellfish." concerning the reactive species in carcinogenesis by Environ. Science & Technology. 8(12):1009-1014. 7,12-dimenthylbenz[a]-anthracene. The-5-hhdroxy-7,12- dimethylbenz[a]anthracene- 7,12 - dimethylbenz[a]anthra- Ecological Research Series. "Interaction between marine cene - 5(6H) - one equilibrium." Journal of the Amer. organisms and oil pollution." May, 1973. U.S. Environ- Chem. Soc. 96(19):6207. mental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. pp. 29-41. North, W. J. 1967. "Tampico: a study of destruction and Ferguson, D. E. et al. 1967. "Insecticide-resistant fishes: A restoration." Sea Frontiers 13:212-217. potential hazard to consumers." J. Mississippi Academy of Sciences, 13:138-140. Nuzzi, R. 1973. "Effects of water soluble extracts of oil on phytoplankton." In: Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills. American Petroleum Geraghty, J. J., D. W. Miller, F. Van Der Leeden, and F. L. Institute, Washington, D.C., pp. 809-813. Troise. 1973. Water Atlas of the United States. Water Information Center, Inc. New York. Odum, H. T., B. J. Copeland, and E. A. McMahan (Editors) 1974. Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States, Gilfillan, E. S. 1973. "Effects of sea water extracts of crude Vols. I and II. The Conservation Foundation, Washington, oil on carbon budgets in two species of mussels." In: D.C. Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, Phillips, W. E., Jr. 1972. "The effect of elevated temperature D.C., pp. 691-695. on the aerobic treatment of a petroleum refinery waste- water." Masters Thesis, Mississippi State University. Hay, K. G; 1974. "Oil and the sea-the ecological implica- tions of a controversial invasion." MTS Journal, 8(8) :19-20. Rice, S. D. 1973. "Toxicity and avoidance tests with Prudhoe Bay oil and pink salmon fry." In: Proceedings of Joint Hites, R. A., and K. Biemann. 1972. "Water pollution: Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills. Organic compounds in the Charles River, Boston." Science American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C., pp. 178:158-160. 667-670. Holme, N. A. 1969. "Effects of Torrey Canyon pollution on Seba, D. B., and E. F. Corcoran. 1969. "Surface slicks as marine life." In: Oil on the Sea. D. P. Hoult (Editor). concentrators of pesticides in the marine environment." Plenum Press, New York. pp. 1-3. Pesticides Monitoring Journal, 3(3) :190-193. Holmes, R. W. 1969. "The Santa Barbara oil spill." In: Oil Seltzer, R. J. 1974. "Scientist leaks confidential NAS docu- on the Sea. D. P. Hoult (Editor). Plenum Press, New York. ment." C&EN June 10, 1974. p. 16-21. pp. 15-27. Spooner, J. 1969. "Some ecological effects of marine oil Jones, L. G., C. T. Mitchell, E. K. Anderson, and W. J. pollution." In: Proceedings of Joint Conference on Preven- North. 1969. "Just how serious was the Santa Barbara tion and Control of Oil Spills, American Petroleum Insti- oil spill?" Ocean Industry: 53-56. tute, Washington, D.C. pp. 313-316. Katz, L. M. 1973. "The effects of water soluble fraction of Stebbings, R. E. 1970. "Recovery of salt marsh in Brittant crude oil on larvae of the decapod crustacean Neopanope sixteen months after heavy pollution by oil." Environ. texana (Sayi)." Environ. Pollut. 199-294. Pollut. 1:163-167. 408 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Straughan, D. 1969. "The Santa Barbara study." In: Pro- mixtures to aquatic life." Peter Hepple (Editor). Elsevier ceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Publishing Co., New York. pp. 263-272. Oil Spills, American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. pp. 309-311. Val6ry, N. 1968. "How many more Torrey Canyons?" Science Journal, Aug., 1968. p. 31. Straughan, D., and B. C. Abbott. 1970. "The Santa Barbara oil spill: Ecological changes and natural oil leaks." In: Water Pollution by Oil. Peter Hepple (Editor). Elsevier Walker, J. D., and R. R. Colwell. 1974. "Mercury-resistant Publ. Co., New York. pp. 257-262. bacteria and petroleum degradation." Applied Micro. 27(1) :285-287. Tagatz, M. E. 1961. "Reduced oxygen tolerance and toxicity of petroleum products to juvenile American shad." Chesa- ZoBell, C. E. 1971. "Sources and biodegradation of carcino- peake Sciences, 2(1-2):65-71. genic hydrocarbons." In: Prevention and Control of Oil Spills. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. Tarzwell, C. M. 1970. "Toxicity of oil and oil dispersant pp. 441-451. 5 · - - : . SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO ESTUARINE POLLUTION HANS A. FEIBUSCH Environmental Impact Planning Corporation San Francisco, California ABSTRACT The general relationship of solid waste to estuarine pollution is described. Current major impact of solid waste on estuarine pollution comes from fills, legal and illegal, where leachates contain pollutants including pesticides, heavy metals, and oxygen-demanding materials. Most coastal states have regulated against the further use of estuarine areas for the disposal of solid wastes. It is recommended that the Federal government establish a data bank to determine where the various kinds of waste materials originate and where they are disposed. Long-range solutions to the danger of estuarine pollution by solid waste materials lie in reduction of the quantity of solid wastes generated and in large-scale recycling efforts. INTRODUCTION 15 pounds, and industrial wastes, nearly 130 pounds per day. Each year the average person in the United States Since nearly 80 million people in the United States uses 17,500 pounds of fuel (for warming offices and live within 50 miles of an ocean coastline, while houses, running automobiles and trains, firing fac- another 30 million live within 50 miles of the Great tory boilers, and many other tasks), 23,000 pounds Lakes and the St. Lawrence River (U.S. Department of construction and other non-metallic materials, of Commerce, 1973), the use of estuarine areas for 6,800 pounds of metallic ores, and almost 6,000 waste disposal is an important consideration because pounds of agricultural materials (Morton, 1974). these have historically been favorite solid waste The annual per capita consumption in the United disposal sites for municipal and industrial wastes. States, then, is over 50,000 pounds, or nearly 150 Agricultural wastes have generally been left on pounds per person per day. Since "consumption" fields, burned, or allowed to wash into water courses. really means one-time (usually short-term) use, Fortunately, as will be shown later, most coastal this quantity of material becomes a per capita solid states have now prohibited the use of estuarine areas waste disposal problem. This contrasts rather dra- for waste disposal. So while filling of estuarine areas matically with the "tip of the iceberg" of solid is still going on, principally in San Francisco Bay wastes visible to most of us who generally think of and Hackensack Meadows in New Jersey, no ex- solid wastes as household garbage and rubbish. tensive new filling of estuarine areas with solid But household garbage and rubbish are just one of waste appears to be taking place. the 11 major streams of solid waste produced in this country, and account for a minute percentage of the 150 pounds per person per day total waste pro- CURRENT DISPOSAL METHODS duction. The 11 major streams of waste may be lumped The four primary methods of solid waste disposal into the three broad categories of municipal waste, are, in order of decreasing usage, landfill, resource agricultural waste, and industrial waste. Municipal recovery, incineration, and ocean disposal. Since waste includes residential, commercial, and demoli- estuarine areas have in the past been favorite sites tion wastes; agricultural waste includes animal for "reclamation" by filling them with solid wastes, manures and waste from fruit and nut crops and this disposal method has had a primary impact on from field and row crops; industrial waste includes them. Therefore, as resource recovery and incinera- waste from food processing, manufacturing, and tion become more prevalent, less pressure exists to lumbering, as well as chemicals and petroleum. fill estuaries with garbage. Of course, much solid On a per capita basis, municipal wastes account waste is illegally dumped in estuarine areas. for about 3 to 5 pounds, agricultural wastes, about Landfill is by far the most prevalent method of 409 410 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL disposal in use today, with about 90 percent of posed of annually into the oceans off the continental municipal waste going there (Feibusch, 1970). United States. In addition, at least 53 million tons Unfortunately, most landfills still do not qualify of dredging spoils are being dumped into the ocean as "sanitary" landfills as these are defined by the (Smith, 1971). The question of dredging spoils American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). A disposal is currently the subject of a $30 million sanitary landfill according to the ASCE is "a method study by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under of disposing of refuse on land without creating its national Dredged Material Research Program nuisance or hazards to public health ... (volume) and will not be further discussed here. and to cover it with a layer of dirt at the conclusion of each day's operation ..." REVIEW OF COASTAL STATES' Properly developed sanitary landfills create useful SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT EFFORTS land for park and recreation facilities. On the other hand, the ecological disruption caused by landfills, In order to provide an up-to-date review of the particularly in marshland or wetland areas, is a status of solid waste management efforts in the major negative environmental fgctor. individual states, a telephone survey of the 20 coastal Significant amounts of waste (particularly in- states was made between October 30, 1974, and dustrial wastes) are being reused. The salvage in- November 11, 1974. In each case, contact Was made dustry today probably does an annual volume in with a senior official in state government responsible excess of $10 billion. However, most materials now for solid waste regulation and management. Table 1 being salvaged are the homogeneous remains of summarizes information obtained from this survey. manufacturing processes that are free of contami- Eighteen of the 20 states surveyed have assumed nants and can therefore be directly reused. Recovery primary jurisdiction for solid waste management and of materials from municipal wastes is currently regulation. Only California and Washington have receiving a great deal of emphasis from planners in total local control. Actual situations in Texas and the waste management industry. In later sections Louisiana reveal effective local control, but South of this report, we will discuss what efforts the States Carolina under present procedures cannot exercise of Massachusetts and Connecticut are currently effective state control. Seventeen of the 20 states making in implementing statewide resource recovery surveyed have adopted solid waste management plans. legislation since 1970, indicating at least a recogni- Probably the major constraints to increased tion of state responsibility in the solid waste manage- salvage and reclamation efforts are the absence of ment field. sustained demand for salvageable material and the Two states, Massachusetts and Connecticut, are incentives to use them. In any case, energy con- proceeding to implement statewide resource recovery siderations are now forcing all waste management plans, while two other states, Delaware and Califor- planners to reconsider resource recovery as a major nia, are working with demonstrations that may have factor in solid waste management. significant results. Data concerning the location of The best available data indicate that incineration solid waste fills in estuarine areas were not readily accounts for about 8 percent of the solid waste dis- available, although the problem seems confined to posed in the United States. Many communities have the states of Maryland, North Carolina, South recently renewed their interest in incineration in Carolina, Florida, Texas, and California. In Loui- light of the predicted energy shortage. Modern siana, a state with many estuarine areas, the popula- incinerators are said to be 90 percent efficient in tion in the five parishes where most of the estuaries terms of residual waste. That is, for each 100 tons are located is quite small. It is encouraging to note of combustible material burned, 10 tons remain to that only one or two states allow new fills for solid be disposed. Of course, the basic law of physics waste in estuarine areas, and that ocean dumping stating that matter cannot be destroyed is still appears to be practiced only in New York and New valid, so the 90 tons of material burned are dis- Jersey. charged either into the air or into sewers. The problem of non-combustible materials also remains. PROBLEMS OF SOLID WASTE Studies in Los Angeles County indicate an overall LANDFILLS IN ESTUARINE AREAS incinerator efficiency of 48 percent with respect to the average raw refuse composition collected (in- Landfilling of solid wastes in estuaAne areas eluding bulky materials and non-combustibles). presents a twofold problem. First, it causes a reduc- Less than 10 million tons of solid wastes are dis- tion in the limited acreage of marshland and wetland OTHER POLLUTANTS 411 Table 1. Population Date of Enabling Status of Resource Number of New Estuarine Acres of Estuarine State (Millions) Jurisdiction Legislation Recovery Efforts Existing Fills in Fills Allowed Ocean Dumping Area (f) Estuarine Areas (Thousands) Maine .-........... 1.01 P* 12/73 ? 2 No No 39.4 New Hampshire . . .... ...76 P '72 ? ? No No 12.4 Massachusetts . . ...... 5.76 P 4/71 P.l*** 1 No No 207.0 Rhode Island .96 P '74 ? 1 No No 94.7 Connecticut - --------- 3.07 P '71 P.I. ? No No 31.6 New York .- - ------- 18.35 P 9/73 ? ? No Yes 376.6 New Jersey . .......... 7.31 P '70 ? 1 No Yes 778.4 Delaware .56 P 7/73 Demot None No No 395.5 Maryland .....- . .. 4.01 P '70 ? 15(c) No No 1406.1 Virginia .- .......... 4.72 P 4/71 ? 1 No No 1670.0 North Carolina . ....... 5.16 P '69 ? 20 No ? 2206.6 South Carolina . - ---- 2.63 P(d) 9/71 ? 30l Yes ? 427.9 Georgia 4.66 P '72 ? None No No 170.8 Florida 7.03 P 7/74 ? ? No ? 1051.2 Alabama ..- ..... 3.49 P '69 ? None No ? 530.0 Mississippi 2.25 P '74 ? None No No 251.2 Louisiana - - ----------- 3.69 P(a) ? ? ? ? ? 3545.1 Texas .- 11.43 P(h) '69 ? Many(e) No ? 1344.0 California - - --------- - 20.29 L* 1/73 Demot 31 No ? 522.1 Oregon 2.14 P 5/71 ? 1 No No 57.0 Washington - ---------- 3.44 L '72 ? ? No ? 193.8 111.77 (a) State must use parish district attorney to prosecute. Since district attorneys are also parish legal advisors, they do not prosecute. (b) Counties may assume control by adopting solid waste permit system. Only 4 of 254 counties have done so. (c) Small facilities on Eastern Shore serving total of 20,000 people. (d) Can be overruled by any professional engineer-prepared plan - (e) Mostly small sites. (f) Presented by Dr. Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary of Interior, in testimony to the Subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation. * Primary state jurisdiction. *" Local control. *** Statewide plan implementation. t Demonstration project. remaining in this country, and secondly, it creates SOLUTIONS-LESS WASTE, the danger of polluting vast areas outside of the MORE EFFECTIVE RECOVERY fills themselves through contamination of leachates when water percolates through solid waste. A recent As suggested in the previous section, much prog- article in Nation's Cities (Weddle, 1974) suggests ress has been made in reducing the negative effect that dumps, both old and new, may be a potential of solid waste pollution on estuarine areas. However, threat to many groundwater supplies. Certainly if ultimately the answers to pollution problems from this is the case, estuarine areas in which dumps are solid waste of estuarine areas do not lie solely in located are also affected. Leachate generation in this more rigid regulations or more detailed guidelines. country, according to the Environmental Protection They lie also in producing less waste and in doing a Agency (EPA), may approach some 46 billion more effective job of recovering fractions of the gallons annually. A significant percentage of this waste that we do produce. leachate enters estuarine areas where it introduces Management plans for solid waste can no longer toxicants, heavy metals, and pesticides, and produces be based on least first cost alone. They must be oxygen depletion. based on the concept of least net cost, taking into The Third National Congress on Waste Tech- account a direct monetary outlay, the cost of nology and Resource Recovery, sponsored jointly environmental pollution, and the value of resources by the EPA and the National Solid Waste Manage- conserved. The "hierarchy of choices" concept for ment Association, in San Francisco November 14 solid waste management is suggested as a systematic and 15, 1974, may provide the impetus needed to approach to solid waste management, minimizing tackle the problem of leachate contamination on a resource waste and maximizing resource recovery. national level. Under the hierarchy of choices, the best waste 412 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL management choice is carried to its logical and Burial practical limit, and then the next best choice is applied to what remains. There are six choices, and Some materials will always need to be disposed in the waste that is finally left over for burial is a small landfills. But these landfills should be located where fraction of the original amount. The hierarchy of development plans call for changes in existing ground choices is as follows: elevations. Since the material that remains. after having. been processed through the previous five steps in the hierarchy is inert and earthlike, the Source Reduction . problem of landfill stability will be greatly reduced. The hierarchy of choices concept will have to be This involves modifying some products and mate- employed in a flexible way, since local conditions rials and stopping the manufacture of others. It may obviate some and favor others, but if it is would require that serious consideration be given in employed in a systems engineering sense, it can be the design stage to ultimate disposal of any manu- appropriate under any given set of circumstances. factured product. Superfluous packaging materials are obvious candidates for this approach. Action by ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS state and federal legislatures, vigorous support from local agencies, and strongcitizen support would be As a nation, we are currently involved in a massive necessary to reduce the production of waste. drive to find alternate sources of energy, having recently discovered that a dependence of foreign oil could have devastating effects on our way. of life. Reuse Without Processing To a large extent, the whole problem of solid waste management has become affected by the "energy Some glass, metal, and paper articles are suitable crunch." As with all such crash efforts, it will take for direct reuse. More consideration must be given several years before we realize that the crucial prob- to encouraging a collection system that separates lemjis not how much energy we generate but what these materials at the point of origin. The contro- our real net energy needs are. Thus it may be that versial Oregon "bottle law" is an example of state according to the hierarchy of choices concept in the efforts toward reuse of resources. previous section, organic municipal and agricultural wastes can be more useful when converted and added ' ' to the land as a' soil amendment rather than being Reuse With Processing burned. Much work needs to be done to minimize the need for energy in solid waste management. The Materials not suitable for direct reuse, but which institution of transfer stations where waste materials can be successfully blended with virgin materials at are transferred from small to large vehicles is one of time of processing (glass, aluminum, paper, tin cans), the more obvious energy-saving devices being con- can be separated at transfer points and made sidered by many communities. available to industry as raw materials. PROGRAMS WITH.PROMISE Conversion As we have mentioned, the States of Connecticut and Massachusetts have taken a leading role in The organic part of the remaining material can be developing statewide solid waste management plans decomposed into a soil-like humus by composting or that emphasize resource recovery. The Connecticut pyrolyzed by applying heat in the absence of oxygen. plan (Anon., 1974b) proposes 10 regional solid waste Composted materials would be applied to the land recycling centers to be constructed by the Connec- to produce stable topsoil. ticut Resource Recovery Authority (CRRA), a non-profit, tax-exempt public service corporation. Private firms in the resource recovery industry will Change of.State contract with CRRA to design, construct, and operate the 10 regional centers. Firms have been The combustible material that still remains can be selected to build plants at Bridgeport and Berlin, incinerated, producing gas and energy. Incinerators Conn. The plants are scheduled to go into operation need to be located where there is a demand for steam at the rate of one per year. The first two plants will in the immediate vicinity. -. recover fuel, ferrous metals, aluminum, and glass. 3 OTHER POLLUTANTS 413 The State of Massachusetts, with a somewhat less dikes for support and to raise the land levels, which ambitious program than that of Connecticut, has have been dropping steadily for many years. The approved the development of the first resource composted material would be used to stabilize dikes recovery facility in Lawrence to serve the regional and to serve as a growing medium for agricultural needs of the Merrimack Valley. This plant is to be products. A pilot demonstration lasting three years built, operated, and owned by private entrepreneurs. and using 200 tons of composted material per day Recovery of metals and fuel is envisioned (Anon., has been proposed. To date, the California legislature 1974a). has appropriated $2.3 million toward the demonstra- The city of St. Louis and Union Electric Company tion. The local agencies are currently negotiating are jointly undertaking a significant program for with federal representatives for matching funds. utilization of refuse for energy production. Shredded air-sorted refuse and coal have been used for some THE FEDERAL ROLE time now on a test basis to generate electricity at the Meramec Power Plant of Union Electric Con- Current Federal authority in the field of solid pany in St. Louis. Extensive tests have not revealed waste management as it affects estuarine areas is any serious problems of air pollution, although modi- held by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under fication of the refuse-coal composition and close the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899. The Corps, mixture control were found necessary. Union Electric under the same act, issues permits for dredging and Company and the city are currently developing a filling in navigable waters and may deny these $70 million program for five to seven transfer permits based on fish, wildlife, and water quality stations throughout St. Louis, making it possible consideration (Anon., 1974c). to use all of that city's combustible solid waste for The EPA's Solid Waste Management Program energy. has no regulatory authority. Its present role is The Delaware Reclamation Project proposes to confined to establishing broad national policies, use 500 tons of solid waste and 230 tons of sewage administering research and development programs, sludge per day and recycle them into marketable encouraging state and area-wide solid waste manage- materials. This demonstration is essentially to prove ment planning; and providing technical assistance. the viability of an aerobic digester to produce Many of the concepts proposed in the hierarchy humus. Other machinery would produce solid fuel, of choices for sound solid waste management and carbon, fuel gas, ferrous and non-ferrous metals, resource recovery are embodied in legislation cur- paper, and glass cullet. The plant will be designed rently pending before various committees of Con- with enough capacity to handle all the wastes in gress. The Resource Conservation Energy Recovery Newcastle County (Wilmington). Act of 1974 is the most comprehensive bill currently In the San Francisco Bay Area, a group of 15 being considered. It addresses freight rate discrimina- local agencies joined together in 1972 to test the tion for recycled products, source reduction efforts, feasibility of using composted organic solid waste in hazardous waste disposal standards, long-range state the low-lying areas of the Sacramento-San Joaquin solid waste management planning, and grant and Delta for levee stabilization, land building, and loan programs for large-scale energy recovery and agriculture. These local agencies, calling themselves resource conservation demonstrations as well as full- The Bay-Delta Resource Recovery Action Com- scale plants. mittee, took a first step not only in solving the Committees of the House of Representatives are problem of solid waste (including sewage sludge) in discussing legislation for tax credits to recycled the bay area but also in forming the regional institu- products manufacturers and rapid amortization tion framework necessary to do this. This effort proposals for recycling equipment. Both of these was entirely voluntary without coercion from either pieces of legislation would have a major beneficial state or federal agencies. effect on reducing the quantity of solid waste that Briefly, the plan called for strategically located might be destined for estuarine areas. processing transfer stations where directly recover- New legislative proposals are urgently needed that able materials would be removed. The balance would would require the EPA to establish and maintain a be shredded and air classified, with the light fraction data bank of waste materials generated and dis- being mixed with sewage sludge and composted, posed. No one today has even a general idea as to while the heavy fraction would undergo further how much and what kind of material we are throw- recovery processing. The composted fraction would ing away, where it is being thrown, and what then be shipped by barge to the Sacramento-San damage it is causing. The information gathering Joaquin Delta, where it would be placed behind effort required to develop this data bank is very 414 ESTUAtINE POLLUTION CONTROL large. However, intelligent long-range planning by It is to be hoped that the federal role in the solid both industry and regulators will be impossible until waste management field will soon be expanded with better information is available. the provisions embodied in the proposed Resource Conservation and Energy Recovery Act of 1974 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION becoming law. In general, it can be said that much improvement has taken place in the solid waste management field Each of us in this very affluent country consumes has t he solid waste management neld on the average 150 pounds of raw material every day. in the past a grep t d eal more ne Since nearly half of us live within 50 miles of coast- to be done before the threat of pollution of estuarine Since nearly half of Us live within 50 miles of coast- fo l w - lines having estuaries, estuaries offer convenient dumping grounds for our leftovers. Fortunately, most coastal states have recognized the ecological REFERENCES importance of estuarine areas and have prohibited their filling with solid waste. So while some filling of esturine areas is still going on, not many new Anon. 1974a. Massachusetts selects Merrimack Valley as of estuarine areas is still going on, not many new first solid waste region. Solid Waste Report 5 (3):28. fills will be started. Concerns for raw material and energy shortages . 1974b. State to recycle 85% of cities' solid wastes. are likely to have a positive influence on resource Engineering News-Record 193(17):39-40. recovery and conservation efforts. This will help to reduce the pressure on filling estuaries since less . 1974c. The wetlands: how well are they protected? waste will be generated. Conservation Foundation Letter, September:l-8. Most states have assumed regulatory control over Feibusch, Hans A. and F. M. Stead. 1970. A solid wastes solid waste disposal and appear to have established management system for the Bay Region. San Francisco on-going enforcement programs to prevent estuarine Planning and Urban Renewal Association, November. pollution. Massachusetts and Connecticut are em- barking on ambitious statewide resource recovery Morton, Rogers C. B., Secretary of the Interior. 1974. Letter to Senator Walter Huddleston. September. programs, while several demonstration projects with great potential are being initiated elsewhere. Smith, D. D. and R. P. Brown. 1971. Ocean disposal of A systems engineering approach is urgently needed barge-delivered liquid and solid wastes from United States to measure the least net cost of solid waste manage- coastal cities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Solid Waste Management Office. ment programs, taking into account cost of pollution prevented and resources conserved. The hierarchy of U.S. Department of Commerce. 1973. Bureau of the Census. choices concept is a useful tool in selecting waste Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1973. Govern- management programs. In the hierarchy, source ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. reduction (i.e., not making the product in the first Weddle, B. and G. Garland. 1974. Dumps: a potential threat place) is the ideal waste management solution, while We e, B. ag d Gn Garlan 197NatDupsCs 12(10) -21-22, to our groundwater supplies. Nation's ities 12(10) :21-2-25, 42., throwing it away is the worst. 24-25, 42. IMPACT OF CHLORINATION PROCESSES ON MARINE ECOSYSTEMS WILLIAM P. DAVIS D. P. MIDDAUGH Gulf Breeze Environmental Research Laboratory Wadmalaw Island, South Carolina ABSTRACT The use of chlorine as a disinfectant and antifouling agent is reviewed. Chemical reactions of chlorine in aquatic environments are discussed, with particular emphasis on the formation of halogenated organic constituents in freshwater and marine systems. Studies of the effect of chlo- rinated sewage effluents and cooling water from generating stations on marine organisms and ecosystems are summarized. INTRODUCTION ated organic compounds possibly persisting in marine ecosystems. Twenty-three other states border Chlorine gas has seen industrial use since 1800 as marine ecosystems where some form or another of a bleaching agent and has become one of the most chlorine discharge currently persists in one manner versatile chemicals known. In freshwater it is well or another. known as a disinfectant for drinking and recreational The purpose of this paper is to compile the scarce water, biocide for slime and fouling control, and data presently available for chlorine effects upon treater of municipal wastes for pathogen control. aquatic life of estuarine and marine ecosystems. In these applications, vast quantities of chlorine are The chemistry of chlorine is briefly reviewed to used, and find their way through society's effluents point out some of the unique features of chlorination to natural ecosystems. The toxicity desired in disin- in marine waters. Although some data exists on fection and biocide applications can continue with effects of residual chlorine and a limited number of non-desirable effects to wildlife and their ecosystems. byproducts upon specific organisms, virtually no Recent findings of halogenated organics traceable information exists on transport processes, persist- in drinking water in 80 cities, underscore the need ence, bioaceurnulation, and fate of halogenated for responsible assessment of the management and compounds from chlorination processes. effects of our chlorination processes, and the en- vironmental costs incurred. CHEMISTRY OF CHLORINE The State of Maryland is often used by planners as a minimodel for the United States. In the case of Chlorine is presently manufactured by a variety rate of chlorine use, some of the most accurate of methods, including: statistics exist for Maryland. Furthermore, resulting chlorination constituents from Maryland mostly the electrolysis of brine, drain into the Chesapeake Bay. An inventory of chlorine discharge from Maryland alone into the eleNtrI curNent Chesapeake Bay, assuming no degradation, results in the statistic of 97 million pounds per year of chlorine from municipal treatment plants and 2.2 million pounds per year from power generation 3NaCl+4HNO3 -3NaN03+Cl2+NOC-+2fo20 facilities. It would appear to the casual observer that without the action of degradation processes, and the hydrochloric acid oxidation process, these amounts would soon sterilize the bay. It is calculated (but still to be confirmed experimentally) 4-650°C that 1 percent of these totals may become halogen- 4HC1 + O - 2C12 + 2H120. 415 416 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Chlorine in Freshwater Systems Table 1.-Summary of reactions of chlorine' with'organic compounds in freshwater (modified from Ingols et al. 1953) Chlorine gas dissolves rapidly in water and hy- Organic Substrate HypochlorousAcid Monochloramine drolyses, Alanine -....--- Pyruvic acid Organic monochloramine Cl2 + H-20 T HOC1 + H+ + Cl-. Cysteine-... ........ RSOsH RSSR Glycylglycine ,. ..... Oxidative ------------ This hydrolysis is nearly complete and only when the pH is below 3.0, or the chlorine concentration Glycylgycylglycine .... Hydrolysis and deaminization Terminal organic monochloramine over 1000 mg/i is there any measurable quantity of m ane molecular chlorine present. The oxidizing capacity Tyrsine - Ketone Organic monochloramine of chlorine is retained in the hydrolysis product, Hemin - - ------------Violent change Irreversible addition or hypochlorous acid. Hypochlorous acid dissociates to oxidation form, HOC1 H + C10-. l (1948) determined that at pH 5.0, the ratio was 16 percent monochloramine and 84 percent dichlor- This reaction is pH dependent. For a neutral pH amine. For a pH of 8.0, the ratio: was 85 percent (7.0) at 20°C, the equilibrium is approximately 75 monochloramine and 15 percent dichlorartine. Tri- percent HOC1 and 25 percent C10-. For a pH of 8.0, chloramine is found in significant quantities only at the reverse is true with approximately 25 percent pH values of less than 4 (McKee and Wolf, 1963). HOC1 and 75 percent C10- (Sawyer and McCarty, I Ingols et al. (1953) determined that hypochlorous 1969). acid and monochloramine in freshwater will react The addition of hypochlorite salts to water forms with various organic constituents. Some of these hypochlorite ions followed by hypochlorous acid, reactions resulted in the formation of organic monochloramines although, none were persistent, Ca (C10) 2 = Ca+ + + 2 C10-, Table 1. The formation of chlorinated organic compounds and during chlorination of sewage effluents and power H+ + C10- z HOCI. plant cooling waters has recently been documented (Jolley, 1973; Jolley et al. 1975). Isotopic 36C1 If ammonia or organic amines are present in the tracers and high-resolution anion-exchange chro- water, they will react with hypochlorous acid to matography were used to separate over 50 chlorine form chloramines, containing constituents from chlorinated secondary effluents. Fifteen of these were tentatively identified Nand quantified, Table 2. NH3 - HOC1= NH2C1 - H2O. Like the ionization of hypochlorous acid to Table 2.-Tentative identiifications and concentrations of chlorine containing H+ + C10-, the reaction rate between ammonia constituents from chlorinated sewage effluents (modified from Jolley, 1973) and hypochlorous acid is pH dependent, occurring identification Cone, of Organic most rapidly in solutions with a pH of 8.3. This compound ug/L reaction is also dependent upon temperature and the ratio of ammonia to hypochlorous acid. 5-Chlorouracil-....---- 4.3 Monochloramines react with hypochlorous acid SChlorouridine-1.7 -Chlorocaffeine .-..... -.-.-.................... 1.7 to form di- and trichloramines, 6-Chloroguanine ...-. .................... 0.9 8-Chloroxanthine .-...... - 1.5 NH2C1 + HOCI = NHC12 + H20, 5-Chlorosalcyic acid .-. ----.----- 0.24 4-Chloramandelic acid .--------------------------------------- 1.1 and 2-Chloraphenol- .. e.. .--................. ...:_ ,-.... - 1.7: 4-Chloraphenylacetic acid .------------------ 0.38 2NH2CI -+I- HOCl = NC13 -+- H20. 4-Chlrbzoic acid - 0.62 4-Chlorophenol -.-------------------------------------------- 0.69 4-Chlororesorcinol .................--------- 1.2, Low pH favors a shift, in equilibrium toward the 3-Chloro-4-hydroxybenzoic acid. 1.3 formation of di and trichoramines Fair et al 4-Chloro-3-methyl phenol -.-1... ......-.-.. .. i.5 formation of di- and trichloramines, Fair et al. OTHER POLLUTANTS: 417 'Chlorine in Marine Systems When ammonia is present in seawater, it will react with hypobromous acid to form monobromamine. Major sources of chlorine contamination in the 1\Monobromamine in turn. will react *with hypo- marine environment are related to postchlorination bromite ion to form dibromamine, of secondary sewage effluents with outfalls located on coastal and estuarine waters, and chlorination of N-H3 + HOBr = NH2Br + H20, seawater used fr cooling of thermal electric generat- ing plants (White, 1972, 1973; Markowski, 1959). and The addition iof chlorine to seawater results in a complex series of chemical reactions; the most ob- NH2Br +BrO = NHBr2 + OH-. vious one frees bromine, C12 -:-2Br' - ;*- _r_ . -In addition, monobromamine at near neutral pH Cl +± 2Br- = 20C1- Br+ . will form ammonium bromide which dissociates into ammonium ion and free bromine (Johanneson, This reaction goes to completion and is the basis for 1960). the manufacture of bromine from seawater (Lewis, 1966). . ' > NH2Br + H+ T- NH3Br+ The industrial extraction of bromine, from sea- water requires that the pH be reduced below 3.0, and so that molecular chlorine can release molecular bromine." The hydrolysis. products- from adding NH3Br+ - NHa + Br+. chlorine to seawater, HOC1 and C10-, will also release bromine from the bromide ion in 'the form of Block and Helz (1975) have prepared a reaction hypobromous acid and hypobromite ion, series model to illustrate the theoretical degradation processes occurring after the addition of chlorine to C10- + Br- = BrO- + CG-,i natural, saline waters, Figure 1. Compounds in each successive level can give rise to ones on a lower level. and In general, compounds occurring on lower levels will not contribute to the formation of those in the BrO- + Ht+: - HOBr. levels above. The reaction occurring between levels I and II Hought0on (1946) has also suggested that'chlorina- is a result of chlorine decay from a diatomic gas to tion of water containing free ammonia and bromine hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ions, and sodium may result in the formation of bromamines. Johan- hypochlorite. As pointed out by Moore (1951) and neson (1958) added chlorinated water to a sodium- Lewis (1966), this reaction occurs rapidly and goes ammonium salts solution buffered to pH 8.3. This to completion within seconds after the addition of resulted in the formation of monobromamine and chlorine. The inclusion of sodium hypochlorite some monochloramine., The addition of sodium hypochlorites'olution produced mostly' monochlor- CL2 amine. The hypochlorite in solution apparently I 'reacts with both the bromine aid ammonia, 11 HOCL,OCL-, NAOCL C10- + Br- =BrO- + Cl-, NH2CL, NHCL2, NH2BR, and . ' ' NHBR2, BRO-, HBRO 010- + NH3 =:NH2C1 + OH-. HALOGENATED ORGANIC IV CONSTITUENTS Injection of chlorine gas may result in localized acidity, favoring the first reaction above, which is rapid at pH values of less than 8.0. The second V,,, CL-, BR- reaction is favored when chlorine is added as sodium hypochlorite since there is no accompanying reduc- FIGURE 1.-Degradation processes for chlorine in saline tion in-the normal pH of 8.0-8.3. waters (modified from Block and Helz, in preparation). 418 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL within level II is based on the results of work by Chlorine Toxicity to Sugum and Helz (1976). Marine Phytoplankton The chemical composition and abundance of products formed from level II to level III is a The effects of chlorination and thermal pollution function of physical and chemical parameters of the onphytoplanktonproductivityhavebeeninvestigated water, including but not limited to temperature, in some detail, Table 3. Carpenter et al. (1972) pH, ammonia, and bromine, available as reaction observed an 83 percent decrease in the productivity components. In seawater it is possible that the of phytoplankton passed through the cooling system predominant species would be bromamines, espe- of a nuclear generating plant on Long Island Sound. cially if NH4+ ions are less abundant than Br- ions. Intake water was chlorinated at a rate of 1.2 mg/l Level IV includes halogenated organic constituents with a residual of 0.4 mg/l measured at the dis- which may be formed by level II or level III species, charge. Addition of 0.1 mg/l chlorine at the intake including chloramines, hypobromite and broma- with non-detectable residuals at the outfall decreased mines. The stable end products in level V occur productivity by 79 percent. Essentially no decreases through a diverse group of mechanisms taking in productivity were observed when phytoplankton place in steps I-IV. passed through the cooling system without addition Charge balance results in one atom of C1 passing of chlorine. Hirayama and Hirano (1970) measured from level I to level V to each atom passing from the effect of chlorination on the photosynthetic level I to level II. Reduction of hypochlorite by Br- activity of Skeletonema costatum and found that cells or Fe2+ and Mn2+ may release C1- from level II to were killed when subjected to 1.5 to 2.3 mg/l level V. Movement of C1- from level III to level V chlorine for 5 and 10 minutes. can also occur in a number of ways; the most Gentile (1972, 1973 unpublished data, Environ- obvious, suggested by Laubusch (1971) involves mental Research Laboratory, Narragansett) ob- the destruction of chloramines when the OC1-/NH4+ served a 55 percent decrease in the ATP content of ratio is large. marine phytoplafikton exposed to 0.32 mg/1 re- Some of the chlorinated organics identified by sidual chlorine for two minutes and a 77 percent Jolley (1973) are persistent and the decay from level decrease after 45 minutes of exposure to chlorine IV to level V is probably a slow process, relative to concentrations as low as 0.01 mg/l. A 50 percent decay from levels I through III to level V. depression in the growth rates of 10 species of marine phytoplankton exposed to chlorine concentrations ranging from 0.075 to 0.25 mg/l for 24 hours was also measured. TOXICITY OF CHLORINE measured. IN ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS Morgan and Stross (1969) used photosynthetic rates to evaluate the response of estuarine phyto- plankton passed through the cooling system of a The relative toxicity of chlorine in water is related steam electric power station on the ooling system of a to the amount and proportions of free and residual steam electric power station on the Patuxent River, to the amount and proportions of free and residual Md. The photosynthetic rate increased with an chlorine. Several investigators have found that free Md The photosynthetic rate increased with an chlorine. Several investigators have found that free 8C rise in temperature when ambient water tem- peratures were 16°C or less. Inhibition occurred organisms than chloramines (Douderoff and Katz, peratures were above 20'C. In a 1950; Merkens, 1958), even though the toxicity of related study, conducted at the same site, Hamilton the various forms of chlorine was of the same order et al. (1970) measured a 91 percent decrease in of magnitude. Rosenberger (1971) and Basch and primary productivity during intermittent chlorina- Truchan (1973), found that dichloramine was more tion. toxic than monochloramine in freshwater. A com- prehensive review paper by Brungs (1973) sum- marizes the toxic effects of residual chlorine on Chlorine Toxicity freshwater aquatic organisms. to Invertebrates In seawater, Holland et al. (1960) determined that dichloramine is apparently more toxic than Muchmore and Epel (1973) investigated the monochloramine and that the chloramines were effects of chlorination of wastewater on fertilization more toxic than free chlorine. These findings may in marine invertebrates, Table 4. Unchlorinated reflect the complex chlorine-bromine reaction kine- sewage (from the Pacific Grove, Calif.) was a weak tics suggested by Johanneson (1958, 1960) and inhibitor of fertilization in the sea urchin, Strongyl- Lewis (1966). ocentrotus purpuratus. Exposure of gametes of the OTHER POLLUTANTS 419 Table 3.-Summary of toxic effects of chlorinated wastes and water on marine phytoplankton Species Toxicant Measured Residual Duration of Test Effect(s) Reference Chlorine mg/I Phytoplankton -. ..........Cl2 injection 0.05-0.40 12 hrs + 4 hrs incubation 50-98% loss of productivity Carpenter et al. (1972) Chlamydomona sp..-. .... Hypochlorite solution 0.69-12.9 5 min Reduced growth rate Hirayama and Hirano (1970) Skeletonema costatum .... 0.18-2.4 5 min None up to 0.29 mg/I; greater amts. inhibited growth Phytoplankton .- ..._ Hypochlorite solution 0.32 2 min 55% decrease in ATP Gentile et al. (1972, 1973) 0.01 45 min 77% decrease in ATP 0.075-0.25 24 hrs 50% decrease in growth Phytoplankton -. . .........Cl2 injection in... ..-.... 15 min 91% reduction in photosynthesis Hamilton et al. (1970) Table 4.-Summary of toxic effects of chlorinated wastes and water on marine invertebrates Species Toxicant Measured Residual Duration of Test Effect(s) Reference Chlorine mg/l Strongylocentrus Chlorinated sewage 0.02 5 min None Muchmore and Epel (1973) purpuratus (gametes)-.- effluents 0.11 5 min 100% inhibition of fart. Urechis caupo (gametes)_- 0.2 5 min 22% inhibition of fort. 1.0 5 min 100% inhibition of fart. Phragmatopoma 0.2 5 min 22% loss of motility californica (sperm) ... 1.0 5 min 86% loss of motility Ostrea edulis - .. . .-Residual chlorine 10.0 48 min + 10 C None Waugh (1964) Elminius modestus . 2.0 10 min Death and inhibited growth 5.0 3 min None Balanus sp. .- . ........... CI2 injection 2.5 5 min 80% mortality McLean (1972, 1973) Acartia tonsial-........ 2.5 5 min 90% mortality Melita nitida ....... 2.5 5 min Near 100% mortality 96 hrs after Palaemonetes pugio....... 2.5 5 min exposure Bimaria franciscana..-.... 4.5 4 days None Anemones ....- . ------ Residual chlorine 10.0 1, 2,4,8 hrs/day for 10 days None Turner et al. (1948) 2.5 8 days 100% mortality 1.0 15 days 100% mortality Mussels ----------------- 10.0 1, 2, 4, 8 hrs/day for 10 days None 2.5 5 days 100% mortality 1.0 15 days 100% mortality Barnacles . ... .--- 10.0 1,2,4,8 hrs/day for 10 days 95-100% mortality 2.5 4 days 100% mortality 1.0 7 days 100% mortality Mytilus edulis -. .-... Cl2 injection 0,02-0.05 A few hrs Detachment and migration James (1967) sea urchin to a 10 percent unchlorinated sewage- resulted in a loss of fertilization ability. This was seawater mixture typically reduced fertilization attributed to a loss of sperm motility which was not success by 20 percent. A 0.5 percent dilution of restored after washing to remove the hypochlorite. moderately chlorinated sewage (11 mg/l TRC Gametes of the echiuroid, Urechis caupo, and sperm undiluted), significantly reduced fertilization. It was of the annelid worm, Phragmatopoma californica, also determined that chlorination had more effect were not as sensitive to chlorine toxicity. on sperm cells than on eggs. Eggs incubated for 5 A number of power plant related studies have minutes in a 0.77 mg/l hypochlorite solution and been conducted to determine the effect of chlorina- subsequently washed to remove the hypochlorite, tion of seawater on fouling organisms. Waugh (1964) showed no reduction in fertility. Incubation of observed no significant difference in the mortality sperm at a 0.07 mg/l hypochlorite concentration of oyster larvae, Ostrea edulis, exposed to 5 mg/l 420 ESTUARIN. POLLUTION CONTROL chlorine for 3 minutes at ambient temperature, canal contained a prolific growth of algae, Entero- compared to control mortality. Exposure of larvae morpha sp. but fewer invertebrates. Balanus im- to thermal stress (10°C above ambient) and 10 mg/l provisis, which was collected with some regularity chlorine for 6 to 48 minutes also had no significant from the intake canal was never observed in the effect on survival 64 hours after treatment. Barnacle outfall canal. The mollusk, Eubranchus sp. was more, nauplii, Elminius modgstus, showed more acute abundant on the intake slabs than in the outfall. sensitivity to chlorination. Residual chlorine read- ings in excess of 0.5 mg/l caused heavy mortality Chlorine Toxicity and reduced growth for survivors. to Estuarine Fish McLean (1973) simulated the conditions en- countered by marine organisms passing through a Tsai (1968, 1970, 1975) has observed decreases in power plant on the Patuxent River, Md. Intake the abundance and occurrence of brackish water chlorination to 2.5 mg/l residual, entrainment for fish species in certain areas of the Upper and Little approximately 3 minutes and sustained exposure Patuxent Rivers receiving chlorinated sewage ef- to elevated temperatures for up to 3 hours were fluent. Tsai suggests that chlorinated .sewage ef- used as experimental parameters. While barnacle fluent may also block the upstream migration of larvae, Balanus sp. and copepods, Acartia tonsi, such semi-anadromous species as the white catfish were not affected by a 3 hour temperature stress of and white perch. He attributed the blocking effect 5.5 and 11°C above ambient, exposure to 2.5 mg/l to chlorination products rather than reduced dis- chlorination for 5 minutes at ambient tempera- solved oxygen or pH resulting from organic decom- tures caused respective mortality rates of 80 and position of the effluent, Table 5. 90 percent. The amphipod, Melita nitida, and the Tsai (1973) measured the diversity index of fish grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio, showed a delayed upstream and downstream of 98 sewage treatment death response after exposure to 2.5 mg/l for 5 plants in Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania. minutes. Nearly 100 percent mortality was observed Sewage treatment plants were categorized as Type I for both species 96 hours after exposure to the engineering facilities (sludge activation, aeration, chlorination. McLean (1972) showed that estab- sedimentation and filtration) with effluent chlorina- lished colonies of the euryhaline colonial hydroid, tion; Type II, engineering facilities with chlorination Bimeria franciscana, were not greatly affected by I and an effluent holding lagoon; and Type- III; and 3 hours of exposure to 4.5 mg/l chlorination. engineering facilities with a lagoon and effluent Turner et al. (1948) determined that continuous chlorination at the lagoon outlet. Reductions in the treatment of seawater conduits with 0.25 mg/l number of fish, number of species and the species chlorine prevented fouling during a 90 day interval diversity index were significant downstream of when the flow velocity was 52 cm/second or less. Type I and III plants. These reductions were at- Intermittent treatment with 10 mg/l "residual chlo- tributed to total residual chlorine levels and tur- rine" for 8 hours a day was ineffective in preventing bjdity. Diversity indices showed no significant fouling by anemones, mussels and barnacles. changes in downstream areas associated with Type II James (1967), working in Great Britain, observed plants. that chlorination levels of 0.02 and 0.05 mg/l caused Massive fish kills occurred on the James River, detachment and movement of mussels in the direc- Va., during May-June 1973 (Virginia State Water tion of water flow through an aquarium, with Control Board, 1974). Species affected by the kill' eventual elimination of the mussels. He con- included spot, Leiostormus xanthurus; 'white perch,, eluded that the most effective way to prevent Morone americana; bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix;: fouling by mussels was not to kill, but to discourage grey seatrout, Cynoscion regalis and menhaden, settling in cooling water systems by continuous low Brevoortia tyrannus. A majority of the fish kill in level chlorination. the James River occurred adjacent to sewage treat- Markowski (1960) compared the occurrence of ment plants. Chlorination oxidation levels as high marine organisms on concrete slabs placed in the as 0.7 mg/l were. observed in the James. Effluents intake, and -outfall canals of an electric generating from both plants showed more than 3.0 mg/l. plant. Chlorine was injected into the condensors of Distress symptoms of fish' dying included spiral this plant for two hours a day at a concentration swimming patterns, broken vertebral columns, list- betweeen 1 and 2.5 mg/l. No vegetation was ob- less floating, inverted swimming, distension of the served growing in the intake canal Where dense air bladder in some, loose body scales, mucous on animal populations occurred (predominantly in- the skin and hemorrhaging along the fins and body vertebrates, Coelenterata and Polyzoa). The outfall surface. OTHER POLLUTANTS 421 Table 5.--Summary of toxic effects of chlorinated wastes and water on marine and freshwater fishes Species Toxicant Measured Residual Duration of Test Effect(s) Reference Chlorine- mg/l Freshwater an'd brackish fishes .-.. -.-.-... chlorinated sewage 0.6-2.0 Long term Decreased popn. size and diversity Tsai (1968, 1970, 1973) effluents L. xanthurus--.... ...... chlorinated sewage 0.07-0.28 May-June, 1973 Probable kill 5-10 million fish Virginia State Water Control Morone sp ... effluents Board (1974) Polatomus saltatrix -.---- C. regalis .-------------- Brevoortia tyrannus .... L. xanthurus .- ... sodium hypochlorite 0.09 96 hrs 50% mortality VIMS for VSWCB (1974) 0.14 24 hrs 50% mortality .:1 . 0.28 6 hrs 50% mortality 0. nerka.- ..- .... chlorinated sewage 0.02-0.26 24 hrs 100% mortality Servizi and Martens (1974) O; gbrbuscha (freshwater). effluents 0.16 72 hrs 100% mortality 0. gorbuscha .- ... ... Residual chlorine 0.5 80 min + 10 C 50% mortality Stober and Hanson (1974) 0. tshawytscha .....--.... 0,5 10 min + 10 C 50% mortality Morone americana..- .-.. residual chlorine 0.08 10onains Avoidance Meldrim et al. (1974) Menidia menidia -... 0.08 10 min Avoidance F. heteroclitus --------- 0.03 10 min Avoidance. Trinectes maculatus 0.03 10 min Avoidance Pleuronectes platessa (eggs) .-..-.-..... free chlorine 0.04-0.08 8 days None Alderson (1972) 0.62 72 hrs 50% mortality 0.10 96 hrs 50yq mortality (larvae) ........... - 0.032 48 hrs 50% mortality 0.026 96 hrs 509 mortality Cyprinus carpioe ........ 4-Chlororesorcinol ----------------, 3-7 days Reduced hatch Gehrs et al. (1974) 5-Chlorouracil (0.001 mg/l) Live box tests conducted adjacent to'the James Separate field studies on the spot, Leiostomus River sewage treatment plant (STP) demonstrated xdnthurus, found up to 40 percent of juveniles from a correlation between rates of effluent chlorination the 1973 year class exhibited deformities in the and mortality of juvenile spot and croaker. With an vertebral column. These abnormal forms are iden- average daily chlorine feed of 1,200 pounds (total tifiable as a distinct year class in 1975 population flow of water was approximately 10 mgd during samples from the James River, (Labbish Chao, tests) and a measured activated oxidant level of personal communication). 3.0 mg/l, caged fish suffered 100 percent mortality A study of the effect of chlorinated sewage within 20 hours. After a cutback to a chlorine feed effluents on sockeye salmon, Onchorhynchus nerka, rate of approximately 400 pounds per day, only 20 and pink salmon, 0. gorbuscha, has been conducted percent mortality was observed among caged fish by Servizi and Martens (1974). They used three after 20 hours. study sites to conduct cage bioassays. The first, On-site aquaria tests confirmed the results of the Site I, was adjacent to a primary treatment plant cage tests. Water from an area adjacent to the outfall with effluents chlorinated following settling and dis- of the James River (STP) was pumped through charged through a 600-foot pipeline directly into: aquaria containing juvenile spot. Mortalities ranged the receiving stream. Site II was on a stream from 91 to 100 percent after 40-85 minutes of receiving wastes from an activated sludge plant in exposure prior to the cutback in chlorination. After which chlorinated effluents were discharged into a chlorination rates were reduced, mortalities were large efflihent holding lagoon and retained from 30 0-26 percent after 120 minutes of exposure. to 60 days. Site III was located on a stream receiving Continuous flo* laboratory bioassays were also effluents which were chlorinated as they left a. conducted.' The 96 hour LC5o for' juvenile spot was non-aerated lagoon. estimated at 0.09 mg/1. The estimated 24 hour Measured chlorine residuals in the receiving LCUo was 0.14 mg/l and the 6 hour LC50, 0.28 mg/l. stream at Site I ranged from 0.02-0.26 mg/l. These 422 ESTmUARn POLLUTION CONTROL concentrations resulted in 100 percent mortality of Gehrs et al. (1974) tested the sensitivity of carp caged sockeye fingerlings placed 30, 60 and 250 feet eggs, Cyprinus carpio, to two of the compounds below the effluent discharge point. Additional tests identified by Jolley, 4-Chlororesorcinol and 5-Chloro- indicated that the primary effluent without chlorina- uracil. Significant reductions in the hatchability of tion was also toxic. However, fish exposed to the non-water hardened carp eggs were observed in unchlorinated effluent lived 10 times longer than concentrations of each compound as low as 0.001 ones exposed when effluents were being chlorinated. mg/l. Toxicity of the unchlorinated effluents was attributed In California, Young (1964) observed tumor-like to MBAS and ammonia. sores around the mouth of white croakers, Genyone- Tests at Site II indicated that chlorinated mus lineatus, collected near the Hyperion sewage effluents retained for 30 to 60 days were not toxic outfall in Santa Monica Bay. While there was no to sockeye fingerlings and alevins and pink salmon direct evidence to link the occurrence of lesions with alevins after 26 days of exposure. chlorinated sewage effluents, a general decline in In tests at Site III, with fingerling sockeye fitness of croakers and other species found in close salmon, chlorinated sewage effluents (measured proximity to the outfall area was observed. 0.85 mg/1) resulted in 50 percent mortality after 48 minutes. Fifty percent mortality occurred after 13 hours of exposure to the unchlorinated effluents. Sublethal exposures of fingerling sockeye salmon to Alderson, R. 1972. Effects of low concentrations of free the effluents from Site III (1-3 hours of exposure chlorine on eggs and larvae of plaice, Pleuronedes plafessa to 0.22 mg/l) resulted in gill damage, including L. In: Marine Pollution and Sea Life. Fishing News, Ltd., hyperplasia, swollen epithelial cells, and separation of epithelium from pillar cells. Basch, R. E. and J. G. Truchan. 1973. Calculated residual The toxicity of chlorine and heat to pink, Oncor- chlorine concentrations safe for fish. Interim Report, Michigan Water Resource Commission, Bureau of Water hynchus gorbuscha, and chinook salmon, 0. tshawyt- Manag Commission, ureau of chate scha, has been determined by Stober and Hanson (1974). Juveniles of each species were tested in sea- Block, Rt M. and G. Rt Helz. 1975. Biological and chemical water at five chlorination concentrations, ranging implications of chlorine in estuarine and marine systems. from 0.05-1.0 mg/I, and four temperatures from Chesapeake Sci, In press. t 0-10°C. Salmon were exposed to each matrix for Brungs, W. k 1973. Effects of residual chlorine on aquatic 7.5-60 minutes. A decrease in the tolerance of both life. Jour. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 45(10) :2180-2192. species to chlorination was observed with increased temperature and exposure time. The most toxic ef- Carfenter, B. S., B. B. Peck and S. S. Anderson. 1972. Cooling water chlorination and productivity of entrained feet was observed at a t of 9.9-10°C where the LTo phytoplankton. Marine Biology 16:37-40. (lethal time for 50 percent mortality) ranged from approximately 10 minutes at 0.5 mg/l for chinooks Davis, Wm. P. and D. P. Middaugh, 1976. A review of the to 80 minutes for pinks. impact of chlorination processes upon marine ecosystems. Proc. Conf. Environmental Impact of Water Chlorination, Meldrim et a. (1974) in flowing water bioassays Oak Ridge, 1975. studied the effect of chemical pollutants on estuarine organisms. They found that white perch, Mforone Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz. 1950. Critical review of literature americana, consistently avoided levels as low as 0.08 on the toxicity of industrial wastes and their components mg/l at temperatures from 7-17°C. Silversides, to fish. Sew and Ind. Wastes 22(11) 1432-1458 Menidia menidia, also avoided 0.08 mg/I at term- Fair, G. M., J. C. Morris, S. L. Chang, I. Well, and R. P. peratures from 8-28°C but showed a preference for Burden. 1948. Chlorine as a water disinfectant. Jour. 0.08 mg/I when fish acclimated to 7°C were exposed Amer. Water Works Assoc. 40:1051-1061. at 12°C. Mummichogs, Fund/ulus heterodlitus, and CsGehrs, C. W., L. D. Eyman, R. L. Jolley and J. E. Thompson. hog chokers, Trinectes maculatus, avoided levels as 1974. Effects of stable chlorine-containing organics on low as 0.03 mg/l. aquatic environments. Nature 249:675-676. Alderson (1972) found that the 48 and 96 hour TIm of free chlorine for plaice larvae, Pleuronectes Gentile, J. H., J. Cardin, M. Johnson, and S. Sosnowski. 1972. The effects of chlorine on the growth and survival platessa, was 0.032 and 0.026 mg/l respectively. of selected species of estuarine phytoplankton and zoo- Eggs were not affected when exposed to 0.075 and plankton. Unpublished manuscript, Environmental Re- 0.04 mg/l free chlorine for 8 days, indicating that search Laboratory, Narragansett. the egg membrane gives considerable protection over long periods. The 72 and 192 hour TI for S. Cheer, and N. Lackie. 1973. The use of ATP in over long periods. The 72 and 192 hour Tltrx for the evaluation of entrainment. Unpublished data. En- eggs was 0.7 and 0.12 mg/1 respectively. vironmental Research Laboratory, Narragansett. OTBHER POLLUTANTS 423 Hamilton, D. H., D. A. Flemer, C. V. Keefe, and J. A. Mi- Merkens, J. C. 1958. Studies on the toxicity of chlorine and hursky. 1970. Power plants: Effects of chlorination on chloramines to the rainbow trout. Water and Waste estuarine primary productivity. Science 169:197-198. Treatment Jour. 7:150-151. Hirayama, K. and R. Hirano. 1970. Influence of high tern- Moore, E. W. 1951. Fundamentals of chlorination of sewage perature and residual chlorine on marine phytoplankton. and wastes. Water and Sewage Works 98:130-136. Marine Biology 7:205-213. Morgan, R. P., and R. G. Stross. 1969. Destruction of phyto- Holland G. A., J. E. Lasater, E. D. Neumann, and W. E. plankton in the cooling water supply of a steam electric EldriAge. 1964. Toxic effects of organic and inorganic station. Chesapeake Sci 10:165-171. pollutants on young salmon and trout. State of Washing- ton, Dept. of Fish Res. Bull. No. 5. Muchmore, D., and D. Epel. 1973. The effects of chlorination of wastewater on fertilization in some marine invertebrates. Houghton, G. U. 1946. The bromine content of underground Marine Biology 19.93-95. waters. Part II: Observations on the chlorination of water containing free ammonia and naturally occurring bromide. Rosenberger, D. R. 1971. The calculation of acute toxicity Jour. Soc. of Chemical Industry 65:324-328. of free chlorine and chloramine to coho salmon by multiple regression analysis. Thesis, Michigan State Univ., East Ingols, M S., H. A. Wyckoff, T. W. Kethley, H. W. Hodgden, Lansing, Mich. E. L. Fincher, J. C. Hildebrand, and J. E. Mandel. 1953. Bactericidal studies of chlorine. Industrial and Engineering Sawyers, C. N., and P. L. McCarty. 1969. Chemistry for Chemistry 45:995-1000. Sanitary Engineers. 2nd Ed., McGraw-fill, New York. James, W. G. 1967. Mussel fouling and use of exomotive Servizi, J. A., and D. W. Martens. 1974. Preliminary survey chlorination. Chem. and Ind. 24:994-996. of toxicity of chlorinated sewage to sockeye and pink salmon. Pacific Salmon Fisheries Comm. Progress Report Johanneson, J. K. 1958. The determination of monobroma- No. 30:1-42. mine and monochloramine in water. Analyst 83:155-159. Stober, Q. J., and C. H. Hanson. 1974. Toxicity of chlorine 1960. Bromination of Swimming Pools. Am. Jour. and heat to pink, Onchrhynchus gorbuacha and chinook Publ. Health 50:1731. salmon, 0. tsiawytscha. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 103(3): 569-576. Jolley, Rt L. 1973. Chlorination effects on organic constituents in effluents from domestic sanitary sewage treatment plants. Sugam, R. and G. PR Helz. 1976. Apparent ionization con- Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Tennessee. stant of hypochlorous acid in seawater Environmental Sci. and Tech. 10(4) :385-86. Jolley, R. L., C. W. Gehrs, and W. W. Pitt. 1975. Chlorina- tion of cooling water: A source of environmentally sig- Tsai, C. 1968. Effects of chlorinated sewage effluents on fishes nificant chlorine-containing organic compounds. Proceeding in upper Patuxent River, Md. Chesapeake Sci. 9(2) :83-93. of the 4th National Symposium on Radioecology, Corvallis, Ore. . 1970. Changes in fish populations and migrations in relation to increased sewage pollution in Little Patuxent Laubusch, E. J. 1971. Chlorination and other disinfection River, Md. Chesapeake Sci. 11(1):34-41. processes. In: Water Quality and Treatment. Am. Water Works Assoc. - . 1973. Water quality and fish life below sewage out- falls. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 102(2) 281-292. Lewis, B. G. 1966. Chlorination and muscle control. I. The chemistry of chlorinated seawater. A review of . 1975. Effects of sewage treatment plant effluents the literature. Central Electric Res. Lab., Lab. Note on fish: A review of the literature. Chesapeake Research No. RDfL/N/106/66. Consortium. Publ. No. 36:1-229. Markowvki, S. 1959. The cooling water of power stations: Turner, H. J., D. M. Reynolds, and A. C. Redfield. 1948. A new factor in the environment of marine and freshwater Chlorine and sodium pentachlorophenate as fouling pre- invertebrates. Jour. Animal Ecol. 28:243-258. ventives in seawater conduits. Indus. and Engin. Chem. 40:450-453. .1960. Observations on the response of some benthonic organisms to power station cooling water. Jour. Animal Virginia State Water Control Board. 1974. James River Ecol. 29:349-357. Fish 1Mi 73-025. Bureau of Surveillance and Field Studies, Division of Ecological Studies. McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolf. 1963. Water Quality Criteria. 2nd Ed., Publ. 3A, Calif. State Water Quality Control Waugh, G. D. 1964. Observations on the effects of chlorine Board, Sacramento. on the larvae of oysters, Ostrea edulis L., and barnacles, Elmtinieus modestus, Darwin. Ann. Appl. Biol. 54:423-440. McLean, R. I. 1972. Chlorine tolerance of the colonial hy- droid, Bimeriafra caa. Chesapeake Sci. 13t229-230. White, G. C. 1972. Handbook of Chlorination. Van Nostrand -----. 1973. Chlorine and temperature stress in estuarine Rheinhold Co. New York. invertebrates. Jour. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 45:837-841. . 1973. Disinfection practices in the San Francisco Meldrim, J. W., J. J. Gift, and B. R. Petrosky. 1974. The Bay Area. Jor. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 46:89-101. effect of temperature and chemical pollutants on the be- havior of several estuarine organisms. Ichthyological Young, P. H. 1964. Some effects of sewage effluents on marine Assoc. Inc. Bull. No. 11:1-129. life. Calif. Fish and Game 50(1) :33-41. THE IMPACT OF SYNTHETIC ORGANIC COMPOUNDS ON ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS JEFFREY L. LINCER Mote Marine Laboratory and Eco-Analysts, Inc. Sarasota, Florida ABSTRACT The presence and effects of synthetic organic compounds is briefly reviewed with reference to the recent literature on the estuarine ecosystem. Pesticides and industrial toxicants are discussed in general with some attention given to synergistic and modifying effects. Recommendations for future research are made which include elucidating the effects of synthetic organics at the eco- system level. INTRODUCTION DDT and other synthetic organics are termed toxic when, because of their physical or chemical For the purposes considered herein, the term properties, they interfere with normal biological "synthetic organic compounds" refers to manmade functions. The interference can occur at any level, compounds and includes pesticides, polychlorinated whether it be as subtle as pesticide-induced decreased biphenyls (PCB's), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and growth in oysters or as gross as reproductive failure phthalate esters (PAE's) as well as toxic contam- in bald eagles or mass fish mortality. Naturally- inants of some of these, like chlorinated dibenzodi- occurring toxic substances include resin from certain oxins and dibenzofurans. plants and the toxins associated with red tide or- The estuarine ecosystem has been variously defined ganisms. By far, however, most deleterious sub- but for the sake of simplicity it will be considered as stances find their origin with modern-day man and that zone where fresh and salt water mix. This estu- his efforts to promote "progress." arine ecosystem serves a vital function in that most A logical breakdown of synthetic organic com- marine finfish and shellfish depend on a high quality pounds which are considered in this paper along estuary for some critical portion of their life history with available production and/or consumption in- (Clark, et al., 1969; Douglas and Stroud, 1971). In formation follows. addition, many salmonids and other anadromous 1. Pesticides are chemicals which kill organisms fishes spend a variable amount of time in this habitat identified as "pests" and include insecticides, fungi- before ascending the rivers to spawn. cides, piscicides, herbicides, miticides, etc. Insecti- Unfortunately, the oceans are the recipients and cides are commonly broken down into: (a) chlori- ultimate accumulation sites for persistent pollutants nated hydrocarbons (organochlorines), like DDT, al- like organochlorines (Dustman and Stickel, 1966; drin, dieldrin, heptachlor, toxaphene, and chlordane; Risebrough, et al., 1972). In fact, an estimated 25 (b) organophosphates, like malathion, parathion, percent of all DDT applied to the land has found its diazinon, and guthion; and (c) carbamates, like way to the sea (S.C.E.P., 1970). Risebrough and his Sevin and zectran. Fungicides include dithiocarba- co-workers (1968a) indicate that 11 tons of DDT mates (e.g., ferbam and ziram), nitrogen containing per year are transported down the Mississippi River compounds (e.g., phenylmercuric acetate), triazines, to the Gulf of Mexico alone! Because of their unique quinones, heterocyclics, and inorganics like the heavy physical and chemical characteristics, estuaries metals. Hexachlorobenzene (C6C16 or HCB) is a tend to be toxicant traps. The detritus which forms fungicide but is, in addition, used in organic synthesis the base of the estuarine food chain may contain processes. Herbicides are quite varied with the most up to 50 ppm total DDT. Odum, et al., (1969), and common being the phenoxy acids like 2,4-D and Woodwell, et al., (1967), estimated that total estu- 2,4,5-T. Frequently used aquatic herbicides include arine ecosystem levels as high as 14.7 kg/hectare endothal and diquat which are often used in com- were possible. bination with a surfactant (like a detergent). 425 426 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 1.-U.S. production of synthetic organic pesticides by class, 1967-1972*. In thousands of pounds. 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 Fungicides ..-. . .. .. 177,886 190,773 182,091 168,470 180,270 170,569 Herbicides --------- 439,965 499,514 423,840 434,241 458,849 481,618 Insecticides, fumigants, rodenticidest.... 503,796 581,619 580,884 495,432 564,818 569,157 Total ....-...... ... .. 1,121,647 1,271,906 1,186,815 1,098,143 1,203,937 1,221,344 * Fowler, 1974. t Includes small quantity of synthetic soil conditioners; does not include the fumigants carbon tetrachloride, paradichlorobenzene or inorganic rodenticides. The U.S. production of the major synthetic or- Phthalate esters (PAE's) were introduced in the ganic pesticides is reproduced in Table 1. In 1971, 1920's to overcome the problems of camphor in the the production of synthetic organic insecticides in plasticizer industry. Major uses of PAE's include the United States climbed nearly 14 percent from construction products, automobile and home furnish- the year before, reaching 557.7 million pounds, third ings, clothing, food coverings and medical products. highest on record (Fowler, 1973). Insecticides ac- Phthalates are also found in biochemical pathways counted for 49 percent of the tonnage of synthetic and several natural products such as poppies and pesticides produced. As one can see in Table 1, the tobacco leaves (Graham, 1973; Mathur, 1974). The trend was reversed for 1972. documentation that PAE's were readily assimilated Table 2 reveals the domestic disappearance of into blood from plastic storage bags and other medi- selected pesticides for the years 1966 through 1971. cal devices was the original basis for the fear that the Except for the aldrin-toxaphene group, there is a human population might be continuously exposed fairly consistent downward trend. Domestic disap- (Anonymous, 1973). pearance of DDT, for instance, was 18.2 million PCB's and PCT's (polychlorinated terphenyls) pounds in 1971, down more than 28 percent from are produced under the trade name Aroclor® by 1970. The consumption of the aldrin-toxaphene Monsanto in the United States. PCB production group continued its rise during 1972. Sales for that peaked during the period 1967-1970 (Table 3). PCT group (not including Strobane®) soared to 140 production shows a similar, but later, production million pounds for 1972 (U.S. Tariff Commission, peak during 1970-1971. PCT's are no longer being 1974). produced and the manufacture of PCB's is directed 2. "Industrial Toxicants" is a catch-all term that exclusively towards the heat transfer, transformer, has been variously subdivided. Polychlorinated and capacitor sales categories. In an effort to over- biphenyls (PCB's) are chlorinated compounds which come some of the potential environmental problems find use in almost every sector of modern man's world and have recently come under close scrutiny Table 3.--Production of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) and polychlorinated (Peakall and Lincer, 1970). In the past, they have terphenyls (PCT's) by Monsanto Industrial Chemicals Company for years been used in such diverse products as printer's ink 1959-1973. (Pers. comm., W. B. Papageorge). to swimming pool paint; however, a voluntary cur- U.S. Production (Thousands of Pounds) tailment by Monsanto has restricted their use. Year PCB's PCT's Table 2.-Domestic disappearance of selected pesticides at producers' level, 1959 - . .... . * 2,996 United States, 1966-1971, In thousands of pounds. (Fowler, 1973). 1960 - .... . .... 37,919 3,850 1961 ---------- 36,515 2,322 971t 1962-.......38,353 4,468 Pesticide 1966* 1967* 1968: 1969t 1970t 197t 196344734 4920 1963 .-- ..-----... . ....... . .. 44,734' 4,920 1964 ------- -- - 50,833 5,288 Aldrin-toxaphene 1965 .-............... 60,480 6,470 group-** .- --- 86,646 86,289 38,710 89,721 62,282 85,005 1966 65,849 8,190 Calcium arsenate. 2,942 2,329 1,992 2,117 2,900 2,457 1967 75,309 9,450 Copper sulfate_.. 104,020 85,274 87,452 99,840 77,344 70,272 1968 82,854 8,870 DDT .- ..- 45,603 40,257 32,753 30,256 25,457 18,234 1969 ------- - --------------- 76,389 11,600 Lead arsenate.... 6,944 6,152 4,747 7,721 5,860 4,142 1970 -................... ... 85,054 17,768 2,4-D .-.- ----- 63,903 66,955 68,404 49,526 46,942- 32,174 1971 34,994 20,212 2,4,5-T - - ------- 17,080 15,381 15,804 3,218 4,871 1,389 1972 .-. .. 38,600 8,134 1973 .----------------- 42,178 ** * Year ending September 30. t Year ending December 31. * Data unavailable. ·* Includes aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, Strobane® and toxajhene. ** Production terminated in April, 1972. OTHER POLLUTANTS 427 of existing biphenyls, Aroclor 1016 was produced. Table 4.-Consumption of plasticizers by type (in thousand metric tons)*. Approximately 23.5 million pounds of Aroclor 1016 were sold domestically in 1973. The 1973 sales for Aroclors 1221, 1242 and 1254 were recorded at 0.04, Adipates - 28.0 28.4 27.3 6.20 and 9.98 million pounds, respectively. All other Azelates . 6.8 7.2 7.3 PCB's showed no domestic sales (personal communi- DOP/DIOP/DIDP - 345.0 379.5 363.6 B p rEpoxy ----- - -------- - 50.0 56.8 59.1 cation, W. B. Papageorge). Linear phthalates ....-.. . -.. 109.0 125.5 143.2 "Plasticizers" are obviously produced by a variety Polyesters -.. .. 22.7 25.4 24.1 Trimellitates ---- - ---- -------- 8.1 8.5 10.5 of manufacturers, however, phthalates (DOP, Others ------ 110.0 113.0 113.6 DIOP, DIDP and linear) are the major groups con- - - - sumed (Table 4) . During 1972, production of phthalic Total .--------.-------. 679.6 744.3 748.7 anhydride esters totaled 1,145,693 pounds and sales followed closely at 1,138,493 pounds (U.S. Tariff *Source:Anonymous,initialedR.M.(1974). Commission, 1974). pesticides are advertised as short-lived, there is PRESENCE OF SYNTHETIC ORGANICS evidence that some may not be. In an application of IN ESENCTUARIES carbaryl (Sevin) at rates comparable to those used to control oyster pests, the chemical could still be Pesticides detected in the mud 42 days post-treatment (Kar- inen, et al., 1967). Similarly, 14 days after a standard Considering only the organochlorine pesticides, ground application of malathion, the organophos- DDE (the major breakdown product of DDT) is phate could still be found in the estuarine plant probably the most widely distributed in fish and Juncus (Tagatz, et al., 1974). wildlife (see Appendix A). Being lipophilic (i.e., The fungicide hexachlorobenzene (HCB), has "fat-loving"), DDE like other organochlorines is recently been reported in several species of fresh- not very soluble in water but accumulates in the fat water and some species of anadromous fish including of organisms (for overview, see Table 1 in reference coho salmon from Michigan and striped bass from entitled EPA, no date). Organochlorine pesticides Maryland and Florida (Johnson, et al., 1974). are passed from prey to predator with little lost by way of excretion. This biological magnification with Industrial Toxicants each transfer from one food level (i.e., trophic level) to the next results in animals at the tops of food Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) are as widely chains acquiring inordinate amounts of these poisons distributed as DDT. Because of similar molecular (Woodwell, et al., 1967). For instance, DDE con- shape and composition, the physical and chemical centration reached 1,100 ppm (parts per million) in properties of PCB's also confer the same lipophilic the fat of brown pelican eggs collected off the coast characteristic that allows biological accumulation of California and 1,000 ppm in the eggs of the white- and food chain magnification. tailed eagle collected in the Baltic (Risebrough, Estuarine organisms like fiddler crabs and shrimp et al., 1972). readily pick up PCB's from the sediments (Nimmo, Organochlorine pesticides are readily accumulated et al., 1971a) and filter-feeding oysters accumulate by shellfish and this characteristic has been taken these chemicals, like organochlorine pesticides, from advantage of to characterize the geographic distri- the water (Lowe, et al., 1972). bution of pesticide contamination. As part of the Like the organochlorine pesticides, PCB's accumu- National Pesticide Monitoring Program by EPA late to high levels in organisms representing the tops (Butler, 1973), shellfish were collected from coastal of food chains. Fat from the eggs of California brown zones of the United States. Analyses of over 8,000 pelicans contained 200 ppm PCB's while similar samples for 15 persistent organochlorines showed samples from the Baltic white-tailed eagle contained that DDT-type residues were ubiquitous, with the 540 ppm (Risebrough, et al., 1972). maximum DDT level at approximatlely 5 ppm. An ever-increasing list of industrial toxicants has Dieldrin was the second most commonly detected been found in our waterways. Phthalate esters have compound with a maximum of 0.23 ppm. Other been found in water collected from the Charles River organochlorine pesticides found occasionally which in New England. Levels of 0.88-1.9 ppb were re- are also extremely toxic to estuarine life, included ported with higher levels associated with increasing endrin, mirex and toxaphene. distances upstream (Hites, 1973). Mayer, et al., Although most organophosphate and carbamate (1972), reported on PAE's in selected samples from 428 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL North America. They found from 0.09 ppb DNBP Table 5.-Relative sensitivity of typical estuarine organisms to three major /di-n-butyl phthalate in Missori River tgroups of pesticides. Higher numbers reflect greater sensitivity. Reworked (di-n-butyl phthalate) in Missouri River water to from Butler, 1966b. 200 ppb in Mississippi River channel catfish and 500 ppb in tadpoles. Similar values for another phthalate, Pesticide Type DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), were 4.9, 400 Organism Herbicides Organophosphates Organochlorines and 300 ppb. These residue levels were roughly com- parable to PCB levels in the same samples. Plankton............ 1 0.5 Although the above rivers drain directly into Shrimp .... .1 1,000 300 estuaries and one suspects that phthalates, like other Crab.... . ............. 1 800 100 adsorbed toxicants, would "salt out" upon reaching Oyster 1 1 100 the saline environment, apparently no published re- Fish 1 2 500 search on phthalates has been directed towards that habitat. Although the preliminary work of Bowes, et al.,' et al., 1968), but no tests on estuarine species have;: (1973), was directed at determining levels of chlori- been reported to the author's knowledge. nated dibenzofurans and dibenzodioxins in wildlife The sensitivity of a particular taxonomic group to populations exhibiting embryonic mortality, it did any particular toxicant will vary appreciably. not reveal either of these two compounds. However, Although toxic to crustaceans, the carbamate Sevin. they reported hexachloronaphthalene in gull eggs is fairly nontoxic to fish and mammals (Lowe, 1967). but no chlorinated compounds of interest in sea lion In very general terms, Table 5 (reworked from But- samples. ler, 1966b) displays the relative toxicities of different pesticide groups to estuarine fauna. In a toxicity test which included 12 insecticides BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF and seven species of estuarine fish, the descending SYNTH ETIC ORGANLIFE order of toxicity was: endrin, DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, dioxathion, heptachlor, lindane, methoxychlor, Phos- drin, malathion, DDVP, and 'methyl parathion Pesticides (Eisler, 1970). For a more comprehensive listing of the toxic effects on estuarine life, 'by pesticide, the Organochlorine insecticides have been shown to reader is encouraged to read Appendix Table' 3 of interfere with almost every level of biological func- tion tested in marine life (see Appendix B). Levels of EPA, no date DD in the water as low as 0.001 ppm caused marked California seems to have taken the lead in 1963 in DDT in the water as low as 0.001 ppm caused marked reduction in oyster growth (Butler, 1966a) and high descrbig the presence and effects of pesticides levels of organochlorines have been associated with 1963). This precipitated many studies and many teratogenic effects in terns (Hays and Risebrough,nn n 1972) and premature births in marine mammals questions. Perhaps the most important question a 1972) and premature births in marine mammals decision-making politician or coastal-zone admini- (Delong, et al., 1973). Some organochlorines, like Mirex, a chemical used strator ought to ask with reference to toxic dis- charges is "How much should be allowed in our wa- to control the imported fire ant, Solenopsis saevissima, ters and what chmicals should not be applied at all ters and what chemicals should not be applied at all iln the southeastern states, are particularly toxic to near the estuaries?" Attempts have been made to estuarine organisms. For example, juvenile shrimp answer these and similar questions. The National and crabs died when exposed to one particle of mirex Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of bait; and 1 ppb (part per billion) mirex in seawater zoned in on this topic and reco the Interior (1968) zoned in on this topic and recom- killed 100 percent of the shrimp exposed (Lowe, mended that the following organochlorines not be et al., 1971a). Similarly, 0.1 ppm dietary dieldrin brought about maladaptive behavior in fiddler crabs applied near the marine habitat because of their extreme toxicity: (Klein and Lincer, 1973). Some urea herbicides, like Diuron, significantly inhibit the growth of marine algae at levels as low Aldrin DDT as 1 ppb (Walsh and Grow, 1971) and a few parts BHC Dieldrin per million of DDT, dieldrin or endrin is enough to Chlordane Endosulfan reduce phytoplankton photosynthesis (Wurster, Endrin Methoxychlor 1968; Menzel, et al., 1970). Heptachlor Perthane Hexachlorobenzene has been shown to be especially Lindane TDE toxic to birds under laboratory conditions (Vos; Toxaphene OTHER POLLUTANTS 429 Mirex also has been shown to be exceptionally The biochemical effects of PCB's have also come toxic to estuarine invertebrates like shrimp and under scrutiny. Keil, et al. (1971) tested the should be considered in this category. Hexachloro- effects of Aroclor 1242 (0.01-0.1 ppm) on marine benzene is particularly toxic to birds (Vos, et al., diatoms and found that it inhibited growth, RNA 1968) and deserves special attention around synthesis and chlorophyll production. Aroclor 1221 rookeries. has been shown capable of impairing osmoregulation A similar list for organophosphates included: in the killifish at relatively high levels (7.5-75 ppm) by Kinter, et al., (1972). Coumophos Fenthion Parathion Although no work has apparently been done on Dursban Naled Ronnel the effects of PCB's on estuarine fish-eating birds, some data are available on ducks. Friend and Trainer The above organochlorines and organophosphates (1970) showed a marked influence of Aroclor 1254 are acutely toxic at concentrations of 5 mg/l or less on the duck's susceptibility to viral infection. Heath, and should not be permitted to exceed 50 nano- et al. (1972), testing a series of PCB's, revealed that grams/l. The next group they discussed is generally toxicity was positively correlated with degree of not quite as toxic but should not be allowed to ex- chlorination and Haegele and Tucker (1974) estab- ceed 10 mg/l in estuarine waters. This group in- lished the effect of 1254 on eggshell thinning. eluded: Very little toxicological work has been done with dioxins, dibenzofurans, and phthalates and nothing Arsenicals 2,4'5-T compounds has been directed at the estuarine habitat, to the Arseo nicals 24 Tcopusauthor's knowledge. Miller, et al. (1973) reported Botanicals Phthalic acid compounds on the effects of tetrachloro-dibenzo-dioxin (TCDD) Carbamates Triazine compounds 2,r4-D compounds 'Substituted urea compounds on various aquatic organisms. Approximately 50 2,4-D compounds Substituted urea compounds percent of the young cho salmon exposed to 131 mg/l died by day 20. They also showed a marked This kind of information and guidance as to allow- growth inhibition by TCDD on both salmon and able levels of these and most other common toxicants, rainbow trout. including radionuclides, heavy metals, PCB's, et Zitko and his colleagues (1973) reported on the cetera, is presently being updated by the Environ- acute and chronic oral toxicity of chlorinated di- mental Protection Agency (see National Academy of benzofurans to immature brook trout. They con- Science and National Academy of Engineering, eluded that 2,8-dichlorodibenzofuran has a low acute 1972). toxicity to that species since even a high level of 122 mg/kg produced no mortality. Industrial Toxicants Work on phthalate esters has been limited to freshwater or anadromous organisms. In an effort to A great deal of research has been carried out on establish LC50 values for freshwater organisms, the effects of PCB's on estuarine life (Appendix B). Mayer and Sanders (1973) reported DNBP to be Perhaps most of it has been done at the EPA Gulf less toxic to rainbow trout (96-hour LC60 6.5 Breeze Laboratory, PCB's have been shown to mg/l) than to the other fish tested. Phthalate esters significantly decrease oyster growth at levels as low are metabolized by freshwater fishes (Stalling, et al., as 5 ppb (Lowe, et al., 1972) and be lethal to shrimp 1973) and both DEHP and DNBP are apparently at 1 ppb (Nimmo, et al., 1971b). Duke, et al. (1970) not acutely toxic to freshwater invertebrates showed that crabs concentrated the PCB Aroclor Sanders, et al. (1973) reported that although in- vertebrates rapidly accumulate these compounds, 1254 and 72 percent of the shrimp exposed to 5 ppb their 96-hour TL5so (2.1 - > 32 mg/l) is appreciably died after day 10. Hansen, et al. (1974a) demon-g strated that estuarine fishes and shrimp displayed greater than DDT, by comparison. However, the of avoidance to the same PCB at TL50 values for aquatic organisms are 700 to 11,000 levelaryis 001 to 10 ppm. Bioassays with Aroclor times that which inhibited reproduction in one of levels 0.001 to 10 ppm. Bioassays with Aroclor the invertebrates tested (water fleas). 1254 indicated that 5 ppb caused mortality to estuarine fish and the effect was delayed (Hansen, et al., 1971). In response to the change in emphasis of Synergism and Modifying Effects PCB production and subsequent increase in Aroclor 1016 manufacture, Hansen and co-workers (1974b) No report, however brief, on the effects. of syn- established the acute 96-hour LC5o's for estuarine thetic organics on estuarine life would be 'complete shrimp, fish, and oyster.. without including the area of synergistic effects and 430 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL modifying factors. The term "svnergism", un- many generations or seasonal cycles without any fortunately, has many definitions. For our present damage to the real world. needs, we will consider it to mean more than the Even at the community level, little has been done anticipated additive effects. with respect to the effects of synthetic organics. A This subject has been addressed in depth elsewhere variety of community parameters have been sug- (Livingston, et al., in press) however, a few examples gested as reflectors of a community's health. Mar- particularly germane to the estuary will follow. galef's "species richness" and Peilou's "species di- Once again, most work in this area has been done in versity and evenness" are but a few. Researchers are freshwater, however, Lowe, et al. (1971b) reported only now finding out that many of these parameters that oysters exposed to a mixture of 1 mg/l each of are not the panaceas they thought they were. The DDT, toxaphene and parathion showed reduced main problem lies with trying to use these techniques growth and histopathological effects. When these out of the context for which they were originally mollusks were exposed to the individual pesticides, intended. sinilar results were not observed. If it is possible to consistently and accurately Eisler (1970) reported on the modifying factors describe some ecosystem parameter, then it ought to affecting the toxicity of organochlorines and or- be theoretically possible to quantitate a change in ganophosphates to the mummichog, an estuarine that parameter. The absence of this kind of effort in fish. The toxicity of organophosphates increased with the estuarine and other habitats is merely a re- increasing temperature and salinity and decreasing flection of our current inability to describe such pH. The toxicity of organochlorines was greatest at changes, not evidence of its non-existence. intermediate temperatures (20-250C) and least at an intermediate pH (7-8). Salinity had little effect RECOMMENDED RESEARCH on organochlorine toxicity. Nimmo (1973) reported that sublethal levels of It goes without saying that there are existing pro- the PCB, Aroclor 1254, became lethal to estuarine grams that have to continue. One such program is penaeid shrimnp when the test organisnm-s were the National Pesticide Monitoring Program. It is stressed by reduced salinity. Since this species is also imperative that we have an established frame- migratory and experiences a wide variation in sa- work, like the one at the Gulf Breeze Laboratory, linity, this finding is particularly significant. work, like the o ne at the G ulf Breeze Laboratory, The effect of temperature may be of paramount tiny can be puickl tsted. importance in modifying the toxicity of pesticides to tAs an overview, emphasis i future research should estuarine invertebrates. For example, Koenig, et al. be given to determining the significance of the resi- (in preparaDtion) found that blue crabs contarni- dues being reported in the literature. This can be unated ith DDa dicd rnont cdue gc a feld experiment accomplished by stressing the diagnostic aspects of until a cold front caused significant reductions in experimentation during the planning stage and e- w-aiter temperature. experimentation during the planning stage and en- couraging toxicological studies that have direct relevance to the real world. Effects of Synthetic Organics In this light, the area of field-testing toxicants at the Estuarine Ecosystem Level has progressed in a manner that reflects individual idiosyncrasies and the idiomatic characteristics of With all due deference to the title of this report, the funding and/or research organization(Appendix pitifully little research has been addressed to the C). Efforts should be made to, at least, roughly ecosystem level. Although a variable amount of standardize field-testing techniques with a keen effort has gone into testing the effects of particular awareness of the possible modifying and synergistic toxicants under field conditions (see Appendix C), effects that one will encounter in the estuary. Inter- this is still not approaching the problem on the pretation of field exposures will require coordinated ecosystem level. efforts in the laboratory under less real, but more Odum and others have developed methods for controlled, conditions. It is only there that statis- simulating ecosystem energy and material flow on tically and logistically complicated designs can reach analog computers, but this approach is still twice- fruition and elucidate specific modes of action, removed from reality. On the other hand, such synergy, latent effects, food-chain magnification, models often indicate what types of information are and so forth. lacking and also have the advantage that the effects On the gobal scene, interdisciplinary efforts should of even extreme manipulations can be tested through be made to more thoroughly characterize the ki- OTHER POLLUTrAr 431 netics, marketing patterns, and use of widespread Anonymous (initialed "R. MV"). 1974. Plasticizers. Modern synthetic organic compounds, like phthalate esters, Plastivs September: 62-3. other plasticizers, chlorinated dibenzofurans, and Bagley, G. E., W. L. Reichel and E. Cromartie. 1970. Identi- dioxins and HCB. We need to know more about fication of polychlorinated biphenyls in two bald eagles their environmental kinetics, especially their metab- by combined gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrom- olism in soil and water. etry. J.A.O.A.C. 53: 251-260. As to specific chemicals that need experimental Bookhout, C. G., A J. Wilson, Jr., T. W. Duke and J. I. attention, PAE's, HCB, dioxins and dibenzofurans Lowe. 1971. Effects of Mirex on the larval development of are high on the list. two crabs. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 1: 165-180. PAE's are widespread in freshwater fish with higher residues appearing to be associated 'with in- Bourne, W. 1 P. and J. A. Began. 1972. Polychlorinated biphenyls in North Atlantic seabirds. Mar. Poll Bull dustrial areas (Stalling, et al., 1973). They have 3: 171-175. been shown to be more toxic to aquatic organisms than warm-blooded animals. These esters disturb Bowes, G. W., B. R. Simoneit, A. L. Burlingame, B. W. reproduction and growth in aquatic invertebrates deLappe and R. Wi Risebrough. 1973. The search for chlorinated dibenzofurans and chlorinated dibenzodioxins and fish yet nothing is known about their effects on in wildlife populations showing elevated levels of embryonic estuarine species. death. Envir. Health Perspectives Exp. Iss. No. 5: 191-19& Although not widely reported in the literature, lUB has been found in environmental samtples Burnett, It 1971. DDT residues: Distribution of concentra- tions of Emerita ana/aga (Simpson) along coastal California. (HEolden, 1970). In view of the possible analytical Science 174: 606-608. confusion with benzene hexachloride (BH1C), HCB may be even more widespread. With this potential Butler, P. An 1965. Reaction of some estuarine molluscs to and the documented toxicity of this compound to environmental factors. 999-W.S. Pu. Health Serv. Pub.. birds in mind (Vos, et al., 1968), the effects of HCB No. 999-WP-25. on fish-eating birds is of concern. Butler, P. A. 1966a. Pesticides in the marine environment. J. Initial work with the dioxin TCDD indicates App. Eco. 3 (suppl.): 253-259. important effects on the growth and reproduction of anadromous and freshwater species (Miller et al Butler, P. A. 1966b. The problem of pesticides in estuaries. 1973). Again, nothing is known about the effects on estuarine species. Butler, P. A. 1966c. Fixation of DDT in estuaries. Trans. 31st Dibenzofurans were not particularly lethal to the N. A. Wildlife and Nat. Res. Conf., 14-16 March. The trout they were tested on (Zitko, et al., 1973), how- Wildlife Mgmt. Inst., Wire Bldg., Washington, D.C. ever, nothing is known about their sublethal effects. Butler, P. A. 1967. Pesticide residues in estuarine molluscs. In addition, because of different osmoregulatory Nat'l. Symposium on Estuarine Pollution. mechanisms, the effects on euryhaline species may be considerably different. Butler, P. A. 1968. The significance of DDT residues in estuarine fauna. First Rochester Conf. on Toxicity. In: As to the level of emphasis and the parameters Miller, N. W. and G. G. Berg (eds.), 1969, Chemical Fallout. that need attention, efforts should be made to Chas. C. Thomas, Co., Springfield, Ill.: 205-213. characterize effects at the ecosystem and/or com- munity level. This is the final biological-physical- Butler, P. A. 1969. Monitoring pesticide pollution. BioSeience chemical integration that will reflect individual 19:889-891. perturbations at any sublevel if, in fact, they are Butler, P. A. 1971. Influence of pesticides on marine eco- significant. As a prelude to this, more intensive systems. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. B. 177: 321-329. research is necessary on the sublethal effects, with special emphasis on behavior and biochemistry. In Butler, P. A. 1973. Organochlorine residues in estuarine terms of the experimental design of laboratory mollusks, 1965-1972. National Pesticide Monitoring Pro- gram. Pestic. Monit. Jour. 6(4): 238-362. studies, more attention should be given to synergistic effects and latent responses. With reference to the Clark, J. W. G. Smith, A. W. Kendall, Jr. and M. P. Fahay. former, research aimed to elucidating the modifying 1969. 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Application of real-time mass spectrometric Peakall, D. B. and J. L. Lincer. 1970. Polychlorinated bi- techniques to environmental organic geochemistry. II. phenyls: Another long-life widespread chemical in the Organic matter in San Francisco Bay area water. Arch. environment. BioScience 20(17): 958-964. Envir. Cont. Toxicol. 1(3): 193-208. Peakall, D. B., J. L. Lincer, R. W. Risebrough, J. B. Pritchard Springer, P. F. 1961. The effects on wildlife of applications and W. B. Kinter. 1973. DDE-induced eggshell thinning: of DDT and other insecticides for larval mosquito control Structural and physiological effects in three species. Comp. in tidal marshes of the eastern United States. Dissertation Gen. Pharmac. 4: 305-313. Abstr. XXII: 177. Prcstt, I., D. J. Jefferies and N. W. Moore. 1970. Poly- Springer, P. F. and J. R. Webster. 1951. Biological effects chlorinated biphenyls in wild birds in Britain and their of DDT applications on tidal salt marshes. Mosquito News avian toxicity. Environ. Pollut. 1: 3-26. 11(2): 67-74. Rawls, C. K. 1965. Field tests of herbicide toxicity to certain Stalling, D. L., J. W. Hogan and J. L. Johnson. 1973. Phthal- estuarine animals. Chesapeake Science 6(3): 150-161. ate ester residues-their metabolism and analysis in fish. Erzvir. Health Perspectives Exp. Iss. No. 3: 159-173. Reichel, W. L., T. G. Lamont, E. Cromartie and L. N. Locke. 1969a. Residues in two bald eagles suspected of pesticide Tagatz, M. E., P. W. Borthwick, G. H. Cook, and D. L. Cop- poisoning. Bull. Envir. Cont. Toxicol. 4: 24-30. page. 1974. Effects of ground application of malathion on salt-marsh environment in northwestern Florida. Con- Reichel, W. L., E. Cromartie, T. G. Lamont, B. M. Mulhern tribution No. 179 from the EPA, NERO, Gulf Breeze, and R. M. Prouty. 1969b. Pesticide residues in eagles. Fla. Also: 1974. Mosquito News 34(3): 309-315. Pestic. Monit. Jour. 3: 142-144. Tarzwell, C. M. 1948. Effects of routine DDT mosquito larviciding on wildlife. Jour. National Malaria Society 7(3): Richardson, A., J. Robinson, A. N. Crabtree and M. K. 199-206. Baldwin. 1971. Residues of polychlorobiphenyls in bio- logical samples. Pestic. Monit. Jour 4(4): 169-176. Thompson, N. P., P. W. Rankin and D. W. Johnston. 1974. Polychlorinated biphenyls and p,p' DDE in green turtle Risebrough, R. W., D. B. Menzel, D. J. Mart.in, Jr. and H. S. eggs from Ascension Island, South Atlantic Ocean. Bull. Olcott. 1967. DDT residues in Pacific sea birds: A persistent Envir. Cont. Toxicol. 11(5): 399-406. insecticide in marine food chains. Nature 216: 589-590, United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Risebrough, P. W., R. J. Huggett, J. J. Griffin and E. D. Services. 1967a. Pesticide surveillance program, effects of Goldberg. 1968tia. Pesticides: Transatlantic movement ip granular application of dursban on some estuary and salt the northeast trades. Science 159: 1233-1236. marsh organisms. Special Report. OTHER POLLUTANTS 435 United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Williams, D. T. 1973. Dibutyl- and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate Services. 1967b. Pesticide field appraisal, field observations in fish. J. Agr. Food Chem. 21(6): 1128-1129. on the effects of ultra-low volume application of dibrom on fish and wildlife in South Florida. Special Report. Wood, L. and B. A. Roberts. 1963. Differentiation of effects of two pesticides upon Urosalpinx cinerea Say from the United States Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife eatern shore of Virginia. Proc. 1963 National Shellfisheries Services. 1968. Pesticide field appraisal, field appraisal of Assoc.: 75-85. tests to control salt marsh mosquitoes with dursban applied as a larvicide and adulticide in Florida. Special Report. Woodwell, G. M., C. F. Wurster and P. A. Isaacson. 1967. DDT residues in an east coast estuary: A case of biological United States Tariff Commission. 1974. Synthetic organic concentration of a persistent insecticide. Science 156: chemicals. U.S. production and sales, 1972. TC Publica- 821-824. tion 681. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Wurster, C. W., Jr. 1968. DDT reduces photosynthesis by marine phytoplankton. Science 159: 1474-1475. Vos, J. G., H. A. Breeman and H. Penschap. 1968. The oc- currence of the fungicide hexachlorobenzene in wild birds Zitko, V. 1971. Polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine and its toxicological importance. A preliminary communi- pesticides in some fresh water and marine fishes. Bull. cation. Med. Rijksfakuteit Landbouw-Wet. Gent 33(3): Envir. Cont. Toxicol. 6: 464-470. 1263-1268. Zitko, V. and P. M. K. Choi. 1971. PCB and other halogenated Walsh, G. E. and T. E. Grow. 1971, Depression of carbo- hydrocarbons in the environment. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. hydrate in marine algae by urea herbicides. Weed Science Tech. Rep. No. 272. 19(5): 568-570. Zitko, V., O. Hutzinger and P. M. K. Choi. 1972. Contamina- Wiemeyer, S. N., B. M. Mulhern, F. J. Ligas, R. J. Hensel, tion of the Bay of Fundy-Gullf of Maine area with poly- J. E. Mathisen, F. C. Robards and S. Postupalsky. 1972. chlorinated biphenyls, polychlorinated terphenyls, chlo- Residue of organochlorine' pesticides, PCB and mercury rinated dibenzodioxins, and dibenzofurans. Envir. Health in bald eagle eggs and changes in shell thickness-1969 and Perspectives Exp. Iss. No. 1: 47-50. 1970. Pestic. Monit. Jour. 6(1): 50-55. Zitko, V., D. J. Wildish, O. Hutzinger and P. M. K. Choi. Wildish, D. J. 1970. The toxicity of polychlorinated biphenyls 1973. Acute and chronic oral toxicity of chlorinated di- (PCB) in sea water to Gammarrus oceanicus. Bull. Envir. benzofurans to salmonid fishes. Envir. Health Perspectives Cont. Toxicol. 5: 202-204. Exp. Iss. No. 5: 187-189. APPENDIX A Synthetic Orgariic Residues Found in Estuarine Organisms Taxa Pesticides - Industrial Toxicants : Comments Reference PISCES Fish ... ---------- - . DDT, DpE, DDD Shows "biological magnification" Woodwell, at al., 1967 Fish Britain - -... .-. DDT, DDE, DDD, BHC, heptachlor Residues vary with species Moore & Tatton, 1965 Seatrout eggs - - --------- --. DDT Causes spawning failure Butler, 1969 Fish and fish oil .-... . DDE, DDD PCB's Residue greater in industrialized coastal area Jensen, et al., 1969 Fish in estuary - - ----___ - :Aroclor'1254 Appears to have no effect on juvenile stage- Duke, et al., 1970 (pinfish) Fish .------------------.. DDT . Residues up to 16 ug/g - Butler, 1968 Pacific fish : .-....-- - ..-. DDT x Highest concentration in coastal fish Risebrough, et al., 1967 Fish .- -.-... .... DDT Mortality following tidal ditch spray Croker & Wilson, 1965 Pacific fish-livers - .R BHC, heptachlor, aldrin, toxaphene, Bottom dwellers contain higher concentration Duke & Wilson, 1971 chlordane, methoxychlor, dieldrin, than pelagic endrin; DDE, DDD, DDT Atlantic fish .- - - ---------- DDE, DDT, DDD, hexachlorobenzene Aroclor 1242, 1254, 1260 Higher concentration in surface swimmers Zitko, 1971 Fish estuarine ...- --..-.-.. DDT Fatal-to predators at different trophic levels Butler, 1966c Atlantic fish...... . - Phenoclor DP6 Lower chlorinated PCB's more frequent in fish Koeman, et al., 1969 than birds Processed and unprocessed Canadian fish............- Phthalates Low levels were found in 21 samples of fish Williams, 1973 available to the Canadian consumer Many species-. . .. . .......... DDE PCB's Compilation of residue data Zitko & Choi, 1971 Many species ....--......... Aroclor 1254 Geographic comparisons Risebrough & de Lappe, 1972 Groupers; Gulf of Mexico and Bahamas, . -- - -------.... DDE, DDT Aroclor 1260 Geographic comparisons Giam, et al., 1974 Fish --- ----------------RHCB : Reported 0.002 ppm (salmon eggs)-0.11 ppm Johnson, et al., 1974 (menhaden oil) MAMMALIA Dolphin .....-.... .. DDT Concentrated in blubber Butler, 1966c Dolphin aned'eal .- ..... dieldrin,:DDT, DDE, TDE Largest.amounts in blubber Holden & Marsden, 1967 Seals ...- . . .............,. DDE, DDD PCB Level consistent throughout all parts of body Jensen, et al., 1969 AVES Bald eagle .........-..DDT, DDD Caused death? Reichel, et al., 1969a Seabirds; North Atlantic-- -- DDT Aroclor 1254 Present in nonmigrating Arctic birds Bourne & Bogan, 1972 Seabirds and their predators.. DDT PCB Data on DOT/PCB ratios Risebrough, et al., 1968b Bald eagle and eggs .- - ----- DDE, dieldrin " PCB From many areas around North America Wiemeyer, et al., 1972 Bald eagle and golden eagle_. DDE, DDD, dieldrin, DCBP, endrin, Higher levels in bald eagles Reichel, et al., 1969b heptachlor Terns -. _.. -.-.. . DDT, DDE Aroclor 1254 Deformities in young - Hays and Risebrough, 1972 Sea birds (Britain) DDT, HEOD Seasonal variation Robinson, et al., 1967 Sea birds and eggs .- -. DDE, dieldrin Aroclor 1254 Highest residues in freshwater fish-feeding Prestt, et al., 1970 birds 436 OTHER POLLUTANTS . - 437 Taxa Pesticides Industrial Toxicants Comments Reference Brown pelican eggs .-.. .. . .. DDT PCB Eggshells thin Schreiber & Risebrough, 1972 British sea birds .- - ------ DDE PCB More PCB's than organochlorines Holmes, et al., 1967 Sandwich tern .- . . telodrin, dieldrin, endrin, DDE Phenoclor DP6 Population decline due to pesticides Koeman, et atl., 1967 Birds and eggs .. .---- Phenoclor DP6 Some parts of mixture metabolized Koeman, et al,, 1969 Brown pelicans, petrels add shearwaters . .. ......... . Aroclor 1254 Geographic comparisons Risebrough & de Lappe;,1972 Cormorant and gull--.. DDE, DDT Aioclor 1254 No dioxins nor benzofurans found in eggs and Zitko, et al., 1972 tissue Gull eggs .- ....... DDE PCB's Hexachloronaphthalene present but no dioxins Bowes, et al., 1973 nor benzofurans found Eggs of Florida fish-eating birds _ .- - ------------ - DDE, dieldrin. Aroclor:1254 2-20 ppm (OD) DDE; 1-161 ppm PCB Lincer & Salkind (sic), 1973 Brain and eggs of endangered petrel --------.-.----..... DDE 0.23-0.38 ppm (OD) in eggs King & Lincer, 1973 Bald eagles ,.. ... Aroclor 1254 Confirmation by mass spectrometry Bagley, et al., 1970 Many species of 'fish-eating birds .-.. ..... DDE PCB's Compilation of residue data Zitko & Choi, 1911 Shorebirds and fish-eating birds ---------- . -.-----....DDE PCB's Compilation of residue data and comparison of Keith & Gruchy, 1972 DDE residues to eggshell thickness Heron egg, Britain ..-.s .... PCB Application of mass spectrometry Richardson, et al., 1971 British seabird eggs ...- dieldrin, DDE, DOT, BHC, heptachlor Higher levels in eggs of larger birds Moore & Tatton, 1965 Sea birds ....- ......... DDT, DDE, DDD "Biological magnification" Woodwell, et al., 1967 Pacific sea birds ...- ... .. DDT, DDE, DDD Residue levels higher in California birds than Risebrough, et al., 1967 northern migrants Swedish sea birds .- - ------- DDE, DDD PCB "Biological magnification" Jensen, et al., 1969 Birds and eggs, Long Island, N.Y. ..... --.. ..... DDT and its metabolites, dieldrin . Residues in eggs of fish-eating birds Foehrenbach, 1972 MOLLUSCA Mollusks, Britain ..- . .- . dieldrin, DDT, DODE, DOD, hepta- Traces present in all mollusks tested' Moore & Tatton, 1965 chlor, BHC, . I Oysters ...- . ...--. DDT Rate-of shell growth indicator of pollution level Butler, 1969 Mussels .- .... .... DDE, DDD PCB's Lower average concentration in less indus- Jensen, et al., 1969 - . . trialized area Oysters .......... .. Aroclor 1254 Shell growth of juvenile completely inhibited Duke, et al., 1970 upon exposure Oysters ..........-.. . DDT A good monitoring organism Butler, 1968 Mussels -.. ._....... DDT PCB .Koeman, et al., 1969 Oysters,clams,mussels,snails DDT, DDE, DDD, dieldrin Amounts varied with proximal land use Foehrenbach, 1972 PLANKTON Phytoplankton .-.... .- - DDT, DDD, DDE Concentrations tripled 1955-1969 Cox, 1970 Zooplankton - ....... DDT, DDE, ODD Low residues shown for low trophic level Woodwell, et al., 1967 CRUSTACEA Sandcrab - - ------- ........ DDT, DDE, DDD obnicentrations due not only to agriculture Burnett, 1971 usage but industrial waste discharge (DDT plant) Crayfish and shrimp .------- Aroclor 1254 Concentrate rapidly to equilibrium Sanders & Chandler, 1972 438 EsTuAuiRm PoLL-uToN CONTROL Taxa Pesticides Industrial Toxicants Comments Reference S hri r mp ---------- DDT, DOE, ODD Sensitivity correlated to substantial reduction Woodwell. at aL, 1907 in population Shrimp. crabs ------- Areclor 1254 Higher concentration than oysters Duke, et al., 1970 Fiddler crabs --D------- DDT.,O DODD dieldrin Residue levels in tica Foebrenbach, 1972 MISCELLANEOUS Aquatic insect larvae -----Areclor 1254 Failed to metamorphose to adult stage Sanders & Chandler, 1972 Sea urchin, snail -------DDT compounds All insecticide in gonads of sea urchin Risebreugh. it al.. 1967 Water & sediment------ Aroclor 1254 A gradient with distance fromn pollution source Duke, et al., 1970 Suspended organic matter; San Francisco Bay -----Plithalate esters Utilization of mass spectrometry methods Simoneit, et al., 1973 Crown of thorns; Pacific - - - - FCH (similar to 1254) Estimated levels of 0.01-0.05 ppm McCloskey & Deubert, 1973 Green sea tattle eggs; South Atlantic - --------- DOE 1242.12481, 254 0.2-1.81 ppmn FOB(lipid basis); ND-0.08 ppm Thompson, etal., 1974 DOE River water; New England ---phithalate Reported 0).9-1.9 ppb Rites. 1973 APPENDIX B Effects of Synthetic Organic Compounds on Estuarine Organisms Organochlorine Insecticides Treatment Taxa Observed Effects Reference Seven pesticides; .1 to 5 ppb; 5 year monitoring clams Different species take up pesticides at specific rates. Sublethal long Butler, 1971 oysters range effects more significant than acute toxicity. Endrin, aidrin, heptachler oysters Linear relation between concentration and shell growth. Butler, 1965 Dieldrin, kepone oysters Sharp threshold of toxicity relative to shell growth. DDT, 1 ppb clam No effects for 3 months. 30% mortality 4th month. DDT-toxaphene, parathion-together and sepa- oysters 10% less body weight Tissue changes, loss of resistance to parasite. Lowe, et al., 1971b rately, <3.0 ppb 12 pesticides ranging from lindane, 9.10 ppm to oyster eggs & larvae 50% of eggs develop normally at given concentrations. Davis & Hidu, 1969 CoRal 0.11 ppm 12 pesticides ranging from lindane & aldrin <10 clam eggs Same as above. ppm, to N3514, <1.0 ppm DDT >1 ppm oyster Remain dclosed er show spasmodic shell movements at higher levels; Bufter, 1966a <1 ppm decrease in shell deposition at lower levels. DOT in oil spray, .2-16 IbiA isopods High mortality. Springer, 1961 amphipods High mortality. prawns High mortality. 0.3 to 0.8 Ib/A blue crab 10-f10% mortality. Repeated applications spiders High mortality. crabs High mortality. insects High mortality. marsh crabs Resistant. red mites Net affected. fish Some deaths. molluscs NHot affected. snails Not affected. turtles Not affected. frogs Not affected. mammals Not affected. Aldrin 0.2 IblA insects More affected than by DDT. Springer, 1951 prawns Less affected than by DDT. crabs Less affected than by DDT. fish Less affected than by DDT. Gamma BHC 02 Ib/A crabs Most toxic insecticide tested. DDOT-2 ppm fed fish 50% mortality. ODT in dead laboratory animals less than in seemingly Butler, 1966c shrimp healthy ones in field. DDT 1-500 ppb phytoplankton Photosynthesis reduced. Wurster, 1968 DDT 0.2 Ib/A fish Some mortality among animals that could not avoid pesticides. crabs Strobane 0.3 IbIA 3 species Same as DDT. crabs BHC 0.1 Ib/A fiddler crabs Fiddler crabs lost ability to escape predators. George, et al., 1957 DOT in oil spray, .3 to 16 IbhA snakes . High mortality following symptoms of poisoning. Herald, 1949 amphibians lizards turtles Dieldrin, .000 to .012 ppm sailfin molly Killed by 72 hours. Raised serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase Lane & Scura, 1970 to 1500 to 1700 units. 440 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Organochlorine Insecticides Treatment Taxa Observed Effects Reference .003 ppm Survived to 120 hours. Raised SGOT to 6006-11,954 units. Dieldrin .012 to .003 ppm sailfin molly 100% mortality Ist to 31st week. Lane & Livingston, 1970 .0015 and .0075 ppm More than half survived to week 34; growth and reproduction ad- versely affected. Aldrin & dieldrin fiddler crab Selectively inhibited cholinesterase activity in homogenized tissues. Guilbault, et al., 1972 trout Cholinesterase very sensitive to small amounts of pesticide. crayfish tissues DDT 1.0 ppb/2 wks fish Maximum concentration reached at 2 weeks. 38,000 x test water conc. Hansen & Wilson, 1970 0.1 ppb/5 wks Loss of 78-87% in 8 weeks. DDT, endrin 0.1 to.00001 ppm minnows Avoided water containing pesticides. Did not distinguish concentra- Hansen, 1969 tion differences. DDT 50 ppm eel intestine Inhibition of water absorption. Inhibition of (Na+ and K+) activated Janicki & Kinter, 1971 Mg 2+-dependent adenosine triphosphatase. Mirex, 1-5 particles of bait in standing sea water juvenile shrimp 40 to 100% mortality Lowe, et al., 1971a or Mirex in flowing sea water 1.0 to 0.1 ppb juvenile shrimp Up to 100% mortality delayed until shrimp in Mirex free water. juvenile blue crab Up to 96% mortality, delayed. fiddler crabs Accumulated Mirex in bodies. fish Accumulated Mirex in bodies. Gill parasites reduced. DDT 2-5 ag/ig shrimp 35-100% mortality. Butler, 1968 crab fish pinfish Accumulated DDT in bodies. DDT <1 ppm oyster Feeding & shell growth stopped. Erratic shell movements. Butler, 1967 DDT 2-4 ppm on food fish 50% mortality in 2-4 weeks. shrimp DDT in flowing sea water 0.1 ppm shrimp Lowered Na+ and K+ in hepatopancreas, change in Na+ and K+ only Nimmo & Blackman, 1972 0.05 ppm shrimp after day 20. ; DDT in flowing sea water 10 ppb juvenile shrimp 100% mortality. Nimmo, et al., 1971b DDT 0.05 to 0.17 ppb shrimp DDT concentrates in hepatopancreas. Flushed from hepatopancreas Nimmo, et al,, 1970 within 6 weeks. 0.12 to 0.20 ppb 100% mortality 18 to 28 days. Mirex .001, .1, 1.0 & 10 ppb crab larvae Larval stages prolonged. Increased mortality. Bookhout, et al., 1971 DDT 10 ppm on detritus fiddler crabs 100% lost coordination by day 5. Three-fold accumulation in claw Odum, et al., 1969 muscles. Toxaphene fish Established 96 hour TLo values; includes data on synergy and histo- Courtenay & Roberts, 1973 shrimp, crabs pathology. DDE duck Eggshell thinning complete after 4 days on 40 ppm diet; electron Peakall, et al., 1973 microscopy. DDE, dieldrin duck 20 ppm DDT or 10 ppm dietary doses resulted in eggshell thinning. Davison & Sell, 1974 DDT group, dieldrin, heptachlor, toxaphene duck Established effects on eggshell thinning. Haegele & Tucker, 1974 DDE duck LC0o values varied with age of ducks (1200-1600 ppm). Friend & Trainer, 1974 Dieldrin; .1-50 ppm fiddler crabs Levels correlated with maladaptive behavior and mortality. Latent Klein & Lincer, 1973 effects. Organophosphate Insecticides Treatment Taxa Observed Effects Reference Parathion oysters Sharp threshold of toxicity relative to shell growth. Butler, 1965 4 pesticides ranging from guthion.62 ppm,to TEPP oyster eggs 50% of eggs develop normally. Davis & Hidu 1969 10. clam eggs Malathion, dursban; 10-.01 ppm minnows Did not avoid Malathion. Hansen, 1969 Did avoid Dursban. OTHBER POLLUTANTS 441 Organophosphate Insecticides Treatment Taxa Observed Effects Reference Paraoxon, DDVP parathion, methyl parathion fiddler crabs Selectively inhibited cholinesterase activity in homogenized tissues. Guilbault, et al., 1972 trout Cholinesterase sensitive to small amounts of pesticide. crayfish tissues Malathion, naled, guthion and parathion fishes and pink shrimp Revealed comparative AChE inhibition. Coppage & Matthews, 1974 Parathion duck Established effect on eggshell thinning. Haegele & Tucker, 1974 Carbamate Insecticides Treatment, Taxa Observed Effects Reference Sevin 0.1 ppm juvenile fish Survived normally, neural parasite may not be related to toxicant. Lowe, 1967 Sevin 0.01-10 ppm minnows Did not avoid Sevin. Hansen, 1969 Sevin gastropod (oyster drill) Swelling at 6-7 hours exposure. Wood & Roberts, 1963 Matacil, mesurol, zectran, baygon, sevin fiddler crabs Selectively inhibited cholinesterase activity in homogenized tissues. Guilbault, et al., 1972 crayfish Cholinesterase very sensitive to small amounts of pesticides. trout Herbicides, Bacteriocides, etc. Treatment Taxa Observed Effects Reference 12 herbicides ranging from amitrol 733.70 ppm to oyster eggs 50% developed normally. Davis & Hidu, 1969 silvex 2.4 ppm nemagon, sevin clam eggs 19 bacteriocides, algicides, fungicides from un- oyster eggs 50% developed normally. tinted sulmet 1000 ppm to phygon .014 ppm clam eggs 2,4-D acid duck Established effect on eggshell thinning. Haegele & Tucker, 1974 4 herbicides in sea water 6 genera algae Carbohydrate concentration depressed. Varies with salinity. Walsh & Grow, 1971 Nitrilotriacetic acid phytoplankton Low toxicity as long as chelate:metal ratio favorable; NTA alone, Erikson, et al., 1970 trace metal deficiency. 2,4-D, 0.01-10 ppm minnows Avoidance of herbicide. Hansen, 1969 Antimycin A 7 ppb 38 species fish Killed in three days. Finucane, 1969 other fish No effect. oysters plankton crabs Polystream (chlorinated benzenes) oyster drill Under recommended dosage, 50% of animals killed by day 7. Wood & Roberts, 1963 Industrial Toxicants Treatment Taxa Observed Effects Reference Aroclor 1254 .94-100 ppb juvenile shrimp 51 to 100% mortality. Nimmo, et al., 1971b Aroclor 1254 2.5-3.5 ppb adult shrimp 50% mortality, accumulated in hepatopancreas. 23% died after return to sea water. Aroclor 1254 in Corexit 7664 colloidal solution Gammarus Lethal threshold 0.001 to 0.01 ppm. Wildish, 1970 emulsions Gammarus Lethal threshold .01 to .1 ppm. Aroclor 1254 1 ppb to 56 days fish No apparent effect at 1 ppb; Hansen, et al., 1971 5 ppb 14-45 days Mortality occurred, though delayed at 5 ppb. Aroclor 1254 100 ppb 48 hours shrimp 100% mortality. Duke, et al., 1970 oysters Shell growth inhibited. pinfish Concentrated PCB. 5 ppb 20 days shrimp 72% mortality after day 10. crabs Concentrated PCB. 442 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Industrial Toxicants Treatment Taxa Observed Effects Reference Aroclor 1242 and Aroclor 1254 + radiocarbon phytoplankton Radiocarbon uptake reduced at as low as 1-2 ppb. Moore Harriss, 1972 Aroclor 1242 in water .01 to .1 ppm marine diatom Inhibited growth, RNA synthesis and chlorophyl index. Kiel, et al., 1971 Aroclor 1254 in sediment 61.0 ppm (dry wt.)to 1.4 shrimp Amount of PCB residue in animal varies with amount in substrate. Nimmo, et al., 1971a ppm for 30 days crabs Aroclor 1221; 7.5-75 ppm killifish Decreased ability to osmoregulate. Kinter, et al., 1972 Aroclor 1254 shrimp 60% died at 9.1 ppb (7 day exposure); no significant mortality at 0.62 Nimmo, et al., 1974 ppb. Aroclor 1254; 0.001-10 ppm shrimp Demonstrated that some animals could avoid Aroclor 1254 under Hansen, et al., 1974a fishes laboratory conditions. Aroclor 1016 oyster Established acute 96 hour LCO's. Hansen, et al., 1974b shrimp fish Aroclor 1254 oyster 5 ppb for 24 weeks reduced growth and produced tissue atrophy and Lowe, et atl., 1972 degeneration. Aroclor 1254 duck Showed PCB influence on susceptibility of birds to virus. Friend Trainer, 1970 Aroclor 1232, 1242, 1248, 1254, 1260, 1262 duck Toxicity positively correlated with percent chlorine. Heath, et al., 1972 Aroclor 1254 duck Established effect on eggshell thinning. Haegele & Tucker, 1974 Dioxin (TCDD) in water and food salmonids Marked decrease in growth; latent effect. Miller, et ail., 1973 Dibenzofurans salmonids Dietary doses up to 122 mg/kg resulted in no mortality. Zitko, et al., 1973 Phthalate ester rainbow trout LC6o (96 hour) = 6.47 ppm. Mayer & Sanders, 1973 APPENDIX C An Overview of the Field-Testing of Pesticides Ecosystem Pesticide Observed Taxa Reference Ecosystem Pesticide Observed Taxa Reference Parameters Parameters F/W Pond DDT Mortality Fish Tarzwell, 1948 Tidal Marsh DDT Mortality & Fish Croker & Plankton Ditch population; Crabs Wilson, 1965 Benthic Inverts. Residue moni- Reptiles toring Birds Mammals Estuaries 2,4-D Mortality Fish Rawfs, 1965 Terr. Insects Crab Oysters Enclosed area DDT Population Fish Tarzwell, 1948 Clam of F/W Pond Salt Marsh Dursban Mortality Fish U.S.D.I., 1967a Tidal Marsh DDT Mortality Fish Springer and F/W Pond Shrimp Gross behavior Crabs Webster, 1951 Crabs Growth (snails) Shrimp Oyster Insects Insects Mollusks Terr. Verts. Amphibbds Worms Mangrov'e Dibrom Mortality Fish U.S.D.I., 1967b Mites Swamp Cholinesterase Crab Birds Population Mammals Birds Tidal Marsh Strobane, DDT Mortality Fish George et al., Insects & HCB Gross behavior Crabs 1957 on fiddlers Birds Salt Marsh bursban Mortality Fish Ludwig, et al., Mammals Monitoring Crab 1968 Tidal Marsh Dieldrin Mortality Fish Harrington & Shrimp Ditch Crabs Bidlingmayer, Birds 1958 Tidal Marsh bursban Mortality Fish U.S.D.I., 1968 Tidal Marsh DDT, aldrin, Mortality Fish Springer, 1961 Cholinesterase Crabs dieldrin & Prawns inhibition Shrimp BHC Anthropods Mammal lIso-ad Amphi- Bird pods Crabs Salt Marsh Malathion Mortality Fish Tagatz, et al., Worms Cholinesterase Crab 1974 Mollusks Shrimp Birds Mollusks 443 TRACE METALS IN THE OCEANS: PROBLEM OR NO? EARL W. DAVEY and DONALD K. PHELPS National Marine Water Quality Laboratory Narragansett, R.I. ABSTRACT Increased input of mercury to the estuarine environment resulted in bioaccumulation in marine food chains that affected man (Irukayama, 1966). Toxic effects of other metals on marine animals has been demonstrated under laboratory conditions. However, cause and effect between elevated environmental metals levels and toxicity to marine animals has yet to be conclusively demonstrated under field conditions. Municipal waste water treatment plants, dredging and spoiling activities, and the dumping of sewage sludge and industrial wastes are the major sources of metals to the marine environment. These sources are likely to increase in the future unless the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL-92-500) are carefully enforced. INTRODUCTION cal component of estuarine benthic systems (bottom related systems, including sediments, plants, and Estuaries, because they are landward extensions of animals living on or in them) is alive and well, the the sea, have become centers of industrial, commer- naturally enriched sediments appear to be processed cial, and related activities. As a consequence, estu- and metals are biologically recycled into the system. aries have received an increasing input of metals, However, frequently these benthic systems are the byproducts of modern industry and technological stressed beyond the biological breaking point, and advancement. Metals can be introduced indirectly the biota is eliminated or drastically reduced. If the from contaminated rivers and land runoff or directly biological recycling system is destroyed, an anaerobic by pumping from land based industries and munici- sedimentary system develops, and among other palities, ship and barge discharges, and aerial fallout things, becomes a metals sink. The elements that (Merlini, 1971). When viewed as a whole, ocean were formerly recycled accumulate to orders of systems appear to be beyond compromise in their magnitude above those observed in biologically ability to dilute introductions from man's activi- active systems. There is a "leaching out" of these ties-after all, the continental masses are continually metals, but the rates now controlled primarily by bathed in their oceans and seas. Where then do physical-chemical processes go on at a very slow problems occur? pace. Ocean waters, especially estuaries, are not uni- Two problems emerge when sediments become formly mixed and non-uniform dilution can cause sinks rather than recyclers for metals. local concentrations of metals. Metals tend to be 1) Due to relatively rapid sedimentation that concentrated at air-sea, sediment-water, or fresh- occurs in upper estuarine areas, channels must be water-saltwater interfaces and boundaries between dredged. Very frequently, dredged materials are water and living or dead particles (Fig. 1). Some anaerobic and rich in elemental composition. Where metals discharged even in small quantities can be can they be dumped with assurance that those ma- accumulated to alarming and lethal levels by certain terials which enrich the sediment may not prove marine biota. Seafoods harvested by man can become noxious to man directly or indirectly through re- extensively impacted when excessive metals are duction in marine resources? added to the sea. A classic example of the human 2) If an estuary which receives feedback from its aspect of this problem first received widespread sediments in the form of nutrients-both organic attention when mercury poisoning occurred in Japan and inorganic-loses a part of this benthic recycling in 1953 through consumption of contaminated fish activity, what are the long-term and short-term and shellfish (Irukayama, 1966). effects? For example, does the creation of a metal Sediments in estuaries naturally tend to have sink in estuarine sediments affect plankton produc- relatively high levels of metals. As long as the biologi- tivity and species composition? 445 446 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Aerial fallout of PM Air-Water Interface SOMWPM -PM(lo) Sai N.resh SM(hi) Interface /sal>10% Ta I >I s PM = particulate metals SM = soluble metals / SOMlo) /\ SOM'= soluble metals, V- PM(h I ) -- A organically complexed sa1>30%. Food Chain s>3 \* especially under anaerobic conditions Sediment-Water Interface \ \ \ \ \ \ PM(hi)* SM(hi) Organo-metal I I c formation FIGURE 1.-Generalized diagram for sites of metal concentration and transformation of metal forms in the marine environment. The possible problems of metals in estuaries is tion in laboratory studies with levels and pathways emphasized to illustrate the complexities that sur- defined in the natural environment. round this problem area. Some aspects of the metal A summary of two metals matrices which were problem are of more direct concern to the welfare constructed mainly from literature reviews by of man and estuarine systems than others. In an Ketchum, et al., (1972), and Eisler (1973), more effort to prioritize and define metal problems in the recent additions from the open literature, and in- marine environment a metal matrix has been created. house experiments performed at the National Marine Water Quality Laboratory (NMWQL) are pre- METHODS AND MATERIALS sented in Tables 1 and 2. Trace elements are essential to all life systems, RESULTS yet excess amounts are toxic. Also, non-essential elements such as mercury, cadmium, lead, and so The metals matrix indicates that we have informa- forth can be toxicants and bioaccumulated to tion on only 36 elements and of these only 18 have large quantities to affect organisms within marine toxicity data listed and of the 18 perhaps only four food chains, including man. Therefore, a matrix of (Cd, Cu, Hg, and Zn) are sufficiently documented to existing toxicity and body burden data using marine formulate good criteria. Since the NMWQL has had to species as one axis and metals as the other has been respond to unexpected requests for elemental toxicity formulated in order to assess, broaden, and validate and bioaccumulation data, in order to anticipate the data base needed to establish criteria. The metals future requests, we have undertaken an in-house matrix helps to point out information gaps, thereby program to develop acute and chronic marine bioas- defining research goals; it also provides a basis for say information on a wide spectrum of elements. comparing metal levels and their modes of applica- However, because combinations of marine biota OTHER POLLUTANTS 447 Table 1.-Matrix of elements versus marine biota response Table 2.-Matrix of elements versus marine biota bioaccumulation Environ- Spp. Most Element Spp. (Phyla) Organism Level Toxic Element mental (Phyla) Organism Sensitive Response Tested Reached to Man Oceans Tested Level Clean Aluminum- .... 7 (1) Phytoplankton 5000* Aluminum-.. 0.01 4 (3) Redfish 88* Death Antimony . ... 42 (10) Octopus 0.92 + Antimony .-... 0.0005 2 (2) Algae 3.5 Inhib. cell div. Arsenic ..- . 88 (12) Squid(gills) 198 + Arsenic .-. ... 0.003 6 (4) Copepod 0.1 72hr LCo Barium.... . 3 (1) Phytoplankton 262 Beryllium - 0.0000006 1 (1) Mummichog 0.0001 Deer. enz. act. Beryllium 1 (1) Phytoplankton 8.4 + Cadmium ..... 0.0001 34 (7) Oyster 0.015 Slowsex. devel. Bismuth 1 (1) Phytoplankton 7.7 + Chromium .-- - 0.000005 13 (5) Algae 0.0001 Deer. culture Cadmium 136 (12) Abalone(digest, gland) 1162.7 + yield Cerium 16 (5) Fish 64 Cobalt ..- ... 0.0001 1 (1) Copepod 0.01 72hr LCso Cesium .-... 20 (6) Algae 0.64 Copper -. ..... 0.003 48 (9) Diatom 0.001 Inhib. growth Chromium .. .. 30 (4) Zooplankton 260 + Germanium .... 0.00006 2 (1) Diatom 1,0 Inhib, growth Cobalt .-.- -- 34 (7) Zooplankton 110 - Gold - - ------- 0.000004 1 (1) Pinfish 0.069 Death Copper - - ----- 101 (8) Squid (liver) 15,160 - Iron-... ..... 0.0013 1 (1) Diatom 0.027 Cell clumping Gold - - 3 (1) Mollusc 282 - Lead .-...... 0.00003 14 (7) Ciliate 0.15 Inhib. growth Iron 73 (8) Annelid 42,800 - Manganese .... 0.005 2 (2) Oyster 16.0 LCso of embryos Lanthanum .... 4 (2) Fish 57 - Mercury -- ---. 0.00003 43 (8) Oyster 0.0056 48hr LCso of Lead 102 (7) Algae 3100 + embryos Manganese,__. 51 (5) Algae 226 Nickel .-.. .. 0.002 17 (4) Algae 0.0002 Inhib. growth Mercury .-.- 198 (15) Algae 7400 + Selenium ----- 0.0004 5 (2) Copepod 0.01 96hr LCso Molybdenum__. 5 (3) Zooplankton 36 Silver - . ...... 0.00004 9 (5) Copepod 0.0033 72hr LCsa Nickel ------. 45 (6) Zooplankton 480 Yttrium .-- --- 0.003 1 (1) Oyster 0.001 Abnormal larvae Plutonium ... 38 (7) Algae 21,000(CF) 6 + (98%) Polonium -. 1I (1) Fish 61 pCi/gm + Zinc .-.- --- 0.01 28 (8) Annelid 0.05 Abnormal larvae wet wt Rubidium. 6 (3) Algae 2.3 - Ruthenium .... 11 (7) Sponge 10,000 (CF) - * All concentrations expressed in mg/kg. Samarium 15 (3) Annelid 3.6 Scandium .. 20 (4) Annelid 26.4 - Selenium .. ... 11 (5) Octopus 71 + Silver --- - 18 (4) Squid (liver) 1044 versus elemental compounds exist in infinite variety, Strontium _ _-. 18 (5) Algae 4160 a number of elements can be eliminated from con- Thorium 5 (3) Octopus 9.2 + Tin .u.... Tin- 2 (2) Phytoplankton 101 sideration in the following categories: Titanium. . .... 6 (2) Phytoplankton 940 Uranium - - 1I (1) Fish 21 + 1. Elements such as mercury with sufficient in- Vanadium 6 (2) Pteropod 290 Yttrium.. . .... 2 (2) Mollusc 1000 uCi formation for good water quality criteria. Zinc .- . ..... 130 (10) Mollusc 99,220 2. Major constituents of seawater, s.a. Na, Mg, Cl, S04. * All values in mg/kg, except where noted. 3. Major constituents of marine organisms, s.a. C, 6 CF-concentration factor. H, N, O. Toxic to Man: + yes; - no. 4. Noble gases, i.e. He; Ne, et cetera. 5. Elements which are short half-life isotopes. associated with particles larger than 0.45,u) or dis- 6. Rare earthst solved (< 0.453). Dissolved metals can be cate- gorized further as inorganically associated, organi- The remaining, approximately 50 elements, can cally bound, i.e. chelated, or metal-organic com- be listed in priority according to the following con- pounds. Dissolved metal forms are likely to interact siderations: with most marine biota; however, the effects may differ if the metals are organically bound. If a metal 1. Known toxicity to man. such as copper is chelated, there may be a reduction 2. Information indicating elemental impact in the in metal toxicity response by organisms such as ma- marine environment. rine phytoplankton; whereas, if the metal is an 3. The form of the element in seawater. organometallic like methyl-mercury, this compound 4. No information available. is more toxic than the inorganic form and can also be concentrated in food chains. Particulate metals, It must also be recognized that it is not necessarily probably occurring in high levels near industrial the total amount of a metal present in seawater or outfalls or ocean dumping activities, are likely to af- marine sediments but the form of the metal which fect filter feeding organisms which ingest and con- may be important to consider with respect to its centrate particulate matter. Consequently, the effects on marine biota. Metals in seawater can be form of the metals may be the dictating factor in the operationally characterized as particulate (metals response of marine biota to heavy metals. 448 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL On the basis of these considerations, elements are Table 3.-Inorganic chemicals to be considered as pollutants of the marine' chosen for short-term, acute bioassays. Acute bioas- environment. says involve a rapid response of a single species to Natural conc in Worldproduction Routeso entry Pollution increasing concentrations of a toxicalnt1 The results EElement sea water pg/l metric tons/year intoth sea categories of the acute bioassay are reported' as the median tolerance limit (TLm or TL60) which signifies the H (acids) - pH = 8 7 D,A Illo concentration of toxicant that kills 50 percent of the (alk = 0.0024) Be ............. o.oot 250 u Ivc organisms within a specified time span, usually in 96 Ti -2 1,000,000 A 7 IV b hours. Organisms for acute bioassay are being v .-...... 2 9,000 A IV a selected from a wide range of representative marine 0.04 i, RU IV m Fe ----- - 10 480,000,000 D,R IVc phylla and growth stages. cu. . 1 5,000,000 D,R IV c Elements having low TL5o are in turn chosen for Zn 2 5,000,000 D,R Illc Cd -.........0.02 15,000 AR 'l long-term chronic bioassays..,Chronic bioassays Hg .......... 0.1 9,000 A,R I b involve a continuous exposure to a sublethal con- Al . 10 - s,000,000 D,R Vce centration of the toxicant. In the chronic bioassay, CN----------- 7 ? D,R Il c Pb ---------- 0.02 3,000,000 A,R Ia any biological response, such as reduction of growth P 0-02 . ..... - A 7 IVc or reproduction, behavior change, histopathological As 2 . 60,000 D Ilc change, et cetera, can be used to monitor effects. Sb- 045 60,000 U IV Bi ----- ---- 0.02 3,800 U IVc ? Also, test organisms are analyzed to determine possi- se -0. .45 .1,000 U Ill c? ble bioaccumulation of the element which could in F-------------. 1,,340 1,800,000 D,R Ie? turn indicate a potential pathway back to man. D dumping, A through atmospheric pollution, R through rivers (runoff) or pipelines, Uiunknown; I-IV order of decreasing menace; a worldwide, b regional; c local (coastal, bays, DISCUSSION estuaries, single dumping). Referenced from FAO FisherieS Reports, No. 99 Suppl. 1. Report of the seminar on methods of detection, -measurement arid monitoring of pollutants in the marine en- A definite need exists to carefully inventory all vironment: Inorganic chemicals, Panel 3. Dyrssen, D., C. Patterson, J. Ui and G. F. natural and manmade element sources which might Weichart. impact the marine environment. Table 3 is a general- ized inventory. Assessing potential ocean pollutants, 4. Sewage outfalls. Robinson, et al., 1974,'have presented an extensive 5. Desalinization plants. and important approach for budgeting pollutants; 6. Offshore ocean disposal areas for industrial however, the report deals only with the metals irqn, wastes, sewage sludge, and dredge spoils. copper, and plutonium and concludes that plutonium is the only element of potential global pollution. However, Cross and Duke (1974) have 'tmpha- Similar assessment should be made for all elements; sized that it is 'essential that present efforts be con- however, 'these assessments. should be focused at tinned and new efforts initiated to determine base- more localized areas, such as coastal or estuarine line levels of trace metals in marine organisms and areas as well as on a global scale. These inventories the environmental variables that affect them. These would highlight elements of major environmental studies should be conducted not only in contam- concern which should be carefully bioassayed in the inated environments such as Long Island Sound, laboratory. Also, these budgets should point out New York Bight, and the Southern California specific areas of high metal impact in the United Bight, but also in relatively pristine or uncon- States. taminated environments. The concentration of any Field investigations of metal impacted areas trace metals can be highly variable both within and throughout the U.S. are necessary in order to de- between species and influenced by a number of termine the extent, fate, and effects of metals on environmental factors. Until we understand the marine biota. Have metals per se directly or indi- variability that exists in healthy ecosystems, it may rectly caused environmental damage and, if so, to be difficult to identify a contaminated ecosystem. what extent? What are the inputs, rates, routes, and Also, because trace metals occur naturally in the reservoirs of metals within impacted areas? Special marine environment as a result of weathering and consideration should be given to areas of: volcanic activity, the problem of determining the contribution of anthropogenic additions of trace 1. Mining activities. metals to natural levels in marine organisms is more 2. Smelters. difficult than with halogenated hydrocarbons or 3. Industrial outfalls, especially metal plating refined petroleum products. industries. Other questions concerning potential metal pol- .OTHER PO LiUTr S '449 lutants which need to be answered'are as follows: The solution to problems of metal waste disposal -might be expected to be dilution into the vastness of 1: Are certain industries, such as power plants, the sea. However, because metals can be concen- producing excessive metal inputs which should be :trated by geological, chemical, and'especially biolog- controlled? ical processes in the sea, the 'solution to metal dis- 2. Can elemental transformations occur Within posal problems is not dilution. The solution must be marine areas to produce more lethal and/or bioac- to stop pollution at its source by the development of cumulated compounds such as methyl-mercury? the"proper'technology to 'control and recycle metal If so, which elements are capable of transformation wastes.' Metal wastes entering the marine environ- and under what circumstances? ment should be' reduced if the Federal Water Pol- 3. Dredge spoils removed from navigational chari- lution Control Act Amendfients of 1972 (Public nels are often taken from areas which act as traps Law 92-500) to minimize environmental pollutants for sediments laden with river and estuarine-borne are'carefully enforced. waste. What are the long-term effects of these ocean- dumped dredge ma'terials upon the cleaner shelf areas? How should ocean-dumped materials be REFERENCES handled to lessen environmental impact to disposal areas? Cross, F. A. and T. W. Duke. 1974. Trace metals. In: G. V. 4. Liquid effluents from' wastewater treatment Cox (ed.), Marine Bioassays. Marine Technology Society, plants probably will be' a major source of trace metals to estuarine and, coastal waters during the Eisler, R. 1973.' Annotated bibliography on biological effects next several decades. Efforts should be made to of metals in aquatic environments. (No. 1-567) U.S. evaluate the impact that these discharges will have Environ. Prot. Agen. Rpt. R3-73-007. on concentrations of trace metals'in: harvestable Irukayama, K. 1966. The pollution of Minamata Bay and marine species that complete a major portion of Minamata disease. In: Third International Conference on their life cycle in coastal areas. Water Pollution Research. Water Pollution Control Federation, Washington, D.C. According to Schroeder (1973), environmental pollution by toxic metals is a muh oe seii and Ketchurn, B. 1972. Marine aquatic life and wildlife. In: Water Quality Criteria 1972. National Academy of Sciences, insidious problem than is pollution by organic sub- Washington, D.C. stances such as pesticides,-'vweed killers, "sulfur di- oxide, oxides 'of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and Merlini, M. 1971. Heavy-metal contamination. In: D. Hood other gross contaminants. Most organic substances (ed.),' Impingement of Man on the Oceans. Wiley-Inter- ·science, New York, N.Y. are degradable by natural processes; no metal. is degradable. Elements in eleme6ntal form or as salts Robinson, E., L. Falk, B. Ketchum, and S. Piotrowicz. 1975. remain in the environment until they are leached by Metallic wastes. In: E. Goldberg (ed.), Assessing Potential .rains into rivers and into the sea. Therefore, every Ocean Pollutants. National Academy of Sciences, Wash- effort must be made to slow down the environmental gt, D.C build-up of those elements which are toxic and can Schroeder H. A. 1975. Elements and Living Systems. Plenum cause degenerative diseases. Press, ·ew York. -Y · .i e POLLUTION IN NATION'S ESTUARIES ORIGINATING FROM THE AGRICULTURAL USE OF PESTICIDES MING-YU LI University of California Davis, California ABSTRACT Estuaries are particularly vulnerable to pollution because they are repositories of wastes which do not come from a point source, such as pesticides. Agricultural pesticides enter the estuarine environ- ment by several means: direct application to water; runoff from treated lands; industrial dis- charges; domestic sewage; atmospheric drift; and accidental spills. The fish kills in the Mississippi River by insecticides are well known and particularly well documented. Monitoring data have been limited primarily to chlorinated hydrocarbons because of their number, wide use, great stability in the environment, and toxicity to certain forms of wildlife and other nontarget organisms. A recent national survey on organochlorine residues in estuarine mollusks reveals that "at no time were residues observed of such a magnitude as to imply damage to mollusks." However, residues were large enough to pose a threat to other elements of the biota through recyling and magnifica- tion. The maximum pesticide residues can be correlated with proximity of monitoring stations to agricultural runoff. Long-term, sublethal effects of pesticides in estuaries are difficult to assess at present, as most data on pesticide effects are limited to a few species and concentration that is lethal in short-term tests under laboratory conditions. Pesticide pollution in the estuarine en- vironment can be minimized through the use of alternative pesticides, more effective use of pesti- cides, removal of pesticides from water, improvement of farm management practices, regulatory control of pesticide use, and a better understanding of the pesticide behavior in the estuarine ecosystem. INTRODUCTION estuarine and coastal waters-is posed by wastes which do not come from a point source, such as The ocean's biological productivity is largely con- pesticides from runoff and drifts, and fertilizers centrated in the coastal zone, from the rivers seaward spread on fields. They find their way into streams to the salt marshes, the bays, and estuaries. Produc- and rivers and eventually the estuaries and oceans tivity is high here because basic nutrients, the in ever larger amounts. Some argue that these pol- minerals and organic material washed down river lutants are even more dangerous to estuarine plants from land, feed plants and animals at the base of and animals (including man) than municipal and the marine food chain. y weight, about a thousand industrial wastes. times more food is caught or harvested from the Synthetic organic pesticides when used properly coastal zone than from the open sea. To put it have been of tremendous benefits to man and his another way, most fish and shellfish are caught environment, but when misused or carelessly used, within sight of land. Some 70 percent of the valuable they cause considerable harm. Fortunately, the ad- sport fish depend on estuaries for their survival. verse effects have so far been relatively minor in Like all wildlife, marine animals establish themselves comparison to the beneficial role that pesticides have where conditions for life are most favorable-plenty played, and most likely will continue to play in of food, areas for spawning, and freedom from the production of food as the world's supply of raw predators. agricultural products continues to decline in propor- Estuaries are particularly vulnerable to pollution tion to jncreasing population. for two reasons: (1) their natural populations are During recent years the overall use patterns of in delicate balance and thus are easily upset by pesticides have changed considerably. The risk or pollutants, and (2) they are the repository for most hazards of using pesticides have increased with the of a river's pollution load as the river meets the sharp rise in their consumption by agriculture, house- estuary, slows down, and releases its wastes. holds, industry, and government. Today, more than The most difficult pollution control problem-for 34,000 products made from one or more of 900 451 452 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL chemical compounds are currently registered by the Table L.-Synthetic organic pesticides: Production and sales, United States, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for 1963-72 use in the environment. Year Quantity Change from I Value"2 ' Change'from Pesticides are poisons, they can present an im- previous year ,previousyear . mediate danger to the user if applied improperly : . e or without sufficient knowledge of their toxic effects. ,pounds Percent In addition, potential future hazards to human health and other living foris can be created by Production residues from long-lived pesticides that build up in the food chain. 444 046 3 1964 -..-82,-9 2. 8 2 .:473,815 .: 6.7 1965 ..... 872;197 121'; , 57,787 21.7 1966 .......: f 01§'1 A 1.5 :-712 362 :F,: 24.0 CURRENT PESTICIDE USE 'i967- -.' 3 Ito 656 715 36 24.11 1'049 663 36 , . 960 ;: 34.2 IN THE ENVIRONMENT 1968..:. ' - 1i92l,360 13s I,6 869 084 7.2 1969 ....... 1,104,381 -7.4 953,592 -7.3 190 -....... 1 034,075 -6.4 1 058 389 1141 Except for, 1969 and 1970 when there were slight 197 1 ___'___ i35 4,7i7 9 ' 1i 282 636 1.2 declines, sales of synthetic organic pesticides in the 19723....s.. 1,157,698 1.9 1,344,832 4.8 United States have increased every year since 1963 (Table 1). In 1972, the latest year for which figures Sales (domestic and export) are available, production was 1,158 million pounds. The volume of sales that, year, was 1,022 million '963 651,471 . 2.8 369,140 6.6 1964 ....-__. 692,355 *6.3 427,111 '15.7 pounds, and the value of these sales was $1,092 1965 - 763905 10.3 497,066 16.4 million. The volume and value of producers' sales 1966 822,256 7.6 583,802 17.4 were the highest of any year for which records are 1967-------- 8975963 9.1 787,043 34.8 1968wr t..... 959,631' 69: ' 849,24B9 ' .:.9 available. 1969 -928,663 ' -3.2 i-. 851,166 O.2 "Pesticides Review 1973," published by the 'US. 1970 880,914 -5.1 870,314 ' 2.2 Department of Agriculture, provides information on 1971 946,337 7.4 979,083 12.5 19723-.... 1,021,565 8:6 1,091,708 . 11.5 the calculated domestic use at the producers' level for pesticideS'(Table 2). It is interesting to' note I Includes a small quantity of soil conditioners. that, following a general decline in recent years, 2Value of production calculated: unit value x quantity; sales-value as reported by DDT in 1972 was up nearly 78 percent over, 1971. the Tariff Commission. aPreliminary. The 'sharpest decline in 1972 was made by 2,4,5-T Tariff Commission, Chemical Division, "Synthetic Organic Chemicals, United States which dropped 64 percent. Use of 2,4-D' declined Production and Sales." over one-fourth in 1972; however,; the use of'the aldrin-toxaphene group of pesticides increased by nearly one-fourth that year. It is predicted that the use 2.-of pesticides s:ill con- Table m-Pesticides: Domestic disappearance at the producers' level of selected tinue to increase and the sales value was expected kinds, United'States, 1967-212 to reach $1.4 billion in 1974 (Figure 1). One reason Pesticide 19673, 196831 19694 1970' 1971 1972' for this optimism is that acreage devoted to the major field crops accounting for most of the total 1,o00 1,00 100ooo 1,0oo 100 1,000 U.S. 'pesticide' use will be increased by 6 percent pounds pounds' pounds poundspounds pounds that year. The five major crops (corn, cottoli,' rice, soybeans, and wheat) account for approxiimately group 86,289 38,710 89,721' 62,282 65,005 105,980 75 percent of the total pesticide use in the United Calcium arsenate 2,329 1,992 2,117 2,900 2,457 1,751 States. Moreover, with prices of all farm crops at Copper sulfate_-. 85,274 87,452 99?840 77,344 70,272' 72,214 DDT - ---------- 35,757 28,253 25,756 20,457 13,234 23,546 or near- all-time highs and yields per acre moving Lead arsenate..-- 6,152 4,747 7,721 5,860 4,142. 5,024 up steadily, farmers will have more money available 2,4-D ..... 66,955 68,404 49,526 46,942 32,174 23,179 to spend on pesticides, even after allowing for higher 2,4,5-T -.- 15,381 15,804 3,218 4,871 1,389 498 prices. (Chemical Week, v. 114, no '4, January '23' : ' "' · - 19 4) . Additi6hally, the demand for farm produ Disappearance for all domestic uses, including all nonagricultural and chemical 1974) . Additi6hally, the demand for farm products isperane f any exts by frms otherthan prodocers intermediate uses. Includes any exports by firms other than producers. is growing rapidly worldwide. Since the farmdr is 2 Includes military shipments abroad; these are not considered exports. the major supplier of farm products in world trade, 3 Yeariending September 30. . he will need more pesticides to meet the growing 4 Year ending December 31. Calculated'from data supplied by the chemical industry, Tariff Commission, and, demand.' Bureau of Mines. - · - f, i . I ·: OTHER POLLUTANTS 45 -- ^ side-effects, these operations are generally managed '74: Another big year for pesticides by professionals. However, control of the amounts 1.6 used may be lax in massive applications (e.g., emer- _FIIIungicides gency mosquito control). In some instances, non- 1.2 P Insecticides - target species may be very adversely, affected. _ Herbicid es _r- ' 11 R Post-use dissipation is an extremely important factor in the application of herbicides for the control .8 _ _ lo _ 1 Dll _ 111_ of aquatic weeds in irrigation and drainage canals, river banks and ditch banks. Most of the herbicides 4 1 _ - | ' registered for use in aquatic situations have water 4 se restrictions which require at least partial dissipa- tion of the herbicide before' normal water use is 61 - 7 4 resumed (Timmer et al. 1970) The pathways of dissipation are almost as varied as the chemicals themselves. For example, volatilization is the most FIGURE 1.-Pesticide sales, 1969-1974. Source: Chemical important means for the dissipation' of aromatic Week. v. 114, no. 4. January 1974. solvents and acrolein. Adsorption processes pre- dominate in the dissipation of herbicides such as Obviously, as the production and use of pesticides diquat, paraquat; and possibly endothal. Biological continue tot increase, the potential for environmental and chemical degradation processes account for contamination becomes more prevalent. much of the disappearance of 2,4-D, silvex, dichlo- benil and other herbicides. ROUTES OF PESTICIDE ENTRY INTO THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT Runoff and Sediment Transport, Pesticides can become! widely dispersed in the en- Runoff from terrestrial applications is generally vironment, mainly by the action of wind and water. considered as the major route of pesticide movement Naturally, the most significant residues have been into the water environment. Intensive studies have found in. and' near the areas of intensive use, but demonstrated that runoff is probably the single traces have also been found as far away as the Ant- most widespread and significant source of contamina- arctic (Tatton and Ruzicka, 1967; Peterle, 1969). tion (usually less than 1 ppb) of surface water Contamination of the aquatic environment by (Nicholson, 1970; Nicholson and Hill, 1970). Ter- pesticides has been of public concern for the last restrial application of persistent pesticides also re- two decades. The compounds most frequently in- sults in their being directly carried into surface criminated are the organochlorine insecticides: DDT, waters and, through adsorption on silt and debris, TDE, endrin, heptachlor,, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, transported into rivers and eventually estuaries. toxaphene, and lindane. There is little doubt that During runoff the pesticide may be adsorbed on DDT and, to a lesser extent, dieldrin have been the eroding soil particles, suspended in the runoff water, major contaminants. Traces of these chemicals can or both. Pesticides of low persistence naturally would be found in almost all compartments of the world's have lower runoff than persistent ones. Chlorinated ecosystem. Rivers, streams, lakes, estuaries, oceans, hydrocarbons, because of their persistence and low and bottom muds are major reservoirs -for these solubilities in water, are usually transported on the pesticide residues. These pesticides reach aquatic soil particles. environments through many routes (Edwards, 1973; Soluble pesticides enter surface -waters dissolved Reese et al. 1972;. Nicholson; 1970; Nicholson and in the water runoff and drainage from the land. Hill, 1970; U.S. Dept. of HEW, 1969). However, most of the pesticides reach the water with sediments washed from the -land. The chlori- Direct Application to Water nated hydrocarbons have been -found extensively in surface waters, and in bottom sediments at 126 Many organic pesticides -are applied directly 6n locations in the Mississippi River. The deposits are water to control aquatic weeds, non-game fish, and assumed to come from agricultural usage (Barthel aquatic insects. Most of these applications, are made et al. 1969)., for a particular puirpose and the amount of pesticide Organic phosphates are generally more soluble used is closely controlled. To minimize undesirable than the chlorinated hydrocarbons. Herbicides, par- 454 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ticularly the inorganic types, are highly soluble in the northeast trade winds. Recently, several studies water. The greatest danger from the runoff of soluble have also presented evidence that the trade wind pesticides is in the period immediately following system of the Atlantic region may deposit amounts their application and prior to their becoming ad- of chlorinated hydrocarbons comparable to those sorbed onto soil particles. To some degree, this transported into the sea by major rivers (Sepa and condition is under control in the major agricultural Prospero, 1971; Bideleman and Olney, 1974; Gaskin areas since weather conditions are closely observed et al. 1974). and, to some extent, control the time of pesticide application. The same, however, cannot be said for Industrial and Municipal Wastes household application. Industrial waste constitutes perhaps the second Atmospheric Transport most significant source of pesticides in water. The wastes from manufacturing and formulating plants, Atmospheric transport to the aquatic environ- unless very closely controlled, contain pesticides. ment can be' due to (1) drift of pesticides applied Additionally, the effluents from plants that use aerially, (2) volatilization of the pesticides from pesticides in their manufacturing processes may the terrestrial environment, and (3) wind erosion. contain various amounts of pesticides. The distribu- Direct drift has been found to occur from spray- tion of DDT residues in Emerita analoga (Stimpson) ing operations, especially when using aerial applica- along coastal California was recently investigated tion (Frost and Ware, 1970). Fallout from aerial (Burnett, 1971). The'findings showed that aquatic pesticide application is a principal source of water organisms near the Los Angeles County sewer outfall contamination (Spencer, 1971; Goldberg et al. 1971). contained over 45 times as much DDT as those near High levels of atmospheric contamination by pesti- major agricultural drainage areas. The probable cides (DDT, toxaphene, parathion) were measured source of this high concentration of DDT in the in agricultural areas such as Dothan, Ala.; Orlando, sewer outfall was thought to be a plant that man- Fla.; and Stoneville, Miss. Higher pesticide levels ufactures DDT. This suggests that historically the were found when pesticide spraying was reported buildup of residues in California coastal marine than when no spraying was in progress. Only p,p'- organisms could be attributed, to a significant degree, DDT and o,p'-DDT were found in the atmosphere to industrial waste discharge rather than merely to at all nine sampling localities, in both urban and extensive agricultural usage. agricultural areas. Levels are highest in the agricul- Pesticides can also enter water along with munici- tural areas of the South, and are generally lower in pal wastes, such as sewage effluents. A 1971 review of urban areas (Stanley et al. 1971). pesticide monitoring programs in California prepared Volatilization is a major pathway for loss of ap- by an Ad Hoc Working Group of the Pesticide Advi- plied pesticides from plant, water, and soil surfaces sory Committee to the State Department of Agricul- (Spencer et al. 1973). It has been shown that nearly ture reported that substantial quantities of pesti- half the amount of DDT applied to the surface of the cides, mainly chlorinated hydrocarbons, have been soil in field conditions may volatilize, thus making a discharged to surface waters through municipal and slow, long-term contribution to the atmosphere industrial waste discharges. The quantities of waste (Lloyd-Jones, 1971). Volatilization of a pesticide waters discharged were so large that even low con- depends on many other factors, such as air velocity, centrations of pesticides in water could result in a pesticide concentration, pesticide vapor pressure, large emission. The report indicated that if large temperature, relative humidity, soil water content, emissions from the Los Angeles County sanitation and bulk density of the surface soil (Igue, 1970). districts' outfalls have been occurring for a number Pesticides can be transported by wind and depos- of years, this one source may overshadow all other ited in water far from an area of application; they are sources of DDT in southern California marine waters. now considered to be universally present in the air. Effluents from sewers of large urban centers may Their distribution to sites removed from application contain small amounts of pesticides originating from areas depends on prevailing patterns of wind cir- home use but the great magfiitude of discharge does culation and deposition rates. The European-African not allow this source to be overlooked. It is signifi- land area was regarded as the source of chlorinated cant to note that as much as 25 percent of the pesti- hydrocarbon insecticides found in airborne dust at cides in the San Francisco Bay waters, amounting Barbados (Risebrough et al, 1968). The insecticides to 4,000 pounds per year, enter the bay through (absorbed on the dust) were carried some 3,600 municipal and industrial wastewater discharges. miles (6,000 km) by the transatlantic movement of Researchers at the University of Georgia Marine OTHER POLLUTANTS 455 Station studied the effects of estuarine dredging on pal or industrial wastes, agricultural activities, toxaphene concentrations of the marine biota (Dur- transportation operations, and other projects such ant and Reimold, 1972). Results indicated that, in as water manipulations that significantly alter the the estuary, the sediments near a toxaphene plant quality of the aquatic environment. outfall in Terry Creek, Brunswick, Ga., were Fish are significant indicators of water quality. found to be contaminated with toxaphene approach- When fish die in large numbers at one time, it is ing 2,000 ppm, and oysters collected two miles from usually a sign of an unnatural phenomenon within the outfall were found to contain residue levels near the aquatic environment. The destruction of fish 6 ppm. In a later study Reimold and Durant (1974) not only indicates a severe problem occurring in the found that the monitoring of dredge spoil, fauna, and water environment, but reduces a natural resource of flora showed toxaphene concentrations to be higher recreational and often economic value. during dredging than before or after. The concentra- The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tions in oysters ranged between 2.0 and 5.0 ppm. publishes an annual report on fish kills caused by The eastern oysters, reported tobe the bestbiological pollution since 1961. This report is the result of monitors, did not demonstrate large changes in cooperative teamwork between EPA, state pollution toxaphene content resulting from the dredging. A control agencies, and private citizens. It includes report released by the Georgia Marine Science Center reports of fish kills where water pollution is known or in 1973 discussed the effects of toxaphene contamina- suspected to be the cause of death. Since numerous tion on estuarine ecology. It indicates that as the kills resulting from pollution go unnoticed or un- toxaphene content in the plant effluent decreased reported, the report cannot be considered complete. during the 3-year study period, the toxaphene con- Despite these gaps, the data compiled in these annual tent of fauna, flora and sediments decreased also. reports provide useful and basic information, serve This reflects in part the pollution abatement practices to point out potential pollution problems, and alert initiated at the toxaphene production plant which officials and the public itself to the need for stricter greatly reduced the quantities of toxaphene in the safeguards to keep dangerous substances out of the plant effluent (Reimold, Adams and Durant, 1973). nation's water resources. In the 1972 report, for the first time since inception, every state in the Union Accidents and Spills participated. Table 3 contains a 10-year (1963-1972) fish kill summary by source of pollution. The 17.7 million Accidents and spills occur during storage, packag- fish killed in 1972 brought the cumulative total of all ing, transport, disposal, and application and may be fish reported killed by water pollution since 1963 to very serious because of the usually highly con- centra t ed semio cals. Althouh they uualy a t only 225 million. While there was a 76 percent decrease in centrate chemicals. Altoug tey may ae ony fish reported killed in 1972 compared to the record a localized area for a short period of time, the pos- sibilities are almost unlimited and much needs to be 73.6 million fish killed in 1971, the year 1972 was the done to bring this unintended entry of pesticides into fifth highest year in the number of fish reported the aquatic environment under control. On August 11, 1974, parathion, a highly toxic Industrial pollution was identified as the largest organophosphorus insecticide, and dead fish were killer of fish during the 10-year period. About 85.5 discovered in the Yuma main canal, that city's million (38 percent) fish died from this type of pol- source of drinking water. Fortunately, none of the lution. Municipal operations, which handle wastes poisoned water reached the city treatment plant from cities, ranked second in the total number of before the accident was discovered. No injuries or fish killed-60.4 million or 26.8 percent. Unknown death were reported, but the California Fish and operations, a new classification added in 1971 to Game Department estimated 10,000 fish were killed, include fish kill which cannot be linked to a specific Authorities said they were unable to deterrhine how pollution source, accounted for 39.1 million (17.4 Authorities said they were unable to determine how percent) of the fish kill. This resulted from 219 re- the insecticide was put into the canal (San Francisco Chronicle, Tuesday, August 13, 1974) . ported incidents resulting in approximately 35.3 million fish killed in 1971 alone. Agricultural opera- tions ranked fourth, and were responsible for the FISH KILLS killing of 17.5 million (7.8 percent) fish. The fifth ranking category-other operations-accounted for Fish mortalities result from a variety of causes, the death of 17.3 million (7.7 percent) fish. some natural and others man-induced. Fish kills Table 4 provides a 10-year summary of fish kill brought about by man may be attributed to munici- by subcategories of the agricultural operations. It 456 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 3.-Fish kill summary by source of pollution (No. of fish killed) Year Agricultural Industrial Municipal Transportation Other Operations Unknown Total 1963 .------------- 560,967 2,690;601 914,379 78,388 100,912 2,471,283 6,816,530 1964 ------------- 1,415,092 12,525,301 3,893,687 22,211 13,423 - 17,869,714 1965 ------------- 1,390,136 3,763,948 5,911,604 306,810 20,941 - 11,393,439 1966 ------------- 1,259,599 4,622,790 1,347,248 102,631 1,410,569 - 8,742,837 1967 ..-- ------ 1,607,267 8,087,091 643,304 143,123 638,266 - 11,119;051 1968 ------------- 375,548 6,255,713 6,791,464 825,365 578,124 - 14,826,214 1969 ------------- 6,293,880 28,680,182 1,155,027 2,057,030 2,450,909 - 40,637,028 1970 ------------- 1,809,541 9,588,949 6,601,845 465,005 3,820,994 - 22,286,334 1971 --------------.1,023,337 4,652,392 24,798,432 664,180 7,257,478 35,257,226 73,653,045 1972 --------------1,807,555 4,694,390 8,360,594 456,526 1,028,869 1,369,284 17,717,218 Total ------------ - 17,542,922 85,561,357 60,417,584 5,121,269 17,320,485 39,097,793 225,061,410 % Total ----------- - 7.8% 38.0% 26.8% 2.3% 7.7% 17.4% 100% Source: Data extracted from "Fish Kills Caused by Pollution" series, published annually by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. shows that pesticides comprised the leading source of totaling 31.4 million fish which were reported in two agricultural pollution, with 11.4 million (64.9 per- localized areas-Escambia Bay, Fla., and Galveston cent) fish fatalities. Reports of fish kills under Bay, Tex. It should not be interpreted as a national pesticides include incidents in which spraying ma- trend. The number of fish reported killed in estuary chinery and pesticide containers were cleaned or water in 1972 decreased appreciably from the number dumped into nearby streams, lakes, or estuaries. reported in 1971. Nevertheless, the significant in- However, the majority of reported incidents resulted crease of fish kills in the estuaries since 1968 is of great from pesticides being washed into water by rainfall national concern since estuaries serve as breeding after spraying for agricultural purposes. and nursery grounds for many species of marine fish. Fish kills by type of water are summarized in Table 5. For the period 1963-1972, approximately MONITORING OF PESTICIDES 60 percent (134.5 million) of the total reported fish IN RIVERS AND ESTUARIES IN RIVERS AND ESTUARIES were killed in freshwater, while 37 percent (83.4 million) fish fatalities occurred in estuary-type water Reports of insecticide eidues in streams and Reports of insecticide residues in streams and In 1971, about 77 percent (56.4 million) of the total rivers in the United States began to appear about 10 rivers in the United States began to appear about 10 reported fish were killed in the estuary-type water, years after the introduction of organochlorine in- and for the first time since the annual report system secticides and it soon became obvious that small started in 1960, more fish were reported killed in amounts of these insecticides occurred in many estuarine waters than in freshwater. The large kill in waterways. At present, all of the different organo- 1971was rimrilydueto anumer o lage kllswaterways. At present, all of the different organo- 1971 was primarily due to a number of large kills chiorine insecticides have been reported from U.S. chlorine insecticides have been reported from U.S. Table 4.-Fish kill summary by agricultural operations (No. of fish killed) Table 5.-Fish kill summary by type of water (No. of fish killed) Year Pesticides Fertilizers Manure-silage Total Year Fresh Salt Estuary Total Drainage 1963 ----5,478,130 1,234,300 104,100* 6,816,530 1963 - -- 401,415 1,400 158,152 .560,967 1964 15,334,099 2,531,700 3,915 17,859,714 1964 - -- 191,167 67,040 1,156,885 1,415,092 1965 - - 11,255,658 102,121 36,660 11,393,439 1965 - -- 770,557 2,697 616,882 1,390,136 1966 8,698,607 . 19,050 25,270 8,742,927 1966 - -- 217,406 1,200 1,040,993 1,259,599 1967 11,086,012 30,000 3,039 . 1,.9,051 1967 . . 329,130 10j000 1,268,137 1,607,267 1968 9,869,851 1,888 4,954,475 14,826,214 1968_---- 325,94 15,116 35,238 375,548 1969 34,956,048 641,150 5,039,830 40,637,028 1969 - - - 5,982,877 73,569 237,434 6,293,880 1970 _ - 11,991,099 536,000 .9,759,235 22,286,334 1970 ---1,409,794 4,069 395,678 1,809,541 197 1 5,205,913 2,014,914 56,432,218 73,653,045 1971 - -- 264,504 65,760 693,073 1,023,337 1972 --- 10,669,294 37,766 7,010,158 17,717,218 1972 --- 1,500,147 30,944 276,464 1,807,555 Total _ ... 134,544,711 7,148,889 83,367,900 225,061,500 Total- -- -- 11,392,191 271,795 5,878,936 17,542,922 % Total - 60 3 37 100 % Total - - 64.9 1.5 33.6 100 Source: Data extracted from the "Fish Kills Caused by Pollution" series published Source: Data extracted from "Fish Kills Caused' by Pollution" series, published annually bythe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, annually by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. *"Brackish water." OTHER POLLUTANTS 457 rivers, sometimes in large qiantities. DDT has been once. DDT was the most frequently occurring in- found in the largest amounts, but it is not always secticide, and 2,4,5-T the most common herbicide. the most common residue, although some rivers The amounts observed were small; the maximum have contained it in all the sampling programs. There concentration of an insecticide was 0.46 mg/liter have been relatively few reports of residues of, for DDT; and of an herbicide 0.99 mg/liter for chlordane, endosulfan, and toxaphene in U.S. water- 2,4-D . .;. Concentrations were highest in water ways, although these are commonly used in the U.S. samples containingappreciable amounts of suspended Since 1962, there have been surveys of pesticides. in sediments." Pesticide concentrations never exceeded most of the, major waterways. A National Pesticide - the permissible limits established for public water Monitoring Network was set up in 1964 as a coopera- under the Water Quality Criteria published by the tive effort of the Federal departments making up the, Department of the Interior in 1968, although in membership of the Federal Committee on Pest Con- several instances concentrations were measured that trol. It was initially designed on the basis of the were above the environmental levels of 0.05 mg/liter minimum monitoring needed to establish baseline recommended for marine and estuarine waters. levels of pesticides in substrates of food, humans, soil, Organochlorine insecticides are not usually in water, air, wildlife, fish, and estuaries and to assess. solution in water because they are all of very low changes in these levels. This program continued until solubility. Tests on river water emptying into the the passage of the Federal Environmental Pesticide ocean, even after draining land heavily sprayed with Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-516) at which pesticides, may contain relatively low concentra- time the program, received legislative status. The tions of pesticides. Yet, in certain conditions, such Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had taken as during periods of high turbidity caused by sedi- important steps to assure an uninterrupted study of ment load, it seems probable that rivers could carry environmental residues and to enlarge and upgrade a heavy concentration of, pesticides to the sea. The the program. Additionally, as the focal point of mud at the bottom of many rivers is heavily con- legislative authority,: EPA accepted the responsibil- taminated with pesticides and will continue to be a ity of financing several of the large projects by con- reservoir for periodic future contaminations. tracts with another government agency having field As a part of a study to assess the potential con- staff qualified to do the work. tamination of the 'San Francisco Bay from chlo- Pesticides in the surface 'waters of th:i.U.S:. for rinated hydrocarbon compounds, bottom materials the period 1964-1968 were' reported by Lichenberg from 26 streams tributary to the bay were analyzed in 1970. The monitoring was restricted to chlorinated for chlordane, DDD, DDE, DDT and PCB residues. insecticides. It was found that individual insecticides, These compounds were found in all stream bed when present, were in fractions of a part per billion samples analyzed, thus illustrating their widespread (ppb). ' distribution in the bay. Chlordane was ubiquitous, A study entitled "Pesticides in Selected Western with,, a concentration range similar to that of the Streams" was initiated in 1965 by the U.S. Geologi- other compounds (Law and Goerlitz, 1974). cal Survey as a contribution to the national program. . Accumulation of pesticides in bottom sediments The period of 1965 through' September 1968' is cov- plays a very important role in their disappearance ered by two publications (Brown and Nishioka, from contaminated water. Pesticide concentrations 1967; Manigold and, Schulze, 1969). In the '1967- in the sediments may be much higher than the con- 1968 period, 62.5 percent of the "whole 'water" centrations in the water. Studies in major agricul- sampled contained no detectable insecticides (rmin- tural river basins in California revealed that an imum detectable level 0.01 ppb) and the remaining average pesticide concentration of 0.1 to 0.2 ppb had individual pesticide levels only in fractions of a in river water may mean that bottom sediments part per billion. The pesticides monitored were rather contain 20 to 100 ppb. restricted' in number (DDT and its metabolities; al- It can be expected that rivers would carry pesti- drin; dieldrin; endrin; heptachlor and its epoxide; aides down to -the sea so that large amounts of resi- lindane; chlordane; t6xaphene; endosulfan; phos- due' could be deposited in estuaries and near the phorothioates; PCB's; and three herbicides: 2,4-D.; mouth of rivers. However, there is surprisingly 2,4,5-T; and silvex). ' : meager evidence of pesticide residues in those areas. During the period 1968-1971 (Schulze, Manigold The report on "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the and Andrew, 1973) compounds: found included the Marine Environment" (National Academy of Sci- common chlorinated insecticides and herbicides. ences, 1971) estimated that "as much as 25 percent "Heptachlor and its expoxide were not detected of the DDT compounds produced to date may have during the 3-year period, and aIdrin was found only been transferred to the sea. The amount of DDT 458 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL compounds in the marine biota is estimated to be found only occasionally and generally at low levels, less than 0.1 percent of total production, yet this with exception of toxaphene. amount has produced a demonstrable impact upon the environment." - The report further points out that "at no time, It was estimated that 1.9 metric tons of pesticides were residues observed of such a magnitude as to are carried into the San Francisco Bay annually by imply damage to mollusks; however, residues were the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers (Risebrough large enough to pose a threat to other elements of et' al. 1968), and that 10 metric tons reach the Gulf the biota through the processes of recycling and of Mexico each year from the Mississippi River. magnification." It is also of interest to note that 38 Although these may seem very large amounts, they samples (0.5 percent) had DDT residues exceeding are small relative to the pesticide usage in the vicinity 1.0 ppm. These samples were collected in California, of these rivers. These residues represent no more Florida and Texas in drainage basins having in- than 0.1 percent of the amounts of pesticides used in tensive agricultural development. the area supplying water to the estuaries, but some With regard to California, where approximately may be rapidly taken out to sea because of the strong 22 percent of the nation's pesticides are sold, the tidal exchange in the San Francisco Bay (Frost, report states: 1969). The Estuarine Monitoring Program was organized DDT residues in mollusks were consistently larger in California than in any other area monitored with the exception of a single station in south Florida. There is a monitor the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides clear pattern of maximum pesticide residues being cor- reaching the major estuaries on the Atlantic, gulf related with proximity of the monitoring station to runoff from agricultural lands. In southern California, and Pacific coasts. In July 1972, the National Marine where most samples contained typically large residues, Fisheries Service of NOAA withdrew its financial residues were consistently higher at Hedionda and support and EPA took over the responsibility of the Mugu Lagoons, the recipients of agricultural runoff waters, than at Anaheim Slough which receives inter- entire estuarine study. This study has been rede- mittent runoff from the urban and industrialized sec- signed to include marine life in all of the 200 primary tions of Los Angeles. Residues in samples from estuaries estuaries listed in the "National Estuarine Survey." draining the intensely cultivated central and southern parts of the state were larger, by one order of magnitude A recent publication entitled "Organochlorine usually, than those in samples collected from water- Residues in Estuarine Mollusks, 1965-72-National sheds north of San Francisco Bay where dairy land Pesticide Monitoring Program" reports the findings predominates. covering 15 coastal states during a 7-year period (Butler, 1973). Shellfish were chosen as 'indicator' A preliminary report regarding the influence of organisms because they are sessile and readily con- pesticide runoff in Monterey Bay, Calif., points to centrate pesticides from the environment, yet the the Salinas River as the source of pesticide pollution chemical is flushed out of their tissues at a uniform (Haderlie, 1970). This is the only major river en- rate when the pesticide is no longer present in the tering the Bay, and it drains the 100 mile long environment (Duke, 1970). The findings of this Salinas Valley with a drainage area of 4,000 square study are summarized as follows: miles. The Salinas Valley is one of the richest agricul- tural areas in California, specializing in lettuce, 1. The analyses of 8.095 samples for 15 persistent broccoli, celery, sugar beets and so on. During a 10- organochlorine compounds showed that DDT was year period between 1960 and 1969, it is conserva- the most commonly identified pesticide and occurred tively estimated that 63 tons of DDT were sprayed in 63 percent of all samples analyzed. In most cases, on the crops and soil of the valley each year. Students estuarine pollution with DDT was intermittent and at the Hopkins Marine Station:hear the bay made a at levels in the low parts-per-trillion range. The study during the late spring of 1969 of the DDT maximum DDT residue detected was 5.39 ppm. content of the sand-dwelling mole crab, Emerita. 2. In most estuaries monitored, detectable DDT This animal does not seem to concentrate DDT con- residues have declined in both number and magni- tent in high concentrations. Emerita taken from the tude in several species of estuarine mollusks in recent open coast outside Monterey Bay had too little DDT years. DDT pollution peaked in 1968 and has been in their tissue to be measurable, yet Emerita taken declining markedly since 1970. from sand near the mouth of the Salinas River had 3. Dieldrin was the second most commonly de- DDT concentrations of 0.14 ppm. In addition, it tected compound with a maximum residue of 0.23 was noted that during the late spring and summer of ppm. the same year, more dead seabirds' were found along 4. Other organochlorine residues (endrin, mirex, the shore of Monterey Bay than ever before. At one toxaphene, and polychlorinated biphenyls) wered period 440 dead birds were found on one stretch of OTHER POLLUTANTS 459 beach less than a mile long. Of these, 37 percent had adsorbed by plankton and insects are transferred in been oiled, 14 percent shot, and 49 percent had died increasing concentration to fish, birds, animals, of unknown causes. The livers of this third group of and eventually to man. There is evidence that con- birds were subjected to tests for chlorinated hy- centrated pesticide residues act adversely on the drocarbons. The dead seabirds contained concentra- reproduction and behavior of certain wildlife species tions of pesticides as high or higher than that re- and may threaten their survival. In certain instances, corded anywhere. A brief summary of the data is as pesticide residues accumulated through food chains follows: have been implicated as causing death of contamin- ated animals. For example, the loss of fish-eating waterbirds at Tule Lake and Clear Lake in California DDE Concentrations in Livers and the reduction of pelican population on the Pacific of Dead Seabirds coast were attributed to pesticides which had trav- eled through biological networks and accumulated in Brandt' cormorants --107-155 ppm the bodies of these birds. Western grebes --------------------192-292 ppm Several review papers have recently been published which bear on the subject of pesticides and estuarine Fork-tailed petrel- -----------------373 ppm organisms. Butler (1971) discussed the influence of Ashey petrel-, -412 ppm pesticides on marine ecosystems; Foehrenbach Ring-billed gull-_____;________ - ____805 ppm (1972) described experiments on chlorinated pesti- cides in estuarine organisms; Whitacre (1972) et al. reviewed the pesticides and aquatic micro-organisms; Although one cannot be certain that it was the high and Edwards (1973) summarized the literature con- concentrations of DDT residues that killed these cerning the persistent pesticides in the environment. animals, circumstantial evidence seems to indicate Perhaps the most comprehensive review on the sub- pesticides as the cause of death. ject is the paper written by Walsh (1972) entitled In an earlier study concerning the chlorinated "Insecticides, Herbicides, and Polychlorinated Bi- hydrocarbon pesticides in California bays and estu- phenyls in Estuaries." aries, it was found that pesticide residues in estuaries geographically isolated from agricultural areas seldom exceeded 100 ppb. Pesticide residues frequently Phytoplankton exceeded this level in agricultural regions and were found as high as 11,000 ppb in shellfish from polluted Phytoplankton probably act as primary concen- areas (Modin, 1969). trators of pesticides in water. There is evidence that A similar study was conducted to investigate the these toxicants reduce photosynthesis, but biocon- chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in shellfish (Pel- centration by algae may be more important ecologi- ecypoda) from estuaries of Long Island, N.Y. cally because they transfer many materials to higher (Foehrenbach et al. 1971). Results indicate that trophic levels. Under laboratory conditions, algal the distribution of residues could at times be cor- samples were found to contain dieldrin concentra- related with agricultural use or type of community tions ranging from 0.1 to 100 milligram per kilogram in the watershed surrounding the various stations. dry weight. Algal concentrations of dieldrin were as much as 30,000 times those occurring in the water (Rose and McIntire, 1970). Algae are the primary EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES producers in the aquatic environment. Grazers and ON ESTUARINE ORGANISMS higher consumer organisms depend upon algae as a food source, either directly or indirectly. It is becoming apparent that increased information Extensive pesticide accumulation by select algal is necessary about the distribution, concentration; communities constitutes a contaminated food source and elimination of pesticides in estuarine areas. for animals which feed on those forms. Most literature reports on pesticides in estuaries concern chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT, endrin, dieldrin, and aldrin. However, the overall Invertebrates picture of the dynamics of these compounds in the estuarine environment is obscure. Organochlorine insecticides are so toxic to aquatic Potentially more hazardous are pesticides that invertebrates that these aquatic organisms have long persist in the environment and move up in the food been used to bioassay insecticides. A more complex chain. For example, small amounts of chemicals problem than that of toxicity is the accumulation of 460 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL pesticides in various aquatic organisms. When pesticides can reduce productivity of estuarine fish pesticides reach water, they are rapidly adsorbed by and shellfish (Butler, 1969). The insecticides DDT, the bottom sediment, plankton, algae, aquatic in- toxaphene, and parathion are toxic to oysters at vertebrates, aquatic vegetation, and fish. Such concentrations of approximately I ppm in water. accumulations, often increasing through different When exposed to only 1.0 ppb of each of these in- trophic levels in aquatic organisms, have been secticides separately, no effects were noted in young demonstrated experimentally by several workers and oysters (Loew et al. 1971). The population of marsh are well-known. fiddler crabs was significantly decreased by treat- Organochlorine insecticides are relatively in- ment of their habitat with abate, an organophos- soluble in water but seem to have a great 'affinity for phorus insecticide, according to Ward and Howes the tissues of aquatic invertebrates. Most of these (1974). The population decrease may have resulted aquatic organisms seem to contain some residues from sublethal effects which rendered the animals of these insecticides; the only difference is that those more vulnerable to predators. from the more remote areas such as Antarctica Seem The effects of organochlorine insecticides on to contain less than those from more temperate aquatic invertebrate populations may constitute regions closer to main usage areas of these insecti- both direct and indirect hazards to other animals. cides. Other than this, the amount reported does The most susceptible of these organisms are the not seem to differ significantly between organisms smaller crustacea, which are killed by amounts of that live in freshwater, seawater, lakes, rivers, or the order of 1.0 ppm X 103. Still susceptible, but estuaries. less so, are the larger crustacea. Organic particulate matter of estuaries is an"im- Invertebrates that are not killed may exhibit a portant food source for benthic organisms. In areas variety of indirect effects of the pesticides, such as where most of the primary production occurs through loss of coordination and other behavioral symptoms, the slow bacterial decomposition of such plant ma- loss of fertility, or retardation of growth (Edwards, terials as marsh grasses, rushes, and mangroves; a re- 1973). Considerable changes in the species' habitat lease of pesticide residues to the water may occur. structure may occur if predators and their prey This decaying plant detritus becomes an enriched differ in susceptibility to these chemicals. All of food source when utilized by other microorganisms. these effects may greatly influence overall popula- The mud dwelling fiddler crab concentrated DDT tions of aquatic invertebrates and, since these are a residues in its muscle tissues after consumption of major food source for fish, may exert strong environ- detrital food material from sediment (Odum et al, mental pressure on fish populations. Moreover, the 1969). In the field, DDT residues appeared to be residues in their bodies may accumulate in the tissue associated with particulates in the range of 250 to of fish and other animals that eat them and in this 1,000 microns. Because crabs and other detritus- way exert further environmental stress. feeding animals consume particulate matters of that size range, the authors concluded that organic de- tritus particles constitute a reservoir from which the pesticides enter the food chain. 'The literature on residues of organochlorine in- Oysters extract nutrition from the aquatic en- vironment by filtering particles of food from the water which is continuously passed in and out of consider the subject very generallr and select data their bodies. The organisms accumulate pesticide- from some of the recent studies, which should serve contaminated particles in thisfashion. Oystters to provide a general assessment of current status of contaminated particles in this fashion. Oysters efficiently store trace amounts of pesticides and are pesticide levels in fish and other vertebrates. It is well known that marine fishes contain insecticides used as estuarine monitoring organisms by the Gulf Breeze Laboratory of EPA. They provide a sensitive and, in general, are less susceptible to poisoning than Breeze Laboratory of EPA. They provide a sensitive index of the initiation, duration and extent of chlor- some other aquatic forms (Table 6). inated hydrocarbons' pollution in an estuary. The In general, organophosphorus compounds tend to c oysters is be more acutely toxic than the organocliorines, and concentration or elimination of residues in oysters is herbicides are less toxic than insecticides (Butler, dependent upon the level of pollution, the water 1971). Effects of organophosphates may last for only temperature, and their position relative to the'water hours or days, whereas the organochlorines are more flow. To eliminate DDT residues of 150 mg/kg may persistent and exert their effects following bioac- require three months or longer while residues of less cumulation and magnification in trophic pyramids. than 0.1 mg/kg may disappear ih about two weeks. Of all the organochlorines, DDT is by far the most Chronic exposure to sublethal concentrations of common and occurs in the greatest amounts. There OTHER POLLUTANTS 461 Table 6.-Acute Toxicity (24 hours) of 240 Pesticides to Estuarine Fauna resistance is probably a complex interaction of many, many factors. No Effect Toxic to 20% of Test Population y, factors. Organochlorifie insecticides in the estuarine en- (pPesticide m) 0..1 0.00-0.0 vironment constitute both direct and indirect haz- ards to fish and to those organisms that feed on Fish . ... 46 16 28 fish.' The indirect aspect is that plankton and other Shrimp s . 1 1 33 20 fish food may adsorb large quantities of these chemi- Oysters . 41 2133 5 cals, thus poisoning the fish that eat them. Alterna- Source: Butler, 1971 tively, when the fish take up residues, they may be affected by them. Many indirect sublethal effects of organochlorine residues on fish have been reported; is some evidence that the amounts of organochlorine they include lower disease resistance, sub-normal residues accumulated by fish are influenced by the feeding rates, and reproductive failure, to mention a lipid content of the fish; the more lipid they contain, the less susceptible they are to the pesticide. Simi- fish esults from the fact that these animals are a larly, the larger the fish, the greater the coneentra- major source of human food. If residues in fish are tion of residues they may contain. Hannon et al. large, they may accumulate in man to a possibly (1970) found that fish in the higher trophic levels hazardous level. In countries with more stringent tended to have a large proportion of the organochlo- legislation, these fish would be unsalable as human rine residues that they contain in the form of metabo- food. The rejection of fish products because of high lites such as DDE, DDD, heptachlor epoxide, and concentrations of pesticides, e.g., DDT in Cali- dieldrin. It has been reported that there-were greater forniajack mackerel, can pose a hardship to fisher- concentrations of organochlorine residues in fish ren and an economic burden on govern from higher trophic levels, even when movement of the residues through a food chain was impossible (Hamelink et al. 1971). Estuarine Birds and Mammals The amount of pesticide in a field population may also vary over the seasonal cycle in different species. Extensive literature exists detailing effects of Concentrations of DDT in the Triphoturus mexicanus pesticides on estuarine birds (Moore and Tatton, taken from the Gulf of California increased with size 1965; Heath et al. 1969; Anderson et al. 1969; Lamont of the fish (Cox, 1970). The annual variation in the et al. 1970; Lamont and Teichel, 1970). A recent content of DDT and its metabolites in five species report by Johnston (1974) indicates a decline of of fish from the estuary near Pensacola, Fla., was DDT residues in migratory songbirds killed when observed by Hansen and Wilson (1970). They stated the birds flew into television towers in Florida. The that pesticide residues in benthic fishes which remain results showed a progressive -decline in 'the con- in one location are better indicators of pollution than centration of DDT and its metabolites (DDD and residues in pelagic fishes. DD'E) in their fat depots for the period 1964 to 1973. Fishes are generally more resistant to pesticides This decline is apparently correlated with decreased than shrimps and oysters but are more sensitive usage of DDT in the United States during the same than other vertebrates to organochlorine-pesticides. time, according to the author. Fishes do, however, vary in their responses to avoid Little is known, however, about pesticides in mam- water containing DDT, endrin, Dursban and 2,4-D. mals. DDT was found in seals' from the Antarctica When fish were given a choice of two concentrations and in grey seals, common seals,'and harbor porpoises of the pesticides, the highest concentration of 2,4-D in England and Scotland. Pesticides have also been was avoided, but the highest concentration of DDT found' in whales (Wolman and Wilson, 1970). Blub- was preferred (Hansen, 1969). The author suggested ber of grey whales and sperm whales from waters that if the capacity to avoid a pesticide is controlled near San Francisco contained up'to 6.0 ppm of DDT. genetically, fish which survive pollution by this means would produce more offspring with the capa- city to avoid the chemical. Thus, genetic ability to MINIMIZING PESTICIDE POLLUTION avoid pesticides would have survival value for the IN THE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT species. Fabacher and Chambers (1971) found that mosquitofish probably result from other factors in Estuaries are vital nursery and feeding grounds addition to increased lipid content. These may in- for major commercial fisheries. The possibility that clude decreased uptake, "resistant" nervous tissue, they might act as "a sink for the persistent pesti- stress-tolerance, or others. The total mechanism or cides" is intolerable (Butler, 1971). 462 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL There is little doubt that the persistent pesticides, Better Use of Pesticides particularly DDT and dieldrin, are major long-term contaminants of the aquatic environment, and small Many of the pesticide problems that have arisen traces can be found in almost all compartments of through the use of persistent pesticides are due to our ecosystems. The situation with respect to estua- careless use as well as unnecessary use of chemicals. rine pollution from pesticides emphasizes the need for Too often, large areas of land have been indiscrim- more basic research. Investigations to establish safe inately sprayed to control forest insects, mosquitoes, limits for toxicants in water cannot be done on a or agricultural pests. Aerial sprays fall on all parts of short-term basis. Effective research in this area an ecosystem. Such spraying operations should be requires long-term commitment of government severely limited, even with non-persistent pesticides. agencies and the public at large. A notable example is the disastrous effect on aquatic animals resulting from the use of mirex to control Use of Alternative Pesticides fire ants in the southeast United States. This pesti- cide is highly persistent in the natural environment and has been shown to be moderately carcinogenic The main problem of finding alternatives for and has been shown to be moderately carcinogenic The ain roblm offindng aterntive forwhen injected in laboratory mice. Subsequent long- persistent insecticides is not that suitable insecticides when injected in laboratory mice. Subsequent long- persistent inetiieiotauialiterm studies have demonstrated chronic toxic effects cannot be developed, but is economic, because per- on crabs and shrimp. A national survey of oysters sistent insecticides can be made and sold so cheaply. and shelihdonsre t a m sh and other shellfish demonstrated that mirex is the Additionally, one dose gives protection against soil f th shlf e stre rei t pests for several seasons. The recent shift in pesticide fourth most commonly found pesticide residue. It was also reported that mirex contaminates shellfish usage from the organochlorines to the so-called "substitutes" or "non-persistent" pesticides is an in estu rain are o aiae teso so tates. New formulations are now available to slowly re- encouraging trend. However, the less persistent substitutes such as organophosphates and carba- lease pesticides at the time needed. Recently, EPA subutes, ch as gaini npopuaty, and alo granted final label approval for the first commercial mates, which are gaining in popularity, are also more toxic to man and certain other non-target marketing of a microencapsulated pesticide, Penn- organisms. Although there is a considerable knowl- walt Corp's Penncap-M, which consists of a suspen- edge about the residues of these substitutes and sion in water of polyamide microspheres containing edgeabot th reidue ofthes sustittesandmethyl parathion. Such formulation offers a promis- about their metabolism in target organisms, little is methyl parathion. Such formulation offers a pros- ing approach to achieving more efficient, more econ- known about their overall effects on our aquatic knownabout theroeralffetsnuromical, safer, and more controlled use of pesticides. environment. Metcalf et al. (1972) demonstrated the possibili- ties of producing selective and biodegradable ana- Integrated Pest Management logues of organochlorine insecticides using a model ecosystem for the evaluation of pesticide biodegrada- In recent years, the concept of integrated pest bility and ecological magnification(1972a). Metcalf management has b een re-emphasi ed. Th e goal is to selctiity management has been re-emphasized. The goal is to (1972b) emphasized that the principle of selectivity bring the best of all available control techniques to and biodegradability must be included in the future bear against pest problems rather than to rely solely development of better pesticides if we are to begin to on chemical pesticides. Its strategy is one of "man- solve the many problems of human ecology and agement and containment" rather than "seek and environmental pollution arising from pest control. destroy." This method combines the intelligent man- The use of biological agents is promising. Two ipulation of natural control techniques with the bacterial pesticides are now commercially available essenti al use of pesticides; it ha s been successfully and hve rgistred ith EA-Baillu popluae essential use of pesticides*; it has been successfully and have registered with EPA--Bacillus popilliae applied in several parts of the world. In Israel, effec- applied in several parts of the world. In Israel, effec- and B. thuringiensis. These insecticides have a num- tive programs have been set up against citrus pests; ber of important advantages. They effectively con- in California for pests on cotton, alfalfa and grapes; trol specific insects, do not harm humans, livestock, and in central Europe for pests in orchards. fish, wildlife, and beneficial insects, and do not dam- age plants. Furthermore, insects do not become re- sistant to these control agents. On the other hand, Removal of Pesticides the bacterial insecticides are not as fast-acting as most conventional chemical insecticides. Usually, Runoff from agricultural land is an important bacterial insecticides are a more expensive means of source of pesticides in rivers and estuaries. Control- insect control. And poor weather conditions may ling such runoff through good soilconservation prac- prevent proper control. tices would substantially decrease the contamination OTHER POLLUTANTS 463 of water. In regard to industrial and municipal Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) of 1947. All provisions of discharge, efforts should be made to increase the the Act must be in effect by October 1976. The new efficiency of extraction of pesticides from the water act, FIFRA as amended, extends federal registration and other detoxification processes such as microbial and regulation to all pesticides, including those dis- degradation and energetic radiation (ultraviolet or tributed or used within a single state. It requires the gamma ray). proper application of pesticides to insure greater protection of man and the environment. The FIFRA was administered by the U.S. Depart- Better Understanding ment of Agriculture until the authority was trans- of Estuarine Ecosystems ferred to the Environmental Protection Agency There is an urgent need for detailed and extensive (EPA) when it was established in December 1970. studies on the effects of pesticides in the estuarine EPA has the authority to cancel a pesticide registra- and marine environments. Only with additional tion if it was later determined that the directed use scientific data will a sound estuarine management of the pesticide posed a serious hazard to man or the policy be possible. Immediate attention is required environment. EPA also can suspend a pesticide regis- to clarify the effects of environmental variables on tration and stop interstate shipments immediately. the acute toxicities of pesticides to sport and com- Unlike cancellation, suspension orders can be initi- mercial fishes as well as on their effects on various ele- ated only when the products present an "imminent ments in the food web. In addition to laboratory re- hazard. sults, information is needed on toxicity under natural Withi the last few years EPA has taken several conditions. For example, what effects do water chem- control actions against a number of persistent istry, temperature, biota, and many other environ- organochlorine pesticides. In 1971 EPA initiated mental factors have on toxicity? What is the cancellation proceedings under FIFRA against significance of the size, age, and condition of the fish? DDT, mirex, aldrin, and dieldrin. After extensive This information is essential if sound predictions hearings, the agency announced cancellation of concerning the biological effects of pesticides are to nearly all remaining uses of DDT in June 1972, be made. based on potential future hazard to man and his Little is known about the long-term, sublethal environment. The agency has also limited the use of effects of pesticides on fishes or other aquatic or- mirex against the imported fire ant in the south- ganisms. To gather information requires prolonged eastern United States, primarily because of hazard to exposures of fishes to variable concentrations of the aquatic life. toxicant in question. On August 2, 1974, EPA issued suspension notices Much information is needed on the manner in for aldrin and dieldrin, citing evidence of "imminent which an "unstressed" estuarine system operates hazard." On October 1, 1974 EPA administrator before one can properly assess the impact of a pesti- Russell Train ordered an immediate suspension of cide or other chemicals on such systems. further production of aldrin and dieldrin, because of cide or other chey may cause cancer. This order became The interactions of the various communities with evidence they may cause cancer. This order became each other and with their physical environment could final on May 27, 1975 when EPA Chief Administra- be affected by a pesticide. One way to quantify such tive Judge H.L. Perlman announced that the U.S. effects is to construct an experimental ecosystem in Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia had which several species of organisms and their sub- ruled that aldrin create "imminent strates can be subjected to the pesticide (Duke, 1974) to obtain information on rates, routes and On November 26, 1974, EPA gave notice of its reservoirs of accumulation. Once a satisfactory com- intent to cancel all registered uses of heptachlor and partmental model is developed, substituting different chlordane which are now in widespread use for home, data enables the impact of different variables to be lawn, and garden pest control. Their major agricul- evaluated. tural use is on corn crops. On July 30, 1975, EPA ordered an end to the manufacture and sale of the two pesticides, citing an imminent human cancer Governmentali Control hazard and the available substitute pesticides now of Pesticide Use registered with EPA. However, this suspension On October 21, 1972, the President signed into order allowed continued production of these two law H.R. 10729, the Federal Environmental Pesti- pesticides for termite control by ground insertion cide Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-516), and the dipping of roots and tops of nonfood plants. amending the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and In 1971 and 1972, EPA issued suspension and 464 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL cancellation notice for mercury pesticides. A variety Long-term sublethal effects of pesticides in estu- of organic mercury compounds are used in agricul- aries are very difficult to assess at the present time, ture as fungicides and in the paper industry as as most data on pesticide effects are limited to a few slimicides. If they find their way into the aquatic species and concentrations that are lethal in short- environment they are readily converted under term tests under laboratory conditions. It is only, anaerobic conditions to methyl-mercury compounds, perhaps, in regard to the persistent organochlorine which are very readily taken up by aquatic organisms pesticides, DDT and dieldrin in particular, that and accumulated in the food chain. more information is available concerning their be- havior in the aquatic environment. It is now rela- tively easy to determine the concentration of a wide variety of organochlorine pesticide residues in estu- arine and marine samples. It is, however, much more Trends in the production and use of pesticides in difficult to establish the signicance of the residues difficult to establish the significance of the residues recent years indicate that there will be an increased either at the species or community level demand for pesticides during the next decade due tos o el nneed to reduce Health hazards to man arising from pesticide pol- the mounting demand for food and the lution in the estuarine environment have resulted the devastation of food supplies by insects, weeds, the devastation of food supplies by insects, weeds, from the persistence of pesticides in water, bioaccum- and diseases. Acc6rding to a World Health Organiza- ulation in estuarine food chains, and some localized tion estimate, about a third of the agricultural contamination of the coastal waters. Depending on products grown by man worldwide are consumed or products grown by man worldwide are consumed or t the chemical nature of the pesticide and its biological destroyed by insects. There is little doubt that pesti- behavior, the health haard to man may be of an cides will continue to play an important role in the acute nature for people exposed locally or the result production of food. prolVduct ioJnlV ,of .o .. , of chronic low level exposure of the general popula- The most difficult pollution control problem-for tion from ingestion of co ntaminated food . Critical .w.stes 1 tion from ingestion of contaminated food. Critical estuarine and coastal waters-is posed by wassessment of the ultimate health hazards of di- which do not come from a point source, such as whch do not come from a pont source, such as vidual pesticides requires an adequate knowledge of pesticides from runoff and drift. Agricultural pesti-behavior in the estuarine ecosystem, their cides enter the estuarine environment through their the st pathways through the dynamic system existing in direct application to water, runoff and sediment direct application to water, runoff andsediment the estuaries, and their fate in terms of accumulation transport from the treated fields, atmospheric trans- port, industrial and municipal waste discharge, ac- or transformation. It is alsonessary to have quan- cidents andu spills. and municial waste dichargetitative data for each of the various stages through which a pesticide passes before it finally comes in Fish iulls in the United States are well known. Fish lls in the United States are well known. contact with the human organism. As in other areas Agricultural operations ranked fourth in the total of toxicological research, there is the added difficulty number of fish killed, and pesticide was the leading of so.urce of agriculturalpollution, with 11.4 miion of extrapolating experimental studies in animals to fishr 'fatalitiesbetw atnd1972.In 171 ma.ou1t 1man in order to measure the probable hazards to man. fish fatalities between 1963 and 1972. In 1971 about Recent regulatory actions taken by the Environ- 77 percent (56.4 million) of the total reported fish mental Prote ction Ag eny hav e placed a neartot kill occurred in the estuary-type water. The signifi- ban on domesti c us e of DDT, aldrin, deldrn, hep- ban on domestic use of DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, hep- cant increase of fish kills in the estuaries since 1968or, and chlordane Undoubtedly, for many years tachlor, and chlordane. Undoubtedly, for many years is of great national concern since estuaries serve asome, these persistent chemicals will continue to breeding andnursergroundformanyspc e. to come, these persistent chemicals will continue to breeding and nursery ground for many species. be detectable in the estuarine environment due to Monitoring data have so far been limited primarily seasonal fooding and the resuspension of estuarine to chlorinated hydrocarbons, because of their num- . sediments. ber, wide use,. great persistence in the environment, Pesticide pollution in the estuarine environment Pesticide pollution in the estuarine environment and toxicity to certain wildlife and non-target or- can be minimized through the use of alternative ganisms. At present, all of the different organochlo- pesticides, ore effectiv e useof p es ticid e, removal rine insecticides!have been reported from U.S. rivers and est , soi lg Al- of pesticides from water, improvement of farm man- and estuaries, sometimes in large -quantities. A- agement practices, and a better understanding of though these residues do not seem to present immedi- ptic st - to. fpesticide behavior in the estuarine ecosystem. ate- danger to fish and shellfish, they were large enough to pose a threat to other elements of the estuarine ecosystem through recyling and magnifica- REFERENCES tion. Present monitoring data indicate thatmaxi- . Pestate th - Anderson, D. W. et al. 1969. Significance of chlorinated mum pesticide residues can be correlated with prox- hydrocarbon residues to breeding pelicans and cormorants. imity of monitoring stations to agricultural runoff. Can. Field Nat. 83: 91-112. OTHER POLLVTANTS 465 Barthel, W. F. et al. 1969. 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Organochlorine O'Brien, R. D. 1967. Insecticides: action and metabolism. pesticides in Antarctica. Nature 215: 346-348. Academic Press, N.Y. Timmer, F. L. et al. 1970. Herbicide residues in agricultural Odum, W. E. et al. 1969. DDT residues absorbed from organic and water quality. In: Agricultural Practices and Water detritus by fiddler crabs. Science 164: 576-577. Quality, Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. p. 193-208. Peterle, T. J. 1969. DDT in Antarctic snow. Nature 224; 620. U.S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW). 1969. Report of the Secretary's Commission on Pesticides and Reese, C. D. et al. 1972. Pesticides in the aquatic environ- Their Relationship to Environmental Health. Part I and ment. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. II. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Reimold, R. J. and C. J. Durant. 1974. Toxaphene content of Walsh, G. E. 1972. Insecticides, herbicides and poly- estuarine fauna and flora before, during and after dredging chlorinated biphenyls. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 62: 122-139. toxaphene-contaminated sediments. Pestic. Monit. J. 8: 44-49. Ward, D. V. and B. L. Howes. 1974. The effects of abate, an organophosphorus insecticide, on marsh fiddler crab popula- Reimnold, R. J. et al. 1973. Effects of toxaphene contamination tions. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 12: 694-697. on estuarine ecology. Georgia Marine Science Station, Skidaway Island, Ga. (Technical Report Series 73-8) Whitacre, D. M. et al. 1972. Pesticides and aquatic micro- organisms. Search 3: 150-157. Rose, F. L. and C. D. McIntire. 1970. Accumulation of diel- drin by benthic algae in laboratory streams. Hydro. Biol. Wolman, A. A. and A. J. Wilson, Jr. 1970. Occurrence of 35: 481-493. pesticides in whales. Pestic. Monit. J. 4: 8-10. THE IMPACT OF OFFSHORE PETROLEUM OPERATIONS ON MARINE AND ESTUARINE AREAS KEITH G. HAY American Petroleum Institute Washington, D.C. ABSTRACT American is facing a serious energy crisis, as domestic petroleum supplies are consumed at a greater rate than new reserves can be located and placed in production. It is necessary to the nation's economic and political security to expand the search for crude oil and natural gas into the frontier areas of our Outer Coitinental Shelf. Expertise gained through more than two decades of exploration for and production of crude oil and natural gas in the Gulf of Mexico and the advances in exploration, drilling and production technology and equipment, minimize the danger of environmental damage from offshore petroleum operations. Studies of the impact of oil on the marine and estuarine areas are continuing, and the results so far indicate that petroleum operations can be and are being conducted in an environmentally acceptable manner. INTRODUCTION natural gas, 31 percent. Our heavy dependence on petroleumff is the product of many factors, not the A great deal of misunderstanding exists concein- least of which have been-and continue to be- ing the impact of petroleum operations on the environmental considerations. biological, economic, and environmental sectors of In the case of coal, which currently provides 18 the marine and estuarine areas. This misunderstand- percent of the energy market, environmental restric- ing, in turn, has led to public concern, particularly tions have played a major role in limiting production. in light of proposed expansion of offshore petroleum Bans or severe restrictions on the use of the more industry activities following the energy crisis. economical mining methods, as well as sulfur emis- It would be naive-and inaccurate--to suggest sion control standards-some of which go far beyond that a significant expansion of exploratory, produc- the need to protect national health and safety- tion, transportation, and refining activities would have greatly hampered moves to increase coal pro- be without some impact on shore and near-shore life. duction and use. This has been an important factor But it would be equally naive-and inaccurate-to in increasing demand for petroleum, as an alter- suggest that such impact as would occur would be nate fuel in manufacturing and electrical power all negative, or that any impact, per se, would be generation. intolerable from an environmental point of view. Further demand has been placed on petroleum by There is clearly an urgent need to not only protect the seemingly interminable delays in trying to site and sustain the viability of our estuaries, but to and construct nuclear power generating plants, and develop secure domestic petroleum reserves as well. in allowing onstream operations of existingifacilities. Our economic and political structure was visibly While technological problems have caused some of shaken by the 5-month embargo of Arab crude oil these delays, environmental considerations were at and products refined overseas from Arab crude, and the base of many delays-and, in some cases, cancel- by the fourfold increase in the cost of imported oil lations-of nuclear plant construction. Thus, despite imposed by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting the rosy future predicted for power from nuclear Countries. reactors during the 1950's and '60's, less, than 2 percent of U.S. energy is now .derived from nuclear THE NATION'S ENERGY MIX generators. A similar fate has befallen potential hydroelectric Petroleum, that is, crude oil and natural gas, pro- power plant construction. Virtually every attempt vides this nation with 77 percent of its current to develop a new hydroelectric power site is blocked energy requirements. Crude oil supplies 46 percent; by environmental opposition. The few remaining 467 ESTUARINEv PoLLUTION CONTROL sites for hydropower installations have-for all prac- OFFSHORE PETROLEUM tical purposes--been ruled out of consideration by ,EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION enviironmental actiVities. - ' Thus, we have been left with a growing depend- The United States Geblogical Survey has esti- ence on oil and natural gas- as. the suppliers--at mated that the discoverable, recoverable petroleum least for the next 10 to 15 years-of our'nation's resources of the OCS may range from 10 billion to lenerga. Continued reliance on potentially insecure 49 billion barrels of crude oil and 42 trillion to 181 and high cost foreign oil, however, is not a'practical trillion cubic feet of natural gas. By geographic solution to our energy problems. The economic con- area, these deposits are thought to be within the sequences of over-dependence on imports-both following estimated probability range: from a security and balance of payments aspect- should have been 'indelibly' engraved olA the public Crude oil Natural gas conscience in the aftermath of Winter 1978-74 and (in billions (in trillions in the outflow of U.S. dollar's in 1974.' Offshore Area of barrels) of cubic feet). Yet, if we aie'to keep evein bur present level 'f Atlantic- 2-4 5-14 piroductivity-much' less ihc'oease our industrial ac- Gulf of Mexico 3-8 18-91 tirities'to meet the needs of an economic uipswing- Pacific .-- -------- 21 5 2-6 U'.S imports of crude and refined oils must: temipo- Alaska --3-31 8-80 rarily continue. There is no viable alternative, just as there is' no viable alternative 'to increasing our Development' of this potential becomes all the domestic exploration and production activities. Only more expedient in light of the almost steady decline increased availability of petroleum will permit the in the ratio of U.S. proved reserves to production; nation to buy the time needed to develop alternate stemming, for the most part from gover stemming, for the most part, from governmental energy sources. " interference in-the fuels marketplace. U.S. domestic There is, on the- horizon, the vision of a number production peaked in the early 19705s. And it will of self-renewing, non-polluting energy sources 'These be several years before that situations begins to be include-but are not limited'to-ocean, tidal and includebut are not limited to-ocean, tidal ad reversed by the flow of oil from Alaska's north slope, wind power, geothermal energy, nuclear fission, and increasedproduction through'secondary and:tertiary solar power. Prototype facilities and/or laboratory recovery methods, and new production from exist- models exist for some of these energy alterniatives. ing, but not fully developed, fields. Nevertheless, But it will be a number of years-perhaps into the the master key to petroleum security rests firmly in next century-before they become economically unlocking the as yet undiscovered potential of our feasible. iTime, however, is the critical factor. For Outer Continental Shelf. all practical purposes, petroleum is the only-major Petroleum exploration and production from ma- energy source with the proven technology' capable rine areas is not an experimental undertaking As far back as the late 1890's, underwater drilling was of producing sufficient fuel' to tide this nation 'over far back as the late 1890's, uiderwater drilling was a fact of life in California, where piers were extended until alternate energy sources become reality. into the water to support drilling and production The United States Geological Survey estimates facilities. However, modern drilling and safety tech- that, the remaining total petroleum resources of the nology had its origin in petroleum operations in the United States, discoverable and recoverable -under Gulf of Mexico, with drilling starting in earnest today's technology and economics, may range as following World War II. high as '189 billibn barrels Of oil and 1,094 trillion. To date, more than 19,000 wells have been drilled cubic feet of 'natural gas. The onshore potential, in-the U.S. marine environment. And, in fact, nearly however, appears less readily recoverable' than the 17 percent of all domestie oil and 19.5 percent of-our potential of the, Outer Continental Shelf (OCS). 'natural gas production in the U.S., today, comes The' larger more readily located onshore areas 'are from offshore activities. believed tor have been found and laced intoproduc Yet, despite the headlines which would indicate believed to have been found and placed into produc- tion. The primary locations for additional onshore tion. The primareyt lioeatigns for additiona 'onshore spills from drilling and production operations in our resources are thought to lie at greater depths and offshore areas. And none, hot even the much- in undeveloped hostile areas. Thus, the need to publicized spill in the Santa Barbara Channel-in search out, the :oil and natural' gas deposits of the 1969, 'caused permanent ecological damage. OCS assumes greater importance. 'i; Since that spill, marine exploratory and produc- OTHER POLLUTANITS · 469 tion technology has improved greatly: Both industry wanted to determine the immediate and long-term and governmental specifications have 'underigone effects of an oil spill, and how this differs from significant upgrading to decrease oil spill potential. chronic oil pollution sustained by persistent natural Safety equipment,. monitoring techniques, and per- seepage. sonnel training in spill prevention and cleanup have At this early date, all. of the results of this ambi- advanced. The capability of the industry to mini- tious research program are not in. However, the mize environmental damage has been substantially facts that have evolved-coupled with other investi- enhanced. gations throughout the world-confirm certain data and put to rest certain myths and speculations. These known facts are: EFFECTS OF OiL ON MARINE BIOTA 1) The fate of oil and its immediate and long- Quite frankly, prior to the Torrey Canyon acci- term impact depend upon a highly complex inter- dent off the Cornwall Coast of England, and the relationship of physidal, chemical, and biological Santa Barbara spill about two years later, there had factors. These include evaporation, dispersion, flush- been little investigation of the fate of oil in the ing, dissolution, photo oxidation, littoral deposition, environment. Such is no longer the case. While much sedimentation, accumulation, microbial oxidation, is yet to be learned in this area, a number of facts and last, but most important, organismI uptake. have evolved from existing research. In the majority of, spills, winds, currents, and In May 1969, a series of studies-part of a multi- tides rapidly dilute or disperse the oil below toxic million dollar research program-was initiated by concentrations. the American Petroleum Institute. These studies 2) Oil is ingested by marine organisms, such as were designed to develop scientific answers to ques- shellfish, shrimp, and finfish. The effects depend on tions surrounding the fate of oil in the marine the particular species, its stage of growth, and the environment and its biological impact. The studies amount and kind of oil ingested. Recent uptake have been and are being conducted by some of the and depuration studies have been conducted by the nation's leading universities and independent reL Battelle Northwest Laboratories in Puget Sound, at search laboratories. Research contracts have been the Texas A & M Marine Research Laboratory in awarded to such institutions as the University of Galveston, and at the Scripps Institution of Ocean- Southern California, University of Maryland, Texas ography in California. Admittedly, laboratory stud- A & M University, Scripps and Woods Hole Institu- ies have their limitations when it comes to predicting tions of Oceanography, Battelle Northwest and Bat- the effects of oil on organisms in the real world. telle Columbus Laboratories, Exxon Research and Nevertheless, the results of such studies have con- Engineering, and the Bermuda Biological Station. 'firmed that marine organisms do accumulate petro- The petroleum industry, through the API pro- leum hydrocarbons, but once placed in an oil-free gram, wanted to find out, for example, answers to environment, the organism quickly discharges the these questions: What happens to oil in the sea; ingested.oil. For example: how much is evaporated, goes into, solution, is phys- ically dispersed; what are the mechanisms that (a) At Texas A'& M, brine shrimp were found to brought about these changes; and what are the abs'orb and purge aromatic hydrocarbons in a matter effects of climatic, oceanographic, meteorological, of hours. No metabolization of the oil fractions and chemical influences on oil in the sea. ' occurred. The studies sought answers to: biodegradation (b) At Scripps, however, three different species processes and how they vary as a function of climate, of fish were. found to detoxify these hydrocarbons bacterial composition and distribution, nutrient up- by metabolizing them in the liver and excreting the takej and seasonal variation. The effects of oil on byproducts in their urine. the food chain have been studied, including the (c) At the Battelle Northwest Laboratories, Pa- impact on organisms at the egg, larvae, juvenile, cific oysters that had assimilated oil were found and adult stages, and on their subsequent genera- to depurate the hydrocarbons 'within a few days tions. Questions as to the .effect of dispersants when returned to an oil-free' environment. superimposed on an oil-polluted biosystem have been (d) In the Plymouth Laboratory in Englahid, the considered. Bioassay data on No. 2 fuel oil, various spider crab Maia squinrado was found to rapidly crude oils, and residual fuel oil were sought, includ- detoxify and excrete naphthalene." ing the retention, concentration, and depuration of 3) Biological damages to an ecosystem depends such oils by marine organisms. Finally, the industry upon such factors as: the type of oil spilled, biota 470 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL of the area, the dose of oil, the physiography of the 10) Low levels (10-100 ppm) of oil dispersant area, the season, weather conditions,,previous expo- emulsions can, under laboratory conditions, reduce sure of the area to oil, exposure to other pollutants, primary productivity of marine phytoplankton and and treatment of the spill. its production of chlorophyll a. Oil dispersant emul- 4) Three conditions must prevail for damage to sions at a level of less than 1 ppm, however, have a occur from a spill: (a) a refined oil must be in- stimulatory effect on the phytoplankton resulting volved; (b) the volume of oil spilled needs to be in an increase in the mean productivity rate. large with respect to the receiving body of water; At such low concentrations, oil.is a nutrient-a and (c) storms or heavy surf must thoroughly mix source of carbon. When flagellates are exposed to the water, oil and sediments in the area. highly toxic water-soluble oil concentrations for 24 5) Crude oil constituents, especially the volatile hours, their growth rate and production of chloro- aromatics-naphthalenes and olefins-which have phyll a is virtually stopped. When transferred to a a low boiling point, are far more toxic than are the fresh medium, they resume normal growth rates remainder, and are more soluble in water. Fortu- (1 to 12 generations each 24 hours) and chlorophyll nately, these lighter constituents quickly evaporate, a production within three to four days. Only a so that the risk is a short-term one. relatively small number of flagellates need to survive 6) Certain polynuclear fromatics, such as 3,4 to repopulate rapidly a given area after a spill. benzpyrene, are potential carcinogens. Some of them 11) Salt marsh grasses, when exposed to oil, will occur in crude oil in minute quantities. It has been recover very quickly, especially if no detergent postulated that these carcinogenic polynuclear aro- treatment is undertaken and repeated oilings do matics are assimilated by marine organisms and are not occur. concentrated as they are passed up through the 12) With rare exceptions, oil spills do not cause food chain to man. There is no evidence, however, death to free swimming finfish. Such fish evidently that abnormal growths, either tumors or cancers, in sense the presence of oil and swim clear of the slick. man or marine organisms result from oil spilled in However, fish that swim near the surface, such as the marine environment and subsequently trans- pipe fish and capelin, would be most susceptible; ferred through the food chain. Another team of those found at intermediate depths, such as shiner scientists, who did their research on the Sargasso perch, would be less susceptible; and those inhabit- Sea ecosystem, found that petroleum hydrocarbon ing the water column near the bottom, such as concentrations were essentially constant throughout flounder and sculpin, would be least susceptible. the food chain. Polynuclear aromatics, incidentally, 13) In general, an organism is more susceptible are produced by vegetation and phytoplankton in to oil at the larval stage than at the juvenile stage; large quantities, and are, moreover, biodegradable. and the juvenile stage is more vulnerable than the 7) Refined oil, such as No. 2 fuel oil, is generally adult stage. There is always an exception to the rule. more toxic than crude oil. When massive amounts It is found that the least susceptible stage for brown of such oil inundate coastal areas for sustained shrimp is the post-larval period of life. periods of time, extensive damage to marine fauna 14) Chronic and acute exposures to oil in labora- can occur and complete restoration may take years. tory tests have not resulted in any growth inhibition Fortunately, such episodic spills are rare. in brown shrimp or oysters. 15) The health of a marine community in the 8) No spill, not even the most severe (e.g. Torrey 15) The health of a marine community in the Canyon, West Falmouth, and the Tampico Maru), immediate vicinity of a natural oil seep was compa- has rnyonesulted in any permouth, anent damage to the en- Maru), rable to the health of a similar (control) community has resulted in any permanent damage to the en- vironment. In most spills, biological recovery is far removed from seepage areas. achieved w ith in a few generations, involving less . These, then, are some of the facts that are surfac- achieved witha n one year. ing from studies of the impact of oil on the marine environment. Many more questions and myths re- 9) Only about 20 percent of the more than 100 main to be clarified. They will require thorough spills classified as "major," that occurred between and dispassionate studies. Such work is ongoing, 1960 and 1971, resulted in sizeable seabird mortality. not only by the oil industry and the federal govern- According to one study, for other forms of marine ment, but by state and private laboratories through- life, damage was described as extensive in approxi- out the world. mately 15 percent of the spills. In several of the spills, damage to marine life was caused by the OFFSHORE OIL SPILLS STUDIES misuse of highly toxic dispersants. Such dispers- ants have now been largely replaced by nontoxic The widely circulated charges of massive and per- substitutes. manent damage to nearshore and estuarine life re- OTHER POLLUTAN'TS 471 suiting from petroleum exploration, drilling, and duction. More than 16,000 oil and gas wells have production operations offshore have, to a large been drilled in Gulf of Mexico waters.. without extent, been generated out of fear of the unknown, damage to the fish population. and nurtured by non-factual information from a The commercial fish catch in the gulf increased host of instant experts on the effects of spilled oil. from 571 million pounds in 1950 to 1.5 billion This was made particularly clear at the time of the pounds in 1973, according to the U.S. Department Santa Barbara spill. And, unfortunately, the dis- of Commerce's National Marine Fisheries Service, proved charges are still repeated from time to time while the value of the commercial fish catch rose in the media. from $50.4 million to $268 million-an increase of The facts concerning the damage from that spill 432 percent. During the same period, the percentage are readily available, the results of two independent of the total commercial fish catch in the U.S. taken scientific studies of the area. The first, by the Allan from the Gulf of Mexico rose from 12 to 33 percent. Hancock Foundation of the University of Southern Most of this increase is attributable to improved California, noted that, while there was some loss of fishing techniques and the taking of menhaden (a life among certain species of the Channel's flora and formerly non-commercial fish). However, the in- fauna attributable to the spill, other factors present crease does indicate that petroleum operations in in the area at the time of the spill contributed sig- the area have not decreased the commercial fish nificantly to the mortality rate. Among these con- population. tributing factors were: Sport fishing has actually improved in the area of the oil platforms. The platforms provide a founda- . For centuries, crude oil has been entering the tion for the growth of sea plants and invertebrates, Santa Barbara Channel from natural seeps (natural thereby creating the first step in the food chain. seeps off Coal Oil Point, for example, exude from 11 About a dozen or more species of fish virtually to 160 barrels of crude oil daily into the sea); unknown in the area prior to drilling operations · In winter (as when this particular spill oc- have been recorded near the rigs. Many of these curred) marine life in the channel is at a low ebb- fish are believed to have been brought to the instal- a seasonal factor unrelated to pollution; and lations by ocean currents as eggs or fry, and remained . The worst floods in 40 years had taken place to mature under the favorable food and cover condi- just prior to the spill, placing sealife under extraor- tions created by the platforms. dinary stress from freshwater runoff, storm debris, Shrimp landings from the Gulf of Mexico, in 1973, sewage, sediment, and pesticides. accounted for almost one-half of the total U.S. The Allan Hancock Foundation study, based on shrimp catch (182.1 million pounds out of the 372.2 on-site observations and comparisons to pre-spill million pound total), and for 79 percent of the total data, found that, of the 18,000 birds in the channel value of the U.S. shrimp catch. And the National at the time of the January 1969 spill, 3,500 to 4,000 Marine Fisheries Service reported marked produc- birds died from all causes. By May, seasonal migra- tion increases in hard blue crabs taken from the tion had brought the bird population up to 85,000. gulf in 1973. Only isolated traces of oil remained buried on the In reference to the effects of oil spills from marine beaches a year after the spill. Damage to the biota platforms in the gulf, Dr. John G. Mackin, professor was not widespread, but was limited to several emeritus of biology, Texas A & M University, has species; and the area has recovered well. The channel concluded that they have had little harmful effect fish catch was actually found to have increased in on the area's marine life. Dr. Mackin has studied a 6-month period following the oil spill, compared the inshore and nearshore Gulf of Mexico ecology to the year-earlier period. Despite the claims of and marine communities extensively since 1947. His some people at the time of the spill, the incident view is supported by Dr. Lyle St. Amant, assistant had no apparent effect on whales and seals. director, Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commis- Commenting on the Santa Barbara spill, a scien- sion, who stated recently-in connection with marine tist at the California Institute of Technology (which operations in Louisiana gulf waters: "We cannot was not a party to the 40-man investigation by the Allan Hancock Foundation) concluded, "There is detect any harmful effects on fish." one unavoidable fact-all animals are reproducing In-depth studies of the effect of petroleum off- now in the Santa Barbara area." shore operations, over an extended period of time, While marine operations have been undertaken can and do provide vital information on changes over a longer period of time in the California offshore in the marine community. Too often, however, other area, operations in the Gulf of Mexico have been information is presented which lacks the necessary significantly greater, both in exploration and pro- foundation for accurate conclusions. Baseline stud- 472 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ies, which fail to extend through a continuum of store and maintain both shallow-water and open-sea seasons and fail to cover a number of cycles, fre- equipment in a state of 24-hour readiness. quently result in questionable data. For example, Included are helicopters, skimmers, booms, com- a baseline study provides a reference point for a munications systems, bird rescue and cleaning ma- particular area at a particular time. A second base- terials, and sorbent generating equipment. All can line study taken later-without the benefit of a be easily transported by air, land, or water. Fast continuous history of environmental events-would response equipment is also stored at several strategic provide a similar reference point for its area and locations, enabling on-the-scene activities to begin point of time. The interstitial, unrecorded events, at a spill as far as 100 miles distant, within 12 hours. however, could so distort the differences as to make Oil spill cleanup cooperatives have demonstrated comparisons of little value. their ability to respond promptly and effectively in A temporary gyre moving through the water sheltered waters or in open seas under relatively column-pr a number of other ephemeral events- calm conditions. However, technology for handling could significantly alter the benthic marine com- spills under heavy sea conditions needs to be further munity, perhaps leaving a permanent change in the developed. The petroleum industry is committed to biota of the area. If unrecorded for want of the expanding its cleanup skills to meet needs wherever baseline continuum, the conclusions drawn from they arise, and is continuing its efforts to ad- the change in the benthic community might easily- vance the state of the art through research and and erroneously-be assigned to other causes, for experimentation. example, a later recorded oil spill, invalidating the Among the projects under study or in develop- results of the more recent baseline study. mental process are these: establishing and updating compendiums' cataloging information on available Csorbents, surfactants, combustion promoters, sink- PREVENTION AND CONTROL' OF OIL SPILLS ing agents, and biological agents; developing and testing an open-sea oil skimmer; researching methods The petroleum industry has expended a great for protecting shorelines and beaches exposed to oil deal of effort, time, and money on oil spill prevention from spills, using petroleum-consuming microorga- through employee training courses and sound main- nisms and polymeric films; and improving training of tenance programs. Even with these .continuing ef- personnel in theuse of techniques and equipment forts, some risks remain. Accordingly, the industry for oil spill cleanup. has also taken the initiative in developing the means Work is also continuing to improve avian protec- to minimize spills that do occur. X tion techniques. Experiments are under way on The harbor cooperative has been one of the results methods to frighten sea birds away from spill ar eas, of industry efforts to increase response capability. using, distress cries and other sonic techniques. And The form of these cooperatives varies with the needs substantial progress has been made in the area of and location; the object, however, is to pool the improved rescue and treatment of oiled waterfowl. funds and/or equipment of companies in: a given The industry feels that the best way to handle oil area, thus significantly increasing their response spills is to prevent their occurrence. To this end, a capability. In some cases, these cooperatives include sophisticated array of hardware and practices has municipal fire departments, and other local govern- been developed. An indication of the extent of spill mental agencies. . . prevention techniques and equipment can be found There are in existence, or in the planning stage, in the following description, although the material some 100 harbor cooperatives in the Unitecd' States. mentioned is by no means all-inclusive. They are located not only on the gulf, east and west At the well, where prevention begins, automatic They are located not only on the gulf, east and west shutdown devices ate installed as part of the offshore coasts, but also on inland lakes and rivers. These shutdowndevicesareinstalledaspartoftheoffshore include several basic forms of cooperatives: industry- drlling and production program. These devices de- wide (oil companies in the area); communitywide tect increases and drops in pressure, changes in flow (oil companies, other companies, government agen- rates, and other production factors. Subsurface cies, corand public organiations i an area; and ub- valves, for example, close down the flow of oil in scription (an experienced local contractor supplying event of an accident, malfunction, or other incident at cleanup equipment, materials and key manpower). the surface. Master switches are installed which can For example,, one such cooperative-funded by stop the entire production system, should an emer- the oil companies searching for energy resources gency threaten life, property, or the environment. in the Gulf of Mexico-employs a contractor to Fire detection devices can trigger the emergency OTHEER POLLUTANTS 473 shutdown system. For day-to-day operations, drain- 'before any attempt was made to develop the offshore age and containment systems collect any spillage or potential. The first year of recorded petroleum pro- waste oil. Other safety devices in common use on duction in the State of Louisiana was 1902, and for marine platforms include navigational aids to warn Texas, 1889. While drilling in the estuarine areas of vessels. Louisiana began in the 1930's, offshore exploration The platforms, themselves, are designed to with- and development began in the late 1940's, with stand storms equivalent in intensity to that of the significant activities continuing since that time. worst storm recorded during a 25- or 100-year period, However, several sound projections can be made depending on location. When storms of sufficient concerning the impact of petroleum operations along intensity to affect drilling occur, all operations cease, the east coast. First, advancements in the state of and the drilling platform is secured. If the storm is the art of petroleum offshore operations will mini- expected to be especially severe, personnel are re- mize any environmental risks that might be associ- moved from the platform. ated with such activities. Additionally, there are in Other measures are taken during daily operations effect today in the United States stringent environ- to prevent pollution from petroleum activities. These mental laws, regulations, and controls that will include the onboard processing of water from wells prevent the construction of environmentally un- to remove oils, or the'transportation of these liquids acceptable support facilities. to shore for separation processing. Second, the social and economic aspects of Atlantic When an oil reservoir is depleted, the wells are coast offshore and onshore support operations will plugged with cement to protect underground strata, be minimized by the nature of the areas nearest the and to prevent any leakage to the surface. Equip- most likely exploration and production activities. ment is removed, and underwater piping is cut off Unlike the gulf coast region during the early years below or at the seafloor, to eliminate any hazard to of petroleum operations there, industrial complexes commercial fishing. already exist along the east coast, for example, the Pipelines play a major role in transporting oil and Newport News-Norfolk, Philadelphia-Baltimore, gas produced offshore to onshore facilities. There is and Greater Metropolitan New York areas. This little reason to anticipate increased pollution from industry is well-suited to provide many of the this source, because pipelines are constructed to requirements anticipated in implementing any At- safety standards set forth in strict industry codes lantic offshore programs. and, in the United States, in government regulations. Local helicopter services, water transport, ship- These standards include specifications for design, yards, and other businesses would logically be called construction, operation, and maintenance. They upon to provide much of the materials and support make provision for automatic safety alarm systems, needed offshore. And, certainly, the impact on local shutdown devices, and regular inspections along the payrolls, work orders, and employment opportunities lines to check for possible leakage, 'damaged piping would be beneficial. At the same time, roads, schools, or construction; and, inland, for any watercourse and public services are presently in place, signifi- changes that might affect pipe security. The record cantly lessening any negative impact on government in oil pipelining has shown it to be the safest and finances from offshore exploratory and development most secure mode of transporting oil. operations. ONSHORE IMPACTS COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT PLANNING A concern closely related to the need for an accept- able environment is the question of onshore de- It takes from three to 10 years to bring a new oil velopment resulting from offshore production of or gas field into full production, once petroleum is petroleum. The social, environmental, and economic discovered, if the search turns up commercially impacts of existing offshore and nearshore produc- significant 'quantities of petroleum. Add to'this time tion in the Gulf of Mexico and the Santa Barbara the years required 'to develop leasing schedules, area, unfortunately; cannot be used as an accurate hold environmental impact hearings and draw up gauge of impacts that might be anticipated in the impact statements, hold lease sales and conduct areas adjacent to potential frontier Outer Conti- exploration activities, and the time before significant nental Shelf areas, such as the Atlantic coast. In impact could occur is placed into proper perspective. the Gulf of Mexico, for example, onshore petroleum That time could-and should-be used to develop production development started a number of years the coastal zone management plans that would en- 474 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL able orderly and environmentally acceptable sup- of waiting until our known supplies are exhausted, port facilities to be built. And that time would also in the blind faith that new sources will be provided. allow for the programming of any governmental Rather, we must pursue-in an orderly and expedi- services that might be required over the productive tious manner-the development of our petroleum life of the reservoirs. Thus, environmental, social, potential. The technology exists for such develop- and economic impacts could be anticipated and ment. And those potential sources of oil and gas intelligently accommodated within a logical time can be located and produced with minimal impact frame. on the environment. While studies continue to evolve even safer meth- ods of petroleum production, and while new energy SUMMARY sources are being researched and developed, we must proceed ini the search for secure domestic petroleum There is a critical need to develop energy resources reserves. That means opening up new areas to in the United States, resources that will protect the development-both offshore and in the more remote political, social, economic, environmental, and mili- areas, such as onshore Alaska-on a timely basis tary security of the nation. Petroleum-crude oil designed to accommodate the petroleum industry's and natural gas-will be called upon to provide the capability to safely explore and develop leased areas. lion's share of that energy security until alternate There is no other viable alternative to such develop- energy sources can be developed. ment, if we are to reduce dependence on imported This nation and its people cannot afford the luxury crude oil and refined products. RPPLESEARCIONS APPLICATIONS THE EFFECT OF ESTUARINE CIRCULATION ON POLLUTION DISPERSAL HUGO B. FISCHER University of California Berkeley, California ABSTRACT This paper gives a brief review of different types of circulation in estuaries, how they act to disperse pollutants, and to what extent the dispersion process can be modeled by existing analytical, numerical, and hydraulic models. INTRODUCTION TYPES OF CIRCULATION One important feature of estuaries is their ability The flushing of estuaries results from three influ- to assimilate wastes and transport them to the ocean. ences: the ebb and flood of the tide, the wind stress, It is possible, by adequate mixing with the receiving and the higher density of ocean water relative to water, to discharge a larger quantity of waste into river water. Some estuaries are influenced equally an estuary than into the rivers that feed it, while by the three factors, some by only one or two. still meeting a given receiving water standard, be- Which factors are important controls how the estu- cause in addition to the inflow of river water the ary flushes its pollutants, and, perhaps more impor- estuary contains a continuous circulation of water tantly, determines the effect of such projects as from the ocean to help with dilution. Pollution in dredging, harbor extension, and the like. This section an estuary, or more precisely the concentrations of describes five types of circulation. The first, gravita- undesirable materials, depends on two things: the tional circulation, results from the relative heaviness quantity and makeup of the waste discharges, and of ocean water; the second, third, and fourth are the rate of flushing. In general, the flushing rate three different mechanisms caused by the tide; and increases towards the ocean end. At the landward the fifth is circulations driven by wind. end the only flow available for flushing is that of upland rivers, but the closer one approaches the Gravitational Circulation ocean the more recirculated ocean water is available to increase the flushing rate and decrease the con- Gravitational circulation is so called because it centration of wastes. Temperature, also, is affected results from gravity pushing heavier ocean water by the flushing rate; except, close to the source landwards up the bottom of the estuary. Figure 1 discharges of warm or cold water are diluted in the is a simplified profile sketch of a purely gravitational same way as other wastes. circulation; in three dimensions the circulation is This paper discusses how flushing rates can be landward along the bottom of the deeper channels, quantified, predicted, and used as part of the process upward and transversely across the cross section, of specifying allowable waste loadings. First, in and returning seaward mixed with freshwater in section II, we discuss the various mechanisms which, the surface layers. This type of circulation has re- in concert, drive the circulation of ocean water. ceived a great deal of analytical, laboratory, and Section III describes a practical analysis for com- field study; Fischer (1976) discusses the results of approximately 20 previous reports. puting flushing rates, while section IV describes approximately 20 previous reports. Where there is little tide, as in the Gulf of Mexico, procedures that can be used in a more predictive there may be little mixing between the ocean and way, but are still in a state of research and develop- freshwater; the ocean intrudes as a wedge and the ment. Section V discusses both practical needs rele- freshwater rides over the ocean water. This situation vant to current legislation and longer-term research occurs frequently at the mouth of the Mississippi. needs. Similarly, in the Alaskan fjords the freshwater 477 478 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL --- - + - c River _ _ _____Fresh Water Ocean - __ Ocean FIGURE 1.-A typical pattern of gravitational circulation in FIGURE 2.-Outflow of a layer of fresh river water over a partially stratified east coast estuary. stagnant saline water; this flow pattern is typical of fjords. overrides the salt and reaches the ocean almost In 4a a cloud of pollutant is being carried landward without dilution (see Figure 2). In these cases the by a flooding tide. In 4b part of the cloud is detained dispersal of a pollutant depends crucially on whether in a side embayment, which is being filled by the it goes into the upper; freshwater, or the lower, flood. In 4c the water surface has begun to drop saline water. In fjords, the flushing time of the salt and the embayment is emptying back into the chan- water may be on the order of years, while'the fresh nel. Because of the hydrodynamics of tidal flows layer may traverse the fjord in a few days or at the current in the channel does not slack until after most weeks. It is particularly important that design high or low tide, with the result that shoreline procedures be used to make sure that pollutants are irregularities spread out a cloud of pollutant some- not trapped in the slowly circulating lower level;: what as shown in the figure. Conversely, along the east coast most estuaries are either partially or well mixed; the difference in The Shear Effect salinity between upper and lower layers in Chesa- peake Bay, for instance, is usually on order of 15 The shear effect is an additional spreading mecha- percent of the difference between ocean and fresh nism which takes place in any flow, tidal or not. It water. In these estuaries it does not matter so much results from the faster flow velocities found at the where the waste is discharged as turbulent mixing center and surface f the cross section, as compared will distribute the waste over the cross section. to the slower velocities near the bottom and shores. Turbulent mixing spreads a'pollutant across the Tidal Pumping cross section, and then-the difference in longitudinal velocities spreads the pollutant up and down the "Pumping" is a term used to describe circulations channel. In rivers this mechanism. is primarily re- induced by the ebb and flood of the tide. The tide sponsible for longitudinal dispersion, but in estuaries usually flows in more strongly in some channels the other mechanisms usually seem to be more and out more strongly in others as though a pump important. were pushing the water around. Sometimes sailors of small boats know more about these currents than Wind-driven Circulation do engineers, but they are very important in flush- ing pollutants. Pumped currents can be simulated The visible effects of wind are white caps and by numerical programs; for instance Figure 3, taken violent turbulence where waves break near shore. from a report by the California Department of Impressive as they may be, they usually have little Water Resources (Nelson and Lerseth, 1972), shows to do with pollutant dispersal, being limited in scale a computed pumped circulation in San Francisco and unable to accomplish long distance transport. Bay. Note, for instance, the circulatory current in Wind does play an important role in some estuaries, San Pablo Bay (between Valleio and San Rafael) however, because it can drive large scale horizontal having a predicted magnitude of approximately circulation. In a large open bay a constant wind 10,000 cfs. This is 'about fivd times the combined will push. water in the wind direction across shallows inflow of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. ' arnid at the surface, while a return flow will be found underneath in the deeper section. Figure 5 shows Chopping ' such a circulation around an island in a bay which is-deeper on one side of the island than on the other; "Chopping" is a term sometimes used'to describe the circulation goes with the wind on the shallow the detention of a pollutant by side embayments, side, and against it on the deeper side. This sort of shoals, and the like. This mechanism is also very circulation has the same effect as tidal pumping; it important in the spread of pollutants, because of is as though a large pump. is pushing the water the typical sequence of events shown in Figure 4. around and dispersing the pollutant. RFEsuAncH- APPLICATIONS 479 SAN RAFAEL0 SAUSALITO 0 DELTA OUTFLOW - 1800 CFS SAN LEANDRO SCALE * 15,000 CFS: 10,000 CFS REOWO D CITY 0 Arrowheads indicate direction of flow FIGURE B.-Circulation due to tidal "pumping" in San Francisco Bay. This circulation pattern was obtained by a computer program, and is taken from a report by Nelson and Lerseth to the California Water Resources Control Board. -480 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Each of the mechanisms described above exists to some extent in almost every estuary. In concert, the circulations result in a "flushing discharge" which can be used to compute pollutant concentra- tions. Each mechanism can be analyzed, but with varying degrees of accuracy and by different means. In section IV we discuss several analytical tech- niques and mention which is suitable for analyzing which mechanism. EFFECTS OF CIRCULATION- ON DISPERSAL- The combined 'effect of the various circulations -is to greatly increase the assimilative capacity of an estuary by providing an effective flow much greater than the flow of the rivers which feed the estuary. This effective flow is the flow relevant to pollutant concentration computations, and is the flow that should be used for regulatory purposes. In the saline portions of existent estuaries one can compute the :effective flushing discharge by a simple procedure. All one does is to measure the average salinity near an outfall; then, to a good approximation, the effec- tive discharge is computed by the formula Qd f S - (1) FIGURE 4.-An example of the "chopping" mechanism for where So is the ocean salinity, S the salinity near dispersing a pollutant. The side embayment acts as a stqring the outfall, and Q, is the inflow from upstream basin which fills and empties out of phase with the flow in the main channel. A portion of the cloud of pollutant is detained rivers. The concentration ofa pollutant discharged by the embayment and subsequently reinserted into' the in the vicinity of the outfall, is given by a mass- channel some distance from the rest of the cloud. balance computation using the effective discharge. C = Cl[Q/Qd] (2) Co and Q are the concentration and flow from the outfall, and Qd is the result obtained from equation (1) at the location of the outfall. ie"". >gp;TSE/ 0Concentrations upstream and downstream of the discharge point decrease from the peak near the discharge. A complete description of the analysis, ' t. />+tS for a non-conservative pollutant, was given more than 20 years ago by Stommel (1953). One impor- tant result is that moving an outfall nearer to the ocean does not decrease the concentrations of con- " WIND - INDUCED servative pollutants in the estuary seaward of the CIRCULATION outfall; it does, however; decrease the peak concen- tration and the concentrations landward of the *"-_.. CIRCULATI outfall. FIGURE 5.-An example of a circulation driven by a steady Stommel's analysis does have some serious limita- .wind. The effectis similar to that of tidal "pumping," although tions. First, it can only be used with an existing the cause is different. salinity distribution. It is of no use at -all to predict RESEARcH APPLICATIONS 481 changes in concentratibns because of construction projects. Second, the analysis assumes steady state; the pollutant inust be discharged at a constant rate, and the inflow from upstream rivers must be con- -, stant. Neither of these conditions is often seen in - : 'practice. Third, the analysis assumes complete and J- -, __ ..C..- e-t,- instantaneous mixing of the pollutant across the . ' " cross section, and a uniform salinity across the cross_ _ _ _ section. In practice, mixing within a cross section Id -- -- . may take considerable time; for instance, a recent dye experiment in a.section of the Dielaware- Estu- dry, wre ex erimentua i s of the Demila ware Es tu-d 1 FIGURE 6.-A sketch of the zones of mixing from an outfall ary, where the estuary is abo ut 1 mile wide, showed in an estuary. The direction of the drift changes with the that the cross sectional mixing time was approxi- changing tide, but during the tidal flow the pattern is as mately 10 days (see Fischer, 1974). If mixing is not shown. At slack tide there is a build-up of concentration near complete equation 2 gives a concentration that can the outfall. be much too low; higher concentrations will be found in the vicinity of the outfall. estuaries. Recently, attempts have been made to Concentrations near outfalls, and cross-sectional relate the longitudinal dispersion coefficient to the mixing times, may be predicted in several ways. salinity gradient in order to predict salinity intrusion Immediate diffusion of an effluent from a pipe may analytically (Thatcher and Harleman, 1972, and usually be analyzed as a problem of mixing of a Fisher, Ditmars, and Ippen, 1972). These efforts buoyant jet. This subject has been studied in con- remain in the research stage, however, and in general siderable detail, as described in a recent review it can be said that analytical models are not a de- paper by Koh and Brooks (1975). In the zone close pendable predictive tool unless based on empirical to the outfall where mixing is controlled by the observations of salinity distribution. method of discharge, it is a straightforward matter to predict the dilution within the jet. This zone is usually small, however, and there is a substantial mid-field zone in which the concentration disperses as a plume, and mixing is primarily due to the turbu- The past o years have seen considerable effort and progress in the development of numerical models lence in the receiving water. Figure 6 shows a sketchumerical models ofa plume diff g i se v l ml for marine pollution. Numerical models usually con- ox ae pluumme usngnan esaturnd the ertil ane sist of two parts; first, a model of the tidal hydro- horizontal'extents of the plume and the time re- dynamics, and secondly, a model of the transport quired for approximately complete mixing can be and reaction of pollutants carried by the tides. At predicted at least within an order of magnitude in .or e t rults le l the present time virtually all operative numerical models are two-dimensional. That is, the velocities prototype dye dilution studies are usually required. and transports are considered to be only in hori- and transports are considered to be only in hori- zontal directions along and across the estuary. The STATUS OF PREDICTIVE CAPABILITY hydrodynamic portion of the model predicts the vertically averaged velocity vector at various grid Analytical Models points within the estuary, and then the transport portion of the model simulates the motion of pollut- The use of analytical mbdels is generally limited ants which are carried by the computed velocities. to estuaries which are long and narrow and can be Some numerical models use a fixed rectangular considered to be one-dimensional. A basic assump- grid, while others use link and node arrangements tion of most analytical models is complete mixing or variable grid spacings so. that the grid spacing across the cross section, as in the empirical analysis can be adjusted to fit the requirements of different described in the previous section. The use of ana- parts of the estuary. lytical models is limited partly by their one-dimen- Numerical models are in current use to study pol- sionality, and partly by the need to assume some lution problems in a number of estuaries. The state value of a longitudinal dispersion coefficient, whose of the art can be shown by three recent examples. magnitude is difficult to predict. Analytical models Figure 7 is from a report of a study of pollution in are sometimes useful; for instance, O'Connor (1965) Boston Harbor by the firm of Hydroscience, Inc., gives analytical solutions for distribution of dissolved completed in July 1973. The study used the hydro- oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand in several dynamic model developed by Leendertse (1967) to 482 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL predict tidal velocities throughout the harbor. Pol- N lutant distributions were computed for a number of hypothetical releases of unit waste loads; the figure shows the distribution 12 hours after a unit release BOO HARBOR at the mouth of the Neponset River. The results of the modeling study were used to predict concentra- RAR:OF.3... II/h, tions of pollutants resulting from alternative water F I .1 quality management schemes. X , - D :2 The second example is from a study of the disper- sion capability of San Francisco Bay-Delta waters t a by the California Department of Water Resources. Figure 8 shows the computed distribution of pollut- V ant discharge. The methodology of this study Was somewhat different from that of Boston Harbor because of the much greater size of the bay. The north bay was modeled by a series of one-dimensional segments, and the south bay by a two-dimensional arrangement of segments. The scheme was prob- ably not as accurate as the Boston Harbor scheme, ., but the scheme used for Boston Harbor requires IVER much more computer storage and running time and to date has not been used in an estuary approaching "o"cH 'G . . ... the size of San Francisco Bay. The third example is from a study of the dispersion of wastes from a proposed industrial outfall in the Delaware River. Figure 9 taken from a paper by FIGURE 7.-A predicted distribution of pollutannt concbntra- Fischer (1974), shows predicted and observed dis- tion in Boston Harbor resulting from a two-hour discharge tributions of dye in the river 10 days after the at the mouth of the Neponset River. This figure is from a beginning of a continuous release. In this case most report of a study by Hydroscience, Inc., to the Massachusetts of the spreading was due to transverse mixing and Water Resources Commission. the shear effect; the numerical model used, as de- scribed in the report, was specifically designed to numerical models has received very little field veri- model these effects. fication. For instande, the distribution shown in Since numerical models are being used so widely, Figure 7 has not been verified in the bay itself. it is important to recognize that they will have Even the hydrodynamic models lack extensive field it is important to recognize that they will have limitations. The models seem to do a good job of verification, and their results must be viewed with computing the effects of tidal pumping and chop- caution. ping. Wind-driven circulations can be predicted, although our knowledge of the wind stress coeffidient Hydraulic Models is limited. Most numerical models do not model the shear effect very well, partly because the true mag- years to study such problems as sediment transport, nitude of the transverse mixing coefficient is not velocity distributions, and the effects of projects well known, and partly because the numerical proc- such as construction of barriers and the effects of projects such as construction of barriers and harbors. Re- esses tend to obscure the rate of diffusion in the cently, hydraulic models have also been used for model. The greatest limitation of numerical models, pollution studies. For instance, the San Francisco however, is their inability to account for stratifica- Bay-Delta model is being used to study the effects tion or gravitational circulation. At the present of the peripheral canal and a proposed ship canal time, numerical models of the effects of stratifica- of intrusion of salinity into the Delta Hydralic on intrusion of salinity into the Delta. Hydraulic tion are strongly empirical. In some cases two- models have also been used to study the distribution dimensional models which consider only a vertical of an effluent from an outfall, by arranging an injec- plane have been used, with some success, but in tion of a tracer into the physical model. Where a many estuaries, gravitational circulation and strati- model has already been built for other purposes, fication have important three-dimensional compo- use for a pollution study is relatively inexpensive. nents and no model is adequate. Finally, it should Hydraulic models, like numerical models, are be stressed that the transport portion of most capable of representing the effects of tidal pumping REsmARca APPLICATIONS 483 FAiRFIELD VALLEJO 60o SAN RAFAEL R ICHMON0 SAIL 10 S ERKELEY POLLUTANT CONCENTRATIONS IN ML/L FOR POLLUTANT DISCHARGE PATTERN "A" *OAKLAND NTDLAOTLW-10 F * TIDAL EXCHANGE RATIO.- 0.24 SA N FRANCISCO SAN LEATNDR REDW0OD C;TY ./ FiGmnE S.-A Predicted distribution of pollutant concentration in San Francisco Bay resulting from a stipulated set of inputs, taken from a report by-Nelson and Lerseth to the California Water Resources Control Board. 484 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL LWRE, , ';. :', A .' i' D An''.-'; CONCENTRT aO,, '. '" DELAWARE DERLI ARVE COMPUTED DYE DISTRIBUTIOND 100I 0 10RE 3000 9.W ------- ARMY diRPS MODEL RIVER COMPUTED DYE DISTRIBUTION FIGuRE 9.-Computed and observed distributions of dye FIGURE 10.-A comparison of the spread of dye in a physical released froni the site of a proposed industrial outfall in the model of San Francisco Bay and in the bay itself. The dye Delaware estuary. The dye simulates the spreading of the was released north of the San Mateo Bridge near the west proposed waste discharge, and the dye results can be used to shore. The dashed lines are concentrations observed in the compute expected concentrations of pollutants. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers model; the solid lines are con- centrations observed by the. State of. California Division of Water Resources in the bay (corrected for dye loss). Both and chopping, because they are adjusted to produce distributions are five tidal cycles after beginning of release the proper currents. Hydraulic models also repre- of the dye. sent the effects of stratification, although perhaps not exactly. Where three-dimensional circulations near field ormedium field concentrations from an and stratification are important a hydraulic model outfall even though the far-feld distribution may is probably as accurate a tool as any for predicting be reasonably correct. Hydraulic modelsare perhaps effects of circulation, even though there is dispute best used in a qualitative sense; various different over the accuracy of the results. Figure 10 shows arrangements of outfall locations or various different one comparison of dispersion of dye in an estuary designs for construction projects can be tried in the vs. dispersion of a similar release in a moddl. Un- model, and the results compared. Even though the fortunately, not many such comparisons exist be- results may not be quantitatively exact, compara- cause of the very large amount of dye required tive results will usually determine which design will in the prototype and the difficulty of making field produce the least degree of pollution. measurements. Hydraulic models do have one serious limitation. In order to conserve space and maintain turbulent SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS flow it is necessary that the model be distorted, so that the depth is relatively much greater than the Estuaries can assimilate more waste with less width. This means that near source distributions effect on the environment than can the rivers which are distorted, and that the turbulent mixing proc- feed them, because of the flushing current from the esses are not properly represented. Thus, hydraulic ocean. There is a simple procedure for estimating models sometimes will not properly represent the the flushing current, based on measurement of salin- RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 485 ity in the estuary. In many cases this procedure models, and further investigations of the limitations can be used with reasonable accuracy to predict the of numerical and hydraulic models. As part of the concentrations of wastes resulting from an industrial research there should be a vigorous program of spe- or municipal discharge. cific field testing of present and proposed models. In several types of cases this simple procedure This research will have the benefits of producing does not work: in estuaries of nearly constant salin- more generally applicable and dependable models ity or very wide estuaries and bays; in fjords or plus the desirable byproduct of increasing the pool strongly stratified estuaries; or where the shape of of persons qualified to use the models. the estuary is to be changed by major construction. In these cases some form of hydraulic or numerical modeling is needed to predict the effects of waste discharges. Modeling, however, requires an under- Fischer, Hugo B. 1974. Numerical modeling of dispersion in standing of the type of circulation to be expected in estuaries. International Symposium on Discharge of Sewage the estuary and an understanding of the limitations from Sea Outfalls, London, Paper No. 37: 1-8. of the types of models available. Modeling is not an Fischer, Hugo B. 1976. Mixing and dispersion in estuaries. art for the semi-skilled; there is no one model suitable Annual:Review of Fluid Mechanics, 8: 107-134. for use in all estuaries, and at present a relatively small number of individuals have the training and Fisher, John S., John D. Ditmars and Arthur T. Ippen. 1972. experience required to do useful modeling studies. Mathematical simulation of tidal time-averages of salinity and velocity profiles in estuaries. MIT, Department of These considerations lead to the following recom- Civil Engineering, Report No. 151. mendati ons: Koh, R. C. Y. and N. H. Brooks. 1975. Fluid mechanics of wastewater disposal in the ocean. Annual Review of Fluid 1. It should be understood that modeling is an art Mechanics, 8, in press. for extremely qualified experts and that sophisticated inumerical models are not a necessary part of every Leendertse, J. J. 1967. Aspects of a computational model for water quality plan. Models should be used only long-period water-wave propagation. Memorandum RM- where they are really needed, and then only by 5294-PR, The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif. persons with extensive familiarity with the model persons with extensive familiarity with the model Neison, A. W. and R. J. Lerseth. 1972. A study of dispersion and its limitations. Use of the wrong model can be of capability of San Francisco Bay-Delta waters. California worse than use of no model at all. Department of Water Resources Report to the State Water 2. There should be alnational listing and classifica-2-23. tion of estuaries to determine in -which portions of O'Connor, D. J. 1965. Estuarine distribution of non conserva- which estuaries the simple procedure for estimating tive substances. J. San Eng. Div. ASCE 91, SA. flushing currents is suitable, and in which it is not. Such a listing would be of great use to EPA in Stommel, H. 1953. Computation of pollution in a vertically setting standards and proposing rules, as the Agency mixed estuary. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 25: 1065- could then specify the use of the simple method 1071. where allowed by the listing, and. require other Thatcher, Llewellyn, M. 1972. A mathematical model for methods where the simple method is not allowed. the prediction of unsteady salinity intrusion in estuaries. 3. Continued research, development, and training MIT, Department of Civil Engineering, Report No. 144. in the use.of models is essential. This research should Hydroscience, Inc. 1973. Development of hydrodynamic and include more complete verification' of the accuracy time variable water quality models of Boston Harbor. of present models, further development of numerical Report t6 the Massachusetts Water Resources Commission. fI . ·.i THE CRUCIAL ROLE OF SYSTEMATICS IN ASSESSING POLLUTION EFFECTS ON THE BIOLOGICAL UTILIZATION OF ESTUARIES MELBOURNE R. CARRIKER U niversity of Delaware Lewes, Delaware ABSTRACT The data of systematics form the essential foundation for pollutional biology. Living targets of pollution must be identified precisely; imprecision nullifies results and renders them non- replicable. Most estuarine and coastal marine plant and animal groups are poorly known sys- tematically. Major bottlenecks in the application of systematics to the problems of environ- mental pollution result from the critical shortage of experienced systematic specialists and tech- nicians, as well as lack of inventories of specialists, identification publications, and identification services. Although water quality legislation implies the need for identification of organisms involved in analyses of the biological impacts of pollutants, there has been no conspicuous financial support for systematic work. Because basic and applied environmental research and its applica- tion to the practical problems of pollution have grown far more rapidly than the supporting base of systematic biology, it is imperative that existing human and material systematic re- sources be conserved, and their further development be encouraged. Specific recommendations are offered to maximize the service role of biological systematics in the identification and assess- ment of the effects of pollution on the biological utilization of estuaries and coastal waters in the United States. INTRODUCTION species; and impairment or destruction of the quali- ties fundamental to the health of the biosphere and In the course of teperthaps bfour billion years the welfare of humans. The critical role of a wide surface of the earth has become populated by an diversity of organisms in promoting the health of estimated 10 million kinds of recent organisms, the estuary is indisputably clear. We reaffirm with ordered in self-sustaining, self-regulating, ecological Woodwell (1974) that humanity lives as one species systems. About one million species of animals and within a biosphere whose essential qualities are a half million species of plants have been described, determined by other species and that we must give and an estimated additional half billion species are careful thought to these relationships. There is extinct in fossil strata (Mayr, 1969). Evolution tends urgent need, accordingly, to examine in some depth to sustain these living systems, accumulating cor- the functions of systematics in the identification plex arrays of organisms that stabilize the environ- and assessment of the effects of pollution on the ment, and conserve and reuse resources to support biological utilization of estuaries. This will be done the maximum amount of life; whereas disturbance in this paper. causes a systematic alteration of biotic structure (Woodwell, 1969, 1974). Estuaries, biologically complex, delicately balanced, coastal transitional What is Systematics? zones where seawater is measurably diluted by land drainage are integral parts of the biosphere. If not Systematics may be defined as the scientific study perturbed, they likewise tend to be stable, self- of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of the sustaining, self-regulating, biologically productive relationships among them (Simpson, 1961). Al- systems (Carriker, 1967). though the term taxonomy is often used for the But human tenants on the shores of estuarine theory and practice of identifying and classifying ecotones, through heedless technological activities organisms, systematics and taxonomy are often and massive discharge of deleterious residues, con- loosely treated as synonymous (Davis and Heywood, tinue severely to disturb these coastal zones (Ket- 1965); this will be the practice in this paper. chum, 1972). The consequences are eradication of Systematic biology provides scientific names for habitats; reduction, alteration, and extinction of organisms, describes them, preserves collections of 487 488 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL them, provides classifications for them, keys for pounds. The increasing refinement and quantifica- their identification, and data on their distributions; tion of biological investigation requires comparable it investigates their evolutionary histories, and con- exactness in the identification of organisms used in siders their environmental adaptations (Michener, both basic and applied research. Imprecision in 1970). Systematists now study organisms in all identification neutralizes research rigor! If identi- stages of their life cycles, disclosing unexpected fications are in error, published work becomes non- structural details by the use of scanning electron replicable, and thus unscientific. In view of this microscopy, analyzing behavioral patterns and significance, we examine next the utilitarian aspects chromosomal configurations, and comparing the of systematics in estuarine and coastal marine work. sequences of amino acids in protein and nucleic acid molecules. BIOLOGICAL CENSUSES AND Systematic biology is perhaps the oldest of the BIOLOGICAL CENSUSES AND ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMfENT sciences, and is closely allied -and complementary to ecology. Systematics is one of the fundamental Because differences in species reflect differences in perspectives in biology, integrating such disciplines structure, function, and requirement of organisms, as ecology and behavior with functional morphology, comparasie psologyn be .iorwist gen'tioanal mthe first step in any biological study should be identi- comparative physiology, biochemistry, genetics, and fication of the organisms under investigation (Allen, 1974; Carriker, 1967; Steere, 1971). Hedgpeth (1957) cogently summarized the argument with Why Identification? reference to ecology: "... an ecological investiga- tion is essentially a study of organisms in situ ... The data of systematics form the essential founda- The primary data of any ecological investigation, tion of all other biological disciplines, especially of therefore, are the species of organisms concerned . . . such interactive sciences as marine biology, biologi- The first procedure in an ecological investigation is, cal oceanography, estuarine ecology, and pollutional or should be, essentially an exercise in systematics, biology. Wilson (1971) rightly points out that most the identification of species, and understanding, of the central problems of ecology can be solved only inter alia, the relation of these species to other groups by reference to details of organic diversity, and that in both the evolutionary and physiological senses." even the most cursory ecosystemic analyses have to The significance of specific names to ecologists may be based on a sound systematic treatment of the be illustrated by this excerpt from a letter received organisms considered. Pollutional ecology is no by' Schmitt (1953): '"I have all of my' voluminous exception. field notes ready and only await the names of the The basic functional unit in biology is the organ- specimens which I sent you a long time ago. Have ism. Similar organisms are grouped by systematists you had a chance to go over them? I have the names in a species and given a scientific name, a symbol for of most, but there are still many left and I can pub- the recognition of the taxon. Historically, precise and lish nothing until I get them." Elton (1927) con- complete identification of organisms has not been cludes that one of the biggest tasks confronting available for many species, and has commonly been anyone engaged in ecological surveys, owing to the inaccurate for others. It is crucially important that lag of the systematic study of some of them, is that the biologist know the precise identity of the or- of getting all groups identified to the species. A ganisms he studies-even more so now in view of the popular method of studying pbytoplankton in the growing universal emphasis on estuarine and coastal sea, which has purportedly obviated the need for marine environmental work. specific identifications, employs continuous plankton The, identity of microbes, plants, and animals is recorders and chlorophyll extraction. Recent re- as significant to the microbiologist, botanist, and search in mariculture, however, has demonstrated zoologist, respectively, as proper identification of the nutritional role of some species of phytoplankton, elements, molecules, and compounds is to the chem-. and the nuisance value of others (Epifanio and ist. Or stated in another way, the systematics of the Mootz, 1974), evidence that number of individuals whole organism is no less significant than that of the and identification of chlorophyll are insufficient to molecules of which it is made (Hedgpeth, 1961). identify the value of species. Higgins (1974) notes that we have to learn to iden- The magnitude of the task of conducting sound tify the living targets of pollution with the same biological censuses in order to obtain a reasonable analytical competence as the chemist identifies the picture of biological conditions even in a limited, elements, and to identify community structure in the geographic area is difficult to comprehend in terms same way the analytical chemist deals with his com- of people, time, and money. Nonetheless, in this RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 489 decade "before and after" surveys have become 47 taxonomists collaborated in the identifications. routine operations at sites of power plants and other The field work consumed some five years, and six technological enterprises. Various commercial groups 'more years were required for final sorting, distribu- have sprung up about the country to conduct the tion of specimens to specialists, return bf the reports, work. Unfortunately, some of this work tends to be computer analyses, and preparation of final reports. superficial and lacks taxonomic credibility. To illus- The local work at the laboratory involved eight trate the magnitude of the job of conducting different senior people and approximately 40 to 50 thorough, systematically sound, biological censuses, full and part-time sorters at different times over the I will summarize three. These range in emphasis 11-year period of the project. In all, a total of 237 from basic to applied. families, 485 genera, and 782 species has been identi- fied (Michael, 1975; O'Connor, 1975). Open ocean.-The first was a fundamental study of the biota on a course some 5,880 miles long west of Connecticut River.-The third census is a pre- and Mexico, Ecuador, and Costa Rica, and in the Carib- post-operative long-term study at the site of the bean (Schmitt, 1939, 1953). In 24 days at sea, Connecticut Yankee Atomic, Power Company nu- Schmitt and associates collected some 11,000 biologi- clear generating station at Haddam Neck in the cal specimens at 14 stations. Preliminary sorting tidal region of the Connecticut River. The survey was done as birds and fishes were frozen and in- was designed to examine possible changes in the vertebrates and plants were chemically preserved, physical, chemical, and biological features along a Further sorting by two experienced biologists at the 5-mile stretch of the river in the vicinity of the plant Smithsonian Institution, so that the material could after appearance of the warm water plume. The be distributed to specialists for identification and study was begun in 1965 and will be completed this classification, required about two weeks. Shipping year (1975), 10 years later. When the plant began to out-of-town taxonomists, and their acceptance commercial operation in 1968, it was one of the and reporting extended over 35 months. Specimens largest nuclear plants in the world. A staff of 10 to went to nine different divisions in the Smithsonian 12, based at the Essex Marine Laboratory, on the and to 21 specialists in four foreign countries and the Connecticut River, conducted the study (Merriman, United States. Three years after distribution of 1973, 1974). In the course of the study, some 20 specimens began, most of the reports from specialists systematists assisted with identifications. A total were in hand, and by the end of another year most of approximately 6,500 biological samples were of the reports were in print. In summary, 26 active collected, including about 150 species of bacteria, taxonomists were involved over a 3-year period; the plants, invertebrates, and finfish. The final report, 19 systematic papers published as of 1953 covered a to be published as a single volume, will contain collection of 191 families, 330 genera, and 469 species approximately 200 printed pages. of animals, and 41 families, 70 genera, and 87 species of plants! i The question may arise as to whether such long- term, time-consuming, expensive censuses are neces- Cape Cod Bay.-The second is a qiantitative sary. 'Regrettably, obvious substitutes to this ap- biotic census undertaken in'1'964 in Cape Cod Bay, proach are not currently available; no better barotn- Mass., by the Systematics-Ecology Program, Marine eters of the biological impact of perturbations exist Biological Laboratory (Young et al., 1971). The aim than organisms themselves, and there is yet no other of the census was to provide a synthesis of informa- way to obtain baseline information prior to the tion on the kinds, abundance, distribution, and impact of perturbations. Identified organisms and diversity of benthic estuarine'invertebrates retained general information about them (that is, systematics on a 1 mm mesh screen, in relation to particle size collections) still constitute the fundamental resource and organic content of the sediments, depth, temper- for basic evidence and assessment of what has oc- ature, and salinity in an as yet relatively undisturbed curred, what is occurring, and what can be expected embayment. The bay was divided' into 300 one-mile to occur in the environment (Allen, 1974). square grids, and alternate quadrats, about 100 of them, were sampled with four different types of gear. STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL Samples were washed and preserved- on-board the research vessel, and hand sorted' and identified at ' Accurate identification is the key which unlocks least to the family level in the laboratory' prior to the'storage and retrieval system of scientific informa- being distributed to systematic specialists.'A total of tion. All knowledge published on organisms is cata- 490 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL logued and stored in the world scientific literature recognize the organisms with which he worked." As under the scientific name of the species, or where the a safeguard against repetition of error, it has become systematics is incompletely known, under the names increasingly necessary that an identified sampling of higher taxa in the classification. If nothing has of species (voucher specimens) mentioned in publica- been reported on a newly described and named tions be deposited in permanent accessible museums species, its identification permits accumulation of or herbaria so that scientists can check the accuracy information for future use. Accurate retrieval of of identifications in the literature, and consequently information, consequently, can only be as reliable as the reliability of the publication (Allen, 1974). precision of identification and classification. Names make information accessible on such aspects of YARDSTICKS organismic biology as geographic distribution, ecological relationships, life cycles, behavior, com. parative phy siology, host-parasite relationships, lifecThrough accurate scientific names and preserved parative physiology, host-parasite relationships, biological specimens, species collected at different predators, disease organisms, biological and chemical times can serve as a yardstick for determining changes times can serve as a yardstick for determining changes contro ls, and response and tolerance to adverse which may have, or will, take place. Thus, over a long period of time, systematics collections can play a part in revealing the rate at which evolutionary PREDICTIVE ATTRIBUTES changes occur. -For baseline information IDOE (1972) recommends storage of uncontaminated Michener (1970) indicates that placement of a representative samples of plankton, fish, marine species which has been inadequately studied in a plants, and so on, in a museum specially designed for genus and family makes possible prediction of some preservation of environmental voucher specimens of its biological attributes. Although this may be a (organisms, water, sediment, and air particles) where helpful practice under some circumstances, there are subsequently they may be used as indicators of nor- so many exceptions that it is not recommended for mal levels of pollutants. the non-specialist. There is serious danger that Some species of living organisms, more sensitive to unfamiliar with species, he may apply the rule of environmental deteriorational stress than others, thumb and draw false conclusions (Burbauck, 1975). provide warning signals of pollution by physiological Allen (1974) notes that in current extensive testing or behavioral responses; while other species, less programs for determining tolerance levels of species affected by environmental change, respond to the exposed to pollutants, species that are similar in ap- changes by unusual increases in abundance (Olson pearance do not always respond similarly physiolog- and Burgess, 1967). Shuster (1974) suggests that by ically. Such considerations underscore the im- identifying the species most sensitive to pollution, portance of precise identification at all levels of workers might recognize the impacts of pollution biological work. long before it affects common, generally less sensi- tive, species. Thus recognition of a "sick" ecosystem might not require a species-by-species accounting. ELIMINATION OF DUPLICATION The stickler here is the problem of recognition of species sensitive to specific pollutants, to what degree Needless duplication of biological research-which such species could serve as accurate barometers for is becoming increasingly costly and time consum- the health of an entire ecosystem, and whether they ing-can be avoided by a careful check of the world have been insensitized to the pollutant through prior scientific literature. It is not uncommon for research exposure. Rare species, possibly because they may to be repeated unnecessarily because the investigator live closer to the limits of critical environmental did not consult the literature with sufficient thor- factors than common species, may make more sensi- oughness, or because identification of his organism (s) tive indicators than common species. Burbanck was in error. Libraries, unfortunately, store too (1975) suggests that we place more emphasis on non- many examples of the results of very expensive re- commercial organisms as indicators. Since they have search which have been discredited because of faulty no economic value and are thus less disturbed by hu- identification of species (Allen, 1974; Clausen, 1942; man collecting devices, they might constitute more Sabrosky, 1955). Stunkard (in Schmitt, 1953) suc- sensitive indicators than species periodically buffeted cinctly summarized the problem: "Much of the by collectors. He also believes that true estuarine fumbling and stumbling in biological work can be species might be more sensitive than marine species traced directly to the failure of the investigator to which move in and out of estuaries. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 491 BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS (1949) was one of the first to stress this in the evalu- ation of the kind and duration of stream pollution. Accurate identification will also become critical as Her research demonstrated that there is no satis- the use of pesticides is replaced by specific control factory shortcut which avoids identification of organisms. These species are often difficult to dis- species involved. Tarzwell (1974) in the course of tinguish from closely related and nearly identical some 40 years of investigating pollutional zones of forms that feed on different hosts. To date little has streams in various parts of the country, discovered been done to control estuarine and coastal marine that what may be considered sensitive or resistant pests by other organisms. species in one stream may not necessarily be so in another stream; in a different region these sensitive or resistant species may be replaced by closely re- INDUSTRY, FISHERIES, AND CONSERVATION lated species. He also found that characterization of population changes in streams over time as waste is The following striking examples were cited by introduced can be made only by specific identifica- Schmitt (1953, 1954) of the value, often with sub- tion of organisms. Pawson (1974), furthermore, stantial monetary return, of identification in these stressed that to understand interactions between fields. organisms and pollutants, one must be quite sure 1) Marine bivalves penetrated the outer casing of that the organism in question represents one species, a power cable lying on the bottom of the bay between and not a group of several species. Palm Beach and West Palm Beach, Fla., in the Systematic studies are also essential in establishing 1940's, causing a series of serious blowouts. Adult the quantitative characteristics of estuarine com- burrowing bivalves were identified as a new species munities before real or possible pollution occurs; incapable of escaping from their burrows. The prob- otherwise, effects of pollution may not be detectable lemr was easily solved by burying the cable beneath (M. Abbott, 1974). Tarzwell (1974) noted that it is the bottom of the bay where the molluscs suffocated. both the qualitative and quantitative composition of 2) A specialist on the systematics of benthic the biota of streams which indicate the severity of sipunculid worms was asked in 1953 for copies of his pollution and the distribution of pollutional zones. technical publications by an Alaskan cod fisherman To control pollution, therefore, we must know the who had found that where these worms occur he organisms affected and be able to recognize introduc- made good hauls of fish, The fisherman wanted to tion and extinction of species (Turner, 1974). The plot the distribution of the worms in order to en- need and value of accurate identification in pollution- hancehis fishery and extend his operation. al biology are also emphasized by Pimentel (1971) 3) In 1954 a sport fisherman took a specimen of a in a publication for the Office of Science and Tech- mantis shrimp to a national museum. He sought in- nology on the ecological effects of pesticides on non- formation on its mode of life, distribution, and target species, and by Battelle (1971) in a report for abundance. A systematist, after identifying the the United States Environmental Protection Agency specimen, learned from the literature that the stoma- on the effects of chemicals on aquatic life. Un- topod is the favorite food of certain panfish taken by fortunately, misclassification of Balanus sp. under fishermen in the Chesapeake Bay-and thus the the phylum Mollusca in the latter work tarnished sport fisherman's interest in the species. the credibility of the systematic emphasis. 4) In the Carolinas shad enjoy legal protection. Some workers recommend the use of diversity In order to catch violators and enforce the conserva- indexes for detection of the effects of pollution on tion laws, state conservation agents must be able the community as a whole. A species diversity index, to distinguish between four or five species of fish, all however, being only a single parameter of a complex superficially more or less alike. system, has merit only if cautiously interpreted (Hedgpeth, 1973), and provided, as should be the practice, that species are carefully identified. This is INHOW DOES SYTIFICAIN AD not always the case. Some investigators identify and IN IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL.OF POLLUTION? count microorganisms only to suborder and family, and employ these taxa for calculation of the indexes Pollutional biology is a subdivision of ecology,and (Allen, 1974). We must emphasize that proper serious ecologists recognize that their work must be systematic skills and familiarity with species-differ- based on sound specific identification of the organ- entiating traits are necessary to construct accurate isms they are interpreting (Humes, 1974). Patrick indexes (Williams, -1974). In spite of the general 492 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL value of indexes; however, individual species cannot change which can be brought about by man, re- be overlooked: changes in their abundance may oc- sulting in decimation of entire species, is loss of cur which are not detectable by the index alone genetic information through pollution-induced en- (Watling, 1974). To be properly used, species vironmental change. Processes leading to extinction diversity should also include the complexities of life of large animals and plants are no longer likely to go cycles and trophic levels (Burbanck, 1975). unnoticed even if they cannot be interrupted. In There is a tendency among some workers, when certain cases predictions of immediate consequences, dealing with groups of organisms which are difficult such as Cousteau's recognition of potential change or not well known taxonomically, to carry identifica- in the oceans should filter feeding whales be elimin- tions only to familial or genetic levels. Turner (1974) ated, are recognized. However, dearth of information argues with reason that this is simply not enough! on small estuarine metazoan organisms, like nema- By taking her identifications to the specific taxon, todes, prevents any reasonable capacity for predicting she was able recently to recognize introducton of the consequences of pollution to the environment tropical species of the wood boring bivalves, Tere- in the context of these small invertebrates. Although dinidae, into the warm water discharge canal of a levels of pollution are probably most effectively nuclear generating station in New-Jersey. Had she measured by physical and chemical techniques, im- identified the borers only to genus, she would have pact of pollution is best measured in life systems, missed the tropical introductions altogether, and and thus the requirement to recognize the total this critical aspect of the impact of the power plant dependence of pollutional ecology-no, all ecology- on its local estuarine environment would have gone upon the sophistication and thoroughness of its unnoticed. foundation in systematics! The consequences of Systematics can be used to considerable advantage pollution to the earth and to man are of such magni- in assessing the effects of changing environmental tude that a compelling case is readily made for the conditions by recognition and study of variations in study of a broad spectrum of micro-, meta-, and the morphology of organisms. The method has been macroorganisms in assessing any influence of pol- little explored and merits much more attention. lutants. However, such undertakings remain so Estuarine species may be more plastic than oceanic primitive and inadequately supported that a major forms, and may thus reflect the effects of pollution research effort, to be measured in decades, is still more readily (Watling, 1974); Rasmussen's (1973) required to determine the full extent to which sys- documentation of the variability of the genus Gam- tematic knowledge, especially of small organisms, can marus in his study of the Isefjord fauna is a good significantly aid in the identification and control of example of morphological plasticity. Remane and pollution (Murphy, 1974). Schlieper (1971) recorded other examples. What is said by Murphy about small metazoans Success in reducing or eliminating low levels of in the identification and control of pollution, applies harmful pollutants, recognized only with- difficulty to an even more critical degree to such ubiquitous, by chemical means, is determinable biologically and abundant, estuarine microorganisms as fungi, yeasts, with reliability by the responses of the organisms bacteria, viruses, and so forth. Bacteria, for example, affected. Some pollutants may exert their effects in are more important than most of us realize in pol- very minute amounts over long periods of time. lutant transfer, biological degradation, carbon as- Exposure to sublethal concentrations of detergent, similation, and possibly in the control of soluble copper, and zinc, for example, caused fatal anatomi- concentrations of elements (Alexander, 1973). cal abnormalities in the second generation of the Viruses, minute, highly mutable agents, are common polychaete Capitella capitata (Reish et al., 1974).. in estuaries, move in the ground water, and inhabit Other pollutants may be progressively concentrated water reuse systems, but lack of information on in food chains, and still others may interact synergis- their behavior in these systems has impeded develop- tically. The latter may result in insidious alteration ment of the reuse of water. Cooke (1969) is pessimis- of aquatic environments, especially of estuaries tic about the emergence of general descriptions of the (Odum, 1970). Yet additional organisms, preadapted remarkably complex behavior of natural populations to survive or thrive in certain polluted environments of microorganisms in native waters, and notes that that are noxious to most other organisms, become research on the role of microorganisms in pollutional indicators of that pollution (Olson and Burgess, biology must include study of specific chemical 1967). Systematic knowledge of "normal" biotic compounds and measurement of their degradation structures provides the base for comparison with products. I would recommend, in addition, that that of poisoned communities. - the research must include intensive systematic One of the potentially most damaging categories of investigations (a) to provide the essential scaffolding RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 493 upon which to hang the results of the pollutional A decrease in knowledge and services of system- research and (b) to aid in its interpretation. atics would unquestionably mean that causes and effects of pollution would remain unknown or con- ,Summary.-Fieid systematics aids in the identi'- fused (Wigley, 1974). Pollutional researchers would fication of the kinds, distribution, severity, and dura- find themselves i the same situation faced by many tion of pollution at individual, populational, com- physiologists who a few years ago based researches munity, and ecosystemic levels. It does so by re- and conclusions .on improperly identified organisms vealing (a) changes in the proportion of abundance (Humes, 1974). Under these circumstances possibil- of individuals, (b) alteration in the composition of ities for duplication of experimental work or for species (by elimination of some and introduction of making comparisons of seemingly similar situations others and changes in ecological succession), (to) would be slender indeed, and in fact, any compari- modifications in morphology, physiology; ecology sons wouldbeautomaticallyinvalid (Pawson, 1974). behavior, and development at individual and pbpu- If one remains unsure of the organisms he is dealing lational levels, and (d) emergence of hardy indicator with, results of investigations based on them will likewise be questionable and uninterpretable. In species which survive or even thrive in the altered q . In environment. Systematics also aids in identifying this regard, closely related species, particularly laboratory experimental organisms for study o&if the: sympatric species, must be very carefully identified. Should Systematics not be supported, Turner biological effects of pollutants on them, and their (1974) envisions a decreasing number of system- responses to the pollutants. Systematics contributes to control of pollution in atists, and chaos when scientists report experimental the sense that populations and physio-ecological results on incorrectly identified organisms. Higgins systems, which themselves function in reducing or (1974) stresses that no cause and effect analyses of rendering innocuous the effects of pollutants, 'can any ecosystem can occur without precise identifica- be recognin ed and augmented. Such species systems tion of both the biotic and abiotic components, and are abundant, especially in the microbiological realm because of its extraordinary complexity, this applies where they serve as shock absorbers in buffering the to the estuar ys effects of chemical perturbations. (1974) concern, if systematics continues at. its pres- ent low level of support, is that international, na- tional, and local policy directed at pollutional control, Beneficial Effects and purportedly based on ecological considerations, of Increase in Systematic will continue to be pursued with a totally inade- Knowledge and Services quate database. An increase in knowledge and services in systema - tics will accelerate the'rate, and make possible WHAT HUMAN ESTUARINE ACTIVITIES expansion, of systematics-dependent environmental REQU'IRE IDENTIFICATION SERVICES? investigations currently in progress. It will also open to investigation problems not now undertaken be- Allt6wiing the world- ecosystem to function in a cause of the difficulty or impossibility of'obtaining viable, healthy way is a responsibility as well as an needed identifications. Questions are not now being awesome challenge to man. The responsibility can asked on the identification and control of pollution, be met, in part; bymnaintaining a high level of biolog- or go unanswered or are delayed, because of in- ical diversity which is commensurate with biotic adequacy of identification services and facilities; stability and insures against the onslaughts of cli- answers to these questions would probably materially mate and disease' (Steere, 1971)-. But a pervading enhance biological assessment of the impacts of thrust,: intrinsic in mnani's recreational, fishing, tech- pollution, and thus of pollution'control (Michenei, nological, and control activities is making the task 1970). The interstitial fauna, for example, are poorly of preserving diversity increasingly difficult. No- known (Hulings and Gray, 1971), yet intertidal where' on''the globe is this thrust more stridently beaches and tidal marshes in estuaries are the first evident than along coasts and estuaries. Organisms, zones to be attacked by floating pollutants. Coimpre- including much of the human population, find them- hensive knowledge of these' fauna might reveal selves unwillingly embroiled, often helpless victims, improved ways of determining the impact of, the of biotic instability in increasingly ravaged environ- various fractions of these pollutants. Adequate ments. knowledge of interstitial organisms, most of which Since kinds of species and numbers of individuals are minute and many are abundant, would: make are ingredients of diversity, it is necessary that available large numbers of them for the assessments. periodic biotic assessment of the impact of man's 494 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table L.-Human estuarine activities requiring identification and classification species, including representatives of 15 new families, of organisms in 10 years (Mayr, 1969)! Activity Organisms In time, with improved systematic resources and support, identification of most species should be Recreation Species harmful or potentially harmful in recreational required. Why? The answer is implicit in observations activity which takes people into the water, or in the paraphrased from Woodwell (1974): If qualities of course of which there is danger of falling i nto that are essential for certain types water; example, sea nettles. the environment that are essential for certain types water; example, sea nettles. of life are changed, the structure of natural systems Sports and commercial Species taken commonly such as finfish, as well as of change fishing species which could be taken but because of custom are not, such as squid and conchs; potentially poi- populations can respond most rapidly to the changes. sonous species, as shellfish causing paralytic poisoning These species are mostly small bodied, rapidly re- in man. producing forms that can exploit altered conditions. Artificial structures Species influenced by, affecting, or associated with Such modified conditions increase the frequency of manmade bulkheading, piling, wharfs, anchors, buoys, island structures, barnacles. rapidly reproducing pest and weed species. When chronic disturbance of any kind changes the struc- Construction and operation Species associated with, influenced by, or affecting cool- of power plants ing waters, thermal plumes, cooling towers, radioac- ture of natural ecosystms, populations of hardy tive discharge, and plant conduits through which water resistant organisms characteristic of impoverished passes; attached algae. sites increase, food chains are shortened, and the Exploration and develop- Species associated with, influenced by, or affecting capacity for support of all life is reduced. ment for oil and gas exploration, rigs, towers, pipe lines, etc.; spills and Until more adequate systematic services and discharges; fouling organisms of all kinds. financial support are available-but as a short term Extraction of minerals Species influenced by, affecting or neutrally associated expedient only-precise identification in applied with mining of sand, gravel, metals, and other mineral resources (less gas and oil); surf clams. work could include appropriate representatives in Sediments: dredging and Species influenced by, affecting, or associated with at least the functional categories of estuarine and filling sedimentation and erosion resulting from this ac- coastal organisms listed in Table 2. Which species of tivity; tube worms, oysters. plants and animals should be emphasized would Placement of wastes Species influenced by, affecting, or associated with the depend on the mission of each investigation. The dumping of liquids and solids, or involved in effluent unsolved problem in this approach is the serious sinks; mussels, difficulty of defining what constitute representative Biological control Species used in control as well as those affected directly organisms ! or indirectly by biological control; none yet employed On the surface it might seem that the systematics of estuarine species might be less complex than that Chemical control All target and associated non-target species in the area of marine groups because their number is proportion- of pesticide spraying; intertidal oysters and mussels. ately less. Potentially, however, the problem is as, Ecological surveys Basic surveys; wherever possible all species sampled; r more, complex, because the estuarine systematist (pollutional) applied surveys: as representative identification as possible (the problem: don't always know what species has to be prepared to deal with, not only marine spe- are representative of communities). cies which normally move in and out of estuaries, Impact statements All species known, or postulated to be involved, in but those which may extend their ranges, be intro- anticipated activity. duced by storms, coastal birds, or human activities, or float down rivers and streams during stormy periods. activities be made. A brief catalogue, suggestive of those activities in which estuarine organisms require Why Not Ignore systematic identification, is presented in Table 1. Undescribed Organisms? What Organisms Is it necessary in both basic and applied biological Should Be Identified? work to consider those organisms which man has not yet named and described, and which, therefore, are Only a few non-taxonomists appreciate how poorly unavailable for consideration until taxonomically most plant and animal groups are known taxonomi- treated? eally. A striking illustration of this was presented Some (Ehrlich, 1961; Raven et al., 1971; Sokal, by Remane's work on the microscopic marine fauna 1970) would argue (a) that we should restrict identi- of the Kieler Bucht, an area previously considered fication and classification to those organisms which to be well known. By thorough search and with the are of actual or potential value, and (b) that to in- application of new methods, Remane found 300 new sist that it is necessary to name every living organ- RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 495 Table 2.-Functional groups of estuarine and coastal organisms which should timber, fiber, pulp, medicine, ground cover, and so be considered for identification in the assessment of the impact of pollution. on. (Keck, 1959). For example, (a) the sperm whale -Groups Eumplos is nearing extinction with loss of its natural product, sperm oil, but botanists discovered that an obscure Commercial and sports organ- Phytoplankton, seaweeds, sponges, corals, bivalves, desert plant called jojoba produces a liquid wax isms: used and potentially gastropods, cephalopods, polychetes, decapod which may function as a substitute; (b) a little- useful crustaceans, fin fishes, sea turtles, porpoises, known beetle produces a medically important drug, dolphins, whales (see Shapiro, 1971). cortisone, in amounts equivalent to the adrenal Organisms associated with com- Competitors, mutualists, commensals, predators, glands of 1,300 cattle and (c) prostaglandins im- mercial and sports organisms and food organisms (see Henry, 1966); disease and parasitic organisms: viruses, bacteria, fungi, portant hormones available in very limited natural sporozoans, ciliates, trematodes, cestodes, nema- supply, occur in quantity in a soft gorgonian coral in tods opepods, isopods, gastropods(see Sider- the West Indies (Evans, 1973). Furthermore, we do not know whether certain organisms are essential to Organisms poisonous or poten- Animals that bite or sting: sharks, sting rays, manta, tially poisonous or harmful to barracuda, moray eels, cat fishes, scorpion fishes, the contiued functioning of the ecological processes humans as food, in swimming, toad fishes, sea bass, sea lions, killer whales, on which our continued tenure on the planet or in other recreation tridacna clams, sea nettles, cone gastropods, depends (Fosberg, 1972)-and we dare not risk not octopuses, sea urchins (see Halstead, 1959); poisonous to eat: shellfish which have consumed finding out! toxic dinoflagellates, poisonous sharks and rays, To complete the task of identification of all species moray eels, poisonous fin fish (see Halstead, require generations 1959); parasites: amebas, trematodes, cestodes, nematodes; disease organisms: viruses, bacteria, Considering the limited number of specialists, we fungi, yeasts (see Cheng, 1967). must take it for granted that a large part of the Organisms fouling surfaces of Algae, fungi, protozoans, sponges, coelenterates, majority of the kinds of plants and animals will re- estuarine structures bryozoans, annelids, bivalves, tunicates (see main unsampled, unnamed, and unclassified for Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1952). decades to come (Mayr, 1969). At present probably Organismsover, on, and inareas Most lower plant, invertebrate groups: plankton, one-third of the living species of fishes remains un- to be, or being used for min- nekton, epifauna and epiflora, infauna, meiofauna. known. Our inventory of invertebrate animals re- known. Our inventory of invertebrate animals re- ing, dredging, filling, waste disposal, power plants, oil mains seriously incomplete. Insects are far and away and gas exploration and de- the most numerous in species; and the least known. velopment Oceanic and estuarine plant and animal life is very Organisms blocking screens of Primarily nekton: fin fish, some crustaceans; macro- incompletely understood. Knowledge of the species power plant intakes and other scopic algae. marine operations of bacteria, viruses, yeasts, and fungi is sparse, a serious deficiency considering their great economic importance and the vast number of species (Steere, ism in order to complete the job of systematics, ig- 1971). Many well-known plant and animal species have nores the necessity for judicious sampling it our passed into extinction in the last 150 years (Steere, efforts to understand the universe. This point of 1971), and thus are irreplaceable. It is postulated view, unfortunately, overlooks the critical question that literally thousands of species will become extinct "How are actual and potential value determined?" in the next generation in all parts of the world as a It also dismisses the significance of biological classifi- result of the growing human population, pollution, cation which is intended to provide a framework on and habitat destruction (layr, 1969; Terborgh, which to arrange all levels of all available biological 1974; Uetz and Johns on . Rav en et al. (1971), information. Clearly, substantial gaps in the frame- even more pessimistic about the survival of species, even more pessimistic about the survival of species, work leave voids in the content within which re- doubt that even 5 percent of the world's unde- lationships can be expressed (Heywood, 1973). Others, whose point of view I share, feel that the befor e the currently undescribed 80 percentor primary job of exploring the flora and fauna of the of the wo rld' s organisms become extinct. earth's surface desperately needs doing because the Woodwell (1974) vividly summarized the trends natural resources of the globe are being destroyed and the consequences of extinctions: at a fearful rate and hundreds of potentially in- valuable species will be wiped out of existence even before they are made known to science, much less This is the pattern of life now, slow, progressive, cumula- tive and unidirectional as species are eliminated the analyzed for potential utilization (Fosberg, 1972; pattern is already widespread, perhaps worldwide in Keck, 1959; Mayr, 1969; Steere, 1971). Many of some degree. It leads, not to a clear crisis, a cataclysm, but to the slow erosion of the quality of environment; these species may be found useful horticulturally, to the loss of fish in fisheries, to the accumulation of agronomically, and economically, as food, forage, pests, plant and animal; to the gradual erosion of the 496 ESTUARiNE POLLUTION CONTROL capacity 'df environment to stabilize water flows, tO Table 3.-Status of taxonomic publications for identification and classificati on provide clean water, fiber and food, to hold and recycle of macro- and melofauna in the estuaries and continental shelf of the middle nutrients on' the land. It leads to accumulation of eastern United States. (References are not listed in the literature section of biotically impoverished zones almost without notice, this paper). zones that are progressively less capable if supporting life, including man, and it leads to a steady increase in requirements for human intervention in the basic fune- Mabrofauna tion of Environment: more dams and more pesticides. Porifera: deLaubenfels (1949), Hartman (1958), and Wells, Wells and Gray (1960) are good sources, but no comprehensive guide is available. I am convinced that all organisms on the globe Coelentdrata, Hydrozoa: Fraser (1944) is thorough but difficult to use, and species are have a functional role, directly or indirectly, 'of often difficult to distinguish; Nutting (1900-1915) is better but doesn't cover all families; many species need redescribing. consequence to man. In spite of the enormity of the Coelenteratd, Anthiozaa: no complete source. task, we must proceed with a sense of urgency in the systematic exploration of the world's biota in Rhynchocoala: Coe (1943) is excellent, but some knowledge of internal morphology is order to salvage at least the most critical species required. Annelida, Polychaeta: some groups, such as the distinctly errant families, are covered well in sources like Pettibone (1963), but there are serious difficulties with some sedentary families, for example, the Cirratulidae and Capitellidae. Day (1973) is also helpful. HOW ADEQUATE ARE HTAXON.OMW IAD IE ENTIE FCATIONU . .. .Sipunculida: the recent paper by Cutler (1973) is very helpful. TAXONOMIC IDENTIFICATION PUBLICATIONS AND SERVICES? Mollusca: the second edition of Abboft's (1974) book is indispensible since it lists all molluscs found off this coast and gives references to descriptions. Crustacea, Cirripedia: the unpublished preliminary 'eport by Zullo (1963) is helpful, The lack of inventories of systematic specialists, but is relatively unavailable. publications on identification, and taxonomic identi- Crustacea, Mysidacea: Tattersall (1951) is thorough, but difficult to use; a handbook fication services constitue a major bottleneck in the by R. Wigley is in preparation. application of systematics to the serious problems of Crustacea, Cumacea: no complete source is available; a handbook by L. Watling is in environmental deterioration. In the United States preparation. we are fortunate, indeed, that an active, dedicated Crustacea, Tanaidacea: no complete source is available. group of biologists has recently organized nationally Crustacea, Isopoda:the handbook by Schultz (1969) is excellent for identification. as the Association of Systematics Collections with Crustacea, Amphipoda: Bousfield (1973) is excellent for the more commonly found the primary goals of improving (a) the condition of species; some of the older monographs are needed occasionally. biological systematics collections as a national re- Crustacea, Stomatopoda: Manning (1974) covers the few local species. source, and (b) the quality and efficiency of system- Crustacea, Decapoda: Williams (1965, 1974) are both excellent. atic services associated with these resources (Irwin Bryozoa: papers by Osburn (1912) and Maturo (1957) are very useful: however, a com- et al., 1973). It is regrettable that several years may prehensive guide is much needed. elapse before these services will be available at the Echinodermata, Asteroidea: no complete source is available, but Gray et al. (1968) is level of performance at which they are so badly helpful. needed. , . Echinodermata, Ophiuroidea: no complete source. Echinodermata, Holothuroidea: Deichmann (1930) is very good. UrOchordata: the monograph by Van Name (1945) is excellent, but difficult to obtain. Systematic Specialists Meiofauna INo current lists of systemStists and th'eir fields of Protozoa: Borror (1973) covers the genera of ciliates. While there is a profuse litera- specialization exist. An international directory of ture on Foraminifera, no comprehensive key exists; there are no complete sources for other protozoan groups. botanical specialists appeared in 1958 (Roon,' 1958), and' another on zoological taxonomists of the Wbrld Platyhelminthes: no complete source. wvas published in 1961' (Blackwelder and Blackwelder, Gastrotricha: no complete source, taxonomy is unsettled. 1961). 'Regrettably, these are now sdmewhat outof- Kinorhyncha: American species largely unknown, and generally overlooked. date. As a result one'must generally rely on Word of mouth for this information, a not very efficient Nematoda: no complete source; many species from Ame rican Atlantic waters have-been mouth for this inforationanotveryefficient described, but the nematode fauna from mid-Atlantic shelf waters is virtually means of distributing scientific. data . : . ' unknown. Annelida, Archiannelida: no complete source. I de ntif ication Rejso urces' ``- ` Annelida,;Oligochaeta: identification of speciesxis difficult but has beln made consid- erably easier by the papers of Brinkhurst and Jamieson (1971) and Cook and Brink- hurst (1973). Taxonomic information on a limited number of estuarine and coastal riarine plants 'and animals is Crustacea, Ostracoda: many scattered papers, but there is no complete source. generally available and reasonably cornplete, but Crustacea, Copepoda: harpacticoid copepods from the mid-Atlantic continental shelf are not well documented. l that on'most others is scattered and coverage is RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 497 seriously incomplete and spotty. Especially lacking to their size, color, and ease of handling! Though are taxonomic monographs on major and minor taxa; some improvement is evident in the number and illustrated keys, manuals, check lists, and atlases; quality of identification 'publications, the level is and authoritatively identified, representative, ac- still far from what is required and must be achieved cessible collections of organisms, their photographs, in a reasonable time if we are to meet the needs of and resource literature (Carriker, 1967). pollutional ecology and other fields of biology. Selection of some taxonomic groups for study is In some regions of the United States the serious too often guided by chance rather than by careful void in identification publications is being partially choice on the basis of.the greatest void in knowledge. filled by series of illustrated identification manuals In other groups, systematists have not had the time prepared aperiodically by collaborating systematic or assistance to prepare syntheses, even though much specialists as resources and time are available. of the technical information may be at hand. Then One of these, the "MIarine Flora and Fauna of the there are whole phyla, especially among marine Northeastern United States," is well underway and invertebrates, for which there are no authoritative provides a model for the organization of similar specialists. Moreover, early stages in the life history series on other coastal regions where none exists of the biota are generally less well-known than adults; (Carriker, 1974). The first manual was published in least known are the micro-, meio-, and small meg- 1973, and since then five additional ones on coastal abenthos. These several groups therefore pose in- plants and invertebrates have appeared, printed for surmountablesystematic barriers to most ecologists. the advisory board -of 'the series by the National The absence of systematic information has been Marine Fisheries Service in NOAA Technical Re- circumvented by some biologists by giving potential ports. Some 80 systematic specialists in the United species arbitrary codes until such time as these or- States -and a few abroad are contributinig manu- ganisms can be investigated systematically. This scripts. Much of the work on the "Marine Flora and expedient, however, excludes the value of positioning Fauna" is done as a "labor of love," support, if any, species in the classification scheme for interpretative coming from whatever source is available. analysis based on relationships. A second series, "Manuals on Marine Organisms," The seriousness of .the problem of inadequate dealing with tropical Atlantic American fauna, being identification resources is emphasized by Chace prepared by G. L. Voss and F. M. Bayer and associ- (reproduced in Schmitt, 1953, Appendix A) and ates, University of Miami, is representative of biota Watling and Maurer (1974). ; - of the southeastern United States.' Two guides, Chace in a revision of his list on the status of the written for use by non-specialists in the fisheries and systematics of recent invertebrates other than in- environmental fields, have been published, and sects, included comments on 44 major taxa. The several more are in preparation. Basic information following observations are representative.: on poorly known groups is published in another series, "Fauna Caribaea." .. identification difficult or impossible withoit living A third series, "Biota of Freshwater Ecosystems," material; more specialists greatly needed; virtually im- sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency possible to obtain identifications; the only experienced taxonomist is too busy with teaching and administra- with the assistance of the Smithsonian Institution, tion for identifications; large collections still awaiting is a valuable series of identification manuals on identification; few publications; the only specialist is North American organisms prepared by specialists retired; poorly known groups, need-much more study; the only specialist just deceased; intensive studies now (Smithsonian Institution, 1972--1973). Although not in progress; group fairly well covered, but world mono- directly applicable to coastal waters, the set is an graph needed; coverage reasonably good except forment in the identification of fresh- important supplement in the identification of fresh- Atlantic species. water organisms floating into estuaries frqm streams and lakes. To date 11 manuals have appeared in Clearly, prospects for identification were not promis- print and others are in preparation. ing. The data compiled by Watling and Maurer (1974) indicate that a grave problem still faces benthic Systematic Services ecologists in establishing monitoring programs, and that progress in systematics has been slow since the For many kinds of organisms one investigator preparation of-Chace's list (Table 3). easily obtains enough speciinns in a short time 'to Watling (1974) observed that most groups (the swamp several identifiers for months. Moreover, Mollusca, for example) have received systematic there are many more requests than can be filled for coverage that is usually inversely proportional to service identifications for ecologists, amateurs, pub- their ecological importance but directly proportional lie health officials, and those conducting stream and 498 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL forest surveys; for lists of organisms for impact itself! It is clear that a strong, coordinated, long studies; and for the needs of pollution assessment range, national plan is urgently required. and monitoring. These, and other economically ori- Members of the Association of Systematics Col- ented service needs, have far outstripped the capac- lections (ASC) have already formulated such a plan ity of taxonomists and their assistants to cope with called "America's Systematics Collections: A Na- the flood of requests (Irwin et al., 1973). In spite tional Plan" (Irwin et al., 1973). This stresses the of the fact that many state governments, experi- importance of systematics collections to science, ment stations, or agricultural schools employ per- society, and education, and outlines an approach, sonnel to provide identification services of species carefully developed by the newly organized com- common in their geographic areas, the number of munity of systematists, for the recognition and professionally capable systematists is still small. The development of systematics collections as an impor- federal government maintains national identification tant national resource and service. services for several groups of economically impor- Specific goals of the ASC include: (1) manage- tant organisms, such as insects and related taxa, ment of the national inventory of specimens and and parasites of domestic and other animals. Some associated documentation in museums and herbaria of the federal services provide in-house identifica- to insure a) permanent conservation of specimens, tions only, while others serve outside agencies and b) ready access to them and their documentation, the general public. Even with these services, none- and c) space, facilities, and library resources; and theless, identifiers for many taxonomic groups are (2) addition of new specimens and associated infor- quite unable to keep up with the current demand mation. Specific service-related aims include (1) for determinations, much less provide for prbspec- make available upon demand specimens or taxon- tive future needs. Some sorting centers have been related information in a variety of useful forms, created for marine organisms, but none makes spe- (2) enable incorporation of specimens and associ- cific identifications, and lag time is exasperating ated data in an information management system, (Michener, 1970). and (3) enable ready access to specimens themselves In addition to current requests, most taxonomists and to associated documentation and library ma- are faced with a great accumulation of unworked, terials. The ASC is moving ahead to implement undetermined specimens which have piled up for these goals. Some of their activities, carried out years (Schmitt, 1953). Because systematists who through a series of ASC Councils, include: (1) iden- are willing to function in a service role are invariably tifying systematics collections of importance as overworked and under-assisted, they are unable to national resources; (2) developing standards for cope with the demands on their time. The needs of systematics collections; (3) implementing electronic other 'biologists are thus often poorly served, and data processing in collection management proce- available comparative collections are frequently in- dures; (4) developing more effective use of system- adequately curated for proper study (Irwin et al., atics collections in the study and resolution of prob- 1973). lems affecting the quality of the environment; and Traditionally, identifications have been provided (5) developing technical training programs for pro- free of charge by taxonomists or organizations will- fessional service personnel and their placement. ing to make them. This practice is patently unfair, A major emphasis of the ASC is correct identifica- and has contributed to the lack of technical assist- tion of species to indicate environmental changes ance to systematists, to the prolonged delay in and their effects on human welfare. The association obtaining identifications, and to the unattractiveness accordingly includes in its plan a survey of public of the service function. It is gratifying to report, and private agencies to determine actual or potential however, that this trend is shifting, and sbme grants availability of resources to support, among other are now including funds for taxonomic services. systematic activities, contracts for specific identifica- Most critical in the long view, after all is said and tion services. done, is the fact that the service role often prevents Systeniatic resources in the United States of im- systematists from getting on with the urgent research portaiice in estuarine biological work also include of preparing the basic floras,; faunas, and mono- collections of living specimens. 'The American Type graphs-the very foundation of the service function. Culture Collection, for example, is a national iden- There is thus unquestionably a strong basis for tification center in Rockville, Md., which for a fee the alarm expressed, especially by organismic biolo- identifies live viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozo- gists, over the service role of systematics to the ans, The organization is now establishing a national nation and the future of the field of systematics computerized microbiological strain data center RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 499 which will permit investigators to compare micro- organisms, and the consequent danger of misidenti- biological data with that at other centers in the fication, voucher specimens should be made avail- country. Another important national research re- able, preferably in museums and herbaria, whenever source is the Culture Collection of Algae at Indiana possible. These insure that the value of ecological, University, Bloomington. Identification services are behavioral, physiological, biogeographic, and other not provided because of lack of personnel, but living biological work based on identifications will not be type cultures of algae are available for a nominal reduced due to questions about inaccuracy of deter- charge. mination of the organisms involved (Irwin et al., 1973). Non-Specialists and Identification The non-specialist is usually able to identify and TRETEMATERED classify only those species which specialists have already described, named, and reported in the scien- Unquestionably the degree of success of the service tific literature. Because of the frequent difficulty of function of systematics in future years will be deter- use of the original systematic reports by nonspecial- mined by the health of the field of systematics ists, systematists synthesize the original literature today. It is thus important to review the current into a form which is more readily applied in identi- state of the discipline. fication and classification. These syntheses take the In IDarwin's time systematists enjoyed a high form of illustrated manuals, check lists, taxonomic reputation. The turning point in disfavor came about monographs, and general systematic books. An ex- the turn of the century, not because of the work of cellent example of the last category is the recent systematists but because other fields of biology volume by R. T. Abbott (1974) on the marine seemed more promising (Hedgpeth, 1961). System- molluscs of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North atics then received a substantial stimulus with the America. Others are E. L. Bousfield's (1973) fine creation of the National Science Foundation in publication on the shallow water gammaridean 1950. Although increased funding resulted in a mul- amphipods of New Englafid, and Light's manual tiplication of systematic research, subsequent finan- on the intertidal invertebrates of the central Cali- cial support from all sources has been insufficient fornia coast (Smith and Carlton, 1975). to keep pace with the needs of systematics in either Because closely similar species may be confused, basic or applied areas. Consequently, the current it is highly desirable that the non-specialist confirm resources of the field are inadequate to meet not his preliminary identifications by comparing spec only present national service r.eeds, but much less mens with correctly identified specimens in museum the needs of the future. and herbarium collections. This procedure is all the For one thing, decreasing numbers of students more important as similar and closely related species are attracted to careers in systematic biology. The not listed in publications readily available to non- reasons, not hard to find, contribute to the low specialists may be overlooked. number of trained systematists: a tight job market For careful research, comparison alone may not and reluctance of many university departments to provide the necessary authoritative confirmation. hire systematists, overshadowing of systematics by In this case the assistance of a specialist, or an such fields as ecology and behavior, reduced amount assistant closely associated with the specialist, should of available support for graduate students in the be solicited. Identification is not always a simple form of fellowships, and general deemphasis of matter of identifying one standard form of indi- systematics in graduate curricula (Humes, 1974). vidual. In a series of individuals from many locali- In fast, systematists have been all but excluded ties, complications may be introduced because of from many of the best biology departments in this such modifying factors as individual, sexual, sea- country (Wilson, 1971). As a:result, many teaching sonal, ontogenetic, and geographic variations, as systematists are trying, with little success (Steere, well as the possibility of intergradation with neigh- 1971), to leave academia and move into museums boring species (Schmitt, 1953). Moreover, intro- which seem to have become the last ibastion of duced and immigrant species may be present that defense for systematics-which is wrong! (Pawson, answer to the same criteria in a key as do local 1974). species. Hedgpeth (1975) informs me that over 'Because systematics does not occupy a prominent 50 non-native species occur in San Francisco Bay position in most educational institutions, much of alone! - the systematic research conducted in the country Because of the taxonomic complexity of many is done in fragments of time snatched between ad- 500 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ministrative or teaching duties by biologists whose the growing appreciation of the correct image of major responsibilities are nonsystematic. the modern systematist; that is, one who concerns In spite of the fact that the' potential worth of himself not only with preserved specimens in col- systematics to society is now greater than ever, lections, but who also works in the field and in the only a handful of graduate university departments laboratory studying whatever phase of morphology, in the United States and Canada are now strong physiology, ecology, behavior, biogeography, and in systematics. These departments have to be' asso- life history contributes to a fuller quantitative under- ciated in some way with research collections to standing of the likenesses, differences, groupings, conduct their teaching and research; and whereas and evolution of the species of his specialty (Turner, several state universities and colleges used to main- 1974). Mayr (1969) notes that the systematist has tain museums with biological research collections, every reason to be optimistic about the future of few do now because of funding problems: Default his field. The laudable efforts of the Association of in this area has thus led to surrender of important Systematics Collections may help to materialize this regional collections to the United States National optimism. For the moment, though, we have to Museum. The result of this drift in collections has agree with Redfield's (1958) observation for an been to remove resource materials from new scholars earlier period, that "The line of advance in taxo- to some degree and to widen the split between edu- nomic knowledge is held by a perilously thin force cational opportunity and young-biologists who could of specialists." participate in this discipline. Many who become With growth and strengthening of biological re- taxonomists, therefore, do so in spite of these diffi- search, has come increased usage of systematics culties, or are self-trained (Mosquin, 1971; Watling, collections. Researchers in increasing numbers are 1974; Williams, 1974). visiting the few systematics collections in their spe- Systematists at the doctoral level require many cialties; The number of loans of specimens similarly years of training. Most rarely wish to devote full has grown. Burgeoning collections and loan requests time, or even part time, to the service aspects of are outstripping staff capabilities. Nearly every systematics, particularly since such services are not major institution responsible for major systematics professionally satisfying and have seldom been finan- collections is crowded, and space is inadequate for cially compensated. Hopefully, with growing na- effective research and efficient care of specimens. tional recognition of the importance of systematics, A further depreciating factor is the prevalent short- more systematists will be encouraged to participate age of clerical· and subprofcssional help, especially in service'oriented investigations; the resulting serv- in institutions having ambitious systematic pro- ice resources (keys, inanuals, monographs, computer grams and limited finances (Schmitt, 1953). It is programs, and so on) then being turned over to thus no surprise that systematics collections are technical taxonomically trained assistants to carry deteriorating. To all of this must be added the factor out the service activities. It is important that the of inflation which results in lowered income. significant role of taxonomic assistants be fully recognized, and that they become the major working force in taxonomic' service centers under the direction of professional supervisors. tfication of estuarine and coastal organisms have Since the number of pure research positions in greatly accelerated, present trends in systematics Since the number of pure research positions in systematics iS limited and most systematists earn * i s 7 limitd ad ms l e. Relative to the population growth of the country, their living as teachers, curators, members of identi- (a) there a r e fewer highly trained- systeatists; (a) there are fewer highly trained- systematists; fication services, or in other' branches of biology, (b) there is a significant decline in the number of the borderlirfe between systeematists and other biol- the borderline betcween systematists and other bil- practicing taxonomists (Higgins, 1974); (c) there ogists has' blurred. This is providing opportunity in is less financial support for them and for systematic systematics for biologists of varied interests (Mayr, activities ina all institutions; (d) there are fewer activities in all institutions; (d) there are fewer 1969). Many ecologists are a good example. Because positions and (e) training opportunities; and (f) of the scarcity 'of systematists, -identification has there is a sc a rcity of jo urnals inwhiclt publish there is a scarcity of journals in' which to publish fallen increasingly on the ecologist, and as a conse- (Gosline, 1974). quence some have become highly-proficien t in the It is increasingly difficult to have organisms iden- systematics relating to their field of research. The tified; capable systematists are so much in demand blending of systematics with closely related disci- that they give service only to a selected few, gener- plines, both as pure science and in its application, ally with preference to those who furnish specimens augurs well for the future of'systematists. So does which remain in their collections or new species RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 501 that are to be described (Allen, 1974; Tarzwell, is to be. made (Federal Water Pollution Control 1974). Act, Amendments of 1972, Public Law 92-500, Sec- The fate of biological collections in colleges and tion 316(a),; see also Section 102(a) and Hedgpeth, universities depends to a deplorable extent upon the 1973). The legislation. implies the need for identifi-, research emphasis of the moment. As responsible cation and classification of organisms, both target personnel move to other institutions, collections are and non-target species, involved in analysis of the left in grave danger, or they are turned over to the biological impact of pollutants. By way of example, large museums and herbaria of the country. These consider the voluminous reports which have ap- changes invariably occur without increase of their peared on such subjects as ecological effects of pesti- supportive resources. As a consequence these large cides on non-target species (Pimentel, 1971) and institutions are increasingly charged with carrying data on water quality criteria (Batelle, 1971; NAS- out and supporting systematic biology. At least one NAE, 1972). As of this date, however, this emphasis danger of this trend is the weakening of instruction of the federal legislation has not resulted in con- in systematic biology and thus the balanced and spicuous financial support for systematic work on orderly development of the science of biology itself any of the important taxa. (Schmidt, 1952). It is certain that requirements for identification Progress has been made in some aspects of sys- of biota will not only continue, but will increase, tematics, but serious setbacks have occurred in because of the escalating concern of many agencies others. For example, there has been increased empha- and the public with problems and issues of environ- sis on the taxonomy of both phytoplankton (espe- mental quality. Emphasis at the moment reflects cially nanoplankton) and zooplankton (especially needs anticipated and created by the energy crisis. larval forms and their developmental stages), but Other issues concern mercury, lead, asbestos, PCB's, the systematics of nematodes which, appear to be NTA, and oil spills (for example, see Eisler, 1973). the most abundant of the metazoans and are prob- It is certain new concerns will emerge in the future. ably the most diverse in number of species, has Specimens in museums, herbaria, and live culture hardly progressed from the status of 19th century collections, and those made to meet immediate science (Murphy, 1974). needs, will continue to provide baseline data prior There is a definite, healthy trend toward nu- to and following environmental alterations (Allen, merical taxonomy and phenetics to define species 1974). Organisms involved must thus be correctly assemblages, but a marked increase in casual iden- identified; if not, costly mistakes can occur. It is tifications in applied systematics often by ecologists consequently with dismay that one reads: "The engaged in biomass and community structural stud- taxonomic level to which animals are identified ies (M. Abbott, 1974). . depends on, the needs, experience, and available Finally, Steere (1971), writing about institutions resources" (lWeber, 1973). which house biological systematics collections, re- Adequate environmental assessment cannot be ports that in the previous three years, operating obtained without-the resources of systematics col- expenses almost doubled, and endowment returns lections. The Environmental Protection Agency has and contributions halved. Predictably this has led made a preliminary effort to contribute toward im- to substandard salaries, deterioration of personnel proving the quality of data upon which environ- strength (because of unchanged staff size in the mental decisions are based (see, for example, the face of swelling collections and increased demands identification manuals of Correll and Correll (1972) for service), reduction of activities, and deferral of and the Smithsonian Institution (1972-1973)), but expansion. This situation is totally unacceptable unfortunately these efforts are giving way increas- if modern biology is to' develop in these institutions ingly to mission oriented and mandated activities and they are to fulfill their service roles in applied (Allen, '1974). Also note that monitoring of biota systematics! was 'demanded in licensing by the Atomic Energy Commission, but there has been no. visible increase Water Quality Legislation in the demand for systematists resulting from these and Systematics requirements' (Higgins, 1974). , Man. is- an organism, of course, but since he does Water quality legislation assures "the.protection not generally submit' to being used as a barometer and propagation of a balanced, indigenous popula- of environmental conditions, he delegates this re- tion of shellfish, fish, and wildlife" in any body of sponsibility to other forms of life. This is a weighty water into which, for example, thermal discharge responsibility and necessitates that the 'taxonomic 502 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL position of his substitutes be solidly established for tions receive inadequate financial support and are purposes of comparison and prediction! understaffed, with the result that systematics col- lections are receiving insufficient care, are deteriorat- CONCERNS AND CONCLUSIONS ing, and the service function is suffering-the prob- lem being seriously compounded by inflation. Basic and applied environmental research and its The most pressing systematic service needs at the application to such practical problems as pollution, moment are (a) well trained technicians, (b) sys- have grown far more rapidly than the supporting tematists with the time to supervise them, (c) iden- base of systematic biology. As a consequence of this teanatistsd (d) funds to help system (c) idensts deficit and the conditions described in this paper, tficatron aids, ands to help systematis systematists find themselves in a paradoxical quag- carry out ther functions and elevate systematic s emire. Thus, though willing, they are unable ad e- obiology to the position where it can more effectively mire. Thus, though willing, they are unable ade- quately to fill the needs of environmental biologists, contribute a nd t o soc iety. pollution scientists, and others for systematic serv-ative th at everything possible be done, ices. The concerns may be summarized as follows: not only to conserve the human and material system- atic resources already existing, but also to support 1) There is an increasing shortage of systematists and encourage further development of these re- to handle and supervise identifications and classifi- sources in a hospitable climate, appreciatively recog- cations; as a consequence, more and more inade- nizing the economic and intrinsic worth of their quately trained persons are performing this service; contributions. The tasks facing systematists are 2) There is an insufficient number of systematists unquestionably monumental and long-term. to conduct the basic research necessary to produce the systematic tools required in applied systematic RECOMMENDATIONS biology; 3) Identification and classification aids are inade- The following recommendations are offered to quate or insufficient for most taxa, and are entirely maximize the service role of biological systematics missing for others; in the assessment of the effects of pollution on the 4) The number of taxonomically well-trained biological utilization of estuaries and coastal waters technicians to relieve systematists of the work of in the United States: routine identification is grossly insufficient; 5) Compensation to systematic specialists for (1) A major, national, coherent force working in taxonomic services is generally nonexistent, a lack behalf of systematics in the country is the Associa- foreign to professional services in other scientific tion for Systematics Collections. The ASC estimates and engineering fields; that it will cost $63.3 million in the next five years 6) There is a total absence of current directories to effect its national plan for the conservation and of systematic specialists, identification service cen- development of systematics collections as a national ters, identification aids, and a national computerized resource and service (Irwin et al., 1973). The various storage-retrieval system for the systematic resources councils of the ASC are now preparing proposals of the nation; for financial support to carry out the plan. We urge 7) Both young and experienced systematists find federal and private agencies to look with favor on it increasingly difficult to obtain positions in their these proposals. A unique feature of the ASC plan fields of specialization; is its integrated national character, a necessary 8) Young people are unable to obtain training in attribute to provide systematic services in any estu- systematics in most colleges and universities where ary or coastal area in the country. Support must the field receives decreasing emphasis and support; go to aid in the development of aspects of the plan 9) Valuable representative collections from envi- as a whole, rather than for parochial units of re- ronmental studies are discarded or lost, and no stricted regional interest. In view of the increasing voucher specimens are reposited in museums and number of persons who are making professional herbaria for future reference; identifications without the advantage of adequate 10) Environmental agencies have paid lip service training, we further urge the ASC to establish a to the importance of systematics in environmental roster of persons qualified to make service identifica- work, but have not provided the financial support tions in the various groups of organisms. necessary to help prepare systematics more effec- (2) In the face of growing, critical, environmental tively for this role; problems in estuaries and coastal waters, institu- 11) Most museums, herbaria, and living collec- tions and agencies will accelerate their search for RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 503 financial support through grants and contracts to cantly aid in the identification and control of pollu- attack these problems. In the interest of aiding the tion is known. Moreover, completion of the task of service aspects of systematics, we urge funding identification of most undescribed species will re- agencies to look favorably upon requests involving: quire several more generations. We thus urge that (a) compensation to systematic specialists in the adequate support for systematics be sustained for private sector for identifications and confirmation many years to come, allowing the maximum return of identifications; (b) proper curation of biological on the investment in terms of basic systematic research collections resulting from environmental knowledge and taxonomic services. and other broad investigations to serve as voucher specimens; (c) services for taxonomically trained assistants; (d) enlargement of identification service REFERENCES centers in museums and universities, including train- centers in museums and universities, including train- Abbott, M. B. 1974. Personal communication. Marine Bio- ing of taxonomic technicians to handle specimens logical Laboratory, Woods Hole. from major pollutional surveys; (e) fellowships for advanced training at those major museums and uni- Abbott, R. T. 1974. American Seashells. The Marine Mollusca versities having faculties in evolutionary biology, of the Atlantic and Pacific Coasts of North America. Van in combination with ecology, comparative physi- ology, or other organismic biology; (f) support of Alexander, M. 1973. Microorganisms and chemical pollution. systematists in governmental agencies and elsewhere BioScience 23: 509-515. dealing with whole organisms, giving them time to Alen, J. F. 1974. Systematics collections-an essential re- develop their systematic specialties and to contrib- source in environmental assessment, p. 3-14, in Applica- ute to the upgrading of practical systematics through tions of Systematics Collections: The Environment. Sym- the preparation of basic and applied systematic posium Proceedings, Association of Systematics Collec- tions, 2nd. Ann. Meeting, Texas Tech. Univ., May 3, 1974. resources. (3) A serious void in identification publications Association of Systematics Collections. 1973-1975. ASC News is comprehensive illustrated identification manuals. Letter. Secretariat, Museum of Natural History, Univ. Accordingly, we urge funding of a comprehensive, Kansas, Lawrence. illustrated, coastal flora and fauna series for each Barnard, J. 1974. The problem of routine identifications, a major coastal region of the United States which collective cry from the wilderness? Amphipod Newsletter, would invite the talents of the community of sys- June, 1974: 13-14 (unpublished, mimeo.). tematists in the preparation of each series. A mini- Battelle. 1971. Water Quality Criteria Data Book, vol. 3. mum of $25,000 will be needed per year for each of Effects of chemicals on aquatic life, selected data from the the three series already in progress on the east coast, literature through 1968. By Battelle's Columbus Labora- tories, prepared for Environmental Protection Agency. and at least similar amounts will be necessary for a U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash., D.C. new series for the gulf coast, and another for the west coast-a total of $725,000 for the first five Blackwelder, R. E. 1959. The present status of systematic years. zoology. Systematic Zool. 8: 69-75. (4) A number of persons of considerable compe- Blackwelder, R. E. 1967. Taxonomy. A Text and Reference tence as systematists, many at the doctoral level, Book. John Wiley & Sons, N.Y. unable to obtain positions either in museums or in universities, are now supervising environmental de- systematic s. ystemand icA Zool. Boyden. 1952 The nature of partments of engineering and power companies. Their training as systematists has thus been a waste Blackwelder, R. E. and R. M. Blackwelder. 1961. Directory to society. We endorse Hedgpeth's (1975) recom- of Zoological Taxonomists of the World. Southern Ill. Univ. mendation that each power and engineering com- pany hire a systematist specializing in a different Bousfield, E. L. 1973. Shallow-water Gammaridean Amphid- taxonomic group to provide identification service for oda of New England. Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, N.Y. a reasonably natural geographic region. Thus on Burbanck, W. D. 1975. Personal communication. Emery the Pacific coast one power company might provide University, Ga. service for polychaetes, another for crustaceans, and so on. Nominal fees should be charged for the Cairns, J. and K. L. Dickson. (ed). 1973. Biological Methods for the Assessment of Water Quality. American Society service. for Testing and Materials. 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The value of systematics in the environ- mental crisis; Taxon.21: 631-634. Mayr, E. 1969. Principles of Systematic Zoology. McGraw- Hill Book Co., N.Y. Gosline, W. A. 1974. Publication problems in systematic zoology. Systematic Zool. 23: 547-548. Merriman, D. 1973. Calefaction of the Connecticut River, U.S.A. Trans. N.Y. Acad. Sci. Ser. II, vol. 35: 59-65. Halstead, B. W. 1959. Dangerous marine animals.'Cdrnell Maritime Press, Cambridge, Md. Merriman, D. 1974. Personal communication. Yale Uni- versity, New Haven, Conn. Hedgpeth, J. W. 1955. The importance of systematics in Limnology and Oceanography, p. 13-18, in Essays in the Michael, A. D. 1975. Personal communication. Marine Natural Sciences in Honor of Captain Allan Hancock. Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Mass. Univ. S. Calif. Press. Michener, C. D. (chm). 1970. Systematics in support of Hedgpeth, J. W. 1957. Obtaining ecological data in the sea, biological research. Div. Biol. Agric., Nat. Res. Coun., p. 53-86, in Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleontology, vol. 1, Ecdlogy. Memoir 67, Geol. Soc. Amer. Wash. D. Hedgpeth, J. W. 1961. Taxonomy: man's oldest profession. Michener, C. D. 1974. Strengthening taxonomy. Systematic Eleventh Ann. Univ. Pacific Faculty Res. Lecture, May 22. Zool. 23: 571-572. Hedgpeth, J. W. 1973. The impact of impact studies. Helgo- Mosquin, T. 1971. Systematics as an educational and political lander wiss. Meeresunters. 24: 436-445. force. BioScience 21: 1166-1170. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 505 Murphy, D. G. 1974. Personal communication. National Schmitt, W. L. 1974. Personal communication. Smithsonian Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. Institution, Washington, D.C. NAS-NAE. 1972. Water Quality Criteria 1972. A report of Shapiro, S. (ed). 1971. Our Changing Fisheries. Nat. Mar. the Committee on Water Quality Criteria, Environmental Fish. Serv., U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash. D.C. Studies Board, Nat. Acad. Sci.-Nat. Acad. Engineer., U.S. Government Printing Office, Wash. D.C. Shuster, C. N., Jr. 1974. Personal communication. Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C. O'Connor, J. 1975. Personal communication. NOAA, Stony Brook, N.Y. Simpson,. G. G. 1961. Principles of Animal Taxonomy. Colum- bia Univ. Press, N.Y. Odum, W. E. 1970. Insidious alteration of the estuarine en- vironment. Amer. Fish. Soc., Trans. 99: 836-847. Sindermann, C. J. 1970. Principal Diseases of Marine Fish and Shellfish. Academic Press, N.Y. Olson, T. A. and F. J. Burgess (ed). 1967. Pollution and marine ecology. Interscience Publishers, N.Y. Smith, R. I. and J. P. Carlton (ed). 1975. Light's Manual. Intertidal Invertebrates of the Central California Coast. Patrick, R. 1949. A proposed biological measure of stream Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley. 3rd ed. conditions, based on a survey of the Conestoga Basin, Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. Prdc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Smithsonian Institution. 1972-1973. Biota of Freshwater Pa. 101: 277-341. Ecosystems, Identification Manuals, No. 1-11. Federal Water Pollution Control Research Series. U.S. Government Pawson, D. L. 1974. Personal communication. National Printing Office, Wash. D.C. Museum of Natural History, Washington, D.C. Sokal, R. R. 1970. Another new biology. BioScience 20: Pimentel, D. 1971. Ecological effects of pesticides on non- 152-159. target species. Executive Office of the President, Office of Science and Technology, U.S. Government Printing Sokal, R. R. 1974. Classification: purposes, principles, prog- Office, Wash. D.C. ress, prospects. Science 185: 1115-1123. Rasmussen, E. 1973. Systematics and ecology of the Isefjord Stafieu, F. A. 1959. The.present status of plant taxonomy. marine fauna (Denmark). Ophelia, Univ. Copenhagen 11: Systematic Zool. 8: 59-68. 1-507. Steere, W. C. (chm). 1971. The Systematic Biology Collec- Raven, P. H., B. Berlin, D. E. Breedlove. 1971. The origins tions of the United States:.An Essential Resource. I. The of taxonomy. Science 174: 1210-1213. great collections: their nature, importance, condition, and future. Conference of Directors of Systematic Collections. Redfield, A. C. 1958. The inadequacy of experiment in marine N.Y. Botanical Garden, N.Y. biology, p. 17-26, in Perspectives in Marine Biology, A. A. Buzzati-Traverso (ed). Univ. Calif. Press, Berkeley. Tarzwell, C. M. 1974. Personal communication. U.S. Environ- mental Protection Agency, R.I. Reish, D. J., F. Piltz and J. M. Martin. 1974. Induction of abnormal polychaete larvae by heavy metals. Mar. Pollu- Terborgh, J. 1974. Preservation of natural diversity: the tion Bull. 5: 125-126. problem of extinction prone species. BioScience 24: 715-724. Remane, A. and C. Schlieper. 1971. Biology of Brackish Water. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, N.Y. Turner, R. D. 1973. In the path of a warm, saline effluent. Amer. Malacol. Union Bull.: 36-41. Roon, A. C. de. 1958. International Directory of Specialists with a Census of their Current Interests. Utrecht (Regnum Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Mass. vegetabile, vol. 13). Sabrosky, C. W. 1955. The interrelations of biological control Uetz, G. and D. L. Johnson. 1974. Breaking the web. Environ- and taxonomy. J. Econ. Entomol. 48: 710-714. met 16 (10): 31-39. Schmidt, K. P. 1952. The decline of systentatics in the uni- Watiling, L. 1974. Personal communication. College of Marine versities. Wards Nat. Sci. Bull. 25: 39. Studies, University of Delaware, Lewes. Schmitt, W. L. 1939. Decapod and other Crustacea collected Watling, L. and D. Maurer 174. An evaluation of the mid- on the Presidential Cruise of 1938. Smithsonian Miscel. Atlantic Bight inner continental shelf benthic assemblages. CoL 8ll. (6): 1-29. Proceedings of Estuarine Research Federation Outer Continental Shelf conference and workshop, Marine en- vironmental implications of offshore oil and gas develop- Schmitt, W. L. (chm). 1953. Conference on the importance ment in the Baltimore Canyon region of the mid-Atlantic and needs of systematics in biology. Sponsored by Div. Bight. Univ. Md., Dec. 2-4, 1974. Published by the Biol. & Agric., and organized by Soc. Systematic Zool., Estuarine Research Federation. Nat. Acad. Sci.-Nat. Res. Coun., Wash. D.C., mimeo. Weber, C. I. 1973. Biological field and laboratory methods Schmitt, W. L. 1954. Applied systematics: the usefulness of for measuring the quality of surface waters. and effluents. scientific names of animals and plants. Smithsonian Report EPA 670/4.73-001. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, for 1953, Washington, D.C.: 323-337. Cincinnati, Ohio. 506 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Wharton, G. W. 1959. The future of systematic zoology. Woodwell, G. M. 1974. Ecosystems and world politics. Bull. Systematic Zoo]. 8: 82-87. Ecol. Soc. Amer. 55: 2-5. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 1952. Marine Foul- Young, D. K., K. D. Hobson, J. S. O'Connor, A. D. Michael, ing and its Prevention. U.S. Naval Institute, Annapolis, M. A. Mills and M. R. Carriker. 1971. Quantitative analyses Md. of the Cape Cod Bay ecosystem. Final report to the Office of Naval Research, Systematics-Ecology Program, Mar. Wigley, R. 1974. Personal communication. National Marine Biol. Lab., Woods Hole, Mass. Fisheries Service, Woods Hole, Mass. Wilcox, W. H., W. A. Thomas, G. Goldstein. 1973. Biological ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Indicators of Environmental Quality: A Bibliography of Abstracts. Ann Arbor Science Publ., Inc. I would like to express my gratitude to the following persons for valuable assistance in the preparation of the manuscript: Williams, A. B. 1974. Personal communication. Systematics Marie B. Abbott, R. Tucker Abbott, William D. Burbancki Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Robert P. Higgins, Arthur G. Humes, Raymond B. Manning, Museum of Natural History, Wash. D.C. Frank J. S. Maturo, Jr., Andrew McErlean, Margaret S. McFadien, Daniel Merriman, Allan D. Michael, Donald G. Wilson, E. 0. 1971. The plight of taxonomy. Ecology 52: 741. Murph Jel O'Connor, David L. Pawson, Waldo L. Schmitt, Carl N. Shuster, Clarence M. Tarzwell, Ruth D. Turner Leslie A, Watling, Roland L. Wigley, Robert T. Wilce, and Woodwell, G. M. 1969. Diversity and stability in ecological Austin B. Williams. systems. Report of symposium held May 26-28, 1969. Contribution No. 103, University of Delaware, College of Brookhaven Symposia in Biology no. 22: 1-264. Marine Studies. BACTERIA AND VIRUSES-INDICATORS OF UNNATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES OCCURRING IN THE NATION'S ESTUARIES DR. RITA R. COLWELL University of Maryland College Park, Maryland ABSTRACT Microorganisms are useful indicators of alterations in the natural environment. As presently employed, however, "indicator organisms" such as fecal coliforms and total coliforms have severe limitations. Other organisms have been proposed in recent years as potential indicator organisms, viz., streptococci, clostridia, and pseudomonads. The indicator organism concept is reviewed and recommendations for future studies are made. In particular, detection, isolation, and identi- fication of viruses, effects of pollutants on the natural microbial flora, and reevaluation of microbial indicators are critical areas requiring research. INTRODUCTION in proper balance, permit normal algal productivity which, in turn, supports animal life. The bacteria, yeasts, and fungi naturally present Changes in environmental conditions may cause in waters and sediments play an essential role in more subtle effects on the normal microbial flora, the mineralization and cycling of nutrients necessary leading to such conditions as increased disease in for normal plant and animal growth. A variety of many resident fish species or unpleasant anoxic con- microorganisms may appear in given ecosystems ditions arising from hydrogen sulfide production. from time to time because of the ubiquity of many bacterial species; in general, the normal flora of the aquatic habitat is distinguishable from bacteria asso- INDICATOR ORGANISMS ciated with warm-blooded animals and man. More- over, the numbers and types of bacteria present in In the case of microorganisms, indicators are usu- the natural habitat are generally in balance so that ally considered in relation to human health risk. conditions are stable within recognizable, normal The most common forms of water-borne human levels. When abnormal conditions occur, changes disease are caused by bacteria excreted from the in the microbial populations will ensue. For exam- intestines of man and warm-blooded animals. Fecal pie, with pollution from domestic or farm animals, contamination is recognized as dangerous. However, influx from wastewater treatment plants, and so pathogens normally are present in small numbers forth, the number of bacteria of animal or human and are difficult to culture and identify. Thus, the origin increases. Hence, a hazard to man may more easily identified organisms that are commonly develop. and specifically present in feces serve as indicator Estuarine eutrophication and coastal pollution organisms. The most widely used are the so-called pose increasingly serious environmental problems. coliform bacteria, with Escherichia coli or the less Nutrient loads in estuaries are based on watershed specifically fecal coliforms being tested for in most characteristics, influent stream concentrations, and cases. overall watershed management policies. The role of Thus, for well over a hundred years, bacteria microorganisms, in particular the bacteria, is to have been used as indicators of unnatural or un- break down the dead organic material and wastes desirable environmental conditions, mainly as indi- so that organic nutrients necessary for plant growth cators of human health hazards, i.e., warning signs are provided and organic wastes are removed by that potential human pathogens may be present. mineralization. Thus, the role of the bacteria, yeasts, In 1885 Escherich described the bacterial species and fungi, is, simply stated, to keep the wheel of he believed to be characteristic of human feces and, nature turning by recycling complex organic and therefore, an indicator of fecal pollution. The bac- inorganic materials. Nutrients, in moderation and terial species of Escherich is now classified in the 507 508 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Escherichia-Enterobacter group and comprises, with levels. The isolation of enterococci from nature has other species, the complex now referred to as the been enhanced by improved methods and media for coliform group. These organisms are to this day the isolation. For example, azide dextrose broth, used indicator microorganisms employed by authorities as a presumptive test, and ethyl violet azide broth, in determining rate and extent of pollution from a confirmation test, permit two to three orders of domestic sewage. magnitude improvement in the isolation and iden- Eijkman, in his studies carried out over 70 years tification of enterococci (Litsky et al., 1i955). ago, recommended an elevated temperature incuba- A variety of pathogenic microorganisms may be tion test that gave a positive reaction with fecal present in the feces of warm-blooded animals, viz., coliform organisms and a negative reaction with Brucella, Salmonella, Shigella spp., Mycobacterium those of non-fecal origin (Eijkman, 1904). The tuberculosis, Pasteurella, Leptospira, Vibrio cholerae, Eijkman test procedure is the basis of the EC test, Entamoeba histolytica, and various enteric viruses. which is widely used to detect fecal coliforms. Un- Most of these genera noted are present in the feces fortunately, no test is available for differentiating of diseased animals. Hence, the main factor involved coliforms of human versus animal origin. The is the occurrence in a population and shedding of Eijkman test, however, does indicate fecal coli- the microorganisms into water via feces. Thus, the forms. The generally accepted principle is that the density of pathogens in the aqueous environment is presence of fecal coliforms indicates the potential affected by a variety of factors: (a) type and degree presence of disease-producing microbes (Kabler et of sewage treatment; (b) ability of microorganisms al., 1964). to survive the effects of antibiosis, predation, and Present methods depend on enumeration of lactose- chemical nature of the water; (c) dietary habits fermenting bacteria by an MPN procedure and fur- and socio-economic status of the community; (d) ther biochemical testing to establish whether these the prevalence of specific disease in the community; organisms are coliforms, fecal coliforms, or E. coli. (e) endemic conditions in the human and animal General standards have been developed to relate population; and (f) existent carrier rates in the pop- the quantitative occurrence of these various types ulation (Brezenski and Russomanno, 1969). There- to presumed acceptable or unacceptable levels of fore, the introduction of specific pathogens via fecal contamination (Hoskins, 1934; Geldreich et sewage or runoff into estuaries and coastal waters al., 1962). is not constant, but rather tends to be intermittent. Streptococcus spp. known as enterococci occur in With the uneven microorganism distribution in the gut of warm-blooded animals and man. Studies water, coupled with effects of dilution and environ- of streptococci in water and sewage have shown that mental parameters, such as temperature and salinity, these organisms can serve as indicators of fecal pol- the density and distribution of pathogenic micro- lution. The sanitary significance of fecal streptococci organisms has resulted in the search for indicator has been clarified and these bacteria can now be organisms, as opposed to looking for the individual efficiently and accurately enumerated in water sam- pathogen. More accurate and simplified techniques ples. All of the species or types of fecal streptococci for the isolation of Salmonella have been developed found in feces of human beings and animals can be in recent years so that confirmation of Salmonella isolated from sewage and water contaminated with can be achieved (Cheng et al., 1971). Despite the sewage, including estuarine and coastal waters fact that detection methods for Salmonella have (Bartley and Slanetz, 1960). A definite relationship been improved, they are still likely to be missed. between the densities of coliform bacteria and en- Where the bacteriological quality of the water is terococci in sewage has long been known (Litsky poor, fecal coliforms and salmonellae can be isolated. et al., 1953). In fact, an increase in the coliform Often in estuaries and coastal waters, wild fowl index is generally followed by a predictable increase will contribute to the salmonellae population load in the enterococcus index, with a direct relationship (Strobel, 1968). Salmonella, in recent years, have between the numbers of coliform bacteria and en- been directly isolated from polluted tidal estuaries, terococci. Unfortunately, enterococci are found else- but at low percentage recovery, i.e., 1 to 200'fecal where in nature, occurring on plants, in dairy coliforms (Brezenski and Russomanno, 1969). Ne- products, and so forth, so that sources of these vertheless, the prevalence of Salmonellac is greater microorganisms must be carefully scrutinized at each than previously thought to be. Factors, such as time of assessment (Mundt, 1964; Geldreich et al., salinity, temperature, and others associated with 1964). Because of their resistance to adverse condi- the saline environment cannot be depended upon tions, enterococci are fairly widespread. Therefore, to eliminate such pathogens. Greater survival of one must expect, and deal with, higher "natural" salmonellae and fecal coliforms in shellfish, when RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 509 the water temperature reaches below 5°C, has been ecosystem monitoring on a long-term basis, which observed by several workers. Clearly, isolation of would help to clarify the role of these organisms, is salmonella from a polluted marine environment has lacking. been improved by application of better techniques and enrichment media (Grunnet et al., 1970). How- Improved Detection of ever, these pathogens, because of the complexity of Indicator Organisms the methods required for isolation and identifica- tion, are not ordinarily searched for in an analysis Detection of indicator organisms has improved of water quality. considerably in recent years with the application of More recently the'anaerobic bacteria, i.e., the More recently the anarob batera, , the methods such as membrane filters (American Public Clostridium spp., the acid-fast bacteria, i.e., Myco- Health Association, 1971; Presswood and Brown, bacterium spp., and yeasts have been suggested as 1973) and development of techniques employing indicators of sewage pollution. Selective procedures nonfluorescing membrane filters and specific fluo- for these organisms are now being developed. Rapid antiserum (Guthrie isolation procedures are not yet available. The major and Reeder, 1969). Fluorescent antibody methods Clostridium species in polluted marine sediments for detection of Streptococcus faecalis, Escherichia have been shown to be Cl. perfrtingens, Cl. bife_- coli and Salmonella spp. are now available, improv- mentans and Cl. novyi, these representing 58 percent ing speed for processing samples over conventional of the population and reflecting the representation water quality tests, without loss of reliability (Ab- of Clostridial spp. in sewage (Matches et al., 1974). shire and Guthrie, 1972). Cl. perfringens, because it is more sewage related, In the case of the fluorescent antibody, techniques appears to be of useful sanitary significance in cases pertaining to the pathogens are more advanced than of high pollution levels. Similarlyj, the densities' of of high pollution levels. Similarly, the densities of for the indicator bacteria, although fluorescent anti- yeasts in sewage and in polluted waters have been body methods for the detection of fecal streptococci shown to be high, with Candida tropicalis, Tricho- have been developed. Recent work has demonstrated sporon cutaneous, and Rho dotorula spp. potential y the applicability of the fluorescent antibody tech- serving as useful indicator organisms. In fact, the nique employing commercially available antisera pathogenic yeast, Candida aibicanas, has been shown (Pugsley and Evison, 1974). This, no doubt, will to be a good indicator of recent human sewage usher in a new era for the use of fecal streptococci pollution (Ahearne, 1973). in conjunction with other indicator organisms. Clearly, bacteria and viruses serve as indicators of health in estuaries and coastal waters. Many studies over the years have shown that under Problems with the natural conditions, i.e., in areas untouched by the Indicator Organism Concept activities of man, a relatively stable total microbial population occurs in water and sediment. Under Confidence has been decreasing in the significance conditions of imbalance, microorganisms will achieve of the coliform group as an indicator of fecal pollu- very. high total numbers and frequently under such tion. In recently reported epidemics, pathogens have conditions will cause foul odors, unacceptable bottom been isolated from waters which, based on coliform or sediment conditions, slimes fouling fish nets and standards, should have been safe. Salmonellae have floating objects, and depletion of dissolved oxygen been isolated from water supplies containing less in the water, thereby affecting fish and other orga- than 2.2 coliforms per 100 ml. A number of such nisms. In balance, microbial populations perform a incidences where Salmonella and enteric viruses necessary function in estuaries and coastal waters. have been isolated from waters containing few de- Out of balance, the viruses, bacteria, yeasts, and tectable fecal coliforms have been documented fungi become nuisances and threaten the health of (Bonde, 1974; Dutka, 1973; Fugate et al., 1975). humans and of desirable plants and animals. The ability of coliforms to multiply in nutrient en- Microbial quality changes in estuarine and coastal riched receiving waters has been. observed. The ecosystems may prove to be valuable indicators or sanitary significance of fecal coliforms in the en- "early warning systems." However, in the case of vironment has been considered by a number of inves- ecosystem components, such bacterial groups as the tigators (Geldreich, 1966). Convincing evidence has sulfur bacteria, iron bacteria, blue green algae, and been presented, showing that viruses are more re- so forth, have not yet been sufficiently studied to sistant to chlorination than bacteria. Rates of growth be easily isolated and identified. Hence, their use and die-off of both S. typhimurium and coliform as indicator organisms is limited, particularly since organisms have been found to be different under 510 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL varying environmental conditions. Furthermore, relationships from the data presently available has conditions causing large reductions in coliforms do not been observed (Dutka, Chan and Coburn, un- not always show correspondingly reduced numbers published data). Fecal sterols may well prove useful of Salmonella (Dutka, 1973). in the future as pollution indicators, but the method The shortcomings of the coliform group as an will require substantial developmental research be- indicator of pollution have led to the increased de- fore proper evaluation and application are possible; sirability of employing the streptococci as indicators of recent and dangerous pollution. The fecal strepto- Natural Estuarine cocci rarely multiply in water, as some of the coli- Microbial Communities forms have been found to do. Thus, they offer some advantages as indicators of recent fecal pollution. Microorganisms autochthonous to a given estua- Also, it has been suggested that domestic sewage rine system play a fundamental role in mineralization pollution can be differentiated from animal wastes, and cycling of nutrients. Estimation of the microbial land runoff, and storm water pollution by fecal biomass comprising the natural flora of estuaries can coliform-fecal streptococcus ratios (Geldreich, 1972). be accomplished by direct counts and morphological In general, the fecal streptococci are more resist- observations using acridine orange staining and epi- ant to the natural water environment and to purifi- fluorescence illumination of the bacteria collected cation processes than the coliforms or fecal coliforms on non-fluorescent membrane filters. Measurement At points distant from the original source of pol- of the activity of microbial populations directly in lution, the fecal streptococci are often the only the environment can also be accomplished using indicators of the fecal nature of the pollution. methods such as uptake rates of radioactively- Studies have shown that the survival of fecal strep- labeled organic substrates (Wright, 1973) The use tococci parallel the survival of enteric viruses better of ATP to measure standing crops of microorganisms than the coliforms (Cohen and Shuval, 1973). It is widely accepted (Holm-Hansen, 1969) and the has been suggested by some workers that the fecal ATP method offers promise as an indicator of streptococci may, in some cases, provide a better estimate of the probable virus content (Cohen and The role of bacteria in the detrivore food chain The role of bacteria in the detrivore food chain Shuval, 1973). a is only beginning to be understood (Hamilton, 1973; Dissatisfaction with the fecal coliform and fecal osswall 1973. Effects of ollutants on these streptococci has led to a search for other, better natural processes require extensive study since very indicators. Coliphages (bacterial viruses) have been little information, relatively speaking, is presently suggested as indicators of sewage pollution. How- ever, no consistent relationship is observed between coliform and coliphage levels (Hilton and Stotzky, 1973). Although the complexity of the bacteriophage Deterioration of Coastal method and time required before final results are and Estuarine Waters available discount their use as indicators of fecal pollution of water, bacteriophages can serve well Many studies have shown that coliform bacteria as models for detection of enteric viral pollution of introduced into tidal, coastal, and deep sea waters water and in epidemiological applications (Scarpino, disappear rapidly. A large number and variety of 1974). factors have been shown to be involved in the die-off Pseudomonas aeruginosa is slowly gaining favor of coliforms, especially Escherichia coli, in seawater. as an indicator of water quality, especially as an Dilution, bacteriocidal action of seawater, grazing indicator of potential upper respiratory tract infec- by zooplankton, adsorption on estuarine and coastal tions (Foster et al., 1971; Kenner and Clark, 1974). sediments (Ketchum et al., 1952), salinity, effect Relatively recent approaches to estimating bac- of heavy metals in seawater (Jones, 1963; 1971), terial quality of water are uptake of phosphorus, lysis of coliforms by indigenous marine bacteria using radioactive phosphorous (Khanna, 1973), and such as Bdellovibrio spp., and bacteriophages (Mit- assay for fecal sterols for water pollution indication. chell et al., 1967; Carlucci and Pramer, 1960), low The intestinal bacterial flora is associated with pro- nutrient levels in seawater (Jannasch, 1968), day- duction of characteristic fecal sterols discharged in light (Pike et al., 1970) and temperature have been feces (Martin et al., 1973). Fecal compounds, in par- offered as explanation for the die-off of E. coli in ticular coprostanol and cholesterol, thus, have been seawater and for the absence of fecal coliforms in examined and a coliform-coprostanol relationship ocean locations far from land. Nutrients have a has been reported. However, a consistency in the marked beneficial effect on the survival of E. coli RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 511 in seawater. Some nutrients, such as cysteine, very ating water chemistry, organic pollutants, and so on likely act by chelating metal ions in seawater (Wedemyer and Wood, 1974). If the occurrence of (Scarpino and Pramer, 1962). stress coincides with the presence of pathogenic Furthermore, above certain BOD levels, viz. 1-10 microorganisms, outbreaks of disease will occur. In- mg/l initial BOD, seawater will temporarily lose its terestingly, in treated sewage the number of coli- toxicity and the maximum bacterial density becomes forms is reduced, but in the bacterial population, the dependent on the initial BOD. In fresh seawater coliforms appear to be replaced by Aeromonas which with BOD levels of 10 to 120 mg/l, the relationship multiply in the slime lining of the pipes carrying between the log of the maximum bacterial densities the sewage (Heuschmann-Brunner, 1970). The and the initial BOD appears to be linear. Thus, by quantity of Aeromonas in water can be related to themselves, total and fecal coliform bacteria may the degree of pollution. Many Aeromonas, Pseudo- not be reliable indicators of the degree of recent monas, and Vibrio species are bacterial fish patho- fecal pollution in seawater because, given sufficient gens. Marine fishes in areas exposed to pollution nutrient levels, the bacterial density will increase have been reported to show exophthalmus, open (Savage and Hanes, 1971). Growth of coliform external sores, epitheliomas, and papillomas. In bacteria, isolated from soft-shelled clams, in estua- fishes experimentally exposed to the polluted water, rine water has been demonstrated (Lear, 1962). The skin hemorrhages, opaqueness of eyes, and blindness conclusion which can be drawn from the data avail- were observed. In terminal stages fluid accumulated able is that the various factors in seawater which, in the body cavity and internal hemorrhaging oc- under clean, unpolluted conditions, will act to elimi- curred.' Aeromonas, Pseudomonas and Vibrio were nate coliforms from estuarine and coastal waters isolated from the diseased fishes. All strains isolated cannot be depended upon in waters receiving heavy from marine fishes were halophilic (Snieszko, 1974). nutrient input. In fact, increases in coliform popula- The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a relation- tions will occur and it is possible that survival of ship between incidence of disease in fish populations pathogens may be enhanced. and pollution of estuarine and coastal waters with A signal to this effect is the relative ease with domestic and industrial sewage. A weakening of the which antibiotic-resistant coliforms can be isolated fish, with subsequent invasion by microorganisms, from estuaries and coastal waters (Colwell and causing disease and/or death, appears to be related Sizemore, 1974; Feary et al., 1972). Many of these to pollution. Unfortunately, in several incidences, bacteria have been shown to harbor R factors carry- widespread distribution and prevalence of Aero- ing multiple antibiotic resistance which could be monas spp. was noted with a general lack of coliforms transferred to sensitive Salmonella typhimurium, and other sewage-related organisms. Recovery of Shigella dysenteriae, and E. coli. Of serious concern "almost pure cultures of Aeromonas spp." from the is the fact that these bacteria are isolated from shell- effluent of sewage-treatment plants has been ob- fish waters. Furthermore, chloramphenicol-resistant served, particularly in estuarine water (Snieszko, bacteria of fecal origin may pose a particular health 1974). It can only be concluded that the incidence hazard, with reference to R factors which carry re- of diseases of aquatic animals in which Aeromonas sistance determinants to chloramphenicol. Transfer plays an important role will increase. The additional of chloramphenicol resistance to Salmonella typhi, a factors of low dissolved oxygen, high temperature, water-borne organism, or to Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and pollution by chemicals, such as pesticides, pe- would make treatment of typhoid fever or V. para- troleum, and heavy metals, must contribute to out- haemolyticus food poisoning more difficult. It would breaks of infectious diseases of aquatic animals. In appear, therefore, wise for sanitary quality measure- fact, fishes although long considered important ani- ments of shellfish waters to include estimates of mals for assaying water pollution are becoming chloramphenicol-resistant fecal coliforms. An impor- valuable indicators of the environmental health of tant conclusion of the work on antibiotic-resistant bodies of water. The Chesapeake Bay is highly pol- types found in rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters luted by every type of waste. Some of the waste is that the R + E. coli comes from urban sewage causes eutrophication, with increase of bacteria and (Smith, 1970). algae and oxygen depletion. Fish kills are a frequent The coincidence of infectious disease in fishes occurrence, particularly in summer months. Epi- with stress caused by temperature, eutrophication, demics causing massive mortalities of fish in Chesa- sewage, industrial pollution, and pesticides has been peake Bay have been recorded (Snieszko, 1974). documented (Snieszko, 1974). Estuaries and coastal Deterioration of estuarine and coastal waters can areas affected by pollution expose the fish in these be detected in increased nutrient input, with con- areas to frequent stresses, i.e., unfavorable or fluctu- comitant rise in indicator or noxious microorganisms, 512 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL and in increased prevalence of disease among compo- ents can allow growth of this microorganism. Aero- nents of the natural biota, especially the commercial monas, fecal streptococci, Clostridium perfringens, fishes. Bifidobacterium, Bacillus, Thiobacillus, and direct demonstration of Salmonella spp. have all been sug- gested as indicator organisms. A conclusion that can be drawn from the data available in the liter- Indicator Organisms ature is that all of these indicators should be con- sidered and that more than one indicator organism The value of the coliform test as the principal should be examined That is,ed two r more indicator microbiological criterion for sanitary quality of estu- species should be enumerated to improve the reli- arine and coastal waters is a controversial issue ability of estimating pollution and/or human health arine and coastal waters is a controversial issue. hazard. indicator of fresh fecal pollution,-rather than total Survival of pathoens and indicator organisms in colifdoroms It is quesctionable whether colifors can estuarine and marine water and sediment is an im- coliforms. It is questionable whether coliforni can portant problem. Fecal streptoc'occi are supposed be regarded as true indicators of fecal pollution at portant problem Fecal streptococci are supposed all (Bonde, :1974). to indicate recent fecal pollution and Cl. perfringens, Results obtained from Most Probable Numbers because of its spore-forming capacity is considered (MPN) measurements have not been sufficiently to be highly resistant, hence of longer survival in examined to determine the variability of MPN data nature. Coliforms and Salmonella typhi often survive in sediment much longer than in the overlying water. Results obtained from the same area at short inter- in sediment much longer than in the overlying water. vals of time, i.e., hours, need to be examined criti- The distribution in mud reflects the effluent flow cally. If such results are extremely variable, the pattern in the overlying water, with much higher value of monitoring MPN on daily or weekly inter- densities of coliforms found in mud. Salmonellae vals is highly doubtful, can be isolated from bottom sediments with far There is no single test for the coliforms. Since greater frequency than directly from the overlying most of the E. coli strains ferment lactose, with water (Van Donsel and Geldreich, 1971; Hendricks, production of acid and gas, this characteristic is 1971). However, it should be pointed outthat the useful in presumptive, quantitative determinations. mud-water interface is not a static system' Cur- Unfortunately, recent work in microbial genetics has rents, storms, seasonal turnovers, and dredging op- shown that not all strains of B. colz are; able to erations can shift sediment, scattering it widely. ferment lactose. Furthermore, this characteristic is Such redistribution creates the additional hazard of not restricted to E. coli and may be found in other recirculation of older pollutants in lower layers of related bacteria often present in polluted waters. sediment. This, coupled with the fact that sediment Hence, false presumptive tests are not infrequent. bacteria are part of the diet of tubificid worms and Another difficulty is that coliforms may be affected other sediment-residing biota, provides a mechanism by their stay in water or sediment and may grow of concentration and transfer of coliforms and poten- slowly or even lose some of their "typical" character- tial pathogens among the indigenous fauna (Wavre istics; hence, difficulties in isolation, identification, and Brinkhurst, 1971). istandienumeration are enouxtered. Survival of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci Relatively high occurrence of "false-positives" in varies according to season. During the summer MPN estimates of fecal streptococci in estuarine months, fecal coliforms can survive slightly longer and marine waters has been reported (Buck, 1969), than fecal streptococci. During the autumn months, In heavily polluted marine waters, false-positives survival is about the same and in spring and winter, are not a problem. Mainly in estuarine or marine fecal streptococci may survive much longer than waters of low or varying salinity, all positive tubes fecal coliforms. Withn bodies of water, thermal need to be examined microscopically for the pres- transitional zones may create bacterial gradients ence of nonstreptococcal forms. In fact, an indige- especially along inshore areas, acting to confine nous population of false-positive microorganisms the nearshore area. One of th e potential growths to may exist in coastal waters. the nearshore area. One of the potential hazards of Indicator microorganisms other than coliforms such a thermal barrier, notably in estuaries, is that also pose problems. Pseudomonas spp. are widely effuents discharged into a nearshore area are not distributed in nature. Determinations of P. aerugi- diluted, as would occur under normal conditions, nosa, a known pathogen for man and warm-blooded but are containe'd by the barrier effect of a thernral animals, have been suggested for estuarine waters bar (Menon et al., 1971). Factors influencing the where high water temperatures and available nutri- survival of enteric indicator organisms have been 'RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 513 summarized in a recent symposium (Gameson, dependent upon temperature, biotic flora, degree of 1974). pollution, and virus type (Metcalf and Stiles, 1968). A virucidal activity in seawater has been demon- ·Viruses. strated, but it may have only a minor role in inacti- vating enteric viruses in estuarine and ocean wa- .During the past decade, there has been worldwide ters pThe importance of enteric viruses is not in their interest and concern that significant levels of Viruses i vi are being trnsmitted through potable ndrerea numbers but in their infectivity (Scarpino, 1974). are being transmitted through potable and recrea- tional water. Conclusive evidence for the transmis-sue-culture dose s considered to constitute sion of enteric viruses 'via this route lies in out- an infectious dose, meaning that only a few virus breaks of infectious hepatitis, where sanitary prac- particles are needed to initiate an infection in a tice or water treatment has broken down or con- susceptible host. Thus, it has been necessary only aminc or wated shellfishatment have broken consumed (Berg, con- to show the presence of viruses in water, with less taminated shellfish have been consumed (Berg, 1973). The opinion that viruses in estuaries and emphasis placed on quantitation. Since enteroviruses coastal waters pose a threat to human health can be of human origin in estuarine and coastal waters justified by the following facts. Most enteric viruses may remain infectious for a significant peod of are more resistant than indicator bacteria to in- time, depending on environmental factors it has activation by water disinfectants. Infectivity tests been suggested that enteroviruses themselves may have shown infection can be caused by one polio- serve as the most valid indicator of pollution. Polio- virus TCD50 unit (Berg, 1971). a virus and infectious hepatitis virus (hepatitis A) A consistently high endemic level of infectious have both been suggested as indicator agents. Un- hepatitis has occurred in the U.S. with the con- fortunately, the data show that virus inactivation comitant knowledge that the infectious hepatitis or die-off in marine water is unpredictable. Marine comitants relatively resistant to inactivation in the water with the same salinity collected from the same agqutic envir ent. Sp rradic outbreaks of non- site on different days may show wide variations in aquatic environment. Sporadic outbreaks of non- bacterial gastroenteritis suspected of being water- viral survival patterns (Atkins et al., 1974). borne have occurred, coupled with -a most likely Thus, the major effort, at present, in research on high endemic level of the disease. Finally, surface- water-borne viruses is in development of sensitive water domestichpolution has increased to the point methods for recovering viruses from marine waters water domestic pollution has increased to the point that direct recycling of wastewater and reclamation an deterent g times of water (Berg, 1974; Malina and of estuarine waters is very nearly a reality in the in different types of water (Berg, 1974; in and -case of some water systems (Akin et al., 1974). Sagik, 1974). Monitoring of estuarine and coastal Clearly, the danger of water transmission of enteric waters for enteric viruses will eventually be common- viral disease is great enough to warrant the more place. For the present, routine monitoring of potable careful consideration viruses are now receiving. Water and wastewater for enteric viruses is yet to More than 100 new human enteric viruses have be accomplished on a large scale. been described in the 25 years since the advent of Methods available to detect uses in water viral propagation techniques using tissue cultures are many and varied, including gauze pads for (Scarpino, 1974). All of these enteric viruses are pre-concentration in situ; membrane filter adsorp- known to be excreted in quantity in the feces of tion; electrophoresis; ultrafiltration hydroextraetion; man, including enteroviruses (poliovirus, coxsackie- precipitation, adsorption-elution; separation with virus, and echovirus),u infectious hepatitis, adeno- two-phase polymers; soluble ultrafilter; and ultra- viruses, and reoviruses. Vfciruses do not multiply centrifugation (Foliguet et al., 1973; Hill et al., outside of lireoving suseptibe ells;do not multiply 1971). The main problem in virus isolation, namely, outside of living susceptible cells; hence, human the large volumes of water that must be examined enteric viruses can be expected to decrease in num- ( up to 100 liters p er s ampling) appears to have been bers with time, even when nutrient levels are high. hjers with time, even when nutrient levels are high. (up to 100 liters per sampling) appears to have been However, the major question is how long will human Overcome (Hill et al., 1972; Sobsey et al., 1973). A enteric viruses 'survive when discharged into estua- virus concentration unit, designed by Melnick and rine and coastal waters. The plesence of enteric co-workers, is being used for virus monitoring in viruses in estuarine and ocean waters has been water supplies throughout the world. At the Inter- amply documented (Metcalf and Stiles, 1965, 1968; national Conference on Viruses rand Water, Mexico -Shuval, 1970).. Survival of enteroviruses in the City, June 9-12, 1974, it was clear that adequate marine environment has been demonstrated by a methods for concentrating large volumes of water ·number :of investigators. Enteric virus survival in for enterovirus monitoring are now available. estuary and ocean waters has been shown to be In general, the methodology for isolation and 5i4 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL characterization of indicator viruses is in the de- Efforts of Specific Effluents velopmental stage. Perfecting these techniques is on Microbial Populations the main concern of research work underway. Still unknown is how widespread viruses are in estuaries Recent work has shown that in areas receiving and coastal waters. Also, the incidence of viral dis- petroleum, pesticide, or heavy metal discharges, the eases transmitted via polluted estuarine and coastal microbial flora contains significant petroleum-de- waters is not known. Some new methods for viral grading, pesticide-metabolizing, or heavy-metal- detection may improve and speed up virus isolation mobilizing bacteria (Walker and Colwell, 1973; and characterization, viz., the use of Australian Nelson and Colwell, 1974). Similarly, in estuarine antigen as a marker for hepatitis B virus. Australian and marine waters receiving sewage, pulp mill, or antigen has already been isolated from clams con- canning wastes, the heterotrophic bacterial popula- taminated by untreated sewage from a coastal hos- tions increase significantly. The point which can be pital (Mahoney et al., 1974). Other such markers made is that these respondent bacterial species may may be discovered as research on the enteroviruses be usefully employed as markers or indicators of progresses. Survival of viruses in estuarine and such pollution. Little research effort has been coastal waters remains to be fully clarified. There directed explicitly along this line. It is suggested that is no doubt but that research to answer these ques- such efforts may prove substantially rewarding for tions must be done. those concerned with chronic, low-level environ- mental impact, where the grosser symptoms of environmental deterioration are not seen. Alteration of the Implicit in such an application is,: however, that Natural Microbial Flora extensive and relatively complete knowledge of the natural microbial flora is available. Alas, this is not so and, again, the plea which is now nearly a An aspect of the ecology of estuarine and marine cacophonic chorus, sung by botanists, zoonelogists, nis k cacophonic chorus, sung by botanists, zoologists, waters, about which next to nothing is known, is limnologists, oceanographers, and, now, micro- the alteration of the natural microbial flora induced biologists, is that baseline studies must be done. by introduction of pollutants. That bacterial species Numerous studies and countless analyses have been in an estuary demonstrate seasonal cycles has been discarded due to the lack of the necessary baseline shown (Kaneko and Colwell, 1972). It is logical to data. It is of great importance that the yardstick assume that microorganisms associated with the for measurement is available and that yardstick is biota, water, and sediment of estuaries and coastal baseline data. Unpolluted environments, as well as waters are in a delicate balance. polluted ones, must be studied to determine the Introduction of sewage, industrial wastes, or other natural balance of the autochthonous microbial pollutants will first impact upon the microffora. The species, so that impacts of pollutants can be assessed. microbial response is very rapid, within hours or days, at the most. A shifting of microbial species pollutants as heavy metals, or serve to pass polluting and physiological types will occur in response to materials on through the food chain, especially in the influx. Species selection will take place, as, for the case of filter or detritus feeders and protozoans example, the dominance of Aeromonas spp. in sewage (Wavre and Brinkhurst, 1971; Burke, Small, and effluent. The effects of such shifts in the microbial (Cowell in press) populations are completely unknown. Yet, they may result in fish kills, clam mortalities, marsh grass diseases, and noxious odors and appearance of the EVALUATION OF PRESENT STATUS receiving waters. AND RECENT ADVANCES Microbial populations may well prove to be the "fine-tuning" mechanism of the estuarine and marine There have been improvements in the methods of ecosystem. However, not enough research is being isolation and characterization of the indicator done to provide the necessary information. Since organisms of human health significance, namely, new methods for automating microbial data collec- E. coli Type I, Salmonella, Enterococci, GClostridia, tion and processing by computer have been devel- and Enteroviruses. However, the concept of a single oped (Oliver and Colwell, 1974), such questions are indicator organism as the measuring unit for the no longer so overwhelmingly complex and, in fact, health of an estuarine or coastal ecosystem is in can be answered, if the proper research effort is dispute. The indicator organisms are each subject to provided. the vagaries of environmental and-biological param- RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 515 eters, so that consistent results in survival studies accumulations of residues of these pollutants may are not always obtained. Enteroviruses appear to be building up, especially in the sediments at these be the better indicators of human health hazard sites. but the technology of virus isolation and char- acterization is cumbersome and complex, too much FUTURE NEEDS so for routine monitoring applications. Indicator organisms for measuring the health of 1. The indicator organism concept must be revised. the ecosystem itself are not available although For indications of public health dangers, combina- biological assessment of water pollution has been tions of indicator organisms should be employed, studied in Central Europe, comprising a saprobity viz., fecal coliforms, enterococci and Clostridia, or system (Bick, 1963). Estuarine and marine microbial fecal coliforms and enteroviruses, and others. The ecology, in fact, is still in its infancy, relative to advantages and disadvantages of each indicator molecular and medical microbiology. Understanding organism should be determined so that they may be of the role of microorganisms in the food chain is applied more intelligently to environmental assess- sparse and unreliable, at best. Too few competent ment. experiments have been done and much too little Additional indicator organisms must be sought igformation is available on this very important which will point to ecosystem alteration. These may aspect of the estuarine and marine ecosystem. be sulfur bacteria, iron bacteria, Aeromonas spp., or * It is obvious that microorganisms are expected to physiological groups, such as mercury-mobilizing degrade the pesticides, heavy metal compounds, bacteria or detergent-degrading microorganisms. petroleum, and other pollutants entering the estuaries Clearly, a need for ecosystem indicators is developing and coastal waters. Yet, embarrassingly little is rapidly as the demand for environmental impact known about the mineralization of these pollutants assessment increases. in situ. It is not only the pollutants that are of great Further research to determine the variability of concern, but the overall processes naturally occurring Most Probable Number (MPN) of coliforms must in any body of water, as well as the processes that be done. It is critical that the variability of this count occur when any perturbing force acts on the system. be determined, especially for given sites at short Bodies of water are in constant flux. Clearly our intervals, i.e., hours, so that the value of monitoring knowledge of processes mediated by microorganisms MPN on daily; weekly, or monthly bases can be is far too meager for appropriate management con- properly assessed. siderations. Furthermore, the realization that micro- 2. Improved methods for virus isolation and organisms may actually concentrate carcinogens identification are needed. Also, an understanding of in petroleum or convert relatively harmless virus survival in estuarine and coastal waters and petroleum components to carcinogens is only just sediment is required. More ominous are the human now being perceived by both scientists and manage- carcinogenic viruses. The presence, survival, and ment. distribution of these viruses in estuarine and coastal The improved methods for coliform, enterococci, waters must be assessed, particularly in those areas virus, Clqstridia, and other microorganism isolation receiving pollutants which can act as co-carcinogens. and characterization are directly applicable for use in 3. The impact of pollutants on the biota of the estuarine environment, The more recent work estuaries and coastal waters must be determined. on isolation of bacteria and viruses from estuarine Reports concerning diseases of fishes near sewer and coastal water provide improved methodology outfalls and in the New York Bight area are dis- useful in assessing the human health hazard extant turbing. The chronic effects of sewage and indus- in the nation's estuaries and coastal waters. trial wastes on the microflora should be examined. The information now beiqg obtained on microbial 4. There is a serious lack of knowledge of the mobilization of heavy metals, pesticides, detergents, microbial contributions to the estuarine and marine petroleum, and other pollutants in estuaries and ecosystems. The role of bacteria and other micro- coastal waters will permit better assessment of the organisms in mineralization and cycling of nutrients capability of such ecosystems to withstand the influx is, at best, vaguely understood. A great deal of re- of such pollutants. One result may prove to be that search work in both basic and applied microbial the scope and magnitude of pollutants now entering ecology is both necessary and urgent. certain of the nation's estuaries and coastal water 5. There is a genuine need for automation in our regions are beyond the capacity of the indigenous warning system. The use of fluorescent antibody microbial populations to mineralize them; hence, lasers or other scanning devices may provide auto- 516 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL matic warning systems. With such systems, bodies REFERENCES of water' may be Studied around the clock so that - oflwater' maybe tudied' aroud the c k so t*at Abshire, R. L. and R. K. Guthrie. 1972. Fluorescent antibody deviations from the normal will be immediately as a method for the detection of fecal pollution: Escherichia detected. At the present time such deviations must coli as indicator organisms. Canad. J. Microbiol. 19: be excessively large to be detected. Also, present 201-206. methods require 24 hours mninimum. for detection. Ahearne, D. G. 1973. Effects of environmental stress on Research must be done on the basic problems of aquatic yeast populations. In: L. H. Stevenson and R. R. rates of function of microbes in natural water. Since Colwell (eds), Estuarine Microbial Ecology. 'Univ. South the rates of processes will affect the environment in Carolina Press, Columbia: pp. 433-439. which indicator organisms reside, this aspect of Akin, E. W., W. F. Hill, Jr., and N. A. Clarke. 1974. Mortality estuarine microbiology must receive proper atten- of enteric viruses in marine and other waters. Proc. Internat. tion. The bulk of the literature on aquatic systems Symp. Discharge of Sewage from Sea Outfalls, London, deals with detection of indicator organisms of various types. Thus, the rates of microbially catalyzed American Public Health Association. 1971. Standard Methods processes involved in overall fluxes within aquatic for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 13th ed. systems, with' time, have not been properly assessed.. Health Assn. Inc., Clearly, insight into the operations of natural sys- Bartley, C. H. and L. W. Slanetz. 1960. Types and sanitary tems, particularly rate processes, will provide the significance of fecal streptococci isolated from feces, sewage and water. Amer. J. Publ. Health 50: 1545-1552. predictive capability for eutrophication, i.e., estab- lishment of systems that are undesirable for given Berg, G. 1971. Integrated approach to problem of viruses in reasons, whether they be economic, aesthetic; or water. J. San. Engineering Div., Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil ecological. Basic research, in this case, must precede Eng. SA 6: 867-882. the application, simply because the basic informa- Berg, G. 1973. Viruses in Waste, Renovated, and Other tion is lacking. Waters. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Publ. EPA-670/9-74-005, Cincinnati, Ohio. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ESTUARINE Berg, G. 1974. Detection of viruses in waste and other waters. MANAGEMENT AND MONITORING , (Symposium) Dev. Indust. Microbiol. 15: 135-183. Bick, H. 1963. A review of Central European methods for the Unfortunately, the recommendations offered are biological estimation of water pollution levels. Bull. Wld. the obvious, namely, to restrict or thoroughly treat Hlth. Org. 29: 403-413. domestic and industrial wastes entering the nation's estuaries. Increased nutrient loads are resulting in Bonde, G. J. 1974. Bacterial indicators of sewage pollution. Proc. Internat. Symp. Discharge Sewage from Sea Outfalls, alterations in the microbial flora, with dominance of London, Paper No. 5. In Press. nuisance or pathogenic species. Control of petroleum discharge, as one example, into the estuarine en- Brezenski, F. T. and R. Russomanno. 1969. The detection and use of Salmonellae in studying polluted tidal estuaries. vironment is mandatory, if the commercial fisheries J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 41: 725-737. and natural wetlands are to be preserved. . . 5 Better control of land use, particularly retention of Bdck, J. D. 1969. Occurrence of false-positive most probable number tests for fecal streptococci in marine waters. Appl. marsh areas and wetlands, is required. The wetlands Microbiol. 18: 562-565. may be the "natural septic system" of the estuaries and wider oscillations in the microbial populations Carlucci, A. F. and D. Pramer. 1960. An evaluation of factors may occur, if the natural "buffering effect" of the affecting the survival of Escherichia coli in sea water. 'IV. wetland areas is not preserved. Bacteriophages. Appl. Microbiol. 8: 254-256. wetland areas is not preserved. Finally, better use must be made of microbial Cheng, C. M., W. C.-Boyle, and J. M. Goepfert. 1971. Rapid indicators. They are, indeed, the "early-warning" quantitative method for Salmonella detection in polluted system of the estuarine and coastal zones. More waters. Appl. Microbiol. 21: 662-667. intelligent use of microbial indicators and a wider range of indicator organisms are needed. Early or Cohen, J. and H. I. Shuval. 1973. Coliforms, fecal coliforms,1 range ofndiatrogansmarnede.Erlyoand fecal streptococci as indicators of Water pollution. chronic, environmental effects may be detectable, if Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 2: 85-95. the microbial indicators are employed wisely and carefully. The estuaries and coastal zones of the Colwell, R. R. and R. K. Sizemore. 1974. Drug' resistadnt nation are a valuable resource. It is both appropriate bacteria in the marine environment. Proc. Marine Technol. Soc. pp. 427-430. and timely that we harness the microorganisms. They may well tell us more about the environment Dutka, B. J. 1973. Coliforms are an inadequate index of 'water than we had imagined to be possible. ' quality. J. Environ. Health 36: 39-46. RESEARCH APPLICATIONS' 517 Eijkman, C. 1904. The fermentation test at 46°C as a, me'ans Hill, W. F., Jr., E. W. Akin, W. H. Benton, and T. G. Metcalf. of testing potable water. Zentr. Bakteriol. Parasitenk., I, 1972. Virus in water. II. Evaluation of membrane cartridge Orig. (Ger.) 37: 742. filters for recovering low multiplicities of poliovirus from water. Appl. Microbiol. 23: 880-888. Escherich, T. 1885. The intestinal bacteria of infants. Fortschr. Med. (Ger.) 3: 515. Hilton, M. C. and G. Stotzky. 1973. Use of coliphages as indicators of water pollution, Canad. J. Microbiol. 19: Feary, T. W., A. B. Sturtevant, Jr., and J. Lankford. 1972. 747-751. ;Antibiotic-resistant coliforms in fresh and salt water. Arch. Environ. Health 25: 215-220. Holm-Hansen, 0. 1969. Determination of microbial biomass in ocean profiles. Limnol. Oceanogr. 14: 740-747. Foliguet, J.-M., J. Lavillaureix, and L. $chwartzbrod. 1973. Virus et eaux: II. Mise en evidence desCvirus dans le milieu Hoskins, J. K. 1934. Most probable numbers for evaluation hydrique. Mem. Origin. Rev. Epidem., Med. Soc. et Sante of Coli-Aerogenes tests by fermentation' tube methods. Publ. 21: 185-259. Public Health Repts. (U.S.) 49: 393-405. Foster, D. H., N. B. Hanes, and S. M. Lord. 1971. A critical Jannasch, 'H. W. 1968. Competitive elimination of Entero- examination of bathing water quality standards. J. Water bacteriaceae from seawater. Appl. Bacteriol. (G.B.) 16: 1616. Poll. Control Fed. 43: 2229-2241. Jones, G., E; 1963. Suppression of bacterial growth by sea- Fugate, K. J., D. O. Cliver, and M; T. Hatch. 1975. Entero- water. Symposium on Marine Microbiology 53: 572-579. viruses and potential bacterial indicators in Gulf Coast oysters. J. Milk Food Technol. 38: 100-104. Jones, G. E. 1971. The fate of freshwater bacteria in the sea. Devel. Ind. Microbiol. 12: 141-151. Gameson, A. J. H. (ed.). 1974. Proceedings of the Interna.- tional Symposium on Discharge of Sewage from Sea Out- tionall Symposiumon Discharge of Sewage from Sea Out- Kabler, P. W., H. F. Clark, and E. E. Geldreich. 1964. Sani- falls, London. In Press. tary significance of coliform and fecal coliform organisms in surface water. Publ. Health Repts: 79: 58-60. Geldreich, E. E. 1966. Sanitary significance of fecal coliforms in the environment. Water Pollution Control Research Series No. WP-20-3, U.S. Dept. Interior, Federal Water Kaneko, T. and R. R. Colwell. 1972. Ecology of Vibrio Pollution Control, November. parahaemolyticus in Chesapeake Bay. J. Bacteriol. 113: 24-32. Geldreich, E. E. 1972. Buffalo Lake recreational water quality: A study in bacteriological data interpretation. Kenner, B. A. and H. P. Clark. 1974. letection and enumera- Water Res. 6: 913-924. tion of Salmonella and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Water Pollution Control 46(9): 2163-2171. Geldreich, E. E., B. A. Kenner, and P. W. Kabler. 1964. Occurrence of coliforms, fecal coliforms, and streptococci Ketchum, B. 'H., J. C. Ayers, and R. F. Vaccaro. 1952. on vegetation and insects. Appl. Microbiol. 12: 63-69. Processes contributing to the decrease of coliform bacteria in a tidal estuary. Ecology 33: 247-258. Geldreich, E. E., R. H. Bordner, C. B. Huff, H. F. Clark, and P. W. Kabler. 1962:' Type distribution of coliform bacteria in the feces of warm-bloode d an imals. J. Water Khanna, P. 1973. Enumeration and differentiation of water Poll. Control Fed. 4: 295-301. bacteria with phosphorus-32. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. :45: 262-268. Grunnet, K., A. Gundstrup, and G. J. Bonde. 1970. Isolation of Salmonella from a polluted marine environment, tech- Lear, D. W. 1962. Growth of coliform bacteria in estuarine nique and enrichment media. Rev. Intern. Oceanogr. Med. waters. Chesapeake Science 3: 160-165. 17: 165-177. Litsky, W., M. J. Rosenbaum and R. L. France. 1953. A Guthrie, R. K. and D. J. Reeder. 1969. Membrane filter- comparison of the most probable numbers of coliform fluorescent-antibody method for detection and enumeration bacteria and enterococci in raw sewage. AppI. Microbiol. of bacteria in water. Appl. Microbiol. 17: 399-401. 1: 247-250. Hamilton, R. D. 1973. Interrelationships between bacteria Litsky, W., W. L. Mallmann, and C. W. Fifield. 1955. Com- and protozoa. In: L. H. Stevenson and R. R. Colwell (eds), parison of the most probable numbers of Escherichia coli Estuarine Microbial Ecology. Univ. South Carolina Press, and enterococci in river waters. Amer. J. Publ. Health 45: Columbia: pp. 491-497. . 1049-1053. Hendricks, C. W. 1971. Increased recovery rate of Salmo- Mahoney, P., G. Fleischner, I. Millman; W. T. London, B. S. nellae from stream bottom sediments versus surface waters. Blumberg, and I. M. Arias. 1974. Australia antigen: De- Appl. Microbiol. 21: 379-380. tection and transmission in shellfish. Science 183: 80. Heuschmann-Brunner, G. 1970. Die Aeromonaden in der Malina, J. F. and R. P. Sagik. 1974. Virus survival in water Hydrobiologie. Z. Wasser Abwasser Forschung (WAF) 3: and wastewater systems. Water Resources Symp. No. 7, 40-41. Center for Res. in Water Res., Univ. of Tekas, Austin. Hill, W. F., Jr., E. W. Akin, and .W. H. Benton. 1971. Detec- Martin, W. J.,-M. T. Ravi Subbiah, B. A. Kottke, C. C. Kirk, tion of viruses in water: A review of methods and applica- and M. C. Naylor. 1973. Nature of fecal sterols and intes- tion. Water Res. 5: 967-995. tinal bacterial flora. Lipids 8: 208-215. 518 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Matches, J. R., J. Liston, and D. Curran. 1974. Clostridium Scarpino, P. V. 1974. ,Human enteric:viruses and bacterio- perfringens in the environment. Appl. Microbiol. 28: phages as indicators of sewage pollution. Proc. Int. Symp. 655-660. Discharge of Sewage from Sea Outfalls, London, Paper No. 6. Menon, A. S., B. J. Dutka, and A. A. Jurkovic. 1971. Pre- liminary bacteriological investigation of the Lake Ontario Scarpino, P: V. and D. Pramer. 1962. Evaluation of factors thermal bar. Proc. 14th Conf. Great Lakes Res., Internat. affecting the survival of Escherichia coli in sea water. VI. Assoc. Great Lakes Res., pp. 59-68. Cysteine. Appl. Microbiol. 10: 436-440. Metcalf, T. G. and W. C. Stiles. 1965. The accumulation of Shuval, H. I. 1970. The detection and control of enteroviruses enteric viruses by the oyster, Crassostrea virginica. J. Infect. in the water environment. In: H. I. Shuval (ed), Develop- Dis. 115: 68-76. ments in Water Quality Research. Ann Arbor-Humphrey Science Publishers, Ann Arbor: p. 47. Metcalf, T. G. and W. C. Stiles. 1968. Enteroviruses within an estuarine environment. Amer. J. Epidemiol. 88: 379-391. Smith, H. W. 1970. Incidence in river water of Escherichia coli containing R factors. Nature 228: 1286-1288. Mitchell, R., S. Yankofsky, and H. W. Jannasch. 1967. Lysis of Escherichia coli by marine microorganisms. Nature Snieszko, S. F. 1974. The effects of environmental stress on 215: 891-893. outbreaks of infectious diseases of fishes. J. Fish. Biol. 6: 197-208. Mundt, J. O. 1964. Sanitary significance of streptococci from plants and animals. Health Lab. Sci. 1(3): 159-162. Sobsey, M. D., C. Wallis, M. Henderson, and J. L. Melnick. 1973. Concentration of enteroviruses from large volumes Nelson, J. D., Jr., and R. R. Colwell. 1974. The ecology of of water. Appl. Microbiol. 26: 529-534. mercury resistant bacteria in Chesapeake Bay. J. Microbial Ecology. In Press. Strobel, G. A. 1968. Coliform-fecal coliform bacteria in tidal waters. J. San. Eng. Div., Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engineers SA4: 641-656. Oliver, J. D. and R. R. Colwell. 1974. Computer program designed to follow fluctuations in microbial populations and its application in a study of Chesapeake Bay micro- of Salmonella to fecal coliforms inh bottom sediments. flora. Appl. Mirobiol. 28: 185-192. of Salmonellae to fecal colnforms in bottom sediments. flora. Appl. Microbiol. 28: 185-192. Water Res. 5: 1079-1087. Pike, E. B., A. L. H, Gameson, and J. D. Gould. 1970. Mor- Walker, J. D. and R. R. Colwell. 1973. Microbial ecology of tality of coliform bacteria in sea water samples in the dark. petroleum utilization in Chesapeake Bay. In: API/EPA/ Rev. Intern. Oceanogr. Med. 18-19: 97-106. USCG Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil Spills. Amer. Pet. Inst. pp. 685-691. Presswood, W. G. and L. R. Brown. 1973. Comparison of Gelman and Millipore membrane filters for enumerating Wavre, M. and R. O. Brinkhurst. 1971. Interactions between fecal coliform bacteria. Appl. Microbiol. 26: 332-336. some tubificid oligochaetes and bacteria found in the sediments of Toronto Harbour, Ontario. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Pugsley, A. P. and L. M. Evison. 1974. Immunofluorescence Can. 28: 335-341. identification of fecal streptococci using commercially- available antisera.n Wo ater Res. 8: 725-728. Wedemeyer, G. A. and J. W. Wood. 1974. Stress as a predis- posing factor in fish diseases. U.S. Dept. Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Div. Coop. Res., Washington, D.C., Rosswall, T. (Ed.). 1973. Modern methods in the study of Leaflet FDL-38. microbial ecology. Bull. 17, Ecological Research Commit- tee, Swedish Natural Science Research Council, Uppsala, Wright, R. T. 1973. Some difficulties in using "C-organic solutes to measure heterotrophic bacterial activity. In: L. H. Stevenson and R. R. Colwell (eds), Estuarine Micro- Savage, H. P. and N. B. Hanes. 1971. Toxicity of sekwater to bial Ecology, Univ. South Carolina Press, Columbia: pp. coliform bacteria. J. Water Poll. Contr. Fed. 43: 854-861. pp. 199-217. NATIONAL ESTUARINE MONITORING PROGRAM PHILIP A. BUTLER U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Gulf Breeze, Florida ABSTRACT About 8,000 samples of estuarine molluscs were monitored for pesticide residues in the period 1965-1972. Residue trends and typical pollution situations are briefly described. Beginning in 1972, fish were substituted for molluscs. The basic needs for a continuing monitoring program are described. INTRODUCTION point that estuarine molluscs could be utilized as biological tools to monitor levels of synthetic chlo- The importance of estuaries as either temporary or rinated pesticides in the field (Butler, 1967). It was permanent homes for a majority of the commercially recognized that residue data from field samples would important fish and shellfish led to numerous early not be entirely comparable to data obtained in studies on man-induced changes that might affect the laboratory exposure tests. Still, within certain limits, viability of these essential ecosystems. Preeminent field data would indicate the kinds of pollutants among early studies were efforts to define the role of present and whether the levels of contamination persistent pesticides which could collect in or pass posed a threat to the biota or to human health. through estuarine systems in surface runoff from in July 1965, the Gulf Breeze Environmental rivers to the sea. Research Laboratory, at the time part of Interior's Concern about the potential threat of such pollu- Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, initiated a com- tants in the marine environment was heightened prehensive estuarine monitoring program in coopera- by the occurrence of significant kills of fish and other tion with other federal and state agencies in 15 non-target organisms in rivers and tidal marsh areas. coastal states. That such kills were primarily accidental did not Laboratory studies had shown that molluscs decrease the possibility that less obvious but not containing moderate pesticide residues were able to necessarily less significant events might be taking eliminate them in about two weeks in the absence of place as a result of chronic, low levels of pesticide continuing pesticide pollution in their environment. contamination in estuaries. It was not known to Consequently, the monitoring program was organ- what extent such contamination might follow the ized so as to sample oyster, mussel, or clam popula- use of registered synthetic chemicals for the control tions, depending on species availability, at 30-day of plant and animal pests in the surrounding drainage intervals for a proposed 5-year period in each geo- basin. graphic area. Such a program could identify not To assess the significance of persistent chemical only seasonal pollutional patterns but also long-term residues it has been necessary to monitor their exist- trends. ence, magnitude, and seasonality in the environ- In the period 1965-72, approximately 8,000 ment. These field data, however, are useful only to samples were analyzed for chlorinated pesticides. the extent that the effects of these chemicals on the The data show that high levels of pesticide residues most sensitive life stages of significant species in the occurred in molluscs from estuaries associated with estuarine community are understood. Such informa- intensive agriculture, with large volumes of munici- tion must be gained under controlled laboratory con- pal waste discharge, and with industrial wastes from ditions and, regrettably, data of this type are still pesticide manufacturing plants. In many areas, mostly fragmentary. there was good correlation between the fluctuating levels of residues in molluscs and the seasonal agri- MONITORING BIVALVE SHELLFISH cultural use of pesticides. The overall picture of pesticide pollution in the However, laboratory studies of the eastern oyster nation's estuaries as revealed by the monitoring and related molluscs had progressed by 1965 to the data was one of widespread contamination with 519 520 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL DDT and its metabolites but at generally low (non- to sUispect this amount of DDT would be harmful to toxic) levels. In a few areas DDT residues were oysters themselves, nor are oysters preyed on in large enough to suggest damage to the fauna but at nature to the extent that tissue residues of this no time was a human health problem indicated magnitude would be detrimental to some carnivoire- (Butler, 1973). including'man. Nonetheless; 'these residues would DDT residues in estuarine molluscs peaked in the prevent the oysters being legally harvested. In this 1968-69 period. Since then there has been a well- instance, the use of DDT would have increased food defined decline in the number of positive samples production on the farm and reduced it in the sea. and in the magnitude of residues in nearly all The cure, again, is the utilization of a less persistent estuarine areas. The decrease in the number of pesticide either alone or in combination with some samples with detectable residues has been as much biological control of the agricultural pests. as 66 percent in areas where adequate data are avail- The third situation was encountered on the able for evaluation. Georgia coast. Oysters monitored in St. Simons Sound in 1967 were found to contain toxaphene Data Utilization residues, a pesticide not known to have been used in the area. Levels of toxaphene in water and sedi- onitoring data can be of inestimable value in ments were high enough to admit the possibility of Moniorig daa cn b of nesimabe vlue damage to many faunal groups. By the judicious detecting pesticide pollution sources and in develop- d amage t o man y faunal groups, By the judicious ing the background information necessary for the placement of trays of oysters to monitor upstream efficient management of estuarine systems. In this sites, increasingly large toxaphene residues were monitoring program, three characteristic pollution accumulated, and the source of the pollutant was situations have been identified and a description of identified as a component of the waste in the effluent them will illustrate the general usefulness of moni- of a pesticide manufacturing facility. In this case, toring data in establishing some of the guidelines for identification of the source resulted in a cleanup of toring data in establishing some of the guidelines forthcoamnedrvrbtmbyrdggadte regulating the manufacture and registration of the contaminated river bottom by dredging and the pesticides. construction of evaporation ponds for onshore pesticides. disposal of the toxic effluents. The Rio Grande River Basin on the south Texas disposal of the toxic efuents. coast is an area of intensive farming of grain, citrus, and fiber crops. The subtropical climate permits MONITORING ESTUARINE FISH multiple harvests annually. During the mid-1960's, the recommended farm use of pesticides in this area The gradual decline in pesticide residues in was about five times the amounts recommended in monitored oysters during 1970-72 pointed out the neighboring river basins. Oysters monitored in the need for a pollution yardstick that would be indica- Laguna Madre consistently contained DDT residues tive over a longer interval of time. The monthly ef- about five times that of oysters from other Texas fort in monitoring oysters no longer seemed war- estuaries. There is good evidence that the DDT ranted in view of the continuing absence of positive residues in the food of speckled seatrout in this area samples in many areas. Both laboratory and field were large enough to seriously interfere with the de- data had shown that, in contrast to molluscs, persis- velopment of the young. It seems clear, in retrospect, tent pesticides accumulate with time in fish tissues. that the registered use of persistent pesticides on Older fish in polluted waters contain progressively Rio Grande Basin farmlands permitted the agricul- larger pesticide or trace element residues than do tural segment of the economy to work to the detri- younger fish. However, body residues in individual ment of the local fishing industry. The continued fish fluctuate unpredictably. This may be the result use of DDT would have eventually eliminated the of dietary stress, spawning, or some other normal seatrout. The demonstrated need for pest control metabolic process. throughout the year in this area requires the sub- Since fish are readily available, a revised program stitution of non-persistent pesticides and biological was initiated in 1972 to monitor them in all of the controls which will not degrade the environment. principal estuaries of the United States and its In southwest Florida, however, the use of DDT territories. Certain criteria were established to on maturing corn and sugar cane was distinctly minimize unknown fluctuations. Sample size was seasonal. The runoff from farmlands in the Caloo- increased to 50 individuals. Fish are sampled during sahatchee River Basin contained sufficient DDT their first year prior to spawning. This narrows the during the February-April period in 1967 and 1968 time in which residues could be acquired and avoids so that residues in local oysters were above the their loss in gamete production. Both particle-feeder suggested 'action' level of 5 ppm. There is no reason and carnivorous fish are monitored in each estuary RESEARCH APPLICATIONS 521 to broaden the possibility of finding any pollutants of recycling between the physical and biological present. During the first two years,of the program, substrates in the estuary. Or, alternatively, these fish were monitored semi-annually to determine residues may be the result of a continuing influx whether this was necessary or whether annual of DDT from up-river reservoirs in farm soils and collections might be sufficiently informative. river sediments. It is apparent. that the monitoring of estuarine Data Utilization fauna for persistent chemicals remains a continuing Data Utilization' need. We must be in a position to gauge the effective- ness of legal restraints on the usage of known Analyses of the more than 1,500 samples of pollutants as well as be able to detect at an early estuarine fish (37,500 individuals) monitored since at e apeabe o te a nk date the appearance of other, perhaps still unknown, July 1972 show that, in a majority of areas ' DDT persistent chemicals that may be toxic to the biota and other chlorinated pesticide residues have not been detectable. These data confirm the trend found or endanger man's food supply. inr the molluscan monitoring and show that this type of estuarine pollution has indeed declined since the REFERENCES restriction in DDT use. The analyses show, too, that in those 'few estuaries where oysters were that in thosefewestuaries where oysterswere Butler, Philip A. 1967. Pesticide residues in estuarine mol- grossly polluted with DDT during the 1965-72 lusks. In: Proc. of the National Symposium on Estuarine monitoring, yearling fish still have significantly large Pollution. Stanford University, Stanford. Butler, Philip A. 1973. Organochlorine residues in estuarine DDT residues. These residues, in the absence of the mollusks, 1965-72-National Pesticide Monitoring Pro- agricultural use of DDT, are presumably the results gram. Pest. Monit. Jour., 6(4): 238-362. -I · ·: - -; I T; A BRIEF ASSESSMENT OF ESTUARY MODELING-- RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND FUTURE TRENDS R. J. CALLAWAY U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Corvallis, Oregon ABSTRACT A brief, very informal, overview of estuarine modeling is presented; the great variety in estuarine environmental settings is exhibited with east and west coast examples. Typical problems con- fronted by the environmental scientist and engineer are discussed as well as some of the solution techniques employed to solve them. INTRODUCTION structure of a given estuarine research program. Suffice it to say that the field investigation designed Estuaries are classified according to their vertical with a sample scheme based on a "good" model has salinity and velocity profiles. For the simplest sys- several orders of magnitude greater chance of tem, the profiles exhibit little vertical gradient in bringing glory to its research team than to one that either parameter. More complex systems, such as simply "samples." fjords, can exhibit several changes in current direc- tion in the vertical. Tidally affected rivers are also sometimes referred to as estuarine although ocean- PROGRESS IN THE LAST FIVE YEARS ographers consider the estuary section of a river as that containing a measurable amount of salt. Progress has been made in many aspects of There are many categories of "models." One estuarine simulation techniques in recent years. distinction that is made here is between a research Theoretical development has been relatively slow model, which an investigator may never document, except in the case of fjords, which have not been and a production model, which might be implemented especially amenable to treatment due mostly to a as a tool for management decision making (one lack of observational data. The so-called partially- popular catch-phrase underlying present day funding mixed estuaries are also at an intermediate stage rationalizations). of development because of difficulties in treating Usually, no model is ever "final" since it is vertical exchange processes. Theoreticians have been continually being revised as research develops. This wrestling with this aspect for several years with little is particularly true in estuarine systems where the success. Indeed, many believe that a whole new dynamics of motion and dispersion of pollutants is theoretical approach will be required although it is highly complex. Added difficulties are encountered in difficult to envision a breakthrough which will lend the modeling of chemical and biological interactions. itself to practical application in the near future. For best use, feedback between the modelers and In lieu of analytical solutions of differential equa- the experimenters is required on a continuous and tions, numerical solutions can be employed. The cooperative basis. All too often problems arise due former method is used on simplified, general, re- to a lack of communication between the two groups, presentations of a given system. The simplifying the modelers usually earning a reputation of the tail- assumptions employed allow investigations of many wagging-the-dog. aspects of a system by, usually, rather formidable Some would suggest that a bad model is better mathematical devices. When the devices aren't than no model at all since it does at least make an available or the system is too complex, then recourse investigator think about the system, formalize his to numerical methods is employed and the computer concepts, and make orderly what could otherwise be is used to carry out the relatively simple but extremely a chaotic field investigation. A good model will be a repetitive algebraic operations. There is a place for plus, of course, and can be the basis for the formal both methods; as a rule of thumb, research models 523 524 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL are initially of the analytical variety while produc- East Coast tion models are an end product of research and employ numerical integration techniques. First, consider a simulation on a small (25 sq. Of considerably more interest to environmental nautical miles (n.m.)) well-mixed embayment on scientists has been progress in analyzing chemical the east coast of the United States--Jamaica Bay, and biological interactions. While it is a necessity to N.Y. This work was performed by Dr. J. J. simulate hydrodynamic processes in the best possible Leendertse and his associates at the Rand Corpora- manner, so-called pollution problems usually are tion with financial support mainly from the city of concerned with the input and effect of anthropogenic New York. As stated by Leendertse (1970) the study materials in the estuary or environment. If a pol- was "... .intended as a first step toward providing a lutant is to be so considered then it must affect the tool for a quantitative assessment of an environ- human population either directly or through a mental problem, i.e., the study of technical alter- certain chain of events. This chain may be initialized natives in the management of fluid waste discharges -by the uptake of materials by a given organism not in well-mixed estuaries and coastal seas." primarily utilized by man. Pollution, as defined by a The work developed in stages-from representing government organization, for instance, may not be tidal motion in the system, verification of hydraulics, extant until several higher organisms have con- simulation of dissolved oxygen and coliform con- centrated the substance to a detectable level-one centrations, and a determination of the effect of which may or may not have deleterious effects on storm water overflow on the system. The study is man. This kind of process has been known for many essentially complete; an evaluation of the 'benefits years, of course, but only recently have models been derived from this well-conducted effort in proportion developed to the point of practical application, i.e., to the costs incurred has not yet been made available. analysis or synthesis of these events. However, the project was designed to assess the Many of the models used today are variations of effectiveness of several multi-million dollar sewage the rabbit and fox theme: a given population of treatment schemes in the bay area. It is safe to rabbits is preyed upon by foxes; the fox population conclude that the project costs are a minute fraction grows due to plentitude of food; both populations of the construction costs to be expended. A benefit/ increase up to a point where the 'rabbits become cost ratio greater than I can only be determined if scarce due to excessive predation. Eventually the fox construction cost savings were suggested by the population dies off due to starvation until a new model. It is quite possible that the model could equilibrium point is reached, and the cycle begins project alternatives that would prove more costly anew. Such events can be, and are, studied by than ,the initial plan costs but of more benefit to mathematical models, each population being rep- :water quality. No doubt the economists have an resented by a differential equation with appropriate appropriate ratio for this not unlikely event. growths and death rates, and so 'forth. Interaction between the two is accomplished in the mathematical West. Coast treatment by coupling the equations through, e.g., a predation' term. This explanation, while overly simplistic, illustrates many of the simulations of way, et al., (1969) is described. The system studied plankton growth and dieoff now analyzed through was the Columbia River from the Pacific Ocean to numerical experimentation. Many other reactions Bonneville Da m (146 m iles, plus many islands and are also described in terms of this approach. It might tributaries); rather vast a nd vastly different from be said that the easy part of the analysis is the Jam aica Bay. During low runoff periods, the lower mathematics; obtaining the right relationships, co- mathematics; obtaining the right relationships, co- 25 n.m. of the system are, by oceanographic def- efficients, their forms and dependencies is, and will 25 itions, of the system re b oceanographic def- initions, estuarine. The problem here was based on remain, the difficult part of the problem. a federal government decision to model the a federal government decision "... to model the Columbia River system from the Canadian border to SOME EXAMPLES the Pacific Ocean for the purpose of evaluating existing and/or potential thermal pollution problems." It will be assumed that the reader is unfamiliar The first part of the study consisted of a descrip- with the models that have been developed for, or tion of the mathematical methods used, and the applied to, the systems to be described. What do theory and documentation of the program. The these models do and, equally important, what don't second part described input and verification pro- they do? cedures, provided a test program, and gave examples RESeARCH APPLICATiONS: 525 of output. The authors end with the following pace '-ahead of the next. generation of computer admonition: "If a slide rule will do the work don't juggernauts;) use this model or anyone else's." In summary, 'we seem to have gone through a As a final example, the fjord system of Puget period of extensive model development; in some Sound is briefly discussed. This work is presently degree progress has been in parallel with-advances being supported by the EPA with Dr. Donald in computer hardware. Computerized model de- Winters, University of Washington, as principal in- velopment, involving numerical witchcraft, has vestigator. This study is more complex than the two rapidly caught up with, and is capable of treating, just mentioned, due in part to the lack of, and what we'know of biochemical interactions. Further difficulty in obtaining, observational data upon which progress will be at a slower rate in the future because to develop theory. It is more comprehensive in that basic research is required on all aspects of estuarine it is a grant objective to demonstrate ways in which problems, includiing hydrodynamics. such models can be used in the numerical assessment ' In this day of "mission oriented" research, there of biological activity in fjords. To date, the project is a' danger in neglecting non-mission identified has determined several important features' con- programs: This neglect is, of course, pitiful in the cerning nutrient limitation and the effect of light extreme when the neglecter is also a federal penetration on plankton growth (Winters, et al., 'budgeteer. 1975). In addition, it has provided hydrodynamic input (Winters, 1973) to a commercial production model of parts of the sound. ' ' ... REFERENCES' Callaway, 'R. 'J. K. V. Byranmi, and G. R. Ditsworth. 1969. FUTURE TRENDS AND NEEDS Mathematicd model of the Columbia River from the Pacific Ocean to Bonneville Dam. Part I. Theory, program Most of the major needs relating to simulation notes, nd programs. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Pac. N.W. models of estuarine phenomena do not -concern modeling as such, but basic research on vertical Leendertse, J. J. 1970. A Water-Quality Simulation Model diffusion processes, kinetics of sedimentation proces- for Well-Mixed Estuaries and Coastal Seas: Volume I, Principles of Computation. The Rand Corp. Memorandum ses, air-sea interactions, rate processes of uptake by RM-6230-RC. organisms, and so on. Model building is an interest- ing and useful occupation and proceeds at a greater Ward, G. and W. Espey. 1971. Estuarine Modeling: An rate than fundamental research on the aforemen- Assessment. Capabilities and Limitations for Resource rate than fundamental research on the aforemen- Management and Pollution Control. Sup. of Docs. Wash- tioned subjects. This is fortunate since the model ington, D.C. St. No. 5501-0129. can be used to guide that research, point out short- cuts, arouse suspicion of results, and suggest linkages Winters, D. F. 1973. A Similarity Solution for Steady-State Gravitational Circulation in Fjords. Est. and Coast Mar. that would not be apparent without recourse to a ' Sci. 1:387-400. model which is capable of thinking in a nonlinear fashion. (Lord Rayleigh and a few other selected Winters, D. F., K. Banse, and G.. C. Anderson. 1975. The individuals are capable of nonlinear intuition'. One Dynamics of Phytoplankton Blooms in Puget Sound, a individuals are capable of nonlinear intuition'. One Fjord in the Northwestern United States. Mar. Biol. can only hope that his like will continue to remain a 29:139-176. PORTS FACTORS BEARING ON POLLUTION CONTROL IN U.S. PORTS LOCATED IN ESTUARINE AREAS EDWARD LANGLOIS Portland Harbor Pollution Abatement Committee Portland, Maine ABSTRACT Ports must meet environmental demands during a period when they are faced with abrupt changes in terminal design and operations. Attention must be given to increased costs, due to delays and confusions that will affect the economic productivity of our ports. Additional and equal attention must be placed on the effect port development will have on the existing and future ecology of our estuarine areas. INTRODUCTION FUNCTION AND TRENDS OF U.S. PORTS Concern for the port environment is a recent phenomenon-10 years ago, the concern did not exist If.we are to give proper attention to the subject, on a broad basis as it does today. Admittedly, it is it is necessary to place in perspective the role U.S. ports play in our economy today, and the projection still a new field in which the government and indus-in coe of "things to come." The value of U.S. port opera- try along with individuals are seeking ways of tions and their impact on our economy are shown in operating within new legislation and guidelines. Environmental concerns at the level we know them today have grown so suddenly, U.S. ports have found it necessary to make immediate adjustments [FOREIGN to cope with them. These concerns include: legisla- T tion, federal agencies, dredging-disposal of spoils, - TOTAL OF DOMESTIC & FOREIGN federal permits, environmental impact statements, 1 B-S00 M i disposal of oily wastewater and ballast water, dis- , posal of sanitary wastes, dilapidated piers-floating debris, land acquisition, oil spills, coastal zone man- agement, deepwater ports, insurance demands, and X7 vessel traffic safety systems. Ports are also faced with abrupt changes in ter- q minal and vessel design and operations, including increased size of petroleum and hazardous liquid carriers, super cargo ships in the container trade, 500 M bulk carriers, lash and feeder ships, tug-barge con- cepts, speedy hydro-foils, catamarans and surface effect ships, conversion or abandonment of finger piers, reclaiming flat lands for multi-million dollar - E container facilities, specialized ports, and regional 0 1947 1957 1962 1972 port concepts. The ship operator and customer con- YEAR tinue to demand fast turn arounds. All have environ- FIGURE 1.-Waterborne commerce in U.S., calendar year mental implications. 1947-1972 in million of tons (2,000 lbs.). 529 530 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL PETROLEUM AND PRODDCTS /.% LUMBER2 42.1% 5 ALL OTHERS 12.4% COAL AND COKE 13.4% SEASHEL \ AN IRON ORE GRAVEL , /t y l s RAND AND / |STONE 2.2% 2.7% 7.8% FORE GN COMMERCE DOMESTIC COMMERCE 1972 figuresETROLEUM AND PRODUCTS PETROLEUM AND PRODUCTShown dolar.3% income providing livelihood for over 1 43.2 % COAL AND COKE ALL OTH8RS COAL AND COKE ALL OTHERS 10.5% 95 1 15.2% 1Us 1.BI RVEL T Ois shown in Figure 1,. and the principal commodities to 2000. LUMBER 4.? % 'SAND, GtR/.YEL, 22 7 FIGuRF, 2.-Principal commodities parried by water-calendar year 1972 total commerce. 1972 figures, released by the U.S. Maritime Admin- carried by water for calendar year 1972 are shown istration: "Port commerce totals over 1.6 billion ini Figure 2. tons contributing 30 billion dollars annually in direct dollar income providing livelihood for over 1.2 mil- VESSEL TRAFFIC liq people-representing over 3 billion dollars in terminal facility mivestments." Two excellent studies were recently completed, The growth trend in port commerce since 1947 projecting future tonnage at United States ports is Shown in Figure lj and the principal commodities to 2000.1 H PORTS 531 DOMESTIC SHIPPING 700 2 Billion =T anker Capacity Required m 60°0 011 =Dry Cargo Ship Capacity Required I it 1.5 Billion 500 Eso° *!Ss gg400 0 Billion 0R '0 300 500 Million 200! 1969 2000 It0 YEAR 1966 1973 1983 2003 2043 YEAR FIGURE 3.-Trends and projection of domestic ocean cargo growth, coastal and intercoastal (including Puerto Rico, FIGJRE 5.-Litton Systems Study showing forecast of growth Hawaii, and Alaska) 1969-2000, as projected in the Kearney in the world merchant fleet into 2043. Study. have an impact on vessel traffic, hence concern for Figure 3 shows significant trends in domestic the port environment (Figure 5). ocean cargo (coastal and intercoastal, including The studies show that within the next 15 years Puerto Rico, Hawaii and Alaska), as projected in development of coastal petroleum tank barge trade the Kearney Study. will occur as a means of secondary distribution. The Litton Systems Study on the future of ocean- During the past six years (1968 date of Litton borne shipping explores trends in the volume of Study), there has been a growing use of tank barges oceanborne trade, from 1950-1966 with projections carrying petroleum in the coastal trade. See Figure 6. to 2043. See Figure 4. The Coast Guard is concerned about the increased The study also projects trends in growth of the movement of petroleum and other liquids in tank world merchant fleet from 1966 to 2043, which will barges, towed or pushed along our coastlines. They currently monitor the tank barge service to deter- ---Dry Cargo Trade . mine trends and problems. '=Tanker Trade On July 7, 1972, Congress passed P.L. 92-339, which among other issues, made it mandatory that all operators of tow boats under 300 tons be licensed 20,000 by the Coast Guard (qualify for Tow Boat Operators License). Barges carrying liquid product in the coastal trade ° 15.000 rC4 must be inspected for seaworthiness by the Coast Guard; however, towboats under 300 tons are not 10000, |required to come under Coast Guard inspection. REGIONAL PORTS e n i , Discussions are taking place in several port areas '-.0 H:f throughout the country, focusing on a regional port 1966 1973 1983 2003 2043 concept. Those areas include the Washington Public YE^R ' Ports Association, the San Francisco Bay area, and FIGURE 4.-Litton Systems, study of the projection of-volume the New York ports of Buffalo, Ogdensburg, Oswego, of oceanborne trade into 2043. and Albany.2 There is some thought -that the "re- 532 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL BARGES the present include, by title: 5000 Refuse Act of 1889 Federal Water Pollution Coptrol Act (FWPCA) of 1948.: (Asamended 152-61-65-66-70-72) P.L. 91-224 (4-3-70)- : ,.. Federal Water Quality Standards Act of 1971. 4000 Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972. P.L. 92-340 (7-10-72) Marine, Protection, Research and Sanctuaries 3000 Act of 1972. (Ocean Dumping Act) P.L. 92-532 (10-23-72) (As amended 1974, P.L. 93-254) Deepwater Ports Facilities Act of 1974. Coastal Zone Management. Act P.L. 93-583 (10-27-72) ' - 2000 'This legislation, with resulting regulations and federal-agency administration, requires constant at- tention and monitoring by port personnel. 1000 FEDERAL AGENCIES INVOLVED As new federal legislation was passed, and regula- tions and directives written, port directors and ter- 1960 93 inal operators found it difficult to keep informed. r9 0 YEAR ;; :1Communications between federal agencies and port directors were improved y a- 'series of meetings FIGURE 6.-Trend in use of tank barges (towed or'pushed) arranged through the American Association of Port in inland waters and coastal services, under Coast Guard Authorities and the U.S. 'Maritine Administration. inspection. Note: Inland waters and coastal numbers were not separated until 1973. Percentage increases for individual Figure 7 is a matrix listing of federal agencies services will be recorded separately in the future; involved in a port environment, depicting areas of overlap in duties and responsibilities, which tend to cause confusion in the port industry. This situation gional port concept" is sponsored by the federal is particularly reprethensible-when the agencies work government and is an intrusion into the free enter- in consort toprepare adv6rse reports on a specific prise system. However it must be noted th-at -tudies project but then file separate objections as if their at current port areas were initiated at the local level. determinations were individually'and independently One of the principal objectives bf the studie s is to: '. reached. - determine the'' valie of' ijiiumber of siali ports ' It is 'dificut -to quantify the extent of the confu- versus a regional port to serve U.S. trade,. and keep - sion, its'impact and resultieg'delays and costs, other U.S. products flowing into competitive world mar- - than to state that it exists and attention must be kets. A secondary benefit would be cleaner' coastal given-to clarifying the situation. The matrix shows water with all commercial activity centralized at there are 69 separate port environment activities one port, rather than a number of small ports. The involving over 50 federal agencies or bureaus. It major pollution concern would be to 'mobilize funds, shows over 550 diffbrent steps must be taken to expertise, manpower, and equipmentat 'one port to, process port-related activities. prevent and control' possible ioil spills and, other . pollutants from vesseltraffic 'nd port' operitions. ' _ - SL - DREDGING-DISPOSAL OF SPOILS FEDERAL LE a b TION The Army Corps of Eigineers, in fulfilling its mission FEDERAL LEGISLATION in the development and maintenance of the navigable waters of the United States is responsible for the dredg- Some of the pertinent federal legislation influenc- q uantities approach 40of msedllimnts cubiach yeards of drednnual ing port environment and operations from 1969 to material for both maintenance and new work. Costs FEDERALAGENCIES ARMY COMMERCE HEW HUD INTERIOR LABOR STATE TRANS'PN TREASURY USDAI OTHER -RMY 4OMMERCE 5 2L, rt I 04 A P x 'me-C cAWNC004w t c O 44 H I 4W0040 COEnoinw z z wa Wa s. CFADin esZ o oOf OSHA 2Ou. O OC ACTIVITY COE i o m m E. Z Z : Oli CPA m 3 S _ Permits X X X X X Licensing X x xx Xxlxxx xx xx Certification X X X X LetterofPermission or Approval X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Coordination X X X X X X X X X X X X Review X XX XXXXXX X X XXXXXXXX XXXXX XX X X X Enfdrcement X X X X X X X X XX X XXXX X X XXX XX Fines X XX X X XXXX X Environmental Impact Statement X' X XX XXX XXXX X X XXXXXX X X X XXXX X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X XXXXXX Dredging/Filling X X X XX x X X X Dredge Spoils Disposal X X X X X X X X Anchorages X . X Aids to Navigation X X X Harbor Protective Works X X X Harbor Lines -X X Pors & Terminal Facilities X XX .( X X X X X X X X Intermodal Transportation X -- X X X X X Vessels X X X X X X x X X X PortSecurity& Safeyl . x x x x VesselTrafficControl . i x x X X Loks,Dams.&Canals, X X x[ I i x x X X XX Bridges&Causeways X :; J X J x .X X Ix Harbor Tunnels X J 1 -1 Pipelines X XX X XX X j X Fiousm 7'.-Federl authorlzation foractivities in IYS. navigable waters or ocean waters relative lb environmental protection. Co 03 -0 FEDERAL AGENCIES ARMY COMMERCE HEW HUD INTERIOR LABOR STATE TRANS'PN TREASURY USDA OTHER API a2*CTIVITY From S OSHABOC HIS>i ACTVO tu SCPAD O u. u O BOC HIS 2 u. u. ow c - e: Submarine Cables X X Aerial Power Lines X X X Recreation X X X X X X X X X Recreational Boating X X X X X Boating Safety X X X Marinas and Small Boat Facilities X X Inland Waterways X X X X Xx X Great Lakes X X X X x X X X X X X X X X X X St. Lawrence Seaway X X X X X X X Panama Canal & Terminals X X X X L Waterborne Commerce X X X X X X Foreign Trade Zones X X X X X Offshore Ports & Terminals X X X X X X X Outer Continental Shelf X XX X X OffshoreOil Drilling and Mineral Extraction X X X X , - z Offshore Nuclear Power Siting X X X X X Offshore Oil Leasing X Xi X X Energy Conservation . X X XX X Urban Development X X X X Urban Mass Transit X Land Use Classification X X X X] X X X X Flood Control X X X j X X X X Water Supply X X X X X | X X X X Water OQuality X X X X X X X X IX X X X XX Oil Spills X X XX X X Oily Waste X X X X X X Liquid Chemical Waste X XX XX X Other Hazardous Substances X XX XX X X | X X Sanitary Waste X X X X X X X Solid Waste X XX XX X X Harbor Debris Cleanup X X X X X X X X Air Pollution X X X Stack .Emissions X X X X X Thermal Pollution; X X X X Coastal Zone Management X X X X X X Shoreline Erosion I X X X X X X X X Estuarine Sanctuaries X X X X Marine Sanctuaries X X X XXX . : X Wetlands X X X X X X Wild-& Scenic Rivers I X X X X X Marine Ecology X X X X X Fish& Wildlife X. X X X X X X X X Aesthetics X X X X X Historic Values X X X X X Climatology X X X X ACOHP --- - - ---....---.Advisory Council on Historic EPA __ -_---____-_______ Environmental Protection NPS . - _--- ---_------- National Park Service (INTE- Preservation Agency RIOR) AEC .- --_-___--__ ------ Atomic Energy Commission FAA _-_____.---___.Federal Aviation Administration NWS --.---.._______. National, Weather Service APHIS -------.._---- Animal. and Plant Health In- (DOT) (NOAA-COMMERCE) spection Service (USDA) FCC . ....---- --------- Federal Communications Com- OCZM -- ----Office of Coastal Zone Mgnage- ARMY - - ---------------Department of the Army mission ment (NOAA-COMM RCE) BIA ____________ .__ Bureau of Indian -Affairs (IN- FDA -.- --..__________._ Federal Drug Administration OMA ..-................Office of Maritime Affairs TIA ----------------- (HEW) (STATE) TERIOR) -OMB -- O--........--.Office of Management & Budget BLM -H_------ ---------_.Bureau of Land Management PEA ------------------_Federal Energy Administration (EXEC. OFC. OF PRESI- (INTERIOR) FHWA _ ..---. ..........Federal Highway Administration DENT) BOC G---_______________ Bureau of Customs (TREAS- (DOT) OC-G - _-----------------Office of Oil & Gas (INTERIOR) URY) FMC_ -------------------Federal Maritime Commission OPLS --_---...------..Office of Pipeline Safety (DOT) BOR -.-___.----------__Bureau of Outdoor Recreation FPC -. ------._---------Federal Power Commssion OSHA . .---------------Occupational Safety & Health (INTERIOR) HEW .-----________ -___ Department of Health, Educa- Administration (LABOR) BR _- - -_-.- -------...._Bureau of Reclamation (INTE- tion & Welfare PCC .-......----........Panama Canal Company RIOR) HUD _- --_.............Department of Housing & Ur- PHS _ _-------------- Public Health Service (HEW) BRTA .---------------- Bureau of Resources & Trade As- ban Development SLSDC .----.--..- ------St. Lawrence Seaway Develop- sistance (COMMERCE) IBC ------------------- Internation Boundary Commis- ment Corporation (DOT) BSFW --.- ------------_Bureau of Sports, Fisheries & sion (US-CAN & US-MEX) STATE -- ____________Department of State Wildlife (INTERIOR)' IJC _-_ -..____________ _ International Joint Commission TRANSPORTATION Department of Transportation CEQ .------------------Council on Environmental Qual- (US-CAN) TREASURYDepartment of the Treasury ity (EXEC. OFC. OF PRESI- INTERIOR .- - --------- Department of the Interior (CUSTOMS) TVA -------------------.Tennessee Valley Authority DENT) LABOR -. --............Department of Labor UHTA---------Urban Mass Transportation Ad- COE --------.--.--.----Corps of Engineers (ARMY) MA __-________________ Maritime Administration (COM- ministration (DOT) COMMERCE .- ---------Department of Commerce MERCE) USCG_---______________U.S. Coast Guard (DOT) CPAD .----------------.Community Planning & Develop- NMFS __-._____________National Marine Fisheries Serv- USDA -----------------U.S. Department of Agriculture ment (HUD) ice (NOAA-COMMERCE) USGS ------._.__ ---___ .U.S. Geological Survey (INTE- EDA ---.-.-------......Economic Development Admin- NOS .----------------- National Ocean Survey (NOAA- RIOR) istration (COMMERCE) COMMERCE) WRC --.--.........Water Resources Council 536 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL presently (1974) exceed $150 million per year and can conducted a survey among its members to determine be expected to increase sharply, reflecting at least in part, the cost of attempting to reduce the potential for environmental port problems. Thrty-sx U.S. cor- pollution of the environment. porate members responded. Dredging and disposal * T* * es* o* of spoils proved to be the major problem of 16 of The Corps presently maintains over 19,000 miles of waterways and 1,000 harbor projects. In the past, the the reporting ports. Corps' decisions concerning open-water disposal of In 1974, AAPA Committee III (Ship Channels dredged materials have been based primarily on eco- and Harbors) conducted a National Seaport Federal nomic considerations. Plans for future dredging and disposal activities must now reflect proper considerations Waterway Funding Suirvey. Of the 54 responses, 24 of costs and enivironmental constraints. cited serious disposal problems causing increased Due to the fact that dredging and the disposal of costs and delays for channel construction and main- dredge materials occur in such highly variable environ- tenance. "Spoils disposal problems are evidently mental situations, it has been generally accepted that a affecting many port regions," the report indicated. universally applicable methodology cannot be satis- factorily developed. Consequently, it was concluded that a broad based program of research was required to FEDERAL PERMITS provide definitive information on the environmental impact of dredging and dredged material disposal The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend- operations.' The Federa Water Pollution Control Act Amend- $* * if * 2 * . ments of 1972 established a new system of permits The overall bbjective of the Dredged IiVaterial Re- search Progverallm (DMRP) is to provide suficient deci- for discharge into the nation's waters, replacing the sion-making tools to those agencies with dredging and 1899 Refuse Act Permit Program. The federal agen- disposal responsibilities to enable them to choose the cies given responsibility for protecting our oceans most environmentally compatible, technically satis- factory, and economically feasible disposal alternatives.4 and waterways wth their perm g authority may See Figure S. be found in the matrix (Figure 7). The Army Corps of Engineers retains authority In 1973, Committee XV (Environmental Affairs) to issue permits for the disposal of dredge fill material of the American Association of Port Authorities in specific disposal sites, subject to EPA veto of RESEARCH AREA i : RESEARCH TASK Environmental Impact and Aspects of Open Water Disposal A. Evaluation of Disposal Sites (1)" B. Fate of Dredged Materials (1) C. Effects of Dredging and Disposal on Water Quality (1) D. Effects of'Dredging and Disposal on Aquatic Organisms (1) E. Pollution Evaluation (1). Environmental Impacts and Aspects of Land Disposal A. Environinental Impact Studies (i) - - ' B; Marsh, Disposal Research (1) C. Containment Area Operation Research (1) New Disposal Concept- ' A. Open Water Disposal Research (2) B. Inland'Disposal Research (3) C. Coastal Erosion Control Studies (3) Productive Uses of Dredged Material ' A. Artificial Habitat Creation Research (1) B. Habitat Enhancement Research (2) C. Land Imlrovement Research (3) D. Pioducts Research (2) Disposal Areas Reuse and Multiple Utilization A. Dredged Material Drainage/Quality Improvement Research (2) B. Wildlife Habitat Program Studies (1) C. Disposal Area Reuse Research (1) D. Disposal Area Subsequent Use Research (2) E. Disposal Area Enhancement (2) Dredged Material Treatment Techniques and Equipment A. Dredged Material Dewatering and Related Research (2) B. Pollutant Constituent Removal Research (1) C. Turbidity Control Research (1) Dredging/Disposal Equipment and Techniques A. Dredge Plant Related Studies (3) B. Accessory Equipment Research (2) C. Dredged Material Transport Concept Research (4) * Numbers in parenthesis indicate the beginning year of the research task. - FIGURE 8.-Outline of dredged material research.program. PORTS :" 537 disposal sites. However, in the new Corps permitting tion, Environmental Protection Agency, American system, no time schedule for processing permits has Institute of Merchant Shipping, American Petro- been developed. When objections are raised at the leum Institute, U.S. Coast Guard, and the American district level, an extensive time lapse develops while Association of Port Authorities. a decision is considered at a higher level. As a result of this Committee's recommendation, There is no indication that the requirement to a contract was awarded to conduct a study to:6 obtain permits for port projects is opposed by the port industry. However, it is important that there a. Determine the volumes of oil waste which would be no long delays in granting permits which might arrive at U.S. ports under various restrictions or result in added costs to port projects, with possible permissible discharge. adverse effect on the water quality in estuarine b. Define systems for collecting and processing areas. these volumes. The study identifies the types of oily wastes ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENTS brought into nine selected ports by commercial ship- ping and estimates 1970 quantities based on "no The EIS is now a responsibility under the National discharge" criteria, the "1969 Amendments," and Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969--Sec- the "no sheen" criteria. Quantities for 1975 and tion 102 (2) (c). The program is administered by 1980 are also' estimated, with the report concluding the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), that 16.5 billion gallons of oily waste would be established under Section 202 of the NEPA. collected at U.S. ocean and inland ports in 1975, An EIS must be filed for all projects-which signifi- rising to almost 17.0 billion by 1980. If reception cantly affect the quality of the human environment facilities are not available, there is no way to deter- and for which a major federal action, such as funding mine if, in fact, any of these wastes would reach or licensing, is involved. The EIS must take into estuarine areas. Ships today are prohibited from consideration the economic values of a project as pumping bilge and ballast water in U.S. ports. If, well as the environmental impact. A healthy balance however, the IMCO Convention specifics are not must be retained for the welfare of the' ports and in force by 1980, ships will still be able to pump the country. these wastes at sea. The Army Corps of Engineers has 900 environ- Conceptual designs for collecting, treating, and mental impact statements to write on maintenance disposing of the oily wastes, with no additional en- projects alone. At the present rate, the Corps can vironmental degradation, range from the use of oil- only handle about 60 EIS a year, although, as of water gravity separators in small volume ports, to January 1, 1976, every Corps project will require an large storage tanks adjacent to separator and/or EIS.5 Several ports have indicated problems result- refining capabilities in larger ports. ing from the requirement to provide an EIS. It is The suggested role of government is limited to difficult to quantify and document each problem; assisting business in expanding existing capabilities however, general comments express concern over through grants, loans, and research. When govern- agency guidelines being changed during preparation ment-owned facilities are available, the study recom- of the project and where more than one agency is mends leasing to entrepreneurs. involved, the conflicting guidelines used by different The problem has not at this time been defined agencies in judging the project. regarding costs versus income to an entrepreneur, a port authority, or private terminal operator who must provide the necessary facilities. These would DISPOSAL OF OILY WASTE AND BALLAST WATER a. Reception capabilities Based on the President's message of May 20, b. Storage capabilities 1970, directing the attention of the port industry c. Separation and treatment capabilities to the problem of "Facilities for the Reception of d. Obtaining necessary permits to discharge sepa- Ships' Oily Waste and Ballast Water.," the Maritime rated water back into surface waters Administration (Division of Ports and Terminals) e. Service charge to ship operator with possible re- and the American Association of Port Authorities suiting increased cost to consumer established an ad hoc committee to review, study, f. Disposing of reclaimed oil, or disposing of and propose action. The committee consisted of waste oil representatives from the U.S. Maritime Admiistra- g. Possible delays to vessel with resulting costs · 538 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL The role of the entrepreneur is not clearly defined. DISPOSAL OF SANITARY WASTES Refinement of regulations and policies is necessary It is increasingly Apparent vessels will be pre- before any large investments are made by the busi- vented from discharging untreated sewage in U.S. nessman. territorial waters. EPA has established a "no- Industry has entered into several programs to discharge" standard for all vessels. alleviate the problem of disposal of oily waste gen- The Coast Guard proposed regulations to imple- erated aboard ship, without direct discharge into ment EPA's standards for marine sanitation devices the seas and waterways: were published in the Federal Register on March 1, 1974. The proposed regulations govern the design, a. Load on top method construction, testing, certification, and manufacture b. Holding tanks of marine sanitation devices. Public hearings were c. Improved tank cleaning conducted inviting comments and suggestions. The d. Oil water separator Coast Guard is presently redrafting the regulations e. Segregated ballast tanker based on the input.' More than half of the comments received were Research by the Coast Guard and the American directed in whole or in part to the EPA standard. Institute of Merchant Shipping have not as yet The gist of these comments was objection to the established numbers or costs on these methods or federal no-discharge requirement. In view of this total effectiveness of these programs. At this time general discontent with the standards, the Coast it appears that no statistics are available. Very few Guard has broached with EPA the question of the American flag vessels are capable of the above. efficacy and appropriateness of the existing stand- Coast Guard is making an effort to learn the impact, ards. Discussions between the agencies is currently effectiveness, and costs of these innovative programs. underway The study revealed that only two ports in the The Coast Guard and Navy are studying and country (Burns Waterway Harbor, Ind., and Seattle, experimenting extensively with equipment and meth- Wash.) were capable of receiving and processing ods of operation within their own vessels to meet bilge and tank cleaning water. ocessing EPA and state requirements and standards. The and ta nk clen ing The Maritime Administration also has an exten- The Maritime Administration is s currently in- volved in a project to accept, treat, and dispose of sive research and development program on the dis- ship-generated oily waste at their recently acquired posal problem of sanitary wastes. Using Liberty Cheatham Annex Complex in York County, Va. To ships to accept sanitary wastes from vessels and date, no product has moved through the facility municipalities was explored but proved too costly so no numbers are available. The Maritime Administration also awarded a con- inThe recreational fleet, which is a significant factor tract to determine the feasibility of "Floatable Oily in the water quality of any prt must also meet Waste Treatment Systems." This study determined standards and criteria. Marinas to service this type thar d bedof vessel have intro reception that it would be too expensive to use old Liberty duced pump-out and reception ship hulls, placed in U.S. harbors for this project. facilities ashore, but no inventory has been taken There is also a limited supply of Liberty ships avail- to date and the impact is not known. able. No further action is planned.7 Major commercial ports in the United States have The Maritime Administration has also commis- done little to provide for the reception of liquid sioned studies to determine the functional capabili- sanitary wastes from commercial vessels of all types ties and costs for volume acceptance of oil waste and sizes. The only ports with significant waste separation units aboard ship. If a unit can be reception facilities are Burns Harbor, Ind., Toledo, developed to function properly aboard ship, it would Ohio; Miami, and Jacksonville, Fla." It would ap- help to eliminate the port problem of providing pear that port areas will need guidance as to required reception facilities. To date it appears no feasible hookups to receive sanitary waste at pier facilities and proper lead time to install them. shipboard unit will function properly under all con- While attention is being given to the reception of ditions to handle the problem. sanitary wastes from vessel operation, it is impor- Ports must have an oily waste implementation tant to note that port and harbor waters will not program operational within 12 months after 15 na- improve in quality until such time as all municipal tions have signed the IMCO Agreement, or by wastes now emptying into the harbors are diverted January f 1977.8 to municipal treatment plants. PORTS 539 DILAPIDATED PIERS-FLOATING DEBRIS members to determine if they were experiencing any problems because of environmental legislation in A problem having great significance on the im- acquiring the necessary land for expansion of exist- mediate port environment has been the deterioration ing port facilities. Nine ports reported problems in of dilapidated port structures resulting, in part, in ing or expansion and nine others reported *varyingdegrees of floating debris. In the past, a acquiring land for expansion and nine others reported varying degrees of floating debris. In the past, a problems in obtaining land within their existing cooperative, yet not specifically defined program of port facilities. The survey also asked if U.S. ports port facilities. The survey also asked if U.S. ports federal and local effort functioned to remove dilapi- were experiencing problems in obtaining permits dated wharves and to collect and remove drift from to develop the land. The survey indicated permit- navigable waterways. ting problems existed at the local, state, and federal To add additional confusion to an already mis- level understood and fragmented program, involving the The Port of Oakland, Calif. reported as follows: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Coast Guard, the Federal Office of 'Management and Budget (OMB) in early 1973, announced its opposition to With regard to the portion of your questionnaire and survey dealing with land acquisition, we face problems any federal subsidy for removal of drift and dilapi- of securing necessary approvals from as many as 31 dated piers. This decision was based on costs and different agencies in a typical port project. I hope in MB opinion that this is a local port problemthe coming year, AAPA through its various committees, OMB opinion that this is a local port problem. will develop firm and strong recommendations as to Dilapidated structures and floating debris involve how these problems can be met and what solution three major port environmental problems: should be sought.l1 a. Visual pollution . COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT b. Floating debris hindering the collection and dis- ACT OF 1972 posal of spilled oil c. Large floating logs, a danger to small boats Response to the above survey indicates that the The Department of Transportation, through the 35 responding ports are aware of this Act. However, U.S. Coast Guard, sponsored an exhaustive debris only 23 of the responding ports reported they were study. The types and quantities of waterborne debris involved the plannng and implementation of the found in coastal, harbor, and estuarine areas are Act in their state, and only 23 had assigned personnel described in the report. Regional variations of the to be involved i the planning and implementation. types and quantities of debris, its sources, and the Twenty-nne ports felt port authorities should be natural effects on concentration and quantity are ivolved. described. Debris handling practices are discussed Thirty ports reported they had growth plans re- and equipment is identified and evaluated."2 quiring expansion involving over 15,000 acres be- Many recommendations are made including the tween now and 2000. It was disturbing to note, suggestion that the Coast Guard initiate or become however, that only 17 ports had brought their growth involved in joint debris oriented programs with the plans to the attention of the coastal zone manage- Environmental Protection Agency, the Corps of ment authorities in their state Engineers, and the Navy. It is claimed in the 460- A factor that will be of considerable importance page study that this will help to eliminate over- to this program and the future of U.S. ports, is the lapping efforts by these organizations. Maritime Administration (MarAd) NOAA Memo- Inconsistencies in the debris programs find the randum of Understanding which was consummated Army Corps of Engineers financing some port debris November 20, 1973, regarding MarAd assistance in pickup programs, while physically participating in port and navigation facilities development in the others. Among the ports who finance their own coastal zone. In view of the integral role which debris pickup and patrol programs are Baltimore coastal zone management plays in MarAd programs and Miami. and activities, MarAd will receive from NOAA indi- vidual state and territory coastal zone management programs for review and return a written evaluation LAND ACQUISITION and commentary. Under this agreement, MarAd will be in a position to exercise some influential In January 1975 the Environmental Affairs Com- comment on pollution and pollution control at the mittee of the American Association of Port Authori- port level. To date, MarAd has received no coastal ties, conducted a survey among its 80 U.S. corporate zone management plans for review. 540 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL OIL SPILLS IN OUR More than 100 ports in the world are capable of PORTS AND HARBORS handling the large supertankers, and there are over 300 tankers of 200,000 DWT, or more, This is clear This is an ever-increasing problem and one that evidence that consideration must be given to facili- requires considerable attention from government and ties to handle this size vessel serving our energy industry at all levels. Oil spills from vessel and ter- needs. The Port Facilities Act of 1974 was designed minal operations are mostly unintentional, the cause to give attention to this subject. of a miscue by manpower, or malfunction of equip- ment. In some instances oil is spilled intentionally by poor judgment through pumping of ballast or ATTITUDES IN bilges. Regardless of the type of incident, oil :is ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS deposited in our waterways, costing millions of dol- lars in cleanup and ecology damages. Research and The American Association of Port Authorities, development projects through EPA, MarAd, Coast comprised of over 80 U.S. ports, recognizes the port Guard, Navy and industry have resulted in improv- industry's responsibility to the environment. In ing the still primitive state of the art to attack an 1970, AAPA authorized the formation of Committee oil spill by controlling, removing, and disposing of XV (Environmental Affairs), with specific duties it. But much remains to be done. and responsibilities. There is a newly formed national trade association In 1972, AAPA Directors authorized competition representing the interests and serving the needs of among U.S. ports for the "Recognition of Outstand- the oil spill and hazardous substances control indus- ing Environmental Programs" award to encourage try. Membership is open to all interested parties; additional attention to environmental responsibili- however, members are primarily (1) third party ties by port authorities. In 1973, 14 U.S. ports contractors; (2) manufacturers or suppliers of equip- entered the competition and in 1974, 11 entered. ment; (3) individuals in private or governmental Extensive briefs were presented to the judges, who capacities involved with oil and hazardous sub- represented EPA, Coast Guard and MarAd. stances spill cleanup and containment operations.l4 Objectives of the new organization are: (1) com- Progr included iprovementugh planting of grass, trees, and munication of the industry's practices, trends and shrubs; painting structures; providing barrier screens; achievements; (2) establishing liaison with govern- installing sewage systems; eliminating open burning; removing deteriorated piers; oil spill contingency plans; mental agencies; (3) developing industry standardiz- port personnel participating in community environ- ing programs; (4) assisting the industry, wherever mental programs; construction of park with lighted appropriate, regarding insurance; and (5) obtaining walkways; fountain, picnic tables, etc.; directives to reduce air pollution; encouraging businessmen in the radio frequency allocations for oil spill operations. port to improve their environmental habits; program to EPA has published regulations involving shore- prevent salt water intrusion into viable estuaries; dust side facilities, and the Coast Guard has published control program; dredging and spoil disposal programs; ,regulations on shipboard operations, both designedtraffic control systems to prevent accidents; providing regulations on shipboard operations, both designed equipment to control pickup and dispose of spilt oil to control oil spillage. So far, both programs are in the harbor; debris removal; establishing performance standards; 100 acre public park with bicycle park and lagging.l6 trails; recycling program for port generated paper; EPA estimates there are more than 14,000 oil bond issues to finance pollution control equipment; spills in U.S. harbors and waterways a year. EPA regulations on noise abatement; and landscape design. reports nearly 3 million gallons of oil were spilled in 83 cases investigated by EPA in the first quarter Several ports are now employing personnel with of 1974. EPA has introduced a new 2.6 million full time assignments on environmental affairs. The gallon test tank at Leonardo, N.J., in an effort to California Association of Port Authorities has an- find better ways of handling the nation's "intolerable nounced the appointment of a planning and envi- number of oil spills."'6 ronmental consultants ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS INSURANCE DEMANDS ON U.S. PORTS FOR DEEP WATER PORTS Indications at this time are that ports are not The Administration has recognized the need for experiencing any major financial hardships imposed establishing offshore deepwater port facilities and by additional costs for insurance because of environ- the need for new comprehensive legislation to govern mental constraints. However, a prominent Wash- their establishment and operation. ington attorney with experience and expertise on ' PORTS 541 pollution control laws and their impact on the The following table prepared by the U.S. Navy Marine Industry, concluded his paper before a re- shows the crash stop capabilities of tankers under cent conference in Washington with this statement: full astern conditions: The foregoing pages outline a body of law that is corn- 17,000 ton vessel ------_ 5 minutes 1/5 of a mile prehensive, complex and constantly changing. It isn't 200,000 ton vessel ------_ 21 minutes 2.5 miles surprising, therefore, that the traditional response of 400,000 ton vessel _----- - 30 minutes 4.5 miles many marine industry executives has been 'Let the insurance carriers worry about the law. I need to tend to my business'. While this approach may have worked The stopping ability of the giant ocean carriers can in the past, rapid growth of regulatory requirements be a 'serious problem both in open and congested affecting the design and operation of vessels and shore- side facilities gives rise to the inescapable conclusion waters. that effectively accommodating to the regulatory en- vironment is a substantial part of the ."business" which needs tending to and can, in fact, mean the difference TRENDS AND RECOMMENDATIONS between profit and loss. When pollution abatement requirements can add nearly 25 percent to the cost of a vessel, it is clearly essential to make certain that such Three basic trends are apparent. These are indicative requirements do not discriminatorily affect your opera- Of the approach, attitudes, involvement, frustra- tions vis-a-vis those of your (domestic or foreign) competitors.,, tions, and concern for the future of U.S. ports and the water quality in our harbors, waterways, and -estuarine areas. VESSEL TRAFFIC SAFETY SYSTEMS estuarine areas. Coast Guard continues to expand its activities a. Federal, state and local legislation, guide- and responsibilities to improve maritime safety in lines, regulations, and directives will continue harbors and waterways as it accelerates implemen- and wil have their impact on port operations tation 'of the Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972. Traffic safety can be the number one 'deterrent to vessel casualities, thereby reducing the spillage port indstry is making adjustments in of oil in the waterways. The U.S. Coast Guard seems policy and administration to participate in en- to have an effective program underway. Systems in vronmental programs. San Francisco and Puget Sound are 1presently in c. Facilities, equipment and personnel required operation and regulations have been drafted to re- to respond to these environmental constraints quire their mandatory use. Systems for other selected will present a financial burden to the port ports are in the planning or construction stage. industry. Ports and waterways have been ranked according to their need for vessel traffic systems. The list is based on an analysis of casualty statistics utilizing Basic recommendations: an algorithm developed through the VTS Issue Study.. (March 1973.): . -n bridge to a. Recommend that immediate responsibility The Coast Guard programs on bridge to bridge be given to a Special Advisory Board to evalu- radio-telephone communications will contribute greatly to traffic safety, and reduction of casualties. lapping responsibilities from federal, state and lapping responsibilities from federal, state and The need for attention to the orderly control of local legislation, guidelines, regulations, and shipping in and out of our waterways is apparent directives and their resulting environmental with the increased size, carrying capacity, and vol- impact on ports. It is further recommended ume of traffic existing today and projected for the that this board include members of the port future. The following chart depicts the growth and industry size of petroleum carrying vessels from 1956 to present date: b. Recommend that immediate attention be given to determine the financial burdens placed Nam Tonap Lance on U.S. ports, through environmental con- Sinclair Petrolore - - --- 56,089 350,000 1956 straints and how this might affect the fuiture Universe Leader - --_ 85,550 550,000 1957 Universe Apollo - 104,520 800,000 1959 of U.S. ports and U.S. markets in world trade. Manhattan .. - --- - 108,590 900,000 1962 Nissh Maru-. 130,250 950,000 ·1962 It is recommended that attention and support Tokyo Maru --_'__' . 130,250 950,000 1966 Idemitsu Maru -------- 206,000 1,700,000 1966 be given to H.R. 1084, a bill "To amend the Universe Ireland --- --.. 326,000 2,500,000 1968 Merchant Marine Act of 1920, to establish a 542 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL grant program to enable public ports to comply RECOMMENDATION: (Oily waste and ballast water- with certain federal 'standards, to direct the sanitary) Secretary of Commerce to undertake a compre- hensive study of the present and future needs 1. Entire problem needs review and refinement. of public ports in the United States, and for Coast Guard, EPA, MarAd and AAPA must try other purposes." to resolve this. Legislation calls for definite action by 1980. The industry does not appear prepared to Federal legislation on security measures, safety meet that deadline. Further research and develop- regulations (OSHA), and environmental con- ment on shipboard equipment to process the wastes straints is bound to have a serious financial are necessary. effect on U.S. ports. These issues require care- ful evaluation as to their effectiveness versus recommendation worthy of consideration: We recommendation worthy of consideration: "We costs. strongly favor federal regulation and authority to pre-empt state regulations insofar as discharges Review procedures that result in conflicts and from vessels in navigable waters are concerned. We communication gaps between local, district, and also urge development of standards and standard Washington headquarters of federal agencies for the removal of shipboard wastes to volved in these projects. shoreside facilities." The cost to purchase and develop new land for relocation of facilities and obtaining permits for TRENDS: (Shipping and port industry) The following dredging and spoils disposal for these projects needs trends are apparent and require attention: to be reviewed. Increase in cargo movements-increased volume of ship movements-increased size of vessels-new RECOMMENDATION: (Federal permits) terminal design-port to port service-requirement for new land for port development-deepwater 1. Reduce number of federal agencies required to ports-reduction in use of traditional port facilities- judge an environmental project. Immediate and changes in handling bulk, liquid and general cargo careful attention should be given to the matrix (large container ships)-overcrowded waterways- (Figure 7), to determine its accuracy and to make increased costs for dredging and disposal of spoils- recommendations that result in less confusion with regional ports-the increased use of LNG vessels resulting delays. --and demand for fast turn-around of ships. RECOMMENDATION: (Environmental impact RECOMMENDATION: (Shipping and ports) statements) 1. An overview is needed to establish basic policy 1. Clarify conflicting guidelines from federal agen- changes in funding dredging projects at existing cies for content of material for acceptance of envi- ports versus deepwater ports. The future of tradi- ronmental impact statements. Particular attention tional ports versus regional ports must be examined. should be focused on requirements of Department The effect of a large number of smaller vessels versus of Interior (Fish and Wildlife) versus Department the supership in relation to vessel safety and avoid- of the Army (Corps of Engineers). ance of accidents requires attention. 2. There also appears to be an unnecessary dupli- 2. Additional attention is required on the carriage cation of effort in preparing an EIS. An applicant of LNG and the location of port facilities to-receive must prepare an EIS on a project, and the federal this cargo. Safety precautions must be examined, agencies with responsibility to this project must also and further attention is required on how a port and prepare an EIS on the same project. This results in a port community must respond to a major collision serious time delays. of an LNG ship with a tanker or general cargo ship in a restricted ship channel or while tied up at berth. 3. Investigate background of projects requiring an EIS from the Corps. They are behind schedule. 3. Concern should be continued on the inspection of Recommend more manpower. equipment and licensing of personnel in the carriage PORTS 543 of petroleum products in tank barges (of all sizes) training program for Coast Guard officer assuming engaged in traffic along the coast. on scene command at oil spills. Suggest specialized designated officer classification. RECOMMENDATION: (Dredging and spoil disposal) 2. Expansion of Coast Guard and private "oil spill" training schools. Examine current program 1. Review criteria published by EPA on con- at Texas A & M. Enlarge through government straints to dispose of spoils for a more realistic financing if necessary. approach. 3. More attention is needed at the federal level 2. Attention should be given to assure adequate through the office of EPA (and possibly Coast congressional funding of the Corps dredging responsi- Guard) in providing local communities with criteria, bilities. The amount of money funded by FY 1976 guidelines, and assistance in locating disposal sites will not meet the needs for new project and mainten- for both liquid and solid wastes collected from oil ance work. spills. This is a very critical issue, and attention to this problem is essential. 3. Determine cost to government and ports caused by delays, confusion, and misunderstanding due to conflicting guidelines and demands of state and local RECOMMENDATION: (Deepwater ports) environmental agencies versus federal agencies. 1. Before implementation of guidelines and poli- cies, clarification is needed regarding jurisdiction, RECOMMENDATION: (Dilapidated piers-floating including issuing of licenses, permits, policing, regu- debris) lations, construction, underwater lands, safety, pipe- lines, oil spill control and removal, and so forth. 1. Careful review of present study being conducted by the Corps. Particular attention is necessary to 2. Additional study is required on the effectiveness damage, with resulting costs, to bridges washed out of a single point mooring in open deepwater ports. during storms from floating debris. 3. If the deepwater (offshore) port issue is broad- ened beyond the reception of petroleum products, RECOMMENDATION: (Land acquisition-Coastal such as the reception and transfer of dry bulk cargos, Zone Management Act) considerable additional attention is required, par- 1.; Idividual ports should review their states' ticularly as it relates to existing land oriented port 1. Individual ports should review their states' areas Coastal Zone Planning Program under the Coastal Zone Management Act to determine how it might affect land acquisition for port development. 2. Attention is also required as to why no Coastal 1. An evaluation of this issue requires additional Zone Planning Program has been presented to attention. Ports do not seem immediately affected MarAd under the 1973 memorandum agreement at this time, but it is apparent that vessel insurance between MarAd and NOAA. in handling petroleum products will have some effect on product cost. 3. Ports should become acquainted with the Coastal States Organization, which was formed in RECOMMENDATION: (Vessel traffic control) 1969 to provide a vehicle for the interested states to make their views known on marine and coastal 1. The Coast Guard has an excellent program. programs and policies.l9 Funds should be continued so as not to impair its operation. 2. Avoidance of accidents is the basic deterrent to oil spills. 1. More R & D on prevention, cleanup equipment and expertise to respond to a spill. Provide adequate CONCLUSION depths in channels and waterways traveled by oil barges serving port areas to prevent 'groundings There are many unsolved problems that need at- with resulting oil spills. Improved and expanded tention. The federal government is concerned; the 544 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL : port industry is concerned. Both hope to solve the 8. Statement of Ernest Bauer, chief, Division of Ports and Terminals, MarAd, at the American Association of Port problems that still exist in order to improve the envi- Authorities Convention at San Juan, Puerto Rico, ronmental health and welfare of our ports and October 1974. estuarine areas. 9. From a report dated July 2, 1974 from the desk of J. H. Costich, Comdr. U.S. Coast Guard, chief, Environmental Coordination Branch, by direction of the Commandant to REFERENCES Committee XV of the American Association of Port Authorities. 1. An analysis of the markets for domestic waterborne ship- 10 Conducted by Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction ping by A. T. Kearney, Inc., of Chicago for MarAd. Co. of Seattle, Wash. entitled, "The Feasibility of Using (Published Feb. 1974 at cost of $600,000.) Surplus Ship Hulls for Floatable Harbor and River Waste Treatment Systems" (Published in 1973). Oceanborne Shipping: Demand and Technology Forecast. (Litton Systems for U.S. Dept. of Commerce. June, 1948) 11. According to a survey made by Marine Engineering Log of 70 major U.S. ports and published in the June 7, 1973 2. The U.S. Maritime Administration has endorsed the in- issue. tention to establish Regional Ports through the office of Marvin Pitkin. 12. Department of Transportation Study conducted by the Battelle Columbus Laboratories. Published March 1974, entitled "Waterborne Debris in Marine Pollution 3. Excerpts from paper given before 1974 Pollution Control Incidents." in the Marine Industries, sponsored by the International Assoc. for Pollution Control in Washington, D.C., of May 14, 15 and 16 by A. J. Green, Jr., Research Sanitary 13. Ben E. Nutter, executive director, Port of Oakland, Engineer, Office for Environmental Studies, U.S. Army Oakland, Calif. (February 6, 1975). Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss. and F. H. Griffis, Major, U.S. Army Corps of 14. Oil Spill Control Assoc. of America, 20245 West Twelve Engineers. Program Manager, Dredged Material Re- Mile Road, Suite 205, Southfield, Mich. General Counsel, search Program, U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Ex- Marc K. Shaye. periment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss. 15. EPA published regulations involving shoreside facilities; 4. Section 123 (i) of Public Law 61-911 directs the Army Coast.Guard published regulations on shipboard opera- Corps of Engineers (with EPA assistance) to undertake tions2designed to control oil spillage. (Both programs are "A Comprehensive Program of Research, Study and lagging, according to statements of both EPA and Coast Experimentation Relating to Dredge Spoil," which Guard). "shall include but not be limited to, investigations on the characteristics of dredged spoil and alternative methods 16. EPA introduced a new 2.6 million gallon test tank at of its disposal." The Corps has begun the $30,000,000 Leonardo, N.J.-better ways of handling--(Comments 5-year study under the direction of the chairman of the of John R. Quayles, Jr., deputy administrator of EPA, eight-man advisory committee, BG, Allen Clark, Jr., Oct. 2, 1974 at Leonardo, N.J.). USA (ret.). 17.' Appointment- of James L. Lammie, former district engi- 5. Statement of Major General John Morris, of the Arny peer at San Francisco. Corps of Engineers at a convention of the Gulf Intra- coastal Canal Association in February 1974. 18. Statement of J. Gordon Arbuckle, attorney with Patton, Boggs & Blow, Washington, D.C., before the Pollution Control in the Marine Industries Conference, sponsored 6. Disposal of Oily Waste and Ballast Water from Vessel by the International Assoc. for Pollution Control, Operation Study contract was awarded to Frederic R. Washington, D.C., May 14, 15, 16, 1974. Harris Inc., in the amount of $654,000. 19. Coastal States Organization was formed under the aus- 7. "Floatable Oily Waste Treatment Systems" Study was pices of the National Governors' Conference. Chairman: awarded to Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction A. R. Schwartz, Texas Coastal and Marine Council, Company; contract amount: $399,040. Austin, Tex. FACTORS BEARING ON- POLLUTION CONTROL IN WEST ,COAST. ESTUARINE; PORTS FRANK BOERGER ,San Francisco Dredging Committee San Francisco, California ABSTRACT' !The value of west coast estuarine ports is established; port operational problems attributable to pollution control are defined and analyzed. Major problem areas, including regulations and procedures, are explained with examples. It is concluded that water pollution control regulations cause the most problems and that they are characterized by unjustifiable delay, risk, uncertainty, and confusion. Remedial recommendations are given. INTRODUCTION where goods arriving by truck are consolidated into containers and vice-versa.. New port rail yards have West coast ports are major transportation inter- been developed which handle a variety of cargos, faces in a worldwide commodity flow system. Wheth- including, for example, containers on trpck trailers, er publicly or privately owned, single or multi- for distribution throughout the U.S. purpose, these ports contribute significantly to the Since the passage of the various clean air and nation as well as the regions in which they are lo- water acts and the National Environmental Policy cated in terms of the availability of goods, balance of Act, west coast ports, especially those located in trade, and regional employment and development. estuarine environments, have had' to face many In 1973, west coast ports handled 95 million tons of new problems. The regulations and regulatory pro- cargo valuedin excess of $17 billion.' Figures on cedures associated with these laws have added seri- community impact of a west coast port are included ous technical and financial burdens, often allowing in Exhibit 1 of Appendix 1. some ports a competitive advantage over others. West coast ports have generally done an exemplary Frequently, the real benefits of pollution control job in keeping abreast of the demands of shippers programs, as developed by the regulatory authorities and consumers. Recent changes in cargo handling pursuant' to legislative mandate, are in question; concepts (containers, lighter aboard ship, roll on-roll problems ensue over the use of funds on pollution off) .have neqessitated many waterfront improve- control programs without adequate justification. ments as well as the development of new'facilities and Embarking on any pollution control 'program the purchase of new equipment. Most World War requires time, justification, technical capability, IT ships have been phased out and the new genera- money, effort, and specific direction. Whenever a tion of ships requires wider and deeper channels, major expenditure is required to achieve pollution berths, and maneuvering areas. According to a control requirements, 'it impacts all social and eco- Maritime Administration survey,2 west coast ports nomic sectors dependent on the port activity. De- invested over $308 million in new and renovated fa- cisions to develop or improve related facilities may cilities during the period 1966 to 1972; federal in- be postponed, new equipment orders are often can- vestments to facilitate port operations have been celled, and lease negotiations may be tabled. In the many times this amount. Many ports have entered case of west coast ports, the major problem areas into long-term lease arrangements to amortize the appear to involve water pollution control programs, heavy indebtedness incurred by the need to primarily due to a lack of funds, technical capability, modernize. or definitive requirements. While some air and noise Other transportation sectors have also under- quality control problems have been reported, these taken rapid modernization of their port-related are apparently isolated and relatively minor com- facilities to accommodate efficient and economical pared to water pollution control problems. intermodal transportation of ocean-going cargo. Federal water pollution control programs which Many ports now have large container freight stations are creating difficulties for west coast ports include 545 546 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL those mandated by the Federal Water Pollution and costs associated with applicable pollu- Control Act Amendments of 1972 and the Ocean tion control programs. Dumping Act. Additional authority given to regula- 4. Testing and monitoring requirements. tory agencies by the Fish and Wildlife Act of 1958 (and the subsequent Army/Interior Memorandum EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION of 1967) and the National Environmental Policy OF FACTORS Act are responsible for related problems. The implementation and administration of these Acts have significantly contributed to pollution control problems facing west coast ports. The first major pollutio cntl progrm 1. Discharge of sewage from ships in port directly major pollution control program which affectede b wet c s in. to the surrounding waters is prohibited by a west coast ports involved dredging. Experience number of agencies. Most ship sanitary facilities with the regulation of this program can be character- are fitted to discharge directly overboar y few are fitted to discharge directly overboard; very few ized by the following features: have holding tanks, treatment plants, or collecting A. Uncertainty--over whether or not dredging manifolds that would allow sanitary wastes to be will be permitted, future requirements, and regula- pumped to shoreside treatment plants while in port. tory agency activities. One solution is to disallow the use of shipboard facil- B. Delays-time required to deal with and coordi- ities and use only shoreside toilets; another is to nate actions of all regulatory agencies involved. use portable self-contained units placed on board C. Multiplicity of agencies involved-many single while a ship is in port. Neither solution is fully ac- purpose agencies, often each with authority over ceptable to either ship operators or ports since they purpose agencies, ofe ah aboth involve extra expense and inconvenience. permitting dredging and frequently called upon to review a prject more than once, must approve Impact on shipping not otherwise normally suscepti- dredging projects. ble to U.S. regulations (e.g. foreign operators) must be considered in determining the degree and accepta- It is of serious concern to west coast ports that the biliy of such requirements. Adverse effects on ocean above features may also affect other programs dis- shipping services-en toto largely provided by other cussed under the following major problem areas. than U.S. carriers-must be viewed in terms of World trade, balance-of-payments, and competitive- ness. MAJOR PROBLEM AREAS Many local pollution control agendies, such as California's Regional Water Quality Control Boards, Pollution control problems for west coast ports in order to comply with Environmental Protection can be categorized in three main areas: ship opera- Agency requirements, adopted blanket policies of tions, port operations, and port maintenance and prohibiting discharges from ships2 apparently with- improvement. out adequately investigating available alternatives, A. Ship operations the maghitude of the ship discharge problem, or the 1. Sewage discharge from ships while in port. costs involved. Further, in several areas, ports are 2. Ballast or oily waste discharge from ships required to police such prohibitions and can be held while in port. responsible for deliberate or accidental discharges. 3. Accidental oil or other spills from vessels In implementing this policy, the California board while in port. has a commitment to install dockside sewers before B. Port operations approving any' application to the Corps of Engineers 1. Waste treatment plants for a permit involving the construction or hain- 2. Area runoff tenance of a wharf or pier facility. C. Port maintenance and development. (This 2. Ballast and oily wastes must frequently be dis- area involves both the improvement and re- charged from ships before taking on new cargo and placement of landside facilities and the new for trimming purposes. Such discharges, like the and maintenance dredging of navigation chan- discharge of sewage, are prohibited in port. Some nels and berths.) ships clean at sea while others make special trips to 1. Status of applicable regulations and pro- cleaning facilities. With regard to trim ballast, vessels cedures. must often depart from port in unstable condition 2. Multiple agency involvement and delays until they are far enough at sea to discharge excess associated with permit processing. ballast or wastes. 3. Technical feasibility of, justification for, Most municipal sewage treatment systems can- PORTS 547 not handle the materials and volumes involved plant prior to discharge in port waters. Understand- even if their lines are connected to port areas. The ably, many west coast port officials are concerned only generally available landside solution is to pump over the costs involved with constructing and operat- ballast and oily wastes into tank trucks or rail cars ing such a system. for transport to special treatment or refining facili- ties. This solution is very expensive, time consuming, ,.d infrequently . ........ C. Port Maintenance and Development and infrequently available. 3. Accidental spills of oil or other deleterious sub- stances into port waters are always a possibility. The take advantage of new tech nology and chang U.S. Coast Guard has developed stringent regula- take advantage of new technology and changin tions covering the transfer of such materials; these trpetitive. The wffitent ervice and to rema have significantly reduced the probability of spills. The only reasonably reliable, available method of usually harsh and port maintenance must be per- preventing spills from causing damage in port ap- formed on a continuing basis. Unlike most industries, pears to be through the use of floating curtains to however, the costs associated with port moderniza- control and facilitate spill cleanup. These curtains tion and maintenance are very high compared to are deployed around the vessel on docking and float either port facility investment or return. Investments from which accrued benefits are of a above and below the water level while transfer op- erations occur. The question has arisen in many common, longrange and often tangiblenature and ports over who should purchase and operate these which promote general prosperity but are beyond the curtains. capability of private enterprise are frequently under- taken by the government. In the case of ports, such benefits, in the form of marine commerce and in- B. Port Operations ternational trade, are recognized, and the govern- ment invests large sums in port modernization and 1. Ship wastes, if pumped ashore, must be treated maintenance. This is common for ports worldwide.5 before they are returned to port waters. In most Since many pollution control measures would fall cases, pipelines, pumping stations and pre-treatment into the above category, it would appear reasonable facilities would have to be installed to convey the to assume that the government should participate in wastes to municipal plants if they could accept them. underwriting expenditures associated with port pol- Many municipal sewage treatment districts in which lution control. ports are located cannot accept the volumes and Having the government as a partner is absolutely types of wastes which ships must discharge. essential to west coast estuarine port maintenance The most likely solution will probably involve and development; however, the partnership has construction of dual pipeline collection systems from many disadvantages. Federal funding programs to each berth to separate sanitary and industrial treat- deepen and widen navigation channels, for instance, ment plants. Final distribution could be either take an average of 17 years to accomplish. During -through existing municipal systems, if they can such long time spans, technology, pollution control accept the wastes, or through new pipeline outfall programs, and regulations change, and consequently networks. the costs and usefulness of such projects. 2. Storm water overland runoff is believed to be a The following specific problem areas indicate major contributor to water pollution.4 Port areas factors limiting and controlling west coast port de- generate large amounts of direct runoff due to the velopment and maintenance from the standpoint of magnitude of their land coverage. Port runoff prob- pollution control: lems are aggravated by their'proximity to navigable waters and the fact that they are necessarily low 1. The status and applicability of pollution con- lying areas often subject to overflow from upland trol regulations is often confusing. Most industrial tributary runoff. point source discharges have been covered by stand- Surface runoff from ports may traverse areas of ards issued by the Environmental Protection Agency many port-related activities including railyards and under the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments truck depots, scrap salvage operations, open storage, of 1972, P.L, 92-500. Compliance with the National and ship repair facilities. Pollution control agencies Pollution Discharges Elimination System (NPDES) are increasingly alert to controlling non-point source permit program of P.L. 92-500, while expensive, has discharges. If it becomes necessary to treat port area at least clarified many point source issues and fo- runoff, all storm sewers as well as surface runoff will cused attention on others. Ports are the terminus for have to be intercepted and conveyed to a treatment many pipelines of which the origins and contents are 548 ESTUARINE POILUTION CONTROL often unknown; yet, under the NPDES program, ports than any other permit. All too frequently; a ports are required to apply for and procure permits port spends months going through this process to get or curtail discharges from'all .'but storm' drain permits to accomplish annual maintenance'dredging;' pipelines. ' often contracts must be held -up or -delayed because Pollution control regulations, while often pro- the status of or an impending decision regarding'a mulgated and 'enforced by federal agencies, are permit is unknown. Many development'proj ects have frequently interpreted and enforced in more stringent been deferred or cancelled during the permitting forms by state and local agencies. In the case of process because of uncertainties, delays, and esalat- dredged material disposal regulations, the overlap- ing costs. A participant in a recent dredging; con- piig' jurisdictions of both regiulatory agencies and ference described'the situation: "It'seems like we are federal laws combined with failure of EPA to develop on a merry-go-round-improper guidelines, rigidly guidelinies required by Section 403 -(c) has caused applied, 'result in virtually impossible project great confusion. This situation was described by a requirements."7 member of the California" State Water Resources 3. The technical feasibility of' complying- with Control Board as "'A deplorable lack of coordination many-pollution control regulations, their justification betweei' agencies which' often results in long delays in terms of environmental benefits, and the costs of which are unfair to applicants (for dredging permits) compliance in economic and social terms are very and work a hardship on the agencies involved."6 important i'ssues to west 'coast ports. The most The greatest concern expressed by west coast ports serious of these issues - surrounds dredging, - which' regarding pollution control involves dredging. The provides the "lifelines" of ship navigation channels status of dredging-related regulations is especially to ports. - confufsing since they' are mandated' by both the There have been many commentaries ohn the Ocean Dutnping'Act,' P.L. 92-532, and by P.L. adequacy, 'impact, and effectiveness of pollution 92-500. Dredge disposal criteria for ocean disposal control-regulations involving dredging. With respect have 'been promulgated pursuant to P.L. 92-532, to the basis for the regulations, a board of consul- but not for inland water disposal as required by tants to the U.S. Army Corps of Efigineers ;stated P.L.''92-500. This situation has left estuarine ports that "A 'correctional campaign based on inadequate without any clear-cut regulations. In response to'this evidence may be self defeating."8- There are many dilemma, Region IX EPA issued'it's interpretation arguments which indicate this may characterize. the of the P.L. 92-532 ocean disposal'criteria, modified to pollution control program for dredging. meet local requirements, and, as an interim measure, First, the impact of dredging activity on water has extended these criteria (with some 'additional quality relative to natural resubpension of sediments modifications) to' cover inland water disposal. To appears to be small. For example, Dr. Ray Krone, a further complicate the situation,' only 'one of the sediment expert from the University of California, has seven Califbrnia State Regional Water Quality Con- shown that in San Francisco; Bay, the 'amount of trol Boards adopted these criteria, with modifications material resuspended into the water column by' of their oWii; the other six boards reportedly 'use es'tuarine wind and waves is many times greaterthan various criteria. This Situation frequently results in that due to dredging.' With regard to toxic metals, on more stringent requirements for some ports and con- which major pollution control efforts are expended,' sequently' iii higher dredging costs for those; ports. it is believed' that the major cause of their presence Region IX EPA stated that final dredging criteria in the water column is urban runoff."0 Given the would be issued over a year ago. Many projedts and urban and industrial activity common to estuaries agencies have awaited these criteria, promised on'a along the west coast, it is highly probable that the monthly basis; a draft was released in late October impact of dredging on water quality is relatively 1974. ' ' ' ' very minor. As an overview on this'matter, Dr. Krone 2. Prior to undertaking port development or observes that "The . . . (EPA) .. appears to feel maintenance projects, 'ports must procure permits compelled- to establish guidelines for' dredged spoil from many regulatory agencies; most of which ad- disposal even in the absence of information showing minister pollution control programs. Primarily be- that publishing such guidelines will lead to improve- cause 'many pollOtion control regulations appear ment of water quality. In view of the large sumrnsof relatively nebulous and because most pollution 'con- money that observation of the proposed guidelines tr'ol agencies 'are under-staffed to efficiently handle will require, and that otherwise could be spent in permits, bbtaining permits is usually arduous. preventing the admission of waste discharges into, Again,' dredging causes the majority of problems. the waters to prevent accumulation of toxic materials Both for maintenance and development purposes, on all sediments, such guidelines should be prepared dredging permits are sought more frequently by more with sound knowledge of the effects' of disposal on PORTS - 549 the estuary or stream. As the proposed guidelines Decisions of the Bureau will not be swayed by eco- show repeatedly, even cursory knowledge is nomic considerations."'2 The Bureau has pointed out lacking."" that it is their obligation to review dredging projects Second, no studies have conclusively shown signif- and to try and serve as advocates for sound biological icant deleterious impacts on water quality caused by planning. routine maintenance or well planned new dredging. It is not apparent that pollution control regulatory Dredging, which approximates natural resuspension agencies are able to adequately identify any signifi- of sediments, does not add materials to the water cant deleterious impacts which begin to compare column. While no significant changes have occurred with the lost benefits of foregone dredging projects in dredging practices in San Francisco Bay in the last or the added costs associated with compliance with 50 years (except that the amounts have increased), the regulations. The agencies have been queried the local Water Quality Control Board reports that regarding the impacts of the regulations on numerous bay water quality is improving. occasions with unsatisfactory results. To one query Third, the costs associated with compliance with from a Congressman, for example, who asked the dredging related pollution control regulations are EPA "What specific beneficial effects will be high. In the San Francisco Bay, for example, the achieved as a result of implementing the (dredging) normal practice for dredging within the central bay guidelines?" EPA responded: "We believe the is to dispose of the material at a deep aquatic site (guidelines) will provide a better tool to evaluate just off Alcatraz Island; the regulations prescribe dredged spoil disposal in San Francisco Bay waters disposal for "polluted" material at some 30 miles than was formerly available through the use of offshore in the ocean or on land. The cost for dis- national (EPA) guidelines. Accordingly, the re- posing in the prescribed ocean site is approximately suiting evaluations should adequately protect the three times that of disposing at the Alcatraz site. environment while avoiding the imposition of un- Without adequate justification, ports are very re- reasonable burdens on navigation interests."'" With luctant to commit such large additional expenditures. regard to this particular response there is significant An estimate of additional costs due to dredging disagreement over whether or. not the regulations regulations-as applied in San Francisco Bay has been have been shown to adequately protect the environ- developed and is included in Appendix I, as ment and whether or not they impose unreasonable Exhibit 2. burdens.on navigation interests. Since ports are often bound by lease agreements, 4. Testing and monitoring programs are required additional expenses for disposing of dredged mate- as conditions of dredging permits issued by govern- rials are usually unbudgeted or unknown amounts ment regulatory agencies. The costs of these pro- which must come from other accounts if available grams is high, averaging from approximately 7 per- at all. In one instance, funds which had been made cent to 20 percent of the cost of the dredging. Much available for public fishing piers and parks had to be data has been produced from these mandatory pro- used instead to cover the added costs of compliance. grams but its usefulness in protecting the environ- While the recreational benefits of the public fishing ment is highly questionable. Three questions re- facilities are known, no one can identify significant garding program usefulness have never been satis- benefits of complying with the dredging regulations. factorily answered: (a) what is the relationship Another factor aggravating the added cost situa- between constituents tested and water quality: (b) tion is that many single purpose agencies with pol- what is the relationship between the limits placed on lution control authority can and do exercise a de the constituents (which define whether or not dredg- facto veto power over the conduct of dredging ing is allowed) and water quality: (c) do the pre- projects. A recent statement by a representative of scribed methods of analysis yield results which are the U.S. Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife indicative of actual deleterious impacts on water illustrates the limited perspective that results in quality? controls on ports; with regard to the necessity and After reviewing the pollution control regulations merits of port dredging projects, the representative and testing and monitoring procedures which are stated that "Although the proposed EPA criteria prescribed for dredging, Dr. Ray Krone observed state that the selection of disposal sites will be based that "The levels (limits) of constituents are arbi- tton considerations of the need for disposal, economic trarily set without justification or support of any on considerations of the need for disposal, economic kind. The real difficulty, from the standpoint of their costs involved, available alternatives, and the extent use for management of dredged spoil disposal, how- of environmental'impact, the Bureau will continue ever, arises because of the analytical (testing) meth- to evaluate dredging projects only from the stand- ods required,.. The methods of analysis described point of the impact on fish and wildlife resources. appear to determine gross constituents or indexes of 550 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL possible pollutants, rather than actual deleterious CONCLUSIONS materials released to the environment."14 In order for west coast estuarine ports to participate as fully as possible in pollution control programs, un- APPARENT NEEDS certainty, delays, and confusion now associated with such programs must be minimized. The perplexing problems which characterize the pollution control The factors discussed above limit and control program for dredging hopefully can be reduced or west coast estuarine port operation, often to a seri- eliminated from future programs involving other ous extent. Ports can and do play a vital role in fields of port activity. A mechanism for the sharing pollution control efforts. The following points express of costs associated with port pollution control pro- needed reforms in the pollution control efforts as grams should be developed and implemented. In applied to west coast ports: addition, a streamlined decisionmaking process for the issuance of port maintenance and development 1. Pollution control regulations and testing proce- permits should be instituted, allowing full and rapid dures must be adequately based and justifiable with consideration of the value of port activity. regard to results. Their entire impact, including that on the environment as well as on the economy and APPENDIX I ports in particular must be evaluated prior to im- plementation. Also, before any regulations are im- (Referenced to Text Superscripts) plemented, agencies administering them should be plemiented, agencies administering them should be 1. From U.S. Department of Commerce figures compiled by fully aware of costs and of feasible alternatives the Maritime Administratis compiled by available to meet regulation requirements. To this end, agencies proposing regulations or testing proce- 2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Maritime Administra- dures should be required to develop both environ- tion, North American Port Development Expenditure Survey, March 1974. mental and economic impact statements and to hold public hearings prior to promulgation of the regula- 3. California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San tions. This view has been endorsed by both the board Francisco Bay Region, Interim Water Quality Manage- of directors and the general membership of the Cali- Plan, April 1971. fornia Marine Affairs and Navigation Conference."5 4. San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control Sound, complete, reasonable, and workable pollution Board, Memorandum from Executive Director on pro- control regulations can only be developed after social, posed shellfish policy, August 1974. economic, and environmental impacts and priorities 5. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Institute for Water Re- are established, evaluated, and their relationships sources, Foreign Deep Water Port Developments, thoroughly understood. December 1971. 2. Pollution control regulations must be applied 6. California Marine Affairs and Navigation Conference, uniformly; specific directions for their use must be Summary Proceedings: Ecology, Economics and Dredg- supplied to all agencies at federal, state, and local ing-A Balancing Point for Navigation, October 1973. levels which might use them. 7. Same as #6. 3. Pollution control regulatory agencies must be adequately funded and staffed to develop fair, 8. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment adequately Station, Disposal of Dredged Spoil (Technical Report efficient and economical permit and review proce- H-72-8) November 1972. dures for the administration of pollution control 9. Dr. Ray B. Krone, Paper to San Francisco Bay Regional programs. Water Quality Control Board, March 20, 1974. 4. When pollution control measures are judged to be in the general interest, funds should be made 10. Same as #4. available by the government to implement such 11. Dr. Ray B. Krone, Paper Evaluating EPA Draft Dredge measures. West coast ports, already financially Disposal Criteria, November 8, 1972. burdened through many recent modernization 12. Same as #6. efforts, provide many major contributions to the general interest. Some funding is apparently author- 13. Letter from Paul DeFalco, Jr., Regional Administrator, ed in the amount of 15 million to remove in-place EPA Region IX, to Congressman Robert L. Leggett, ized in the amount of $15 million to rvember 30, 1973. toxicants from navigable waterways according to Section 115 of P.L. 92-500; to date, however, west 14. Same as #9. coast EPA representatives do not know how these 15. Resolution adopted by the California Marine Affairs funds can be made available. and Navigation Conference, October 1973. PORTS 551 Exhibit 1 : d Exhibit 2 Economic Impact of Port of Seattle* Estimated Additional Costs for San Francisco Bay Dredging Projects as a Result of Application of E.P.A. Dredge Disposal Criteria* Number Gross Annual Sales and (or January 1, 1972 to October 1, 1973 of Jobs Payroll Revenues Project Estimated Transportation and Transportation Services Dredging ApplicaRequested Approved os (Cubic Requested Approved Cost Yards) Water Transportation: Yards) Steamship companies-personnel afloat___ 618 $ 8,401,000 $130,000,000 1. Humble Oil - - ------. 10,000 Carquinez'Strait Alcatraz $ 9,600 Tug & barge companies-personnel afloat.. 1,047 9,785,000 48,000,000 2. USN Hunters Point... 170,000 Hunters Point Deep Ocean 77,000 Pilotage and berthing services ..- . .... 35 457,000 900,000 3. WPRR Oakland -- --- 6,000 Alcatraz Deep Ocean 18,000 Ship chandlers and other vessel suppliers... 254 2,101,000 5,692,000 4. Bethlehem Shipyard.. 125,000 Hunters Point Deep Ocean 220,000 Commercial fishing ...-. ............. 675 6,525,000 15,000,000 (one project) -- -- 25,000 Hunters Point Alcatraz . 9,000 Repair and construction of commercial 5. Port of Oakland .... 95,000 Alcatraz Deep Ocean 113,000 vessels -............................ 1,527 12,988,000 24,027,000 6. Exxon Benicia .- .0 80,000 Carquinez Strait Alcatraz 76,800 7. Schnitzer Oakland .. 36,000 Alcatraz Deep Ocean 68,400 Subtotal: Water Transportation ..-.. 4,216 $ 40,557,000 $223,619,000 8. Corps Oak IHC ..- . 900,000 Alcatraz Deep Ocean 1,440,000 9. Dumbarton Br .-.... 121,000 South Bay Alcatraz 138,000 10. PG & E Oleum ..- . . . 12,000 Carquinez Strait Alcatraz 12,000 Rail ----------------------- 967 $ 9,008,000 $18,437,000 11. Port of Richmond .... 10,000 Alcatraz Land ? Truck .- . ............... 457 4,993,000 13,137,000 12. San Leandro Mrna... 350,000 Hunters Point Land 7 Air --------------------- 10 100,000 500,000 $2,181.800 Subtotal:SurfaceTransportation ... . 1,434 $14,101,000 $ 32,074,000 Transportation Services * From Newsletter S6, California Marine Affairs and Navigation Conference, Oct. 30, 1973. Marine construction - ------------------- 189 $ 1,563,000 $ 4,747,000 Physical handling of maritime cargoes (longshore and stevedoring, crating, stuffing & unstuffing of containers, local drayage, and warehousing) - . ......... 2,585 24,486,000 45,763,000 Administrative activities-private (person- nel ashore of steamship and tug & barge' companies, freight forwarders, customs house brokers, foreign trade departments of banks, insurance com- panies, and trade associations) -_..... 1,704 14,445,000 8,233,000 Administrative activities-public (Port of Seattle Commission, federal, state, S local agencies, foreign consulates and trade missions) .-------------- - 2,111 20,512,000 47,120,000 Other waterfront related activities (marine surveyors, admiralty lawyers, corisul- tants, maritime labor unions, and news media) .-.......................... 242 3,808,000 4,393,000 Subtotal: Transportation Services...- 6,831 $ 64,814,000 $110,256,000 Total: Transportation and Transportation Services .- ....................... 12,481 $119,472,000 $365,949,000 Manufacturing Food/kindred products - - .........--._. 1,400 $ 10,629,000 $ 78,279,000 Wood/paper products - - ----------------- 1,689 11,848,000 42,040,000 Metal products - ------------------------ 464 3,748,000 13,072,000 Machinery & equipment - . ............... 2,921 24,715,000 82,483,000 Other manufacturing .-.... ........ 2,125 16,865,000 77,546,000 Total: Manufacturing - - --------------- 8,599 $ 67,805,000 $293,420,000 Wholesale Trades : _._ 4,320 $ 40,324,000 $ 95,154,000 Grand Total Direct Impact - - --------------- 25,400 $227,601,000 $754,523,000 * From Seattle Maritime Commerce and its Impact on the Economy of King County, Seattle Port Commission, 1971. THE PUBLIC'S ROLE SEA GRANT ESTUARINE STUDIES LEATHA F. MILOY Texas A & M University College Station, Texas ABSTRACT Approximately 20 percent of funds dispensed under the National Sea Grant College and Program Act of 1966 (PL 89-688) has been directly related to estuarine studies. Since 1971 $13 million in federal funds, matched by $8 million in non-federal support, has been directed to this area. In the same period 533 projects in support of ecosystems research, coastal zone management, pollution studies, environmental modeling, and applied oceanography were conducted under the Sea Grant Program. Brief case histories of estuarine related studies in Narragansett Bay, Long Island Sound, the Neuse and Albemarle River Basins, Apalachicola and Escambia Bays, Barataria Bay, Matagorda Bay, and Puget Sound are presented as examples of Sea Grant work. The applied nature of Sea Grant studies is emphasized by examples of the utilization of Sea Grant estuarine-related research. Particular attention is given to how these studies have been used by local, state, and federal decisionmaking bodies. A partial bibliography citing 58 Sea Grant reports on estuarine research is presented. INTRODUCTION sities, the Sea Grant Program, administered by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Incubators for much of life in the sea, estuaries are (NOAA), U.S. Department of Commerce, has fragile environments, taking sustenance from land directed more than $21 million in federal funds and sea in an unending cycle. toward marine environmental research since 1971. Influenced by both land and sea, the nation's In 1974, 165 projects were underway along all U.S. estuaries are vital resources of the coastal margins. coasts and the Great Lakes. And the delicate balance of these nursery grounds is further complicated by man's increasing pressure on the coastal zones of this country. Sea Grant: How It Works An intricate network of natural phenomena and manmade intrusions converge in America's coastal When the Congress created the Sea Grant Pro- zones. Each of these has a direct bearing on the gram in 1966 (PL 89-688), it was envisioned as a estuarine environment. Research to learn more about marine resource effort which would be patterned, estuaries encompasses a much broader scope than in part, after the successful land grant program the estuary itself. One must understand the nature fostered by the Morrill Act of 1862. Whereas the of adjacent bays, the islands which bar the sea land grant program concerned itself with food from the land, shipping lanes which criss-cross the production from the land, Sea Grant is concerned nearshore environment, freshwater inflows which not only with food production from the ocean but feed the sea, the biological mysteries underlying the also with the development and use of other re- ocean's food chain, the effects of man's use of the sources-minerals, recreation, transportation, and nearby land and ocean, and the physical, chemical, others-which relate to the sea. To accomplish its and biological parameters of the nearby ocean. mission, by law Sea Grant must carry on work in Created to "achieve gainful use of marine re- applied research, education, and advisory services. sources" through the establishment of sea grant Administered by the National Science Foundation colleges, the National Sea Grant Program has from 1966 until the creation of NOAA in 1970, the focused a significant effort toward understanding the program is a matching fund arrangement. As much forces which influence the nation's estuaries. Through as two-thirds of the funds for Sea Grant programs in a partnership arrangement between the federal universities and colleges come from the federal government and the nation's colleges and univer- government with at least one-third coming from 555 556 ESTUARINE POILLUTION CONTROL Table 1.-Sea Grant Progtam Support by Category of Effort FY71-74 1971 1972 1973 1974 Total Category SG $ SG $ SG$ SG$ SG$ (MF$) (MF$) (MF $) (MF ) (MF $) . EDUCATION/TRAINING .......- .-........_ 1,860,350 1,957,700 1,483,194 1,217,128 6,518,372 (1,937,878) (1,,469,975) (2,125,273) (1,869,726) (7,402,952) ADVISORY SERVICES- .... .----------.. 1,096,359 2,184,135 2,658,562 3,568,695 9,507,751 (591,344) (1,158,523) (1,389,705) (1,791,681) (4,931,253) RESEARCH * Marine Technology Research & Development.... 1,820,889 3,159,949 3,037,103 2,941,518 10,959,459 (925,890) (1,794,834) (1,626,595) (1,851,898) (6,199,217) *·Marine Environmental Research ..- ...... 2,652,990 3,135,814 4,030,467 3,384,116 13,203,387 (1,708,638) (1,707,906) (2,411,610) (2,344,411) (8,172,565) ·Socio-Economics & Legal Research .. ........... 524,531 845,176 1,115,015 909,659 3,394,381 (228,905) (440,173) (533,816) (624,113) (1,827,007) ·Marine Resources Development .-. ...........-. 3,685,288 3,665,132 4,532,119 5,018,347 16,900,886 (2,322i5293 (2,144,644) (2,813,753) (3,046,353) (10,327,279) PROGRAM MGM'T .-------- . .----. 904,843 1,390,273 i,619,758 1,721,477 5,636,351 (753,463) (1,010,114) (1,052,076) (1,358,018) (4,173,671) TOTALS SG $ .-.......... . ........ 12,545,250 16,338,179 18,476,218* 18,760,940'* 66,120,587 (MF $) .-------- ........ . .... (8,468,647) (9,726,169) (11,952,828) (12,886,200) (43,033,844) *Does not include $857,900 awarded aS amendments to grants originating in FY72. **Does not include $293,000 for 7 awards not requiring matching funds. institutional sources. This matching requirement has The Partnership created a partnership between government and institutions which is the cornerstone of the Sea Since the program is operated to serve state and Grant concept. regional needs, the mechanisms for bringing univer- Since 1971, 'the program has granted $66 millioh sity resources to bear upon these area problems and to universities and others. An additional $43 million needs necessarily include local involvement. A has been matched by grantees as shown in Table 1. typical university Sea Grant program, for instance, Support to institutions from the National Sea will have several advisory councils or committees Grant Program takes several forms: project support helping define the most important problems for for a single activity; coherent area support for several study. projects centered around one primary problem; Through marine advisory service field agents who institutional support for programs undertaking work live and work in the communities bordering the in several research areas and in education and coast, local problems are identified. These field advisory service areas; special designation as Sea agents work closely with fishermen, businessmen, Grant College for universities exhibiting: excel- port directors, and others who are dependent upon lence and commitment while receiving institutional the sea for a living. Through field agents, problems support. are brought back to the institution. Often informa- Sea Grant's intent is to bring many types of tion already exists which can help. In other instances, expertise into marine-related work. Grantees include scientists, engineers, teachers, lawyers, economists, Table 2.-Individuals involved in Sea Grant Projects FY 1974 businessmen, and industrialists. In FY1974 3,796 individuals were involved in Sea Grant supported Type Research Advisory Education Total Services projects-2,334 full-time equivalents as shown in Table 2.1 Faculty/Professional -.. ....... 1,140 325 297 1,752 In 1975 eight Sea Grant Colleges had been Graduate Students .-- ---- 562 26 105 696 namIed-Oregon State University (1971), Texas Undergraduate Students .--- 274 30 101 442 Technicians ---- 307 25 49 355 A&M University (1971), University of Rhode Clerical -232 80 50 374 Cleri-al.----.---------- .... 232 80 50 374 Island (1971), University of Washington (1971), Other- . ------- ...... 99 119 30 177 University of Wisconsin (1972) , University of Total - 2,614 605 632 3,796 Hawaii (1972), University of California (1973), State University of New York/Cornell (1975). THE P-UBLCr'S ROLE . 557 research efforts must be mounted to acquire informa- Table 3.-Numbers of projects by eategorles FY1971-1974 tion needed to make decisions. As information is Numbers of Projects(Total) generated it is fed back to the local areas through Categoryojects(Total) ... . a, *1971 1972 1973 1974 meetings, workshops, publications, films, or one-to- one teaching sessions. RESEARCH AND STUDIES IN Problems may range from the demand for trained DIRECT SUPPORT OF personnel to the need for organized workshops on COASTAL MGM'T DECISIONS (21) (38) (58) (67) ·CZM Social Sciences . . ... 13 22 32 new state or federal regulations. But all are evaluated *CZM Natural Sciences. .... 25 36 35 by local groups and university personnel to arrive ECOSYSTEMS RESEARCH . (13) (11) (28) (25) at decisions about how solutions may be generated. Ecosystems Research . .... 11 28 25 Where research, education, or advisory services POLLUTION STUDIES . ...... (17) (46) (45) (40) projects are called for, proposals are written,' and .Oil Spills -- -- ------ 5 3 3 evaluated for scientific and technical quality by Pesticides -.-.- - - 8 6 5 experienced professionals from the universities, state hema and Radioactive_ 11 5 6 Metals - --------------- 9 5 4 or federal agencies, private laboratories or industry. .Other .------------------ i3 26 22 Even before the institution submits its comprehen- ENYIRONMENTAL MODELS (15) (20) (23) (25) sive proposal for federal support, the project has -Physical Processes -- ------ 9 10 12 been subjected to many kinds of reviews and judged -Biological Processes . 6 6 8 on its relevance to local problems. Other Once the NOAA Office of Sea Grants is asked to APPLIED OCEANOGRAPHY. (16) (9) (9) (8) ·Chemical. 2 1 1 support a project, other technical reviews are made, Chemi7cal 2..... 8 7 plus a further review is made to determine its ap- propriateness to the Sea Grant mission. A National TOTAL 82 123 163 165 Sea Grant advisory panel, composed of knowledge- Sea Grant advisory panel, composed of knowledge- *Project information for FY1971 is available only by major areas of emphasis. able individuals from industry and universities, participates in this review process and decides on grants to be made. This panel, with personnel from Although there is' no specific research category the Office of Sea Grants, must take into considera- labelled "Estuarine Studies," Sea Grant recognizes tion not only the technical quality of the proposal the importance of support to all aspects of the near- but also the total funding available to the National shore marine environment. Because of the many Sea Grant Program. forces -which impact upon the nation's estuaries, Through this process of review and evaluation, studies in several categories are considered vital to projects eventually undertaken as part of the Sea understanding the complex estuarine environment. Grant Program are assured of having high technical Work in support of marine environmental quality and scientific quality and relevance to the needs of is carried out in five major areas of emphasis under the local community or state. Sea' Grant: Research in Support of Coastal Zone Management Decisions; Ecosystems Research; Pol- MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY lution Studies; Environmental Models; and Applied Oceanography.' Concern for environmental quality and estuarine These niajbr topics are further broken down into research is a manifestation of how the Sea Grant sub-topics as indicated in Table 3. Work in the partnership works. Sea Grant's chief concern is coastal zone is clearly the most important area of people, people who work in the sea, live near its investigation with 67 projects underway in the 1974 shore, or benefit from its bountiful resources, and fiscal year. Pollution studies including oil spills, one of the important concerns of people is the quality pesticides, thermal, radioactive, and metal pollution, of the environment. Sea Grant advisory field agents, rank second. working closely with local groups, help identify Fbr the period FY1971-1974, $13 million in problems which affect the quality of the coastal and federal funds and $8 million in matching funds have nearshore environment. Local support for Sea Grant been devoted to marine environmental quality projects often shows up as matching dollars for the studies. This area of research has received signifi- project. As evidence of the local acceptance of the cantly more non-federal support than matching program, the mandatory matching requirement has funds required by law. Characteristic of the entire exceeded the demand. Forty-one percent of the total Sea Grant funding for the current fiscal year is ' Under the Sea Grant legislation, the Great Lakes are considered ,"salty" and studies undertaken in these important waters are included from matching money. in the tables presented here. 558 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 4.-Sea Grant Supported Marine Environmental Research FY1971-1974 '1971 , 1972 1973 1974 Total Major Emphasis S$ So $ SG SG $ SG $ (MF $) (MF $) (MF $) (MF$) (MF $) Research in support ofcoastal management decisions-. 944,947 964,963 1,410,543 1,204,180 4,524,633 (742,149) (503,835) (1,037,797) (1,075,194) (3,358,975) Ecosystems Research .-.. ..----------.. 599,500 379,984 812,677 563,479 2,355,640 (431,230) (275,329) (447,061) (344,819) (1,498,439) Pollution Studies .-------. 420,184 1,059,569 810,215 686,184 2,976,152 (211,910) (634,723) (573,172) (426,644) (1,846,449) Environmental Models_ - ... .. ---. 348,697 533,748 587,683 686,826 2,156,954 (178,677) (248,250) (200,742) (382,208) (1,009,877) Applied Oceanography .-... .............. 339,662 197,550 409,349 243,447 1,190,008 (144,672) (45,769) (152,838) (115,546) (458,825) TOTAL SG$ -.. . ................................ 2,652,990 3,135,814 4,030,467 3,384,116 13,203,387 (MF $)-..-............................. (1,708,638) (1,707,906) (2,411,610) (2,344,411) (8,172,565) % of all Sea Grants - .. 21.1 19.0 21.8 18.0 Sea Grant program, this overmatch is evidence of . Marine biologists are devising a model that will the importance of working closely with local groups characterize such features as animal and plant to identify problems. populations. In addition to the research volume as indicated Together, the studies will lead to a coordinated in Table 4, much of the work of marine field agents model to show the interaction among the physical, is directed toward environmental quality. In the biological, and economic aspects of man's use of period FY1971-FY1974, a total of $14.4 million has the bay. been used to build a national network of marine The physical model of the bay is based on laws of agents. Of this amount, $4.9 million has come from fluid motion and takes into account the effects of non-federal sources. The strength of this network tides, storms, and the earth's rotation. It can predict lies in its ability to work at the local level, to tap water movement in the entire bay or at any one the expertise of Sea Grant institutions, and to relate of 320 separate points. research to the coastal and marine problems of the It has been used to compute temperature profiles nation. -for the heated water discharge of a proposed nuclear Although 165 projects in support of estuarine power plant. The profiles indicate to what extent quality were conducted in FY1974, only a few bay water would be affected by the effluent and examples are cited in this report. They are included provide clues to its potential effect on marine life. as indicators of the kinds of local-federal arrange- Again using the physical model, Sea Grant scien- ments which Sea Grant endorses and supports. tists have been able to predict the dispersion of past oil spills, knowing only their size and location, with significant accuracy. Such predictioriS can help ESTUARINE RELATED STUDIES officials anticipate where a spill might spread and can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of oil New England spill contingency' plans. The resource' economists' model of the bay can Narragansett Bay.-Sea Grant researchers at the be used to predict increased pollution from new University of Rhode Island are using computers to economic activity. The calculations consider wastes simulate various processes in Narragansett Bay. which result directly from increased production as · Ocean engineers have completed 'a physical well as those generated by supporting industries. model of tides and currents that has been used to In addition to research that examines the bay 'as predict water quality in the upper bay after a storm a whole, other URI Sea Grant work on' the en- sewer overload and the movement of oil slicks from vironmental impact of marinas in small inlets has spills in the lower bay. led to recommendations that new marinas'be located . Resource economists have developed an eco- where tides or currents flush the area frequently. nomic-ecological model that can be used to predict In the first major study' of a INew England salt the effect of economic growth on water pollution. marsh in about a decade, Sea Grant scientists have completed an intensive ecological study of a small estuaries. These maps also show changes in the salt marsh embayment on the west side of Narragan- estuaries over time. sett Bay. The research has provided evidence that oxygen Measurements of major populations, their metabo- concentrations often drop in the summer, as algae lism, and seasonal patterns of the total salt marsh blooms thrive and salt water settles to the bottom. metabolism were made- to ascertain energy flow Fish begin to migrate out of large areas where oxygen within the embayment. The scientists simulated is low, leading scientists to believe more nutrients additions of sewage and heated effluent water to the in the estuaries could lead to longer periods of low salt marsh inlet. They concluded that sewage from oxygen. Such periods could be harmful to fish and a housing development around the marsh would organisms that cannot leave the waters. lead to total depletion of dissolved oxygen in the State agencies that must monitor and control marsh waters and that the introduction of heated water quality are using the information derived from water, such as power plant effluent, would cause these studies to gauge the impact of upstream small, but measurable lowerings of dissolved oxygen. sources of sewage and nutrients on the estuaries. Already Sea Grant researchers have recommended Long Island Sound-Using a mathematical model maximum temperature standards for industrial ef- in New York, researchers with the State University fluents to officials formulating water quality policy. of New York (at Stony Brook) are testing manage- University of North Carolina teams also are ment schemes for improving water quality in Long undertaking work to learn more about the soils in Island Sound. One idea being evaluated could lead the estuarine environs and the processes which to better flushing of the western end of the sound and shape the state's shoreline. The state's barrier New York Harbor. It calls for building gates, or islands and the rest of its coastline are threatened locks, across the upper East River, a major source by erosive forces of ocean waves and currents. of pollutants in the once-productive sound. Meanwhile, another research team is using Hat- At ebb tide in the East River, the gates would be teras Beachgrass, a variety developed by NCSU open to allow unhindered flow of clean sound water soil scientists several years ago, to stabilize dutes. through the river, down into New York Harbor, Advantages of the: Hatteras grass include its hardi- and out into the New York Bight. Six hours later, ness. Where only five percent of American beach- at slack water, the locks would be closed, blocking grass test plantings survived the first year, the the flow of polluted harbor and river waters back survival rate for Hatteras jumped to 70 percent. into the sound. After another six hours, the gates In a related activity, the soil scientists joined with would be reopened to repeat the cycle. the Corps of Engineers in a project to stabilize the Tests of the tidal flushing scheme with the model soil which is dredged from rivers and channels. They indicate that sewage concentrations would drop 78 have found that it is possible to build productive percent in the western end of the sound and 50 marshlands from the dredging spoils in some areas. percent in New York Harbor. The predictions assume In field studies and with the computer, University that half the East River sewage now enters the of North Carolina Sea Grant scientists have traced sound. water flow through the state's tidal inlets and sounds. Field research focused on water circulation South Atlantic in the Oregon Inlet and Croatan-Roanoke Sound areas and in the Neuse River estuary. Using the Neuse and Albermarle River Estuaries.-Sprawling computer, NCSU civil engineers modeled water between North Carolina's mainland and its Outer quality, surface-elevation, and water movements in Banks are 2.6 million acres of sounds and estuaries, Pamlico Sound under various conditions including an area which ranks near the top of the state's list hurricane winds. A water quality model of the of most valuable resources. The North Carolina Sea Neuse River estuary has been verified with field Grant program conducts research aimed at con- data. Information gained in both the field and com- tributing to the state's ability to make sound policies puter studies is useful in predicting water flow and concerning the estuarine environment. water quality and can provide valuable information Scientists at the University of North Carolina are for resource management decisions. tracing nutrients-nitrogen and phosphorus as they travel into and through the estuaries to determine Gulf Coast the effects these nutrients have on the resource. Computers are used to map changes in the estuarine Apalachicola and Escambia Bays.-Apalachicola waters throughout the Neuse and Albermale River Bay and its drainage system are important concerns 560 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL to nearby coastal counties. Franklin County, for Commission personnel describe the area as the example, is economically dependent upon the finfish most biologically productive estuary in a region and shellfish resources of the bay, which produces acknowledged as the major nursery ground for over 80 percent of Florida's oyster crop. Researchers commercial fisheries in the northern Gulf of Mexico. from the State University System of Florida, Initial studies were made at widely dispersed studying the possible effects of the agricultural locations to assess factors that varied spatially, such chemical Mirex, provided data from their Sea Grant as salinity and vegetative types, as well as those work to the state's Department of Natural Re- that changed with tidal stage and season. The sources Endangered Land Task Force, to the EPA, investigation has since been extended to the littoral and to'the Florida House of Representatives. zone from the Mississippi River mouth to the off- The team was asked to expand the scope of the shore area of the Barataria Bay system and to project on Mirex, a chemical'used' to control fire various marsh types and swamps. The results ants, to include the productivity and water quality showed that the marshes and swamps play the key in the bay's drainage system. Funding came from role in organic production necessary for nutrient the Franklin County Board of Commissioners and generation in situ and in sediments in Barataria the Florida Department of Pollution Control. Bay system. Nutrients to the Barataria from the Based on data from the Sea Grant research Mississippi River are limited to high flooding stage project in Apalachicola'Bay, the State of Florida is of the river in early spring, but the river flooding purchasing 17,000 acres of land at a price of $4.2 inundates the entire nearshore zone of the Louisiana million. coast with vast amounts of organic matter and Data collected in Apalachicola Bay will be corm- inorganic nutrients annually from winter to late pared with information derived from another study spring. Under investigation is the influence of the in Escambia Bay which has gained national atten- Mississippi flooding on the chemical parameters of tion in recent years due to a series of devastating water and sediment in the major oyster producing fishkills symptomatic of deteriorated water quality. area east of the river, in relation to oyster growth, As part of an interagency task force established quality, and condition for parasite infection. by an EPA conference in 1972, Sea Grant is involved Perspectives gained from the first several field in efforts to reverse the bay's deterioration and guide seasons led investigators to formulate a detailed the recovery process. Data from the project has plan for study, synthesis, and operational research already been used in planning for -a projected 30 of the total estuarine ecosystem. They have already percent population increase for the Pensacola metro- characterized estuarine productivity by means of a politan area over the next 15 years. detailed model and energy flow data. The importance of studying interrelationships This synthesis of nutritive processes will provide between and among bays has been documented in a scheme by which the relative importance of every the project. Under certain conditions, for instance, consumer species in the marsh, as well as the marsh Pensacola Bay bottom water moves into the East plants themselves, can be assessed in terms of and Escambia Bays. Knowledge of this movement is utilization of commercially important shrimp and important in predicting movement of sludge out of fish. Further, through estimates of plant material Escambia Bay and in determining sites for waste flushed into open waters, the contribution from outfalls. The 'study has already provided data to coastal marshes to offshore food chains can be state officials in the development of a wastewater examined. From this information, economic ques- management plan for the drainage'basin. tions conderned with alternate uses of the estuarine The data has also been used in evaluating an oil- marsh and its living resources can be examined drilling permit request and by real estate interests rationally. in coastal development. Knowledge gained from the project has already been used to evaluate the impact of man's activi- ties-primarily oil production related-and will -Barataria -Bay.--Initiation of Lonisiana's Sea 1 . Barataria Bay.-Initiation of Louisianas Sea .later lead to recommendations for management Grant program in 1968 gave Louisiana State Univer- practices in Louisiana's coastal region. sity scientists their first opportunity to mount a major multidisciplinary study of the state's fragile and fertile coastal marshes-seven million. acres of Matagorda Bay.-An example of the comprehen- estuaries and wetlands. sive approach Sea Grant researchers take toward In early 1969 field activities began on the Barataria estuarine studies is Texas A&M University's four- Bay Project, named-for a major bay-marsh complex part resource evaluation of the Matagorda Bay area. in southeastern Lousiana. Wild Life and Fisheries The study was undertaken to complement work THE PUrBLIC'S ROLE 561 done for the General Land Office of Texas by the more than $4 million. The Seattle metropolitan area Texas Bureau of Economic Geology. It is part of a (Metro-Seattle) has committed $1.1 million in local continuing quest for information upon which to base funds for studies on waste disposal. Baseline studies coastal policy decisions. will be funded by the state. Texas A&M's study, supported by the General Land Office and industry, involved an interdisci- TRENDS AND IMPLICATIONS plinary team of geologists, biologists, oceanographers, and econorrmists. and economists. Since local and state governments hold key The team focused on water circulation pattegovernments hold key atterns managerial roles in the nation's coastal zones, in- and their effect on coastline change and pollution eluding responsibilities for estuarine areas, the tie dispersal; on chlorinated hydrocarbon levels in baye to these governmental units is the Sea Grant sediments; on the validity of interpreting environ- Program's greatest strength. mental factors from the presence of skeletal remains As indicated in Tables 3 and 4 of this report, of certain marine organisms; and on the economic research and studies in direct sup port structure of the bay area and the probable economic effects on changes in population, esouces and management decisions have grown steadily since effectr ansportation. 1971. With the passage of the Coastal Zone Manage- ment Act of 1972, state agencies and Sea Grant institutions have devoted even greater time and Pacific Northwest effort toward these important land and water areas. Not only has the federal Sea Grant support for Puget Sound.-In Washington, Sea Grant has coastal management decisions increased in the past supported several projects to provide impartial data two fiscal years (Table 4), but matching funds have for policy makers who must make coastal zone amounted to approximately 43 percent of the total management decisions while beset by intense pres- spent, making a cumulative expenditure of $7.8 sures from competing interests. million since 1971. One effort by an interdisciplinary team of Univer- Pollution control and ecosystems research, on the sity of Washington economists, oceanographers, other hand, has declined during the same period. political scientists, and public affairs specialists, is Sea Grant Program directors at several universities a series of case studies of public controversies over see this as a continuing trend. They reason that potential uses of Puget Sound shorelines. The result pollution studies for example, have been designated is a major reference work on management of a large as part of the EPA mission and with federal appro- estuarine-inland waterway system. priations for Sea Grant programs growing slowly, Concern over discharge of sewage sludge from the funds available must be directed to problem Seattle into Puget Sound led Sea Grant scientists areas where other federal agencies have not been to construct a mathematical model that describes given responsibilities for granting and contracting. the effects of environmental factors upon phyto- With the creation of guidelines for state support plankton growth in the sound. With support from under the Office of Coastal Zone Management, EPA, a quantitative description of the main features NOAA, states are beginning to plan ways to im- of mid-channel circulation in the central basin of plement the coastal management law. With federal the sound was developed. The results were used to guidelines clearly asking for state management calculate algal population dynamics and to identify programs, the Sea Grant funded work which has and describe environmental factors which control already been done in many of the coastal states is algal growth. proving invaluable, cementing the university-state- .; The Washington Sea Grant Program has. a major federal partnership. publishing venture underway to present, in readily In Rhode Island, for example, one of the first accessible and useable formats, data on the marine states to pass comprehensive coastal management environment of Puget Sound collected over the legislation,;the University of Rhode Island's Coastal past 40 years. Produced with support from the Resources Center has been designated as the Washington Department of Ecology, the materials research arm of the Coastal Resources Management are believed to be of great value to regional resource Council.. The.;first fact-finding mission of the Center planners.- - resulted in recommendations for the use of the state's 'State and local management agencies are respond- barrier beaches. Based on research supported by Sea ing to recent EPA requirements for water quality in Grant, the Center made recommendations on con- Puget Sound. r 'Estimates by some Washington struction and vehicle traffie which provided the basis groups place the cost of basic data. accumulation at for state beach regulations. 562 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL In other states, too, Sea Grant programs have reveals many examples of the results of such rela- developed supporting data upon which state agencies tionships: can begin to develop management plans. At the University of Michigan, a valuable review of state . In New York, findings of seven Sea Grant coastal management programs was prepared early projects assessing the state's power plant siting in 1972, even before the federal coastal zone act practices have been presented to the State Depart- was passed. Summaries of state coastal management ment of Environmental Conservation, the Public programs were examined; including estuarine and Service Commission, the Governor's Office and the wetlands preservation measures. The comprehensive Legislature. The information is being used in testi- examination of selected state programs became a mony at both state and federal hearings. valuable information source for states seeking coastal In a report for the California Coastal Zone zone legislation. Commission entitled " Governing California's Coast," In 1970, the Oregon State University Sea Grant the University of California Sea Grant Program has Program prepared and distributed thousands of analyzed alternative mechanisms for carrying out copies of a report entitled "Crisis in Oregon Estu- the state's coastal zone management plan. The aries" which reviewed the value and vulnerability Commission's policy on water quality and pesticides of these natural resources. Fourteen major estuaries is based on work by Sea Grant researchers at the were discussed with special emphasis given to their University of Southern California. present and potential contributions to the state's In Florida, Sea Grant supported work in the economy and the threats posed to the economy by University of Miami's Ocean and Coastal Law misuse and poor management practices. The State Program has contributed to passage of legislation of Oregon shortly passed coastal zone legislation designating Biscayne Bay as the state's first marine encompassing all areas west of the coastal mountain preserve area and to the Florida Coastal Mapping range. Sea Grant also helped prepare the impact Act, the first of its kind in the nation. statement which led to the designation of the South * The Louisiana Coastal Zone Statute, pending Slough of Coos Bay as the nation's first (and only, before the state's legislature, was drafted for the at this writing) National Estuarine Sanctuary. Louisiana Advisory Commission on Coastal and Marine Resources with Sea Grant support. The Senate Report "Papers on National Land Stimulus for Public Decisions Use Policy Issues," incorporated information devel- oped by the MIT Sea Grant Program. Proper management of natural resources involves . University of Rhode Island Sea Grant re- understanding all the ramifications of any given searchers have been involved in formulation of state move-as in a game of chess. And the University marine sand and gravel regulations, a barrier beach of Michigan Sea Grant Program tackles resource plan, and in the preparation of other information management problems exactly that way. In fact needed by legislators. they developed a game so stimulating that it is . In Texas, for instance, a series of small work- used by regional planning commissions and other shops in 1970 eventually led to the state's first state and local officials to help them see the con- major conference on marine and coastal resources- sequences of decisions they make in coastal and one called by the governor of the state. Out of the water resource planning. meeting came recommendations for state action Called WALRUS (Water and Land Resource which have since led to the creation of a Coastal and Utilization Simulation), the game was developed Marine Council and several legislative committees. to provide a means of communication and interac- Later, Texas A&M Sea Grant work on deepwater tion among the Sea Grant scientists and the public terminals had a direct influence on the creation of that they seek to serve. Played with four or five a state Offshore Terminal Commission. Work now teams of about five members each, the players underway on the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway has represent different economic and geographical in- been instrumental in developing public hearings on terests. As the game progresses they learn that no the use of the waterway. matter what decisions they make, the environment is going to reflect them-for good or for bad. In a number of states Sea Grantees serve on All along the Sea Grant network, scientists and commissions or councils responsible for policy mak- research managers are seeking closer interaction ing in marine and estuarine matters. States having with state agencies and public officials. The purpose! such arrangements include Texas, Oregon, Mas- to bring well-developed information into the deci- saehusetts, Louisiana, Rhode Island, Washington, sion making arena. A survey of Sea Grant programs and Hawaii. In other instances Sea Grantees hold THE PUBLIC'S ROLE 563 appointments on national marine councils and are programs is technically feasible and locally ac- active in committees of the National Academy of ceptable. This continuing review process assures Sciences and Engineering. that universities are meeting the needs of the state Sea Grant's presence is also felt in local communi- without duplicating efforts of other agencies. ties through a number of other channels-workshops for teachers, 4-H meetings, civic club lectures, tele- vision and radio programs, films, bulletins, news- CONCLUSION letters and special publications, atlases, maps, meetings and conferences. Through its research, education, and advisory service components in more Careful study of Sea Grant work in support of education, and advisory service components more estuarine quality leads to several observations about than 50 colleges, universities, and other institutions, future work and about the Sea Grant concept in Sea Grant hopes to bring about a greater public awareness of the importance of marine and estuarine general. resources. As American universities struggle through their current identity crisis, many new thrusts are likely to emerge. The university of the future, for example, may assume several roles-an ivory tower of knowl- edge, a processor of trained professionals and skilled craftsmen, a generator of new knowledge through Interaction with other federal agencies is achieved basic research. In all of these roles, however, the through strenuous review process for all Sea Grant university will become more of an agent for social supported research. Written reviews are required change, a medium for transmitting information for all projects and representatives of federal agencies designed to improve the quality of life. In this involved in marine-related activities are present at regard, the university will assume greater responsi- annual reviews conducted on university campuses. bility for applied research, blending together old These site visit teams conduct an indepth evaluation and new knowledge and delivering better alterna- of work underway as well as the work proposed for tives for future decisions. This trend is already the coming year. Typically, site visits have rep- emerging, particularly in state-supported institu- resentation from one or more of the following agen'- tions; and through partnerships such as Sea Grant, cies: National Marine Fisheries Service, EPA, U.S. the pace is accelerated. Army Corps of Engineers. Written reviews are This trend has been brought about, in some degree, solicited from these agencies as well as the Office by the recognition of state and federal agencies of of Education, HEW, and the National Science the manpower and knowledge resource which univer- Foundation. sities represent. Tapping these' resources is a logical Interaction with the Research Applied to the mechanism for tackling many state and national Needs of the Nation (RANN) program of NSF problems. With each new generation of students has resulted in routine exchanges of proposals. adding to the knowledge base, universities remain Within NOAA, the Office of Coastal Zone Manage- at the forefront of knowledge. As students, profes- ment and the Office of Sea Grants coordinate grant- sional teachers, and researchers extend themselves ing and contracting arrangements. The closeness of into applied and decision-oriented research fields, these two programs makes frequent interaction the total university resource can be brought to bear imperative. on identified needs. At the state level, program and project reviews are The preceding ex-iamples of Sea Grant work in solicited for some research projects. At most univer- environmental quality are evidence of the future of sity site visits, local representation is arranged. university-based programs which draw together Among the groups asked to review the research teams of professional scientists, engineers, and programs are representatives from state departments social scientists to focus on broad resource issues. of natural resources, fish and game commissions, state planning offices, marine councils, navigation districts, port authorities, county commissions, and potential when partnerships exist between federal regional councils of government. Sea Grant institu- and state interests, tions also seek participation of these groups, along Although much has been accomplished under the with industrial and academic representation, on Sea Grant banner, its greatest contribution lies in their own advisory councils. the innovativeness of its approach and the spirit As a result of the careful scrutiny given to research of service which it has sparked in American colleges proposals, the work undertaken by Sea Grant and universities. 564 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL REFERENES NDalrymple, Robert A. and Robert G. Dean. 1972. "The Spiral Wavemaker for Littoral Driftl Studies," Proceedings The citations listed here are representatives of the estuarine 13th Annual Coastal Engineering Conference. University related publications resulting from Sea Grant supported work. of Florida, Sea Grant Program. The list does not include all publications which support estuarine studies; it is intended as a sampling with particular D'Amato, Richard. August, 1973. The- Movement of Effluent emphasis on the studies cited in the preceding report. from the City of Miami Sewage Ocean Outfall. University of Miami, Sea Grant Program, (Tech. Bulletin #27). Ahr, Wayne, M. et al. September, 1973. Resource Evaluation Studies on the Matagorda Bay Area, Texas. Texas A&M Day, John W., Jr., et al. May, 1973. Community Structure University, Sea Grant College Program, (TAMU- and Carbon Budget of a Salt Water Marsh and Shallow SG-74-204). Bay Estuarine System in Louisiana. Center for Wetland Resources, Baton Rouge, La. (LSU-SG-7204). Amein, Michael. July, 1973. Computation of Flow Through Masonboro Inlet, N.C. North Carolina State University, Doret, Stephen C., Donald R. F. Harleman, et al. June, 1973. Sea Grant Program (UNC-SG-73-15). Characteristics of Condenser Water Discharge on the Sea Surface (Correlation of Field Observations with Theory). Armstrong, John M. 1972. The Structure of Management Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sea Grant Pro- and Planning for the Coastal Zone. University of Michigan gram (MITSG-73-12). Sea Grant Program. Ducsik, Dennis W. (editor). June, 1971. Power, Pollution Arnal, Robert E. February, 1972. Environmental Studies of and Public Policy. The Massachusetts Institute of Tech- Monterey Bay and the Central California Coastal Zone. nology, (MIT Report No. 24). Moss Landing Marine Laboratories of the California State University and Colleges, Sea Grant Project. Farrington, J. W. and J. G. Quinn. 1973. "Petroleum Hydro- carbons and Fatty Acids in Wastewater," Journal of the Bassi, D. E. and D. R. Basco. January, 1974. Field Study of Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 45, No. 4. an Unconfined Spoil Disposal Area of the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway in Galveston Bay, Tex. Texas A&M University, Farrington, John W. and James G. Quinn. 1973. "Petroleum Sea Grant College Program (TAMU-SG-74-208). Hydrocarbons in Narragansett Bay," Estuarine and Coastal Marine Science, Graduate School of Oceanography, Uni- Blake, Carl T. and W. W. Woodhouse, Jr. Februaty, 1972. versity of Rhode Island, Vol. 1, pp. 71-79. Vegetative Dune Stabilization in North Carolina. Uni- versity of North Carolina (Sea Grant Reprint # 17). Feldt, Allan G., et al. May, 1972. W.A.L.;R.U.S. I:' Water and Land Resource Utilization Simulation. University of Bopp, Frederick and Robert B. Briggs. December, 1972. Michigan, Environmental Simulation Laboratory, Trace Metal Environments Near Shell Banks in Delaware (MICHUSG-72-208). Bay. University of Delaware, Sea Grant Program (DEL-SG-9-72). Frankel, Shiela L. and Bryan . Pearce. November, 1973. Determination of Water Quality in the Massachusetts Bowerman, Frank R. and Kenneth Y. Chen. December 1971. Bay (1970-1973). Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Marine Del Rey: A Study of Environmental Variables in Sea Grant Program, (MITSG-74-8). a Semi-Enclosed Coastal Water. University of Southern - California, Sea Grant Program (USC-SG-4-71). Friebertshauser, Mark A. and Alyn C. Duxbury. -March, 1972. "A Water Budget Study of Puget Sound and its Broome, Stephen W., William W. WoodhouSe and Ernest D. Subregions," Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 17, Nb. 2. Seneca. July, 1973. An Investigation of Propagation and the Mineral Nutrition of Spartina Alterniflora, North Grace, Jean McKean and Lois S. Nishimdto. 1974. Marine Carolina State University, Sea Grant Program (UNC- Atlas of Hawaii: Bays and Harbors. (Honolulu: The SG-73-14). University Press of Hawaii). Brown, G: A., V. C. Rose, et al. 1974. Power Plant Site Considerations at Charlestown, R.I. University of Rhode Grant, Malcolm J. January, 1973. Appoaches to State Island, Sea Grant College Program (Marine Technology Coastal Management. University of Rhode Island, Marine Report No. 23). Advisory Service, (Marine Bulletin No. 13). Christodoulou, Georgios C., William F. Leimkuhler and Grant, Malcolm J. 1973. Rhode Island's Ocean Sands: Arthur T. Ippen. January, 1974. Mathematical Models of Management Guidelines of Sand and Gravel Extraction in the Massachusetts Bay Part III. A Mathematical Model State Waters. University of Rhode Island, Marine Advisory for the Dispersion of Suspended Sediments in Coastal Service, (Technical Report No. 10). Waters. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG-74-14). Hann, Roy W., Jr. 1969; Management· of Industrial Waste Discharges in Complex Estuarine Systems. Texas A&M Connor, Jerome J., John D. Want, Douglas A. Briggs, Ole University, Sea Grant College Program, (Technical Report S. Madeen. October, 1973. Part I: Finite Element Modeling No. 15). of Two-Dimensional Hydrodynamic Circulation. Part II: .Analytical Models for One- and Two-Layer Systems in Rectangular Basins. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Hann, Roy W., Jr. 1969. Neches Estuary Water Quality Sea Grant Program (MITSG-74-4). Study. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant College Program, (Technical Report No. 14). Dailey, James E. and Donald R. F. Harleman. October, 1972. Numnerical Model for the Prediction of Transient Water Ho, C. L. and J. Lane. 1973. "Interstitial Water Composi- Quality in Estuary Networks. Massachusetts Institute of tion in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, Sediment," Estuarine Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG-72-15). 'and Coastal Marine Science, 1:125-135. THE- PUrBL6'S ROLE '565 Ho, Clara L., et al. February, 1970. "Chemistry of Watei and Management Problem and an Evaluation of Options; Sediments in Barataria Bay," Coastal Studies Bulletin Volume II, Reports and Recommendations at the Cornm- (No. 5). *munity. Level. University of Rhode Island, Coastal Re- sources.Center, (Marine Technical Report No. 4). Hood, D. W., W. E. Shiels and E. J. Kelley. July, 1973. Environmental Studies of Port Valdez; University of Oregon State University. 1970. Crisis in Oregon Estuaries: A Alaska, Sea Grant Program (SG Report #73-1). Summary of Environmental Factors Affecting Oregon Estuaries. Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program. James, Wesley P., Roy W. Hann, et al. December, 1972. Environmental Aspects of a Supertanker Port on the Texas Ortolano, Leonard. April, 1970. Quality Standards for the Gulf Coast. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant College Coastal Waters'of Long Island, New York. State University Program, (TAMU-SG-73-201). of New York, Sea Grant Program, (CEM-4047-408). Klemas, V., F. C. Daiber, et al. June, 1973. Coastal Vegeta- Ortolano, Leonard and Philip S. Brown, Jr. July, 1970. The tion of Delaware, the Mapping of Delaware's Coastal Movement and Quality of Coastal Waters: A Review of Marshes. University of Delaware, Sea Grant Program Models Relevant to Long Island, N.Y. State University (DEL-SG-15-73). of New York, Sea Grant Program, (CEM-4047-411). Kuenzler, Edward J., Alphonse F. Chestnut'and Charles M. 'Overland, James E. September, 1973. A Model of Salt Intru- Weiss. March, 1973. Structure and Functioning of Estuarine sion in a Partially Mixed Estuary. New York Institute of Waterways Exposed to Treated 'Sewage Wastes, III. Uni- Ocean Resources, (Technical Report 73-1). versity of North Carolina, Sea Grant Program (UNC- SG-73-10). Prather, S. H. and R. 'M. Sorensen. September, 1972. A Field 'Investigation of Rollover Fish Pass, Bolivar Peninsula, Lee, Thomas N. and Claes Rooth. January, 1972, Exchange Tex. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant College Program, Processes in Shallow Estuaries. University of Miami, Sea (TAMU-SG-72-202). Grant Program (SG Special Bulletin' #4). Seneca, Ernest D. and Stephen W. Broome. September, 1972. Manochar-Maharaj, V. and R. C. Beardsley (Part I); J. 'Seedling Response to Photoperiod and Temperature by Karpen (Part II). November, 1973. Part I: Spring Run-Off SmoothCordgrass, Spartina Alterniflora, from Oregon into Massachusetts Bay, 1973; Part II: Dissolved Nutrient- Inlet , N.C.," Chespeake Science, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp. Seawater Density Correlations and the Circulation in 22-235, Boston Harbor and Vicinity. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG-74-9). Schenck, 'Hilbert, Jr. and Albert Davis. "A Turbidity Survey Mather, John R., Frank J. Swayne and Bruce J. Hartmann. of Narragansett Bay," Ocean Engineering, Vol. 2, pp. January, 1973. The Influence of the Climatic Water 169-178. Balance on Conditions in the Estuarine Environment. University of Delaware, Sea Grant Program (DEL- 'Schmeltz, E. J. and R. M. Sorenson. A Review of the Charac- SG-5-73). teristics, Behavior and Design Requirements of'Texas Gulf Coast Tidal Inlets. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant McGuinness, W. V. February, 1972. State of the Art for College Program (TAMU-SG-73-202). Selected Marine Resources Problems on Long Island. State University of New York, Sea Grant Program (CEM- Schwartz, Frank J. and A. F. Chestnut. June, 1973. Hydro- 4103-456). graphic Atlas' of North Carolina Estuarine and Sound Waters, 1972. University of North Carolina, Sea Grant Meredith, Dennis L. June, 1972. Nuclear Power Plant Siting: Program (UNC-SG-73-12). A Handbook for the Layman. University of Rhode Island, Sea Grant College Program (Marine Bulletin #6). Sensabaugh, William M. and James A. Purpura. 1974. Coastal Construction Setback Line. University of Florida, New York State Sea Grant Program., February, 1973. Sea Grant Program (SUSF-SG-74-002). "Managing Our Coastal Zone," Proceedings of a Conference on Coastal Zone Management. Spaulding, M. L., G. A. Brown and F. M. White. 1974. Applying a Water Quality Model to Pollution Management. Nixon, Scott W., et al. 1973. Ecology of Small Boat Marinas. University of Rhode 'Island, Sea Grant College Program University of Rhode Island, Marine Advisory Service, (Marine Technical Report #26). (Marine Technical Report Series No. 5). (Marine Technial Report Series ' No. 5). Thatcher, M. Llewellyn and Donald R. F. Harleman. Febru- Nixon, S. W. and C. A. Oviatt. Autumn, 1974: "Ecology of a ary, 1972. A Mathematical Model for the Prediction of New England Salt Marsh," Ecological Monographs; Col. Unsteady Salinity Intrusion in Estuaries. Massachusetts 43, No. 4. pp. 463-498. Institute of Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG- 72-7). O'Connor, Michael P., et al. 1972. Recent Estuarine-Sediment History of the Roanoke Island Area, North Carolina. Vagners, Juris and Paul Mar. 1972. Oil on Puget Sound, An University of North Carolina Sea Grant Program, (Reprint Interdisciplinary Study in Systems Engineering. Seattle: No. 33). University of Washington Press. Office of Sea Grants. May, 1972. The National Sea Grant Wick, William Q. 1973. "Estuaries Under Attack" Water Program: Program Description and Suggestions for Pre- Spectrum. 5 (3) :12-18. Oregon State University Sea Grant paring Proposals. National Oceanic and Atmospheric College Program Reprint, ORESU-R-73-028. Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, Md. Woodhouse, W. W., Jr., E. D. Seneca and S. W. Broome. July 1972. Marsh Building With Dredge Spoil in North Carolina. Olsen, Stephen B. and Malcolm J. Grant. January, 1973. North Carolina State University 'Sea Grant Program Rhode Island's Barrier Beaches: Volume I, A Report on a (AES Bulletin 445). ESCAROSA: THE ANATOMY OF PANHANDLE CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT IN ESTUARINE PRESERVATION THOMAS S. HOPKINS The University of West Florida Pensacola, Florida ABSTRACT Florida's gulf coastline measures over 700 statute miles, and has the most diverse estuarine flora and fauna of any state. Because of its growing population and its readily accessible coastline probably no other estuarine system has received pressures comparable to those exerted on Florida's gulf coast ecosystem from 1950 to the present. This paper revolves around the "Florida Panhandle" in general and Pensacola in particular. Citizen involvement begins through information services provided by newspaper, radio, and TV. In Pensacola, the newspaper media had the greatest impact and long-term effect. There are a variety of vehicles and mechanisms for citizen involvement and many were brought into play in the panhandle. One of the most effective approaches is through sportsmens' organi- zations. Homeowners' associations also can be effective vehicles, but they may be self serving and are more subject to varying levels of bureaucracy. Regional planning organizations are a proper vehicle but they are even more dependent upon and subject to government bureaucracy. Govern- mental advisory groups can be effective if they can maintain good relations with the board tha+ appoints them and if they can understand that governments cannot correct overnight the damag,'s done by poor planning through decades. Regional, state, and federal hearings are an excellent outlet for citizen pressures. It is concluded that the Regional Planning Council should be the lead agency in coordinating citizen efforts in estuarine preservation. INTRODUCTION Because of Florida's growing population and con- sequent development along its readily accessible Florida's gulf coastline measures over 700 statute coastline, there is probably no estuarine system in miles and has the most diverse estuarine flora and the nation that has received the pressures suffered fauna of any state in the United States. The reasons by Florida's gulf coast ecosystem from 1950 to the for this diversity are the extraordinary environ- present.'-6 The locality for this scenario detailing ments and climates found over the 700-mile span. citizen response to estuarine degradation shall be The southern tip of Florida is a drowned lacustrine limited to the area entitled "the Florida Panhandle" plain characterized by mangrove swamps and la- and centers primarily around Pensacola and Escam- goons with lush marine-grass meadows. The mean bia Bay. This area was the site of five federal-state air temperature is 700F. in January and 83"F. in enforcement conferences between 1970 and 1972.236 July. The plight of Escambia Bay has received nation- Stretching northward from Cape Romano, the wide publicity with newspaper stories and pictures coastline changes to barrier islands, sand beaches, appearing from Los Angeles and San Francisco in and low dunes. Mangroves, tidal marshes, and sub- the west to Trenton, N.J., in the east.?'9 In addition, marine meadows are major features in the area Sports Illustrated classified the Escambia River as which also encompasses two major bay systems: one of the nation's 10 dirtiest rivers; Skin Diver Charlotte Harbor and Tampa Bay. The area north- magazine's environmental editor, Bill Barada, fea- ward from Anclote Key (Tarpon Springs) is pri- tured an article on the Escambia story called "Death marily tidal marsh and submarine meadows. The Trap."'0 Yet all of this publicity is anticlimatic to fourth area, and the setting of this particular dis- the roles played by citizens in the area, aroused cussion, is the panhandle of Florida, characterized by citizens who already had been doing something barrier islands, high energy beaches, tidal marshes, about their dying estuarine ecosystems. and numerous bays. The mean air temperature of The purpose of this paper, then, is to discuss the this fourth area is 53°F. in January and 82°F. in efforts and achievements of individuals and citizen July.' groups in their struggle for estuarine preservation 567 568 ESTUARINE POLLUTioN CONTROL -and the improvement of water quality in northwest Monster in Our Midst Florida. My attempt is to show that citizen involve- menrt has been effective even when it was isolated, unpopular, or smothered by red tape; that citizen action has resulted in positive action which makes the outlook for effective preservation much brighter today than six years ago. I treat the various efforts or groups one-by-one not only for convenience but K d also for the fact that very little integration of effort or interaction initially took place. I conclude the paper with a recommendation for a means to achieve coordinated, effective, continuous estuarine preserva- tion in the area emphasized. THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA IN CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT Whereas nationwide publicity cited above aroused a interest and anger in far-flung corners of the United States, major credit for local citizen awareness should go to the staff of the Pensacola News- Journal. A review of newspaper listings from 1962 through early 1970 tells a very complete story of a responsible press coverage: in 1962, one article; in 1963, seven pertinent articles; in 1964, 13 pertinent articles; in 1967, more. than 20 articles detailing growing population problems; in 1968, more than 60 articles and thought-provoking editorials, in 1969, more than 200 continuing stories and edi- torials detailing the day-to-day castastrophies of .,l.,e- Escambia Bay.12 Pensacola newspaper reporting by Mike Albertson X-.* and Tom Bell together with thoughtful editorials and editorial cartoons directed by Earle Bowden brought awareness' and education to the citizenry ILLf-TR-ON 1 of the two-county area known as Escarosa. These three men are, in the author's opinion, primarily responsible for providing the major impetus for discussions on the pollution question simulcast with environmental awareness and continued citizen "Pensacola Speaks." involvement. By 1970, the electronic media, both radio ahd VEHICLES AND MECHANISMS television, began to focus on the problem and open FOR CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT the door to citizen involvement. Of particular note and value was the coverage of station WEAR-TV, The following discussion will highlight failures and an ABC affiliate; not only were viewers exposed to successes of efforts to prevent or correct what might the fish kills in the area waters but also to the be called the Escambia catastrophe. In addition, it subsequent federal-state hearings on their causes will briefly mention various vehicles and patterns and on water pollution in general. That citizen re- for citizen involvement. sponse began to increase' culd be measured by a radio program, "Pensacola Speaks," carried by sta- Sportsmen Organizations tion WCOA. Listener after listener; night after night, lamented the pollution:problem and asked In 1968, .a group of interested saltwater fishermen what might be done. In addition, educational tele- organized the Northwest Florida Sports-fishing As- vision station WSRE (Channel 23) carried panel sociation. The membership swelled to considerable - TiE - PUBLIC'S ROLE 569 its purpose; at any rate, citizen involvement began with it in 1968. Whereas the Northwest Florida Sports-fishing As- sociation began in 1968 and died in 1969, another group of sportsmen were growing concerned about estuarine preservation. The Bream Fishermen Asso- ciation (hereafter referred to as BFA) was a small, close-knit group of outdoorsmen dedicated to good practices of wilderness protection, preservation, and conservation. These were not men who would be content to be a pressure group only; they were citizens with definite plans of action. They launched their first efforts on behalf of the national seashore in 1969 and received their baptism of political fire from members of the Santa Rosa Island Authority who objected to their attempts to get petitions signed by the citizenry visiting the beach. Their next major effort was in early 1970. They felt that · ;. : Ah .> A;there was too much talk and not enough action 61 A .-concerning actual biological conditions in the once fertile interface between Escambia River and Es- |1' ·"" 'S*"t""' .. cambia Bay. During April, May, and June, 1970, the BFA spent over a thousand man hours conduct- '.' . -'j ing a voluntary creel census to document fishing and its results on the Escambia River-a task long .n 4 Ah c>^^_ neglected by any state agency. The results and conclusions of this census were far-reaching and the enthusiasm of the association recruited new citizen- scientists to its cause. The results were made public in 1971.3 In a nutshell, analysis of 1,234 different fishing trips involving 2,558 fishermen showed that As04q.. t A , the average fisherman would catch one fish for two hours' effort and its average weight would be less <Mk E r£,nER than a quarter pound. This creel census was only a starter, however, for the BFA also set about to correct matters in an amazingly effective program for 1970. Convinced that the conditions in the lower portion _: " .... seof Escambia River could be improved by several - it - __ set s>>Z - ofmeans, the BFA (1) started a night pollution con- ILLUSTRATION 2 trol program, (2) bioassay stations, and (3) a fish feeding program.4. The night polluti6n program was not just a mili- rant conservation group's idea of harassing industry. size and a major thrust was to bring about solutions tant conservation group's idea f harassing industry size and aaotrswstbigabuoThe BFA knew full well that the state agency re- to estuarine degradation in the area. Its principal f s purpose was to be a pressure group and to a limited sponsbe for monitoring pollution simply did not end it was successful. However, the association was have enoughmanpoer to be everywhere at onke- unsuccessful in raising sufficient funds to get an especially at night. A keynote of BFA's success was unbiased study of bay and estuarine pollution. It is early detection of a break in a flyash holding pond difficult to pinpoint the disintegration or demise of at a local, coal-burning electric power plant in the organization, but it coincides with the interven- December, 1970. Along the same lines, bioassay tion of federal investigators in the pollution of stations were established and maintained in and Perdido and Escambia Bays and the formation of near industrial outfalls. In both cases, recorded the West Florida Natural Resources Council. Per- data was turned over to the responsible parties in- haps this sports fishing association felt it had served volved. The fish-feeding program stemmed from the 570 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL fact that water quality was so poor that fish either Team by providing manpower for transplanting would not spawn or, equally bad, their fry would marine grasses in the upper estuary. On another not have sufficient food. BFA members bought over cooperative front BFA members aided the Depart- 2,000 pounds of commercial fish food and distributed ment of Pollution Control by collecting sorely needed it on the spawning beds. data on Perdido River and Bay. In appreciative response, local merchants ap- On the lobbying front, the organization has been plauded BFA's courageous efforts and donated a very effective on several issues: (1) diking Yellow new fiberglass boat, an outboard motor, gasoline, River flood plains; (2) continuing opposition to ex- oil, and boat landing services. BFA and its citizen pansion of Pensacola's northeast, treatment plant army was on the move. on Escambia Bay; (3) writing formal objections to In the spring and summer of 1971, the "night the Corps of Engineers on matters of estuarine re- patrol" turned into the "dawn patrol" as BFA source preservation; and (4) filing a court injunction monitored the tidal marsh headwaters of Escambia resulting in a favorable ruling against the introduc- Bay, collecting data on dissolved oxygen temperature tion of "Asian Grass Carp" into Deer Point Lake and fish kill conditions. Not only were actual fish on the grounds that this species could easily escape kills located in the bay, but also an early warning from that system and enter northwest Florida's system was devised. This monitoring program was estuaries.l9,20 maintained through 1973 and resulted in valuable In summary, the Bream Fishermen Association's data concerning tidal flushing (stagnation) by upper efforts prove that sportsmen organizations can be bay waters which infiltrate the tidal marshes."6 successful in activities involving estuarine preserva- During 1972, BFA made a major effort over a tion. The key ingredients in these activities are one-year period to document species diversity in the leadership, initiative, and energy. As demonstrated river immediately below the Jay Oil Field adjacent above, the BFA, a citizens' organization, has taken to the Escambia River in north-central Santa Rosa an exemplary leadership role in working in the field County. With the help of a grant from Humble Oil with local, state, and federal agencies; in keeping to the University of West Florida, the association citizens aware of threats to northwest Florida developed a complete faunal inventory of the poten- through its "Conservation Newsletter" and displays tial impact area. Such information is not yet gener- at the county fair; and in political lobbying. ally available but will be of considerable value in assessing the impact of an oil spill on the upper estuarine area. In this project, 40 BFA members Homeowners' Associations worked a total of 3,489 hours in the field!?'"8 BFA activities continued to mount in 1973. Mem- Although it may be argued that homeowners' bers discovered that yellow bullheads in the Yellow associations, like industries, have a vested interest River system are subject to an important melanoma in estuaries, homeowners on estuarine bayous, bay- cancer, a fact that proved of interest to both the fronts, and waterways seem to be positively moti- Environmental Protection Agency and the Smith- vated toward good water quality. In the panhandle sonian Institution. During the Oil Field Study, area we can document some interesting cases of BFA took coliform samples in the river to establish homeowner involvement with estuarine preservation. coliform levels and origins prior to bay entry. Mem- bers acted as environmental lobbyists to prevent Getty Oil Company from exploratory drilling in Mulatto Bayo-Av alon Beac h homeowner.-The East Bay, and the association alertly filed protests mouth of ulatto Bayou, a bayou historically with the EPA in Atlanta concerning proposed ex- important as a nursery area on the east side of pansion of Pensacola's northeast treatment plant Escambia Bay, was severely altered in the construc- which was already discharging into an overly- tion of Interstate 10 bridge across Escambia Bay.20 enriched Escambia Bay. This timely protest resulted After completion of the project, a new access to the in the decision that the northeast plant cannot be bayou was provided Homeowners in the area how expanded without concurrence and approval of EPA ever, used various means of political pressure and lobbying to get the State of Florida to correct silt- ing in the bayou proper.2l They argued, incorrectly being prepared for the two-county area through the I believe, that the construction activities had caused Regional Planning Council.l8 the main portion of the bayou to become silted in. The year 1974 brought even greater BFA activity I met with the homeowners and showed them reason- in estuarine preservation. BFA members gave ma- able proof that the origin of their problem was not terial assistance to the EPA Escambia Bay Recovery road construction, but improper dredging activities THE PUBLIC'S ROLE 571 by a real estate developer. After a great deal of dated sewer lines and a malfunctioning lift station discussion, the homeowners became aware that the caused the homeowners around the bayou to begin desired dredging could create even more damage to lobbying city government for environmental relief. the system which they wanted so desperately to In addition, they approached the University of West correct.22 But their awareness and understanding Florida for guidance and scientific advice26 and pro- came too late. The State Department of Transpor- vided funds for small-scale research. With the Bayou tation had already let bids and issued a contract to Texar Association research funds behind him, and an out-of-state dredging company.23 Last minute the association endorsing him, Dr. Gerald A. letters to state agencies involved were fruitless.24 Moshiri of the university succeeded in capturing Although a hearing was held at the request of the the interest of the Office of Water Resources Re- Federal Water Pollution Control Administration search (OWRR) on the causes of nutrification.2729 because the dredging would be in violation of con- But even after basic research was funded by OWRR, ferees' rulings, the Corps of Engineers did not cancel the association members did not rest their case. its permit and the Mulatto Bayou area was dredged, They have donated time, space, and facilities for with disastrous results.25 the completion of the research. Further, they have In this example, the homeowning citizens had the maintained their pressure on both the city and the best of intentions; their efforts, however, resulted county to correct the problems in the drainage basin in a death blow to a system struggling to survive. and around the bayou. In addition, they have secured a special engineering study designed to pro- vide some approaches to the restoration of a severely Perdido Bay homeowners.-Perdido Bay receives a damaged estuarine area. large amount of effluent from a kraft pulp plant located at the head of the bay. Perdido Bay also has received large amounts of poorly treated sewage Woodland Lake homeowners.-The Gulf Breeze pe- through Bayou Marcus Creek. The bay is divided ninsula is a large finger of land projecting westward by the state line of Florida and Alabama. Although into Pensacola Bay. At its westward extremity are the kraft mill waste and sewage originate in Florida, three bayou ecosystems: Hoffman's, Gilmore's, and Alabama residents headed by Mrs. JoAnn Allen Woodland Lake Bayou. As eutrophication levels in strongly have contended and demonstrated that Escambia Bay and Pensacola Bay reached peaks, these pollutants reach their shores. Mrs. Allen has their nutrient-rich waters began to permeate and courageously maintained pressure not only on offi- stagnate in these estuarine bayous. Following the cials in Florida and Alabama but on federal officials lead of the Bayou Texar Association, the Woodland in Atlanta, Ga., as well. Her efforts were at least Lake homeowners approached the university in 1971 partly responsible for Alabama's request for a full- via Dr. Sneed B. Collard of the biology faculty."0 scale investigation in 1969 and continued hearings Through Dr. Collard, a scientific approach to restor- into the present. Although some of the problems ing the bayou was designed. With methodical care, are not fully corrected, the water quality of Perdido the Woodland Lake Association began the necessary Bay is markedly improved as a result of the con- lobbying process through local, state, and federal tinuous vigilance and relentless lobbying of this officials. Records indicate that the Corps of Engi- untiring Alabama resident.2'4 neers generally investigated the restoration project but could not fund it.3' The state Department of Pollution Control endorsed it as a "model project" Bayou Tezar Association of homeowners.-Bayou and commended it to the Environmental Protection Texar is an estuarine subsystem of Pensacola Bay. Agency.32.33 The regional office of EPA seems to It is within the Pensacola city limits and receives have liked the proposal and forwarded it to the its primary sources of freshwater from Carpenter's Washington office.34 After over a year of revising, Creek whose headwaters are outside the city lim- endorsing, revising, and resubmitting, all came to its. To begin with, Carpenter's Creek has been nought when the Washington office of EPA notified severely abused by channelization and suburban the city of Gulf Breeze that "the model project" development. In addition, it is a major recipient of endorsed by so many "does not directly fulfill our septic tank seepage, lift station overflow, storm high priority research needs" and that they could sewer drainage, and ordinary runoff from streets, not support the project.35 This was the culmination yards, and parking lots. As a result, it has in the of almost two years of citizen effort. A less dedicated past 10 or 15 years carried an immense load of silt, group of citizens might have given up, but not these. organics, and elemental nutrients into the bayou The city of Gulf Breeze still backs the bayou proper. A worsening situation compounded by out- restoration and the citizens themselves are putting 572 ESTUaIN4E POLLUTION CONTROL their dollars and their hands to the task of clearing Crosby moved quickly to establish council com- the choked opening to the bayou that has developed. mittees and to organize task forces (a table of After natural flushing is restored, the members must organization appears in Figure 1). It should be face the benthic sludge problem and the long, slow stressed that this organization was considerably process of removing it. Their optimism is over- more than a hastily organized group of scientists, whelming--they will restore Woodland Lake Bayou politicians, and community leaders gathering to- in spite of the odds and the bureaucratic heart- gether for a common cause: estuarine preservation breaks over the months. They optimistically look and coastal zone management.3 for the day when the shrimp and fish return to their Council meetings were open not only to the public restored estuarine ecosystem. but also to agency officials who attended and partici- pated in meetings. Congressman R. L. F. Sikes ex- pressed his support and in fact acted on the council's Regional Planning Organizations behalf in Washington, D.G." West Florida Natural Resources Council.-Formed By August 15, 1969, the West Florida Natural in June, 1969, by executive order of Governor Claude Resources Council was ready to approve budgets Kirk, Jr., the West Florida Natural Resources totalig over $700,000 for the various task force Council (WFNRC) was an ambitiously precocious operations as follows attempt to establish coastal zone management in the Florida panhandle. It probably grew out of (a) Escambia-Santa Rosa Pollution $'_- -.....$150,000 the obvious conflicts in coastal zone use; (b) the Choctawhatchee Bay ----------- 203,306 very thought-provoking editorials of the Pensacola Dog Fly Control ---------------------- 356,670 News-Journal which called upon the University of West Florida for leadership in environmental'inves- Local citizens, however, were critical of the pro- tigation;36 (c) the interests of an estuarine-oriented posed allocations. It appeared to them that dog fly biology faculty; and (d) the farsightedness of Dr. control and tourism were more important than Harold B. Crosby, its first chairman. In a presiden- "clean water." Although this reaction reflected ac- tial memo dated July 8, 1969, Dr. Crosby, former curately some local attitudes, the council was simply president of the University of West Florida, ex- hearing and acknowledging proposed first-year costs. plained to the faculty, "Many factors combined to The question of where the money would come from make it necessary and desirable to establish such a was still to be examined. council. Amongst them is increasing concern of the The first task force to make a report of progress people of West Florida over water pollution and to the council was the Escambia-Santa Rosa Water the apparent changes in physical and biological Pollution Task Force which on October 8, 1969, re- quality of the coastal and estuarine environment." ported to the eager citizenry that Escambia River The charges to the council were specifically as and Bay were grossly polluted and that the major follows: polluters were three local manufacturing industries and the local power generating plant?4 This report 1. To establish in the West Florida region at the earliest was delivered to a standing-room-only council meet- practical time, under the control and supervision of ing and it was what the area citizens were anxious the council, task forces to recommend and implement plans: yet fearful to hear. Relatively clear answers to (1) for the study and abatement of the water pollu- questions that the Pensacola News-Journal had tion problems of Escambia and Santa Rosa asked previously and with increasing tempo were counties; provided to the citizens that day. The report gave (2) for the study and abatement of the dog fly; them a sringboard for involvement. (3) for the study of Choctawhatchee Bay and related them a spr waters. At the same time that the council was establish- ing its credibility and achieving local praise for its 2. To establish a data bank at The University of West efforts, unforeseen and intangible difficulties were Florida relating to water pollution, dog fly, and estuarine studies and provide for information dis- beginning to take a form that would bring about the semination program. ultimate demise of this laudable attempt to estab- 3. To develop a unified interagency (local, state, and lish approaches to coastal zone management. These federal) and interstate effort to investigate and solve forces are not unrelated: the above listed problems in a systematic fashion. 1) Lack of fiscal support. Although the West The first meeting of the council was held June Florida Natural Resources Council had been in op- 1969, with Governor Kirk in attendance. Chairman eration over four months, it did not have a meaning- WEST FLORIDA NATURAL RESOURCES COUNCIL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE PROGRAM COMMITTEE Dr. Harold Bryan Crosby, Chairman The Honorable Pat Dodson, Chairman Representative Tom Tobiassen Dr. W. Thomas Duke OFFICERS Mr. Vincent D. Patton Mr. Joe Graham .The Honorable Pat Dodson Mr. eNat Reed Governor Claude R. Kirk, Jr., Ex-Officio Chairman The Honorable Pat Dodson. Crosby, Chairman Representative Tom Tobiassen, Vice-Chairman FINANCE OMMITTEE Mr. Calvin A. Winter, Coordinator Mr. Peter M. Perceval, Coordinator and Secretary Captain Warfield Bennett, Chairman Mr. Sam Fleming The Honorable Randolph Hodges THE UNIVERSITY OF WEST FLORIDA Coordinating Agency and Data Depository' Advisors to Program Committee Advisors to Dog Fly Task Force Mr. James A. Servies Dr. John R. Baylis Mr. Fred Simmons Mr. Hilton Meadows w ESCAMBIA-SANTA ROSA WATER POLLUTION DOG FLY TASK FORCE CHOCTAWHATCHE ESTUARINE STUDIES TASK FORCE TASK FORCE FO Mr. Vincent D. Patton, Chairman Representative Tom Tobiassen, Chairman The Honorable Jerry Melvin, ChairmanE Dr. O. E. Frye, Jr. Dr. Donald E. Weidhaas The Honorable Randolph Hodges The Honorable Charles H. Overman, Jr. Dr.William G. Eden Dr. A. B. Chaet Mr. Harmon Shields Mr. James N. Luttrell Colonel Thornton Peck Mr. S. A. Berkowitz Mr. John R. Cox Dr. Norman Vick Dr. Thomas S. Hopkins Dr. A. J. Rogers Mr. George B. Austin Dr. John Thoman ' Dr. Roger D. Reid Mr. Roy J. Forrest Representative of Alabama (to be named) Representative of Alabama (to be named) Representative of Alabama (to be named) Task Force Advisory Group J FIGIURE 1.--Organizational diagram for the West Florida Natural Resources Council (now defunct). co 574 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ful "bankroll" to support any of its task forces. In steadily as other state agencies increased their activi- addition, its own administrative costs were growing. ties and manpower resources in the panhandle region. 2) Governmental reorganization. The State of Flor- ida consolidated several agencies and clarified certain roles in environmental protection, which probably West Florida Regional Planning Council.-The'West destroyed the previous vacuum in coastal zone Florida Regional Planning Council (WFRPC) was responsibility. created in 1964 under the authority of chapter 160 of the Florida Statutes. Starting as a one-city one! The fiscal woes of the council increased as the county agency, the planning council now serves new state agencies jockeyed for larger budgets and three counties and many municipalities.47 operating room. It became clear that the WFNRC In the area of estuarine preservation, the state and its concepts so strongly endorsed in June were has designated the WFRPC as the planning agency taking a back seat by December 1969. for "Development of Regional Impact in Escambia, President Crosby provided new life for the council Santa Rosa, and Okaloosa Counties." At the federal in May 1970, by appointing Dr. Joe A. Edmisten level it has similar designations, particularly in as director of the council and coordinator of Coastal the area of water quality management where this Zone Studies.41 Fiscal problems continued to plague policy interfaces with the Environmental Protection the council and by July 1970, only about $43,000 of Agency in comprehensive planning. Although the the needed $700,000 had been found and allocated. WFRPC has a professional staff its operations are For the Escambia-Santa Rosa Water Pollution Task governed by a citizen board representing the cities Force, $18,000 was provided by the Department of and counties under the WFRPC umbrella.47 Pollution Control; $25,000 was provided for the One of the major achievements of the regional Dog Fly project from other state funds. But in spite planning council was the development of water of this limited funding, citizen involvement con- quality management for Escambia and Santa Rosa tinued and it was during this period that the Bream counties. This plan was funded under Section 3c Fishermen Association (BFA) joined the "clean of the Federal Water Quality Act of 1965. The grant water" task force. At this time, the WFNRC was application was filed in 1972 and work began. The optimistic that more funds would be found. plan is oriented toward estuarine preservation and The council met in August to hear a proposal for is cost effective. Its goal is to significantly reduce a "coastal zone inventory" and urged the Depart- the amounts and richness of surface discharge into ment of Natural Resources to adopt a uniform estuarine areas.48.49 inventory plan.42 This resulted in Dr. Edmisten In addition to the plan cited above, the regional urging Governor Kirk to declare the Escambia Bay planning council acted as a coordinating agency to a natural disaster area, "To become eligible for develop a plan for the restoration of Bayou Texar, federal aid in the form of grants and loans designed cited earlier. The council also works with projects to help fishermen and shrimpers of the area stay in in the three-county area involving prospective de- business... until we are able to restore Escambia velopment-e.g., what impact a large multi-service Bay to its original healthy state."44 The council's shopping mall and its collective runoff will have on executive committee explored this possibility in the estuarine receiving waters. September 1970, with many citizen groups being In summary, the WFRPC is a citizen board with represented. After considerable debate, it concluded responsibility for regional planning in a geographi- that the area was not eligible for federal funds.45 cally complex estuarine area. Its professional staff The council met again in October 1970, and learned and citizen board are called upon to make far- that the newly formed Coastal Coordinating Council reaching decisions. (CCC) operating out of the Department of Natural Resources was implementing a plan for a statewide Governmental Advisory Groups uniform inventory of natural resources. The CCC would start its plan using Escambia and Santa Rosa County Commissioners' Pollution Advisory Commit- Counties as a pilot ar ea called "Escaros." This County Commissioners' Pollution Advisory Commit- Counties as a pilot area called "Escaros." This tee.-In the fall of 1970, after another year of appears to have been the last real meeting of the disastrous fish kills, citizen outrage, and editorial comment, the county commissioners of Escambia In summary, the West Florida Natural Resources County followed a recommendation offered by Council was born in a time of need and undoubtedly Wayne E. Tisdale, regional engineer for health and realized some major achievements in citizen involve- rehabilitation services, and created an advisory com- ment and estuarine preservation. It died slowly but mittee.50 The citizen select committee was chosen THE PUBLIC'S ROLF" 575 to represent business and commerce, sport and lishment of nutrients and thermal discharge limits. commercial fishing, industry, agriculture, the legal This procedure allowed industry representatives to profession, and education. Acting Commission Chair- present their views with citizens in attendance.53 man Sam Armour, "charged the committee with its Although the advisory committee was frustrated responsibility to seek solutions to the pollution in attempts to establish regulations for local indus- problems in Escambia County and to advise the try, it was very successful in negotiating safe practice Board of County Commissioners accordingly. ..5" regulations for the Humble Oil and Refining Com- The committee, hereafter referred to as ACOP, pany which was requesting permission to install began to meet weekly and many citizen manhours pipelines in the delta region of Escambia and Perdido were invested. It heard presentations by regional Bays. Indeed, the attentiveness and cooperation engineers from two state agencies, the county envi- given by the Humble Oil Company in meeting with ronmental health director, and several concerned citizen committees might serve as a model for other citizens who reviewed the environmental problems agencies seeking permission to carry out potentially from their viewpoints. In addition, the committee deleterious projects in the estuarine area.4 mailed out three questions to selected citizens in The advisory committee pursued its regulatory the community for written responses. These ques- interests in 1971, working closely with the Depart- tions were as follows: ment of Pollution Control and developed a model local program which was unfortunately tabled.5556 (1) "How to Stop the Present Pollution of Our Environ- On the plus side, however, was the opportunity for ment"-Please outline any constructive solutions you citizens to interact with state officials in a construc- may have relative to the air and water pollution of Escambia County. Of particular value will be specific tive way to bring about estuarine preservation. technical/legal recommendations that can be imple- In 1972 the Escambia County Commission was mented immediately by Escarmbia * County. reorganized, and the new chairman created a new (2) "How to Prevent the Pollution of Our Environment citizens organization called VOICE (Voices of Inter- in the Future"-Please outline any constructive solu- ested Citizens of Escambia). Although the Advisory tions you may have relative to preventing pollution in Committee on Pollution (ACOP) was allowed to the future. Recommendations relative to air and water quality standards for new industries, expansion of continue, it became apparent that it would be akin County and City sanitation facilities, etc., will be of to a forgotten stepchild. Nevertheless, the committee value. has continued to meet and act on matters referred (3) "How to Restore the Damage Done by Past Pollu- to it by the commissioners. Ironically, the county tion Practices"-Past and present pollution practices commissioners reorganized again in 1974, and the have seriously damaged many of our areas. These new chairman has indicated that the services of areas must be restored to some reasonable resemblance of their. original quality. Recommendations for their VOICE will be discontinued. The fate of ACOP restoration (clearing the bottom, restoring fish and has not been announced. aquatic life, etc.) are requested. In addition, your ideas In summary, the Citizen's Advisory Committee on how to fairly distribute the cost of such restoration would be appreciated. on Pollution matters in Escambia County was cre- ated in response to citizen concern over rampant The committee's purpose was to get as compre- environmental degradation in the county. The com- hensive a response as possible so that meaningful mittee was very active in its initial year of operation, recommendations could be made to the county come but as is so often the case, a citizens' committee is missioners. In addition, the committee established quite capable of recommending solutions which are several citizen subcommittees. For example, a "Solid beyond financial, legal, or political grasp of the local, Waste Disposal" subcommittee was set the task of state, or federal government agency to which it studying how the county landfill was contributing reports to the pollution of Perdido Bay. The Pollution Advisory Committee was very forth- Technical Advisory Committee, West Florida Re- right and set to its task with considerable zeal. For gional Planning Council, Water Quality Management example, in its first 30 days, it developed a series of thoughtful, action-oriented recommendations deal- ing with the estuarine environment." Although rec- this activity, it should be noted that the Water lommendations were rarely adopted by the county Quality Management Plan cited earlier was devel- commission, the thrust of the committee created oped through the guidance and approval of a com- beneficial side effects and interest on the part of mittee containing not only local, state, and federal the commissioners themselves. For example, the professionals but lay citizens as well. Serving on this commissioners held hearings concerning'the estab- committee were citizen advisors Clyde Richbourg of ;576 ESTUARINE ROLLVTION CONTROL the American Seafood Company, and Tony Raibl, ber and the third"ession on January 24-26, 1972, representing the Bream Fishermen Association. showed Y-further decline in audience participation. This decline in attendance is regrettable, for such hearings'are' vital'to estuarine preservation. Federal agencies should be .encouraged to report in open Earlier, I referred briefly to hearings at the county hearings what they -are doing about their agency- level resulting from efforts of the County Commis- stated goal ad citizens need an opportunity to tell federal and state officials 'what concerns them. sioner's Advisory Group. State and federal agencies Even thoagh some citizen concerns mhem. have held hearings also, and these hearings are eral on th one hand, and state and federal action eral on the one hand, and' state and federal action meaningful outlet for citizen concern and education. Enumeration of three such hearigs folow or processes slow on the other, constant and better communication is imperative. In this regard, it is unfortunate that the Escambia-Perdido Bay con- Regional Planning, Council Hearings.-The West ferences have iiot been reconvened each year and Florida Regional Planning Council held a series of that many citizens believe that such enforcement public hearings concerning the Water Quality,. Man- conferences have been unsuccessful in bringing about agement Plan. Although these hearings were adver- any real change in pollutants and water quality. tised in the newspaper and on TV, they were rather poorly attended. The final hearing- in May 1974, ' attracted only 54 people, including' participants49 This number is less than. 0.1 percent -:of the city of Pensacola's population,; much less of the ty Escambia Bay, there pwas a great dealn concern overga- area represented. It would appear .tha1t with pres- scambia Bay, there was a great deal of sures of the economic=re'cession we are in, citizens nizational iterest fron the standpoint of group are turning their backn interests and concerns-of Lbeducatipn. Additionally, many of these groups or .returning their bk ..iees .. . : . 'organizations actually mobilized in force to attend four years ago. This probably-,will be evident inobiied in force to attend federal hearing attendance data as well. hearings, workshops, or 'write letters. Not wishing i . to ignorelobr play' down the role of any citizens' group, I want to acknowledge the contributions of State Agency Hearings.' STe scenario for hearings I those organizations that I can recall which were concerning Escambia Bay begins earlier than' 1969. interested an'd active .'; However, the first:nmajrhearing which drew a size- able citizen turnout vwas on May !,1 1969. At this Sierra Club of:Pensacola time, the Florida Air and Wateri Pollution Control National Wildlife Federation, local chapter Commission with Governor Claude:' Kirk,. Jr., in Frances M. Weston Chapter, Audubon Society attendance held a hearing entitled "Investigation of Save-Our-Beach Odmmittee Water Quality in Escambia River, Escambia Bay, Florida Federation 'of Garden Clubs Pensacola Bay, and Perdido." Presentations were League of Women Voters made by four state agencies, the city of Pensacola, Pensacola Womens Club and the state of Alabama. Several per6dns asked to Junior League of, Pensacola be heard and were. granted appearances; These in- Pensacola Junior Chaiifber of Commerce eluded the chairman of the Pensacola'Ati-Pollution Rotary of Pensacola League and a representative of the Florida- Wiidlife Kiwanis of Pensacola Federation. The hearing, well-attenided for the time, Greater Pensacola Chamber of Commerce drew 150 persons.676 - .-.. Choctawhatchee League..' for Environmental ActiodnNow (CLEAN) Gamefish Protection A'ssciation (Okaloosa- Federal Agency Hearings.-Beginning in January Walton County) 1970, the Federal Water Pollution Control Admin- istration, which held hearings on Escambia Bay on All of these organizations and perhaps others as January 21 and 22, began a series of enforcement well were cofinerned enough to invite me, enforce- conference hearings concerning water quality in ment officials from state agencies, or industry spokes- Escambia Bay and Perdido Bays.2.1 Although the men to mieet with their groups so that they could 1970 hearing on Escambia Bay attracted over 290 become acquainted with estuarine problems. Of the participants, the second session on February 23, above groups, the Sierra Club of Pensacola is cur- 24, 1971, attracted less than half the previous num- rently the most active in preservation. nTerrustees o Fund MIs - Media * 4 dj Coastal Coordinating Deapartment of Council -j Pollution Control I County Commissions I I Escambia, Santa Rosa l W Okaloosa Counties Environmenial Department of .. West Florida Regional Protection NaualRsure Planning Council Agency.CtG= M-emblers L u l l J En rvironmental Matters t Subcommittee, Drd i ll Environmental, CoregetalI Estuarine, Awareness Coastrl u i T _ W echio & Lan uctiq j Waste Qual,22ity I use Comuncaf o . FiGuItE 2.-Flow diagrami showing how the West Florida Regional Planning Council could consolidate citizen involvement. 578 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND Its Tributaries-Florida and Alabama. Second Session, February 25-26, 1971, Pensacola, Fla. Environmental RECOMMENDATIONS rotee Protection Agency. A. This paper has discussed the background and 6. Escambia 1972 Proceedings-Conference in the Matier of context of citizen awareness and involvement in Pollution of the Interstate Waters of the Escambia, River .st n Ao iFlorida. . - Basin (Alabama-Florida) and the Interstate Portions of estuarine preservation in northwest Florida. the Escambia Basin Within the State of Florida. Third B. Vehicles and mechanisms for citizen involve- Session, January 24-26, 1972, Gulf Breeze, Fla. Environ- ment are through (a) sportsmens' organizations, mental Protection Agency. (b) homeowners' organizations, (c) planning coun- 7. Los Angeles Times, Part I, Page 1, September 4, 1970; cils, (d) local, state, or federal advisory groups, and Section B, Page 6, October 18, 1970. (e) attendance at local, state, and federal hearings. Other routes of involvement include civic clubs, 8. San Francisco Chronicle, Part I, Page 8, September 13, 1970. conservation groups, and semi-professional societies. C. In all cases; there are certain pragmatic, legal, 9. Sunday Times Advertiser, Part 2, Page 1, November 28, fiscal, or economic issues that influence the success 1971. of the concerned individual or organization. of the conerned individual or organiati on. 10. Sports Illustrated. 1970, February 23, 1970. p. 14. D. Considering these realities, it is proposed that the best avenue for estuarine preservation in the 11. Barada, Bill, 1972. Skin Diver Magazine, February, geographic locale of northwest Florida would be pp. 21-23. through the West Florida Regional Planning Cbun- 12. Compilation by library staff of Johfi C. Pace Library, cil (Figure 2 shows schematically how the Regional University of West Florida, 1962 to May 1970 19 pp. Planning Council concept would be applied). It Xerox copy. should be noted that if the WFRPC assumed this added responsibility, additional staffing would be a 13. Hixson, W. Cr I. Nisen, and T. S. Hopkins? 1971. Results of a Creel Census of the Lower Escambia River necessity. On the other hand, use of this existing Sports Fishery. agency would seem to be the most cost effective and would be consistent with its legislatively inan- 14. Bream Fisherman Association Newsletter, June 1971. dated role. Furthermore, it is the agency most dated role. Furthermore, it is the agency most Coordi15. Letter from BFA to TSH dated August 9, 1971 with data. closely in tune with the Coastal Coordinating Coun- cil which would be responsible for the implementa- 16. Letter from BFA to TSH and state agency representatives tion of Coastal Zone Management in Florida. of DPC, DNR, along with EPA engineer, Larry Olinger. No data 1973 with data from 22 July to October 20, 1973. REFERENCES 17. BFA Newsletter Spring 1972. 18. BFA Conservatioti Newsletter Vol. 3--No. 1. 1. MeNutty, J. K., W. N. Lindall, Jr. and J. E. Sykes, 197. 18. BFA Conserv Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory and Study, Florida; Phase I, Area Description. NOAA 19. BFA Conservation Newsletter Vol. 4-No. 1. Tech. Rpt. NMFS CIRC-368. 20. Pensacola News-Jburnal, Page 1A, 7A. 2. Escambia Proceedings-Coniference in the Matter of Pollution of the Interstate Waters of the Escambia River 21. Pensacola Journal, p. 7B, September 14, 1968. Basin (Alabama-Florida) and the Interstate Portions of the Escambia Basin within the State of Florida. (January 21-22, 1970 Gulf Breeze, Florida) 2 Volumes. U.S. De- 22. Summarized in letter from TSH to Vincent Patton, partment of the Interior-Federal Water Pollution Con- Executive Director, Department of Air and Water Pollu- trol Administration. tion Control dtd. December 1, 1969. 3. Perdido 1970 Proceedings-Conference in the Matter of 23. State Road Project No. t8002-3413, Contract No. 8516 Pollution of the Interstate Waters of Perdido Bay and its to Jahncke Service Incorporated dtd. May 5, 1969. Tributaries Florida and Alabama. January 23-24, 1970 Gulf Breeze, Fla. U.S. Department of the Interior- Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 24. Letter from J. W. Apthorp, Executive Director, State of Florida Board of Trustees of the Internal Improvement Trust Fund to Mrs. F. A. Meloy dated March 23, 1970. 4. Escambia 1971 Proceedings-Conference in the Matter of Pollution of the Interstate Waters of the Escambia River Basin (Alabama-Florida) and the Interstate Portions of 25. Livingston, R. J., T. S. Hopkins, J. K. Adams, M. D. the Escambia Basin within the State of Florida. Second Schmitt and L. M. Walsh, 1972. The Effects of Dredging Session, February 23-24, 1971, Pensacola, Fla. Environ- and Eutrophidation of Mulatto Bayou. Fund Report of mental Protection Agency. Florida Department of Transportation. 5. Perdido 1971 Proceedings-Conference in the Matter of 26. Letter from W. H. F. Wiltshire to TSH dated September Pollution of the Interstate Waters of Perdido Bay and 3, 1970. THE PUBLIC'S ROLE 579 27. OWRR Moshiri, G. A. 1971a. Phytoplankton Produc- mittee and Program Committee Minutes. Pensacola, tivity and the Role of Nutrient Enrichment Factors in Fla., August 19, 1970. Bayou Texar, Pensacola, Escambia County, Fla. NSF Institutional Grant $770 and Bayou Texar Association 43. Meeting of the Escambia-Santa-Rosa Task Force of the Grhnt, $500. West Florida Natural Resources Council. Minutes. September 2, 1970. Moshiri, G. A. 1971b. Determination of a Nitrogen- Phosphorous Budget of Bayou Texar, Pensacola, Es- 44. Letter from J. A. Edmisten to Gov. Claude Kirk, Jr., cambia County, Fla. OWRR Grant, $3,707. dated September 4, 1970. 28. OWRR, Moshiri, G. A. 1972. Determination of Nitrogen- 45. West Florida Natural Resources Council Executive Com- Phosphorous Inputs, and Prediction of the Effects of mittee Meeting. Minutes, September 16, 1970. Such Inputs on the Eutrophication Time-table of Bayou- Texar, Pensracola, Escambia County, Fla. OWlRR Grant 46. West Florida Natural Resources Council, Executive Com- 8$8,345 and $11,608. imittee Meeting. Minutes, October 2, 1970. 29. OWRR Moshiri, G. A. 1973. Intei-relationships between Certain Microorganisms and Some Aspects of Sediment- Handbook. Water Nutrient Exchange in Two Bayou Estuaries, meo. Pensacola, Escambia County, Fla. OWRR Grant $30,215. 48. Draft-Presentation of Alternatives for Water Quality 30. Letter from L. A. Hufisley to S. B. Collard dated April 29, Management Plan-Escambia Santa Rosa Counties. 1971 Prepared for EscambiaSanta Rosa Regional Planning * Council by Henningson, Durham, Richardson, and Hart. , Pensacola, Fla. Novnember, 1973. 31. Letter from H. A. Griffith, District Engineer to L. A. Hunsley dated September 2, 1971. 49. Minutes-West Florida Regional Planning Council Water Quality Management Plan for Escambia and Santa Rosa 32. Letter from C. G. Mauriello (FAWPC) to J. E. Ravyon, Counties, Fla. Final Public Hearing in Conjunction with Regional Administrator, EPA, dated November 2, 1971; Florida Department of Pollution Control. Thursday, letter from E. P. Lomasney, EPA Region IV to L. A, May 23, 1974. Hunsley dated December 14, 1971. 50. Letter from W. E. Tisdale to County Commissioners 33. Letter from V. D. Patton (DPC) to J. E. Ravon, Regional dated July 22, 1970. Administrator EPA, Region IV, dated September 21, 1972. ' : R 51. Minutes-Meeting of August 6, 1970; Escambia County Pollution Advisory Committee in County Commission 34. Letter from J. E. Ravyon (EPA, Atlanta) to V. D. Patton Chambers, Escambia County Courthouse. (DPC) dated October 4, 1972. 52. Letter Progress Report from C. A. Lowery to Chairman, 35. Letter from W. A, Rosenkrenz, EPA, Washington, to Board of County Commissioners, dated September 5, L. A. Hunsley, dated February 9, 1973. 1970. 36. News Journal Editorials of December 29, 1968, March 53. Minutes of Meeting of the Board of County Commis- 30, 1969, April 13, 1969, and June 22, 1969. sioners held Friday, December 4, 1970 with enclosures. 37. Minutes-West Florida Natural Resources Council- 54. Letter from T. S. Hopkins to County Commissioners Organizational Meeting, Pensacola, Fla. June 27, 1969. dated December 16, 1970. 38. West Florida NaturalResources Council, Executive Com- 55. Letter from C. G. Mauriello, FDAWPC to Chairman mittee Minutes, Pensacola, Fla. July 30, 1969. Lane dated April 28, 1971. 39. Minutes-West Florida Natural Resources Council, 56. ACOP Recommendations 13, 14, 15 dated May 27, 1971. Pensacola, Fla. August 15, 1969. 57. Report of Investigations into Pollution of Pensacola 40. Minutes-Escambia-Santa 'Rosa Water Pollution Task Area Waters. Florida State Board of Health Bureau of Force of the West Florida Natural Resources Council, Sanitary Engineering, Northwest Florida Regional October 8, 1969. Office Pensacola, May 19, 1969. 41. UWF News Release dated May 20, 1970-data taken 58. Memorandum to FWPCA Files from Howard Zeller, from draft approved by Gamma College Provost, A. B. Water Quality Standards Coordinator, Southeast Region, Chaet who was Professor Edmisten's Provost. dated May 23, 1969. 42. West Florida Natural Resources Council Executive Com- 59. News Journal, Page iC, December 1, 1974. THE ROLE OF THE PUBLIC IN TEXAS ESTUARY PROTECTION VERNON SMYLIE Public Relations Consultant Corpus Christi, Texas ABSTRACT The projected superport inside the South Texas bay system at Harbor Island, near Corpus Christi, stirred public indignation to a high level. Here is the way the people of South Texas reacted-and the methods they used to make their voices heard. INTRODUCTION one-fourth (26.5 percent) of all crude oil refining in the United States is in Texas. Texas refines more The Texas coast is, historically, the most unap- crude oil than the total amount refined in California preciated part of Texas. and Louisiana, the second and third ranking states. Texas is land, lots of land-267,339 square miles More than 35 percent of the proved natural gas which form a highly individualistic link between the reserves in the United States are in Texas. Both agri- Old South and the Rockies and between the Great culture and ranching are multi-billion-dollar annual Plains of the Midwest and the subtropics of the businesses. Texas usually leads all states in producing U.S.-Mexico border. It is more than 800 straight-line cattle, sheep, lambs, goats, cotton, and grain sor- miles from the northwest corner of the Texas pan- ghums. It competes with Louisiana for first position handle to the southernmost curl of the Rio Grande in rice growing. below Brownsville. The east-west distance from the Today, the mythical concept of Texas and Texans broadest bend of the Sabine River to the pointed tip remains rooted to the wide open spaces despite the above El Paso is almost as great. fact that Texas has become one of the most urbanized If all states were as big as Texas, there would be of all states, powered not by rugged individualism only 13 states. There is room enough in Texas for but by big-dollar economics and a prosperity-nur- 220 states the size of Rhode Island or six states the tured growth mania. In 1940-barely a generation size of New York. The largest of Texas' 254 counties ago-Texas had a population of 6,414,824 and was is almost as big as New Jersey. If a state were predominantly rural. By 1970, the population had molded to the same size and shape as Texas and grown to 11,749,100, and four of every five Texans placed directly east of Texas, it would reach 35 miles (79.7 percent) lived in urban areas. There are 24 into the Atlantic Ocean beyond St. Augustine, Fla. standard metropolitan areas in Texas-approximate- A state cut from the Texas pattern and located ly 10 percent of the United States' total. There are directly west of Texas would extend 160 miles into two Texas metropolitan areas among the top 20 in the Pacific Ocean beyond San Diego, Calif. Texas the United States and 10 Texas cities have popula- above itself would come within 50 miles of the Cana- tions of 100,000 or more. Six metropolitan areas are dian border. Beaumont, some 25 miles west of the on the Texas coastal plain, including three cities Louisiana border, is nearer to Sarasota, Fla., than with 100,000-plus population. it is to El Paso. And El Paso is nearer to Los Angeles, In the 1920s, Houston advertised itself as the Calif., than it is to Beaumont. Dalhart, at the top of place "where 17 railways meet the sea." The slogan the Texas panhandle, is closer to Pocatello, Idaho, was right on target. Galveston, with its island loca- and Billings, Mont., than to Brownsville. tion and natural harbor, had dominated shipping and Texas is crops and cattle and mineral wealth-and commerce on the upper Texas coast for decades. In all the economic, manufacturing, industrial, and 1914, Houston was handed its chance to emerge metropolitan muscle such broad-based elements of commercially when a ship channel was dredged from prosperity can be expected to produce. For 38 con- the Gulf of Mexico inward across Galveston Bay secutive years Texas has been No. 1 among the and up Buffalo Bayou. Galveston had the better states in mineral output. It is first in petroleum location but Houston had the better connections production and first in petroleum refining. More than with inland points. The ship channel, it turned out, 581 582 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL compounded the Houston growth impact by provid- quadrupled its population since 1940. The deepwater ing a settling strip for industries with a need for deep- urge so possessed Brownsville that a channel was water dockage and plant space. fashioned across a tidal prairie for a distance of The ecological atrocities, both along coastlines nearly 20 miles, creating the illusion that ships, and across inland expanses, can be traced historically somehow, were crossing unbroken grazing land. to the frontier concept that mankind and the en- Point Comfort, in Calhoun County, likewise became vironment are natural adversaries. The concept was a deepwater port, and Galveston County, without an implied part of the manifest destiny credo that space for industrial expansion on Galveston Island, the land was there to be conquered and used and not settled for industrialization, with deepwater access, necessarily understood. The shaky status of civiliza- on the nearby mainland at Texas City. tion on the front fringe of the advance across the The Texas coastline, by its dimensions and con- North American continent gave impetus to this struction, accommodates economic and urban ex- fundamental concept. If the inlands or the shoreline ploitation. It is a long coastline--a great arc reaching were respected, the degree of respect was measured 367 miles from the Sabine River on the Louisiana by the degree of hazard imposed by the environment border to the United States-Mexico boundary at the and not by the environment's intrinsic worth. It was mouth of the Rio Grande. The coastline meanders only when mankind achieved a stranglehold on the mightily, following the contours of countless bays environment and began converting conquest to ex- sealed from the splash of the Gulf of Mexico by a cesses that the need to live in harmony with environ- chain of narrow islands and peninsulas. If the Texas mental resources came into focus. coast is measured by every twist and turn of the Texas, rich in land and rich in both surface and shoreline, its length is 624 miles. subsurface resources, has grown by the frontier ethic The Mississippi River and its tributaries form a of environmental conquest and has prospered hand- gigantic funnel which drains the entire national somely. Houston has raised itself from its humble heartland, diminishes the rivers of the Deep South, beginning as a shaky real estate promotion with a and furnishes a flow that dominates and shapes the political hue to become one of the great cities of the Louisiana coast. Texas, for the most part, is outside world. Currently, Houston is the sixth largest city the Mississippi basin and beyond its influence. In- in the United States. By the start of the 21st cen- stead of being beholden to a single river system, the tury, just 25 years away, it easily could rank second Texas coast is fed primarily by eight river systems, only to New York. Already its position as one of the most of which empty into bay systems of some nation's four great anchor cities-New York in the complexity. The bay systems are, in one fashion or east, Los Angeles on the west coast, Chicago in the another, connected to the gulf by inlets between north-center position, and Houston in the south- islands and peninsulas. center-is assured. Nearly 400 corporations now The Texas coastal islands and peninsulas actually make their headquarters in Houston and Buffalo are barrier bars-the work of waves which break on Bayou is as busy as Main Street as ocean-going the continental shelf. The shelf reaches miles offshore tankers and cargo vessels move to and from the and follows the contour of the mainland in a rather docks of industrial installations crowded along its irregular fashion. Because the water above the shelf banks all the way to open water. Channel dockage is relatively shallow, the waves scrape bottom, break, space is so much in demand that branch channels are and cast their load of sand particles forward. The being shaped into the mainland to meet the require- sand deposits build into bars which eventually grow ments of still greater industrial development. into islands. Tidal inlets form where water breaks Houston is not the sum of it all, but the Houston across the barrier bars in times of storm. Accumula- growth saga has been an inspiring certification of tions of marsh grass and silt between the bars and the conquest concept for other communities along the mainland, where bays and lagoons run thin, the Texas coast. Deepwater channels invariably turn some islands to peninsulas. There is evidence attract industry and, at least during the free-wheeling that some mainland ridges were prehistoric barrier fifties, engendered dreams of million-plus popula- islands which established total links with the existing tions. Corpus Christi, reached by a deepwater land mass. channel in the late 1920s, bounced from 16th to 6th The estuarine settings of the Texas coast-where place among Texas cities between 1940 and 1950. river flow and the wash of the gulf have achieved a Jefferson County, with upstream deepwater at Port delicate balance-have proved attractive to settle- Arthur and Beaumont, rose into the top half-dozen ment and, as already indicated, handy for industrial Texas counties in population by 1960. Brazoria and urban exploitation. The inlets from the gulf are County, with deepwater at Freeport, has more than easily pierced to create deepwater channels. The THE PUBLIC'S ROLE 583 rivers offer sources of freshwater attractively con- pronounced the bayou's flow to be 80 percent sewage. trolled by dam construction. Every stream is a po- In 1967, Dr. Joseph L. Melnick of the Baylor Uni- tential channel and every river mouth has possibili- versity Medical School examined the bayou's water ties as 'a turning' basin. From the vast surface re- in downtown Houston-long before it reached the sources of Texas come fodder for ocean-going ship channel area-and found what he calculated to freighters. Mineral resources provide the crude oil be enough viruses to infect 77 million persons per which makes possible coastal refining complexes, hour. "It's just plain sewer water," Dr. Melnick, a and natural gas provides power for plants which virology expert, said. "You shouldn't bathe in this broaden the industrial productive base. water. You shouldn't even get it on your skin. You Not every community along the Texas coast can shouldn't have anything to do with it." Four years have deep water. There just are not enough inlets later--in June 1971-two of Houston's sewage plants from the gulf to turn the deepwater dream into were discharging 103 million gallons of unchlori- every town's reality. For those who must settle for nated waste into Buffalo Bayou each day. less, there is the Intracoastal Canal, which cuts Galveston Bay, of course, is paying the price of across protected waters and marshlands of the land- such wanton pollution. A large part of the estuary locked bays and lagoons all the way up the Texas has been closed to shellfish harvesting because of the coast. The Intracoastal Canal continues across the bacterial pollution from raw and unchlorinated southern swamps of Louisiana to the Mississippi sewage. Fish kills attributable to both urban and River and coastal points to the east. Harlingen and industrial pollution are common. Fish deformities Victoria, both on the coastal plain but a few miles are becoming more apparent. And the bay-the removed from coastal bays, have settled for barge prime recreation center for Houstonians for many canals. Raymondville, likewise removed, has built years-now is shunned as unfit for swimming, fishing, Port Mansfield on the shore of Texas' southernmost and other water pleasures. The bayshore, once lined lagoon and has engineered a barge channel through with piers and boat stalls, has little more than a the center of Padre Island to the gulf. Even Dallas, scattering of battered posts sticking from its dis- some 200 miles removed from the gulf, dreams of a colored waters as reminders of happier days. coastal connection by turning the Trinity River into 'The prospects of bringing Galveston Bay back to an elongated barge canal. a healthy condition are, at best, poor. The Trinity The Texas shrimp and fish business is a multi- River canal project still hangs around, threatening million-dollar enterprise, but so great is the industrial the bay's most significant source of freshwater and overshadow that commercial fishing hardly isvisible. hazarding, by inundation, prime estuarine marsh- Tourism is a late arrival, primarily because the lands. Thermal pollution-the tampering with water economy already had plenty to go on. Yet despite temperature in the bay-is being posed by electric industrial overkill, municipal malfeasance, official generating plants. A proposed dyke-and-levee sys- neglect, and public indifference, Texas' estuarine tern threatens tidal flow from the gulf. But while the resources still are sufficiently substantial to fight prospects of making Galveston Bay a recoverable for-and people by the thousands are becoming a- resource fade, there is grassroots reaction in Hous- ware of that fact. ton, at Wallisville, and, especially significantly, at Corpus Christi. Before it reaches sewage stations and the long THE PUBLIC STEPS IN chain of industrial waste outlets, Buffalo Bayou meanders through ritzy River Oaks, a residential Houston, as a city, is a shining example of urban area ranking with the finest anywhere in the United success. The way Houston has treated its access States. to the Texas coast is less than exemplary. It is The benign little bayou forms part of the setting- frightening. i and its value in its natural state is recognized by Buffalo Bayou originates west of Houston, passes wealthy homeowners as well as public-interest through the city, widens into a turning basin and conservationists. In 1971, a plan was developed to channel, then winds its way eastward to the northern straighten the bayou channel in the name of flood niche of Galveston Bay. The bay is one of the largest control.' Thus was born The Bayou Preservation estuarine areas along the Texas coast, gathering, in Association, an alliance of property owners and addition, the waters of the San Jacinto and Trinity environmentalists who mounted a full-scale op- rivers. position program and went public. The flood control Buffalo Bayou must be the filthiest stream in the project was stopped, and, perhaps most significant of world. Years ago an investigator for Harris County -all, the Association gathered the support of the Harris 584 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL County Soil and Water Conservation District, the The gulf waters surging along the south side of Flood and Drainage Committee of the Houston Harbor Island move into Corpus Christi Bay, then Chamber of Commerce, and the Houston Builders into Nueces Bay, Laguna Madre, and Baffin Bay. Association in seeking an officially acceptable corn- The Nueces River system and a variety of smaller prehensive plan for flood-plain management in the streams match the flow from the mainland. The sea- Houston area. water flow through Harbor Island nourishes Redfish The achievement, in itself, was modest, and, for Bay. Along Harbor Island's north side, the Lydia many of those involved, it was self-serving. But it Ann Channel carries water from the gulf to Aransas, was a forward step in coping with the Buffalo Bayou Copano, Port, St. Charles, San Antonio, and Hynes problem-a foot-in-the-door move toward bigger bays. The estuarine balance in the latter bays is things in the somewhat belated effort to attach value maintained by the flow of the Guadalupe-San to the quality of a clean stream and a healthy estu- Antonio river system and the lesser Aransas and ary. Mission rivers. An attempt to stop construction and operation of There already is a deepwater channel from the the Wallisville Dam on the lower reaches of the gulf through the San Jose-Mustang inlet. It courses Trinity River still hangs in legal limbo, but the mere south of Harbor Island across Corpus Christi Bay fact that such a step was taken and was treated to the Corpus Christi metropolitan area. A fork of the with credence in the courts is noteworthy. channel-also deep enough to accommodate ocean- The Wallisville project, which would dam the going vessels-attaches itself to the industrialized Trinity at a point where the river flows into that north shore of Corpus Christi Bay for a short dis- part of Galveston Bay known as Trinity Bay, Would tance. create a shallow lake over nearly 13,000 acres of The Harbor Island superport would provide marine nursery grounds. While it would stop the dockage for medium-sized VLCCs-the so-called movement of salt water up the Trinity channel, it supertankers designed to carry million-barrel crude also would adversely affect the flow of freshwater oil cargoes from distant ports. The superport plan into the bay. is sponsored by the Nueces County Navigation 'The suit was brought by two individuals joined'by District No. 1 and enjoys the support of most of the various environmental groups, including the Houston community's powerful industrial interests and Sportsmen's Club, the Texas Shrimp Association, certain vocal segments of the Corpus Christi business the Environmental Protection Fund, the Houston establishment. To construct such a facility would Audubon Society, and both the national organization necessitate substantial widening of the San Jose- and the Houston Chapter of the Sierra Club. The Mustang inlet, fashioning of a super turning basin suit is based on the premise that the Wallisville where inflow waters make their three-way separation project isrelated, in its implications, to the channeli- into the various bays, cutting of berthing space into zation of the Trinity to Dallas-and that the en- Harbor Island, relocating of the shallow channel vironmental implications of such wholesale tamper- through Harbor Island to Redfish Bay, and dredging ing with one of Texas' more significant streams have of the inlet, turning basin area, and berthing area to not been fully assessed. Win or lose, the Wallisville a water depth of more than 72 feet. Dam foes are sure to give heart to others who would The proposed superport provoked what The Cor- undertake other fights to halt assaults on Texas pus Christi Caller described as "The Battle of Harbor estuaries. They already have-as is evidenced in the Island, 1973 Style." The Coastal Bend Conservation pitched battle to stop the construction of a superport Association assumed the lead role, supported by the lat Harbor Island, a marshy triangle of land inside San Antonio-based Committee to Save Our Texas the Texas island chain near Corpus Christi. Beaches and Bays. The opposition began forming in mid-August, 1973, The showdown dates were Sep- tember 19-20-the appointed time for a public THE HARBOR ISLAND BATTLE hearing before the U.S. Engineers in Corpus Christi. Harbor Isand is located just inside San Jose and The results of the hearing were not conclusive, of Mustang islands. The waters which move through course. But the month-long effort by conservation- Aransas Pass, the inlet from the gulf between San ists to muster and consolidate public support added Jose and Mustang, break against the eastern point a blueprint for future action by environmentalists. of Harbor Island and surge along its sides and through The superport opponents began with a sound basis a shallow channel in its center into a system of 11 for opposition. There was a plausible alternative: bays that form the shoreline of the southern half of the monobuoy. A monobuoy system would provide the Texas coast. for the unloading of the big tankers far out in the TiE PrUBLIC'S ROL, 585 gulf, through the use of hoses attached at the water Austin, Tex., and contained this comment: "Estab- surface to floating buoys and at the gulf floor to lishment of a major oil depot with very large tankers underground pipelines leading to shore. Monobuoys coming into the Aransas Pass area will increase the would, eliminate the need for an onshore port-and oil pollution because some leakage, spillage, and they could be expected to be more than theoretically escape is unavoidable . . ." effective. More than 100 monobuoy systems are in One of the strongest statements was found in use around the world. Some have been in use since "Offshore Terminal Systems Concepts," prepared 1959. by Soros Associates, Inc., of New York for the U.S. Furthermore, it turned out, the monobuoy system Department of Commerce Maritime Administration. had strong support and the dredging approach had The statement read: outspoken critics in official circles. No less an author- ity than the U.S. Corps of Engineers-the agency The traditional coastal port consists of entrance chan- holding the hearing-had expressed itself this way nels, anchorage areas, turning basins, and shoreside terminal berths... Many existing port structures in a June 1973, report entitled "Report on Gulf would be undermined by further dredging. As bulk Coast Deepwater Port Facilities in Texas, Louisiana, carrier depth requirements reach 60 to 100 feet, the Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida': Of the three practical limitations of the traditional port will have long been exceeded for practically all the existing facility systems investigated-dredged channels, primary bulk cargo ports, particularly on the Atlantic artificial islands, and monobuoys-the monobuoy and Gulf coasts. The problems of turning and handling these large vessels within the traditional port confines system is the most economically and environmentally will become dangerous even if dredged channels and feasible." basins could otherwise handle the deep drafts. Dredging Speaking specifically of the Texas Coastal Bend- beyond 50 feet in depth would be very difficult to justify both economically and environmentally. the area centered around Harbor Island-the Corps added: "This zone supports active commercial and sport fisheries and represents a significant recrea- The office of the Governor of Texas provided two tional region whose utility could be diminished by a general comments in "Texas Coastal Resources deep port development in the area .. ." Management Program," a comprehensive report to A report entitled "Environmental Aspects of a Interagency Council on Natural Resources and the Supertanker Port on the Texas Gulf Coast," pub- Environment. The comments: lished in December.1972, by Texas A & M Univer- sity, contained this statement i Bays and estuarine areas are irreplaceable resources essential to more than 70 percent of all marine organ- isms... In addition to the first cost aspects of channel deepening, other considerations which, when taken in toto, appear ... it is recommended that the State of Texas and its to rule out this approach as an alternative to the offshore citizens ... prohibit the sale or lease of State-owned port, include such things as annual maintenance costs wetlands for development except where essential to and environmental impacts other than those associated fulfill some definite human need and where no feasible with disposal of-dredge spoil ... alternative exists. Thus armed with significant opinion, the Harbor The U.S. Army Engineer Institute for Wathaner A sIsland superport opponents put their position to a Resources had retained Robert R. Nathan Associ- tesncs hd WeasineRonr . Ntoar roc public test. On Labor Day weekend, circulars en- ates, In., of Washington D.C., to prepare a report titled "Save Our Beaches, Save Our Bays" were entitled "U.S. Deepwater Port Study" in August 1972 entitled "U.S. Deepwater Port Study" in August passed out to motorists pulled to a stop on Harbor .Island to await ferry movement to the Mustang Island community of Port Aransas. The circulars Dredging and spoil disposal for deepwater ports, if re- explained that a plan was afoot to build a superport sorted to on a massive and extensive scale, could create environmental problems almost equal to those of pe- on Harbor Island, then added: troleum spills ... However, for the most part, offshore facilities requiring limited or no dredging offer an eco- nomic, and environmentally less-destructive alternative A suprport on Harbor Island would require a channel almost three times as wide and nearly twice as deep as for crude 7?etroleum imports . . . : :the present inlet from the Gulf of Mexico. The Texas Environmental Coalition focused The cost would be enormous. The flood danger from tidal surges, particularly during hurricanes, would directly on the proposed Harbor Island, project with constitute a tremendous risk to lives and property. Un- "A Statement Concerning Deepwater Port Location controlled oil spills could blacken a half-dozen bays, in the Corpus Christi, Texas, Area." The statement ruin our island marine ie d ds immeasurable damage to bird and marine life, and destroy a multi-million-dollar was drawn by Espey, Huston, and Associates of tourist and recreation area. 586 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Don't let anybody fool you-there is no way to control only medium-sized supertankers. Ships almost a tidal wave and no fool-proof way to stop the spread twice that large already are under construction and still larger vessels are being planned. And don't let anybody tell you that a superport inside 2. The Harbor Island Superport Limits Our.:Econ- the Texas island chain is necessary to support the Texas c Benefits economy or to provide jobs. It isn't necessary. The U.S. Engineers have made analyses which show that an they can't unload. If they can't unload, we lose offshore terminal in the Gulf of Mexico would cost less economically. An offshore monobuoy system would and accomplish the same purpose. make possible the discharging of crude oil from supertankers of all sizes. The message urged anyone interested in stopping 3. The Harbor Island Superport Has an Unsigned the Harbor Island superport project to sign a coupon Price Tag. If a 72-foot channel can be dredged, will on the bottom of each circular. The response was we then be asked to dig it deeper for bigger ships? tremendous. By the end of the 3-day holiday period, How will the channel be maintained? What will be some 4,000 persons had read, signed, and returned the final cost? Who'll pay the bill? Why haven't these the circulars. More than 1,500 other signatures were questions been answered? gathered, mainly in Corpus Christi, prior to the 4.HarborIslandWillPutUsBehindintheSuper- September 19-20 hearing. port Race. The construction of an inland superport A major newspaper advertising campaign was is a mammoth, slow process. The Caller-Times of mounted. A dramatic three-color, two-page display August 26, 1973 stated that officials have estimated featuring a map showing the proposed Harbor Island results of the Harbor Island feasibility study "may superport location and projecting the possible con- not be available for up to three years." Construction sequences of a major oil spill in the port area was the then could require an even longer period of time, starter. The advertisement was captioned: "'Are pushing the completion date to 1979 or later. If the You Willing to Pay This Price for a Superport on Seadock monobuoy is put into operation up the Harbor Island?" The price, of course, was the pos- Texas coast at Freeport in 1976, we could find our sible saturation of the bay and estuary areas with area three or more years behind in superport develop- crude oil. ment The authoritative quotations cited above were put 5. Harbor Island Is a Throwback to Isolated Port together in a full-page blockbuster with this caption: Planning. The energy crisis is a national concern. "Before You Let Anybody Talk You Into Believing So is the docking of supertankers. That's why coast- the Harbor Island Superport Would Be Good for wide port systems have been studied so carefully. Corpus Christi and the Texas Coastal Bend, Read The attempt to force isolated consideration of Har- These Findings." The advertisement, like the cir- bor Island as a superport site is a step backward in culars, contained a coupon for opposition signatures. port planning. The next advertisement made it clear that there 6. Harbor Island Endangers Our Entire Bay was an alternative to the Harbor Island superport. System. The inlet between St. Joseph and Mustang The heading stated: islands is the prime source of fresh seawater for our entire Coastal Bend bay system. The system in- Can Corpus Christi Have eludes San Antonio, Copano, St. Charles, Aransas, The Benefits of a Superport Redfish, Nueces, Corpus Christi, and a dozen smaller Without Jeopardizing Our bays, plus the Laguna Madre. A superport directly Beaches and Bays? inside the inlet would be a pollution nightmare. It's It Certainly Can--If hard to imagine a more damaging superport site. The Port Is Built in the Gulf 7. Imagine the Effects of a Harbor Island Oil Instead of on Harbor Island. Spill! An uncontrolled crude oil spill at a superport on Harbor Island could blacken our beaches and bays, endanger bird and marine life, and destroy a The pro-monobuoy statements by the U.S. Engi- multi-million-dollar tourist and recreation area. neers thwere prominently displayed, 10 reasons wh the Let no one fool you-there is no foolproof way to As the hearing date neared, 10 reasons why the control a big oil spill. Harbor Island superport should be opposed were Multi-Danger offered: 8. The Harbor Island Superport Is a Multi-Danger Plan. The danger of ship collisions and groundings 1. The Harbor Island Superport Plan Already Is hangs over any plan to build an inland superport. Obsolete. A superport inside our bay system at An explosion could turn a supership loaded with Harbor Island, as proposed, would accommodate crude oil or liquified gas into a gigantic floating THE PuBLIC'S ROLF, 587 AreYou illing tolPay This Pice , un oim For the Harbor Island Superport? /II UE Before You bet flnvbody Talk You Into Believing BtWNWhimU nbw" -,S. The Harbor Island Superport I joh . Would Be Good for Corpus Chrsti 0 -.f1 find thMexas Coastal Bend OwT, Ifowli -u.uk.1 Read These Findings: &. Lw.Out, %gs. - o' I M A UEPR AN - -. - - - --_ IGN ERE - !!AMME T ADOM70 'w : VA ,", INSITT M. AERRSURCES 9T ----.IILLTUSTRATION 2 58E'8 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL page newspaper advertisement with these instruc- leE sHearFomelheYoul]PeopIe. tions: Here's What You Can Do To Stop the Harbor We'llI Awad $100 to theeStdent Island Superport-- WhoWpites the Best 250-WoPd bJettep Go to the U.S. Engineers' hearing at 6:30 p.m. ¶elIIW1RaOV OUiM P GoastaI Beaches Thursday at Roy Miller High School Audi- torium .., Alnd Baps should Be SavedP to .. 'he Ravraes of a -Speppopt Speak out at the hearing to save our beaches and bays by keeping the superport outside our On Hapbop Island. Coastal Bend bay system. An advertisement-also displayed on a full-page scale-urged: "Let's Hear From the Young People." It offered, in the name of the Coastal Bend Con- servation Association, a prize of $100 to the student SIX PRIZES writing the best 250-word letter "telling why our coastal beaches andbays should be saved from the ravages of a superport on Harbor Island." There was a second-place prize of $50 and four other prizes of $25 each. The contest was open to any student at any level-elementary, junior high, high school, or college-at any school or educational institution in the Corpus Christi area. Each letter had to begin with the words: "I op- pose a superport on Harbor Island because..." There were more than 100 responses. As the hearing approached, The Corpus Christi SacweOur' actqChe5sl SceOuraB Cqs Caller summarized the situation in a lengthy article T eOEM' e S ..... C. -T. EN ... .As.. published September 16. The article listed the pros and cons of the Harbor Island superport as follows: ILLUSTRATION 4 PROS: bomb. There also is a real danger to life and property Economic bost. from tidal surges caused by channel widening and deepening to accommodate supertankers. Decrease shi numbers (not tonnage)ry. Decrease ship numbers (not tonnage). 9. Harbor Island Will Blight Our Existing Econ- Channel will stabilize bay system omy. A superport inside our coastal islands will de- face landforms with dredged spoil and pollute bay Help ease fuel crisis. waters. It is bound to strike a solid blow to sport fishing, commercial fishing, bird life, tourism, and CONS: our own enjoyment of our environment. The cost in dollars will run into millions: The cost that can't be Destroy fish, shrimp and crab nursery grounds. measured in dollars will be staggering. Dredging and spoil disposal harm. 10. All Major Studies Favor Offshore Superport Oil spill danger. Plans. The only thing new about superport planning Increased flood threat from hurricanes. is the high-pressure attempt to force the building of Expense of channel maintenance. a superport on Harbor Island. Major studies con- Demand on land, water, air resources from ducted by and for federal and state agencies con- secondary development. cerned with superport development favor offshore ports far out in the gulf. Port officials, the article stated, claim "the eco- nomical advantages of a landlocked inshore port The 10-point broadside was contained in a full- situated inside the Aransas Pass Bar far offset any THE PUBLIC'S ROLE 589 possible ecological or environmental damage that fish. The Aransas Pass Channel is a bottleneck for might occur to the Corpus Christi Bay area." migrations in and out of the bays, he said, and thus But, the article added, "environmentalists main- the most sensitive area in the coastal system. "Little tain that construction of the port in estuarine areas shrimp use certain clues to enter the estuaries from will destroy valuable marine nursery grounds which the gulf. Tidal and salinity changes resulting from are important for the preservation of gulf fisheries. a deeper channel would affect the migration pattern,' They also argue that port development will inevita- he warned. bly lead to further industrialization that, would Dr. Charles Holmes of the Office of Marine Ge- decrease the quality of the area's environment." ology, U.S. Geological Survey, said: "The feeling The article, in its own right, pointed out that among geologists is that the channel will fill in, but "more than 3,000 acres of land are estimated to be at a rate not known. The question should be in- needed for facility construction. Much of thisrland is vestigated." shallow and vegetated, functioning as nursery and The hearing before the U.S. Corps of Engineers feeding grounds for marine organisms and birds. opened before a full house. The Miller High School Ninety-five percent of commercial fish species are Auditorium was packed-both the main level and said to be dependent on estuarine areas." It also the balcony. In the lobby, environmentalists passed cited the fact that Ernest Simmons, coastal fisheries out "Save Our Beaches, Save Our Bays" bumper supervisor for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart- stickers. Outside, a king-sized billboard trailer ment, pointed out that construction of the deepwater attached to an automobile carried an easily under- port would immediately destroy many acres of stood message. It stated: "Stop the Superport." prime spawning and nursery grounds for sea trout, Edward C. Fritz of Dallas, chairman of the Texas redfish, flounder, blue crabs, and shrimp. "The Committee on'Natural Resources and a leader in the deepwater port would thus affect adversely a multi- Wallisville battle, testified: '"The development plan million dollar fishing industry. We would also lose for a multi-purpose deep draft inshore port near feeding grounds for waterfowl and other birds," Port Aransas as presented by the Nueces County Simmons was quoted as saying. Navigation District is environmentally unsound. To Rudy Martinez, a biologist with Parks and Wild- construct the necessary deep draft access channels life, and John G. Degani, field supervisor with the alone could seriously alter the balance of nature in Division of River Basin Studies in the U.S. Bureau the area. Any ecological modifications necessary to of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife, concurred with build and maintain a superport complex would have Simmons in print. Martinez was quoted as saying: a serious and far reaching impact on the biosphere of "We are slowly losing our nursery grounds in this bay an area. This particular plan threatens to wreak system as industry is coming in and people are build- total havoc on the especially delicate and complex ing. The Harbor Island development would cut down natural interrelationships in the-Port Aransas region. on the amount of nursery grounds available for Thus serious consideration should be given to the organisms." Most marine life spends some part of denial of a permit for this scheme. Indeed, serious its life cycle in these areas, Martinez added. consideration needs to be given to the question of Dr. Henry Hildebrand, of the Department of whether or not any superport ought to be constructed Biology at Texas A & I University-Kingsville, at all in the Corpus area. One for Texas should be claimed publicly that the tremendous' amount of sufficient, and there are other areas with greater ad- spoil created by the dredging activities would keep vantages to Texas and the nation." the water turbid for months. "The fine clay sedi- Jake Powers, a petroleum consultant, told the ments would create a turbidity off Port Aransas gathering: "The Nueces County area is indeed for- which would have serious impact on sports fishery. tunate in having a majority of its income derived The fisherman will have, to go much farther out to from the petroleum industry ... In fact many of us find the fish," the biologist said, Hildebrand said depend on petroleum in one facet or another as our that besides the initial turbidity caused by the basic income, We look forward to additional oil and dredging, runoff from spoil disposal areas would have the income it might bring. We do, however, feel like a adverse consequences. "Draining from disposal areas superport would not benefit this area as well as an of the colloidal clay .sediments "which would be offshore terminal or monobuoy plan." dredged up could adversely affect the organisms in - Yancey White-an attorney who is a graduate of Redfish Bay and possibly cover up the grass-flats," the United States Merchant Marine Academy, a he stated. - - ' ' veteran of the United States Navy, and a former Hildebrand also commented that the 72-foot chan- ship's officer in the United States Merchant nel would profoundly affect the bay production of Marine-pointed out that the secondary purpose of 590 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL the proposed Harbor Island superport was to load The unnecessary dredging of a deep-draft bulk carriers with grain for foreign shipment. "The superport on Harbor Island for the unloading hard evidence does not support the proposition that of crude oil from supertankers will deface the island itself, pollute our bays, endan ger our a bulk loading facility for grain at Harbor Island island itself, pollute our bays, anger our to the Port of commercial and sports fishing, and destroy would be of any substantial benefit to the Port of our recreational and tourist attractions. Corpus Christi," White testified. "The reasons are simple and capable of factual support. The principal The public hearing held last week before the reason is that many of the countries purchasing our U.S. Corps of Engineers in Corpus Christi grain have severe draft limitations which restrict the made it abundantly clear that the people of the size of the vessel that can enter the harbor for along- Coastal Bend and those who share our concern side discharge. To be specific, India, one of the pri- about the well-being of the Texas shoreline mary purchasers of American grain, has severe draft want supertankers kept and unloaded where limitations and cannot accept today vessels with 40- supertankers belong-in the deep waters of foot drafts which Corpus Christi is capable of load- the gulf. ing. The maximum draft for which a vessel can As one speaker pointed out, there is no last- enter a harbor in Venezuela is 34 feet. The maximum gasp need for an inland superport on Harbor draft for alongside discharging in Mexico is approxi- Island. To suggest that an inland superport is mately 30. .. Stated in simple terms, it is futile to the only answer is to ignore the economy and load a bulk carrier with grain to a 70-foot draft when efficiency of the offshore monobuoy unloading the port of discharge can only accommodate a vessel system. of 30 feet. This is true because many, if not the ma- jority, of the grain importing countries are under- Yes, the people spoke-not simply from the developed nations and thus do not have adequate podium but by their presence. More than 700 port facilities to receive large bulk carriers." persons attended the hearing. Nearly 6,000 others-enough to fill the Miller High School The chairman of the Corpus Christi Chamber of others-enough to fill t he Miller High School Commerce's Superport Committee was Edward H. pressions in opposition to the superport in Harte, publisher of The Corpus Christi Caller-Times. writing. Later, in an editorial column, Harte gave his ap- praisal of what happened at the hearing at Miller Harbor Island is a great natural resource- High School. The Harbor Island superport project, but it is even more. Harte wrote, took a "terrible drubbing." After the hearing, the environmentalists had the It is the key to maintaining and improving the final words. In another double-page, three-color quality of life in the Coastal Bend. newspaper advertisement, they offered the public a sketch of a serene Harbor Island setting with this It must not be sacrificed. text: And it won't be. Harbor Island ... it's one of the Coastal Bend's great natural resources. The Harbor Island superport proposal has had Around it flow the fresh seawaters which enter rough seas ever since the September 1973, public our island chain to feed our entire bay system hearing. In March 1974, Bechtel, Inc., a consulting from the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge at engineering firm, put a $260 million price tag on the Austwell to the lower reaches of Laguna Madre. project. That is far more than the original estimates Its wetlands nurture our very existence, pro- of less than $100 million. The $260 million cost, viding spawning beds for marine life and a Bechtel pointed out, is based on a start of construc- nesting ground and natural habitat for countless tion within 13 months. A start, as of this writing, is species of birds. Along its sub-sea-level fringe not in sight. is Texas' only mangrove swamp. Its delicate Perhaps the most significant factor for environ- mentalists is Bechtel's open reference to the project There are some natural resources which must as Phase 1. What are the other phases? Where does be sacrificed to that human on-rush known as the superport project lead? What is the full scope of progress. potential estuarine destruction? In view of the Wallisville Dam litigation, these questions become This one must not be. especially relevant. THE PUBLIC'S ROLE 591 Untimely oil spills in the South Texas bay system REFERENCES related to the Mustang-San Jose inlet also have McComb, David G. 1969. Houston: The Bayou City, Uni- drawn attention to the hazards posed by the project. versity of Texas Press, Austin, Tex. An oil spill closed the Port of Corpus Christi for An oil spill closed the Port of Corpus Christi for ABC Television News Special. May 29, 1972. Oceans: The two days. Almost a week was required to clear the Silent Crisis. channel of the 6,000-barrel spill. A smaller spill in San Antonio Bay, near the nesting grounds of the Smith, James Noel. 1972. The Decline of Galveston Bay, The nearly-extinct whooping cranes, also attracted pub- Conservation Foundation, Washington D.C. lic attention. Smylie, Vernon and Eric. 1972. Texas in Fact, Texas News Exxon, one of the industrial giants advocating the Syndicate Press, Corpus Christi, Tex. Harbor Island superport, came across its own tracks The Dallas Morning News. 1972-73 and 1974-75. The Texas with a national magazine advertisement headed: Almanac, Dallas, Tex. "Offshore Oil Terminals. A safer, more economical Record of Public Meeting on Application of Nueces County way to get millions of barrels of oil from ship to shore Navigation District No. 1 for a Department of the Army to YOU." Permit to Begin Development of a Multi-Purpose Deep- to you." Draft Inshore Port Near Port Aransas (Corpus Christi An awareness of the value of Texas estuaries is Bay), Tex., U.S. Army Engineer District, Galveston, Tex., growing. The importance of the role of the public in Volumes I and II, December, 1973. Texas estuary protection is undeniable. The blue- Various news articles and advertisements published in The prints have been drawn. The battle has been joined. Corpus Christi Caller-Times, Corpus Christi, Tex., 1972-74. And, for the first time, a genuine appreciation of the Published materials of the Coastal Bend Conservation Asso- Texas coast seems near. ciation, Corpus Christi, Tex. ::. . ; :i:::-. _. -:-. THE 'ROLE OF CITIZEN ACTION GROUPS IN PROTECTING AND RESTORING WETLANDS IN CALIFORNIA FRED S. FARR Horan, Lloyd, Dennis & Farr Carmel, California ABSTRACT The shoclking destruction by man of California's wetland and coastal resources has occurred for more than a century, by competing uses for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational purposes. More than 80 percent of California's 21 million people live within one-half hour's drive of the coast. Pressures on resources in coastal areas is unbearable. This paper tells what citizen action groups have done in attempting to reverse these trends. INTRODUCTION in that the amount of money needed is difficult to raise during the time available before the destructive Citizen action efforts in wetland and coastline action occurs, and should the purchase be successful protection in California, although of recent origin, who is to administer the wetland? are illustrative of some of the most dramatic and The saving of the Carmel River Beach, lagoon, most productive results in the nation. and wildlife refuge from high density development For more than a century following California's was done by separate but interdependent citizen admission to the Union in 1850, it was common and action groups-one concerned itself primarily with accepted practice to misuse the coastline and to public education and fund raising, while the other destroy the wetlands. Since 1900, 90 percent of the carried on the political action. fertile and productive marshes, lagoons and sloughs Shortly after World War II the Carmel River in southern California have been diked, drained, Beach, with its unsurpassed view of Point Lobos, polluted, filled, or dredged to make way for free- was up for grabs. Adjacent to the beach was a ways, shopping centers, subdivisions, industries, beautiful 27-acre lagoon, providing habitat for the condominiums, and marinas. Of the 381,000 acres brown pelican, blue heron, and many other species, of coastal wetlands existing in all of California 75 some rare and endangered. Constant filling to make years ago, only 125,000 acres remain today. room for new homes in a nearby subdivision threat- Citizen action groups, tired of witnessing the ened the lagoon's very existence. slow but certain destruction of coastal shoreline Determined to save this beach and wetland from waters and wetland habitat, decided to call a halt development, Carmel citizens turned in 19.50 to to such activities. Effective efforts of citizen groups their Point Lobos League, a non-profit organization, in California have sometimes been on the local level whose purpose was to preserve natural, scenic and and other times statewide. The methods used varied recreational areas for use and enjoyment by all of considerably. the people. Margaret Owings of the league solicited Hopefully, the California illustrations cited will the aid of her friend, Newton B. Drury, chief of be beneficial to other citizen groups in the nation- California's State Division of Beaches and Parks, wide effort to save decreasing coastal wetlands from who said of this effort, "No scenic and recreational further destruction. resource in the United States is more sorely in need of preservation."' However, Drury, former director of National Park Service, was helpless under Cali- CARMEL RIVER BEACH fornia law to purchase the Carmel River Beach and AND UPLAND ARTICHOKE FIELDS lagoon without local matching funds. With Drury's support, Francis Whitaker, the Point Lobos League's Saving threatened wetlands from destruction by fund raising for public purchase presents problems 1 The Living Wilderness-Sumer, 1960, p. 17 593 594 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL president (who was also Carmel's blacksmith), known as the Carmel Area Coalition, together with gathered artists, lawyers, doctors, journalists, retired other conservation groups, carried on the necessary military, and conservationists to his Forge in the political activity before the county planning com- Forest, where a campaign for vigorous fund raising mission and board of supervisors. The other organi- was launched and a goal of $25,000 set. The league's zation, OLAF (Odello Land Acquisition Fund) was efforts resulted in local artists donating 125 excel- an IRS tax approved nonprofit corporation which lent paintings. Auctions and other money raisers confined its activities to fund raising. The land- produced $15,000 in donations to save the beach owners and developers were pushing for rapid ap- and lagoon. Of this effort, a well known journalist proval of the plan and rezoning of the property. The wrote, coalition was strongly resisting this effort, thus hoping to buy time while OLAF was pursuing the Contributions have been in the best conservation tradi- herculean task of raising the money to purchase tion, from small donors. These are the people from all over the United States-as well as little Carmel-who have known the sweeping curve of the .beach with its then unknown price. Once the land was rezoned, yellow-white sand against the blue-green lagoon at the the new inflated value caused by rezoning would Carmel River mouth under the wild Santa Lucia Moun- tains!2 put the price out of reach for public acquisition. From February 1971 until the late spring of Following the league's successful fund raising, the 1974 the battle to save the land continued. Pruden- first breakthrough came when the state was able to tial Life Insurance Company policy holders on the acquire the 27-acre lagoon for a wildlife refuge. Monterey Peninsula and elsewhere were disturbed Pushed by the Point Lobos League, Monterey that their company was the financial backer of the County made available to the state $25,000 in plan. In May 1971 the company withdrew financial funds which it had earmarked for parks and beaches support and immediately thereafter the landowners elsewhere in the county. The people of Carmel indicated an interest in selling the westerly half of having done their part, the state then proceeded in their property to OLAF, but only after rezoning 1954 to acquire an adjacent 80-acre beach and bluff, was approved. thus creating the Carmel River Beach and Wildlife By June 1971 OLAF, backed by a $50,000 pledge Preserve. from the city of Carmel, had raised $200,000 in cash To the east of the beach and wildlife refuge lies and pledges and was trying to interest the State of the 292-acre Odello artichoke fields that straddle California in acquiring the western half of the land Highway 1. For 47 years the Odello family had to protect the state river beach and wildlife refuge. farmed these lands, but in 1971 they felt that the In July 1972 the planning commission, at a packed time had come to sell. Proposed was a $60 million meeting, voted 6-2 to approve the development and development including 944 dwelling units, a 600- in October, with growing support for public acquisi- room hotel and a 300-acre spa to be located next tion, the Monterey County Board of Supervisors to the wildlife refuge. Rezoning by the county would reversed the planning commission in a 3-2 vote but be required to make the project possible. without prejudice, meaning that the developers were Worried about population increases, in that the free to re-apply. proposed development would house more people The efforts of the coalition and conservation orga- than lived in Carmel, citizens again organized to nizations were gaining increased support locally and save their environment. Traffic congestion, smog, throughout the state, and OLAF's fund raising tax burdens, damage to the state beach and wildlife efforts were truly amazing. Contributions flowed refuge, and flooding of the Carmel River were all of in from as far away as Hong Kong, Venezuela, and great concern to the people. At first the controversy Washington, D.C. One social security recipient do- was fought solely on the political front. From the nated, and urged others who could afford it to beginning there was widespread community feeling contribute the small increase allowed in social secur- that the Odello family should be allowed to develop ity benefits! An 11-year-old boy on a street corner their lands as had others before them. Also, strong collected $105 in three hours time for OLAF. A was support for purchase of the land for public open wealthy woman gave a $30,000 Pebble Beach lot, space preservation. To meet the developer's chal- and a druggist offered $.05 per bottle for the return lenge, two organizations were formed. Each acted of used pill bottles, receiving 4,080 pill bottles and separately but of necessity depended upon one an- sending a check for $108. The city of Carmel's other if the land were to be saved. One organization pledge for $50,000 was later increased to $100,000. High school students made door-to-door cam- 2 Robert E. Brunn, Carmel takes steps to save famed river beach. The Christian Seience Monitor, June 13,1950. paigns, and an ecumenical church service on the THE PUBLIC'S ROLE 595 banks of the Carmel River gained more support; endangered birds as well as important varieties of soon the national and east coast media with NBC, fish and plant life. CBS, New York Times, National Observer, The The saving of this important land and water from Washington Post, and Halifax Nova Scotia Herald, certain destruction of its natural resources is a lesson as well as the National Geographic Magazine, all in community mobilization, effective public educa- became interested in Carmel's trying to save its tion, successful litigation, and determined citizen open space. followthrough. The State of California appraised the westerly Prior to 1901 all tidelands in the Newport Bay 155 acres of the land at $1,750,000, and the Odellos area were held in trust by the State of California. agreed to accept this amount, but the state was In 1901 the state sold 273 acres of tidelands to only willing to provide one-half the cost. James Irvine, the predecessor of the Irvine Com- Responding to the efforts of the coalition and pany which is today the largest landowner in south- OLAF, the county board of supervisors under the ern California. In 1919 the state granted to Orange leadership of Willard Branson, its chairman, tried County, in trust, other tidal and submerged lands to form itself into a redevelopment agency to help for the development of a harbor in the Upper Bay. obtain the matching funds, using tax increment As the result of litigation in 1926 between Orange bonds. Complicated political and legal problems County and the Irvine Company, Irvine was ad- caused the redevelopment idea to be abandoned. judged to be the owner of the lands above mean Then local assemblyman Bob Wood won legislative high tide, including three small islands whose owner- approval authorizing the purchase of the artichoke ship by Irvine blocked effective use of the bay for fields as an adjunct to the Carmel River State Orange County's proposed harbor development. In Beach. With the $100,000 pledge from the city of addition, precipitous bluffs owned by Irvine sur- Carmel and the $250,000 raised by OLAF, and rounded much of the bay, thus making access to reduction by $100,000 in the landowners' selling the water difficult. Irvine wanted to develop its price, the state furnished the balance and the sale upland properties and obtain access to the bay, and was completed. Orange County desired to develop the harbor under Thus, the westerly 155 acres of this land adjoin- its tidelands' grant. Consequently, a plan was ing the wildlife refuge were forever preserved as a evolved under which a land exchange would be part of California's Carmel River Beach State Park made. It would permit Orange County to develop and Wildlife Refuge, and efforts are still continuing the harbor, a marine stadium, and certain parks to-save the easterly one-half of the Odello land for in return for Irvine's owning and developing the open space. contiguous lands for low and medium density hous- Happily, the state leased the lands back to the ing and for aquatic commercial uses. The proposed Odellos, and green artichokes, interspersed with land swap was approved by the 1957 legislature yellow mustard, still dominate the flatland next to subject to approval of the State Lands Commission. the Carmel River Beach, lagoon and wildlife refuge In 1966 the State Lands Commission withheld its across the bay from Point Lobos. approval on the grounds that the project would create commercial areas completely privately con- trolled and add to the preponderant private domina- UPPER NEWPORT BAY tion of the bay. The following year, however, under a new administration in Sacramento the Lands Com- mission reversed itself and approved the exchange. A 55-year struggle to preserve one of the last remaining wetlands in southern California culmi- Following a group known as the Friends of Upper Newport Bay was organized. It nated in a victory for conservationists when it was Fri e n ds of Upper Newport Bay was organized It feared the exchange would result in both loss of announced in mid-November of 1974 that the State announced in mid-November of 1974 tshoreline to the public as well as loss of important Department of Fish and Game would supervise in wildlie to th e pubic as well as loss of imtat. Upper Newport Bay, Orange County, a 741-acre wildlife habitat peological p reserve, the larges t in the state. The Friends faced an uphill struggle in that the U pp er N ewpo rt Bay is located 26 miles south of . harbor district, the board of supervisors, the State Upper Newport Bay is located 26 miles south of Los Angeles and more than 80 million people, or Lands Commission and the state legislature had all one-half of the population of California, live within given the necessary approval. All that appeared to its 80-mile radius. The 3Y4 mile long Upper Bay, remain for final clearance was court sanction of the with its 1,000 acres of relatively undisturbed wet- land exchange and a dredging and filling agreement. lands, provides a most important habitat for no less This would be accomplished by a so-called "friendly than five state and federally recognized species of lawsuit" filed in 1969 in the Orange County Superior ESTUA'INE PjO;LJUTION CONTROL Court. What was to be' a noncontrove isial-'matter time, talent, and money. Not'only did they" carry became a hotly contested adversary proceeding cul- on an extensive campaign in' educating public' offi- minating'in a significant appellate court decision of cials at the local, county, state 'and federal levels, major importance in tideland litigation, and a splen- but they also conducted public tours of Upper New- 'did victory for Friends of Upper Newport Bay.' port Bay for some 15,000- people -in addition 'to Joining the Friends of Upper Newport ''Bay in special tours for approximately ;10,000' students. 1969 was an organization known as Orange County Working with-the Orange County Foundation: for Foundation for' Preservatiori of Public Property. Preservation of Public Property, the Friends were The foundation assisted in the appeal of the trial able to raise $80,000 for legal expenses to 'assist iin court's judgment approving the-land exchange. D'ue the appeal: In ·addition, the Sierra Club and the to the vehement opposition of the Friends of Upper citizen intervenors in the lawsuit played- important Newport Bay, several most important 'events' took roles in helping save Upper Newport Bay. place between the filing of the action and the trial While' the 'Upper Bay's major'hurdle, that of court's decision. The Orafige-County Grand Jury public -ownership, is resolved, there are still- prob- had' passed a resolution questioning the advisability lems in achieving full utilization and restoration of of the exchange and the board of supervisors under- the bay for wildlife preservation and for public en- went a change of membership. The new board ex- joyment. The waters of the Upper 'Bay are'threat- pressed a' desire to rescind the exchange agreement ened: by' storm drainage runoff from the massive as not being in 'the -public interest 'and filed an adjacent urban population. Federal: assistance 'to appeal of the'decision approving the exchange. Six 'California 'and the Orange County communities citizens intervened in the county's appeal, contend- encompassing the bay would help immeasurably to ing that the exchange would result in Irvine's owning prevent such drainage 'pollution. It· is also essential almost seven miles of prime Waterfront along 'newly -to protect the bluff land surrounding the Upper created harbor lines while providing only three miles Bay -from destructive development. To complete or less of marginal waterfront property for." the the task of protecting Upper 'Newport Bay, the public. They were assisted' by attorney Phillip S. citizen groups will continue: to work until their' goal Berry; former Sierra Club president, and Herman F. is finally accomplished. Selvin, former president of the state bar, represented . i . Orange County in the appeal. - --- . .. . In February 1973 the court of appeal reversed the trial court's approval of the exchange after care- 'O'ne of th e largest, most important wetlands, re- fully reviewing California's tidelands trust. The court One of the largest, most important wetlands re- included in its grounds for reversal the fact that maiing in California was saved from a major 'oil M-OrangeCountypresentlyowned andcontrolled refinery being located near its shores-not on the the entire shoreline of the bay area and that as a issue of saving the wetlands but rather by citizen 'result of the exchange, it would be relinquishing action groups interested i an air two-thirds of that shoreline- to be conveyed into private ownership."3 ' County, the second largest salt marsh in'California, lies about 100 miles south of San Francisco on the This decision was the turning point in the deter- mined struggle to save Upper Newport Bay. Irvine edge of the Monterey Bay During the bird as a result of the decision agreed to negotiate the tion in the fall and early spring, its 7-mile slough sale of, its wetlands long sought by' conservation species of birds, some rare and endangered, in addi- groups for a wildlife refuge. Backed by Friends of Upper Newport Bay and many other Orange ounty tion to a variety of fish, clams, oysters and barnacles. Upper Newport, Bay and many other Orange County citizens, the State Department of Fish and Game The biggest threat to Elkhorn Slqugh came n negotiated the sale of 527 potentially highly develop- 1965 when Humble Oil, then the nation's largest able acres from Irvine to thestate for $3.48 million. to construct a $70 million refinery at Moss Landing. Two hundred seventeen acres of tidelands held by Humble Oil, backed by the Salinas Chamber of Orange County were then added to complete the Comberce, t Landi Harbor District, anid 744-acre wetlands preserve. ; . ; , - 1, Commerce, the Moss Landing Harbor District, aid 744-acre wetlands for preserve.ing what is today Californias the Salinas Californian, one of the two daily news- Credit for preserving what is today California's largest wetland ecological reserve; goes primarily. to papers in the cunty, prclaied that Monter the 100 dedicated citizen membbrs of the; Friends County needed Humble'Oil's 'refinery to provide, a of Upper Newport Bay who gave directly of their permanent labor force of 250-300 employees, !plus 1,500 to 2,000 construction jobs and $1,300,000 in 3 Orange Cout v. )He o C.A.ad 69i4 atp ! . 695 . new tax revenues for the county. The proposed THE PUBLIdS RoILE 597 450-acre refinery site was already zoned for heavy that we can attract." A water expert from Humble industry, with both Kaiser's Dolomite Processing added that there would be no oil spills from either Plant and P.G.&E.'s power plant operating in the crude oil or refined products being transported by area. All that was needed by Humble was a use tankers and barges or being unloaded through sub- permit from the county planning commission. merged marine pipelines. This was before Torrey While early in 1965 the county's air pollution Canyon. control advisory committee recommended the grant- On July 28, 1965, after a 4-hour hearing ended at ing of the permit contingent upon meeting all air midnight, the Monterey County Planning Commis- pollution standards imposed by the county, some sion by a 5-4 vote recommended against granting 30 miles across the bay downwind from the Humble the use permit to Humble Oil. The swing vote was site, residents of the Monterey Peninsula doubted cast by Peter Cailloto, a local hardware merchant, that a clean, odorless, non-smog producing plant whose business could be jeopardized by his decision, could be built. Prevailing afternoon winds blow from because of the strong support in Salinas for the the ocean in the summer months down the long, plant. He nevertheless stated he was worried about green Salinas Valley, and there were those who air pollution and its damage to agriculture. "One feared that such winds would carry damaging smog fact is obvious," he said, "you can smell odors from into fertile agricultural lands. a refinery." To meet the Humble challenge, there was formed The planning commission's decision was an upset on the Monterey Peninsula the Committee on Clean victory for the refinery's opponents; the final deci- Air. Its president, Charles Kramer of Pebble Beach, sion, however, would be on the appeal to the board a retired business executive, met with the board of supervisors. As the controversy progressed, Hum- chairman of Humble Oil, who insisted that there ble inserted large advertisements in the newspapers, was no air inversion in Monterey County and no urging people to ask their county supervisor to sup- danger of smog. Finding talks with Humble Oil port the refinery. officials to be fruitless, Kramer's committee encour- To counteract Humble's campaign, Dr. Philip A. aged the formation of a multi-county air pollution Leighton of-Stanford University, one of the top air control district, and between March and July of pollution experts in the country, pointed out in a 1965, 13,000 residents signed a petition against the series of articles in The Monterey Peninsula Herald proposed refinery. Public opinion was mounting on how air pollution in other parts of California com- the Monterey Peninsula against the refinery and menced with reduction of air visibility, followed by other petrochemical industries that might follow. plant damage and then by eye irritation. In Monte- The Monterey Peninsula Herald and its owner, rey County he found that pollution was already at Col. Allan Griffin, were strongly against Humble. the plant damage threshold and he was particularly This effort was joined by the Sierra Club, Audubon concerned with the location of the proposed refinery Society, the growers, American Association of Uni- adjacent to the largest steam generating plant. in versity Women, League of Women Voters, and the nation. When the P.G.&E. plant's expansion Salinas doctors' wives. Equally strong public opinion was completed, it would produce 2.1 million kilo- and support for Humble's plant were developing watts, whose capacity would almost equal the 2.2 among business, labor, and Chamber of Commerce million kilowatts of all power plants in Los Angeles groups in Salinas, the county seat of Monterey County which, when burning both crude oil and County. natural gas, emitted an average of 150 tons of nitro- The nine member county planning commission's gen oxides daily. The availability of inexpensive first meeting on the use permit was held early in crude oil at the refinery for the steam plant also 1965 and then continued until May. The chief ques- concerned these experts who summarized their posi- tions it faced were: tion with these words: "The question of preserving -the pricelessheritage of clean air versus the broad- 1. Could a clean smog-proof refinery be built, and ened tax base and jobs provided by industrialization 2. Would there be an influx of associated petro- has been faced by many other communities and chemical industries once the refinery was approved? resolved in favor of industrialization. These com- munities are now paying the price in terms of smog."4 The county-supervisors before making their deci- While air pollution consultants urged that an air sion visited Anacortes, Wash., to witness first hand pollution control district be immediately formed to the operation of two refineries i th at area. enforce a strong clearn air ordinance, Humble's attor- -ney advised the planning commission that ani oil .ney advised the planning conmmission that arf oil A The Monterey Peninsula Herald, August 25, 1965, Air Pollution Expert refinery was "one of the most desirable industries tells of Refinery Peril, Dr. Philip A. Leighton. 598 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Finally, on September 3, 1965, D-Day arrived at since Humble's departure is a highly successful the county board of supervisors where the hearing mariculture plant whose activities are compatible was conducted under the able leadership of its chair- with the preservation of the wetland. Upland de- man, Tom Hudson, who, while personally against velopment and the possibility of new heavy indus- the project, was fair to all who spoke. After 13 hours tries continue to be a threat to Elkhorn Slough; of hearing and debates (the hardest fought in the however, Nature Conservancy has acquired some history of the county), the 3-2 decision was finally 500 acres within the salt marsh, and Moss Landing reached at 3 a.m. to overrule the planning commis- ranks among the 10 top priority wetlands for public sion and grant the permit for the refinery. acquisition in the report entitled, "Acquisition Pri- While a broadened tax base and new jobs won orities for the Coastal Wetland of California."5 out over clean air, the residents of the Montery Peninsula would not give up; they were fighting mad at the supervisors' decision and they immedi- SAN FRANCISCO BAY ately circulated a referendum petition to place the questions on the ballot, and within 21 days, 12,572 The saving of San Francisco Bay, the most im- signatures were gathered. The referendum petition portant natural harbor on the Pacific Coast, is an presented to the board of supervisors was rejected outstanding example of effective citizen education by the county counsel stating that the vote was an and adroit political action which resulted in legisla- administrative rather than a legislative act and thus tion creating a permanent effective regional agency not subject to a referendum. To add a further road- that preserves, protects, and provides for limited block, the county clerk would not proceed to verify but wise development of the bay in the public the signatures on the petitions until instructed to interest. do so by the county counsel. The matter went to When California was admitted to the Union in court and a judge had to be brought in to hear the 1850, the bay's water surface consisted of 680 square case after all Monterey County judges disqualified miles. 100 years later, 200 square miles of this water themselves. surface was lost by man's activities in diking, filling, On February 8, 1966, almost one year after reclaiming, and polluting the bay. In addition, 17 Humble had announced its original plans to build square miles of tidal and submerged land had been the refinery, the court sustained the county counsel's filled along the waterfronts of bay area cities. decision. Still undaunted, a new avenue of approach In 1850, 5,000 sea otter pelts were taken in San was started to prevent construction of the refinery. Francisco Bay. Today, no sea otters are found in The new tack was to obtain proxies and to carry the bay. While in 1900, the bay oyster harvest was the issue to the stockholders' meeting of Standard 10 to 15 million pounds, there is no oyster harvest Oil of New Jersey, parent company of Humble Oil. today. The once prominent San Francisco Bay Humble Oil and Standard Oil of New Jersey re- shrimp industry is practically non-existent and there ceived numerous letters with credit cards enclosed has been a loss of 1.8 million winter nesting water reminding the oil companies that the card holders fowl. The various cities around the bay, by 1950, did not want to patronize those who would inflict were slowly but surely looking to the San Francisco an oil refinery on Monterey Bay. Bay as a thing to fill for expanded residential, com- At last, sensing the severity of purpose, the unity mercial, and industrial development. and determination of Monterey County's clean air Particularly alarmed about this situation in 1959 proponents, Humble began to quietly look elsewhere. was Mrs. Clark Kerr whose husband was then On June 11, 1966 it announced receiving a favorable president of the University of California. She was rezoning permit to enable it to locate its refinery accustomed to meeting at the San Francisco Airport near Rodeo on Suisun Bay. On May 17, 1966, distinguished visitors whom she would drive across Humble Oil finally announced abandonment of its the bay to the University of California at Berkeley. proposed plant at Moss Landing on Elkhorn Slough Frequently, they commented about the beauty and in favor of a site at Benecia on Suisun Bay near marvel of the bay, and Mrs. Kerr, while appreciat- other established Northern California oil refineries. ing her visitors' remarks, was also aware not only Thus ended the historic battle to save clean air of the plans of her own city of Berkeley to fill 2,000 which started on February 15, 1965 and ended on acres of the bay, but the plans of other cities to May 17, 1966, and resulted in saving one of the expand into the bay. Mrs. Kerr, disturbed about great salt marshes from almost certain death. Hum- this damage to a great resource, called a meeting of ble's clean air problems followed it to Benecia. - Cooperative Report, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife--California The only new industry located on Elkhorn Slough Department of Fish and Game, April 1974. THE PUBLIC'S ROLE 599 university women, a retired Harvard economics pro- the legislature. Senator McAteer wisely chose to fessor, and a few conservationists concerned about make the agency's goal single purpose, confined the future of the bay. This was the start in 1959 of only to the bay itself, and he skirted the question the save the San Francisco Bay effort. of a moratorium on all filling in the bay by provid- The save-the-bay people's first success was dis- ing power to regulate filling through a permit system. suading the Berkeley City Council from filling in His 1965 legislation was carefully drafted so that it its wetlands. They then turned their eyes on the could not be hamstrung by opposing lobbyists. rest of the bay. At Mrs. Kerr's urging, the Univer- The save-the-bay group working very hard to sity of California's Institute of GovernmentalAffairs muster support in Sacramento was assisted by a studied and published, under the able leadership of popular San Francisco disc jockey who plugged Mell Scott, "The Future of the San Francisco Bay,"6 "Save the Bay" daily on his 6 to 9 a.m. show, even a comprehensive report showing how the bay's great calling the governor out of bed to give his comments resources were being destroyed. on the bay! Small sackfuls of sand arrived in legisla- How to stop the filling was a difficult regional tors' offices with the message, "You'll wonder where problem in that the bay's shoreline involved the the water went if you fill the bay with sediment." jurisdiction of nine counties and 32 cities, many Bus loads of people attended all of the committee having plans to extend their cities beyond their hearings and, after an extremely hard fought battle, waterfronts. Also included in plans for bay filling the bill known as the McAteer-Petris Act was were some of the most formidable financial giants passed and became law in June 1965, providing for of the west. One plan in San Mateo County alone developing a long range plan for the San Francisco called for an investment of $3 billion, which encom- Bay to be prepared by the new bay conservation passed bulldozing down of the San Bruno Moun- and development commission. Its members were tains near the San Francisco Airport to create more both elected and appointed, many of them being fiatland for bay development. representatives of governmental agencies-federal, There being no existing effective regional body state, county, and city. During the planning stage, to deal with the problem of bay fill, the save-the- anyone wishing to fill or remove materials from bay group looked to their legislators at the state the bay was required to obtain a permit from the capitol for aid. Failing to obtain legislative assistance commission. in 1963, they tried again in 1964, this time enlisting In January 1969 the plan, consisting of a set of the support of Senator Eugene McAteer of San policies for the future of the bay, was finished and Francisco, a shrewd, tough, and able legislator. submitted to the legislature. Once again, a major McAteer, knowing that he did not yet have suffi- battle ensued, but this time without the leadership cient support to control filling of the bay, was never- of Senator McAteer, who had died. The developers theless able to get enacted temporary legislation and owners of bay lands regarded the 1969 session creating a nine man study commission with a of the legislature the last and final chance to fore- $75,000 appropriation whose purpose was to "define stall regulations that would prevent them from the public interest in the San Francisco Bay-to carrying out their development plans for the bay. determine the effects of further filling upon naviga- Likewise, the backers of the bill were most cognizant tion, fish, wildlife, and water pollution," and to that its passage would be the final legislative step report and to recommend legislation in 1965 to pro- in providing the guidelines and governmental orga- tect the public interest in the bay. To the 1965 nization necessary to save the bay. Consequently, legislature the study commission recommended that both sides worked long and hard in the legislative a San Francisco Bay conservation and development halls of Sacramento. commission be established whose duty would be to After a fierce legislative struggle, followed by a formulate a comprehensive and enforceable plan to change of leadership in the state senate, people be- preserve the bay and protect it from piecemeal filling came aroused and a petition three miles long con- while the plan was being completed. taining over 250,000 signatures was presented to Coordinated planning for the future preserva- the governor demanding that the bay be saved. tion, growth, and development of the entire bay Finally, legislation was approved making the com- area was important in 1965 and there was a need mission a permanent body. The law, when signed to impose a moratorium on further filling of the by Governor Reagan established the San Francisco bay. Each of these issues would present formidable Bay Conservation and Development Commission and perhaps insurmountable political opposition in (BCDC) giving it regulatory powers over all filling Published by Universityi of California Institute of Gov e and dredging in the bay, limited jurisdiction over Studies, October 1963. substantial development within a 100-foot strip 600 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL inland from the bay, and limited jurisdiction over Proposition 20 did not provide a permanent solu- proposed filling of salt ponds and managed wetlands. tion to the coast's problems. What it did do was (The Bay Conservation and Development Com- establish temporary commissions to plan for the mission's activities, experience, and personnel laid future and to temporarily control development by the foundation for Proposition 20, the Coastal Zone requiring that Coastal Commissions: Conservation Act of 1972.) Of the gallant struggle started by the University 1. Prepare a plan for the future of the California woman in Berkeley in 1959, Russell Train, chairman coast to be submitted to the legislature before Janu- of the Council on Environmental Quality stated: ary 1, 1976. 2. Control all development within the state's Concerned citizens demonstrated a vigor of purpose and coastal waters and on land within 1,000 yards of a tenacity that outlasted setbacks, and persisted year after year and session after session until the legislature the coast to insure that unwise development does responded. It is as though, having come to the end of a not make the coastal plan useless before it can be long Westward journey of conquering the land, Cali- completed. fornia contemplated the bay and decided to let it live.T Proposition 20 created one state and six regional PROPOSITION 20 commissions which cease to function after Decem- ber 31, 1976 unless continued by the legislature. The November 1972 election in California marked The state commission's able chairman is Melvin B. the passage of Proposition 20, California's Coastline Lane, who served with distinction as chairman of Protection Initiative. For more than a century there BCDC. Lane brought with him from BCDC its have been increasing demands and competing pres- articulate and experienced executive director, Joseph sures for commercial, industrial, residential and Bodovitz, who serves as an executive director of the recreational uses of the natural resources along Cali- state commission. Also BCDC's former chief planner, fornia's 1,072-mile shoreline. Committees of the Jack Shoup, heads up the planning effort of the legislature as well as numerous coastal study com- state coastal commission. missions for 25 years had repeatedly pointed out Public input and citizen participation are most the inability of local government to respond to the noticeable in both the planning and permit proce- regional and statewide needs to protect California's dures of the coastal commissions. magnificent and divergent coastal resources. In developing each of the elements of the prelim- Conservation groups having been unable in 1970 inary plan extensive public hearings were held by and 1971 to obtain coastline protection in Sacra- each regional commission as well as by the state mento made a herculean effort in 1972 but could commission. not overcome the strength of major lobbying forces Nine elements of the coastal plan are: in Sacramento. Not to be outdone, California's Coastal Alliance, whose membership induced over Marine environment 100 civic, conservation, sports, business, and some Coastalland environment labor organizations, used California's direct initi- Geology of the coastal zone ative and obtained 500,000 signatures to qualify Appearance and design the Coastal Protection measure for the November Recreation - ballot. The Alliance under the able leadership of its Energy president, Janet Adams of San Mateo, was able to get the initiative passed by a 55 percent statewide Transportation Intensity of Development vote. The people of California through Proposition Government organization, powers and funding necessary to carry out the coastal plan. The permanent protection of the remaining natural and scenic resources of the coastal zone is a paramount con- Of particular interest to protectors of estuaries is cern to present and future residents of the state and that section of the plan dealing with coastal waters, nation; and, estuaries, and wetlands under the marine element: It is the policy of the state to preserve, protect, and "All remaining coastal estuaries, wetlands and other where possible, to restore the resources of the coastal buffer areas necessary to protect wetlands and their goenefrtohe enjoyment of the current and succeeding wildlife and bird habitat values shall be preserved, enhanced, and, when possible, restored."9 7 The Saving of the San Francisco Bay, by Rice Odell, published by Conservation Foundation--Foreword by Russell Train, p. VIII. 9 Preliminary Coastal Plan, p. 39 (Hearing California Coastal Zone B Section 27001 California Public Resources Code Conservation Commissions). , THE PUBLIC'S ROL:E 601 To carry out this objective, the plan proposes that ticipated fully in the growing pains of the coastal before any alteration of wetlands is' permitted an commission will unite to give California the kind of overall plan of the wetland must be prepared and legislation needed. Failure to enact meaningful approved by the state commission. New develop- coastal legislation will result in a return to the ments in wetlands would be only permitted after wasteful, piecemeal, sprawling development that there is demonstrated a statewide need and no has overrun many parts of the California coast, feasible alternative. The plan also calls for control congesting coastal streets, walling off coastal vistas, of development in upland areas adjacent to estuaries filling bays and estuaries, and denying public access so as to prevent adverse impact on estuarine values. to the coastline. The preliminary coastal plan has been widely The decision of the California legislature will be distributed throughout the state. In the history of anxiously awaited by users of coastal resources California, no other plan proposed to be submitted throughout our nation. to the legislature for consideration and approval has had as much public input and review as the preliminary coastal plan. Public hearings conducted WETLANDS AND THE COURTS throughout the state encourage citizen participation and input. Many of the meetings have been held at The judiciary in California, as elsewhere in the night to enable working people to participate. Indi- nation, has played a most significant role in inter- viduals and organizations have provided a vast preting and enforcing environmental legislation. amount of letters, statements, and position papers Citizen groups have contributed much in bringing regarding the plan. As a result of such public input, the issues to the attention of the courts and in the preliminary plan will be revised and improved helping to finance environmental litigation. before presentation to the legislature. The tidelands and wetlands of California have Hearings on permit applications for developments for years been subject to considerable litigation. have also provided much opportunity for individ- Title to the tidelands was acquired by the state uals and organizations to participate and present upon its admission to the Union in 1850. By legisla- their views to the regional commissions and to the tive enactment in 1868 and subsequent amendments state commission on the appeals, and at each meet- the state's tidelands were impressed with a public ing of the state as well as the regional commissions trust for navigation, commerce, and fisheries. Tide- 15 minutes time is set aside to permit any citizen lands emnbraced in the California statutes have been or organization to address the coastal commission interpreted by the courts to: ". . . extend from the on any matter other than specific matters that may Oregon line to Mexico and include the shores of be pending before that commission. bays and navigable streams as far up as tide water The public input at the preliminary coastal plan goes and until it meets the lands made swampy by hearings proved to be enlightening for the individ- the overflow of freshwater streams."'0 uals and groups who appeared as well as for the 'Among the significant opinions concerning tide- commissioners listening to the public comment. lands in which citizen groups played a vital role Commissioners were berated as being "socialists," was the case of Marks v. Whitney" decided by the "communists," and "dictators", as well as saviors California Supreme Court in 1971. This was an of the coasts, estuaries, plankton, coastal bluffs, and action to quiet title by the plaintiff Marks who the ocean. The public learned that the coastal plan owned lands on Tomales Bay, lying between the was a sincere and reasonable effort to save the coast mean low and mean high tide, a portion of which and not, as some critics commented, "a land grab were in front of defendant Whitney's property by a starry-eyed group of self-perpetuating bureau- facing the bay. Marks sought a declaration from crats." The commissions learned that the plan as the court that he had a right to fill and develop presented was perhaps too bulky, was not fully the tidelands. understood by many citizens, and was not likely The lower court held that defendant Whitney did in its preliminary form to be understood or appreci- not have standing to raise the issue that such tide- ated by the legislature. lands were subject to the public trust. The court The revised plan was to be presented to the legis- found that Whitney had an easement to use a wharf lature before January 1, 1976. With more than 80 across the tidelands property of Marks' subject to percent of California's population living within a Marks' right to fill and develop the tidelands. 30-minute drive, the coast needs legal protection. ' Actively participating in the appeal of the trial Hopefully, an intelligent support group of informed ' ' .0 People v. California Fish Co. 166 Cal. 576 at p. 591 citizens of California, having lived through and par- 1 6 C3d. 251 602 ESTUARINE POLLUJTION CONTROL court's decision was the Sierra Club on behalf of lease, or other entitlement for use if such activities its 60,000 members, who asked the court to declare may have a significant effect on the environment. the tidelands of Marks' to be subject to the public Proposed developments in wetlands having a signifi- trust and to find that Whitney had standing to cant effect on the environment are governed by raise the issue. The Sierra Club also asked the court CEQA. Developments on the San Francisco Bay, to determine the extent and scope of public ease- however, are subject to BCDC (The San Francisco ments in navigable waters over tidelands. Bay Conservation and Development Commission) The appellate court took judicial notice that and the Coastal Zone Conservation Act'6 governs Whitney's lands lying between the lines of mean developments lying within 3,000 feet inland from high and low tide were tidelands and were, there- the mean high tide. fore, impressed with the public trust. This court In Lane v. City of Redondo Beach"7 aggrieved pointed out that the public trust in tidelands for citizens established that a court may grant declara- navigation, commerce and fisheries has been held tory relief to protect the public's right of access to to include the right to fish, bathe, hunt, swim, and tidelands and navigable waters. use for boating and general recreational purposes. Of The city of Redondo Beach had passed an ordi- particular interest to protectors of wetland is this nance permitting the closing off of certain city language: streets. The redevelopment agency under its re- development plan had sold off the land on which There is a growing public recognition that one of the the streets were located and structures on the land most important public uses of the tidelands-a use had been completed. The plaintiffs contended that encompassed within the tideland trust-is the preserva- tion of those lands in their natural state, so they may serve as ecological units for scientific study, as open space lower income citizens, children, and senior citizens and as environments which provide food and habitat in violation of their right under the California con- for birds and marine life, and which favorably affect the scenery and climate of the area.'2 stitutioni8 and the government code"9 guaranteeing free and unobstructed access to navigable waters from public streets and highways of a city. It also found that Whitney did have standing to frohepucic sueets andthighityt The city countered that it had the right to pass sue in that the relief sought by Marks in filling and the ordinance closing the streets and unless there developing the tidelands would take away Whitney's was abuse of discretion, fraud, or an ultra vires act rights, to which he was entitled as a member of the th e plaintiffs could not attack the city's action. the plaintiffs could not attack the city's action. general public. Not so, said the appellate court, adding that a A bombshell in environmental law in California municipality may close off a public street but it is the now famous Friends of Mamouth v. Board muncipalty may close off public street but i does not have the right to close off public access to of Supervisors"3 involving the construction of a ski tidelands or navigable waters lodge in Mono County. The statewide impact of the California Supreme Court's decision is of major The basic purpose of entrusting tidelands to municipali- concern to wetland protectors as well as to all ties in trust, is to insure the right of free public access environmentalists. to tidelands or navigable waters. (Calif. Const. Art. XV, Here the developer had obtained a conditional Sec. 2 & 3) The object of the trust is destroyed if a municipality... can deprive the public of its right of use permit for the construction of two multi-storied access to tidelands or navigable waters.20 condominiums without there having been issued an environmental impact report under California's 1970 Three young men from San Francisco's Lowell Environmental Quality Act (CEQA).114 The Friends High School, disturbed about a development over- of Mamouth, a citizen action group, contended that CEQA applied to private as well as public proj- lookg Lake Merced south of Golden Gate Park CEA applied to private as well as public prot- decided to try and stop the project which they felt ects. The National Environmental Protection Act E 1uponwhih the Ca At ws would cause damage to the lake. Without finances (NEPA)"5 upon which the California Act was modeled applies to public, not private projects. or experience they nevertheless won a $100,000 The California Supreme Court held that state and settlement which was put ito a trust fund for coastal environmental protection. local governmental agencies must file an environ- In 1971, for an Eagle Scout proect 7-year-old mental impact report for all projects both public boy, Allan Riley, produced a and report on boy, Allan Riley, produced a filmz and report on and private which require a governmental permit, 1' Sec. 2700-27650-California Public Resources Code 12 Marks v. Whitney, 6 Cal. 3d 251 at p. 259 17 Court of Appeal, Second Appellate District 2nd Civ. No. 45249. 13 8 Cal. 3d 247 Is California Constitution, Article XV, Section 2. 4 Seec. 2100-21165-California Public Resources Code 19 California Government Code, Sec. 39933. " 42 USC 4321 20 Lane v. City of Redondo Beach, ibid. THE PUBLIC'S ROLE 603 Lake Merced. He wanted to .clean up and preserve quate sewage disposal, damage to bird habitat in the lake and was concerned about a large condo- the lake, traffic density, and earthquake hazard. minium development under construction on the The state commission, by a vote of 11-1, denied lake's edge. While Allan was checking various agen- their appeal in 1973, but the youths would not give cies and being brushed off as some kind of "an up. They interested a San Francisco attorney, ecology nut," Proposition 20, California's Coastal Margaret Halloran, in their cause. Struck by their Protection Act, became law. He found that the enthusiasm, she represented them in suing both the Act provided that if a body of water, not subject to developer and the coastal commission, challenging tidal action lies within 3,000 feet inland from the the commission's procedures in granting the permit. coastline, (i.e., within the coastal zone permit area), San Francisco Superior Court Judge Ira Brown the body of water together with a strip 1,000 feet issued an injunction stopping the project on Octo- around it shall also be included. He contended that ber 1, 1973, and then took the matter under sub- a coastal commission permit was required for such mission for 8 months. On June 5, 1974, he informed development and one had not been obtained, so he the parties that he was intending to invalidate the went to court and won a preliminary injunction permit and order the case back to the commission. forcing the developer to seek a permit. For one and The delay was costing the developers vast sums of a half years Allan carried on the fight alone until money in interest rates alone, so the developer he went off to college; then he enlisted two of his settled in cash for $100,000 with no strings attached. former Lowell High School friends, Jonathan Holt The youths could have kept the money but they and George Duesdieker, to carry on. These young preferred to see it go into a trust fund to help en- men worked very hard, and for a month never went vironmental causes. Attorney Halloran stated that, to bed before 3 a.m. in their diligent efforts to without the tremendous research and the fact- gather all essential facts in preparation for the hear- gathering by the youths, the case would not have ing before the regional coastal commission. been won. These Lowell High School students proved Disappointed that the regional commission granted how effective youth can be in pursuing their legal the permit to the developer, they nevertheless pur- remedies to a conclusion. They paved the way for sued the matter, taking an appeal to the state others by setting aside their winnings in an environ- coastal commission, basing their appeal on inade- mental trust fund. LEGAL ASPECTS LAND USE CONTROLS AND WATER QUALITY IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE MARC J. HERSHMAN U n iversity of Washington Seattle, Washington ABSTRACT A complex institutional problem has arisen in the management of estuarine resources due to overlapping and contradictory regulatory programs at the federal, state, and local levels. A contributing factor to this problem is the split between regional and community-focused resource management involving state and local land use planning, and specific resource management programs involving federal controls over air and water, and federal review of major construction projects affecting the environment. Noting that state and local government initiatives in control of lands adjacent to estuaries are increasing, and that the federal Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 was designed to bridge the fields of regional and community-focused management and federal resource management both technically and institutionally, the paper concludes that state-level coastal zone management efforts should be upgraded. Further, coordination requirements included in many federal laws should be given more study and financial support to make them effective. INTRODUCTION considered separately from community-focused re- source planning and management. Most water quality issues have a land use com- ponent to them. Site selection for an industrial plant, There are three types of land-water interaction in modification of the land-water interface (the angle the estuarine zone, each of which has different sets and shape of the land being "washed" by the water), of institutions for resolving disputes. The first relates and the land use activities affecting water runoff and to water drainage, water capture, or rights to water drainage all affect the quality of the receiving water. use. Private law has developed to accommodate The impact of land use on water quality is reviewed rights of adjoining neighbors in the exercise of these by an array of institutions developed in the United water-related interests. Further, local planning and States over many years. This paper argues that our districting laws frequently aid in accommodating key problem in dealing with estuarine resources is an problems between landowners seeking to use the institutional rather than a technical one. The technical same resource. These water use problems are nor- issues of environmental impact assessment, judicial mally controlled by adjudicating private rights in clarity of private property rights, and others are court, and by actions of local planning and zoning important, but the primary question is: Who's in agencies or special districts. charge? This institutional problem arises from num- A second area of land-water interaction is called erous conflicting federal and state laws, a federalism "foreshore," bank, or tidelands where there is a system where power is split between states and the mixture of state and private ownership. Occasionally, federal government, and the current changing role of rights are totally in one party or another. Sometimes state and local governments in resource management a "public trust" is established and private rights activities. may only be exercised subject to an overriding For the estuarine zone, the institutional problem public interest. Of late, the foreshore area is managed arises because of two different factors: primarily at the state level with federal review where navigable waters are involved. 1) Legally apportioned responsibilities among A third area where land and water interact in the levels of government are based on geographic land- estuarine zone involves waters and waterbottoms in water interactions; and streams, lakes, bays, and other coastal waters where 2) Specific resource management (air and water state ownership of waterbottoms and natural re- quality, physical facility development) tends to be sources coexists with the federal navigational servi- 607 608 ESTUA2INE POLLUTION CONTROL tude. Thus, state law normally controls the resources (EPA-water quality; U.S. Fish and Wildlife. Ser- of the area (fish, minerals, and water consumption) vice-fish-habitat improvement; Corps of Engi- but the federal servitude requires review of most neers-navigation improvement) and community- actions to determine impact upon federal navigation focused planning considerations such as the need for and environmental interests. higher employment, protection of a scenic stream, It is seen that each area of land-water interac- or housing demands. Local governments responsible tion-water use by the landowner, the foreshore, for community planning have hundreds of federal and waterbottoms-has its own primary mixture of regulations and inducement programs to deal with, institutions regulating and managing the resources. many of which are competing or contradictory. The Estuaries, and their associated wetlands and uplands, difficult struggle in the area of land use controls is to can, and usually do, involve all three areas thus mag- determine when a consideration of community- nifying the institutional problem. focused needs should, or could, override specific Critical institutional problems arise because air resource quality standards. Or, to put the case the and water quality issues and physical facility de- other way, when should a federal standard, for ex- velopment proposals are managed separately from ample, the requirement that structures be elevated community-focused resource planning issues. Federal above predicted flood stages within a flood plain, jurisdiction is primarily concerned with the former control the flexibility of local government to re- method of management whereas state and local spond to a local community need? The laws, governments are primarily concerned with the latter. institutions, and administration of specific federal The term "community-focused resource planning" resource management programs and local commu- refers to a number of factors for which it is difficult nity-focused resource planning programs reflect this to find one all-inclusive term. It applies, funda- struggle daily. mentally, to human needs in an urban or urban- / This paper analyzes this struggle in the context fringe context, where the needs are reflected in types bf coastal and estuarine land use problems. For of land use planning and controls. It refers to pro- practical and constitutional reasons, a major over- cedures to meet housing needs for a diverse popula- haul of the current system of managing land-water tion and to meet police, fire, and health standards. interaction problems is not recommended. However, It can reflect community attitudes about growth, it is suggested that there are three ways in which the limits to growth, and quality of construction or structure can be improved. First, it is recognized aesthetic principles. It can reflect concepts of "key that the state level of government could play a area" or "areas of critical environmental concern." and perhaps act as a mediator where It can consider employment, education, economic It can cosider employment, eduAtion, econlocal community needs and federal resource programs and other social needs as a function of land use con- siderations. differ. Second, it is recognized that coordination Community-focused resource planning stands between different agencies having specific manage- apart from specific resource management such as air ment functions needs to be upgraded. Third, there and water quality controls, water resource develop- is a need to compile descriptions of experience ment, fish and wildlife impact evaluations, and spe- throughout the world in certain technical matters cific transportation/facility project developments. which can aid in decisionmaking where land-water Specific resource management programs strive for interaction problems are involved. technical precision through alleged objective criteria To show why these particular institutional prob- based on applied research, pilot projects, models, lems need attention and to describe ways in which and so forth. They are normally implemented and so forth. They are normally implemented the problems currently arise, four types of manage- through federal laws and regulations with decisions ment processes used in the estuarine zone are dis- made by technically trained federal, state, or local officals. On the other hand, community-focused re- cussed, with emphasis on developments over the source planning is controlled almost exclusively by last five years. First, the paper discusses federal the political process. Implementation of precise tech- controls over activities affecting wetlands. Second, nical standards will almost always yield to a hard- major project review at the federal level is discussed. ship case, strong public (or political) sentiments Third, recent developments and initiatives at the forcing a decision one way or the other, or an local and state level are outlined. Finally, the Coastal emergency situation. Zone Management Act of '1972, potentially'an im- Control of land uses which affect estuarine water portant tool in the future, is discussed. The recom- quality is caught in a crossfire between the specific mendations stated briefly above are discussed in resource management functions of federal agencies more detail in the conclusion. LEGAL ASPECTS' 609 -* FEDERAL CONTROLS OVER ' compromises; or the imposition of mitigative features -ACTIVITIES AFFECTING WETLANDS as permit conditions and other arrangements be- M'lost marshes and estuarine areas are near or tween the applicant and the Corps of Engineers. Tie associated with bodies of water that are considered past decade has seen significant growth in the fish and wildlife review procedure. In August 1974, the navigable. Tidal waters are considered navigable as U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a set of .are streams capable of conveying any kind of com- merce. Where there are navigable waters the United guidelines'0l° developed in the past 10 years to assist field personnel review applications for Corps permits. the commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution.' In In recent years other events have occurred requir- recognition of this authority to regulate commerce ing that interests beyond navigation be considered recognition ted significnt this authority to execu- by the Corps of Engineers prior to approval of a permit. In 1970, Zabel v. Tabb," decided by the U.S. tive agencies to deal with specific resource manage- Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, hel d that the Corps ment activities, For example, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers regulates activities affecting navigable of Engineers may deny a permit for activities in -waters and navigation.' The Environmental Pro- -navigable waters on ecological grounds alone. It tection Agency looks at water quality' and air recognized that the Corps must consider the con- gressional intent in the Fish and Wildlife Coordina- quality,4 among other things. The U.S. Fish and gressional intent in the Fish and Wildlife Coordina- Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries tion Act and the National Environmental Policy Service are concerned with fish and wildlife resources' Act in its decisionmaking process. of the nation. Each of these agencies, given certain In 12, three acts were passed, all of which will affect aspects of Corps procedures: the Ocean Dump- specific authorities and responsibilities by Congress, affect aspects of Corps procedures: the Ocea ing Act,)2 the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,"3 analyzes the effect proposed activities may have and the Coastal Zone Managemen t Ac t.4 The Ocean upon these resources by balancing the need for the Dumping Act requires the Corps of Engineers to particular activity with the impact on the resource. In the last five years Congress, the courts, and apply Environmental Protection Agency standards administrators have attempted valiantly to upgrade and critera i approving ocean sposal of dredge the federal review procedure and make it a workable spoil materials where the transport for dumping -passes through one. Many of the laws and procedures are still new passes through U.S. ter l aters.l Similarly, under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of and many details of this review process have not been fully worked out. 1972, the Corps must apply EPA criteria: in allowing With respect to most activities affecting wetlands disposal of dredge spoils in navigable waters's primary jurisdiction is in the Army Corps of Engi- Under the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, neers under the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899.6 Congress has given states the primary responsibility When bridges or causeways are involved, the Coast for determining land and water uses affecting the coastal zone." (The potential effect of this new law Guard has primary jurisdiction.' Any local govern- coastal zone. (The potential effect ment or private entity wishing to perform work is discussed in more detaillater.) The precise impact (water diversions, piers, bulkheads and jetties, drain- of these three new laws passed in 1972 is still beihg age, dredging, and others) must apply to the Corps of debated by the Corps of Engineers and other Engineers for a permit before that work may begin. agencies. Originally, the Corps evaluated projects from the In response to these many changes, the Corps of standpoint of navigational interests alone. In the Engieers began modifying its procedures, first, by last 20 years, however, changes have occurred in expanding the definition of the word "navigable wa- this procedure which have substantially expanded ters" to align with the case law developed by U.S. it. These will be briefly described. courts in defining the term. By regulation,s all waters The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act' was up to the mean high tide line, including wetlands originally passed in 1934 and has been amended wholly or partially covered at high tide are included, numerous times since then. It requires that the di- whether privately or publicly owned. Further, waters rector of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, which are "navigable-in-fact," and capable of sup- the National M arine Fisheries Service,' and the porting commerce or which in the past, or potentially chief official of the state,resource agency concerned in the future can become "navigable-in-fact" are with fish and wildlife resources provide comment to included. Most recently the Corps of Engineers the Corps of Engineers on the effect of the proposed issued new guidelines expanding its scope of review project on fish and wildlife resources. These com- over activities affecting navigable waters'" which ments are attached to the report of'the district engi- provide a higher standard of review, when wetlands neer and frequently form the basis for denials, or marshes are involved.s0 610 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Currently, wetlands control at the federal level The second matter needing attention in the next involves the Corps of Engineers (or Coast Guard) few years is the role of the Environmental Protec- as the primary agency with comments, or input corn- tion Agency. In addition to reviewing dredge spoil ing from many other interests. At the federal level disposal practices discussed above, EPA reviews all input is received from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife dredging permits to determine impact on water Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service, the quality.22 This agency also influences land use de- Environmental Protection Agency, and, where the cisions greatly through required planning programs.23 nature of the application requires, other agencies of These powers have yet to be implemented for the the federal government having an interest. Further, most part. For example, the New Orleans District of the Corps receives input from state and local agencies the Corps of Engineers does not get direct input having an interest in the project application, the from EPA, but EPA provides information to the number of agencies varying with the state. Beyond Fish and Wildlife Service which combines the in- the review exercised by government agencies, the formation with its review. At the Washington level, Corps becomes the focal point for pressure from the there is debate over how extensive EPA and Corps applicant to have his project approved, and pressure control over dredge spoil disposal should be. Despite from public interest, environmental, or other groups these uncertainties, EPA's recent statements regard- who oppose the change in the wetlands environment. ing protection of the nation's wetlands24 and land If a proposed project is large and potentially use implications of EPA programs25 indicate that damaging to the environment in a "significant" way, this agency's review of wetlands decisions will in- or if there is a great deal of public controversy crease in the future. surrounding a proposed project, the Corps may de- A third aspect of the federal wetlands control cide that an environmental impact statement must program which may change dramatically in the be prepared under the National Environmental next few years is the role of state and local govern- Policy Act of 1969.21 The decision to prepare such a ments. Though some states make very specific rec- statement is discretionary with the federal agency ommendations to the Corps of Engineers on these depending on its interpretation of whether a permit matters, other states have not yet developed specific allowing construction is a "major Federal action programs. Most states are upgrading current efforts. significantly affecting the quality of the human or developing new ones to more effectively manage environment." If an environmental impact state- wetland resources. Some assistance may come as the ment is prepared the same agencies review the draft Coastal Zone Management Act (to be discussed statement, or provide input to the Corps as in the later) is implemented. A key question is whether case of general permits for activities in navigable wa- state authority will increase and replace aspects of ters. The agency and public comments tend to relate federal government review, thus shifting the focus of to the adequacy of the environmental impact state- attention from federal agencies to state agencies. It ment as well as the substantive environmental is possible that states will be given greater considera- issues. Further, the procedures followed are more tion and perhaps be the determinative voice in the specific, resulting, usually, in a more detailed and federal review process. Further, they may be able to thorough review. (Review of major public works better address regional and community-focused projects is discussed in the next section.) considerations. Three key matters involving the Corps review process just described will have to be addressed in the coming few years. First, the review process may be MAJOR FEDERAL too narrow to allow for sound decisions. It is project PROJECT REVIEW oriented-the responses relate to a specific action at a particular time. Also, the review is single-resource Operating parallel to the review of individual oriented, i.e., the focus of attention is the single permit applications for activities affecting navigable purpose the project is to serve or the effect the waters is the planning and implementation of major project has upon a single resource such as a wildlife public works projects, normally dealing with utility habitat affecting one species. Often, impacts on the or transportation development, which affect coastal ecosystem as a whole are not evaluated. Further, the zone and estuarine resources. Most of these involve procedure seems deficient in that regional considera- significant modification of the land-water interface tions and community-focused resource planning with resulting changes in water movement and cir- dimensions of review are missing. Receiving input on culation and with notable effects on geology, water a specific project proposal from varieties of agencies chemistry, and biology. Projects in this category in- may not provide the overview necessary for sound elude river channel improvement; new roads and management and decisionmaking. highways crossing estuarine areas; large fill projects LEGAL ASPECTS 611 for airports or port improvements; dams and res- view and analysis on environmental grounds and ervoirs for irrigation and flood protection; major meet requirements under law to proceed with the shore protection works to offset erosion, accretion, project. -and sedimentation; stream channelization for drain- Second, the procedure of major federal project age; and other kinds of activities. review is fundamentally a free-for-all. There is no The Corps of Engineers and other major federal executive guidance to agencies. Major federal agen- agencies are normally responsible for these kinds of cies which oppose one another on specific projects- activities. They do not apply for a permit as dis- e.g., the Corps of Engineers which is sponsoring a cussed in the previous section. For the most part major dredging project and the U.S. Fish and Wild- Congress determines the rules to be used in deciding life Service which opposes it-have no arbiter to when, where, and how a major public works project which to take their claim. The issue frequently using federal funds is to be developed. For example, becomes political or ehds up in litigation. Occasion- the Department of Transportation administers the ally through negotiation, interagency agreements on Federal-Aid Highway Act26 which contains numer- projects are arranged but this is often an exercise in ous requirements for consideration of environmental finding a middleground the agencies can live with values in planning and constructing highways. which may or may not represent the best public Similarly, the Federal Aviation Administration in interests. airport site selection, the Federal Power Commission Third, and perhaps the fundamental problem with in power plant site decisions, and other such agency the procedure for reviewing major federal projects determinations follow congressional guidelines and is its "project, orientation." The federal agency procedures. (In the case of the Corps of Engineers, sponsoring the project must comply with a law Soil Conservation Service, and others, where Con- designed to promote the project. Congress has passed gress has not established specific guidelines in an numerous flood control acts, highway development organic law, the U.S. Water Resources Council has acts, navigation improvement bills, and many others. promulgated "Principles and Standards for Planning The agencies implementing the laws are engineering- Water and Related Land Resources"27 to help oriented agencies with specialized functions. Hence, establish if a proposed project is in the public inter- authority for resource development projects is spread est.) How are federal decisions on major public among special-function agencies. This impedes de- works projects reviewed for impact on wetlands and velopment of a broader approach to determining estuarine water quality? proj ect need and the consideration of values beyond The key review of major federal projects is done those immediately associated with the project. pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act What may be missing is a more meaningful role for (NEPA) 28 Under that act, all federal projects which state and local government in looking at regional significantly affect the quality of the human environ- considerations and community-focused needs. ment must be preceded by an environmental assess- ment and the preparation of an environmental impact statement. Hundreds of law suits have been LOCAL AND STATE INITIATIVES filed by environmental protection organizations in IN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT recent years using NEPA and the impact. statement requirements as their basis.29 The Council on En- Theoretically, considerations of community-fo- vironmental Quality which administers the impact cused needs and regional concerns are provided by statement procedure, has codified much of the case local 'and state agencies through. planning and land law under this process in their recent guidelines.30 use control laws (zoning, subdivision control, emin- Further, federal regulations coming from numerous ent domain) .2 Planning and zoning controls arose to construction agencies over the past year have serve the need of making land uses in an urban stressed procedures within that agency for making environment compatible. Today, planning and zon- NEPA reviews.31 ing concepts are being applied to new areas of con- NEPA review can be criticized from three stand- cern arising primarily outside of urban areas. points. First, the federal agency promoti'g and In the last five years these controls have been developing the project is' responsible for preparing signifidantly expanded to cover coastal zone, wet- the impact statement. They are responsible for lands, and estuarine areas. The following are repre- conducting an impartial reevaluation of the merits sentative examples. Wisconsin passed a Shorelands of the project long after the inital decision to pro- Zoning Act34 creating standards for local govern- ceed with the project has been made. Hence, federal mental units to control disturbance of wetlands and agencies are frequently in the awkward position of shorelines. Delaware recently took action to protect trying to respond to the pressures for project re- its beach dunes35 along the Atlantic Ocean. The 612 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL State of Washington has passed a Shorelands Manage- resource or project development under federal stand- ment Act36 which controls all development activities ards and criteria. The perspectives of the respective ' from the line of vegetation to 200 feet inland along agencies are quite different. From a legal and in- the shores bf the ocean, bays, and lakes of the state. stitutional standpoint, clarification is needed to:; California has passed recently the California Coastal distinguish between regional or community-focused' Zone Conservation Act37 which, in a zone extending decisions made at the state and local level and the from the 3-mile territorial limit to 1,000 meters resource and project management decisions exer- inland requires permits for all development activi- cised at the federal level. It is uncertain whether the ties. The State of Florida passed the Environmental courts must choose between the two or allow the' Land and Water Management Act38 in 1972 which two decision processes to exist side-by-side.45 Con- delineates areas of critical state concern and develop- gress may, as a matter of policy, begin to restrict ments of regional impact for application of state and and reduce federal management roles in an effort -to regional policies. Maine has passed a Site Location upgrade the role of state and local government. With Law39 controlling major facility development. Ha- strengthened state and local programs emerging and waii40 and Vermont4' have established' commissions demanding an effective voice in decisionmaking, a which review all major land use activities in these shift in power may evolve over a period of years. states. This would constitute a reversal of a trend started In most of the examples there is a mixture of con- in the early part of this century whereby Congress trol activity between state and substate units of used its powers under the interstate commerce clause government. Traditionally, state law provides gen- to exercise many resource management functions at eral guidance and limits of authority while imple- the federal level.' mentation is at a lower level of government. The courts have upheld these laws as valid exercises of FEDERAL COASTAL ZONE governmental power42 but occasionally courts re- MANAGEMENT ACT strict the exercise of that power to protect the property rights of the individual affected.43 Thus, states and local governments are experimenting ith If the state and local initiatives described are to new laws and ordinances in controlling key areas and succeed as the mode for regional and community resources normally found outside of the urban en- focused management they must be legally and vironent. This trend w ill probably continu en. technically prepared for the job. One law specifically State and local initiatives to plan and manage designed to encourage and upgrade state and local coastal regions, critical areas, or resources in a key initiative in this area is the Coastal Zone Manage- area, must deal with specific resource or project ment Act of 1972,46 a quietly passed almost un management under federal laws whenever navigable noticed, bill. The 30 coastal and Great Lakes states waters or federally assisted programs are involved. (territories and possessions as well) can apply for For example, in California's coastal area, many assistance i the development and implementation activities mianaged by the California Coastal Zone of coastal management programs. The key purposes of the law are -to balance environmental protection Conservation Commission are also reviewed by fed- of the law are to balane environmental protection eral agencies having resource or project functions and economc evelopment obectives in the land within that region. Potentially, state and local and water use decisions in the coastal zone, and to management of regional or ommunity-f upgrade the state's decisionmaking process. States management of egina orcomudo not have to participate under the Coastal Zone resources can conflict with resource and project management exercised by federal agencies. This has occurred in California where 'Interior Department's Initially, states receive planning funds to develop a "coastal management program": which consists of plans for Outer Continental Shelf oil development an Clfonisplans for cOutr Continental Shelf oil dethree key elements. The first is to establish the and California's plans for coastal Zone management are bound to conflict.44 This becomes a struggle boundaries of the coastal zone. This is a difficult between the state's exrcise of its police power and task because the coastal zone is defined as the area irn the federal governments powers to reglate co which shoreland uses have a direct and significant thmercederamongovtherstates poexs to regulate om- impact on coastal waters. Hence, to establish the merce amog th s . . boundaries of the coastal zone is-to establish the This state-federal struggle gives rise to techrical, uses to be managed. The second element is to develop legal and institutional problems. At the technical analytical tools for deciding between alternative uses level, frequently incompatible results airise from an of land or water in the coastal zone. This consists of5 evaluation of the goals and needs of a particular area developing resource inventories and environmental (done by the state or local unit) and the analysis of assessment techniques, identifying areas of particular LEGAL AS'ECTS 613 concern, and determining priority uses for particular next five or 10 years to meet this institutional prob-' areas in the coastal zone. The third, and perhaps the lem. most important element, is to improve the decision- There are three primary ways to upgrade the making processes within the states in two ways: current system to meet aspects of the institutional raising the level of government at which decisions problem: greater support for state coastal manage- are made and requiring full cooperation between ment efforts; required coordination'between federal levels of government' and, outlining the decision- programs and between federal and state agencies making process between various decisionmakers making similar reviews; and further research and and,determining criteria and standards they are to information on technical matters relating to land use. use controls. Once states have developed a coastal managements State coastal managemeint initiatives should be given program they apply to have it approved by the ad- greater support as they are potentially the most ministering office (NOAA in the U.S. Department important component in the review system. It was of Commerce). Once approved, the federal consist- developed earlier that at the federal level the U.S. ency provisions of §307 of the Coastal Zone Manage-' Corps of 'Engineers, with input from numerous other ment Act come into effect. Under these provisions, federal agencies, is the key agency deciding uses of all federal projects, federal funding, assistance, and wetlands and estuaries, and that under NEPA, permit activities, must be consistent with the state's federal agencies involved in major' projects must coastal management program subject'to certain prepare' environmental impact statements. At the qualifications'47 The §307 federal consistency provi- other end of the scale, private interests and local gov- sions may ultimately be the handle on which state ernments either promote and actively seek, or oppose and local management programs, exercised under proposed projects and changes in their areas. Hence, the state's police power, can operate at -a par with, much of the dialogue on reconciling resource manage- or perhaps have key influence over, federal resource ment and project proposals with community-focused and project management programs in a particular resource needs is between local and federal interests. state's coastal zone. Missing in this dialogue, and potentially most useful The coastal management program is very new and in- resolving problems and seeing a broader per- many questions remain unanswered. Most states spective, is the state level of government. ' received initial planning grants in June 1974, and the It has been described how states have begun to next few years should see considerable planning take initiatives in the last few years to develop activity. However, the Act is not adequately funded programs where key areas, or regions, are managed at and even with states upgrading programs rather than state level or by local governments subject to state starting new ones, progress may come slowly. CZM standards 'and review. Since'the coastal management must gain acceptance within a state as well. Pro- program is specifically designed to upgrade the grams in local planning and zoning, fisheries manage- state's role in the management effort, it should be ment, mineral production, and water development given greater attention. A number of reasons support must be used in the program and coordination be- this view. 1)' Most federal officials and resource tween CZM and these traditional resource manage- users feel that land and water use decisions should be ment programs must be complete. made at the lowest level of government possible. They argue that local units tend to 'be controlled by political interests and thus argue that the state CONCLUSION level should be involved as well. Congress specifically expressed this in the Coastar Zone' Management Act Previous sections of this paper have reviewed four by asserting that states in cooperation with local goverfnents should be the focal point for coastal major fields of regulation and control over land uses goverments should be the focal point for coastal which affect estuarine water quality: federal controls management active Also, the current treid in federal administrative matters seems to be in the over activities affecting wetlands and navigable directionbfprovidia more sthonmtyoand bsponsi- waters, major federal project review, local and 'state direction of proding more authority and oni- initiatives in planning' and management, and the blty at the state and lcal evel. ifederal Coastal Zone Management Act. As men- 2) Although the land use bill in Congress failed, federal Coastal Zone Management Act. As men- tioned in the introduction, this paper does not sug- and many interpret this as an anti-land use control gest a major overhaul of the system since for con- sentiment in Congress, most people believe that the stitutional and political reasons this would be nearly coastal zone is a different, unique, and highly stressed impossible. The main problem is an institutional area. Land use controls are normally accepted at the one, and the concern is how to spend funds over the` local and municipal level for urban problems. People 614 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL seem ready, indeed, to accept land use controls at a' of the Coastal Zone Management Act and the Fed-, higher level of government where urban fringe and eral Water Pollution Control Act. The Coastal Zone, non-urban areas are in the coastal and estuarine zone. Management Act stresses that states should be given 3) The Coastal Zone Management Act is con- maximum flexibility under very general guidelines ceived and designed to meet the key coastal and estu- issued at the federal level; these guidelines relate to arine problems. It combines technical and institu- the process, not the substance of decisionmaking. tional upgrading as its primary goal, requiring states The Federal Water Pollution Control Act mandates to address both the question of the manager and the that federal standards be developed for all emissions criteria the manager uses for making decisions. The and effluents and that states implement these stand- coastal management program is not conceived in ards. The coastal management approach seems sound isolation from ongoing programs but specifically in the long run. Where guidelines provide for flexi- requires coordination- and resolution of differences bility and innovation at the state and local level, between state, local, regional, and federal agencies. commitment to the program by state and local offi- Further, the policies of the Coastal Management cials becomes greater. They are more likely to sup- Act seem most suited to resolving tough coastal port its implementation after participating in the zone controversies. It is not a mission oriented pro- formulation of the program. gram but is specifically designed to balance environ- Further, states differ geographically, socially, and mental and economic development objectives politically. If programs are developed which rec- through analytical techniques and procedures. ognize differences and peculiarities of a state or local Finally, it has no vested interest to assert although area, officials may be more motivated to influence some have accused it of being a special interest pro- their own people to accept the program than they gram in its assertion of the importance of the coastal would be if the program were designed at the federal zones over noncoastal areas. level. Two states come to mind as examples of these 4) Finally, the coastal management program is points. California is a leader in the nation in the designed to look at both land and water uses and development of controls over coastal development, the interaction between the land and water. It is not perhaps because they have the greatest problems to limited from a geographical standpoint as is the solve and a highly educated and active citizenry. Environmental Protection Agency ("waters of the They will probably progress at a greater speed United States"), the Corps of Engineers ("navigable implementing their own program than would a waters") or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service federal agency implementing a national coastal ("navigable waters"). It can include adjacent up- program in California. On the other hand, Louisiana lands as well as water bodies in the definition of the is a conservative southern state, predominantly rural coastal zone. This may facilitate providing a nexus (with the exception of New Orleans) and with prob- between the community-focused resource planning lems of educational, economic, and cultural lag. A typical of the local government unit, and the specific great deal of pushing at the federal level will not resource or project management functions of federal make a significant difference in Louisiana. Yet, when agencies. It also affords an opportunity to consider a local project or program is conceived and executed regional problems from both the community need within the state, the local politicians put a great deal perspective and the resource/project perspective. of weight behind it and see that it is developed. In a recent publication a suggestion was put for- The second maj or area where the current system of ward that a program of wetlands control is needed land use controls affecting estuarine water quality similar to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act can be upgraded is in the required coordination be- of 1972 wherein federal authority would be para- tween certain federal programs and related federal and mount and specific standards would be promulgated state agencies granting permits and licenses. This for implementation at the state and local level.49 This coordination needs more structuring and funds would be an unwise approach. First, it would sep- should be provided for the coordination function. arate wetlands from associated upland areas thus A few examples will illustrate the need and perhaps inhibiting the ability to control the major source of suggest some remedies. Under the National Pollutant the impacts on wetlands and estuaries. Second, such Discharge Elimination System administered by a wetlands control program would be aimed at EPA,5O a certification must be made to the Corps of enhancement of fish and wildlife resources dependent Engineers that a proposed activity in navigable wa- upon the wetlands resource which, as mentioned ters will not adversely affect water quality. Since before, may not give sufficient consideration to com- EPA's primary responsibility is to issue permits to munity-focused needs and regional concerns. numerous point source emitters, this coordinating There is a difference in philosophy in the approach mechanism on Corps wetlands permits has been put LEGAL ASPECTS 615 at the bottom of the list of priorities; yet, this might FOOTNOTES be one of the most significant inputs to the Corps of Engineers on wetlands permits. Specific funds should be established to facilitate this review, and the 2 33 U.s.c. §403 factors to be analyzed should be articulated and described in a manual or workbook. 33 U.s.C. §1251 et. seq. Another area where better coordination is needed ,42 U.S.C. 1s857 et. seq. is between state and local wetlands review programs and the Corps of Engineers' permit program. Most 416 U.S.C. 5661 et. seq. states are not equipped or staffed to make adequate 6 33 UAC. §403 input to the Corps on these activities. Federal per- sonnel could be detailed to state offices to assist in 49 U.S.. §1165g(6)(A). When "Corps" is referred to throughout this providing this input where the primary permit activ- paper, "Coast Guard" could be inserted if the project proposed is a bridge ity is a federal one. Training programs involving state and federal officials are needed to sensitize 16 U.S.C. 5661 et. seq. officials to attitudes and perceptions at the other 9 The NMFS was originally part of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service level of government. at the time the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act was enacted. A third area where coordination is badly needed 1 "Guidelines for Revew of Fish and Wildlife Aspects of Proposals in is between state and local efforts at managing coastal or Affecting Navigable Waters," 39 Fed. Reg. 29552 (1974). resources and other U.S. proprietary functions, especially those 'associated with offshore oil and gas 11430 F. 2d 199 (1970) leasing, coast guard and military bases, and other 1 Marine Protection. Research and Sanctuaries Act, 33 U.S.C. §1401 federal land management functions. There have been et. seq. frequent instances of differences of management 33 U.S.C. §1251et. seq philosophies and management techniques between adjacent federal and state lands in the coastal zone. 14 16 U.s.c. §1451 et. seq. Lastly, certain technical matters need greater at- tention if the proper procedures and tools for de- 1133 U.S.C. §1413 termining land use and water quality interaction are 1s 33 u.s.c. §1344 to be developed. First, the concept of an impact beyond local significance needs to be made opera- 1716 U.S.C. §1452 tional so it can be used in decisionmaking with some 1s 33 C.F.R. §209.260 degree of consistency. In the areas of ecology, eco- nomics, transportation, and others, tools and tech- " 33 C.F.R. 209.120 niques are needed for measuring or assessing the 2 33 C.F.R. §209.120 (g)(3) extent of impact or significance of a local decision. Second, the cumulative effect of many small, in- 2142 U.S.C. §4321 at. seq. dividual decisions affecting coastal land and water 22 33 U.S.C. 1341 use must' be determined. Techniques and tools are needed to measure cumulative effects. Third, land ,1 33 U.S.C. §1288 and §1318 use controls have traditionally included government restrictions imposed on private land use in specific districts. Recently, ideas have been discussed called I2 Environmental Protection Agency, "Land Use Implications and Re- "positive land use controls" involving tax incentives, quirements of EPA Programs" (undated draft), 13 p. See also F. Bosselman, D. Fuerer and D. Callies, EPA Authority Affecting Land Use (undated land'trades, transfer of development rights, and nd so manuscript prepared for Environmental ProtectionAgency). forth.5' These are designed to offset the inequities resulting fromi imposition of certain land use controls. 28 23 U.s.C. 5101, at. seq. Also, they provide greater flexibility in forging new land use control strategies. These three technical "38Fed. Reg.24778,ept. 10, 1973. matters are not readily "solved," nor are there easy 28 42 U.s.. 4321, et. seq. "answers." A better approach in providing assistance to agencies dealing with these matters is to compile 21 F. Anderson, NEPA in the Courts, Resources for the Future (Balti- dnd describe experience in this country and abroad, more: 1973). Legaband non-legal literature has dealt with NEPA at length in recent years. and present that experience in compilations in which the materials are well indexed and abstracted. 30 40 C.F.R. §1500 616 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL' 91 See, e.g., "Housing and Urban Development, Environmental Review Coast Regional Commission v. See the Sea, Ltd., 109 Cal. Rptr. 377 Procedures" 24 C.F.R. §58 (39 Fed. Reg. 86554, Oct. 10, 1974); "Depart- (1973), limiting the application of the California Coastal Zone Conserva-- ment of Transportation Procedures for Considering Environmental tion Act, Pub. Resources Code, §27000 et. seq. Impacts" 39 Fed. Reg. 35234 (Sept. 30, 1974); "USDA Forest Service, Environmental Statement-Guidelines for Preparation" 39 Fed. Reg. 44 Hearings beforeNational Ocean PolicyStudy, U.S. Senate Committee 38244 (Oct. 30, 1974). on Commerce, Santa Monica, Calif., Sept. 27, 28, 1974. a2 The authority for these controls arises out of the state's police powers. 45 See, Askew v. American Waterway Operators, Inc. 93 S. Ct. 1590 In most cases, state legislatures have delegated the exercise of the power . A A ' ' n, ,. . a l to local units of government. Courts have been the prime agency deter- (1978); Hershman and Folkenroth, "Coastal Zone Management and Inter- mining whether controls exceed constitutional limits by denying the land governmental Coordnation," 4 Ore. L. Rev. 13-33 (1975). owner the due process requirement that just compensation be paid for a "taking" of land. See F. Bosselman, D. Callies and J. Banta, The Taking 46 16 U.S.C. §1451. Federal assistance in land use planning activities in Issue, Council on Environmental Quality (1973). the past has been limited primarily to comprehensive planning under the HUD 701 program. An attempt to pass a land use planning bill (H.R. 8a See, generally, F. Bosselman and D. Callies, The Quiet Revolution in 10294) was recently defeated by the U.S. House of Representatives on Land Use Control, Council on Environmental Quality (1971). June 11, 1974. It may be considerable time before it is again addressed by Congress. This leaves the Coastal Zone Management Act as the only federally approved land use program at this time. Land uses under the 4 Wis. Stat. Ann. §59.971 (Supp.'1973). law are limited, however, to those having a direct and significant impact on coastal waters. sc 7 Del. C. §6801 et. seq. 47 They are to be consistent "to the maximum extent practicable" in 8s Wash. Rev. Code Ann. §90.58.010 some cases, in other cases certifications of consistency must be filed, and in some cases disputed matters are to be resolved by the Secretary of Com- By 3 Pub. Res. Code 27000 et. seq. (Dec. 1973). merce in consultation with the Executive Office of the President. The reader is referred to the text of §307. 88 26 Fla. Stat. Ann. §§380.012-380.10 4s "The Wetlands: How Well Are They Protected?" Conservation 89 38 M.R.S.A. §481-488. Foundation Letter, Sept. 1974. 40 Land Use Law, Raw. Rev. Stat. Ch. 205. 9B Id., at p. 8. The idea is attributed to "some environmentalists" by the publication's editor. 41 Environmental Control Law, 10 Vt. S.A. §§6001-6091 (Supp. 1970). 50 33 U.S.C. §1251 et. seq. '4 See Just v. Marinette County, 56 Wis. 2d 7 (1972) upholding the Wjwconsin Shorelands Management Act; and, In the Matter of Spring See, e.g., "Inros Toward Positive Land Use Management," State Valley Development by Lakesites, Inc., 300 A 2d 736 (Me. 1973) upholding of Oregon (Executive Departent) 1974; I. Heyman, "Innovative Land the Maine Site Location Lawt, 3e88 M.R.S.A. §481 et. 1973) upholding Regulation and Comprehensive Planning," Santa Clara Law., 13:185-235, (Winter 1972); D. Listokin, ed., Land Use Controls: Present Problems 43 See State v. Johnson, 265 A 2d 711 (Me. 1970) construing the Maine and Future Reform, Center for Urban Policy Research (Rutgers Univ. Wetlands Act, Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. 12, §4701 et. seq., and San Diego 1974). - , , .' - : . ' STRUCTURING THE LEGAL REGULATION OF ESTUARIES ANGUS MACBETH Natural Resources Defense Council New York, New York ABSTRACT .... Estuaries'are large scale, highly productive:physical systems, Regulation and management of estuarine resources is divided among a multitude of agencies at all levels of government. Federal regulation has op/rated through' expanding the mandate of federal agencies to include review of most estuarine resources and consultation with agencies responsible for them. The weakness of this system lies in (1) the unwillingness of the agencies to accept the expanded mandate; (2) the lack of agency expertise to comply with the expanded mandate; (3) the failure to fully staff and fund the consultation' mechanism;; (4) unequal distribution of resources between the public, private, and' goveinmehtal bodies. This can be remedied by (a) funding public groups which contribute to agency proceedings; (b) establishing national estuarine laboratories with mixed research and regulatory responsibilities; (c) full funding and staffing of the consultation mech- anism. INTRODUCTION interaction of legal authorities affecting the estu- ary's ability to meet its potential for biological pro- Estuaries are large scale physical systems of high duction. The emphasis will be on the Hudson estuary duction. The emphasis -will be on the Hudson estuary biological productivity and great complexity de- and its fishery since legal controversy there has and its fishery since legal controversy there has pendent on land, freshwater and saltwater com helped to illuminate the practial operation of regu- pnents for their natural operation. The, estuarine latory authority; the aim is not to deal directly with environments support both resident ;and highly mi environmental problems on the Hudson but to put gratory biota, both fish and fowl. The protection the operation of legal institutions into a concrete of the biota is now a national goal under the Federal context. The paper focuses on the distance between Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.1 the role theoretically and actually performed by the The physical position of estuaries at the confluence regulatory agencies and the clash of interests which of rivers with the ocean has also made them natural influences their operation. It suggests methods of foci for the development of commerce and the in structuring the agency-private interest relationship dustrial and urban centers which feed commerce. to assure more effective resolution of competing The legal mechanisms which control the develop- demands on estuarine resources. ment and use of the estuarine zones are enormously varied and serve a wide variety of policies: the land use regulations governing shorelands and wetlands SCHEMES OF LEGAL REGULATION which traditionally have been developed and en- forced by local government; the technological water There are at least four models for establishing pollution control programs affecting particular dis- legal safeguards for the productive capacity of an charges to the waters; water quality standards gov- estuary. First, would be a single agency with regula- erning the water itself; structural schemes of water tory authority to license and control the entire diversion or of damming, in all of which there is array of human activity affecting the life support typically a shared federal and state responsibility; system and capacity of the estuary. Logically, the and the direct regulation of biota exploitation agency would have to have regulatory authority through fishing and hunting laws developed by the over most use and development of the estuary, its state. Typically, these authorities are divided be- adjacent shoreline, its upstream freshwater sources tween different levels of government-federal, state and the exploitation of its biota both inside and and local-with a number of agencies within each outside the estuarine zone. Second, there is the affecting the various elements of the estuarine model of an advisory commission establishing a gen- system. eral plan for protecting the biota. This plan would This paper will focus on the biological production be considered by each regulatory agency deciding of an estuarine system in order to analyze a typical land or water uses, but which would not itself have 617 618 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL direct jurisdiction over the estuarine zone. Third, a ductivity of estuaries. Most of these statutes as well requirement could be made of each agency that it as others already on the books require resource must consider and assess the impact of any proposed planning or protection which, if followed through action on the productive capacity of the estuary in action, will have long-term impacts on the estu- and take necessary steps to protect or minimize the arine productivity. damage to the resources. Fourth, a single agency These new statutory initiatives take their place could be responsible for protecting the productive in a context where some agencies with focused re- capacity of the estuary. The authority of such an source responsibilities are also required to consult agency could be either advisory or include the power with state or federal agencies which directly engage to reject the proposals of other agencies. Under each in, or license private parties to engage in, the altera- model, of course, the objective can be altered to tion of environmental conditions. These referral and assure the biological productivity of the estuary consultation requirements are established to protect either greater or less weight in the decisionmaking the resource. In the context of protecting estuarine process. biota, the most important of these statutes is the Examples of the first two models can be found in Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act" which requires the Delaware River Basin Commission2 and the consultation on wildlife preservation with the Fish New England River Basin Commission,3 but they and Wildlife Service of the Department of the have not been the primary force in recent years Interior and National Oceanic and Atmospheric affecting the regulation of the estuaries. For in- Administration of the Department of Commerce. stance, the proposal for a Chesapeake Bay Con- Obviously, NEPA has the same type of consultation mission in Maryland to control the use and de- requirement. velopment of Maryland's side of the bay failed of These legal regulations work as a composite of enactment.4 the third and fourth models set out above. Many In recent years, legislation has moved in two dis- state and federal agencies have been given expanded tinctive directions. First, the mandates of federal mandates both in land and water resource planning, and, in some cases, state agencies have been widened and in controlling sources of pollution or other factors beyond their primary missions by requirements to affecting estuarine productivity. These agencies are consider and weigh the environmental impacts of required to consult particular agencies assigned to the agency's activities. The National Environmental protect certain values in estuarine development. Policy Act (NEPA) is the most obvious example This legal structure and management model are of such a mandate-widening statute which requires likely to be the basic pattern for some time to come. a fresh look and a new balance from agencies with It is therefore worthwhile to identify the salient traditionally narrow mandates.' Other examples may aspects of the model which are essential for its be readily found. The courts have reasserted the proper operation and analyze whether thay have broad mandate of the Federal Power Commission, operated effectively and, if not, suggest how they so that that agency must look at a broad spectrum can be improved. This is done in the context of the of concerns in licensing hydroelectric projects.6 The Hudson and its fishery in order to give the general land use planning sections of the 1974 Housing and point concrete focus. The operating records of the Community Development Act have been expanded Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments to require recipients of planning grants from the of 1972 and the Coastal Zone Management Act are Department of Housing and Urban Development to too brief to allow review of their effectiveness in consider environmental issues.7 addressing the issue in this context. NEPA and the Second, a number of statutes have been enacted state wetlands statutes now have longer histories which look at particular environmental media or which make them useful for analysis. The emphasis physical areas and require a new, environmentally- here will be largely on NEPA for a number of re- protective analysis in the decision process which sons: it is a federal statute and thus more relevant governs their use and development. The Federal to Congress's concerns; it is central to an analysis Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972,8 of both the expanded mandate and referral and con- state wetland protective statutes,9 and the Coastal sultation mechanisms; the principal restraints on Zone Management Act"' are examples of this ap- state wetland legislation stem from the constitutional proach. These legal structures do not directly focus requirements of the Fifth Amendment that private on the estuarine zone, but they operate within it to property not be taken for public use without just produce an overlay of review and analysis which compensation-thus these restraints cannot be di- takes into account, to at least some extent, the pro- rectly remedied by legislation. LEGAL ASPECTS 619 THE CYCLE OF fish make longer migrations into more open waters. THE HUDSON FISHERY There is no question that the Hudson makes a major contribution to the coastal stock of striped bass in The Hudson is a tidal estuary from New York the waters of the New York Bight and Long Island City to Troy, north of Albany. The line of the salt Sound and perhaps is a major source for the fish front varies with the freshwater discharge but is along the entire south shore of Long Island and in generally 40-65 miles upstream from the Battery. New England waters.'6 Gross pollution problems have been concentrated It is obviously possible to affect the estuary's at New York City and Albany and the central reach production of striped bass or other biota, both in of the estuary has historically supported a highly the short and the long run, by altering the conditions productive fishery. which foster continuing high production and control Henry Hudson reported the river teeming with survival during each phase of the fish's life cycle. "the finest fish among which was the shad and many In the Hudson many such intrusions have taken kinds scarcely less delicious... there were plenty of place. Historically, there has been intrusion on the sturgeon which the Christians do not make use of, adult population through the fishery catch, so that but the Indians eat them greedily... herring were by the mid-1930's, when a 16-inch size limit was in myriads."'2 In the early 19th century, the sturgeon imposed, the stock was at much lower levels than were so abundant that they were known as "Albany it is presently." There has been intrusion on the beef" and there was a flourishing caviar industry.s migratory, returning spawners through catching in Today, the striped bass and the shad are the most nets set in the Hudson for the taking of shad, which important sport and commercial fish. There is a also take striped bass.s Recently, there has been wide diversity in the array of migratory and resident intrusion on the early life stages of eggs and larvae fishes in the river, alewife, blueback herring, white by entrainment of the fish through the cooling sys- perch, bay anchovy, and tomcod, among others.'4 tems of power plants on the Hudson, and there has The life cycle of the anadromous, estuarine- been intrusion on the juvenile stage through im- dependent fish is significant to understanding the pingement of those fish on the screens of power variety of places at which uses and development plant intakes on the river." can affect the capacity of the river's productive Obviously, other equally serious intrusions are resources. The striped bass may be taken as an possible. For instance, the striped bass population example of the life cycle of the anadromous fish for of the Delaware River has been virtually decimated these purposes. In the spring, the adult stripers due to gross pollution, mainly oxygen reduction, in come upstream from the sea and the over-wintering the crucial reach around Philadelphia.20 The central areas in the Hudson Estuary into the estuary's Hudson from the Tappan Zee to Coxsackie is the freshwater section. The extent of the upstream mi- crucial area for the spawning and nursery habitat gration depends on the water temperature and on and has been relatively clean, but if industrial and the location of the salt front. In most years, the municipal pollution on the scale present at New bulk of the eggs are spawned between 50 and 100 York City or in the Albany pool were to occur here, miles upstream from the Battery during May and the Hudson-supported striped bass population could early June. be severely reduced. On the Sacramento-San Joaquin The striped bass eggs are released free into the system, the population of striped bass has been water and drift with the flow of the currents. During halved, apparently by the effect of water withdrawal the first six to eight weeks of life, the striped bass for irrigation purposes which also withdraws the pass through egg, yolk-sac larval, and larval stages eggs and larvae from the river.2' Were the proposal and enter the early juvenile stage. During this to withdraw freshwater for municipal use from the period, the organisms gain mobility but their gross Hudson at Hyde Park to come to fruition, a similar movements are determined by the hydrology of the effect would become a real possibility on the Hud- tides, currents, and saltwedge. At the end of the son.22 If dams were to be constructed on the river, planktonic stage, the young bass begin to move as has happened on the Susquehanna, there would into shallow water, either along the shore or on be a major disruption of the spawning run and a shoals. These shallow areas are the nursery habitat consequent effect on the juvenile and adult fish of the fish during the first year of life.' population. Extensive filling of the remaining shal- The young striped bass spend their first winter low areas of the Hudson, particularly in the Tappan in the Hudson and then start to move into the Zee and Haverstraw Bay, would deprive the fish of sheltered coastal waters. With increasing age, the its juvenile habitat. 620 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL This catalogue indicates the broad range of activi- One of the issues singled out for consideration by ties that have to come within legal control if the the FPC on remand was the entire fishery issue; basic productivity of an estuary is to be protected particularly the effect of Storm King's operatin and preserved and even if development and ex- on the striped bass and the shad. Thus, because' of ploitation of the resource are to be properly analyzed the 1965 decision in Scenic Hudson, there began';to and managed. function in the Hudson estuary a NEPA type' of expanded review, five years before that statute was THE EXPANDED MANDATE SCHEME passed. AND THE HUDSON EXPERIENCE The FPC delegated the fishery investigation re- sponsibility to the Hudson River Policy Committee, Over the last 10 years, there has been continuing a group formed for the purpose and made up of controversy in the Hudson estuary over the effects representatives of the U.S. Bureau of Sports Fish- of proposed developments, particularly power plants, eries and Wildlife, the old Bureau of Commercial on the fishery of the river. This controversy illumi-now the National Marine Fisheries Serv- nates development under statutes providing for the ice), and the Fish and Game Departments of New weighing of competing interests by administrative York and New Jersey, with an observer from Con- agencies under expanded mandates which include necticut.27 Most members of the policy committee consideration of estuarine productivity. It also al- were not professional experts on the Hudson fishery lows analysis of the operation of the referral and and so they in turn oversaw the work of hired consultation mechanisms. consultants.28 The results of a 3-year research pro- The fishery issue was first raised on the Hudson gram were published as the Hudson River Fisheries in the early 1960's in connection with Consolidated Investigation 1965-1968 (HRFI). Edison Company's application to the Federal Power The analysis undertaken in HRFI focused pri- Commission (FPC) for a license to build and operate arily on the striped bass population of the Hudson. the Storm King pumped storage project at Cornwall The final report concluded that the project would about 56 miles upstream from the Battery. Storm not have a significant effect on the striped bass aKing would pump water from the Hudson to a fishery, since it would take at most 4 percent of the reservoir from which it would be released to produce striped bass eggs and larvae from the river.29 The hydroelectric power.23 The water withdrawals re- investigation was completed and the report pub- quired to run the plant would be of great magni- lished after the remanded hearings before the FPC tude--averaging 15-18,000 cubic ft/sec over an were concluded, so that the Power Commission took official notice of and relied upon the HRFI conclu- 8-hour pumping period each day.24 After a cursory oncial notice of and relied upon the HRFI con review, the FPC granted Con Edison the license. sions but never exposed them to critical examination in a hearing. The necessity of looking at the Storm The license was challenged by a citizens' group and in Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. King withdrawals in the context of withdrawals by FPC,25 the Second Circuit Court of Appeals ordered other plants on the Hudson is mentioned in the the FPC to reconsider the issuance of the license. HRFI conclusions, but no analysis of total with- The court decision required the FPC to allow citi- drawals on the river was undertaken. This would, zens' groups to present their evidence and arguments of course, appropriately come within the ambit of to the Commission and laid on the Commission the the FPC's responsibility to see that the project was affirmative duty of building a full factual record on in keeping with a comprehensive plan for develop- which to base a reascrned decision. The extent Of ment of the waterway the record was determined by the broad mandate The HRFI report provided an essential data base of the Federal Power Act, which required the FPC on the Hudson fishery, particularly the striped bass. to determine that the project "will be best adapted to a comprehensive plan for improving a waterway life cycle of the fish. HRFI provides a thorough ... for the use or benefit of interstate or foreign examination of the distribution and abundance of commerce, for the improvement and- utilizatiorn of the eggs, larvae, and juvenile stripers in 1966 and waterpower development, and for other beneficial 1967 throughout the Hudson with a more detailed public uses, including recreational purposes."26 study around the plant site in 1968. There is no The court's interpretation of the statute made it discussion or analysis of the relation of the Hudson- the functional equivalent of NEPA's expanded man- spawned fish to the coastal stock, nor is there any date requiring that the analysis by the FPC look attempt to judge the productive capacity of the at the broad range of public interests affected by estuary against its actual production. In other the project and also consider possible alternatives. words, it does not address the general management LEGAL ASPECTS 621 of the fishery. Most importantly, while the collec- would be reflected in a similar decline in the size of tion and presentation of data in the report was that year class when they became adults.3l The generally considered to be of high quality, later Hudson River Fishermen's Association (HRFA), a analyses showed that the calculations which related group of sport and commercial fishermen and con- the plant's operation to the withdrawal of organisms servationists, participated in the hearing as inter- from the river were seriously flawed. The analysis venors, providing a non-computer model analysis underlying these calculations was not consistent; a which reached essentially the same conclusions as dynamic analysis relating the rate of withdrawal to the Oak Ridge staff. the river flow past the plant compared the plant's Con Edison Opposed this interpretation of the withdrawal rate to the tidal flow and not to the net data, putting forward its own analysis of the HRFI downstream flow; in the static analysis a daily with- material in a different analytical model. The pre- drawal rate of absolute numbers of organisms was dicted effect on the Hudson striped bass production presented but the withdrawals were not cumulated was small, in the 2-6 percent range. A sensitivity over the season. analysis of the model's operation showed that the It was some years before these facts became clearly major factor in the differing results was the inclusion known to the interested public. They were not appar- by Con Edison's experts of a compensating mecha- ent at the time when the court of appeals reviewed nism in the model which was density dependent and the construction and operating license which the thus increased the survival of the remaining popula- FPC issued to the company in 1970. That license tion as the plants reduced the population. The com- was approved in the second Scenic Hudson case.80 pany further denied the major contribution to the The analysis of the failings of the HRFI report did coastal stock of New York and New England which not come in an FPC proceeding but rather in 'a was put forward by the Oak Ridge staff.. More im- NEPA proceeding before the Atomic Energy Corn- portantly, on the grounds that there was not enough mission (AEC). -data to analyze the impact of the plant, the company When NEPA became law in 1970, serious plans launched a major research program to determine, or construction were going forward at four power by a study to be conducted before and after opera- plants in the central reach of the Hudson which tion began, what the effect of the plant's operation would affect the estuary's fishery-the Indian Point on thefishery would be. 2 and 3 nuclear units were in construction, and the At the close of the proceeding in 1974, the AEC, Bowline and Roseton fossil fuel units were about to while not accepting all the analysis of the Oak Ridge begin construction. Starting in 1972; hearings were staff- and HRFA, agreed with their ultimate conclu- held under the NEPA mandate before an Atomic sion and required Con Edison to install a closed- Energy Commission licensing board on the Indian cycle cooling system at the Indian Point plant but Point 2 plant, which is 13 miles downstream from also gave the company a chance to ask for an amend- Storm King and designed to withdraw less water ment of the license terms.if the research program from the estuary-800,000 gallons per minute. Here, led it to believe that such a change was justified.2 - from the beginning, the major environmental issue During the same period, the Army Corps of Engi- was the effect of plant operation on the biota and neers approved construction permits for the two the biological productivity of the estuary, particu- fossil fuel plants on the Hudson. In March 1970, larly through the entrainment of eggs and larvae the Corps approved the construction permit for the through the plant. 1200 megawatt Roseton plant owned jointly by The analysis of the Indian Point plant, conducted 'Central Hudson Gas and Electric, Con Edison, and by AEC experts from the Oak Ridge National'Lab- Niagara Mohawk. The plant would withdraw oratory, built on the foundations of the HRFI re- 650,000 gals/min from the river at approximately port, and thus essentially limited its analysis to the river mile 65. The Corps did not. undertake any striped bass. It included a hydrological computer NEPA -impact study on the plant. In 1971, the model to power the organisms' through the estuary Corps allowed work. to go forward on the construc- under -Various freshwater flows and added an analysis tion of the Bowline plant, -another 1200 megawatt of the relation of the Hudson spawning grounds 'to plant ,withdrawing 750,000 gals/min from the Hud- the coastal stock of striped bass and at least a basic son and set back from the river on Bowline Pond at analysis relating the Hudson's productive capacity approximately river mile 37, without the completion to its actual production. On this basis, the Oak Ridge of a NEPA impact statement. That plant is owned staff concluded that the' Indiad Point 1 and 2 plants jointly by Orange and 'Rockland Utilities and Con would take between 30 and 50 percent of the annual Edison. Both plants are within the central reach of production of striped bass in the Hudson which the Hudson, and it is self-evident that they present 622 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL the same fishery issues as does Storm King or is to be expected. It is likely that EPA will have to Indian Point. The Corps circulated a draft impact work through the data in response to requests for statement on Bowline in 1971, but its analysis variances from the closed-cycle cooling require- of the impact on the fishery was so limited and ments now imposed at Indian Point, Bowline, and cursory that one was hard put to realize that the Roseton. Further hearings on Indian Point 2 and 3 plant was to operate on the same river with Indian before the AEC's successor agency,- the Nuclear Point and Storm King. In December 1972, two Regulatory Commission, are likely to be requested suits were filed against the Corps of Engineers by by the company on the basis of new evidence. HRFA over the Corps' failure to carry out a NEPA analysis on either of these plants before construction began.33 Settlement agreements have been reached EXPANDED MANDATE AND THE in both cases; the Corps has agreed to undertake a CONSULTATION AND REFERRAL SCHEME NEPA impact study at Bowline and to analyze the Roseton plant in conjunction with the Bowline Agency Unwillingness statement.34 At the same time, the Corps has stated To Accept the Expanded Mandate in the consent decree that it does not have the man- power and expertise to analyze the fishery issues at None of the three agencies involved in the ex- stake and therefore the utilities, as part of the settle- panded mandate reviews under the Federal Power ment, have provided the Corps with $75,000 to hire Act or NEPA willingly undertook to effectively ful- an outside consultant.35 fill its expanded mandate on the issue of the estuarine Just as the analysis conducted for Storm King fishery. The Court of Appeals has twice sent the laid the foundation for the expanded analysis at Storm King case back to the FPC for full and Indian Point, so the work done at Indian Point indi- proper investigation of the fishery. The AEC under- cated the flaws of the Storm King analysis and led took the analysis of the fishery at Indian Point to a request for further consideration of the fishery only after it was ordered to do so by the Court of issue in relation to Storm King. On the basis of both Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in direct analysis of the HRFI calculations and an Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee v. AEC.3 estimate of the withdrawal of striped bass eggs and The Corps of Engineers undertook the review of larvae by Storm King made with the model devel- Roseton and Bowline only in settlement of suits oped to analyze Indian Point, estimates were made brought by IHRFA. by Oak Ridge and Brookhaven National Laboratory It may be argued that this is only the difficulty personnel and HRFA's expert that 30-40 percent of of initial compliance with broad mandates. I believe the eggs and larvae in the river would be withdrawn the trouble lies deeper. The FPC had had its man- annually by the Storm King plant. These analyses date for many years before the 1965 decision. Even were presented to the FPC in early 1973 with a EPA which should be most willing to take a broad petition for further hearings on the impact of the look at environmental issues has shown itself un- plant on the fishery. The FPC refused to hold hear- willing to comply with the Act in areas such as ings on the data and analysis, and an appeal was granting funds for waste treatment facility construc- taken to the Second Circuit Court of Appeals which tion.38 Numerous federal agencies have attempted in May 1974 remanded the fishery issue back to the to delegate their NEPA responsibilities to others, power commission for immediate hearings.3" frequently those in state government.3s The remanded hearings are now underway, but The recipients of federal grants or licenses have have quickly passed beyond the analytical failings little interest in pressing the government to comply of the HRFI report. The new research effort that fully with the terms of the expanded mandate. This Con Edison launched in response to the Indian has meant that the only effective force for assuring Point proceedings in 1972, and as a further pre- full compliance has been public groups who would operation study of Storm King, is now producing be protected by operation of the mandate and who data, and this material is now being reviewed before are willing to exert pressure on the agency. I see no the FPC in the Storm King proceeding. Thus, the reason to think that this will not continue to be true. major issues addressed at Indian Point are being worked over again, but with a major added round The Lack of Agency Expertise of factual data as well as further refinements of the To Comply With Expanded Mandate computer models. Further data collection is underway from the None of the three agencies reviewed here, the utilities and further agency review of the material FPC, the AEC, or the Corps of Engineers, had LEGAL ASPECTS 623 within its line staff the expertise to analyze properly should be able to retain high quality personnel by the estuarine biological system. This may be less offering a mix of research opportunities with ana- frequently true for small projects, say the filling of lytic and semi-regulatory responsibilities. Only this an acre of wetland for which a Corps permit is neces- mechanism will provide the agencies with exper- sary, but is likely to be the normal circumstance tise necessary for the effective discharge of their for many large projects producing significant and responsibilities. widespread effects across complex estuarine systems. In each of the cases reviewed, the agency turned Failure of the Consultation to groups outside its own line staff to analyze and Referral Mechanism the problem presented to it. The FPC turned to the tudson River Policy Committee, which was drawn rHudson Rivter Policy Committeae, s which was drawn In the licensing proceedings reviewed, both NEPA from the federal and state agencies with responsi- and the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act required bility for fishery matters. The Corps of Engineers the agency granting the license to consult with other turned to an outside private consultant to review agencies and groups with relevant expertise and the impact of the two fossil fuel plants, and further jurisdiction. NEPA requires consultation with a built consultation with the Interior Department wide spectrum of groups and interests. The Fish into the license terms for the two plants, stating and Wildlife Coordination Act requires consultation that the Secretary of the .Army would rely on the with the Fish and Wildlife Service in the Depart- Secretary of the Interior to recommend measures ment of the Interior, the National Oceanic and which should be taken to protect the fish and wild- Atmospheric Administration in the Department of life of the Hudson River.40 The AEC turned to the Commerce, and state agencies concerned with wild- Oak Ridge National Laboratory for its analysis of life protection. The review here will focus on these the plant's impact on the river. Oak Ridge was, federal and state agencies with fish and wildlife of course, part of the AEC, but not under the same responsibilities. regime as the regulatory staff, so that the regulatory Before the FPC's 1970 .icensing of Storm King, branch of the Commission had to apply to the all these agencies played an important role through research arm for this NEPA work.4' their participation on the Hudson River Policy It is evident that-there is no internal repository Committee, but in the remanded hearings in 1974, of analytic strength or developed policy to which that position has shifted. The Interior Department most agencies with an expanded mandate can turn. is participating in the hearings and there is a task This is made clear by the fact that each agency group of Interior and Commerce experts working turned to different sources to obtain expertise. From on an analysis of the plant's possible impact. But the product produced in each case, it is equally the successor to the Hudson River Policy Commit- evident that there are highly variable levels of tee, the Hudson River Fish and Wildlife Manage- ability among the experts to whom the agencies ment Cooperative, has publicly declined to take a turned. significant part in the hearings.42 This is so despite This situation makes the results of operation under the fact that the cooperative is made up of repre- the expanded mandate very uneven. Another result sentatives of the Division of Fish and Wildlife and is that when opposing private groups such as Con the Division of Marine and Coastal Resources in the Edison and HRFA have litigated the same essential New York Department of Environmental Conserva- issues more than once, they tend to be more in- tion, the New Jersey Division of Fish, Game and formed than the experts to whom the government Shellfisheries, the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries agency turns, so that the "experts" are being edu- and Wildlife and the National Marine Fisheries cated by the partisans. To a certain extent, such Service, and has as its stated objectives to: education is good and proper, but the agency should have within its own organization or easily accessible 1. Coordinate evaluation of environmental impacts on to it impartial sources of expertise to which it can fish and wildlife resources of the estuary and formulate turn for aid. appropriate, response. Realistically, no agency is likely to have the full 2. Develop a comprehensive fish and wildlife manage- range of expertise inhouse that is needed for full ment plan for species of interstate significance. and effective estuarine review. It is therefore essen- 3. Encourage implementation of the comprehensive tial that institutions modeled on the national lab- plan by the agencies with primary responsibility.43 oratories be established with a special estuarine mandate to provide to relevant agencies the exper- Thus the group which on paper should provide tise needed for these analyses. Such institutions major guidance on fishery issues has chosen not to 624: ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL do so iii the context of proceedings' whose outcome cycle or population dynamics of the striped bass may affect the fishery. or most of the rest of the estuarine' fishery.: This In the AEC and' Corps of Engineers proceeding, may be in part the product of history, since in'NevW the Interior Department submitted letters com- York in the past, the emphasis has been on the cold' menting on both impact statements.44 The Corps' water fishery and the marine commercial fishery initial draft impact' statement on Bowline in 1971 with little attention focused on the estuarine zone62 gave no indication that the plant could have serious' The- het result is that the' DEC has taken a' back impact on the fishery; Interior's letter did not dis- seat in determining the course of development' agree with that position.45 The AEC's draft state:- which 'can affect the fishery. The ;department was ment oln Indian Point indicated the possibility of' represented on the Hudson River Policy Committee substantial damage to the fishery, though' not the in the 1970 licensing of the Storm King plant, but level of 'impact predicted in the: final statement. as part of the -Iudson River Management Coopera- Interior wrote the AEC a 'strenuoius letter advocate: tive, it has declined to take part in the analysis of ing the use of a closed-cycle cooling system.4 The' fishery issues in" the present remand; 'Before 'the Department of Cdmrnerce did not submit'anything AEC, the DEC 'was represented through the New substantial in response to either impact statement-. York 'State Atomic Energy Council, but' neither Left to themselves, Interior 'and Corhmerce have presented evidence nor took a position on the fishery largely reacted to what the other agencies have put issues before the licensing board. Its role before th6 before them. Where the work of the' referring agericy Army Corps of Engineers has been equally passive.58 has been thorough and competent, the response Unfortunately, New York's record of fishery man- under the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act has agement is reasonably typical of the performance of been pointed and helpful. Where the referring other states54 and perhaps the fishery management agency's work has been second rate, the Coordina- profession generally.55 It would not be a wise policy tion Act response is little better except in those for the Congress to rely on the states to develop cases which are the focus of public attention; then, sound policies for the protection' of estuarine pro- as in the 1974 Storm King hearings, a special effort ductivity. These circumstarices underscore the im- is made by the departments.: portance of full staffing and funding of Iiterior and Thisis not an impressive record, but it is only fair Cominerce's fish and, wildlife agencies and the pro- to point out that the agencies are now staffed and vision -of expert assistance to the agencies with the funded to about one-half of what they and General expanded mandates. Accounting Office believe is necessary for the effec- tive operation of the Coordination Act.4 This ap- Distribution pears to be the 'fault of the executive branch in not Unequal Distribution requesting sufficient funds from Congress.49 We will of Resources not really know whether this system- can, work not really knw whether this adequatel y staffed-anwork funded. At least in the case of large projects, the resources properly unless it is adequately staffed' and. funded. brought to bear in licensing proceedings are very brought to bear in licensing proceedings are very In addition to sufficient funding, Interior" and unequally distribted. The industrial or develop- Commerce will need an organizational format with mental intrts' are willingand'able todevote an ongoing comprehensive view of estuarine sys- . . l an ongoing comprehensive view of estuarine sys- hundreds of thousands, even millions, of dollars to tems and their. wildlife. I can see no basic reason procuring a license or permit to exploit'estuarine why this obvious organizational method of dealing r I iens o with the Coordination Act responsibilities should resources. Citizens groups have budgets which.'at not be achieved, but it has not yet been done. best run in the tens of thousands and are dependent not be achieved, but it' has not yet been done.05 on pro bono or reduckd fek help from lawjiers and The State of New York has primary. responsibility scientists. The governmental agencies expend sums for the Hudson fishery, but it has: rnot demonstrated . e which lie somewhere between industry and the pri- the ability to develop its ownr articulated position vate groupis, but all too often closer to the private on the fishery or to critique fully the positions put groups. forward .by others.iOA The Department of Environapproximately Con Edison is now spending'approximately $3 mental Conservation (DEC) has primary respon-5-year period on biol sibility 'for fishery management, but it has not . . ' . csi edailitysfor fishery management, but it has not research alone on the Hudson?.o Other utilities are produced a basic fishery management policy for the contributing their hare, and thse sums do not contributing their share, and these sums do not estuary. The state has'the typical array of limitations include attorneys' fees or the other costs of applying on catch sizes, nets,- meshs, and open seasons;5' but for and 'obtaining 'a' license. Congressional docu- these regulations are not drawn together into a ments 'sh6w that utilities now bidget $500,000' to' policy which reflects any clear opinion on the life $1,000,000 for major nuclear licensings.57 LEGAL ASPECTS 625 -Next to these massive sums, government expendi- to fulfill their expanded mandate and frequently tures appear puny indeed. The present Fish and do so only under pressure from the public; (2) the Wildlife Service budget for all Coordination Act agencies frequently do not possess the expertise to programs for the entire country is $7.5 million.58 fulfill the mandate and rarely have an effective and The Corps of Engineers was willing to pay consul- impartial government source to which to turn for tants only $75,000 for a NEPA impact analysis to aid; (3) the federal referral agencies are under- cover two fossil fuel plants on the Hudson.59 Since staffed and underfunded and thus are incapable of applicants for permits take on most of the primary effectively dispatching their responsibilities, and the research, some greater expenditure on their part is state agencies have a poor record of performance to be expected. But these figures indicate utterly which does not hold much promise for future im- disproportionate spending. provement; and (4) the resources brought to the The resources of citizen? groups representing pub- decisionmaking process are overwhelming favorable lic interests are even more scanty. The average inter- to the private industrial and developmental interests vention in an AEC proceeding costs $50-60,000.60 and thus they tend to dominate both the govern- Few groups can raise sums of this magnitude. On mental and public interest input to the process. the Hudson, groups like HRFA and Scenic Hudson To make the system work effectively, there must be have existed on tiny annual budgets with the help an evening of resources, so that the major interests- of pro bono legal and scientific assistance. governmental, industrial, and public-are properly Congress has increasingly encouraged citizen par- balanced. This should be achieved by taking three ticipation in environmental enforcement, by, for in- measures: stance, providing citizen suit provisions and allowing the payment of reasonable attorney, and expert 1. Within the discretion of the agency, groups witness fees in such suits under the Clean Air Act representing public interests should be able to obtain and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act reasonable attorney and expert witness fees in Amendments of 1972.61 To be effective, this policy agency proceedings where they have contributed should extend more widely to proceedings before to the development and resolution of the issues administrative agencies as well. It is there that facts before the agency. A model for such a provision on environmental issues are increasingly tried out exists-in Title the version of t nergy and- thus where the major expenses of litigation Research and Development Act of 197462 and occur as well as where the terms of discretionary should be adopted for all federal acts dealing with decisions are hammered out. It has generally been estuarine development and regulation. This will conceded that if our system of justice is to operate answer, in part, problems 1 and 4 set out above. effectively, there must be a rough- equality of re- 2. Congress should establish three or four National sources on both sides of an argument. We must move Estuarine Laboratories. Effective research and closer to seeing that such equality is the fact as well analytical support must be made available to the as the ideal. - - regulatory agencies on a continuing basis from in- stitutions which develop expertise on entire estuarite DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS systems and are required to present positions on proposed projects. The regulatory agencies cannot The legal regulation of estuaries operates pri- be entirely dependent on the presentation and marily through administrative agencies which have analysis of facts by -outside parties and what they direct jurisdiction over part but not all of the need from within the government is much more than estuarine system' or its resources. The federal ad hoc consultation on particular projects under- agencies typically operatethrough an expanded man- pressure for quick analysis. There must be a form date requiting them to consider all the resources of of advocacy laboratory which engages in broad the estuary and the effects of their actions on the analysis and research 'so that it is readily familiar entire system. Coupled to this expanded mandate is with major estuarine systems and produces an a system of consultation and referral putting partic- articulated: program for protecting the estuary's ular emphasis on expert advice and recommenda- productive capacity. Such a program would be able tionsfrom agencies withexpertise-and responsibilities to put the individual and cumulative impacts of which are focused on particular resources in the development in context from the viewpoint of the estuarine system such as fish and wildlife. entire estuarine system and thus overcome some of The record of effective regulation under this the disadvantage of dispersed governmental au- system has not' been good' for four primary in- thority. This would, in part, answer problems 1, 2, stitutional reasons. (1) the agencies are reluctant and 4 set out above. 626 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL 3. The federal referral agencies under the con- 5483-A (Supp. 1971); Mass. Gen. Stat. Ch.' 130, §27a (SulJp. 1971); RI. Gen. Laws Ann. §11-46-1.1 (supp. 1971); Conn. Gen. Stat. §§22a-28 to sulation mechanism must be fully funded and 22a-34; N.Y. ECL. §§25-0101 et seq. (McKinney 1973); N.J. Stat. Ann. §13:9A-1 to -10 (Supp. 1971); 7 Del. Code Ann. Ch. 70, §§7001 et seq.; staffed, and organized so that they maintain ongoing Md. Ann. Code Art. 66C, §718-31 (Supp. 1970); Va. Code Ann. §§ 62.1- knowledge and expertise on entire estuarine systems. 13,1 to 13.20 (Supp. 1972); N.C. Gen. Stat. §113.229 et seq., (Supp. 1971); S.C. Code Ann. §§70-13 to -42 (Supp. 1973); Ga. Code Ann. §§45- The General Accounting Office has already reported 136-147 (Supp. 1972); Fla. Stat. Ann. §§253.122-123 (Supp. 1972). this need to Congress in the case of the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, and it is recognized as 1 16 U.S.C. §1451 et seq. essential by the agencies affected. Action must be 11 16 U.S.C. §661 et seq. taken to put it into effect. This is the only course of action by which we will be able to test whether 1 2 Hunt, A Historical Sketch of the Town of Clermont, Hudson (1928). this system is or is not effective in providing protec- 16 State of New York Conservation Department, "A Biological Survey tion to estuarine resources and productivity. This of the Lower Hudson Watershed," 15 (1937). would, in part, answer problems 3 and 4 set out wouldnpartanswerprobovems 3'ad4 sou Id.; Hudson River Policy Committee, "Hudson River Fisheries In- above. vestigation 1965-1968" (undated) (hereafter BRlFI). 16 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Directorate of Licensing, Final FOOTNOTES Environmental Statement, Indian Point Nuclear Generating Plant Unit No. 2, Sept. 1972 at V-40 (hereafter "IP2 FES"); Clark, "Effects of 133 U.S.C. §1251(a). Indian Point Units 1 and 2 on Hudson River Aquatic Life," October 30, 1972 in transcript of In re Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. (Indian Point 2) AEC Docket 50-247, following Tr. 6276, at 5-6 2 Delaware River Basin Compact, N.Y. Environmental Conservation (hereafter "IPS Tr. at-"). Law §21-0701, et. seq. See Ackerman & Sawyer, "Uncertain Search for Environmental Policy: Scientific Factfinding and Decisionmaking along 1s 1 IP2 FES XII-29 to XII-35; Raney, "The Striped Bass, Morone the Delaware River," 120 U. Pa. L. Rev. 419 (1972). saxatilis, of the Atlantic Coast of the United States with Particular Refer- ence to the Population Found in the Hudson River," October 30, 1972, '42 U.S.C. §1962(b), Executive Order No. 1137, 32 Fed. Reg. 12903 IP2 Tr. following 6254. (1967) as amended. 17 IP2 FES V-56. 4 Power, "Chesapeake Bay in Legal Perspective," U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Estuarine Pollution Study Series-- (1970); personal communication with author. is Testimony of C. Phillip Goodyear, IP2Tr. at 9068-9071. c 42 U.S.C. §4321 et. seq. The terms of the National Environmental 19 In re: Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. (Indian 42 U.S.C. §4321 it. seq. The terms of the National Environmental Policy Act are so well known that extensive description seems unnecessary, Point 2) RAI-73-9 751 (1973). but a brief outline of the expanded mandate aspect may be useful. The Act requires that each federal agency in considering any project which would 20 Chittenden, "Status of the Striped Bass, Morone sazatilis, in the significantly affect the quality of the human environment and which the Delaware River," 12 Ches. Sci 131-36 (1971); Goodyear, "Origin of the agency itself would undertake or which it can license or permit a private Striped Bass Stock of the Middle Atlantic Coast," March 1, 1973, IP2 Tr. party to undertake must prepare a full statement on the impact of the following 9858. project on the environment. 42 U.S.C. §4332. The Act instructs federal agencies, inter alia, to: 21 Turner & Chadwick, "Distribution and Abundance of young-of-the- year striped bass, Morone saxatilie, in relation to river flow in the Sacra- preserve important historic, cultural, and natural aspects of our mento-San Joaquin Estuary," 101 Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 442-452 (1972); natural heritage, and maintain, wherever possible, an environment Clark, "Effects of Indian Point" at 54, IP2 Tr. following 6276. which supports diversity and variety of individual choice; [and] achieve a balance between population and resource use which will 22 Temporary State Commission on the Water Supply Needs of South- permit high standards of living and a wide sharing of life's amenities. eastern New York, "Water for Tomorrow," (1973). See N.Y. Times, March 42 U.S.C. §4321(h). -15, 1975 at 29, col. 8. This is to be achieved "consistent with other essential considerations of 3 F.P.C. Opinion No. 584 (August 19, 1970). national policy." Id. S4 HRFI at 40; Affidavit of John P. Lawler, FPC Proj. No. 2338 (Jan; While making environmental protection a part of the mandate of each 16, t 40; Afdavit of Pro. No. 2338 (J). agency, the Act provides for a system of careful analysis rather than a particularized policy of protection: 25 354 F.2d 608 (2d Cir. 1965), cert. denied, 384 U.S. 941 (1966). Thus the general substantive policy of the Act is a flexible one. It leaves room for a responsible exercise of discretion and may not re- 26 16 U.S.C. §803(a). quire particular results in particular 'problematic instances. ... NEPA mandates a rather finely tuned and 'systematic' balancing 27 HRFI at 4. analysis in each instance. Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee v. AEC, 449 F.2d 1109, 1113 (D.C. Cir. 1971). 2s Id. at 4-5. 6 Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, 354 F.2d 608 (2d Cir. 1965), cert. denied, 384 U.S. 941 (1966). 29 Id. at 45. 7 40 U.S.C. §461 as amended by the Housing and Community Develop- C 0 Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. FPC, 453 F.2d 463 (2d ment Act of 1974, Sec. 401(b), (k), 88 Stat. 687-689. Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 407 U.S. 926 (1972). 8 33 U.S.C. §1251 et seq. 31 IP2 FES. 9 12 Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 12 §§4701-4709 (Rev. 1964, Supp. 1972); 32 In re Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. (Indian 38 Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§481-488 (Supp. 1972); N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. Point 2), RAI-74-4 323. LEGAL ASPECTS 627 83 Hudson River Fishermen's Association v. Orange & Rockland Utili- which clearly would encompass the estuarine dependent fishery (16 U.S.C. ties, 72 Civ. 5460 (S.D.N.Y. 1972); Hudson River Fishermen's Associa- §367a), but the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission established tion v. Central Hudson Gas & Electric Co., 72 Civ. 5459 (S.D.N.Y. 1972). under the compact has not provided the technical analysis which would relate the production of estuaries to the coastal stock and thus the Commis- *4 Id. sion has been unable to provide aid in determining the effect on the coastal fishery of development in the estuaries. Nor has the Department of the Interior used its statutory authority for Atlantic coast fishery studies to as Id. meet this need in relation to the Hudson. 16 U.S.C. §760a. e8 Hudson River Fishermen's Association v. FPC, 498 F.2d 827 (2d 5oA McHugh, "Marine Fisheries of New York State," 70FisheryBulletin Cir. 1974). 585 (1972); Ginter, "Marine Fisheries Conservation in New York State: Policy and Practice of Marine Fisheries Management," NYS Sea Grant n 449 F.2d 1109 (D.C. Cir. 1971). Program, 1974 (NYSSGP-SS-74-012). as See Urban Systems Research and Engineering, Inc., "Interceptor 6 N.Y.C.R.R. Part 36; N.Y. Environmental Conservation Law Sewers and Suburban Sprawl; The Impact of Construction Grants on §11-1511. Residential Land Use" (prepared for Council on Environmental Quality, 1974). 52 Personal communication, James L. Biggane, formerly Commissioner, N.Y. Department of Environmental Conservation. a3 E.g., Greene County Planning Board v. FPC, 455 F.2d 412 (2d Cir. 1972); Conservation Society of Southern Vermont v. Secretary, -F.2d-, 58 In recent years, the New York Attorney General's office has moved to 7 ERC 1236 (2d Cir. 1974). fill the vacuum and develop a state fishery policy through presentations before agencies and courts. Before the AEC, the attorney general took an 40 E.g., Letter of James W. Barnett, District Engineer to Central Hudson active role generally supporting the position of the Oak Ridge staff, Gas & Electric Corp., 20 Dec. 1971, pare. (W). though no witnesses were presented. In the latest round of hearings before the FPC, the attorney general has been active and apparently plans to 41lunder Congress's new divisin of hpresent witnesses as well as cross-examine those of other parties. The 41 Under Congress's w division of the AEC, national labs and the office also commented on the impact statement circulated by the Corps regulatory staff will be separated, the labs going into the Energy Research on the Bowline plant. In addition, the attorney general has brought and Development Administration and the Regulatory Staff into the a public nuisance suit against Consolidated Edison for fish destruction Nuclear Regulatory Commission. at the Indian Point plant. See Hudson River Fishermen's Association v. Consolidated Edison, N.Y. Law. Jour., June 6, 1971 at 2. This route 42 Letter of Herbert E. Doig to Kenneth F. Plumb, August 16, 1974 for pursuing a fishery policy faces two important restraints. First, (Ex. 83A in 1974 hearings on FPC Proj. No. 2338). there are limited technical resources directly available to the attorney general, and it is unlikely that his office can develop the staff of fishery biologists, hydrologists, and computer experts needed for continuing 43 The Hudson River Fish and Wildlife Management Cooperative, Nov. analysis of the river. Second, the mandate of the attorney general does not 1973. extend to operating a management program for the estuarine fishery, so that a fully articulated program is unlikely to emerge from this effort. 44 2 IP2 FES 45; Letter of Richard E. Griffith to Mark Abelson, April 28, 1971. e4 Remarks of J. L. McHugh at EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control, Feb. 11-13, 1975. 46 Id. 55 Larkin, "A Confidential Memorandum on Fisheries Science," World 46 2 IP2 FES 45. Fisheries Policy: A Multidisciplinary View (Rothschild ed. 1972) 189. 47 2 IP2 FES 11. b6 Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc., "Summary of Hudson River Research Programs, Approximate Cost of Ecological " "Improved Federal Efforts Needed to Equally Consider Wildlife Studies" (Nov. 19,1974). Conservation With Other Features of Water Resource Developments," GAO Report B-118370; Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Fish and 5 120 Cong. Rec. S18724 (Oct. 10, 1974). Wildlife Conservation and the Environment of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries (93rd Gong., 2d'Sess.) on GAO Report B-118370 and E s Coordination Act Hearings at 591. H.R. 42, H.R. 2288, H.R. 2288, H. R. 2291, H.R. 2292, H.R. 10651, and H.R. 14527 (Serial No. 93-33) ("Coordination Act Hearings") at 591, 600-605. .59 Note 35, supra. 49 Id. at 121-601. 60 120 Cong. Rec. S18725 (Oct. 10, 1974). 50 Two other federally established programs which might give backup 06 42 U.S.C. §1857h-2; 33 U.S.C. §1365. support have also failed to provide technical assistance or a clear policy guidance. Congress gave its consent in 1940 to an interstate compact of the Atlantic coastal states for the joint regulation of the coastal fishery '1 120 Cong. Rec. S18724 et seq. ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT- THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL DIMENSION JOHN J. BOSLEY Attorney-at-law Washington, D.C. ABSTRACT This paper provides a synoptic overview of the principal existing and pending federal laws and policies affecting the management of the nation's estuaries and estuarine zones. Specific attention is given to the influence these laws and policies have on the active management of such resources at the state, regional, and local levels. Using this analysis, the adequacy of extant federal policies to achieve established national goals and objectives on the preservation and conservation of estuarine resources is assessed. Finally, from this analysis current issues are identified, and proposed recommendations are made for federal policies to more adequately provide an in- stitutional and management framework to protect these vital resources. THE CURRENT SITUATION actions there was a national focus on oceanography. The Stratton Commission between 1967 and 1968 The national government's concern and interest through its publication of "Our Nation And The in protecting estuarine resources is relatively new. Sea" 6 developed a greater federal and state aware- But the recognition that estuarine zones are pro- ness of the problems and opportunities in managing ductive and indispensable natural resources evolved our coastal and ocean resources. The Stratton Re- only after many estuarine areas were lost to develop- port engendered a significant congressional interest ment and others imperiled. in the vulnerability of the nation's coastal zone. The During the decade of the 1960's dramatic growth manifest congressional concern in estuarine resources and development experienced in the coastal states was largely caused by this study, and culminated in resulted in significant reduction of wetlands and the the enactment of the so-called Estuary Protection deterioration of some of our most valuable estuarine Act of 1968 (P.L. 90-454). The Act provided for a resources. The threat to these productive natural study of the nation's estuaries, especially to deter- resources provoked legislative action in many coastal mine if a "national system of estuaries" should be states and in Congress. established. It also called for as national policy the The first successful attempt to exercise a state's protection, conservation, and restoration of the police power to protect estuarine resource systems nation's estuaries, but in a manner that would came in Massachusetts with the enactment of that maintain a balance between national needs for pro- state's wetland legislation in 1963.' This statute tection and conservation and the development of requires a state permit as a condition to any signifi- these estuaries to further growth and development. cant alteration of coastal wetlands. It recognizes Moreover, the Act also asserts that the states have that these wetland areas are a natural resource held the basic responsibility for protecting the nation's in trust for the people of the state, and usually a estuarine resources. permit will not be issued if the proposed alteration In accordance with the mandate of the Act, the would significantly damage estuarine and marine Department of the Interior issued a report in 1970 fisheries. The legitimacy of state regulation in these entitled "The National Estuary Study." This study, privately held areas was upheld by the Massachu- accomplished largely through outside consultants' setts courts.2 The success of the Massachusetts law contracts, examined the scientific, economic, govern- fostered enactment of similar statutes in many other mental, and legal issues on the protection and man- coastal states. These state wetland laws were fol- agement of estuarine resources. No specific legislative lowed in a few states with a more comprehensive proposal emanated from the study, however. approach to coastal and estuarine management. Even without additional congressional policy on Delaware,3 Maine,4 and California5 are among the the protection of estuarine resources, other legislative states that passed coastal zone management or and administrative actions began to influence the conservation law. decisions involving development within these zones. Concurrent with many of these incipient state The late 1960's brought an evolving environmental 629 630 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ethic within the federal establishment. The admin- Two such efforts culminated in 1972. The Senate istration of the permit programs under the River and House Public Works Committees developed a and Harbors Act of 1899 (33 U.S.C. 403) by the major new water quality program in the Federal Department of Army is a case study on this point. Water Pollution Central Amendment of 1972 Section 10 of this old statute prohibits the un- (P.L. 92-500). This legislation protects estuarine authorized obstruction or alteration of any navigable resources in several ways. It requires the states to water of the United States. The Corps of Engineers establish, under federal criteria, ambient water had traditionally issued permits under the Act unless quality standards and effluent limitations. Com- the proposal would interfere with navigation. How- pliance with these standards is obtained through a ever, the need to administer this legislation in ac- permit program encompassing all discharges into cordance with contemporary environmental values navigable waters. Areas having substantial water caused a departure from this myopic approach. The quality problems are required to develop continuous vindication of this new federal environmental con- water quality management planning and program- cern came in 1970 in the case of Zabel v. Tabb.7 ming processes under Section 208 of the Act. Such This litigation was brought after the District Engi- management planning must consider land use, cur- neer denied a Section 10 permit to fill 11 acres of tailment of non-point sources, and, where appro- tidelands in Boca Ciega Bay, Fla., on the grounds priate, methods to control saltwater intrusion caused that the fill would be harmful to fish and wildlife. by curtailment of freshwater flow. Probably, the The 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals held that the most important aspect of the statute on estuarine Corps of Engineers had properly taken conservation resources is the law's water quality goals for 1983. and environmental factors into account as well as By that date, the nation's waters should provide for navigational considerations. This holding was based the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish and on the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1959 wildlife, and recreation in and on the water. Con- (FWCA) and the National Environmental Policy sequently, the Act establishes one absolute param- Act of 1969 (NEPA). These statutes require con- eter for protecting and managing the estuarine zones. sideration by federal agencies of environmental On the other hand, the Coastal Zone Management considerations other than missions assigned to them Act of 1972 has a comprehensive rather than single by their respective laws. The Supreme Court de- purpose environmental orientation. It originated in dined to review the case thereby letting the court of the Senate Commerce and House Merchant Marine appeals' decision stand. and Fisheries Committees. This law authorized the However, the general environmental impact an- Secretary of Commerce to make grants to coastal alysis approach required under NEPA and FWCA states in planning for and administering sound were not considered adequate substitutes for sub- management programs for the coastal zone. Its basic stantive environmental policy. Congress recognized approach is that decisionmaking on the use of the that impact assessments would not be adequate in coastal zone, which by definition encompasses the areas requiring active resource planning and manage- estuarine zone, is basically a state prerogative sub- ment. ject to the overriding national interest in such areas as water quality standards, navigation, deepwater ports, and the production of energy. To achieve this O ther Federal Legislation Management objective of state primacy, the legislation encouraged the establishment of a management process including The Senate and House Interior Committees did an intergovernmental system to achieve wise use of not follow up the "National Estuary Study" with land and water resources of the coastal zone. One of proposed new legislation on protecting estuarine the principal inducements for the state to develop areas. But 'this was probably not associated with the an unified management program for the areas is that, merits of the study. Rather, the more likely reason when approved, the state management process will for the absence of new estuarine legislation was the subject the federal government's actions to stringent nature of the complex and overlapping committee consistency checks against adopted state policies. structures in Congress. Several congressional corm- Under Section 307, application for a federal grant, mittees exercise jurisdiction over legislation dealing license or permit to conduct activities affecting land with coastal and marine affairs. Quite independent water uses in the state's coastal zone must be con- of the activities in the Interior committees, these sistent with the state's approved coastal manage- other committees were developing other legislative ment program. Normally, direct federal government thrusts which happened to also directly affect the activities must also be consistent with the state nation's estuarine zones. program. LEGAL ASPECTS 631 : The Act also recognizes the particular value of While NEPA does not establish absolute environ- preserving estuarine resources. Under Section 312, mental standards, it provides the integrative force the Secretary is authorized to make grants up to 50 to focus all appropriate environmental policies and percent of the cost of acquiring and operating estu- values on major federal programs and regulatory arine sanctuaries for the purpose of creating natural systems. field laboratories to study the natural and human processes within estuaries. In 1972, Congress also enacted the Marine Pro- tection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 The national energy crisis is becoming an im- (P.L. 92-532). The Act mainly affects ocean re- portant new factor in protecting estuarine resources. sources. But it also will assist in the protection of To become mor e self-sufficient, additional energy the waters within estuarine zones. This results from sources are being sought. One of the prime areas for two programs provided for in the legislation. Section new oil exploration is in the Outer Continental Shelf. 103 requires the Secretary of the Army to issue per- But exploration for new energy sources is not the mits for the transportation of dredged material for only approach contemplated to meet the problem. only approach contemplated to meet the problem. the purpose of dumping it in ocean waters. No such mth m be pse ,of dumping it in ocean waters. No such For example, coastal and estuarine areas are attrac- permit may be issued, however, if the Administrator tive locations for new power plants, especially nu- of EPA finds that the dumping of such material willons for new power plants, especially u- result in an unacceptable adverse impact on shellfish In response to those needs, the Department of In response to those needs, the Department of beds, fisheries, wildlife, or recreational areas. More- Interior has indicated that areas in the Baltimore over, the protection of estuarine areas will be assisted Canyon area of the Continental Shelf adjacent to the also under the authority in Section 302 of the Act. states of New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, and This provision vests the power in the Secretary of Virginia will be opened to oil exploration in 1975. Commerce, after consultation with other federal Existing production areas will be subject to more agencies and with approval of the President, to intense exploration activities. As a result, the Ad- designate as marine sanctuaries those areas of ocean ministration has requested and Congress has appro- or coastal waters which he deterrmines necessary to priated supplemental funds for FY 1975 to accelerate preserve or restore such areas for their conservation, the coastal state planning efforts to prepare for the recreational, ecological, or aesthetic values. Once impact of these energy-inspired activities in the designated, the Secretary must issue regulations to offshore areas. These monies will be available to the control any activities within such areas, and federal activities can only be undertaken in these sanctuaries if the Secretary certifies that they are consistent with Act of 1972. Congress has also evinced interest and concern the management of the area as a marine sanctuary. over the potential evironmental consequences of over the potential environmental consequences of Finally, a summary of the existing environmental new energy development activities. For example, policies affecting the protection of estuaries, or any the Senate has established the National Ocean Policy other important natural resource, would not be Study Group in the Commerce Committee.8 In complete without including the National Environ- April 1974, the Committee received testimony on mental Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190). This far- the potential impact of Outer Continental Shelf oil reaching statute declares it the national policy to and gas development along the Atlantic, Pacific, encourage a productive and enjoyable harmony and Gulf of Alaska. Much of the testimony rec- between man and his environment. To assure that ognized that the nearshore areas of the coastal zone this policy is incorporated into all the programs and would absorb a major part of the environmental actions of the federal government, Section 102 of the impact. One federal official cited the impact of off- Act directs that to the greatest extent possible the shore drilling in the Gulf of Mexicoas evidencing policies, regulations, and public laws of the United that these activities would cause loss of wetlands and States shall be interpreted and administered to affect circulation conditions of nearshore areas.8 reflect the purposes of the Act. This section also These and other congressional hearings have gen- mandates all federal agencies to prepare detailed erated a plethora of bills dealing with the environ- environmental impact statements on major federal mental consequences of development in the con- actions significantly affecting the quality of the hu- tinental shelf area."' One of these measures was man environment. Such statements are to insure enacted in the last days of the 93rd Congress-Deep- that environmental amentities and values will be water Port Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-627). In the main, given appropriate consideration in federal decision- the Act authorized the Secretary of Transportation making processes. - upon application to issue, transfer, and renew 20- 632 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL year licenses for the ownership, construction, and agement program, and to resolve conflicts of com- operation of deepwater ports in waters beyond the peting uses, each participating state must have a territorial limits of the United States. This legislation technique to control land and water uses in the is simply a recognition by the executive branch and coastal zone. Although several options are available, Congress that new domestic energy sources are not most states will probably establish standards and the immediate answer to our problem. Rather, oil criteria for implementation by local governments. imports will continue and the United States must Many states also intend to use regional planning have adequate facilities to accommodate the ever- agencies to assist in implementing the program. increasing fleet of supertankers. Again, as in the As pointed out above, 'the program is not manda- case of new offshore exploration, any such legislation tory. States are encouraged to participate and re- will inevitably have significant impact 'on estuarine ceive two-thirds of the cost of developing a coastal areas, albeit of a more localized nature. management program. Such development grants can be made annually for three years. After that period a state may only receive annual grants toward the Impact onf F eder al Law and gement Acost of administering its program if the Secretary of PoliStatcy and Substuarine Manageme nt Act Commerce approves the program. A principal in- ducement for securing program' approval is that Most of the federal legislation discussed above subsequently the federal government must generally affecting estuarine areas have a single thrust; they conduct its programs and activities in accordance encourage states to develop balanced management with the approved state management program processes for such areas. The Estuary Protection Act Already the coastal management program is hav- and the Coastal Zone Management Act represent ing significant impact on state, regional, and local this policy. In the former case the legislation has had governments. If most coastal states remain in the little impact in generating state management policies program, state and local government will be making for wetland and estuarine areas. Its most important explicit planning and policy-based decisions on the contribution has been. to perpetuate continuing future use of estuarine resources. Most importantly, congressional interest in estuarine problems and, to however, such decisions will be made within the some extent, cause federal agencies to consider state framework of a coastal management process which policies relative to the management of these re- will weigh environmental as well as economic and sources. A good example of the latter is the Corps of social values It must be reiterated that the import- Engineers' use of the Act as the basis for considering ance given estuarine resources in this process is es- state policy and the administration of its permit sentially a state value judgment. Unless there is a programs concerning activities in navigable ocean preemptive national policy, as in the case of the waters" jr -Federal Water Pollution legislation, the state's per- On the other hand, the Coastal Zone Management eeption of estuarine management must prevail. ception of estuarine management must prevail. On the had widespread impact one managem The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 Act has had widespread impact on estuarine manage- had the most immediate impact on the management ment. It appears that all coastal and Great Lake had the most immediate impact on the management states will ppears tiipate inallthe program. This will-have of estuarine resources at the state and local levels. states will participate in the program. This will have direct implications on estuarine management. The Prior to this Act, federal policies dealing with water Act and its implementing regulations require each quality impacts on estuarine waters and coastal participating state to evolve over a period not to wetlands were diffuse and ambiguous. But the Act exc`ed three years a unified coastal zone mana ge- provided definitive standards and goals which en- ment program, together with a coordinated'admin- compassed all of the nation's navigable waters. istrative system for its implementation. Thus the Currently, EPA and the Corps of Engineers' regula- Act supports a substantial icrease in statelaw and tions involving the various permit programs under Act supports a substantial increase in state 'law the Water Act and the Refuse Act extend federal authority in the estuarine zone." The program must the Water Act and the Refuse Act extend federal identify important coastal resource areas such as water quality standards into wetland areas. There- estuarine ones. It must insure that sch resources fore, federal or state permits for any alteration in tarie encompassed'e i the states defined coastal zone. wetland areas must now be evaluated in the terms of Further, discreet policies must be adopted for their protection, 'conservation, and development. The water quality standards in these areas by EPA has defined coastal zone also must include upland areas been upheld by the United States District Court in necessary to control iuses of land which have a direct Florida."l and significant impact on coastal waters. The NEPA has also fostered the consideration of To insure adequate implementation of the man- related federal environmental policies in these per- LEGAL ASPECTS 633 nut programs. As indicated above, for example, the develop' comprehensive 'resource management pro- Corps of Engineers' regulations on permits for activ- grams. Of course, the Coastal Zone Management ities in navigable waters or ocean waters under the Act is the most relevant to estuarine management in Refuse Act and the Marine Protection Act require this regard. consideration of the proposed activity on wetlands As indicated above, these disparate policies reflect and the estuarine zone.l4 In the former case, the the structure of Congress and the federal executive federal policy on wetlands has been administratively branch. There is no single locus in the system which derived, and in the latter the implications on estu- has the exclusive responsibility for natural resource arine management reflect the general policies in the management. Consequently, the various executive Estuary Protection Act. But there is little doubt agencies sharing responsibility coordinate their that the integration of these related environmental efforts through informal or ad hoc interagency policies was brought about largely through the man- mechanisms. This can be a positive exercise, but too date in NEPA. often agency mission and interest make it difficult for such peer groups to arrive at balanced or com- prehensive decisions. As a result, there is no central ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT- or uniform federal executive policy on the protection THE FEDERAL POLICY ISSUES of the nation's estuarine resources. Moreover, the National Environmental Policy Act does not ad- No single federal policy focuses on developing new uately fill initiatives to protect the nation's estuarine areas. and regulatory decisionmakers to consider the This lack of central responsibility does not indicate totality of federal environmental policy when arriv- absence of congressional or federal executive con- ing at decisions affecting estuarine resources. In this cern, however. Indeed, there is no paucity of federaly congressionally-mandated environ- law and administrative regulations pertaining to mental standards, e.g., water and air quality stand- these resources. On this point some would suggest ards, are absolute, however. All other environmental the federal presence in these areas is already too factors are subjectively weighed by the federal large. Congress apparently does not share this view. agency entrusted with the final decisionmaking If they did, the continuing requirement to study authority. In such a coordinative management proc- these areas such as that contained in Section 104(n) ess policies of state and local government on estu- of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act would arne management are often critical. Both the Estu- not be necessary. Rather, it can be argued that the ary Protection and the Coastal Zone Management central national concern is the need to evaluate the Act require federal agencies in making decisions adequacy of existing estuarine policy, and to do so affecting estuarine resources to comply with state as a part of a critical examination to determine the policies if they are not in conflict with the national appropriate federal role. The ancillary issues emanat- interest ing from this proposition are discussed below. Based on theabove survey of current federal Based on the above survey of current federal For the purpose of analysis, current federal policy policies on protecting estuarine resources, the follow- affecting estuarine resources can be fitted into three ing major issues have been identified: basic categories. The first may be described in terms of actual'fed- . Will the federal incentives to encourage states to eral acquisition of estuarine resources. Under congres- develop coastal zone management programs result in sional authorization, the Department of Interior has adequate state and local government programs for the acquired areas of particular national interest. Typi- protection or prudent use of estuarine resources? cally, they are wilderness areas or areas suitable for The initial response by the state is salutary. The recreational use. Many estuarine areas are contained real test will come, however, when they propose in this national parks system. But they represent a coastal management programs for approval by the small segment' of our total estuarine resources. Secretary of Commerce. At that time a determina- The second category of this federal policy involves tion must be made from a national perspective on regulatory and coordinative efforts. With the excep- whether the several states have identified estuarine tion of the Estuary Protection Act and administra- areas as areas of particular concern, with appropriate tively established policies on wetlands, these pro- managerial constraints placed on their use, including grams only have incidental application to estuarine related land uses. zones. Their main purpose is to protect some other . Are there adequate federal policies to insure that natural resource value, e.g., Fish and Wildlife Co- development encroaching on estuarine areas will be ordination Act. adequately managed by state and local governments to The last category involves encouraging states to protect the estuarine resources? 634 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL The Coastal Zone Management Act goes a long RECOMMENDATIONS way toward achieving this result. It has certain geo- graphical constraints, however. A state's coastal zone In responding to the aforementioned issues the may only include inland areas necessary to control following recommendations are offered: uses which have a direct and significant impact on coastal waters. This boundary may be adequate in · A federal interdepartmental estuarine task force most dases to protect estuarine areas. However, in should be established, probably as an adjunct to the densely populated metropolitan regions the pressures federal coordination responsibilities of the Depart- of development in the areas immediately adjacent to ment of Commerce in the administration of the the coastal zone may exert pressures which ulti- CoastalZoneManagement Act. Thisgroup would be mately result in development in the zone itself. This charged with: 1) identifying existing federal laws and void could have been filled if national land use policies affecting estuarine management and syn- legislation had been enacted. In its absence, other ap- thesizing them into unified federal policy for uniform proaches must be sought. This will necessitate close application throughout the federal establishment; coordination among federal agencies having com- 2) developing objective evaluation criteria to de- plementary programs affecting state and local gov- termine the adequacy of state programs and regula- erinent land use policies. The comprehe tory policies on the protection and use of estuarine ning grant assistance programi administered by the resources, including related land uses; and 3) ex- Department of Housing and Urban Development amining the current administratively established and EPA's area-wide water quality management federal wetland policies, and preparing and recom- planning program"6 will influence land use decisions mending to Congress a legislative program for wet- in the areas adjacent to the coastal zone. land protection to be applicable to all federal grant- , Is the administratively established policy on wetlands in-aids and regulatory programs, as well as direct adequate to protect estuarine resources? federal management and development activities. Presently, federal policies on wetlands have been .Develop legislation to provide federal impact aid derived without an explicit congressional mandate. funds to coastal states. These federal funds should be And they have become important considerations in available to minimize adverse environmental effects making federal regulatory and development de- and control associated social impacts caused by the cisions within these areas, especially in those states development of energy resources in the coastal zone which do not presently have adequate wetland pro- and Outer Continental Shelf. Such grants should be tection policies. However, as administrative policy conditioned on advance planning and programming they do not have the same standing as legislation. for these impacts under the Coastal Zone Manage- This makes the application of these policies particu- ment Act. The acquisition of lands, construction of larly vulnerable in cases where the only potential public facilities, and the provision of public services constraint on a proposed activity is the federal wet- within the impact coastal areas should be eligible land policy itself. activities under this program. · Are current federal policies for the protection of estuarine areas adequate to ameliorate impending de- velopment pressures caused by the impact of oil and gas FOOTNOTES exploration in the Outer Continental shelf to meet the energy crisis? I Chapter 130-Section 27A as amended, Massachusetts General Laws. This is probably the most serious national chal- lenge to the preservation of our estuarine areas. I Commissioner of Natural Resources v. S. Volpe & Co., 349 Mass. 104, Since the federal government has exclusive control 206 N.E. 2d 666 (1965). in the development of OCS resources, the states are a Delaware Coastal Zone Act of 1971, 7 Del. Code Ch. 70, 7001, et seq. vulnerable to the impact of such activities. Advanced and joint federal-state planning for the onshore 4 Maine Site Location Act, 38 M.R.S.A. 481-488 (1970). impacts is vital. The proposed federal planning grant funds for this purpose will assist in minimizing poten- 5 California Coastal Zone Conservation Act of 1972, Public Resources tial adverse effects on coastal and estuarine re- Code, 27000 et seq. sources. If adverse environmental impact from such 6 Julius A. Stratton, Chairman, Commission on Marine Science, Engi- explorationf and other energy development activities neering and Resources established by P.L. 89-454. The Commission pub- is to be rminimized, however, additional federal im- lished as its final report Our Nation and the Sea, and three panel reports. pact assistance to coastal States will be required. 7 Zabel v. Tabb, 430 F.2d 199 (5th Cir. 1970). LEGAL ASPECTS 635 8 Senate Resolution 222established in the Senate Commerce Committee i2 Specific indications of the growth in state law and authority can be the National Ocean Policy Study Group. found in the Office of Coastal Zone Management's State Coastal Zone Management Activities-1974, and Bradley and Armstrong, A Description 9 Robert M. White, Administrator, National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Analysis of Coastal Zone and Shoreland Management Programs in the Administration, Department of Commerce, in a prepared statement before Unted States, March 1972. the National Ocean Policy Study Group, Senate Commerce Committee, April 23, 1974. 13 United States v. Holland, 4 ELR 20710 (M.D. Fla., Mar. 27, 1974). l0 e.g., S. 3221, Energy Supply Act of 1974; S. 2858 Outer Continental 14 Supra, Note II. Shelf Safety Act of 1974; S. 2672, Marine Resources and Conservation Act of 1974; S. 5, Deepwater Port Act of 1974, all introduced in the 93rd Congress. Is Section 701, Housing Act of 1954, as amended. 11 Disposal of Dredged Material in Navigable and Ocean Waters, 33 16 Section 208, Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendment of 1972 C.F.R. 209, 145. (P.L. 92-500). BASIC FACTORS OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION AFFECTING DEMAND FOR WATER RESOURCES JOHN C. BELCHER University of Georgia Athens, Georgia ABSTRACT The number of people is not the critical factor in water pollution, but the way the population is distributed and the life patterns that are followed. This report describes the changing distribu- tion of the population of the estuarine counties of the eastern seaboard including the development of new urban structures such as the megalopolis and the creation of new lifestyles brought about by increased leisure time, retirement, second homes, commuting, female participation in the labor force, and changing residential arrangements. INTRODUCTION spared much of the southern coastal areas from these problems. Evidence is accumulating that water will be the Acknowledging that problems of pollution are focus of a great world environmental crisis of the manmade, it is appropriate to analyze the changing future. The pressures of very rapid population distribution of the population along the eastern sea- growth, industrialization, and improvements in the board and to ascertain some of the trends in Ameri- levels of living will be followed by a steadily increas- can life that affect the water resources. ing consumption of water. A result will be pressures The basic theme of this report is that the mere for a more complete utilization of existing water number of people is not the critical factor in the resources everywhere. water pollution of a given area, but rather, the way Widely publicized food shortages have resulted in which the human population is distributed. Above from a serious drought in many countries since 1972. all, the life patterns of mankind determine the Some climatic experts insist that the world may be impact he has upon his environment. Thus, there entering into a new cycle of drought that may last are two major sections to this analysis: First, a for a number of years. The reaction to predicted description of the changes that are taking place in lack of precipitation will be development of wells the distribution of the population, especially along and dams that permit irrigation of large tracts of the east coast; and second, some of the changes in land; such a step could have serious ramifications the life patterns of the American population, espe- for both the quantity and even more importantly, cially demographic trends, which have relevance to the quality of water. the relationship of the human population to the In the United States these pressures will most natural environment. likely result in an acceleration in the use of water The logic of this approach to understanding water in the estuaries of the eastern seaboard; a subse- pollution is demonstrated by the following definition quent deterioration of these water resources is quite agreed to at a Geneva conference in 1961, "a water likely unless preventive action is taken in the im- is considered polluted when its composition or state mediate future. The possible deterioration of water is directly or indirectly modified by human activity resources is related to the changing life patterns of to the extent that it is less suited for purposes it the human population, patterns that can bring im- could have served in its natural state" (Furon, mense changes in the environment. 1967:105). Already the almost solid configuration of cities Although technically the definition may be inade- and industry along most of the northern portion of quate, one has but to glance at a few of the myriad the eastern seaboard has resulted in widespread pol- products of human behavior which do pollute the lution of the estuaries. The limited concentrations water of the world-pesticides, fertilizers, industrial of population and industrial developments have effluents, raw sewage, synthetic detergents, and 637 638 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL household refuse--to realize that the problem is sided in urban areas, that is, population centers widespread and serious (Furon, 1967:106-108). with over 2,500 inhabitants. Accelerating since the 1940's was a second urban revolution-the rapid decentralization of cities. The POPULATION DISTRIBUTION metropolitan region became the focus of human existence. Practically all of the hundreds of modernr At the time of the first census of the United States shopping centers that dot the American landscape in 1790, the population of the country was 3,929,214, on the periphery of the major cities have been con- largely restricted to a narrow band along the east structed since World War II. A concomitant of this coast. The rate of growth per decade ran over 30 decentralization has been the loss of function by the percent from 1790 until 1880 with the exception of central business district; the decay of these inner the 10-year period from 1860 to 1870. In this era cities was widely publicized during the 1960's. Never- of the Civil War the growth rate remained high, theless, the urban population, including the suburbs amounting to 22.6 percent. Although after 1880 the adjacent to the major urban centers, continued to decennial rate of growth started declining, it was grow. In 1970, nearly three out of four American still 25.5 percent between 1880 and 1890. citizens (73.5 percent) were classified as urban. The 100 years between 1790 and 1890 witnessed A third revolution in the growth of cities, an urban the westward movement of the population until sprawl, seems underway (Gottman and Harper, settlement was virtually complete from the east to 1967). The largest urban areas of the United States the west coast. The population of the nation in- are now starting to lose population. Between 1960 creased manyfold after 1790 and stood at 62,979,766 and 1970, 15 of the 21 cities in the United States when the census was taken in 1890. with populations above 500,000 in 1960 actually lost This westward movement, the Civil War, and population. More recent estimates indicate that this changing agriculture brought the abandonment .of trend is accelerating and that a very large percentage many farms and plantations along the eastern sea- of the major cities of the nation will lose population board. Rice production completely disappeared from during the decade of the seventies, at the same time Georgia and South Carolina. The chain of islands the urbanized portion of metropolitan areas tends along the coastal areas of the south at one time had to spread over the countryside. large cotton plantations when water was the prin- At the same time, it needs to be emphasized that cipal medium of transportation. The fields were the population of the nation continues to grow permitted to become fallow and forests were soon rapidly, reaching 213,000,000 during the fall of 1975. soon established as the population shifted to the Ours remains essentially an urban population with mainland, people living on the fringes of the larger cities in At the beginning of the 19th century, the United an ever-widening radius. This fringe development States was basically a nation of agriculturists. Only has been a major phenomenon of recent years and 5 percent of the country's population resided in is likely to continue. On the other hand, the prob- cities when the census was taken in 1790. Around a ability that the central cities will experience rebirth decade later the growth of cities became an all and renewed population'growth is remote. pervasive phenomenon, not only in the United The cities of the United States have grown largely States, but the rest of the world as well. In 1850, through young people abandoning the farms for 15.3 percent of the population of the nation lived life in the cities. This rural to urban migration was in cities, but by 1900, the figure had increased to a major factor in the redistribution of the population 39.6 percent. Some theorists have associated the overthelast 150years. Thismigrationwasenhanced growth of the cities with the development of the by the immigration of thousands upon thousands railroad as a major means of transportation. By of foreign born during the late 19th and early 20th 1920, 51.2 percent of the inhabitants of the United centuries. There were several years in which over a States lived in cities. These cities were largely con- million immigrants came to the United States, structed about the intersection of railroads or where settling generally in the central core of the larger they terminated at ocean ports. cities. Currently, the effect of immigration on the With the advent of the automobile, the stage was growth of central cities has declined because immi- set for a modification in the urbanization process. In- gration proceeds at a slower rate than previously, creasingly, people could reside farther and farther and because the modern immigrant tends to join into the suburbs and still work in the central business relatives who may be scattered throughout the district. The growth of cities continued until in nation, rather than in the urban ghettos. 1940, 56.5 percent of the nation's population re- Even more important for the growth of cities is LEGAL ASPECTS 639 that the rural-farm population base is so small. creased 15.6 percent compared with an increase of Only 5.2 percent of the nation's inhabitants lived 13.5 percent in the total population of the United on farms in 1970. The birth rates of the rural farm States. The latest estimates show that between 1970 residents are declining to a level comparable to those and 1973 these estuarine counties increased 3.8 per- of the rest of the nation's citizens. Cities simply cent while the nation's population increased 3.0 cannot depend upon a continuation of the in- percent. migration of a surplus rural population as a source Many people have become aware recently that of growth. Urban growth must come from a natural the nation's birth rates have fallen to the lowest increase. point in history. A real possibility exists that popu- In spite of the fact that the population of the lation increase in the nation may fall below the nation is increasing rapidly, it is obvious that all replacement level within the next very few years, sections are not equally sharing this growth. Of especially if economic conditions worsen. At the the 3,124 counties and county equivalents in the present time the crude birth rate is about 14.8 per United States, about one-half actually lost popula- thousand and the death rate is 9.2 per thousand. tion between 1960 and 1970, a decade in which the As the average age of the population increases, it is total population increased by nearly 24,000,000. inevitable that the death rate will rise. If the birth Less than one-third of these counties grew through rate continues the decline that started in 1957 and immigration. rapidly accelerated about 1965, there will be a The greatly reduced birth rates of the seventies balance between births and deaths within, perhaps, means that rapid growth for an area must be sus- the next 15 years. tained by internal migration. The redistribution of A reduction in the rate of growth or even a period the population draws an increasing portion of the in which the population of the nation reaches sta- population away from the vast midlands of the con- bility does not mean that the number of residents tinent to the coastal areas (See Figure 1) (Ullman, in the coastal counties will reach an equilibrium. 1954), although the coastal counties of the southern In fact, trends point to further rapid population United States have not experienced rapid growth growth in the estuarine areas almost independent of through internal migration in recent years. what occurs to the total population of the nation. "The only areas of the country in which more than half the total population increase was due to NEW URBAN STRUCTURES net immigration were Florida, the coastal portions of the Pacific Northwest, and California. Collec- The growth of cities covers a much wider range tively, these three areas had a net inflow of more than 4 million persons in the 1960's, whereas the people in the United States have a stereotyped remainder of the country had a net 'migration loss imege of the it ed on the concentric zone model of nearly 1 million" (U.S. Bureau of the Census, in which the central business district is surrounded 1974:129). ,., ,.. .by low income housing and industrial activities. As These trends in the redistribution of the popula- one moves out from this center toward the suburbs tion are especially important for those concerned the quality and spaciousness of the homes improves. with changes along the seaboard of this nation. The Growth is thought of as occurring in concentric rings Growth is thought of as occurring in concentric rings population, for example, in the coastal counties of as the population continues to move out from the the eastern seaboard contained 16.7 percent of the center in all directions. total population of the nation in 1950. This per- Actually the city has taken many forms in human centage has slowly but steadily increased to 17.1 history. What we tend to think of as a city in the percent in 1960, 17.4 percent in 1970, and the latest United States is basically a product of the 19th population estimates as of July 1, 1973 show that century when the urban structure was based upon 17.5 percent of the nation's population lives in these aggregations of industry at a major railway center. counties. (See Table 1). The total. population of By contrast, the cities of antiquity did not have the these coastal and estuarine counties has increased central business districts characteristic of this coun- from 25,283,811 in 1950, to 36,921,600 in 1973. An- try. The nucleus of the city does not always have a other way to look at the tendency of the population commercial function. The center of the city may be to live in coastal areas is that this band of seaboard either a religious shrine, a political center, or a counties experienced a 21.8 percent increase between university. 1950 and 1960. At the same time the population of We may anticipate that the American city of the the nation as a whole was increasing 18.6 percent. future will have a much different structure than is During the next decade these coastal counties in- common at present. One indicator of this change "a" 0 1 3- UNITED STATES i C 13.3OR OVER EZI]-OR OVER. 7 1 UNDER 13.3 ZJUNDER IC) U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS ADMINfSTRATION BUREAU OF THE CENSUS FIGuRB I.-Percent of change in total population by counties: 1960 to 1970. -LEGAL ASPEcTS, 641 Taibie :L-Total population of estuariiie co6nties of'the Eastern Seaboard, 1950-1973. 1950 1960 1970 1973 1950 1960 1970 1973 MAINE NEW JERSEY Cumberland. ...... 169,201 182,751 192,528 197,200 Atlantic - - -------- 132,399 160,880 175,043 185,100 Hancock - -. ------. 32,105 32,293 34,590 37,000 Bergen ----- 539,139 780,255 897,148 897,900 Knox .- -- -------. 28,121 28,575 29,019 31,100 Burlington .- ----. 135,910 2 24,499 323,132 323,500 Lincoln .- - ----- - 18,004 18,497 20,537 21,600 Camden -... . . 3b0,743 .392,035 456,291 474,200 Sagadahac .- ----. 20,911 22,793 23,452 24,900 Cape May- ----37,131 48,555 59,554 65,900 Waldo - ------- . 21,687 22,632 23,328 25,500 Cumberland . . ..... 88,597 106,850 121,374 130,900 Washington - ------ 35,187 32,908 29,859 31,200 Essex--- --- 905,949 923,545 932,526 936,900 York .- - --------- 93,541 ' 99,402 111,576 117,600 Gloucester .-. ...... 91,727 134,840 172,681 181,300 Hudson .......... 647,437 610,734 607,839 617,700 TOTAL - - ---------- 418,757 439,851w 464,883 486,100 .18,75 439Mercer --------- 229,781 266,392 304,116 316,100 Middlesex .. ..... 264,872 433,856 583,813 597,100 NEW HAMPSHIRE MonmOuth .- ------- 225,327 334,401 461,849 477,600 Ocean - - -----.-. 56,622 108,241 208,470 250,000 Rockingham - ----- 70,059 99,029 138,951 153,700 Salem- - 49,508 58,711 60,346 62,300 TOTAL ------------ 70;059 99,029 138,951 153,700 TOTAL - 70,059 99,029 138,951 153700 Unino - - .......398,138. 504,255 543,116 546,300 TOTAL-. - ------ 4,103,280 5,088,049 5,907,298 6,062,800 MASSACHUSETTS Sarmtable ... . i VIRGINIA': Barnstable ----- 46,805 .70,286 96,656. 109,000 VIRGINIA Bristol - - ----------- 381,569 398,488 444,301 461,300 Accomack. .. . 33, 32 30,635 29,004 29,200 Dukes ----5,633 5,829 . ,117 6,900 Arlington - -------. 1351449 163,401 174,284 163,800 Essex - - ---------- 522,384 568,831 637,887 647,400 Caroline ......... 12,471 12,725' 13,925 14,400 Nantucket - - ------ 3,484 3,559 3,774 4,.00 Charles Cjty . - ---- 4,676 5,492 6,158 6,600 Norfolk -------- 392,308 510,256 604,854 614,300 Chesterfield ... ... 40,400 71,197 77,045 90,400 Plymouth ...-.... -189,468 248,449 333,314 364,700 Dinwiddie-- ---18,839 22,183 25,046 22,00 Suffolk .-. --.. .... 896,615 791,329 735,190 734,700 Essexs. ... 6,530 6,690 7,099 7,!00 Fairfax ------------ 98,557 - 275,002 455,032 514,000 TOTAL--------2,438,266 :2,597,027 2,862,093 2942,500 Fai-9,5 25,92 ,32,00 Franklin - ....24,560 25,925 28,163 29,600 .Gloucester - - ---- 10,343 11,919 14,059 115,600 RHODE ISLAND Hanover -.. .---- 21,985 27,550 -37,479 43,300 Henrico. -.....57,340 117,339 154,364 165,300 Bristol -----.-..29,079 37,146 45,937 46,100 Isle of Wight ------ 14,906 17,164 18,285 18,700 Kent ----------- 77,763 112,619 142,382 148,700 James City - ----. 6,317 11,539 17,853 19,100 Newport .- .. ... 61,539 81,891 94,228 99,700 King and Queen....- 6,299 5,889 5,491 5,400. Providence .- - ---- 574,973 568,778 581,470 586,300 King George - ----- 6,710 7,243 8,039 8,500; Washington ------- 48,542 59,054 85,706 92,200 King William - -- 7,5$9$ 7,563 7,497 7,500 Lancaster ..- ...... 8,640 9,174 9,126 9,200 TOTAL --------- 791,896 859,488 949,723 973,000 Ldo -21147 24,549 37,150 41,700 Loudoun._ ---------- 21,147 2 4549 37,1.5 0 41,700. Mathews .- ------- 7,148 7,121 7,168 7,800 CONNECTICUT : Middlesex . . ...... 6,715 6,319 6,295 6,500 Nansemond . .. 25,238 31,366 35,166 ------ Fairfield ------ 504,342 654,589 792,814 787,800 New Kent .-. ---- 3,995 4,504 5,300 6,300 Middlesex - - ------ 67,332 88,865 115,018 121,000 Norfolk ..- -- 99,937 51,612 ------------- New Haven .- ---- 545,784 660,315 744,948 756,800 Northampto ....- . 17,300 16,966 14,442 15,300 New London - ---- 144,821 185,745 230,654 239,800 Northumberlaind... 10,012 10,185 9,239 9,100 4 1950 0 Prince George - ---- 19,679 20,270 29,092 19,800 TOTAL .-. - -------- 1,262,279 1,588,514 1,883,434 1,905,40 Princess Anne 42,277 76,12400-------- Prince William .. . 22,612 50,164 111.102 129,100 NEW YORK - Richmond .. . ....- 6,189 6,375 .,504 6,300, Southampton . .... 26,522 27,195 18,582 18,200 Albany ---------- 239,386 272,926 . 286,742 288,700 Spotsylvania ------ 11,920 13,819 16,424' 19,200 Bronx ---------- 1,451,277 1,424,815 1,471,701 1,449,200 Stafford_ - . . ..... 11,902 16,876 24,587 , 27,900 Columhia .-... .... 43,182 47,322 , 51,519 55,900 Surry .- . ...-.. 6,220 6,220 5;882 6,200 Dutchess - - ------- 136,781 .: 176;008 222,295 .229,700 Westmoreland _.. .. 10,148 11,042 12,142 12,900 Greene ------- 28,745 31,372 33,136 .3,,200 York ------ 11,750 21,583 33,203 36,800 Kings - -........... 2,738,175 2,627,319 2,602,012 2,507,100 Nassau .- - -------- 672,765 1,300,171 1,428,080 1,427,400 Independent Cities: New York .- ...... 1,960,101 1,698,281 1,539,233 1,463,800 Orange -. . . ....... 152,255 183,734 221,657 233,600 Alexandriaf----.-- 61,787 91,023 110,927 105,000 Putnam .- -------- 20,307 31,722 56,696 63,500 Chesapeake- --89,50 93,90 Queens .- ...... 1,550,849 1,809,578 1,987,174 1,984,600 Colonial Heights._. 6,077 9,587 15,097 16,900 Rensselear ........ 132,607 142,585 152,510 155,700 Fairfax---22,009 21,600 Fail hrfach--_.......: ....... 7...... 2200 i- 107210,300 Richmond .-.. . .. 191,555 221,991 295,443 312,000 l C rch 7,535 10,192 ,772 10,300 Rockland --------- 89,276 136,803 229,903 240,100 Franklino----- ------- ---------6,880 6,700 Suffolk -. - -------- 276,129 666,784 1,127,'030 1,197,200 Fredricksburg__..- 12458 13,639 14,450 15,400 Ulster - - ---------. -92,621 118,804 141,241 151,600 Hampton- -----5,966 89,258 120,779 127,300 Westchester .- --- 625,816 808,891 894,406 891,Io Hopewell- ----10,219 17,895 23,471 23,800. Newport News -. . . 42,358 113,662 138,177 137,500 TOTAL . - -- - - 10,401,827 11,699,106 12,740,778 12,673,400 Norfolk ---- ------- ----- -307,951 283,100 642 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 1.-Total population of estuarlne counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1950-1973.-(Contlnued) 1950 1960 1970 1973 1950 1960 1970 * 1i13 VIRGINIA-(Cont.) NORTH CAROLINA-- (Cosit.) Petersburg .-... . 35,054 36,750 36,103 43,600 Portsmouth - ------ 80,039 114,773 110,963 109,100 Martin 27,938 27,139 24,730 24,000 Richmond .- - ---- 230,310 219,958 249,431 230,400 New Hanover .. ... 63,272 71,742 82,996 92,100 South Norfolk ..... 10,434 .,-- --...... - --------- Onslow .- - ------- 42,047 86,208 103,126 94,200 Suffolk .- .. .... 12,339 12,609 45,024 47,400 Pamlico - - -------- 9,993 9,850 9,467 9,400 Virginia Beach-- ......... 8,091 172,106 192,900 Pasquotank _ - -___ 24,347 25,630 26,824 27,100 Williamsburg . ..... 6,735 6,832 9,069 10,200 Pender 18,423 18,508 18,149 .18,800 Perquimans. . ..... 9,602 9,178 8,351 8,300 TOTAL -- - 1,397,165 1,975,189 2,942,965 3,008,700 Pitt 63,789 69,942 73,900 73;500 Tyrrell ----- 5,048 4,520 3,806 - 3,700 MARYLAND Washington .. .. 13180 13,488 14,038 13,600 Anne Arundel 117,392 206,634 298,042 321,700 TOTAL 499,188 570,658 608,087 620,300 Baltimore ...- .. 270,273 492,428 620,409 637,500 Baltimore City -.. 949,708 939,024 905,789 871,300 SOUTH CAROLINA Calvert ------12,100 15,826 20,682 23,700 Cecil ------- 33,356 48,408 53,291 55,300 Beaufort - - ------. 26,993 44,187 51,136 54,900 Charles ----- 23,415 32,572 47,678 54,600 Berkeley-..- ----. 30,251 38,196 56,199 58,200 Dorchester .- . ..... 27,815 29,666 29,405 28,800 Charleston ..- . .... 164,856 216,382 247,650 256,200 Harford ---- - 51,782 76,722 115,378 129,100 Colleton.__ --- ---. 28,242 27,816 27,622 28,300 Kent .-. . ......... 13,677 15,481 16,146 16,500 Georgetown . ...... 31,762 34,798 33,500 35,400 Prince Georges- -_ 194,182 357,395 661,087 695,000 Horry - - ---------. 59,820 68,247 69,992 79,000 Queen Annes .. ... 14,579 16,569 18,422 19,000 Jasper 10,995 12,237 '11,885 12,000 Saint Marys------- 29,111 38,915 47,388 ,49,000 Somerset- _ ------ 20,745 19,623 18,924 18,600 TOTAL - - --------- 352,919 441,863 497,984 524,000 Talbot ----- 19,428 21,578 23,682 24,800 Wicomico ..-. . ... 39,641 49,050 - 54,236 56,900 GEORGIA Worcester.. 23,148 23,733 24,442 25,500 Bryan ...-........ 5,965 6,226 6,539 7,300 TOTAL 1,840,352 2,383,624 2,954,994 3,027,300 Camden .- - -- 7,322 9,975 11,334 12,000 Chariton - -...-- 4,821 5,313 5,680 6,200 DELAWARE Chatham .- ....... 151,481 188,299 187,816 179,700 GDlynAn .-- ----. 29,046 41,954 50,528 50,900 Kent - 37,870 65-,651 !81,892 89,900 Liberty - 8,444 14,487 17,569 17,700 New Castle 218,879 307 446 385,856 400000 McIntosh- 6,008 6,364 7,371 8,200 Sussex ....s- - .... 61,336 73,195 80,356; 85,800 213,087 272,618 286,837 282,000 TOTAL ------- - 318,085 446,292 548,104 575,700 - , * i FLORIDA NORTH CAROLINA Brevard .... 23,653 111,435 230i006 228,400 ,Broward ---- 83,933 333,946 620,100 738,600 Beaufort_--..... 37,134 36,014 35,980 36,100 Dade - - ---------- 495,084 935,047 1,267,792 1,367,100 Bertie - ------26,439 24,350 20,528 20,300 Duval - - ---------. 304,029 455,411 528,865 547,800 Brunswick - - -----. 19,238 20,278 24,223 29,800 Flagler 3,367 4,566 4,454 5,460 Camden - - ---------5,223 5,598 5,453 55,600 Indian River ... .. 11,872 25,309 35,992 40,800 Carteret .- - ---- 23;059 27,438 31,603 33,600 Martin 7,807 16,932 28,035 36,800 Chowan .- . ....... 12;540 11,729 10,764 10,600 Nassau 12,811 17,189 20,626 24;400 Craven - - --------- 48,823 58,773 62,554 67,000 Palm Beach .- - ... 114,688 228,106 348,993 403 000 Currituck - _ . - 6,201 6,601 6,976 8,500 St. Johns - -------- 24,998 30,034 31,035 34,700 Dare - --------5,405 5,935 6,995 7,800 St. Lucie .- - ------ 20,180 39,294 50,836 57,700 Gates - ---9,555 9,254 8,524 8,200 Volusia 74,229 125,319 169,487 191,200 Hertford .-.. .... 21,453 22,718 23,529 22,500 Hyde ...- ... .... 6,479 5,765 5,571 5,600 TOTAL 1,176,651 2,322,588 3,336,221 3,675,900 is that the central business district is rapidly declin- Two types of urban structures are evolving: One ing in importance. Population, commercial activities, has as the main street the perimeter highway that and industry have been decentralizing for several connects a series of the major shopping centers. decades. The modern shopping centers which are so Over the last few years, large numbers of apartment prevalent today did not come into existence until complexes have come into existence near these pe- after the termination of World War II. Manufactur- rimeter highways. The other new main street of ing has largely moved from the central city to new America is the interstate or other multi-lane express- locations in the outskirts of metropolitan centers or way that stretches for hundreds of miles with even in isolated rural areas. attached nodes of residential development, manu- LEGAL ASPECTS 643 facturing establishments, shopping centers, major pattern of land use has changed rapidly" (Gott- recreational facilities, medical complexes, transpor- mann, 1961:217). tation centers, and the like, forming a strip city. More recently, another major megalopolis has The most spectacular of this latter type is the come into existence along the east Florida coast that megalopolis of the eastern seaboard that joins cities promises to incorporate the entire Florida peninsula. from New Hampshire to Virginia into an amazing Today, a narrow band of urban development extends urban complex. The scholar, Jean Gottmann, who the length of the state from Miami to Jacksonville. popularized the concept Megalopolis in his book by As yet largely unaffected by this trend have been this name stated that this new urban region brought the coastal areas of Georgia, South Carolina, and rural and urban together into an integrated whole, North Carolina. Projections of past trends in popu- "In this gradual symbiosis two seemingly conflicting lation growth do not indicate the urbanization of trends have worked together: urban people and ac- this section of the Atlantic coast. (See Figure 2). tivities have taken on more rural aspects and tradi- Yet, trends other than past population growth would tionally rural pursuits have a9quired urban charac- indicate that the megalopolis of the northeast and teristics. Some sectors of an urbanized region have that of Florida will eventually merge into a gigantic come to look the way rural countryside used to urban complex extending nearly 2,000 miles. while districts specializing in agricultural production The availability of land, water, and a mild climate have begun to resemble built-up suburbs. The whole provide the basis for such a development. The final 213}s \ I jM ! r2 i 2F2 23 1. Metropolitan Belt 9. Twin Cities Region 17. Blue Grass 1.a. Atlantic Seaboard 10. Colorado Piedmont 18. Southern Coastal Plain 1.b. Lower Great Lakes 11. Saint Louis 19. Salt Lake Valley 2. California Region 12. Metropolitan Arizona 20. Central Illinois 3. Florida Peninsula 13. Willamette Valley 21. Nashville Region 4. Gulf Coast 14. Central Oklahoma- 22. East Tennessee 5' East Central Texas-Red River Arkansas Valley 23. Oahu Island 6. Southern Piedmont - 15. Mi'ssouri-Kaw Valley 24. Memphis 7. North Georgia-South East Tennessee 16. North Alabama 25. El Paso-Ciudad Juarez 8. Puget Sound Based on 2-child family projection FIGURE 2.-Urban regions: year 2000. Source: Pickard, 1972: 143. 644 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL catalyst may be the interstates and other express- ties among state, county, cities, and other minor. ways which' fuse Florida and the northeast into a political subdivisions gave a system that rather major'main street of the United States. effectively provided needed functions. "The 'emergence of this new entity comes into The unplanned, urban sprawl that has accompa- sharper focus when one reflects that early in the nied the development of megalopolis and other urban present century before the appearance of -the auto- regions has resulted in one problem with which mobile, people fulfilled their needs for goods and existing civil divisions were not prepared to cope: services within walking distance of their homes. maintenance of a pure water source. The water Homes were located near the place of employment supply depends upon cooperation across many polit-y in order that the journey to work could be minimal. ical boundaries. Public health demands services that: Neighborhood schools, grocery stores, churches, plus are increasingly difficult for political units based the local physician made it possible for all to live a- upon an old -urban hierarchical structure to furnish. rather complete life without leaving the small com- New collective solutions are needed in many areas munity. The locality was a functioning social system but in none more important than the protection to which individuals had a strong identity. and utilization of water resources (Gottmann, 1961: The pattern today is much different. Most resi- 376-377). dential areas have few, at times none, of the services An examination of the changing practices in the demanded. People go to one locality for medical disposal of solid and liquid wastes reflects the need- services, another to schools, still another for grocer- as urbanization progresses for political units that ies, and perhaps a more distant location to purchase can provide collective means of household sanitation clothes, furniture, or an automobile. The automobile as a substitute for traditional, individualistic ones. has become a necessary ingredient of daily_ life in Even today along the more sparsely populated sec- the United States. An increasing percentage of the tions of the South Atlantic States, it is 'necessary for population has two, or more automobiles that are individuals to fulfill sanitation needs on an individ- continuously in use. The location of goods and serv- ualistic basis. In the modern city a modern sewerage ices brings patterns of life in which each person system safely disposes of large quantities of liquid tends to travel within an increasingly larger area. and organic wastes. The periodic roundscof the gar- Outlook and use- of space tends to be more regional bage collector gives an easy way for individuals to than tied to a specific locality. . discard waste papers, magazines, and a large variety There are no strong loyalties to a given establish- of containers. ment and a-new shopping center can'rapidly disrupt Historically, the situation was much different for existing patterns. Existing trade and service- pat- the person living in isolation. Food wastes were fed terns are altered with the construction of modern to chickens, hogs, and other animals. Papers and highways. The interstate system is new and some other inflammable materials were burned. Tin cans, portions are not complete in the South Atlantic bottles, and other such materials were thrown into coastal area. With the passage of time, factories, a family trash heap away from the house. Period- new stores, ;and services will locate along express- ically, these latter materials were hauled away and ways. These establishments will' inevitably provide dumped into streams, gullies, or flatlands draining so much competition that some more isolated busi- into the estuaries. Human wastes were deposited in nesses will be abandoned. The trend is for more the old-fashioned privy or pit toilet. This system of people to spend more time on the highways in satis- sanitation was based on individual efforts. Even fying their daily needs. today, sewage lines, garbage collection routes, and -· f - the like are not economically feasible in a sparsely settled rural political subdivision with a small tax CHANGING PROBLEMS OF base. WASTE DISPOSAL IN MEGALOPOLIS The expansion of existing metropolitan' areas and The emerging megalopolis has made dysfunctional the growth of smaller population centers into cities forces collective solutions to sanitation problems. the political subdivisions that were largely created In the interim between individualistic and collec- iduring the 19th centeury.l aregionwith itys loune tive solutions, there is a period in which the risks sidered the center of a region with its business nucleus as the "heart." A hierarchical web of rela- of water pollution are very great. Isolated vacation tionships bound the metropolis, its suburbs, satellite homes along the beaches and estuaries create special towns, and rural hinterland into a functioning whole., problems. These clusters of homes have no collective- Each part tended to have its own political'identity solutions to sanitation -problems. Often raw sewage (Gottmann, 1961:736). The division of responsibili- is dumped directly into streams. Household trash is . LEGAL ASPECTS X 645. dumpjed into the edge of a stream to be carried off are used. New lifestyles are coming into existence by the next tide. These practices' are often continued that affect man's relationship to the environment. in some sizeable towns and villages in spite of health A high protein diet, for example, based upon the regulations prohibiting such practices. A lone county consumption of beef results in much more land being sanitarian may not have sufficient political clout to used to provide food than was true in the past. The stop such practices. Those reared in a rural milieu direct consumption of potatoes, wheat products, and are accustomed to these traditional practices and do other starches has steadily declined. Through the not view them as a threat to health and the environ- years automotive transportation has replaced pedes- ment. Also, many communities are inhabited by trian travel and public transportation. people with low incomes who do not have the finan- Affluency has become so much a characteristic of cial resources to pay taxes sufficiently -large to de- Amnerican life that it has lost its status value. People velop sanitary sewage or garbage collection systems. today with much more leisure time than existed Consequently, these people are often content to previously are adopting new lifestyles that have continue with the present system. many of the attributes of an old agrarian society. Answers to questions about other solutions show These new lifestyles result in demands -for beaches, that a large portion of these people living in isolation vacation' homes, extensive travel, backpacking, and believe it would be an infringement on their freedom other forms of outdoor recreation. Dining out and to have a collective system of waste disposal forced the search for other forms of recreation keeps large upon them, especially if such a system" meant an numbers of people on the highways. increase in taxes or a charge for the service. A focus for many of these activities is along the Collective: solutions to many problems may be estuaries of the eastern United States. Residents of essential and can only be furnished by new political the large metropolises throng to the more popular entities. Yet, individuals will resist the changes. For public recreational centers along the rivers, bays, them, traditional solutions are deemed preferable. and beaches. Extensive camping and other outdoor Others do nbt want to see civil subdivisions give up activities may destroy the ground cover. Campfires present function and responsibilities. Especially-re- and the haphazard disposal of the debris by the luctant-to see changes are those with a vested interest participants of outdoor recreation litter the country- in the status quo. ' ' sides. Roads and trails for the increasingly popular The human value system does not necessarily four-wheeled vehicles, trail bikes, and dune buggies welcome changes that are both needed and inevita- scar the -land. , ble. The response applies to individuals, -corpora- American society today seems possessed by a de- tions; and industries. sire to escape from affluency and return increasingly to nature. The call to nature has resulted, at times, NEW LIFE STYLES 0 in the destruction of forests and protective dunes. AND WATER PO LLIUTION The channelization of streams, the construction of roads and other recreational and vacation facilities The changing urban structure is accompanied by have drastically altered the environment in many many changes in lifestyles that can have a great areas. Population growth is but one factor in the impact upon the estuaries of the nation. In our utiliation of these natural resources. New lifestyles affluent society there has been the widespread diffu- are placing new demands upon the natural resources. sion of many of the material conveniences of human Obviously, any change in the environment of the life as the process of urbanization has developed. drainage areas is going to have an impact upon the This affluency has been made possible by' the indus- water in the estuaries (See Ronald G. Ridker, 1972: trialization of the United States and of many other 17-33). countries. Full employment and economic prosperity : have made it possible for automobiles, air condition- DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS ing, television, refrigerators, and many' other appli- AND NEW LIFE STYLES ances and manufactured products to be possessed by a very large Percentage of the United States' Not everybody in the United States follows the population including those who are classed as living same lifestyle. Great differences exist between iso- in poverty. Most live in houses with modern plumb- lated rural areas, the ghettos of the large cities, ing and fully-eqUipped kitchens that protect the retirement villages in Florida, and the suburbs of family from the rigors of the elements. Connecticut., Even within a given community there Much more important than the simple possession may be several principal lifestyles followed by vari- of these material things is the way in which they ous segments of the population. Style of life may be 646 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL considered as the way in which material possessions productive ages much more leisure time. The first are used. These patterns of consumption vary among of these is that most employers now make provision status groups in a community. For example, an for vacations. The paid vacation is a relatively recent automobile may be the source of livelihood for one phenomenon. "As late as the 1920's only a small group of the population, a means of transportation number of wage earners had paid vacations. Among to work for another, and a vehicle for recreational salaried workers the paid vacation was more com- purposes only for still another. These patterns of mon" (De Grazia, 1964:59-60). Today, vacations, behavior tend to form configurations which are fol- holidays, and sick leaves for the average worker are lowed by all within a given group of the population. a fringe benefit that reduces the number of hours the During the 1950's there was the stereotype of the average person works per year by at least 15 days. suburban family, a couple with four or five children, Even more spectacular has been the decline in the with its station wagon, residing in a split-level house. number of hours that people work. De Grazia esti- The lifestyle of this group would have been much mates that in 1859 the average agricultural worker different from that of the factory worker with a put in 72 hours a week and those in non-agriculture pleasure automobile, who took the bus to work while industries 65.7 hours every week. After this date his wife stayed home in a crowded tenement dwelling, there have been steady declines in the number of A number of trends can be discerned from demo- hours that people work. By 1940 it was estimated graphic and other data that are having a great that those in non-agriculture put in 54.6 hours. By impact upon the lifestyles in the United States. 1960 these figures on the length of the average work Some of these trends are developing more rapidly week had dropped to 38.0 hours in non-agriculture in the coastal areas than in other sections of the and 44 in agriculture, an average of 38.5 for all nation. workers (1962:420). The declines since this date have been more modest. It has been estimated that the average workweek had dropped to 37 in 1970. Leisure Time He projects it will further decline to 35 hours by 1980 (De Grazia, 1968:114). One of the more important of these developments 1980 (De Grazia, 1968:114). These estimates are for the nation as a whole. for the estuarine areas has been the shorter work- The ata e o hos woe The actual number of hours worked might differ week for those in the labor force, resulting in more The a lm our ed m gt d time for leisure. For more than a century man has somewhat in the eastern United States, but the trend is unmistakeable. People today have a greater increasingly had more of his da y freed from eonomic percentage of their life outside the labor force and pursuits which increases his opportunity to engage while employed work on the average much less than in recreational and other activities. The classic work emo or o ag h e tn a generation or so ago. This shorter workweek pro- describing this transition was published by Sebastian vides a basis for new lifestyles that would not have de Grazia in 1962 under the title, "Of Time, Work, been possible in the past when the average employee and Leisure." De Grazia points out several changes had little time for anything other than meals and that have reduced the time man spends in economic sleeping in addition to his work. Free time for recrea- pursuits. . . tion was almost unknown. The activities of the The first of these is that people in the United entire family are influenced by this new work sched- States enter the labor force at a later age than they ule which permits all members of the family to spend ule which permits all members of the family to spend previously did. In the past, adolescents of 12 or 14 time outside the home often were full-time workers. Various labor laws and increasing years of education have resulted in people entering the labor force at an older age. Retirement Second, changing customs and laws have resulted in people retiring at the age of perhaps 60 or 65. The lifestyles of retired people are much different Retirement was almost unknown in the past. Today from those of young adults. Generally, older people almost all workers may expect voluntary or involun- are more sedentary and consume less than those in tary retirement in their 60's. Further, increasing the prime of life. Increasing life expectancy has re- life expectancy in the United States has resulted in sulted in a tremendous increase in the number of a much larger percentage of all people born even- people above the age of 65 in the United States. In tually reaching the retirement age and having several 1950 there were 12,397,000 people above the age of years of life outside the labor force. 65 representing 8.1 percent of the total population. In addition to the delayed entry into the labor This number increased dramatically to 19,972,000 force and the withdrawal from it two other develop- in 1970 and to 21,815,000 as of July 1, 1974. Today ments have occurred that give those in the active 10.3 percent of the nation's inhabitants are above LEGAL ASPECTS 647 the age of 65 compared with 9.8 percent in 1970 Table 2.-Population 65 years old and over in the estuarine counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1950-1970 and 9.2 percent in 1960. Social security and other retirement plans provide 1950 1960 1970 a constant source of income for an increasing per- Number % Number % Number % centage of the elderly. Many of these individuals Maine 47,163 11.2 53,695 12.2 57,849 12.4 are migrating to coastal sections of the country New Hampshire .... 7,931 11.3 9,676 9.8 12,148 8.7 considered to have a pleasant climate. The vicinity Massachusetts- 279,477 11.5 299,850 11.5 334,058 11.7 of St. Petersburg, Fla., is widely known as a retire- Rhode Island -..... 70,418 8.9 89,540 10.4 103,932 10.9 of St. Petersburg, Fla., wely nown as a retire- Connecticut -- ----. 112,775 8.9 154,045 9.7 181,267 9.6 ment haven. Approximately 30 percent of the popu- New York ..-. ..... 823,932 7.9 1,162,666 9.9 1,388,261 11.4 lation of several counties in the vicinity of St. 'New Jersey- 323,957 7.9 461,088 9.0 572,136 9.7 Virginia -.. ........ 101,397 7.3 143,663 7.3 190,597 6.5 Petersburg is above the age of 65 years. Even more Maryland .-. ....... 140,950 7.6 171,749 7.2 128,183 4.3 striking however, is that 48.8 percent of the Miami Delaware - --.-. 26,320 8.3 35,745 8.0 43,833 8.0 Beach population is above the age of 65. Other North Carolina .-.29,002 5.8 37,151 6.5 46,581 7.7 South Carolinas------16,745 4.7 22,297 5.9 29,132 5.8 coastal cities of Florida also are the homes of many Georgia 12,353 5.8 17,278 6.3 22,329 7.8 retired persons. Florida-90,043 7.7 234,382 10.0 459,082 13.8 A special tabulation of the changing number of TOTAL ...- .....2,082,463 8.2 2,892,824 9.4 3,569,388 10.0 people above the age of 65 years residing in the estuarine counties, starting with Broward County, immediately north of Dade in which Miami is lo- southern estuarine counties may be expected. This cated, and extending to the Canadian border, shows migration will probably be more directed to larger a great increase in the number of elderly in recent communities with relatively complete medical and years. service facilities. These coastal counties in 1950 had 2,082,463 resi- dents above the age of 65, but by 1970 this number Second Homes had increased to 3,569,388, a growth of 71.4 percent. By contrast, the increase in the number of elderly A preoccupation with the growth of population in the country as a whole was significantly less for has tended to detract attention from a number of the period, 61.1 percent. extremely important demographic trends. One of Table 2 presents statistics on the changes in the these developments is the proclivity of Americans number of old people in the eastern seaboard coun- over the last few years to acquire a second home. ties, by states. It may be noted that the rate of These dwellings are generally in the more isolated increase in the population above the age of 65 was rural areas where one can enjoy the beauties of below the national average in the coastal counties nature. The construction of these houses often has of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode very serious ramifications not just for the environ- Island, and Connecticut to the north, but only ment but the economic stability of an area. Often North Carolina among the more southern group of those constructing vacation homes are not restricted states. Most spectacular is the increase of over 400 by any construction codes or by regulations for dis- percent in the selected Florida counties during this posal of human wastes. Also, many are located in 20-year period. the submarginal areas that should be zoned for The percentage of the total population of all the forestry or recreation with no residential construc- eastern seaboard counties above the age of 65 tends tion permitted. to be less than the national average. This finding is One of the most desirable locations for vacation a consequence of a high influx of young people in a homes in the minds of many people is along the growing population and will change as those in the beaches and the estuaries of the eastern seaboard. productive ages enter retirement, unless the total Of course, other individuals express a preference for population continues to increase rapidly through the mountains. Regardless of the relative attraction the immigration of young workers. of the mountains or the beaches, a large percentage The trend seems unmistakable for those with of the population wants to escape at least period- financial means to move to warmer coastal areas ically, from city life. Beach property has tended to upon retirement. The small family pattern that has advance manyfold in price during recent years. The emerged in recent decades coupled with mobility of increase in the cost of beach property is in itself an young people means that the family ties are not as indication of growing demands for such sites for a likely to hold a person to the community in which second home. he spent his productive years. Further, substantial A special report of the census reveals that 2.9 growth in the number of people retiring to the percent of families in the United States had a second 648 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 3.-Second homes and seasonal housing units, estuarine counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1970 Occupied Housing Units Seasonal-Housing Units Total Number with Percent with Total Percent of all State Total Units Number Second Home Second Home Number Housing Units- Held'Occasional Use Maine . ..-------- .. 146,635 15,672 10.7 35,431 17.6 6,486 New Hampshire --- -------------------. 41,677 3,153 7.6 8,274 15.6 3,037 Massachusetts .--.. . - ---------. 901,766 56,960 6.3 43,218 4.3 11,611 Rhode Island -- ... 291,965 13,337 4.6 9,884 3.1 1-,687 Connecticut --.577,936 26,146 4.5 7,886 1.3 6,615 New York --........................... 4,232,501 189,763 4.5 51,846 1.2 58,186 New Jersey .....- 1,836,689 85,240 4.6 70,506 3.6 21,490 Virginia ------- - -- - 864,091 33,885 3.9 4,832 :0.5 19,032 Maryland.. ---0- 883,615 28,169 3.2 12,494 1.3 7,974 Delaware.: ------ 164,804 9,517 5.8 5,222 2.9 1,2i3 North Carolina --171,543 6,988 4.1 8,052 5.0 13,372 South Carolina ----------------------... 134,430 616,695 5.0 6,938 3.4 8,695 Georgia-- .............................86,189 3,764 4.4 509 0.5 12,154 Florida ....... I ---_--------- ..... 1,123,478 63,794 5.7 19,389 1.5 ' 46,561 TOTAL ------. n 11,457,319 543,083 4.7 284,481 6.2 218,173 home in 1967. This number increased dramatically eral land developments have brought about such during the next three years and the 1970 Census of increases the last few years. Population reported that 2,890,000 families, or 4.6 The percentage of the population of the estuarine percent of the total, had a second home in 1970. counties with a second home is presented in Table 3. The construction of these second homes proceeded The proportion of the population owning a second at a very rapid pace until about 1973 when the rate home in these counties does not differ greatly from of construction declined. Many of these new second the national average, and is most pronounced in the homes are a part of large developments in mountain most northern coastal states of Maine, New Hamp- and resort areas, but especially, in some of the more shire, and Vermont. 'Florida and Delaware are also -attractive beach areas. No accurate statistics are above the national average, but to a lesser extent. readily available on the extent of these recent Although the county statistics are not available developments. on the number of dwellings held for occasional use, One indication of the location of these second they are for the states as a whole. An unknown por- homes may be obtained from the Census of Housing. tion of these housing units are along the estuaries. These reports show the number of homes in each It may be noted in Table 3 that, relative to the total county classed as seasonal. These figures under- population of the states, these houses are more estimate the number of vacation homes inasmuch characteristic of the southern states. It would appear as the census has a separate category for the dwell- that the second homes in New England tend to be ings held of occasional use. The number in this latter held for use during the summer months but for category is not presented by counties. The number year-round use in the South. of seasonal homes in the estuarine counties (see Nationally, this upsurge in the number of vacation Table 3) is therefore, the best index available of the homes indicates a trend that may be predicted to location of second homes. Although admittedly in- continue if economic conditions permit. The develop- complete, these statistics reflect the areas in which ment of second homes will have a great impact upon such dwellings are concentrated. the areas in which they are located. Two notable concentrations of such houses are in two counties of New Jersey. Cape May had' 24,817 such structures and Ocean County had ?9,851:"Most Commuting of these dwellings are used by individuals residing outside the counties because only 1,254 of the fami- The vast majority of the population of the lies in Cape May reported owning a second home in United States lives in the metropolitan areas of the 1970 and the figure for Ocean County was but 3,245. nation. In these areas almost inevitably the home and Another- concentration is in Barnstable County, work are separated. This journey to work is certainly Mass., (Cape Cod) which reported 21,524 seasonal a factor in daily existence of many people, but"the homes. Relatively few were reported for the coastal phenomenon of commuting is much more complex areas of Georgia, Virginia, North Carolina, and than often is realized. For one thing, there are large South Carolina. Nevertheless, it is known that sev- numbers of households in which both the husband LEGAL ASPECTS 649 and wife are employed outside the home. As a con- thanr whites. Maize and Rawlings suggest that a sequence, both are engaged in this journey to work. reason for this is that many blacks were reared in The pattern is not all that crucial at the present rural areas where life was not kind to them and only time in estuarine counties that are non-metropolitan, in the cities have they found a more pleasant life but indications are that it will become more im- than the rural setting of their childhood. A move portant in the future. back to the rural areas might be viewed as a step Several studies have been made in recent years of backward. (1972:607). the residential preferences in the United States. A If these generalizations are valid for the southern Gallup poll in 1966 reported that 49 percent of coastal areas, they would explain why these areas respondents would rather live in a small town or have not been experiencing as rapid population rural area than a larger community. Two years later growth as other coastal sections of the nation. Large this figure had increased to 56 percent (Zuiches and numbers of southern blacks have moved to the cities Fuguitt, 1972: 622). of the nation, especially to northern ones during the A survey in 1971 for the Commission on Popula- past half century. This out migration has brought a tion Growth and the American Future indicated sizeable decline in the population of some of the that 64 percent of the U.S. population preferred to more rural coastal counties. In the near future, live in small towns and rural areas (1972:34). In- these counties will probably be able to experience vestigations in Wisconsin add another dimension to rapid growth only through the immigration of whites these findings. Wisconsin residents also prefer to who are searching a small rural milieu. live in small towns and rural places, but most of Certainly, the basic attitudinal dispositions exist these individuals want to be within commuting that can bring a shift of residence toward the smaller distance of maj or metropolitan centers (Zuiches and towns and rural' areas. Relatively few economic Fuguitt, 1972:626). Apparently, the person living opportunities exist in sparsely settled areas. Thus, within 30 miles of a large city can enjoy the quiet the incidence of commuting to work may be expected and tranquility of the countryside, but for the to grow. satisfaction of his needs, he is able to get to the large One index of the extent of commuting is the city in a short period of time. In other words, the proportion of workers whose place of employment is individual residing within the commuting area of a outside the county of residence. The Census of major metropolis sees the opportunity for enjoying Population reports that in 1970, 17.8 percent of all the advantages of both the rural and the urban workers traveled outside the county where they lived environments. to work. This rate of commuting is lower in the The survey by Zuiches and Fuguitt also presented western than the eastern states, no doubt in part statistics that most people do prefer life in a residen- because western counties tend to be larger. Never- tial area about the same size in which they were theless, it is significant that the highest commuting reared. This finding is especially true for those reared rates were in the states along the eastern seaboard. on the farm. As the size of a center in which a person Iii Virginia, for example, 39.9 percent of all workers was reared increases, however, a definite tendency is leave the county of residence to work. Next highest noted to be less satisfied with the urban areas and is Maryland with 36.7 percent, followed by New for people to express a desire for a more rural setting Jersey and New York with 32.7 and 31.8 respectively. (1972:627). Large metropolitan centers such as Washington, Of course, a related question will' be whether or D.C., and New York City are the places of employ- not people move in terms of these'preferences. A ment, but not of residence, of large numbers of public opinion survey indicates that a relatively people. large percentage of the population believes that they The data in Table 4 show that the percent of the will actually change their place of residence according population working outside the county of residence to these preferences or that they reside in a desired in the estuarine counties of the eastern seaboard location. Maize and Rawlings report that 80 was 50 percent in 1970, a substantial increase from percent of the respondents in a survey were either the 37.8'percent in 1960. No tabulations were made living in the preferred location or expected to on the extent of inward commuting, which is sub- eventually move to such a place (1972:608). Such a stantial n some areas. tendency is much more pronounced as the size of the Further, it may be noted that there has been a center increases. Rather interestingly, whites are great increase in the number'of people working out- much more likely to move in terms of these aspira- side the home county, from 29.7 in 1960 to 36.4 in tions than are blacks. In fact, urban blacks tend to 1970 (see Table 4). The general pattern has been be much more satisfied with their residential area for in-county employment to increase -much less 650 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 4.-Commuting In the estuarine counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1960-1970 Workers Residing in Area 1960 Workers Residing in Area 1970 Percent Change in Number of Workers 1960-1970 Number Percent Working Number Percent Working In-County Out-of-County Outside County Outside County Maine -------- - ----- -------- ---------------------- 144,321 11.8 164,286 13.7 11.5 31.6 New Hampshire ------- - ------------ ---- - ----------- 36,366 34.4 49,753 43.9 16.9 74.8 Massachusetts .-------- - ----- ---------------------- 954,803 23.8 1,051,978 29.5 2.0 36.6 Rhode Island -....... . ................ 314,117 21.1 362,305 23.6 11.6 29.3 Connecticut -------- - ----- -------- ------------------ 591,889 11.3 700,545 14.7 13. a 54.1 New York b---------- - ----- ------------------------ 4,360,154 39.3 4,461,025 44.5 6.4 15.7 New Jersey ---------- - ----- ---------- -------------- 1,838,624 30.0 2,129,583 34.7 8.0 34.1 Virginia -------- - ----- ---------- ------------------- 725,562 42.8 1,129,096 46.8 44.6 70.3 Maryland -------- - ----- ---------- --------- - -------- 833,353 31.6 1,588,326 59.1 14.1 256.1 Delaware -------- - ---- -------- --------------------- 156,030 7.9 194,922 11.7 19.7 85.9 North Carolina -------- - ----- -------- -------- ------- 189,133 10.6 223,783 18.3 8.1 105.1 South Carolina -------- - ---- ------------------------ 140,030 7.1 171,931 11.6 16.8 109.8 Georgia ------- - ---- ------------------------------- 93,243 3.7 95,531 5.6 0.5 53.1 Florida -------- - ---- ---------- --------------------- 802,332 5.0 1,150,296 6.6 40.9 90.8 TOTAL ----------- - ---------- - ------------------ 11,179,957 29.7 13,473,360 36.4 12.8 47.7 rapidly than out-of-county employment. If present tabulated for the eastern seaboard counties. The trends continue. commuting will involve a greater same patterns are developing in this area as else- number of people than employment within the where. The total number of females in the labor county of residence. force for these estuarine counties increased from 4,298,003 in 1960 to 5,546,198 in 1970, an increase Women in Labor Force of 29 percent. During the same 10-year period, the number of males in the labor force grew from One factor in the increase in commuting has been 8,367,066 to 8,951,665, an increase of but 9 percent. a trend for more and more women to enter the labor Undoubtedly the employment of women outside force. Large numbers of married women are now the home is a major factor in the changing lifestyles working outside the home. When both husband and of the coastal areas. Inasmuch as birth rates are wife are employed, it is unlikely that they will declining, it may be anticipated that an increasing share the same journey to work. At times their percentage of women would continue to look outside hours differ, but more often, they go in different the home for fulfillment. This trend will, of course, directions. If they are employed in locations miles be determined by the availability of employment. apart, then one, if not both, must resort to com- muting. The home cannot be near both places of Land Use Changes employment. Furthermore, if both husband and wife work, their Nationally, the number of acres in farms has income will be more adequate to maintain a suburban steadily declined since the soil bank program of the lifestyle. With increases in income, people tend to 1950's. At the same time, the number of farms move out from the central city. continued to decline from the peaks reached early Patterns of life for a married couple change when in the century. Meanwhile, the average size of farms both are employed. The increased participation of has increased. The family farm is giving way to the married women in work outside the home may be commercialized enterprise. demonstrated by a few statistics. In 1950, only The number of farms in the estuarine counties of 23.8 percent of married women with husbands the eastern seaboard has dropped from 194,448 in present were in the labor force. This figure reached 1950 to 72,049 in 1970, a decline of 62.9 percent in 30.5 percent in 1960, but accelerated after that date only 20 years. (Table 5). to 40.8 percent in 1970 and 41.5 percent in 1972. The widely publicized world food crisis will The figures for the total adult female population probably result in the expansion of large scale show the same trend. In 1950, 31.4 percent of agricultural enterprises along the eastern seaboard. females above the age of 14 were in the labor force. Much of this area, especially along the South Atlantic This figure was reported as 43.6 percent in 1972. coast, was at one time abandoned for agricultural Rates of participation in the labor force were not purposes with the westward movement of settle- LEGAL AsPECTS, 651 Table 5.-Number of farms in estuarine counties on the'Eastern Seaboard, best opportunities for large corporations to develop 1950-1970 factories in the field in the shortest possible time. Percent Change The availability of water and the natural fertility 1950 1960 1970 1950 1960- 1970 of soil that has remained fallow for many years provide the potential for tremendous agricultural Maine .- . ............. 12,075 6,778 2,664 -56.1 -39.0 -21.9 yields. New Hampshire -. ..... 2,206 1,076 427 -48.7 -39.7 -19.4 Obviously, the draining of swamps and the de- Massachusetts-- ---- 27,899 3,947 2,132 -50.0 -54.0 -27.0 struction of ground cover would drastically alter the RhadeIsland - -------. 2,598 1,395 700 -53.7 -50.1 -27.0 Connecticut ....- ... 6,981 3,464 1,801 -49.6 -52.0 -25.8 ecology of the area within a short time. The impact of New York- - -------- 17,346 19,503 6,030 -12.4 -30.9 -35.0 the runoff on the estuaries would be quite dramatic. New Jersey - - --------- 17,274 10,790 5,481 -62.5 -50.8 -32.0 Virginia - - ------------ 36,134 19,781 12,255 -54.8 -62.0 -34.0 Only part of the land taken out of agriculture Maryland .- - ---------- 21,426 14,746 10,229 -68.8 -69.4 -48.0 has been converted to highways, urban residential Delaware -------------- 7,448 5,208 3,710 -70.0 -71.2 -49.8 North Carolina----- 34899 24,731 15,218 -70.8 -61.5 -43. areas, industrial development, and the like. Such South Carolina .-- ----- 18,900 11,645 6,072 -61.6 -52.1 -32.1 diverse uses receive much attention in the press. Georgia- - ----------- 2,301 1,158 582 -50.3 -50.3 -25.3 But a significant portion of the lands that were in Florida- - --- - 6,961 6,097 4,768 -87.6 -78.2 -68.5 cropland are not used for forestry and grazing. TOTAL .-... ........ 194,448 130,319 f2,049 -67.0 -55.3 -37.0 Forest lands in the United States have increased substantially over recent decades. No tabulations were made of the acreage in the estuarine counties that has returned to forests during recent years. ment. Rice plantations in the lowlands of the that has returned to forests during recent years. Carolinas and Georgia were abandoned long ago. Woodland not in farms increased from 127,358 Timber companies presently own very large tracts thousand acres in 1959 to 146,733 thousand acres in of land. Other areas such as the Golden Isles off the 1969 for the states along the eastern seaboard. Of coast of Georgia became hunting, preserves and these coastal states, only Florida failed to register vacation retreats for wealthy citizens. an increase in its forested area during the period. Under the demands for increased agricultural At the other extreme, there are developments production, it is very probable that pressures will which significantly change the use of the land. New be exerted to convert present timberlands back to highways, shopping centers, and the like are known food production. Large capital investment require- to all. However, one change has been largely ignored, ments often result in large scale operations, some- and accurate statistics of the phenomenon do not times referred to as "factories in the field." Indicative exist. The average residential lot has steadily in- of this type of operation is the development by the creased i size with suburban growth. The single McLean Corporation of most of Tyrrell County, family urban dwelling of two generations ago N.C., into a tremendously large corporation farm of occupied a relatively small space. Lot size was 375,000 acres. With heavy equipment, it is possible adapted to the pedestrian. Today, a new single to convert this tremendously large acreage into huge family dwelling in the suburbs requires a much larger agricultural enterprises over a very short period of space. One reason for this change is that zoning time. Named First Colony Farms, this operation regulations often specify that the new residential lot will have 225.,000 acres under cultivation. Most of be much larger than was true in the past (Gottman this land was in timber in 1972. Now it is becoming and Harper, 1967:87). a factory that will produce corn and soybeans to be Along the eastern seaboard the future will prob- fed to cattle and 50,000 hogs. .ably bring an increase in the amount of land under The concentration of land ownership simplifies the cultivation, a decline in the forested area, and an creation of this kind of enterprise. The plea that increase in the urban type usages of the land that people throughout the world are starving to death result in great ecological changes.Such changes wil and that the citizens of the United. States are undoubtedly have a significant impact on the water in the estuaries. threatened with imminent starvation makes it extremely difficult to halt or control these develop- ments. Low agricultural yield in 1974 for the Mid- New Living Arrangements west has been interpreted as a harbinger of world- wide shortages in the future. Continued pressure to The number of dwelling units in the United States open new areas of the United States to agricultural has been increasing much more rapidly than the production is a likely consequence. population. The number of residential units in the The Southern Atlantic States provide one of the counties of the eastern seaboard, for example, grew 652 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL from 6,193,753 in 1950 to 12,078,450 in 1970, an THE QUEST FOR increase of 98.8 percent. The residential unit tends to QUALITY OF LIFE be a more important entity than the individual in terms of utilization of resources. Each house requires For the last four or five years, everyone seems to plumbing, roads, utilities, lot space, and a variety have been seeking some elusive goal now designated of services. Obviously, there has been a decline in as quality of life. The phrase was not a part of the the average number of people per dwelling unit. vernacular a very few years ago. Now suddenly it is Several factors are involved in this change: very widely used. Many scholars are now writing on the topic. Most of these essays are non-scientific 1. During the depression years and earlier, families and describe the kind of situation that the individual tended to often share the same residence. Married feels is ideal without any attempt to really specify children were, especially, inclined to live with the content of the quality of life. At one time, parents until financial security was reached. Full quality of life represented the goal of attaining employment and prosperity have permitted most trappings of affluence: automobiles, refrigerators, couples to have separate dwellings. television sets, and other material things. 2. Another important factor is the increase in There is considerable evidence today that people one-person households. In the past, the individual are no longer as oriented toward material things. living alone was generally an elderly widow. A shift New lifestyles are evolving, that is, the manner in has taken place in recent years. Young employed which material things are utilized. For example, an adults, both male and female, seek a separate automobile may be used simply as a means of dwelling unit until marriage. Even among the college transportation to and from work, or it can be a students, there has been a rapid transition to the source of livelihood, a status symbol, or even a apartment and away from the dormitory. The de- major item of recreation. Today in our affluent mand is for housing for individuals, not families. society all tend to possess a vast array of material 3. Much residential construction during the last goods. The non-material life patterns, consequently, decade has been of apartment complexes. These are becoming increasingly important. units cater to the individual desiring to establish a The quality of life that is being sought has great one-person household. In 1960, 237,000 structures ramifications for water pollution. The desire to visit were built with three or more housing units. By 1970, the wide-open spaces, to go fishing, backpacking, this figure had increased to 606,000. Only two years camping, and the like are bringing great numbers of later in 1972, 646,000 housing structures with three people into the areas that were uninhabited just units or more were started. Apartment construction a few years ago. As a consequence, there is really has multiplied rapidly, but each unit tends to have very little land in the United States that is not used a small number of occupants on the average. Some for some purposes, whereas in the past, even around apartment-style construction has been outside the urban concentrations, there were still large tracts of cities in former open country areas, and has created lands that no one visited. environmental problems. Indicative of the attempt to find a new style of 4. Yet another dramatic change in living arrange- life is the number of people who fish and hunt. The ments has been the growing popularity of the mobile total number of fishing licenses issued nationally in home. The shipment of mobile homes increased from 1950 was 15,338,000. By 1971, this figure had in- 216,000 in 1965 to 576,000 in 1972. The mobile creased to 32,384,000. The number of hunting home has become especially popular in rural areas licenses sold jumped from 12,638,000 to 22,912,000 of the South. Financing has been easy to secure for during the same 11-year period. those owning land. Few consider them as a per- The number of outboard motors in use increased manent solution to housing needs. However, in a from 2,811,000 in 1950 to 7,400,000 in 1972. Outdoor short time a person can have one installed and move recreation is a part of the desired quality of life of into it, often without satisfactory provision for growing percentages of the population. It is a part disposing of household effluent. Many mobile home of the general desire to live closer to nature. parks have been established along the estuaries of Not to be ignored in this process of seeking a new the southern United States with raw sewage draining quality of life are the amenities provided exclusively directly into the streams. by urban living in the past. Early in the present In addition to the mobile homes that serve as a century, only in the city could a person find modern regular residence, there are smaller units used by bathrooms, running water in the kitchen, and elec- vacationers to camp in great numbers in trailer tricity which made it possible to have refrigerators, parks throughout the nation. electric lights, radios, and many of the other con- IEGAkL' ASPECTS : 653 veniences of life. These were undoubtedly one 'df relatively ample supply of water'. Evidence is ac- the features of urban life that brought many to the cumulating that water will be the natural resource city who could have stayed in the rural areas that limits human development more than any other practicing a subsistence agriculture or living during throughout the world. Adequate water supply does the retirement years. Through the-spread of elec- not mean there will be no problems in regards to tricity into even the remote sections of the United this valuable resource. Just as important in many States, the rural resident can have all of these ad- ways as the quantity of water available is -its vantages of urban life. As a consequence; migration quality. to a rural area does not involve a loss of these modern Industrialization, urbanization, and rapid growth conveniences. In the affluent society, they provide a of the population have often been associated with base of material comfort that is universally available increased water pollution. The theme of this report in the United States. Increase in the quiality of life has been that the changing life patterns of mankind is almost always followed by an -even greater in- have more influence upon the quality 'of the water crease in the use of water and volume of waste in the estuaries than the mere numbers of people. materials. i Several trends have been enumerated which re- Other amenities in the new style of liviig 'are fleet changing lifestyles in the United States and coming into existence. One of the most important -which must inevitably have some impact upon the of these is climate. Ullman noted almost a generation estuaries: ago that "for the first time in the world's history, pleasant living conditions-amenities-instead' of 1i The population of the United States is rapidly more narrowly defined economic advantages are shifting to the coastal areas of the nation, while becoming the sparks that generate' significant other sections are being depopulated; especially are population increase, particularly in the United people leaving the interior sections of the nation. States" (1954:1 19). Ullman insists that the suburban Approximiately one-half of the over 3,000 counties movement reflects this'search for a more pleasant in the United States lose population each decade. life. Between 1940 and 1950, the suburban popula- At the same time, a new urban structure is evolving. tion of the nation increased 35 percent as compared The 'megalopolis of the northeast, extending from with 13 percent inside the city limits and only' 6 'Massachusetts to Virginia, represents an attempt percent elsewhere. At the same time, other 'areas, by man to combine elements of rural and urban largely coastal, with pleasant climate experienced a living. Another megalopolis has been established tremendous upsurge in their population. In the along the east coast of Florida' that promises to decade of the 40's the population of California in- eventually encompass the entire peninsula of Florida. creased 53 percent, Arizona 50 percent, and Florida Population growth has been slower in the coastal 46 percent. Two other coastal states: that also areas of the south Atlahtic coast. Indications are experienced this rather rapid rate of growth were that' a megalopolis is developing that will extend Oregon and Washington, whose populations in- along the entire eastern seaboard. In the absence of creased 39 and 37 percent respectively. Ullman con- careful planning, the water pollution problems of sidered climate a major factor and beiieved that most the northern coastal area may be expected to be people would prefer to live in an area where the duplicated in the'South. temperature averaged 70 degrees the year round. 2. The trends toward a shorter workweek, paid This "Mediterranean" type climate exists in Florida vacations, late entry, and early exit from the labor and California. 'force result in people today having much more time Even industry that is freed by modern transporta- for leisure pursuits than was true for past genera- tion and communications from the inner 'city 'has tions. Much of this additional time is devoted to viewed the climate as 'a maj or element in building 0outdoor recreation, travel, and a demand for services new industrial establishments. Climate -shows 'no on the part of the entire spectrum of social groups in signs of declining in importance. We may anticipate the United States rather than a small leisure class. a continued movement of the population toward the 3. A third trend in modern society has been the coastal areas. The only large, undeveloped coastal withdrawal of' people from' the labor force upon area remaining in the United States is that of the ' etirement in the 60's. Increased life expectancy has southeast states. - resulted in a much larger percentage of the popula- RCONLUSONS AN RECOMMENDATIONS 'tion achieving advanced ages and enjoying several CONCLUSIONS AND REcoMMENDATIONS years outside the labor force. These retirees in- In contrast to the situation in western portions of creasingly 'have a'stable income from social security the United States, the eastern seaboard has a and various pension plans. Large numbers of retirees 654 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL are moving from the location where they spent their tion Growth and the American Future summarized economically productive years to complete their the trends in the redistribution of the population as lives in the coastal areas of the nation, especially follows: those sections where the climate is mild. 4. Before the advent of automotive transportation, 1. People are vacating extensive portions of the nation's workers lived at a location where the journey to tenitory-particularly the middle of the continent- and concentrating along the coasts. work could be minimized. Today, an ever-increasing 2. The United States becomes more and more urban with percentage of the population is commuting daily each passing year; most Americans now reside in metro- politan centers of at least 100,000 inhabitants. from homes in the suburbs to employment a con- 3. The structure of these urban settlements is under- siderable distance away. As the journey to work going a gradual metamorphosis; metropolitan areas and becomes ever greater, dependence on public trans- their hinterlands are merging into larger constellations to form urban regions. portation has declined, and the automobile has be- 4. Important internal differentiations are taking place come the focus of new lifestyles. within the jurisdictions of metropolises; inside, their 5. The small family pattern, modern household population is leveling off or shrinking and changing to nonwhite; in the suburban rings, it is expanding and appliances, plus smaller homes have eliminated remaining largely white. much of the drudgery of housework. Women, as a These changes have given rise to national problems con- cerning the environment, the aesthetic quality of urban consequence, have increasingly sought employment and rural life, and racial separation-issues of coping outside the home. Their additional incomes make it individually and collectively with the process of urbani- possible for families to enjoy a higher level of living zation. Curtailing national population growth, while helpful in the long run, cannot resolve these problems in than before, which is often manifest in establishing the near term (Morrison', 1972:23-24). residences away from the central city. Because husband and wife work in different locations, com- The Commission on Population Growth and the The Commission on Population Growth and the muting must become a part of their lifestyles. American Future strongly recommended that the American Future strongly recommended that the 6. Land use has dramatically shifted along the 6. Land use has dramatically shifted along the policies of this nation be built about the concept of eastern seaboard over the last 100 years. The number population stability rather than growth. The Co- population stability rather than growth. The Corn- of farms has declined rapidly for decades. Initially, mission insisted in the long run there must be a mission insisted in the long run there must be a this decline resulted in lands being abandoned for population stability because even an infinitesimal agricultural purposes and becoming reforested. The population t can ninine rate of population growth cannot continue indef- growth of cities and the construction of highways te o tio th t o u - initely (1972:75-79). It is recognized that popula- and other facilities will probably bring a decline in in gotmaveywconie f opa tion growth may very well continue for some decades, forest acreage. Pressures to produce food for a hungry insisted that thinking and world may result in much land in the South Atlantic planning must be based on population stability. ' planning must be based on population stability. area being converted to large "factories in the field." M iany people fnd it difficult to adjust; to this Huge corporation farms would drastically alter the n ep f it u o a bs concept of stability. Our economy has been based ecology of an area. Demands also exist to transform on o ili a e as bn ad lands into public recreational facilities or to retain on some inflation as well as population and city growth. Bigger has long been considered better. them as unchanged natural areas. them as unchanged natural areas. Rapid population growth accompanied with in- 7. One of the most striking trends in the United fiation and industrial expansion has been sufficient States has been the increase in number of dwelling to compensatefor poor planning. Population units. One-person households and the disappearance stability will result in new homes which are needed of the doubling-up of families have resulted in af rel t hos i anded only for replacement of those being abandoned. steady decline in the number of people per residentialon f reapoft n anded Inflation which assures a profit on manufactured unit. The housing unit tends to be the entity that ous aot onnufte products cannot be continued indefinitely. The disrupts the ecology of an area, rather than the number of people per se. pessimistic volume, "The Limits to Growth," written number of people per se. . A dominant theme in American society today by a group of experts from Massachusetts Institute 8. A dominant theme in American society today of Technology (Meadows,. et al., 1972) projects is the quest for a new quality of life. The term has global collapse coming as a result of population not been adequately defined, but there is an un- grwhIe s rea h population mistakable desire on the part of many people to growth. If equilibrium is not reached in population follow some of the life patterns that existed when growth, perhaps through increased pollution, in- dustralization, urbanization, and the destruction of life was much simpler in the rural areas. These new nonrenewable resources, the calamity these authors lifestyles are associated with a desire for more con- forecast would come about. tact with nature, not only as a place of residence, Still, not all present trends will continue. One way but also as a place to spend leisure time. to assure a reversal in the direction of change will One of the reports for the Commission on Popula- be the adoption of policies that enforce population LEGAL ASPECTS 655 stability plus restrict other forms of development. A grated with interdisciplinary studies in cooperation situation of population equilibrium will almost un- with natural scientists in order to better understand doubtedly result in more careful planning of the the ecological problems of the eastern seaboard. location of schools, highways, residential areas, 4. That regional zoning be accomplished which industrial plants, and even agricultural operations. will restrict the use of the land for recommended This planning almost certainly will result in more purposes. Such a zoning plan must necessarily ignore consideration being given to the natural environ- existing political boundaries. ment, especially in those areas where unhampered 5. That growth along the eastern seaboard be development can lead to greater water pollution. controlled through the construction of a transit With this background, three recommendations of system the entire length of the Atlantic seaboard in the Commission of Population Growth need to be accordance with plans for the ideal utilization of adopted if the estuaries of the nation are to be various zones. Land use and development is a func- protected: tion of the system of transportation. 6. That special studies be made of the South 1. Recognizing that our population cannot grow in- Atlantic coastal area and contrasted with develop- definitely, and appreciating the advantagest. Such studies toward the stabilization of population, the Commission recommends that the nation welcome and plan for a are essential if problems that had been generated in stabilized population (1972:143). the Northeast are not to be duplicated in the South. 2. The Commission recommends that: The federal government develop a set of national population dis- 7. That regional plans be made for the provision tribution guidelines to serve as a framework for regional, of utilities and, especially, public health facilities Reial s tate, planand lopotan-wide govelornmental for the entire coastal area. Regional building and Regional, state, and metropolitan-wide governmental authorities take the initiative, in cooperation with local sanitary codes are needed that cannot be ignored by governments, to conduct needed comprehensive plan- smaller political divisions. ning and action programs to achieve a higher quality 8. As this is being written, problems of energy, of urban development; The process of population movement be eased and guided inflation, and unemployment add to the urgency for in order to improve access or opportunities now restricted planning. However, these plans must be based on a by physical remoteness, immobility, and inadequate skills, information and experience; skills, iformation and experience , sound understanding of the relationship of the im- Action be taken to increase freedom in choice of resi- mediate situation to both past and long range future dential location through the elimination of current developmnts patterns of racial and economic segregation and- their attendant injustices (1972:144), 3. To anticipate and guide future urban growth, the REFERENCES Commission recommends comprehensive land-use and public-facility planning on an overall metropolitan and reg iona l se a .De Grazia, S. 1964. Of Time, Work, and Leisure. Doubleday The Commission recommends that governments exercise and Company, Anchor Books Edition, Garden City, N.Y. greater control over land-use planning and development (1972:144).greater control over land-use planning and development De Grazia, S. 1968. The problems and promise of leisure. In: W. Ewald, Jr., Environment and Policy. Indiana Uni- versity Press, Bloomington, Ind. Although relevant to the process of water pollu- Environmental Protection Agency. The Quality of Life Con- tion in the estuaries of the eastern seaboard, these cept: A Potential New Tool for Decision Makers. Office of recommendations of the population commission are Research and Monitoring, Environmental Studies Division, general and apply to the nation as a whole. There Washington, D.C. are other recommendations that need to be made Furon, R. 1967. The Problem of Water. American Elsevier which are more unique to problems existing in Publishing Company, Inc., New York. counties along the estuaries of the Atlantic coast. Gottman, J. 1961. Megalopolis: The Urbanization of the These specific recommendations are as follows: Northeastern Seaboard of the United States. The Twentieth Century Fund, New York. 1. That new legal entities be created whose Gottman, J. and R. A. Harper. 1967. Metropolis on the jurisdiction will be independent of existing political Move: Geographers Look at Urban Sprawl. John Wiley subdivisions. Problems of planning code enforcement and Sons, Inc., New York. must encompass the whole region rather than dis- Hunt, C. A., and R. M. Garrels. 1972. Water: The Web of creet, competing parts thereof. Life. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York. 2. That intensive demographic and sociological Morrison, P. A. 1972. Dimensions of the population problem studies be undertaken that will equate changing in the United States. In: S. M. Mazie (ed), Population lifestyles with the new emerging urban structure, Distribution and Policy. The Commission of Population Growth and the American Future. Vol. V of Commission the eastern seaboard megalopolis. Research Reports. Government Printing Office, Washing- 3. That these studies by social scientists be inte- ton, D.C.: 3-30. 656 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Meadows, D H et al 1972 The Limits to Growth New Ullman, E L 1954 Amenimtles as a factor m regional growth American Library, New York The Geographical Renew XLIV 119-132 Pickard, J P 1972 U S metropohlitan growth and expan- U S Bureau of the Census Current Populatlon Reports, sion, 1970-2000, with populatlon projections In S M Series P-23, N 49 1974 Population of the United States, Mazle (ed), Population Distribution and Policy The Corn- Trends and Prospects 1950-1990 U S Government Prmint- mlsslon on Population Growth and the American Future ming Office, Washington, D C Vol V of Commlsslon Research Reports Government Printing Office, Washington, D C 127-182 U S Bureau of the Census 1973 Statistlcal Abstract of the Umnted States 1973 (94th Editlon) Washington, D C Rldker, R G (ed) 1972 Population, Resources and the En- vironment The Commlsslon on Population Growth and Zuiches,J J andG V Fugutt 1972 Residentialpreferences the American Future Vol III of Commisslon Research Imphlicatlons for population redistribution min nonmetropolih- Reports Government Printing Office, Washington, D C tan areas In S M Mazle (ed), Population Distributlon and Policy The Commisslon on Population Growth and The Cotmlssion oii Population Growth and the American the American Future Vol V of Commission Research Future 1972 Populatioil and thlie American Future U S Reports Government Printing Office, Washington, D C. Government Printing Office, Washington, D C 617-630 I I I I I I I I I I I I rrmb&%Tm mATmNE , u PC ECONOMICS r I I ECONOMIC ANALYSIS IN THE EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ESTUARIES JOHN H. CUMBERLAND University of Maryland College Park, Maryland ABSTRACT This paper describes an economic-environmental systems model for analyzing estuaries which has been used in Maryland to forecast the quantities and types of waste and residuals which will be generated through the year 1985 for the Chesapeake Bay and each of its major tributaries. The model indicates that the amount of residuals will be a function of the rate and composition of economic development. Consequently, economic development and growth in the region can be expected to generate water quality problems of increasing magnitude for all estuaries in the U.S. Various corrective policy measures are evaluated for dealing with the environmental threat to the quality of estuarine waters. One of the most serious environmental impacts is aesthetic damage and methods are suggested for applying charges for vatrious levels of aesthetic damage in order to encourage improved qualities of economic development. A national policy on estuarine management would recognize both the economic realities of com- mon property resources and the federal structure which has evolved in U.S. political history. Consequently, a national policy on estuarine management would establish minimum national standards for quality, leaving local authorities to establish higher standards if so desired. How- ever, no economic or political justification o*n be discovered for permitting local areas to relax environmental standards below those set' by federal government. The establishment of higher local standards than those stipulated by federal policy would provide financial and other in- centives to improve technology and encourage generators of pollution to internalize external costs. Finally, specific recommendations are made for establishing a national policy for better manage- ment of estuaries, which are among our most important natural and environmental resources. INTRODUCTION materials balance and entropy concepts derived from the physical sciences. Some of these large-scale com- Estuaries are the vital interface between land and puter models are now capable of estimating the water, between oceans and rivers, between ecology generation of many individual wastes, residuals, and and technology, and between the conflicting demands pollutants over time throughout different parts of the for environmental quality and economic develop- estuary. For example, Table 1, taken from one such ment. Estuaries are the bodies of water over which study, estimates the gross generation of residual will be fought the emerging battles for energy pro- nitrogen generated in each of the 16 major river ba- duction versus conservation and economic growth sins of the Chesapeake Bay by 5-year intervals from versus the reduced growth movement. The problem 1970 through 1985 (Cumberland and Herzog, forth- of analyzing and resolving these conflicts will require coming). This study estimates an average annual a more complete understanding of the relationships growth rate for nitrogen releases of 5.7 percent, but between man and his environment and the relation- with significant variance between the individual ships between the social, physical, biological, and political subdivisions and river basins involved. This earth sciences than has been available in the past. annual growth rate, if continued, implies a doubling The accumulation of economic and other rein- of the pollution load approximately every 14 years.' forcing institutional factors which encourage overuse These projected pollution growth rates underline the and mismanagement of estuaries is a growing threat urgent need to develop more effective control mea- to water quality and biological, ecological balance in sures if society is to enjoy benefits of these resources the nation's waterways. Environmental economists in future generations. are attempting to measure, forecast, and analyze I Similar estimates are available in the study for growth of other pol- these phenomena by developing new types of models lutants, as well as for the accompanying economic development in each of the major river basins which make up the Chesapeake Bay Regional based upon tested economic tools combined with System. 659 660 ESTUARINE .POLLUTION CONTROL It is the major point of this paper that current Table l.-Gross Residual Projection for Nitrogen for the Chesapeake Bay Region (tons) mismanagement of our estuaries results from omis- sions and inadequacies in the conceptual models and - Average Years -, ..... Annual management theories which have been applied to the Years Anwth governance (or more generally, the non-governance) 1970 1975 1980 1985 1i97eg85 of estuaries. Among the more serious gaps in our models for managing estuaries are: failure to include District of Columbia the lessons of environmental economics; failure to Potomac . 4,032.7 4,252.4 4,746.8 5,214.8 1.7 include new interdisciplinary knowledge and con- Maryland cepts such as materials balance and energy-entropy Blacwater-------- 487.2 525.0 542.5 5516 .8 models; failure to use models based upon a total Choptanek r-.. 10,721.2 11,868.7 12,336.91 6,876.6 2.6 systems approach; and failure to use models which Gunpowder -. 4,462.4 5,029.4 5,400.6 5,560.9 . 1.5 reveal comprehensive sets of alternative manage- Nanticoke-3,088.9 3,340.6 3,495.8 3,617.2 1.1 Patapsco .- -------- 6,309.8 6,309.8 7,139.6 7,212.5 .9 ment policies, and their consequences. This paper Patuxent -.-------- 12,641.5 13,802.7 14,078.7 14,421.6 .9 will attempt to address these problems by sketching Pocomoke .-.. ..... 6,802.5 7,291.6 7,521.9 7,772.2 .9 a comprehensive systems analysis which can be PWiomc _ 47,979.5 50,861.9 52343.6 52,482.8 .6 Wicomice -_ 5 8,067.9 8,624.9 8,875.6 9,145.6 .8 applied to estuaries, by indicating some of the im- Elk .- 3,898.1 4,460.8 5,069.7 5,575.7 2,4 plications of the systems approach, and by examin- Ches. Bay and ocean. 30,092.2 32,602.6 34,425.1 35,634.6 1.1 Total ------------ 139,247.4 150,504.0 158,045.9 162,291.4 1.0 ing briefly some of the management policies and possible improvements in- management techniques Virginia James - --.- -------- 29,956.5 48,850.0 79,234.1 122,084.0 9.8 which are suggested by the analysis. Potomac -- -------. 15,088.8 23,024.4 '35,782.5 53;028.2 8.7 Rappahannock 12,799.8 22,386.9 38,444.0 62,038,6 11.1 York - -----------... 10,840.1 17,875.6 29,481.1 46,196.8 10.1 SOME SOURCES OF Ches. Bayandocen. 12,592.4 16,292.5 21,398.4 27,888.4 5:4 ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE Total .-. .. 81,277.6 128;429.4 204,340.0 311,235.8 9;4 TO ESTUARIES Chesapeake Bay Re- gi0n total ---- 224,557.7 283,185.8 367,132.7 478,74210 5.7 The major threat facing our estuaries is cumula- tive and potentially irreversible environmental Source: Cumberland and Herog, forthcoming. damage resulting from excessively rapid economic ' .. development and intervention in natural processes. biological 'resources in estuaries makes it possible Although numerous factors have contributed to this and profitable (at least in the short run) to bveruse problem, a major set of components has emerged these resources and to shift costs from particular from economic forces. individuals, 'groups, and comrnnunities,' toe others. The principal economic problem ini the manage- This phenomenon is most clearly observed'in the ment of estuaries is the fact that they are generally release of' wastes into the air and water of estuaries. treated as :common property resources with no single Firms attempting to maximize profits, individuals ownership or management. Consequently, property attempting:to maximize personal' utility, and' com- rights are not vested and the result is that estuaries munities attempting to minimize costs and 'shift and their resources tend to be overused and abused their environmental loads elsewhere,' face positive since users do not normally bear the full costs 'of incentives to discharge their wastes' into: estuaries; their use. Under these circumstances, market failures thus imposing damages, costs, 'and injuries upon result since the private costs of using the 'resources other groups, other reaches of the'estuary, and upon of the estuary do not equal the social costs and the the biological resources of the estuary itself with6ut individual users attempt to appropriate as much of paying compensation. the resources as possible before they can be appro- Other types of' market failure also combine to priated by others who also have free rights to them. encourage misismanagement of estuaries. For example, With no single entity holding property rights or full many of the recreational,' aesthetic, and environ- management responsibilities, there are no incentives mental values of estuaries can be regarded as public to invest in increasing or protecting the productivity goods 'which are normally provided in the public sec- of the estuary, and its resources tend to be overused tor. Although- the benefits' resulting from the pro- and depleted. I I vision of these public goods usually exceed their Another problem which is related to the common costs, up to a certain level, the public sector normally property phenomenon in estuarine management is provides insufficient investment in the management the imposition of detrimental externalities on others. and protection of estuarine services, for a number of The apparently free availability of water, 'air, and reasons. Taxpayers may be reluctant to reveal their 'EStuARI3 :E'6NO1MIC0S 661 preference for'added expdiiurin the -pliic sector Cicchetti, '1972).' Ahother phenomenon connected fearing that their taxes will be 'raised and hoping 'with' technology' is the growing tendency towards that other groups and other regions will pay for the introduction of high-technology, high-pollution' de- improved management. The joint difficulty of either vices in recreation. For example; 'the growing use of collecting fees for' cleaner waters or of excluding high-powered 'eigines for' water skiing, boating, anyone from enjoying the free benefits therefrom -is helicopters, and other aircraft is converting many a serious deterrent to public programs needed to recreational activities into high-noise, high-pollution protect estuarine quality. Also, organized pressure activities. groups with well-defined financial objectives are Other problems related to time in the 'theoretical usually more successful in influencing public ex- analysis of estuarine management deal 'with the penditures in their-direction than is the general neglect in most' resource management theories'of the public which benefits from the diffuse, long-term irreversible nature of some activities. For example, services ofa well-managedestuary. some types of' estuarine 'abuse such as 'excessive Another problem in the management of estuaries sedimentation and'filling 'in of the estuary, or mas- is the failure to -utilize models which permit 'experi- sive oil spills, 'or the releases of radioactive isotopes mentation with a wide range of alternative develop- with very long half-lives may have an effect on the ment plans. Too often in the past, preoccupation estuary that is irreversible. Reversibility can be with growth and quantitative increase of gross defined in terms of the amount of cost involved in product has tended to distract attention from other correcting an adverse effect. Under this definition, alternatives such as non-development, low-density certain-types f"'maiiagement decisions may be ir- development, recreational development, and pro- versible, or they may be reversible' only at extremely tection of common property resources for the future. high costs. Among these would be the decision to Flexible models are needed which can trace the construct a highly capital intensive activity suchjas economic and environmental implications of all of an industrial plant,; a power plant, an industrial these policy alternatives. port, or even a high density recreational or residehtial Two major sets of problems in estuarine manage- area. The phenomenon of irreversibility as it affects ment are caused by the inability of current economic estuaries therefore requires that sequential life-cycle management models to allow full';consideration of analysis be included in models of estuarine manage- interregional, interspatial, and intertemporal phe- ment under which the economic and environmental nomena. With respect to intertemporal phenomen.a, effects of the project should be evaluated over all decisionmaking for estuaries is typically based upon phases of its life. This would include exploration, market rates of discount and profit considerations planning, construction, operation, and the eventual which. attach low yalues to the rights. of future gen- removal of the proj ect and rehabilitation of the site.2 erations. The result is often to encourage irreversible The inclusion of intertemporal, sequential phenomena actions which may generate. current benefits at the is urgently needed if models of environmental estu- cost of foreclosing future alternatives. More adequate arine management, are to be improved (Fisher, consideration of the values of future generations is Krutilla, and Cicchetti, 1972; Fisher and Krutilla, required. 1974; Arrow and Fisher, 1974). The failure to consider future generations and the 'Besides including intertemporal phenomena, im- use of high discount rates also tend tO ignore. im- proved models should explicitly contain interregional, portant time changes in economic variables. For ex- interspatial variables. A major tendency in regional ample, there appears to be growing evidence that waste management problems- is to -shift emissions with affluence, there is a high income- elasticity of of wastes to other regions, using common property demand for outdoor recreation; yet, adequate pro- resources such as air or water to transport waste tection of estuaries, for recreational purposes has burdens from one region to another. Much tradi- been systematically undervplued as compared ,to tional analysis of urban'problems fails to take into industrial and commercial development.. A second i . n rom - d po r t f , account the total environmental space of an urban and related phenomenon results from changing region, which properly includes its entire watershed technology. For example, the rush to use the cooling capacity of estuaries for installing fossil fuel and and its entire waste disposal space, covering perhaps nuclear electric steam power stations: overlooks hundreds or thousands of square miles. Consequently, probable future technological developments which . in , probable future technological developments- which estuarine models should explicitly contain the full will make-more use of solar, geothermal, -and other environmental space of the region as well as an forms of energy less' damaging to the 'eivironmint '. " The closer thei costs of removal and rehabilitation approach: infinit,' than present steam electric statibns-' (Krutillt and the more nearly the project would be truly irreversible. 662 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL explicit interspatial network of all of the separate APPLICATION OF SYSTEMS governments involved. ANALYSIS TO ESTUARIES Closely linked to the regional economic factor is the regional political management problem and the Estuaries are complex systems of natural phe- need for appropriate management units for estuaries nomena, of human activities and of the interrelation- which include the relevant physical and environ- ships between society and nature. The realities of mental units. Related to this is the fact that responsi- these large systems are too complex to be repre- bility for estuarine environmental decisionmaking is sented by simple models. However, as in the case of often entrusted to transient personnel who may have any management problem, an effort can be made to at best a short-term or bureaucratic interest only, identify the most critical subcomponents of the rather than a long-term commitment to the health estuarine system and the interrelationships between and protection of the estuary. Another institutional them. Figure 1 represents an effort to model the management problem is the failure of environmental major components of an estuarine system and its planning units to include representatives of all of the interrelationships.4 It contains eight components necessary disciplines involved. Too often these which, being separate and distinct, can be solved regulatory commissions have a commitment to individually, but which can also be linked together economic development rather than environmental with measurable interrelationships in a way which protection. Political factors obviously reinforce this provides feedback from one system to another, issue. generating a closed general equilibrium system. The net result of all of these economic and related Part A is a regional, or more generally an inter- problems in estuarine management is usually to regional interindustry or input-output model which encourage excessively rapid development, overuse, has been widely used by economists (Cumberland, and abuse of common property environmental re- 1966). There are several important characteristics sources so that private costs are lower than the of theseinterindustry models. One distinctive feature social costs. The private gains resulting from damage is the emphasis on disaggregation of economic sys- to the public interest offer incentives to individual tems by type of economic activities. For example, developers to overuse the resources of the estuary. Figure 1 specifically identifies energy sales across the The resource management problem then turns out energy row and energy purchases down the energy to be in large part one of avoiding the major abuses column, because of the importance of energy policy of market failure through simulation of optimal problems at the present time and because of their decisionmaking which in theory results from single significance for estuarine management. However, management and ownership of an environmental because energy activities purchase inputs from many resource.3 The estuarine management task then is to different activities as shown in the energy column maximize public welfare and utility by balancing and because energy producers sell outputs to almost the gains of economic development against the all other economic activities, as demonstrated across claims of responsible environmental management in the energy row, it is impossible to measure and order to maximize total net social benefits to the evaluate energy activities in isolation from the rest society. It is the hypothesis of this paper that of the economy. Therefore, separate analysis of failures to do this in the past have resulted from 1) energy isolated from the rest of the economy can inadequate theoretical understanding of estuaries; lead to erroneous, misleading, and inefficient de- 2) failure to include interdisciplinary knowledge that cision processes. Energy factors should be incor- is emerging from ecological analysis of estuaries; 3) porated explicitly in a general equilibrium model of failure to base estuarine management models on theregion. knowledge of environmental economics; 4) failure A second major advantage of the interindustry to design models which show all of the full range module is that separate identification of each eco- management options; 5) failure to include long-run nomic activity in the model permits the comprehen- phenomena; 6) and failure to design adequate in- sive measurement of indirect, as well as direct, effects stitutions which can implement the knowledge re- of each of the economic activities. This is important suiting from better management models, because indirect effects if comprehensively accounted In the next section, an effort will be made to for can add up to significant magnitudes. Another sketch some of the details of a comprehensive estu- advantage of the disaggregation of the interindustry arine environmental systems management model. 4 Although the economic environmental systems model displayed in Figure 1 is used for application in this study to estuaries, it has been de- veloped by the author and his colleagues for general application to economic Optimal decisionmaking also requires the free availability of knowledge, environmeontal management problems of regions, urban areas, and other low transactions costs, and other conditions usually associated with pure systems. Sea for example (Cumberland and Stram, 1974; Cumberland and competition. Korbach, 1973). ESTUARINE ECONOMICS 663 A · B C Production Filal Dmd. Gross Generation Technical Treatment C I G E of Residuals Processes Gas ILiquid ISolid Treated Waste El Treated Waste m E N ER G Y 3 Marginal Treatment G , Cost Function 0 Y 04-' (MTCF) V Personal Income A Tax Revenue - Discharge H F D Public Administration, I Environmental Treatment Policies, Taxes, Standards, I Processes Institutions, Education, Values, Life Styles PHYSICAL Environmental - Transformation .o Function TF) G ENVIRONMENT Discharges --_ Benefit Cost Analysis 'X. 45° \ TCF MDF / E Impacts, Damaqes, Effects Marginal Damage $ I "; ". sFunction (MDF) 'I / o I0Concen--'- Itration * MlITCF - -.... ..- ' <-- Environmental Quality Concentration Discharges JOHN H. CUMBERLAND NOVEMBER 15, 1974 FIGURE 1.-An economic environmental systems model. model by economic activity according to function is onomic policies and activities needed to achieve that it records the important distinction between these regional objectives. Trade-offs between en- the final demand sectors and intermediate processing vironmental quality and economic objectives such sectors. This distinction permits recognition of the as income, employment, and tax revenue can also be fact that economic growth is not mechanical or measured. inevitable, but is a function of the goals and priori- While economists have achieved considerable ties of the region. The decisionmaking sectors are proficiency in developing the economic models of the separately identified as consumers or investors or type shown in Part A, they have learned recently government for whose total final demand satisfac- from the growing magnitude of environmental tion the intermediate processing sectors are acti- problems that economic models have omitted some vated. This formulation has the important additional of the most important interrelationships from their advantage of making it possible to enter alternative market-oriented models. Since interindustry models growth strategies or policy programs into the model normally measure only those goods priced and ex- (so long as they can be specified in terms of purchases changed in markets, they have omitted the flows of from the sectors in the model) in order to measure wastes and residuals which are a counterpart of all the impact of these alternatives on income, employ- production and consumption activities. Although ment, output, and environmental quality. In an the materials and energy balance concepts have alternative linear programming formulation, the been dealt v. ith by physicists for many years, they model can also be used for indicating, given the have only recently been introduced into the analysis goals and objectives of the estuarine region and of economists (Ayres and Kneese, 1969; Georgescu- its environmental structure, the optimal set of ec- Roegen, 1971). Pr'fit-maximizing firms have ec- '664 ESTUARINE 'POLLUTION CONTROL onomic incentives for discharging their wastes at low transportation, recycling, changing the timing and or zero costs into the common property resources of place of the emissions; improving efficiency, choosing the estuary, causing overuse of the limited as- cleaner inputs, and so on-these treatment processes sinilative capacity of estuaries and reductions in cannot eliminate or reduce residuals once they have total welfare. The abuse of the common- property been generated, because of the principles of con- estuarine resources is not limited to profit-max- servation of mass and energy. Most treatment proc- imizing firms, but is also a factor in the economic esses can only change the form or timing or location incentives of consumers and recreationists to dis- of the wastes discharged, and indeed add to the total charge their wastes into estuarine waters, and to mass of wastes released because of the necessity of overuse the common property amenities provided by adding energy and materials to the treatment estuaries. process. The general exceptions to this principle are Thus, difficulties associated with allocating and processes' which use cleaner inputs, and processes enforcing property rights to estuarine resources, and which through technological efficiency use less ma- the historical common property status of the estuary terials and energy for the production process. which provides positive financial incentives to both - The other important factor to be noted about producers and consumers to overuse these resources Component C dealing with technical waste treatment and discharge wastes into them, account largely for processes: is the nature of marginal treatment cost the environmental problem and the growing pollu- functions which should be conceived of as being de- tion of estuaries. An attempt is now being made to rived- for each type of residual at each location over measure the flow of these wastes and residuals time. In general, these treatment cost functions rise through the environment in new types of develop- asymptotically from the lower right-hand part of the ment models which measure and forecast both the diagram to the upper left-hand part of the diagram types and the amounts of wastes that accompany as increasing levels of treatment are invoked in order each type of production and consumption activity to achieve higher levels of treatment. The general (Cumberland and Korbach, 1973). This type of shape and location of this curve suggests that large model measures the flow of wastes' and residuals amounts of waste can be treated inexpensively5, but coming from each type of economic activity in the that as higher levels of treatment are attempted, Gross Residuals Component B of Figure 1. The efforts to extract the last few percentage points of model' is disaggregated not only with respect to the residual-and to achieve further increments of every production and consumption activity, but environmental quality, raise the costs of treatment with respect to each major type of pollutant dis- per unit sharply. · charged into water, air, and onto 'the land. The The materials balance concept behind Compone'nt importance of disaggregating waste by type, source C for Technical Waste Treatment Processes is based and destination can be suggested by considering the upon the principal that wastes and residuals once different environmental qualities and characteristics created, cannot entirely be eliminated, and thatthe of different estuaries. Estuaries having cold water amount of residuals generated is a function of the and great depths, such as Puget Sound, may be level of economic activity, even if treatment proc- less damaged by some types of residuals (i.e., thermal) esses are widely employed. Society is already en- than would other estuaries, such as the Chesapeake countering the problem of wastes which come out of Bay, which is characterized by shallow depth and waste treatment processes. Problems of dealing with warm waters.: This type of miodel measuring- the the sludge from advanced waste treatment processes, gross generation of residuals is a logical extension and problems of the potential emissions from auto- of economic :interindustry models and now is being mobile pollution control devices are examples. The implemented by numerous research groups. growing evidence of heavy metals and viruses to The growing importance and necessity of treating be found in residuals from sewage treatment proc- wastes and residuals makes it important to develop esses provides another potentially significant example models of the alternative procedures and the costs of this problem. Thus,' the problem of contamination involved' in treating wastes and making them less of the output of waste treatment processes by wastes harmful. This type of information'is included in The from other processes may impair the capability of Technical Waste Treatment Component, C, of the society -for recycling wastes back into the economic systems model, which includes the many technologi- system. cal options for 'treating each type of waste in each As shown in the Environmental Treatment Process location. A 'critical point to be. noted abQut tech- nological treatment of wastes is that while residuals , For some treatment processes, economies of scale may cause high initial treatment costs, which then decline before ultimately, rising. More empirical can be treated in many - ways-through dilution, investigation of this problem is required (Grigalunas, 1972). ESTUARINE ECONOMICS 665 Component, D, of Figure 1, one of the major reasons tion is to provide management authorities with for mismanagement and overuse of estuaries is the information on how to anticipate the amount of limit to the absorptive capacity and waste treatment discharges and how the amount of discharges will capability provided by natural systems in estuaries. affect pollutant concentration and environmental This phenomenon accounts in part for the power- quality. This information on ambient environmental fully attractive force which estuaries exert upon the quality and concentration can then be translated location of industrial development, urban growth, into marginal damage functions and marginal treat- power plants, and industrial harbor complexes. ment cost functions which indicate in the upper Water and other environmental resources of estuaries right-hand quadrant of Part G, the optimal level of can receive, transport, transform, and treat large concentration, or, from the lower left-hand quadrant, amounts of wastes which are discharged from natural the optimal amount of discharge into the estuary. processes and indeed from other waste treatment On the other hand, it may be possible to use even processes. However, as shown in Component D, as limited information about the benefits and costs to discharges become large with respect to the absorp- improve management efficiency (Fisher, Krutilla, tive capacity of the environment, waste concentra- and Chicchetti, op. cit.) Alternatively, these optimal tions begin to build up and quality of the environ- amounts of discharges or concentrations can be ment is changed. The increasing concentration of translated in the upper left-hand component into wastes in the water, air, and other environmental an optimal emissions charge, or pollution penalty resources results in lowering the ambient environ- which would have the effect of providing emitters mental quality of the estuary. The relationship with financial incentives to limit their discharges to between discharges, concentration, and ambient an optimal level. As shown in Part G, for any emitter environmental quality can be shown by an environ- emitting more than an optimal amount of emissions mental transformation function (ETF) as demon- into the estuary, this policy would require his paying strated in Component D of Figure 1. The next im- an emissions charge that was higher than the cost portant analytic step is to translate changes in that he would incur by treating the waste. Con- environmental quality into some estimate of the versely, the emitter would not be required to cut quantitative impact of reduced environmental qual- back his emissions below the optimal point because ity on human beings and other species which de- the cost of treatment would be greater to society pend upon or utilize estuarine resources. This anal- than the amount of damages that would be ysis is shown in Component E. prevented.7 Component E attempts to relate the concentration In summary, benefit-cost analysis lies at the heart of pollutants or the ambient environmental quality of the environmental systems model since it pulls shown in Part D into costs to and effects upon the together all of the relevant information in order to species dependent upon the estuary. An example is provide managers with (1) specific information on the effect of the reductions in dissolved oxygen upon setting of standards for environmental quality; and the survival of the species in the estuary. Another (2) information on potential policy instruments for example is the impact of increased water temperature achieving optimal environmental quality. Since the during the spawning season on the survival of vari- logic of benefit-cost analysis simply asserts that ous species in the estuary. Relationships of this efforts to improve environmental quality should be kind are measured in Part E of Figure 1, as damage pursued up to the point at which benefits equal costs, functions. it should be acceptable to both environmentalists If all the information as discussed up to this point and economic developers. These two groups, how- is available, then this information can be utilized ever, typically disagree strongly on the scope and in a benefit-cost analysis which generates manage- position of the benefit and cost functions, thus dif- ment-relevant information indicating how manage- fering upon the optimal level of environmental ment of estuaries can be improved in the general quality and upon appropriate levels for emission public interest. In Component G of the model, infor- charges. mation from all of the other modules is combined Even if all the vast amount of information and in order to derive standards for socially efficient analysis required for the benefit-cost analysis and for (cost-rrminimizing) management of the estuary.6 This diagram also suggests other management strat- 7 An important technical point to be emphasized is that the optimal amount of discharge and hence the optimal emissions charge will vary egies. The purpose of combining all of this informa- between estuaries and indeed, over different tributaries and reaches of the estuary, depending upon varying assimilative capacity as measured by the transformation function in Component A. Therefore, full inter- spatial and inter-temporal implementation of the model would require 6 For additional detail on Component G, see Freeman, ttaveman, and time series forecasting of each type of economic activity and its associated Kneese, 1973, who use a similar formulation, residuals for each location (Cumberland and Herzog, forthcoming). 666 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL the rest of the economic environmental systems depend upon the creation of the management m- model were available and known, there is no as- stitutions appropriate to the task. surance that this information and analysis would be The second major conclusion concerning improved used to improve management of the estuary unless estuarmine management is that the prmncpal manage- certain other institutions and conditions existed. It ment priority is to offset the market failures winch is first of all essential that appropriate information result from the common property aspects of the and educational channels are available for trans- estuary by establishing an appropriate set of controls nmttmg and clearly commumcatmg the information which bring the private costs of using the estuary's from the model to the general public and to the de- resources into line with the social costs, thus pre- cisionmakers Secondly, there must be institutions venting the abuse and overstress of the estuary. capable of utilizing the scientific management m- The third major implication of the model is that a formation. It is also necessary that people under- large amount of data, research, and analysis will be stand the effects of their personal lifestyles and necessary to achieve these objectives However, If values as expressed by their consumption patterns, appropriate environmental quality standards can be on the quality and future status of the estuary It established, there are fortunately a number of differ- is also essential that management institutions have ent management policies and techmques alone or m available not only the legal authority, but also ade- combination, which can be used to achieve them. quate financing and the range of management pro- One of the most Important sets of management cedures needed to implement management aims. techniques is simply the establishment of environ- Any total systems management model must there- mental standards by law, by zoning, or by other fore reflect the important role that the public, regulations and ordinances. Another potentially very mstitutlons, and management agencies play in attractive set of management pohlicies is the use of decisions on investment, consumption, government emissions charges It can be demonstrated m Part G programs, laws, and policies As indicated in Com- of the model that establishing an appropriate level ponent H of Figure 1, these private and public man- of emisslons charge is a potentially efficient device for agement institutions then feed back changes in lirmtmg the discharge of residuals into the estuary to information and priorities into the economic sectors the level representing an effective social balance be- of the model which again affect changes m output, tween the demands of economic development and altering its composition and sliz, and therefore, the environmental responsibilty generation of wastes and residuals 8 Thus the cycle One of the most important potential attractions of is completed and the model is closed in a total genera] using an emissions charge is that the proceeds from equilibrium system such a charge could be used to achieve some other objectives of environmental management Often it will be necessary to establish new commissions for RECOMMENDATIONS FOR IMPROVED estuarine management, particularly when the prob- Ilem is interstate, mter-county, or interregional. Management mstitutions need to be financed, and The mterrelatlonships between the various com- to have an adequate research and formation base. ponents of the economic environmental estuary to have an adequate research and information base. ponents of the economic environmental estuary The proceeds of a properly designed set of emissions system proposed here suggest a number of directions charges m an estuary could be used to finance a . whch improved environmental management may ,management commission and to support the research be pursued Some obvious points are that the man- needed, part the terdscplnary research agement mstitutlon and its geography should be required to determine transformation functions, coternmnous with the total environmental space of cotermenous with the total environmental space of damage functions, and optimal environmental stand- the estuary, embracming all of its tnrbutares and ards These funds could also be used for momtonng inputs, as well as its areas of discharge, the total at- the release of emissions and enforcing the standards mospheric environment, aid all of the land mass (Cumberland, 1972) Soe possible regulations and from which waste and discharges are emitted into the estuary. This is a very large order which must be policies that an estuarne management commission interpreted reasonably, but in general, effective might apply to improve management and to increase mterpreted reasonably, but m general, effective publc welfare will be examined below. However, estuaruiemanagement will depend upon close control over the environmentsal emisslons into the total there are some potential dangers which should be system, End successful estuarie management nwll considered in the use of emisslons charges to support an estuarmine management commission * The maJor conclusion of this paper is that the appropriate mstitutlonal One is the hazard of becoming financially depend- component for estuarine management is an miterregional commission partially 1upported by ermsslons charges ent upon these funds, and thus developing a vested ESTUARINE ECONOMICS 667 interest in perpetuating pollution. Another problem fits from applying charges to them all would be both pointed out by public finance theorists is that to the to reduce the emissions and to provide financial in- extent that the charges were successful in reducing centives to the emitter to find improved technologies pollution, they would earn very little revenue, and to for reducing future emissions, thus sharing between the extent that they were successful in generating both polluters and the society the benefits of reduced revenue, their effectiveness in pollution abatement pollution. Establishing the principal of full responsi- could be debated. The example of accumulation of bility of the emitter to pay for any accidental or economic and political power associated with the other damage created by his activities such as oil Highway Trust Fund provides a warning against the spills, chemical spills, explosions, sedimentation potential abuses of automatically setting aside damage to water tables, damage to aquifers, and so revenues for a specific purpose. However, it must be on, provides a strong incentive to prevention of recognized that economic factors associated with the damage (Cumberland and Fisher, 1974). public goods problem systematically encourage However, in addition to emissions charges and underinvestment in environmental protection, unless penalties, estuarine managers will also need other special programs are developed. These problems instruments such as the powers of planning and suggest that emission charges might be combined zoning to protect the wetlands upon which the health with other environmental control measures as an of the estuaries depends and to manage inland de- important but not sole instrument for pollution velopment which ultimately determines the amount control. of waste that is discharged into the estuary. In fact, We have seen that the major task of managing the power of zoning should be extended from land to estuaries is to achieve an appropriate balance be- water resources. For example, increasing numbers of tween economic growth and development and the recreationists appear to be adopting high-technology, environmental quality of the estuary. Because of the noise-intensive types of recreation such as water common property nature of the estuary and the skiing and the use of high-speed water craft, dune economic incentives of industry to discharge its waste buggies, trail bikes, aircraft and helicopters. Because at lowest costs, the primary management task for they impose very great dangers, damages, disameni- estuarine management will be to reduce the amount ties, and discomfort on other users of the estuary, of residuals and externalities imposed upon one set these activities should be heavily taxed, limited to of users by others, and to take a long-run view of the restricted areas, and permitted in other areas only as estuary as an ecological unit which must serve the contributors to public welfare (emergency vehicles). needs of future generations, as well as those of the An appropriate balance between these competing present. demands can be achieved not only by establishing The achievement of these objectives will call for charges upon speed, noise, and horsepower, but also judicious use of a wide range of management policies by zoning certain limited portions of the estuary for and techniques. These could probably best be industrial, commercial, high-noise, high-speed activi- achieved by management commissions set up as ties, provided appropriate emissions charges were described and given responsibility over the total paid and by excluding these activities altogether environmental space of the estuary with appropriate from other parts of the estuary, regardless of emis- powers of planning, establishing standards, taxing, sions charges. In effect, the charges could be varied monitoring, and enforcement. There are many by zone, with an infinite charge for the use of some policies and sets of procedures that such an institu- zones. tion might use. Among the most promising would be One of the most important sources of environ- a comprehensive set of emissions charges on all types mental externalities and estuarine damages is the of emissions and externalities. These charges, of military sector, and one of the most important course, should be related to both the assimilative opportunities for improving welfare through alterna- capacity of the estuary and the damages that would tive uses of estuaries is to return some of the vast be created by the discharges. It is important to note military holdings of tidewater areas to civilian use. that these emissions and discharges are not limited The contribution of military security to society is to liquid, solid, and gas alone, but that they also in- widely recognized as is the need for certain amounts elude releases of energy in the form of.heat, noise, of secrecy and security in this area, but it should be and radioactivity. Some of the most urgent needs for equally recognized that the environmental costs of effective improved management of estuaries are military activities are often excessive and unneces- sharp reductions in the amount of thermnal waste, sary. For example, currently, military activities have radionuclides, and noise emission. Stiff charges the power to override the planning and zoning au- could be applied to all of these pollutants. The bene- thority of local governments, as well as potential 668 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL estuarine management commissions. The magnitude SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS and intensity of military activities result in their This paper has also emphasized improvement in being a major source of congestion, accidents, noise, estuarine management through the creationof explosions, thermal release, radiation, and sonic estuarine management commissions which are geo- booms, from the operation both of very large types ofnn graphically coextensive with the estuary and its conventional vehicles and advanced weapon systems. total environmental space. This problem is not only Judging by the dollar value alone of military activity, economic, but also political in nature and the com- and not allowing for any increased environmental position of such management commissions is critical. intensity of military operations and experimental Once again, recognizing that bias in estuarine weapons systems, it is unquestionably one of the in .. I management tends to be heavily in favor of exces- major generators of environmental externalities inid economic development and short-run sively rapid econonmic development and short-run estuarine regions.' revenue producing activities, the usual economic and: In view of the difficulty of local governments and political representation of such commissions should management commissions in regulating military also be balanced with participation of citizens' and activities, a national policy is necessary in order to minimize their environmental impact and to achieve minimize their environmental impact and to achieve least a hearing. Providing clear channels for citizen national efficiencies in geographically locating them participation in environmental management is an in those'regions where environmental impact can be essential corrective to the usual problem of con- minimal. In the long-run it would be desirable toal p return to civilian use all military properties located centrated economic and poitic al pow er used to distribute heavy pollution burdens widely over large in estuaries where civilian activities are widespread. A national policy of returning estuarine based populations which then face heavy costs in organiz- A national policy of returning estuarine based ing to protect their welfare. military activities to civilian use and removing .,aremoving .The national policy on estuarine management military operations to unsettled regions could iam- military operations to unsettled regions could should recognize the principle that the federal gov- prove total national welfare through increasing the rnment establish minimum environmental stand- supply of public goods for recreation. However, an s u t ards, but that local areas, including estuarine essential element of such a policy should be to offset management commissions be permitted to veto local economic adjustment problems through cormn- local. ec..o an pm . local developments and to establish higher environ- pensatory policies, and through careful regulation of ment sta mental quality standards than the federal minimum. the public use of released military bases to exclude The justification for this point of view is not oly The justification for this point of view is not only pollution-intensive forms of recreation. For example, re very little justification in economic theory can be cogzing local preferences and seeng mprove ... .ments through permitting local choice, but also found for providing military recreation centers whiching b encouraging improved technology by establishing favor privileged classes of individuals such as fvor plegd classo of te ddals spublc, ,. very high performance standards at the local level so military people to the exclusion of the general public. Subsmilitary people tassistance xcanalusio n ofeene. that would-be polluters have positive incentives to seek cleaner technologies. Such local citizen activity courage creation of public goods which are not has already has already resulted in the refinement of nuclear sufficiently generated by market processes. Among te technology and other energy systems. Since market the activities which are particularly in need of subsidy are recreation, especially for wilderness processes usually combie with economic and political power to generate excessively rapid de- areas, hiking and biking paths, ecological research velopment and intensive overuse 'of estuarine re- areas, protection of critical marshlands, and preven- sources, recent proposals to permit the federal tion of shore erosion. Other types of activities for which subsidies might be provided are actual re- government to override local preferences for non development, or to require states to set aside energy moval of offensive activities, such as pollution- de development areas regardless of local wishes seem intensive power plants and military bases, as dis- . . . r o cussed above. Another type of public good iworthay inefficient economically, and politically indefensible cussed above. Another type of public good worthy of subsidies is historic restoration, such as Williams- in a fee s A most important part of life cycle planning is burg in the tidewater area of Virginia and St. Mary's City in the tidewa area ofMaryland.Sb . recognition of the fact that all residuals should be City in the tidewater area of Maryland. Subsidies. . specified which would be generated by any proposedr should also be considered for those types of activities seied which ould be generated by any proposed shoul als be consi d fr development through every phase, including ex- which are environmentally beneficial or neutral, which are winvmilonmentslal , enefargy devics. -l ploration, construction, operation, and eventually such as windmills and solar energy devices. rehabilitation of the site. Complete life cycle planning D In the Chesapeake Bay region, military activities dominate major based on materials balance concepts would require segments of prime air, land, and water resources, creating extensive planned, and often accidental explosions under water, on land, and in the air. that the producer specify exactly what inputs would ESTUARINE ECONOMICS 669 enter into the process, and exactly what ultimate them will not be an easy task. However, the lesson disposition would be made of all of these inputs. to be learned in improving our management of these Component C of the systems analysis should warn vital resources will be a crucial step in mankind's that even treatment is not enough, for treatment belated efforts to recognize his responsibilities for processes involve wastes whose ultimate disposition long-run protection of his total environment on has to be specified and paid for, preferably by the earth. The systems analysis presented in this paper emitter. suggests that establishment of interregional, inter- Another reason for restraining market-oriented ir- disciplinary management commissions, financed reversible development is the need for keeping open partially through emissions charges, and with broad options for the future. As Krutilla and Cicchetti powers to levy these charges; conduct research, have emphasized, changing technology plus changing monitor environmental quality, and control land income elasticity of demand for recreation will and water use is a promising institutional approach probably increase the future value of unspoiled rec- to the protection and management of estuaries. reational resources and reduce the present value of technology-intensive activities (Krutilla and Cic- REFERENCES chetti, 1972). Aesthetic damage to shorelines, skylines, and other Arrow, Kenneth J. and A. C. Fisher, "Environmental Preser- estuarine resources is a costly type of environmental vation, Uncertainty, and Irreversibility, Quarterly Journal pollution. Although the cost may be spread out over of Economics, Volume LXXXVIII, May, 1974, pp. 312-319. a large number of people over a very long period, Ayres, Robert U. and A. V. Kneese, "Production, Consump- realistic measurement would indicate a serious de- tion, and Externalities," American Economic Review, crease in social welfare. For this reason, all of the Volume 59, Number 3, June, 1969, pp. 282-297. policy measures discussed above such as charges, policy measures discussed above such as charges, Chesapeake Research Consortium Annual Report, June 1, controls, and subsidies should be used to discourage 1971-May 31, 1972, Johns Hopkins University, University large physical intrusions of any kind and to subsidize of Maryland, Smithsonian Institution, Virginia Institute protection of natural landscapes. Examples of visual of Marine Science, Baltimore, Md. pollution are bridges and power lines which appear to Cumberland, John H., "A Regional Interindustry Model diminish the magnitude and majesty of a body of for the Analysis of Development Objectives," Regional water or a distant skyline. Where such facilities are Science Association Papers, Volume XVI, 1966, pp. 65-94. regarded as essential, the alternative of using tunnels rather than bridges and of undergrounding power- Cumberland, John H., "Establishment of International Environmental Standards-Some Economic and Related lines and pipelines rather than permitting them Aspects," Problems in Transfrontier Pollution, Organiza- aboveground should be encouraged by economic and tion for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris, 1972, pp. 213-299. other incentives. Finally, an important feature of estuarine manage- Cumberland, John H. and R. J. Korbach, "A Regional ment commissions would be their research capability. Interindustry Environmental Model," Regional Science These institutions could advance the art of environ- Association Papers, Volume XXX, 1973, pp. 61-75. mental management through continual research on damage functions as indicated in the systems model Cumberland, John H. and B. N. Stam, "Effects of Economic Development Upon Water Resources," Water Resources and by giving the regional commissions the Research Center, Technical Bulletin Number 18, 1974, capability of forming independent estimates of the University of Maryland, College Park. impact from proposed activities. One promising format for the research arm of such estuarine Cumberland, John H. and H. W. Herzog, Jr., "Economic- Environmental Planning for Water Quality Control in management commissions is the Chesapeake Re- the Chesapeake Bay Region," forthcoming. search Consortium in the Chesapeake Bay region (1971-1972). Another opportunity to finance and Fisher, Anthony C., J. V. Krutilla and C. J. Cicchetti, "The encourage environmental research and public goods Economics of Environmental Preservation-A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis," The American Economic Review, activities is through the sea grant program, under Volume LXII, Number 4, September, 1972, pp. 605-619. which local institutions can be encouraged to develop the multidisciplinary research capabilities called for Fisher, Anthony C. and J. V. Krutilla, "Valuing Long-Run research, and Ecological Consequences and Irreversibilities," Journal of in Figure 1 for estuarine management, research, and Environmental Economics and Management, Volume 1, policy formation. 1974, pp. 96-108. Because of the vulnerability of our estuaries, de- veloping the knowledge, skills, and institutions Freeman, A. Myrick, III, R. H. Haveman and A. V. Kneese, The Economics of Environmental Policy, New York, John needed to reverse the damage now being done to Wiley and Sons, 1973. 670 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas, The Entropy Law and The Herzog, Henry W, Jr, "The Economices of Regional Water Economic Process, Cambridge, Harvard Umniverslty Press, Quahlity Management-A Case Study of Water Quahlity 1971. In the Chesapeake Bay Region," Unpubhlished PhD Dissertatlon, Umverslty of Maryland, College Park, May 1974. Grigalunas, Thomas Allen, "Waste Generation, Waste Management and Natural Resource Use An Economic Krutflla, John V and C J Cicchetti, "Evaluating Benefits Analysis of the Primary Copper Industry," Unpubhlished of Envlronmental Resources With Special Apphlications to Ph D Dissertatlon, Umverslty of Maryland, College Park, the Hell's Canyon," Natural Resources Journal, Volume 1972 12, Number 1, January 1972, pp 1-24 ESTABLISHING THE ECONOMIC .-VALUE OF ESTUARIES TO U.S. COMMERCIAL FISHERIES DENNIS P. TIHANSKY ,NORMAN F. MEADE U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. ABSTRACT The economic importance of estuaries is assessed in their supportive role of the U.S. commercial fishing industry. Economic welfare concepts are related to major phases of the fishing industry, and empirical estimates of these values are surveyed in the literature. The exvessel price of landed species is cited to be a conservative estimate of net benefits realized by all phases. The literature survey reveals that most economic studies of fishery benefits are conducted without any apparent knowledge of valid welfare concepts. This gap between empirical and theoretical constructs must be eliminated if economic values are to be plausible and meaningful. INTRODUCTION uses will continue to be the primary factors consid- ered in estuarine development cost/benefit analyses. The estuaries of the United States have tradi- It is therefore to the net benefit of society that guide- tionally nurtured a significant portion of the total lines be established to achieve a full consideration of commercial fish catch. Records dating back to the the values of fisheries. Without the development and early colonization of America reveal a close link wide application of such guidelines to coastal zone between economic development and estuarine re- decisionmaking, the Nation will continue to lose sources. For New England pilgrims facing cold win- segments of its estuaries to residential and industrial ters, clams and mussels were the major diet during development, with corresponding declines in fisheries the periods of food storage. Some communities along stocks (Roberts, 1974). the Atlantic coast depended almost entirely on the This paper surveys methods to quantify the ec- fishing industry and related activities, such as onomic benefits of commercial fishing and then shipbuilding and the construction of marinas. Identi- relates them to empirical studies of specific estuaries. fled as the most naturally fertile environment in the The following section reviews current statistics of world (Odum, 1961), estuaries provide a haven for U.S. commercial landings and the relative importance fish and shellfish at various stages of their life cycle. of estuaries. The next section outlines the theoretical It is estimated (Stroud, 1971) that, depending upon basis of welfare economics, and then applies these the geographic region, 65 to 90 percent of domestic concepts to benefit estimation at the fish catching, fish landings are comprised of estuarine-dependent processing, and marketing phases. Distinctions are species. Furthermore, there is the enormous potential recognized between direct benefits of the fishing in- of increasing usable catches from estuaries by mari- dustry and indirect benefits to the regional economy. culture, improvement of fishing efficiency, and Following this is a summary of published values of Following this is a summary of published values of increased harvest of underutilized species. Despite the recognized importance of estuaries to estuaries throughout the nation and an economic the economy and welfare of society, these areas are assessment of fishery losses from marine pollution. often exploited for dredging and landfill operations In the next section the various problems of benefit that permanently imperil fishery resources. These assessment are discussed as they affect the accuracy damaging activities are usually justified in monetary or credibility of empirical values. To conclude the terms for industrial, residential, or commercial paper, specific recommendations are made for a development purposes. comprehensive benefit evaluation of estuarine- The conservation of fish habitat, on the other dependent fisheries and for management policies hand, is more difficult to evaluate in economic values. that fully recognize these values in coastal zoning Yet without such an evaluation, competing water decisions. 671 672 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL ESTUARINE-DEPENDENCE industry (Gates, 1971). (In certain Asian and Eiro- OF FISHERIES pean countries, on the other hand, the rearing of finfish and certain types of shellfish is well estab- In 1973 the total value of reported commercial lished) Efforts to raise salmon m estuaries of the fish landings m the United States was more than Pacific Northwest are hampered by high costs, while $900 million (National Marine Fisheries Service, research attempts to raise shrimip along the gulf 1974) At least two-thirds of that amount is derived coast are in the preliminary stage but do look promis- from estuarine-dependent species (McHugh, 1966) 1 mg for the future Should these efforts meet with While much essential biological information re- success, however marginal, they will add yet another mains to be acquired on habitat dependencies, there dimenslon to the value of the'estuary In cases where is a general consensus among fisheries experts conflicts arse between malculturists and natural (Stroud, 1971) that the following commercially fish harvesters, detailed management strategies will important species spend at least part of their hfe be needed to accommodate bdth interests at some in the estuarine zone- black sea bass, bluefish, clams, socially optimum combination (all soft clams and some hard clam species), crabs (except king and tanner crab), croaker, black drum, THE CONEPTUAL FRAMEWORK red drum, American eel, flounder, lobster, menhaden, mullet, oysters, porgie, puffer, salmon (chinook, beneft of a resoure s the gan n ..ho), .e , .h , .pt sThe economic benefit of a resource is the gain m coho), seatrout, shrimunp, spot, steelhead, striped bass, sturgeon, tarpon, tautog, and weakfish real income or consumer satisfaction realized by the Published statistics on the exvessel value of par- use or consumption of that resource. However many Ptiular species give strong testimony on the slefir- benefit estimates are made without a valid economic cance of estuaries to the commercial fishing industry retionale The assumptions and techniques used m and the American economy as a whole (National estimating benefits need to be checked against Marne Fisheres Services, 1974) aOf the 10 most sound, economic theory to determine their validity valuable species landed in 1973, eight are directly The concept of benefits, as proposed in this study, on the estuary and represent over $660 conforms to basic ideas of welfare economics By dependent on the estuary and represent over $660 defion, the gros benefit of estuaes terms of million in dockside revenue. This figure does not fition, the gross benefit of estuarie terms of include the value added (i.e., revenue less raw ma- commercial fish is the maximum amount that society terial costs) from the processing, wholesale, and would pay for the actual or potential yield of fish retail sectors. In a socially optimum allocation of resources, this While the literature on most commercially ir- amount will at least equal the value of all goods that portant estuarne-dependent species has identified society has foregone in order to obtain the output the unique life-supportmg role of estuaries, there'is from the fishing sector According to economic ter- little quantitative information on total standing mnology, this oregone value is called the opportun- crops of particular species (Clark, 1974) As a re- lty cost of fishing and should be subtracted from sult, fisheries scientists are unable to predict with gross benefits to estimate the net benefits Net bene- confidence just how much estuarine acreage is fit is the willingness-to-pay value after total produc- necessary to maintain existing fisheries at any level tlon costs are subtracted of catch effort. This situation greatly complicates The fishing industry is comprised of vertically cost accounting of commercial fishery stocks which integrated phases that include the catching of fish, are threatened by estuarine degradation. the processing and distribution of fishery products, and retail marketing to the final consumers (Bureau of Governmental Research and Service, 1969). Mariculture Each of these activities contributes to the net bene- fits of commercial fishing The net benefit of each The farming of marine animals in the U.S. estu- sector, i.e, the value of the output of the sector after arine zone is not as yet practiced to any appreciable subtracting total production costs, is also known as extent (other than perhaps the Atlantic coast oyster the value added by that sector The following re- industry) After more than a decade of intensive marks pertain to the most valid guidelines of assess- public and private research on this topic, there still ing the net benefits at each phase are major economit, legal, and technological barriers in this country to establishing a viable aquaculture The Catch Phase While a two-thirds ratio is the most commonly quoted figure, several estimates range as high as 75-90 percent, with the upper figure cited for Fishermen constitute the most fundamental link catches along the gulf coast (Newsletter, 1974, Atlantic States Marine lisherles Commission, 1968, Stroud, 1971) in the chain Most benefit estimates m the literature ESTUARINE ECONOMICGS 673 narrowly focus on fishing revenues. It is commonly run, these resources will eventually flow into more assumed that net benefits are calculated as the dif- profitable uses. As old vessels are retired,'the mater- ference between dockside catch value and fishing ials and labor necessary to replace them will be costs of capital, labor, and other input factors. used in other industries. Fishermen are less likely to Unlimited entry into the fishery grounds entices too find new employment, although this is not a univer- .much capital and labor input in the industry. As a sally accepted opinion.2 result, net benefit calculations, the difference be- In a meeting (McQuigg, 1971) of Canadian tween value of catch and fishing costs, are often zero scientists, it' was concluded that landing price may or negative in the long run. The invalid implication significantly underestimate net benefits aggregated of this logic is that commercial estuarine fishing over all'phases of the fishing sector. Direct benefits does not enhance social welfare. include current net rent to fishing, processing, and An alternate approach has been suggested marketing profits. Indirect benefits include the addi- (Crutchfield, 1962) to overcome this dilemma. The tional income and employment generated, if any, rent or value of the resource should be calculated in coastal communities in other industry and service under the ideal situation wherein only the most effi- sectors as a result of the commercial industry and cient fishermen have access to fishing grounds. Net fishing. Another analysis (Bell, 1974), of interna- benefit is then determined at the economic optimum tional fishery values, claims that the exvessel price level of output given the least cost strategy of pro- is an adequate proxy for net benefits to the consumer. duction. This implies a reduction in the size of the Unlike the Canadians' emphasis on producer benefits, fishing fleet and manpower requirements, which in this conclusion pertains exclusively to welfare im- turn would allow the "excess investment" to be pacts from the retail market as discussed later. utilized in more beneficial sectors of the economy. 'VWhile this approach can provide a reasonable empirical value, it neglects certain welfare impacts The Processing andse by not quantifying all of the benefits and should be modified accordingly. For example, the excess in- vestments due to free entry may be indicativ;e of vestments due to free entry-'may be indicative of Intermediate activities of the fishingsector begin society's preference for a larger fishing fleet and its with the wholesalers who purchase the catch at protection of one of America's oldest labor markets. dockside and then extend to include processor, dis- Any attempt to dislodge these excess investments tributors, and the retail markets. Net benefits could induce drastic changes' in the prosperity of attributable to this phase are usually ignored in the fishing ports, the displacement of fishermen and literature because of the lack of readily -accessible their families, and a reduction of scenic amenities data. To date, few estimates of such values have provided' by picturesque 'fleets and colorful old been attempted. It assumes that the total value fishermen tending to their daily chores. added by processing and wholesaling sectors reflects On the other hand, it'could be contended that net welfare (Carley, 1968),. Whether value added excess investments in fishing are not preferred; rather represents a good approximation to net benefits they are forced upon society as a result of an histori- remains to be proven According to economic cal misallocation of resources. This resource immobil- theory, monetary benefits are determined by the ity accounts for a portion of the potential rent, and, excess profits or producer surplus earned by this if at all possible, should be deducted in the estimate phase of the industry. The magnitude of this benefit of net benefits. ' depends upon the profit-making potential of the Some resource analysts (Gosselink, 1973; Hite, industry. 1973) claim that 'the entire landing value of fish The number of processor-wholesaler firms has should be imputed to the net rent of estuarine areas, declined in recent years and those remaining have as an indication of "the dependency of jobs and broadened their sphere of influence and increased commercial fisheries on the existence of these free their profit-making potential by handling more resources." This assumes that capital and labor fishery products and adding restaurants or retailing commitments to the fishery cannot be shifted to facilities to their investments. Profit-making po- other uses. In the' short run, this assumption seems tential is also obtained by controlling a large enough valid for some fisheries where the commercial share of the market to influence prices. Interferences fishermen are quite old and entrenched in their jobs 2 For example, a recent study (Strang, 1974) on charter boat fishing in despite relatively low incomes, and where the con- the Great Lakes found the age distribution of fishermen to be bimodal, with a significant portion over 50 years old and another concentration in version of boats and fishery equipment into other their twenties. The latter group is particularly mobile, and could thus find employment elsewhere, in view of current opportunities in this country uses is technologically impractical. Yet over the long for non-professionals in skilled and unskilled jobs. 674 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL with the price mechanism have been cited (Hlte, Besides consumers' surplus which pertains to 1973) for the tuna canning sector, where ult landing current demands, there is also "option value" asso- prices are set prior to the catch by a cooperative of elated with the desire for consumption at some time vessel owners and fishermen Such activities could m the future This benefit is the price an individual introduce excess profits, which nevertheless, should is willng to pay now to preserve his option of con- be included as a component of net benefits sumrng a product in the future Because option value is not included m current market prices, Its contribution to fishery values is Retail Sales Peither disminussed or neglected by many declsion- makers While it may indeed be difficult to derive the The value of fishery resources depends on two sets values, some attempt should be made to clude them values, some attempt should be made to include them of complex market forces The above discussion b r oadly recognizes the supply side includi ng the in a benefit assessment The omission of option value broadly recos t of harvesting, processing, and distribution of te results in an underestimate of the value of a fishery cost of harvestmg, processmg, and dmstnbutlon of , s . fish products There Is also the demand side which or estuary, which could seriously umperl attempts to takes into account the consumers' preference for fish preserve fish habtat fo r future (Abel, 1974), other and shellfish The intensity of this preference is reflected in the prices that individuals are willing to types of benefits have also been identified, although reflected m the prices oithat mlvluals aren tllmg IO their empirical valuation remains to be investigated. pay for various commodities, given current or fore- One such measure Is "existence value," which Is an seen consumption alternatives in the market Con- indvldual's wlllngness to pay for society's use or ceptually, net benefit to consumers is the difference between whaua t bthey pay for fish and fish products conservation of a resource, even if he does not intend between what they pay for fish and fish products and its value to them This concept is referred to as A related type of benefit follows from an md- consumers'surphs ,A related type of benefit follows from an mdi- The demand fconsumherys' surpluctdepes upon vidual's desire to make the resource available to The demand for any fishery product depends upon future generations rather than to mself Ts individual tastes, level of income, and prices of that "bequest value," as it I appropriately called, is product as well as the price of related goods. The similar to the llng of estates and large fortunes by U S per capita consumption of fish and shellfish parents to their cwl ldren These benefit concepts parents to their children These benefit concepts has remained virtually constant ts century should affect future mincome streams from estuarine indcating that tastes have remained relatively con- stant In the past, the quantity of fishery products resoures been nether emonstrated nor even current purchases responded greatly to price changes. How- values has been neither demonstrated nor even con- ever, recently the change in amount purchased in jectured response to a change m price has been relatively small On the other hand, the quantity of fishery Local and Regional Impacts products purchased has responded more to changes m income than it ever has before Of course, these There are several approaches to assessing the observations vary according to the species (Wong, economic impacts of commercial fisheries The above 1970) discussion of measured and non-measured benefits Consumer benefits from the demand for mdustrial pertains to the direct gains of personal welfare at- fish are more difficult to quantify, smce there are trlbutable to the production and (actual or optional) essentially two levels of retail purchases In the in- consumption of fish resources Another economic dustrial market, such rawfish as menhaden and impact is the indirect or secondary effect on the anchovies-both marketed almost exclusively as economy of a local area or region These impacts medible-are sold directly to feed-fish processors result when additlonal income and employment are Fish meal, which then becomes part of the feed for generated by the fishing industry m other economic poultry and livestock, is eventually converted into sectors such as service industries and retail stores final consumer products ranging from pet food to Policymakers are rightly concerned about second- glues How to apportion these final product benefits ary benefits, since one of their common goals is to among such constituent inputs as fish meal is an protect and encourage economic growth within their unresolved issue pohtical jurisdiction Employment can potentially A related problem involves apportioning total be stimulated and tax revenues increased withmn consumer benefits from all fishery products among regions that have an expanding fishming industry specific species or specific estuaries If economic The magnitude of the secondary benefits depends values are to be assigned to indlvidual estuaries, upon the size of the region as well as the structure of the fraction of the total supply must be determined the economy and whether underemployed resources ESTUARINE ECONOMICS 675 are available there. In general, the smaller the along the Massachusetts shoreline are based on geographic area, the less likely it is for a region to be mean high water levels, but would be 20-100 percent self-sufficient in many products. Hence, expenditures larger if calculated for low water conditions due to will take place outside the region and the benefits the change in total estuarine surface acreage. More- will be correspondingly reduced. From the regional over, they reflect catch value divided by the total perspective, it follows that sales or purchases provid- area of surface water. In a highly productive sub- ing additional income to one area may represent a area of the San Francisco Bay estuary (Howard, loss to another. For the nation as a whole, however, 1973), the yearly revenue for oysters exceeds $500 the local and regional impacts should be excluded per acre (in 1973 dollars). It is also interesting to from net benefit calculations as they will, by defini- compare values for the same estuary, as reported in tion, cancel each other. To local and regional de- different references. Along the Alabama coast, for cisionmakers, however, this information is essential instance, two estimates differ because of the year in in weighing alternative plans to determine priorities which revenues were observed and the specific fishing for economic development. grounds under consideration. In Delaware Bay, unit Some economists (Prest, 1965) argue that second- values differ by type of species. Other factors affect- ary benefits should not be counted as a gain to ing the magnitude of estuarine values are discussed society. They contend that in a competitive econ- later. omy, these benefits are reflected by the price of The predominance of estimates along the Massa- the original good. That is, as the secondary effect of chusetts and gulf coast shorelines substantiates the the good increases, its price should rise in correspond- fact that fisheries here are largely estuarine-depend- ing fashion. This assumes perfect factor mobility, ent. In California, however, more than two-thirds of wherein gross expenditures for fish resources can past coastal marshland has been replaced by land be easily shifted to other resource demands. In a developments. In 1899 the catch of oysters in San full-employment economy there are many opportuni- Francisco Bay exceeded $2,000,000 (in current ties for long-term resource shifting. For'the fishing money) but gradually declined to barely 0.3 percent industry, this assumption may not be completely of this amount by 1973. Western fisheries have thus valid in cases where fishermen are immobile or cannot moved into deeper waters, so that estuaries are find jobs elsewhere. seldom valued. In the Pacific Northwest, anadro- mous fish species contribute to estuarine values, but they spend most of their lives in ocean waters or EMPIRICAL RESULTS spawning streams. A description of the catch in these estuaries indi- Published estimates of the economic value of cates the relative importance of the different species. estuaries date back into the 1950's, although most While shellfish provide the major source of income, values have appeared within the past several years. there are also instances where eels, bait worms, and Recently the work of Odum and fellow researchers finfish are economically quite valuable. A comparison (Gosselink, 1973; Odum, 1968; Odum, 1960) received of the estimates in the Merrimack River Estuary, widespread attention because of the large magnitude Mass., shows that clams rank first in value by far, of estimates3 for estuaries along the south Atlantic although potential sales of bait worms are unex- and gulf coasts. But the most extensive evaluations pectedly high at more than $250 per capitalized have been conducted by Massachusetts' Division of acre. Even marsh grass has an economic value since Marine Fisheries (Chesmore, 1972; Chesmore, 1972; it supports the growth of an oyster community Chesmore, 1973; Jerome, 1969; Jerome, 1973; Je- although no attempt was made in this report to rome, 1968; Jerome, 1966; Jerome, 1965), one of impute a value for it. whose charters is "to establish more precisely the These annual values conceal the long-term con- values and relative importance to the fisheries of tribution of estuarine resources to social welfare. particular areas." For renewable resources such as commercial fish, In Table 1 the economic values of various estuarine economic returns should be comprehended over a areas are compared, and are adjusted to base year sufficiently long time horizon. To compare them with 1973 by an exvessel fish and shellfish price index nonrenewable resource values over a single (current) (National Marine Fisheries Service, 1974). Values year biases the results in favor of current returns. sAccording to these authors, natural tidal marshes along the gulf Consequently, a capitalized value of each estimate coast typically have annual returns of $3,000 or more per acre. But only i also calculated in Tabl 1 $100 of this amount is related to fisheries, the bulk due to waste treatment costs avoided because of the natural assimilative capacity of the estuarine Capitalized value represents the amount of capital, mixing zone. But intensive aquaculture could increase the contribution of fisheries to as much as $1,000. in real dollar terms, whch must be invested at a 676 EsTUARINI POLLUTION CONTROL Table 1 -Economic values of estuahies to commercial fishing Estuary Annual Per Acre Year Description of Catch Per Acre Capitalized Estiary Area in Value Value in 1973 Prices Acres Essex Bay MA (Chesmore, 1973) ---------------.. $256 00 1969 Lobsters and Soft-Shell Clams $4,104 00 1,261 Entire GA Estuary System (Gosselink, 1973) .... 9 00 1965 All Commercially Valuable Species Landed 218 00 393,000 in Georgia BE Bay Estuary (Shuster, 1971) ----------------- 170 00 1956 Oysters 3,990 00 8,000a (actually fished) DE Bay Estuary (Shuster, 1971) ------------------ 118 1956 Oysters 11 80 2,560,000a San Francisco Bay Estuary (Howard, 1973) 563 00 1971 Oysters 5,630 00 4,000b (actually fished) San Francisco Bay Estuary (Howard, 1973). . ...... 12 00 1971 Oysters 80 00 300,000b San Francisco Bay (Skinner, 1962) .... ....... 15 00 1956 Mixed Finfish 396 00 300,000 Entire LA Estuarine System (Gosselink, 1973) . .... 27 00 1970 All Commercially Valuable Species Landed 473 00 2,200,000 In Louislana Entire FL Estuarine System (Gosselink, 1973) . .... 41 00 1970 All Commercially Valuable Species Landed 718 00 1,050,000 in Flonrida Beverly-Salem Harbor Estuary, MA(Jerome, 1973).. 37 00 1965 Clams, Lobsters, Bait Worms, Finfish 894 00 8,541 Mobile Delta, AL (Beshears, 1959) ... .... 2 00 1959 Mixed Finfish, Bait Worms, Shellfish 51 00 50,000 Mobile Bay AL (Beshears, 1959) ...-............. 13 00 1958 Shrimp and Oysters 286 00 275,000 Corpus Christi Bays, TX (Anderson, 1960) ........ 15 00 1958 Mixed Finfish and Shellfish 370 60 228,541 Merrimack River Estuary, MA (Jerome, 1965) - ---- 45 00 1964 Mixed Finfish and Shellfish 977 00 3,050 Dorchester Bay Estuary, MA (Chesmore, 1972) - --- 62 00 1967 Lobsters and Soft-Shell Clams 1,240 00 5,293 Galveston-Trinity-East Bay Estuary, TX (Stroud, 1970) ------------------------ - 58 00 1967 Mixed Fimfish and Shellfish 1,317 00 333,000 Parker River-Plum Island Estuary, MA (Jerome, ] 1968)- .. ....--------.. 92 00 1965 Crabs, Clam Worms, Clams, Lobsters 2,158 00 3,581 Annesquam Rlver-Gloucester Harbor Estuary (Jerome, 1969) ------------- ' 116 00 1965 Mixed Finfish and Shellfish 2,817 00 2,237 Hmngham Bay Estuary (Iwanowicz, 1973) ......... 26 00 1970 Lobsters and Clams 455 00 7,272 Entire VA Estuarine System (Wass, 1969) . ...... 77 00 1968 Mixed Finfish and Shellfish 1,545 00 177,073 Coastal Estuaries Hampton-Seabrook, NH (Fogg 1964) ---------------------------- 33 00 1963 Clams, Crabs, Lobsters, and Sea Worms 816 00 3,200 Quincy Bay Estuary, MA (Jerome, 1966) .....9... . 995 1968 Clams, Lobsters and Crabs 100 00 7,313 Waquolt Bay-Eel Pond Estuary, MA (Curley, 1971).. 106 00 1968 Quahogs, Bay Scallopsand Soft-Shell Clams 100 00 7,313 Lynn-Saugus Harbor Estuary, MA (Chesmore, 1972). 28 00 1968 Lobsters, Soft-Shell Clams, Sea Worms 562 00 6,317 Tampa Bay Estuary, FL (Taylor, 1968) ........... 64 00 1965 Mixed Fiofish and Shellfish 1,547 00 3,500 Apalachicola Bay Estuary, FL (Federal Water Pollu- tion Control Administration, 1969) ............. 33 50 1967 Mixed Finfish and Shellfish 810 00 64,000 Great South Bay Estuary, NY (Federal Water Pollu- tion Control Administration, 1969) 50 00 1965 Clams 1,113 00 4,500 Atlantic Coast Estuaries (Stroud, 1970) . ........ 71 00 1965 Mixed Finfish and Shellfish 2,716 00 2,328,423 Narragansett Bay Estuary, RI (Federal Water Pollu- I tion Control Administration, 1969) 31 00 1965 Mixed Finfish and Shellfish 749 00 108,800 Penobscot Bay Estuary, ME (Federal Water Pollu- tion Cbntrol Administration, 1969) _ -... .... 113 00 1965 Soft-Shell Clams 2,512 00 6,645 S Estuaries (1973) --------------- - 21 000 1967 Mixed Finfish and Shellfish 477 00 29,300,000 a The per acre value of $3,990 represents the capitalized worth of only the oyster-producing grounds of the estuary, which in 1956 totaled only 8,000 acres Taking the entire 2,560,000 acre area of the estuary into account and averaging the total oyster catch value across the entire acreage results in the smaller per acre value of $11 80 b The per acre value of $6,630 represents the capitalized worth of only the oyster-producing grounds of the estuary, which in 1971 totaled 4,000 acres Taking the entire 300,000 acre area of the estuary into account and averaging the total oyster catch value across the entire acreage results in the smaller per acre value of $80 o The miit value is derived by the authors as the rati of total US dockside revenue (National Marine Fisheres Service, 1974) adjusted for estuarine-dependency, to the total area of U S estuaries (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1969) Note All values reflect dependency factor of 2/3 of total catch .. ESTUARINE ECONOMICS 677 given market interest rate in order to return a Table 2.-Estuarine fish losses from water pollution, 1970 perpetual dividend equal to a fixed annual net profit. Area Damage Species For example, if a particular estuary provides $100 in ($1,000) Affected net social benefits per year from its fishery resources, then its capitalized value at a market interest rate of Boston Harbor, Mass .-... $5,000 Clam' 10 percent is $1,000.4 Capitalized values in Table 1 Chesapeake Bay -...-.'.-.-. . . 8,000 Menhaden assume an interest rate of 10 percent as the fair 1,860 Other Finfish 1,0o9 Shelffish market.value of current capital investments. The authors believe this accurately reflects the opportu- Columbia River Mouth 865 Salmon nity cost of capital investment with respect to cur- Galveston Bay ..-................... 1,930 Finfish' rent market conditions in the private sector. It is not 15 Oyster our intention to debate which interest rate may be Long Island Sound .-. ............... 1,000 Oyster the more accurate but rather to present the concepts 225 Clam of benefit estimation and some examples of empirical Maine Coast . 5,000 'Clam studies of the worth of an estuary as a natural Narragansett Bay... 1,000 Oyster resource. Once the capitalized landed revenue of the fisher- Portsmouth N.H - 2,600 Clam 125 Oyster ies resource has been calculated, one further step is necessary to derive the net economic rent of the PugetSound 1,200 Oyster resource. Net economic rent is defined as the differ-, Raritan Bay, N.J...................... '8,500 Shellfish ence between the costs of the factors of production (capital equipmrent, labor, and the returns to man- San Francisco Bay---- 2,600 Shrimp agement) and the landing revenue. Since the (capi- 170 Clam talized) values in Table 1 reflect not onily the net 6,750 Bass, Shad, Salmon2 economic rent of the resource but also the teturns to the factors of production, they overestimate the actual value. Therefore, the share of the landed I Potential loss from oil spills. revenue accruing to the cost factors should be sub- 2 Potential loss from inland drainage. tracted from the total landed value to arrive 'at the net worth of the actual fisheries resources. From previously cited remarks, however, some economists on the other hand, are seldom published. The in- prefer to use the total capitalied value as a con- herent difficulty of assigning welfare values to these prefer to use the total capitalized value as a con- servative estimate of consumer surplus, which they losses, aside from the more basic problem of esti- consider as the most valid indicator of social benefits. mating natural productivity declines, accounts for Statistics on the costs incurred by commercial large uncertainty in the estimates Staic oMost values of commercial fishery losses from fisheries are rarely published, and therefore must be Most values of commercial fishery losse from estimated in an appropriate manner. A discussiopn pollution focus on localized problems, although there of the methodology and of the difficulty of cost are at least three national estimates. Practically all calculations is included in the text whereby given the values pertain to foregone landing revenues rather necessary data and cost factors a more'ccurate than net welfare impacts. Table 2 depicts the dollar necessary data and cost factors a more 'accurate estimate of the net resource value could be under- value and geographic area of these losses (Tihansky, estimate of the net resource value could be under- taken. It is hoped that the issues raised in this paper 1973). Fish kills are evaluated by asuming that will eventually result in just such an investigation each counted fish is worth $0.10, which is generally in the future. a very conservative value for mature commercial fish. Retail losses in Puget Sound are converted into landing price equivalents by assuming a 3:1 ratio DAMAGES FROM POLLUTION of their relative magnitudes. The "Red Tide" scare in New England not, only reduced lobster and fish sales by several million dollars but also caused un- made waste discharges is well documented and is employment of fishermen, who would have earned reviewed elsewhere in this report. Economic losses, $91,000-in 1972. Other estimates in the Table $91,000- in 1972. Other estimates in the Table 4 This calculation can be easily derived from the capitalized value illustrate the wide variation of effects of waste dis- formula, = V/i, whee C is equal'to the capitalized value; V, annual charges on anumber of estuarine-dependent species, profit, and i, the interest rate. Thus by holding V constant, C will vary inversely with the size of the interest rate. An unrealistically low interest ranging from clams to salmon. In Galveston, Bay, late, that is, one not reflecting the real rate of return on capital in the Tex the loss of oyster sales translates into $60 per market place, would produce a relatively higher capitalized value and overestimate the real worth of the resource. acre (in 1971). - 678 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL An estimate not included in the-table was the loss estuaries are restricted to the outflow of rivers in a of oysters from shellfish area closures in New Haven tidal sea, but more recent definitions include non- Harbor, Conn. The foregone cost of small, seed tidal areas so long as the river water noticeably oysters amounted to $578,000 in 1967, but upon dilutes sea water (Idyll, 1967; McHugh, 1967). The maturity they would yield a large potential income extreme description extends beyond these concepts of $6,688,000. Annual revenue losses provide an in- to include all waters immediately bordering the ocean complete perspective of total damages. Over the coastline. But most studies reject the extreme notion past 65 years, environmental changes along the in favor of one of the other viewpoints. Connecticut coast' have caused declines in shellfish production totalling more than $1 billion (Wong, Location of Catch 1970) . Furthermore, the initial effects on decreased fishermen's wages are multiplied throughout the Relatively few fish or shellfish species appear to state economy by factors typically between 5 and 10. remain in estuaries during their entire life span. National estimates are based on the proportion of But at least two-thirds of the total catch near the shellfishing areas closed by pollution. One study U.S. shoreline spend at least part of their lives here. (Bale, 1971) estimates total annual losses of $12 In some cases, the estuarine habitat serves as a million. This assumes that only clams and oysters spawning ground, but more frequently it is a nursery are affected since they are immobile and harvested ground, densely populated with juveniles and young primarily within bays and estuaries. Another adults. Estuaries can also provide nutritional value analysis (Council on Environmental Quality, 1970), and food sustenance for temporary residents, and however, assumes that all shellfish including lobsters, they act as the intermediate area though which shrimp, and crabs are affected by contamination. anadromous (and catadromous) species journey Its estimate is $63 million based on current closures between ocean and freshwater spawning grounds. of one-fifth of the nation's shellfish beds and a cor- Estuaries also have an indirect value of supporting responding loss of potential revenue. These values species in offshore water. Rich nutrient loads from assume, contrary to economic theory, that prices the marshes are transported out to sea by tidal flow remain constant despite large shifts in resource and ocean current. In addition, estuarine-nursed availability. A more recent approach' (Tihansky, shrimp and other life forms low in the food chain 1973) measures damages as the consumer surplus are an important source of protein and food for a foregone by the above shellfish supply losses due to great many predators, including fish. Unfortunately, contaminated waters. The national estimate ranges this valuable function of translating the richness of from $24 million for clams and oysters to $38 million estuaries into directly consumable resources cannot if finfish are added to this list of affected species. be quantified without an almost prohibitively expensive research, program tracing the flow of FACTORS AFFECTING energy in a huge ecosystem. In the literature there THE ESTIMATES is a general consensus that all estuarine-dependent species should be included in the value of estuaries, Any monetary estimate of estuarine (or fishery) but at least one reference (McHugh, 1967) suggests values should be explained with respect to its a downward adjustment of this total to reflect only empirical assumptions. The magnitude of values is a the biomass added by the inshore region. In no function of a number of determinants, ranging from instance is the indirect food-supportive role of the extent of fishing grounds to the time span over estuaries evaluated in any benefit study. which the economic impact is calculated. The follow- ing factors contribute significantly to these estimates. Temporal Aspects of Catch Definition of Estuary To obtain a reliable estimate of the abundance of estuarine-dependent fish is most challenging. Species The geographic extent of an estuary determines composition and population densities vary by degrees the expected magnitude of catch within its bound- of salinity, temperature, and other physical aspects aries. While most definitions of an estuary are of the estuary as well as by season or even by a easily interpreted, there is a lack of unanimity on multi-year period. Catch volumes are likely to be the most logical choice. Classical opinion holds that higher when species are relatively abundant, but this is not always true. The type of fishing gear 5 This estimate is derived as the sum of lost revenues over a 60-year used, the ability of fishermen to locate potential period beginning in 1900. On an annual basis, therefore, the average loss is approximately $15 million. catches, the degree of fishing effect from the sport ESTUARINE ECONOMICS 679 fisheries, and political restrictions on the avail- Price-Income Effects ability of fishing grounds are important parameters in the production function. Occasionally, mass Economic benefits of fishery resources exist only mortalities and dramatic fish kills unpredictably if there is a demand for their consumption or preser- alter catch statistics as well. vation. Because fisheries must deal with a relatively The problem therefore is to ascertain the "typical" fixed (but renewable) resource, it is especially urgent catch rate or other suitable measure of the abundance in light of population growth that the economic of commercial species. Most yield estimates in the impact of demand pressures bepredicted. Practically literature are based on current conditions. But this all demand analyses reveal the basic importance of time frame could lead to biased answers, if the price and income. Since consumer surplus is derived catch was abnormally low during this period or, at from demand curves, these determinants have a the other end of the spectrum, was higher than the major effect on benefit values over time. mean. In regions where wide variations in catch Historically, the consumer has been sensitive to have been recorded, benefits should be estimated the price of fish products, but with rising incomes for low and high volumes in addition to the mean this reaction has become far less pronounced. Luxury or most likely level. The assumptions underlying foods, such as shrimp and salmon, now appear fre- this range of estimates should be clearly stated. quently in many households. These responses imply a generally low price elasticity but a high income effect on demand. In benefit calculations over future Unreported Landings time streams, therefore, it is important that these responses be considered. If there is reason to suspect, Catch statistics by themselves may not indicate for example, that projected inflation rates will lower the total volume of fish caught for commercial real income, demand curves should be adjusted purposes. Frequently, unwanted fish are discarded accordingly so that consumer benefits (surplus) back into the fishing ground, while other species or can be predicted more accurately. aquatic specimens unfit for direct human consump- tion may be' sold as bait or as a protein supplement processed in various food products. Reported land- Level of Optimal Catch ings represent a minimum for still another reason. Private fishermen fail to report an unknown quantity The biological role of estuaries in perpetuating of catch, which serves as food in their homes or fishery resources is as important to benefit calcula- possibly is sold by them locally. In some estuaries tions as the impact of consumer preferences. For this contribution could be very significant. Further, some finfish and shellfish species, supply shortages the contribution of U.S. estuaries to foreign catches is are curtailing potentially larger demands for these uncertain. Assessing the net worth of these landings products by continually pushing up their market poses an additional problem because of the different prices. On the other hand, there are many under- markets and varying conditions under which they utilized species that could provide additional sources are sold. It is conjectured in Louisiana, for instance, of nutrition to consumer diets. that at least 50 percent of the annual shellfish is so There are several measures of the supply variable, destined (Murray, 1974). The relative share of un- each of which uniquely affects the magnitude of reported landings is believed to be large in other net benefits. Biologists usually seek to estimate the states as well, although fisheries experts are generally level of fishing associated with the maximum sustain- unwilling to estimate this magnitude. able yield (MSY), such that the annual gain in In view of the likely importance of private catch, species population from recruitment and growth is a confidence interval of benefits should be evaluated just offset by natural mortality and fishing catches for any estuary. The lower bound estimate should at a population level that maximizes catch. But reflect reported statistics, while the upper one shoulc economists (Fry, 1962) usually argue that since include a "guestimate" of catch aggregated over all commercial fishing is motivated by profits rather unreported but commercially-related sources. Of than physical catch, the more appropriate objective course, the market price of reported landings may is the maximum economic return to the fisheries be quite different from the economic value of private and the regional economy. In actual situations, catch (which need not be processed and distributed, neither of these goals is pursued. Instead, the free if the fish are consumed directly at the fishermen's entry nature of fishing encourages inefficient use of residence). Unit benefit values (per fish caught) input factors and through overcapitalization and should thus be sensitive to these market alter- overfishing, has frequently reduced profits (resource natives. rent) to zero. 680 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL All of these yields are likely to fall short of distinguished from natural values unless they evolve maximizing overall welfare impacts of fishery re- from a more intensive use of the current nutritional sources. The MSY and free entry solutions obviously content of estuaries. In Galveston Bay, Tex., for are not oriented toward such an objective. But even example, it is believed (Stroud, 1970) that additional the economic rent-motivated approach may be mis- shellfishing effort could increase current landings by leading, as it ignores various social values of the 50 percent, without exceeding the MSY constraint fishing sector (since they elude simple quantifica- on natural productivity. From an economic view- tion). More importantly, it represents a partial point, however, this increase is justifiable only if equilibrium solution by neglecting optimal benefits marginal costs of fishing are less than added revenues. in the processing and distribution sectors. Some Potential returns from aquaculture are partic- analysts (McHugh, 1970) conjecture that maximal ularly striking and can increase fourfold as the catch rates might confer advantages on the latter intensiveness of the operation increases. Despite sectors by increasing economies of scale in produc- these favorable projections, marine aquaculture in tion. Whether this hypothesis is valid remains to be this country is oriented mainly toward develop- tested empirically. Until then, net benefits should mental and pilot studies, whereas inland freshwater be calculated twice, bounded above by the MSY "fish farms" are more popular and in many cases solution and below by the optimal net social return. are highly productive. It is projected (Commission Several case studies can be cited on the economic on Marine Science, 1969) that such fisheries will returns expected at various levels of fishing effort. control a significant share of the consumer market A detailed analysis (Gates, 1973) of the New Eng- in 20 to 30 years. land yellowtail flounder fisheries concluded that the Some notable examples of successful mariculture current free entry situation nullifies the total net efforts using scientific management schemes have rent to domestic industry (although net earnings been conducted in the State of Maine (Dow, 1966). differ by vessel class). However, limited entry and Yields approaching $150,000 capitalized value per more efficient operations (e.g., fewer vessels) at acre (in 1973 prices) have been recorded for clam the MSY point would yield an 18 percent profit beds. While this value is extraordinarily high, it does rate. From the economically efficient viewpoint, this indicate that certain highly productive'subareas of rate is even higher at 70 percent of total earnings the estuary can yield several times their normal out- while total catch falls almost 13 percent from the put of fishery products. MSY level. Another means of augmenting current supplies is to market underutilized species or byproducts Augmented Production thereof. The potential harvest adjacent to the U.S. coastal zone is enormous and could easily exceed Complicating the supply level is the likelihood of present production by a factor of 10 (Commission future aquaculture enterprises and the uncertainty on Marine Science, 1969). Whether these can be of future markets for underutilized species. With onomically harvested and processed willdepend the former alternative, high yields-perhaps several on individualspecies. The natural supply of these hundred times natural levels-of estuarine species species should be valued as an optional resou can result by concentrating organic matter as a benefitforfuture consumption. can result by concentrating organic matter as a Unfortunately, supply predictions in the future food source into a small water area. However, such Unfortunately, spply predictions in the future yields depend not only on the quantity of organic are beset by a number of uncertain economic and matter, but also on the ability of the fish or shellfish political factors To include the above supply aug- to strain food from the water. Some methods of mentationschemes theanalysiscouldthusinvolve aquaculture are known to have an adverse impact so many il-founded assumptions as to erase any on the estuarine environment, however, and may credibility in the estimates. But certainly these reduce the natural productivity there. This factor options need to be recognized in the analysis, and must carefully be weighed when calculating the net their likely impacts on potential value should be benefits from such activity. compared. In addition, the cost of fertilization or artificial feeding may be prohibitive, as a result of the need Competing Activities for large quantities of nitrogen and other essential nutrients. The inclusion of mariculture yields as a Another factor influencing the supply function benefit of estuarine resources overlooks the issue for commercial fisheries is interference from other of manmade versus natural impacts. Since these activities that depend either directly or indirectly benefits could be potentially large, they should be on estuarine resources. The above survey of pollution ..- ESTUAINE ECONOMICS 681 damages, for example;, shows how industries and Regional Impacts municipalities have reduced natural stocks of fish or shellfish. Throughout the United States, commercial Arising from direct benefits and costs in the com- and residential land developments have been re- mercial fishing industry are secondary income flows sponsible for an acute loss of estuarine habitat for throughout the economy-both on a local and a fish and wildlife. Further, it can be expected that national basis. Tracing these flows requires a de- future aquaculture activities in the estuary will have tailed and generally complex input-output analysis some detrimental effects on the populations of sur- of household expenditures and economic sector rounding wild species of fish and wildlife.' - dependencies within local boundaries, and an ac- A more visible challenge to 'commercial fishing count of interregional trade volume and government arises from sport fishing interests. In many regions, transactions. the high level of expenditures for recreation, and Several references from the literature provide in- particularly fishing, indicate social benefits derived sights on these impacts. In the southern New from these activities. As a result, commercial fisher- England region (Rorholm, 1967), the commercial men in some cases may be faced with dwindling fishing industry was partitioned into these compo- catches and restricted fishing grounds. The corre- nents: fish catching, fresh and frozen fish processing, sponding rise in marginal costs could force commer- and fish wholesaling and jobbing. Sales and local cial fleets to move to more productive areas, to value added were estimated for each component, as change the species mix of catches, or to curtail were general income multipliers ranging from 2.96 production and perhaps eventually go out of busi- for catching to 3.74 for frozen fish processing. In ness. Fishery benefits thus cannot be calculated in Clatsop County, Ore., (Collin, 1973), the local in- isolation of other estuarine values. Implicit in each come multiplier for fish catching equals 1.23, whereas estimate, therefore, is an assumption on the extent it is 1.81 for fish processing. These values are rela- of competing land and water uses. tively small because of the county's strong depend- ence on non-local business. For the Texas marine area (Milroy, 1970), the multiplier for the fishery Distribution of Catch sector is assumed to be 1.75. It is obvious from these few studies that local impacts vary consider- In many estuaries the annual harvested value of ably and depend on the size and industrial composi- commercial fish is recorded on a unit acreage basis. tion of the economy, and the extent of marine Averaging total catch in this manner fails to disclose activities in the region. subareas of greater productivity. Because the harvest is unequally distributed, average values thus give insufficient data on setting priorities for the most CONCLUSION valuable portions of the estuary. Variations of landing revenu'e by estuarine area Some of the most valuable fish resources are can be very significant. In Gloucester Harbor, Mass., dependent on estuarine habitats, with approximately (Jerome, 1969), for example, the annual income from two-thirds of the total dockside revenue of U.S. shellfish is almost $100 per acre averaged over tl:e commercial fisheries identified in one way or another entire estuary. Yet if this record were restricted to with these marine waters. Yet despite this impor- soft-shell clam habitats, the unit value would in- tant life-support function, estuaries have lost more crease to $240. An even more striking example is than 7 percent of their fish and wildlife habitat to provided by the intensiveness of shellfishing in the commercial and housing development over the past mouth of the Delaware River (Shuster, 1971). two decades (Commission on Marine Science, 1969). While the harvest value over the entire water sur- In many coastal areas these developments proceeded face area was $13 per acre, production was actually without any comparison of the socio-economic wel- restricted to about one-fourth of this area, yielding fare impacts realized by competing uses of the a unit revenue of $51. But even this estimate of estuarine area. To preserve remaining habitats from habitat area may be overstated as commercial har- land use encroachments, it is thus important that vesting taker place on a small portion of this region. comprehensive values of natural resources be re- Adjusting for actual fishing grounds raises the unit organized and assessed to the fullest extent possible. value to $170. It is further argued that harvest The object of this paper was to summarize the rates may be less than 10 percent of the actual state-of-the-art on the estimation of commercial production in this estuary. Hence, catch and popu- fishing benefits associated with U.S. estuaries. Until lation may differ considerably, which further com- now, there has been no' attempt to critique or even plicates the projection offishery valueslin future years. compile empirical studies on a regional basis. This 682 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL survey reveals that a large number of estimates * Derive all benefits in a capitalized value con- have been pubhshed (see Table 1), contrary to the text, in additlon to their magnitude over the cur- widely held opinimon that few exist Most of these rent year estimates pertam to recorded landings along the * Obtain regional estimates and supportive data New England and the gulf shorelines although sev- on the potential of increasing natural productivity eral, primarily off the south Atlantic coast, evaluate in estuaries whether by improved fishing efficiency the potential impacts of increased yield through or other means mariculture techniques * In each estuary, perform a zone-oriented analy- Despite their large number, practically all of these sis whereby the most productive areas are identified. estimates are conceptually invalid since they meas- Economic values of these areas versus the mean value ure private rather than social welfare gains. In at over the entire estuary should also be compared. least one instance (Tuttle, 1974), however, private revenue (based on the exvessel price of fish) was Information associated with these recommenda- used as a conservative estimate of the net benefits tions could assist coastal zone managers In planning realihzed at major phases of the fishing mdustry But economically optimal uses of estuaries Without such using this surrogate value, to avoid inherent diffi- information, the rationale underlying their decisions cultles of estlmatmg welfare impacts, not only leaves will remain madequate By considering benefits m the degree of underestimation unanswered, but also as comprehensive a manner as possible, the policy- could be an mcorrect assumption for other regions maker would proceed with a more balanced per- It is therefore mlsleading and, furthermore, unjusti- spectlve of the impacts of estuarine uses on societal fled from the perspective of economic theory, to welfare Only in this manner can there be a reason- value estuarine resources solely m terms of market able assurance of optimizing the benefits of resource prices allocation An additional area of economic evaluation is the contribution that estuaries make to U S sport fish- REFERENCES eries It is generally agreed that the benefits derived from this important recreational activity, if quantl- Abel, F H, and D P Tihansky 1974 "Methods and Prob- fled, would exceed those of the commercial fisheries lems of Estimatmg Water-Quality Benefits," Journal The obvious imphcation Is that the exclusion of American Water Works Association, Vol 66, No 5 sport fisheries values further underestimates the true worth of the estuary Anderson, A A 1960 "Marinne Resources of the Corpus To close the gap between the conceptual frame- Chrsti Area," Research Monograph No 21 Bureau of work and the validity of estimates, more research should be devoted to economic aspects of fisheries Atlantic States Marinne Fisheries Commission December The following recommendations pertain more spe- 1966 "Policy Statement," in Bulletin 181 The Sport cifically to this goal Fishing Institute Washington, D C Bale, H E, Jr 1971 "Report on the Economnuc Costs of Fishery Contamnnants," National Marine Fisheries Service * Determine economically optimal net rents at U S Department of Commerce Rockville, Md the fish catching phase for a wide variety of estuarmine- dependent species Bell, F W 1974 "The Economic Effects of the Consequences . For various species of fish and shellfish assess of Stratospheric Flight on Living Marine Resources" m Proceedings of the Fourth Conference on the Climatic net profits at the processing and distribution phases Impact Assessment Program U S Department of Trans- . Derve consumer demand functions at the re- poitation Washington, D C tall phase, and estimate consumer surplus given urntail phase, and esfor timate consumer surplus given Beshears, W, and I B Byrd. April-May, 1959 "Alabama's current market prices for a selection of fish products Estuanrine Areas," Alabama Conservationist . Investigate regional differences of the welfare impacts described above Bureau of Governmental Research and Service 1969 "Com- * Estimate the total biologlcal productivity merclal Fishing and Fish Processmg," Vol. V in Central within an estuary This value gives a broader per- Oregon Coast Oregon Unverslty, Eugene spective than catch statistics on commercial fisher- Carley, D H 1968 "Econormc Analysis of the Commercial ies, since the harvest of natural products from the Industry of Georgia," Research Bulletin 37 Agricultural end of the food chain represents less than 5 percent Expenment Station University of Georgia, Athens of total productivity (Odum, 1975) Determne the value of sport fisheries benefits Chesmore, A P, D J Brown, and R D Anderson 1972 "A Study of the Marne Resources of Lynn-Saugus Har- derived from the estuary bor," Monograph Series No 11 Division of Marine ESTUARINE ECONOMICS 683 Fisheries Department of Natural Resources Massachu- Agricultural Econormcs and Rural Sociology Clemson setts. Unimverslty, South Carolina Chesmore, A. P, S A Testaverde, and F P Richards 1972 Howard, G 1973 "San Francisco Bay Shellfish Potentials" "A Study of the Marine Resources of Dorchester Bay," National Marine Fisheries Service U S Department of Monograph Series No 10 Dlvlon of Marine Fisheries Commerce Terminal Island, California Personal com- Department of Natural Resources Massachusetts munication Chesmore, A P, J Brown, and R D Anderson 1973 "A Idyll, C P, D C Tabb, and B Yokel 1967 "The Value of Study of the Marine Resources of Essex Bay," Monograph Estuaries to Shrimp," in Proceedings of the Marsh and Series No 13 Divislon of Marine Fisheries Department of Estuary Management Symposium Louisiana State Uni- Natural Resources Massachusetts versity Baton Rouge 83-90p Clark, J 1974 "Coastal Ecosystems-Ecological Considera- Iwanowicz, H R, R D Anderson, and B A Ketschke tlons for Management of the Coastal Zone" The Con- 1973 "A Study of the Marine Resources of Hmgham Bay," servatlon Foundation Washmington, D C Monograph Series No 14 Dl wslon of Marine Fsheries Department of Natural Resources Massachusetts CoIlm, T, R Youmans, and H Stoevener 1973 "Impact of a Major Economic Change on a Coastal Rural Economy Jerome, W C, Jr, A P Chesmore, and C O Anderson, Jr A Large Alummnum Plant in Clatsop County, Oregon " 1969 "A Study of the Marine Resources of the Annisquem Agricultural Experiment Station Oregon State University, River-Gloucester Harbor Coastal System," Monograph Corvallis Series No 8 Divislon of Marine Fisheries Department of Natural Resources Massachusetts Commisslon on Marine Science, Engmeering and Resources 1969 Marine Resources and Legal-Politlcal Arrangements Jerome, W C, Jr, A P Chesmore, and C O Anderson, Jr for Their Development, Vol III of Panel Reports- III-22p 1973 "A Study of the Marine Resources of Beverly-Salem Harbor, Monograph Series No 4 Divislon of Marine Council on Environmental Quahty 1970 "Ocean Dumpmg. Fisheries Department of Natural Resources Massachu- A National Pohlicy" U S. Government Prmintmg Office setts Washungton, D C Jerome, W C, Jr, A P Chesmore, and C O Anderson, Jr Crutchfield, J 1962 "Valuation of Fishery Resources," 1968 "A Study of the Marine Resources of the Parker Land Economics 38 145-154p Rlver-Phem Island Sound Estuary," Monograph Series No 6 Division of Marinne Fisheries Department of Curley, J R, R P Lawton, J M Hickey, and J D Fiske Natural Resources Massachusetts 1971 "A Study of the Marine Resources of the Waquoit Bay-Eel Pond Estuary," Monograph Series No 9 Division Jerome, W C, Jr, A P Chesmore, and C O Anderson, Jr of Marinne Fisheries Department of Natural Resources 1966 "A Study of the Marine Resources of Qumncv Bay," Massachusetts Monograph Series No 2 Division of Marine Fisheries Department of Natural Resources Massachusetts Dow, R L 1966 Some Economic and Educational Values of Estuaries Atlantic States Marine Flsheries Commlssion Jerome, W C, Jr, A P Chesmore, C O Anderson, Jr, and Augusta, Maine F Grice 1965 "A Study of the Marine Resources of the Merrimack River Estuary," Monograph Series No 1 Federal Water Pollution Control Adminmmstration 1969 Division of Marine Fisheries Department of Natural "The National Estuarnne Pollution Study." Washington, Resources Massachusetts DC McHugh, J L 1970 "Economists on Resource Management," Fogg, F F 1964 "Salt Marshes of New Hampshire Its Science, Vol 168 737-739p Past, Present and Future Evaluation" New Hampshire Fish and Game Department Concord McHugh, J L 1967 "Estuarine Nekton," m Estuaries, by G H Lauff (ed) American Associatlon for the Ad- Fry, D H, Jr 1962 "Potential Profits in the Califorma vancement of Science Washington, D C - 581-638p Salmon Fishery," Callfornia Fish and Game Bulletin 48 (4) 256-267p McHugh, J L 1966 "Management of Estuarine Fisheries," im A Symposium on Estuarine Fsheries American Fisheries Gates, J M 1971 "Appraising the Feasbility of Fish Cul- Socletv Special Pubhcatlon No 3 Supplement to Transac- ture" The Fisheries Divislon of the Organization for tlons American Fisheries Society 95(4) 133-154p Economic Cooperation and Development Pans, France McQuigg, J L 1971 "The Economic Value of Florida's Gates, J M and V J Norton 1973 "A Steady State Blo- Mc ugg, J L 1971 "The Eeonomlc Value of Florda's Gates, M, and V J Norton 1973 "A Steady State Bio- Estuarine Estuaries" Pine Jog Environmental Sciences economic Model of a Fishery" The University of Rhode Center West Palm Beach, Fla Island Department of Resource Economics Gosselink, J G, E P Odum, and R M Pope 1973 "The Miloy, J, and E A Capp 1970 "Economic Impact Analysis Value of the Tidal Marsh " Institute of Ecology Uni- of Texas Marine Resources and Industries " Texas Engi- versity of Georgia, Athens neering Experiment Station Texas A & M University College Station Hite, J C, and J M Stepp 1973. "Economlc Amalysls of the Development Potenthal of the Commercial Fisheries Murray, R 1974 Coordmator, Environmental Section, Industry of the Coastal Plans Region," Economics of Louislana Wlldhfe and Fisheries Commission Baton Rouge, Marine Resources Pubhcatlon No 1 Department of Louislana Personal communication 684 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL National Marine Fisheries Service. 1974. "Fisheries of the Stroud, R. H. 1971. "Introduction," in A Symposium on the United States, 1973." National Oceanographic and At- Biological Significance of Estuaries. The Sport Fishing mospheric Administration. Washington, D.C. Institute. Washington, D.C.: 3-8p. Newsletter 4(333). January 1974. State of Florida Coordina- Taylor, J. L., and C. H. Saloman. 1968. "Some Effects of tion Council. Hydraulic Dredging and Coastal Development in Boca Ciega Bay, Florida," Fishery Bulletin 67(2): 213-241p. Odum, E. P. 1968. "Description and Productivity of Georgia Salt Marsh, Estuaries," in Report on Proposed Leasing Tihansky, D. P. 1973. "An Economic Assessment of Marine of State Owned Lands for Phosphate Mining, Appendix C. Water Pollution Damages," in Pollution Control in the Institute for Natural Resources. University of Georgia: Marine Industries by T. P. Sullivan (ed.). International 1-15p. Association for Pollution Control. Washington, D.C. OdAu, E. P, 1961. "The Role-of Tidal Marshes in ,Estuarine Tuttle, M. E., J. A. Richards, and R. J. Wahle. 1974. "Partial Production," New York State Conservationist, Leaflet Net Economic Values for Salmon and Steelhead for the No. 2546. Division of Conservation Education. Columbia River System." U.S. Department of Commerce. National Marine Fisheries Service. Washington, D.C. Odumn, E. P. 1975. University of Georgia. Institute of Ecology. Personal-communication. Van Meir, L. W. 1969. "An Economic Analysis of Policy Alternatives for Managing the Georges Bank Haddock Odum, H. T. 1960. Letter on estuarine values to R. M. Fisheries." Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. U.S. Depart- Ingle, Director, Florida State Board of Conservation, ment of Commerce. Washington, D.C. Tallahassee. Institute of Marine Science, Port Aransas, Tex. Wass, M. L.; and T. D. Wright. 1969. "Coastal Wetlands of Virginia-Interim Report," Virginia Institute of Marine Prest, A. R., and R. Turvey. 1965. "Cost-Benefit Analysis: Science, Special Report in Applied Marine Science and A Survey,/' The Economic Journal 75(300): 683-735p. Ocean Engineering No. 10. Gloucester Point. Roberts, K. 1974. "A Draft Outline for the National Fisheries Plan," National Marine Fisheries Service. U.S. Department Water Quality U.S. Departmtb She lfish Resource and of Com iierce. Water Quality. U.S. Department of the Interior Federal Water Quality Administration. Needham Heights, Mass. Rorholm, N., H. C. Lampe, N. Marshall, and J. F. Farrell. 1967. "Economic Impact of Marine-Oriented Activities- A Study of the Southern New England Marine Region." ACKNOWLEDGMENTS University of Rhode Island, Kingston. The authors wish to thank the following individuals for Shuster, C. N., Jr. 1971. "A Biological Evaluation of the their guidance and detailed comments of earlier drafts of this Delaware River Estuary," Information Series Publication study: Fred Abel, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency No. 3. University of Delaware Marine Laboratories. (EPA); Fred Bell, Florida State University; Ralph D'Arge, Newark. University of California at Riverside; Joel Fisher, EPA; John Gates, University of Rhode Island; Jack Greenfield, Skinner, J. E. 1962. "An Historical Review of the Fish and National Marine Fisheries Service; Michael Hay, EPA; Wildlife Resources of the San Francisco Bay Area." De- Laurie McHugh, State University of New York at Stony partment of Fish and Game. Sacramento, Calif. Brook; Philip Meyer, Canadian Department of the Environ- ment; Eugene Odum, University of Georgia; Ken Roberts, Strang, W. A., and R. Ditton. 1974. "The Economics of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; and Charter Fishing on Lake Michigan." Technical Report. George Tononaka, National Marine Fisheries Service. eaGrantePro a Univrshi of W iscoin." T ic o. Andrew McErlean of EPA provided financial support for Sea Grant Program. University of Wisconsin. 1Mardison. part of the literature search. Patricia Kelley of the National Geographic Society provided estimates of the total acreage Stroud, R. H. 1970. "Estuary Values," Sport Fishing Institute of several estuaries. Susan Penn patiently typed the final Bulletin. Washington, D.C. 230: 7-8. manuscript. CONCLUDING REMARKS ORGANIZATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR MANAGEMENT OF ATLANTIC COAST ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS MAURICE P. LYNCH Virginia Institute of Marine Science Gloucester Point, Virginia ABSTRACT Smce 1969, the general trend m management of Atlantic coast estuarine environments has been to strengthen state and regional capabilities princpally through new federal funding programs Interstate management entitles, with lunted exceptions, are not playing an extensive or significant role Many approaches are used for estuarne management by the various states Critical manage- ment decisions typically involve specific site-related permit decisions In many states, these mdlvldual decisions are made within a framework of overall state guidelnes, policy, or legislative mandate All states have adopted water quality standards and all but one have wetlands manage- ment programs A few states have adopted strict Coastal Zone Management programs No states have separate estuarine management agencies, relying instead, on several related agencies or centralized environmental "super agencies" Coordination is the most necessary element of effective estuanne management The Coastal Zone Management Act has provided states with the mltlative (and funds) to effect a better co- ordination within their own agencies and with other states on a regional basis Estuarmine management has improved m the period 1969-1974 as a direct result of increased federal funding supported by a growing awareness of the importance of a quality environment among the general population The prmncpal factor in estuarine management in the next five to 10 years will probably be local acceptance and support of developing Coastal Zone Manage- ment programs INTRODUCTION The 1969 role of federal activity in estuarmine man- agement was described as one of support and tech- Status of Arrangements in 1969 nical assistance to the states, regulatory activities withun current law at that time, and direct provl- In 1969, the Federal Water Pollution Control sion of normal federal services, such as navigation Administration, Department of Interior, in its "Na- aids, channel and harbor maintenance, protective tlonal Estuarine Pollution Study" summarized the works, and environmental prediction of tides, cur- status of estuarine management in the nation's rents, and weather "The National Estuarine Pollu- estuaries In respect to federal activities, seven tion Study" urged augmentation of existing federal Departments (Interior, Commerce, Transportation, programs including techmcal, research, and en- Agriculture, Health, Education and Welfare, Hous- forcement programs In addition, development of mg and Urban Development, and Defense (U S a national policy, a stronger means of coordinating Army Corps of Engineers)) were identified as having federal programs, and a system of planning grants the prime impact on management of the nation's to the states were encouraged estuaries Table I briefly summarizes the major As with federal management efforts, the tone of activltles of these departments pertinent to most "The National Estuarine Pollution Study" was gen- of the nation's estuaries Activitles of other agencies erally critical of states' role in estuarine manage- n these departments and other departments, of ment Although a few states were considered to course, had at that time (and still do) impacts on have made slgmficant progress in the area of estu- the nation's estuaries, but these impacts were usually arnne management (Massachusetts was singled out of a more indirect nature or related to site-specific as the most advanced state), most were considered activitles, such as the Atomic Energy Commission to have made little or no progress. The major or the Federal Power Commission licensing of spe- criticisms leveled at the states m this report were cilfic power plants lack of a central organizatlonal/coordinational 687 688 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 1.-Summarization of Federal activities In estuarine areas in 1969. Department Major Agencies Routine Activities Interior ..- ... . ....... Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Permit review in conjunction with Corps of Engineers permit activities; Land and Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife 2 Water Conservation Fund Program; Sewage ad- Construction Grants; Recreation; Bureau of Outdoor Recreation various planning and management and resource preservation and development Federal Water Pollution Control Administration a granting programs; waterflow data and resource compilation and research activity; Geological Survey participation in River Basin Commission studies. National Park Service Office of Wafer Resources Research: Office of Saline Waters Commerce ...-....... . Maritime Administration Port development; mapping and charting; environmental prediction (tides and Environmental Science Services Administration ' currents); research. Transportation ..- ... ......... Coast Guar'd Law enforcement; aids to navigation; rescue; boating safety; port security; control of shipping. ; Defense ...- . .... Corps of Engineers Maintenance of navigable waters; permit control of dredge and fill operations; permit control of effluent discharge in navigable waters; harbor construction; shoreline protection. :: Agriculture. ..... ......... Soil and Conservation Service Soil and water conservation projects; sewer and water planning and construction Forest Service grants; watershed protection; flood control. Water Resources Council Health, Education & Welfare -. . .... Food and Drug Administration Marine health; pesticide monitoring; radionuclide' mofitoring ,public:waterisupply; Bureau of Water Hygiene food and drug purity from marine sources; solid waste disposal; shellfish sanita- Bureau of Radiological Health : tion program; dumping. Bureau of Solid Waste Management Hdausingand UrbanDevdlbpmentL... '...' Planning and assistance in water use; area wide and local planning; water and sewerfacilities grants; open space land grants; National Flood Insurance Programs. Source: "National Estuarine Pollution Study," 1969, pp. V-5 through V-39. Transferred to National Oceanic and-Atmosphericd Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce by Reorganization Plan 4 of 1970. Now U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of Interior. . . Transferred to Environmental Protection Agency by Reorganization Plan 3 of 1970. focal point and lack of statewide comprehensive such as legislation, public ownership, public educa- estuarine management plans. tion, permits, zoning, planning, and financial in- The study expressed the viewpoints of states with ducements (tax incentives), was noted. Although regard to estuarine management as falling into three critical. of the local role at that time, the study categories: - stressed the crucial role that local governments will E - - have to play in effective estuarine management. 1. State ownTership/management of estuarine re- The overall assessment of the effectiveness of sources with federal assistance; - estuarine management at all levels of government- 2. Federal-state-local partnership for, estuarine federal, state, and local-was disappointing. Several management; and recommendations were made of ways of improving 3. Autonomous state management. estuarine management at all levels. Coordination, , . . - ; planning, and cooperation were stressed as. necessary The great majority (91 percent)- of the states' view- parts of a successful estuarine management program. points fell into the first category. The preferred role of the federal government in estuarine management was in the areas of financial, technical, and research''' Legislative Federal Developments assistance. Recommendations of the study with; regard to the state role called for increased state, The major thrust of federal initiatives in the authority in this area with development of proper period since the completion of "The National Estu- organizational arrangements within the' states to arine Pollution Study" (1969-1973) -has been to exercise this authority. - i - , - - strengthen state and regional capabilities in the area Strong criticism was also expressed of the local of estuarine management, and to make the federal government level of estuarine management. Lack of bureaucracy responsive to environmental issues. The adequate staff and funding capabilities to plan, National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of decide, and implement regulations was highlighte'd; 1969 (Public Law 91'290) which established 'the The presence of underutilized management tools Council on Environmental Quality required for -the CONCLUDING REMARKS 689 Table 2 -Components and functions transferred to the Environmental Protection Agency by Reorganization Plan No 3 of 1970 Componenf/Function Source Federal Water Quality Administration .------- -- -_.- Department of Interior Pesticide studies - Department of Interior National Air Pollution Control Administration .-. .......... .--. ........ Department of Health, Education and Welfare Bureau of Solid Waste Management - .. . ... Department of Health, Education and Welfare Bureau of Water Hygiene -Department of Health, Education and Welfare Portions of Bureau of Radiological Health- ..-_-................ .'. - Environmental Control Administration of Department of Hloalth, Education and Welfare Pesticide functions carried out by Food and Drug Administration .- . .. ... Department of Health, Education and Welfare Authority to perform studies related to ecological systems .-. ....................... Council on Environmental Quality Certain radiation criteria and standards functions -.- -.. .... .- Atomic Energy Commission and Federal Radiation Council Pesticide registration and related activities ............................. Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agriculture first time m the nation's history the inclusion of 3 The Corps of Engmeern retained their peimit environmental considerations in federal declslon- authority an navigable waters making, and the issuing of a detailed statement on the environmental Impact of the delslon. The Department of Interior retrmed a strong the environmental impact of the decision. Reorganzatlon Plans 3 and 4 of 1970 which estab- advisory role m estuarne management through its lished, respectively, the Environmental Protection authority to comment on Corps of Engineer permit Agency (EPA) and the National Oceanic and At- apphlicatlons, spelled out m a memorandum of under- mosphenrc Adnmnstration (NOAA) awlthm the De- standing, dated July 13, 1967. between the Secretary partment of Commerce, provided focal points for of Interor and the Secretary of the Army The much of the federal estuarine management efforts Department of Transportatlon retained its strong In this reorganzatlon, EPA received the compo- enforcement role and a major role mn oil pollution nents and functions listed m Table 2, and NOAA contiol (primarily m the area of contingency action) received the components and functions listed in through the Coast Guard Table 3 These reorgamizatlon plans resulted inm pri- Major federal legislation relating to estuarme pol- marily three federal agencies or departments having lutlon control and management during this period preeminent responslblhtles m estuarine management icluded the Federal Water Pollution Control Act I, Amendments of 1972 (P L. 92-500) The Act pre- 1 EPA became primarly responsible for pollution sents national goals and guidelihnes to which the monitoring and control; I states' programs must adhere, and is considered by 2 NOAA became primarily responsible for pro- many commentators (McMahan, 1972, Rasmussen, vidmg technical and scientific assistance m the area 1973, Kuchenbecker and Long, 1973) to be the of living resources and environmental prediction, and most effective anti-pollution legislation regarding Table 3.-Components and functions transferred to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admmnistration by Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1970. Component/Function Source Environmental Sclence Services Administration a-' . ._ - ----------- -... Department of Commerce Elements of Bureau of Commercial Fisheries .-.. . - -------------- Department of Interior Marine sport fish program of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife -D.............. Department of Interior Marine Minerals Technology Center ..----------.. . .. ... Bureau of Mines, Department of Interior Office of Sea grant Programs _--..,_.... ,. I --_-_..-..... _ . National Science Foundation Elements of U S Lake Survey --..-- _ . . ...................... Department of Army National Oceanographic Data Center --...-------_ Department of Navy National Ocelnographic Instiumentation Center ..--..--.......... Department of Navy National Data Buoy Project _, --....L - - .- -.L._ -._._._ .. Department of Transportation 690 ESTUARIN]E POLLUTION CONTROL waterways Also included is the Coastal Zone Man- Table 4 -Atlantic estuarine states (grouped Into Federal Regional Districts). agement Act of 1972 (P L 92-583), which for the Estuarlne States Federal Regional Headquarters first time in the nation's history stimulates compre- hensive estuarine planning and management by the Maine I Boston, Mass states, providing federal support New Hampshire Other acts such as the Ports and Waterways Massachusetts Safety Act of 1972 (P L 92-430), the Federal En- Connecticut vlronmental Pesticide Control Act of 1972 (P.L New York II New York, N y' 92-516), and the NMAarine Protection, Research, and New Jersey Sanctuary Act of 1972 (P.L 92-532) provide vehl- Pennsylvania III Philadelphia, Pa cles for protection of the nation's estuaries against Delaware pollution by marltmle traffic, pesticides, and ocean Maryland dumping, respectively, and serve to complement the Virginia provisions of P L 92-500 and 92-583 North Carolina IV Atlanta, Ga 4 The funding or contemplation of funding provided soGeh Carolina by federal sources has assisted the states in strength- Florida emnng their estuarine management programs par- ticularly with regard to planning for pollution I Also includes Vermont abatement Unfortunately, state advances in the Also includes West Vrgin Islands area of pollution control have been hampered by 4Also includes Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia the executive branch withholding (impounding) $3 billion of the $7 billion authorized in the 1q72 water amounted to $1 4 mllion (NERBC Annual Re- pollution control law The effect of this Impound- ports 1971, 1972, 1973) NERBC has completed ment is difficult to ascertain precisely Efforts to several studies of estuarme areas, the most notlce- have the money released appear to have been suc- able beg the Long Island Sound Regional Study cessful, so other than loss of purchasing power due (NERBC, 1971), wL ch has produced a study plan to galloping inflation, the eventual effect may be and interi m reports on water qualtv, ecological only a delay in attaining desired levels of control. factors, and erosion and sedimentation, and a seres of reports on Boston Harbor's progress towards PRESENT (1974) ARRANGEMENTS achieving water quality goals (NERBC, 1970) and OF ATLANTIC COASTAL STATES its combined sewer overflows (NERBC, 1971) Another group, the Coastal Plains Regional Coun- Fifteen states contain estuarine waters that open cil (CPRC) in the southeastern states has contrib- to the Atlantic Ocean These are grouped into four uted to estuanne management through support of federal regional districts (Table 4) member state research activities and a technical Regional planning and coordination is conducted assistance program earned out through the Coastal among several groups of states along the Atlantic Plains Center for Marine Development Services coast The most widely acclaimed regional group Neither the NERBC nor CPRC has management is the New England River Basin Commisslon responsibilities (NERBC) The NERBC has taken an aggressive Interstate management groups impacting on estu- role m research for regional planning, particularly aries include the Interstate Sanitation Commisslon, with respect to estuarinne and coastal pollution prob- the Delaware River Basin Commlssion, the Potomac lems This group coordinates actlvltles, supports River Fisherles Commission, and the Delaware- research and education Fmancial support for the New Jersey Flsherles Commission The Interstate NERBC comes from two primary sources The Samtation Commission and the two fisheries com- operating budget is provided on a 50-50 basis by missions, as their names imply, are primarily con- the federal government and the seven member cerned with pollution and fisheries, respectively, states The states' share is apportioned by a state and their regulatory powers are lurted to these developed and approved formula Federal funds are areas The Delaware River Basin Commission has provided through an appropriation to the Water broad powers on matters related to water conserva- Resources Council Participation m major studies tion, control, use, and management in the Delaware is supported entirely by federal appropriations watershed The commission has authority to plan, Operating budgets for FY 1971-1974 have been allocate water resources, set standards, and approve $309,000, $341,000, $376,000, and $417,000 respec- all projects which affect water resources No project tlvely Major study funds for FY 1971-1973 which will have a substantial effect on water re- CONCLUDING: REMARKS 691 sources of the Delaware Basin may be undertaken Table 5.-Interstate groupings of Atlantic Coastal States related to estuarine without commission approval. The commission is management made up of the governors of Delaware, New Jersey, Group Members Powers Pennsylvania, and New York, and the U.S. Secre- tary of the Interior. Interstate Sanitation Commission Connecticut Regulatory; The impact of interstate management entities on New Jersey coordination estuarine management has not changed significantly New York since the assessment made in "The National Estu- Interstate Commission onthe Maryland Research: Potomac River Basin Pennsylvania coordination; arine Pollution Study" (U.S. Department of In- Virginia planning; terior, 1969) that these entities had not played an District of Columbia educational extensive or significant role in overall management West Virginia* of the nation's estuaries. The fisheries commissions, New England Interstate Water Six New England states Planning; for example, deal with only a portion of the estuarine Pollution Control Commission and New York advisory resources although attempts are made to influence Delaware River Basin Commission Delaware Coordination; management in other areas such as water pollution New Jersey planning; control to improve fisheries. The Governor's Task Pennsylvania Force on IVIarine and Coastal Affairs (Delaware, Atlantic States Marine Fisheries All 15 Atlantic states Coordination; 1972) in fact recommended that the Delaware-New Commission advisory Jersey Fisheries Commission be nullified because Potomac River Fisheries Commission Maryland Regulatory of its inability to cope with changing conditions of Virginia the resource because of cumbersome provisions for Susquehanna River Basin Compact New York changing regulations. This same task force also Maryland coordination pointed out that major problems in the Delaware Pennsylvania estuary such as the extreme water pollution between 'Interstate Environment Compact 50 states and 2 territories Coordination Wilmington and Philadelphia and adverse effects of alterations to the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal *Not an estuarine state. were still unsolved despite the regional approa ci taken by the Delaware River Basin Commission eries Commission is a two-state management agency (Delaware, 1972). that functions as smoothly as single state fishery Other interstate groupings among the Atlantic management agencies. It would appear that since states (Table 5) are of an advisory, coordinative, the two states are the same as would be involved and/or educational nature and influence manage- in a joint Chesapeake Bay management agency that ment of estuaries only through persuasion. little impediment to such an arrangement would Traditionally, it has been difficult to obtain con- exist. Actually, although both states bound Chesa- sent from state legislatures to yield their authority peake Bay and the Potomac estuary, there is a to another body less under their influence such as distinct difference. The sharing of the main stem an interstate compact. It is less difficult for a state of the bay is sequential rather than contemporaneous legislature to agree to support an interstate plan- as in the case of the Potomac estuary. Each state ning, advisory, or educational group. The question can relatively easily patrol and control access to of a compact for the Chesapeake Bay region is the bay waters while this is extremely difficult to do raised periodically. The latest proposal along these in the Potomac estuary. lines was made by Senator Mc. C. Mathias of Mary- With the few exceptions noted above, however, land who suggested the states of Maryland and estuarine management is a single state function. Virginia consider a Title II Commission for the area Within the different states, many different ap- (U.S. Congress, 1974). One of the difficulties facing proaches are used for estuarine management. The acceptance of this proposal is the degree to which various components that make up estuarine man- such a commission will appreciably assist in solving agement are generally not formally coordinated the problems in the region. Title II Commissions are within a state. Coastal Zone Management Act plan- only advisory and do interject a third party, the ning and implementation will continue to play a federal government, into the picture. Consideration crucial role in effecting formal coordination of of the problem of interstate planning and manage- estuarine management as part of overall coastal ment has become part of overall coastal zone man- zone management due to the requirement: agement planning efforts of Maryland and Virginia. The Chesapeake Bay does present an interesting Section 306... (c) Prior to granting approval of a management program submitted by a coastal state. the case study on this matter. The Potomac River Fish- secretary (of Commerce) shall find that:... (2) The 692 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL state has ... (B) established an effective mechanism for Table 6.-Initial Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 Planning (Section 305) continuing consultation and coordinatioh between the Grants to Atlantic Coastal States management agency designated pursuant to paragraph (5) of this subsection and with local governments, State Federal Funding State FUnding Total interstate agencies, regional agencies, and areawide agen- cies' within the 'coastal zone to assure the full participa- tion of such local governments and agencies in carrying Connecticut-... $194,285 $130,339 $324,624 out the purposes of this title. P.L. 92-583 Delaware .- . .......... 194,285 83,334 277,619 Florida :- - ------- 450,000 236,000 686,000 Georgia. 188,000 115,400 - 303,400 During the.period of May through November Maine -230,000 115,000 '345,060 1974, all of the Atlantic cdastal states received initial Maryl280,000 185,765 465,765 Massachusetts -----. 210,000 105,000 315,000 planning (Section 305) grants under the Coastal New Hampshire ____.. 78,000 39,000 . 117,000 Zone Management Act of 1972 (Table 6). It is too -New Jersey - ... -275,000 137,00a 412,000 early to expect concrete results in estuarine manage- New York- - 550,000 200 oo 825000 North Carolina. ........ 300,000 200;000 500,000 ment as a direct result of these funds. Several states, Pennsylvania.--__-._ 150,000 75,000 oo 225,000 however, anticipated support under' the Coastal 'Rhode Island ... ...... 154,415 77,208 231,623 South Carolina .-------- 198,485 100,015 28,500 Zone Management Act and began coastalzone plan- Soth Carolina 1- 251,044 125,522 376,566 ning with state funds. Florida, for example, pub- lished a state coastal zone atlas (Florida, 1972)'in December 1972, which provides in map form a de- DELAWARE lineation of all coastal areas into preservation (no further modification), conservation (controlled mod- Estuarine management in- Delaware is primarily ificatidn), and development (few, if any, state con- focused in the Department of -Natural Resources trols) areas.' - - :' and: Environmental Control. Four divisions within It 'must be remembered, however, that some ele- the department: Environmental Contrbol;Fish' and ments of'what has come to be considered' coastal Wildlife; Parks, Recreation and Forestry; and' Soil zone management have' been functioning in mIost and Water Conservation, are the primary estuarine states for varying periods. A major task of 'coastal management agencies. zone planning and management efforts is the identi- Delaware is unique among the Atlantic states in fication and coordination of these elements in sup- that it has passed a Coastal Zone Act (58 Del. Laws, port of a recognized, stated goal. C. 175) which bans all heavy industry and port or dock facilities within two nriles of. the shoreline not in existence at the time of the Act's passage in 1971. Atlantic Coastal States Organizational Arrangements 1 A permit system administered by Coastal Zone Organizational Arrangements L Industrial Control Board operating within the State CONNECTICUT Planning Office of the executive department regu- lates all other manufacturing uses or expansion of existing heavy industrial uses.- Estuarine management in Connecticut is primarily sting heavy i the responsibility of the Department of Environ- mental Protection. Within the department, parks FLORIDA and recreation, fish and wildlife, forestry, and water and related resources are the responsibility of the Florida's administrative structure is unique among Division of Preservation and Conservation; while the 50 states in that administrative powers are air and water compliance, solid waste management, shared by the Governor and a six member inde- and pesticides and radiation control are the responsi- pendently elected cabinet. Agencies dealing with bility of the Division of Environmental Quality. As estuarine management report to the Governor and in most states, many other departments have direct the cabinet, sitting as a body. Coastal zone planning or indirect inputs into estuarine management. Table is the responsibility of the Coastal Coordinating 7 indicates some of the various agency responsibili- Council within the Department of Natural Re- ties for estuarine management in Connecticut. Estu- sources. The council consists of the executive di- arine management is not separated organizationally rectors of the Department of Natural Resources3 from the management of other areas in Connecticut. trustees of the Internal Improvement Trust Fund, Connecticut has wetlands protective legislation. the Department of Pollution Control, and the Secre- tary of 'Administration. The' Coastal Coordinating z Information for this state-by-state summary was obtained primarily Council' fuictions. as an 'advisory body to the from Ponder, 1974; U.S. Department of Commerce, 1973, 1974; Lynch, Governor and cabinet in the area of coastal zone Patton and Smolen, 1974; and the individuat Atlantic state applications for Coastal Zone Management planning (Section 305) grants. management. 5 CO(NCLUDING REMARKS 693 Table 7.-Some organizatlonal responslbilities forestuarine management in Connecticut. Department - . Responsibilities Environmental Health Transportation Community Commerce Protection Affairs :Industrial Development ..- .. . . -------- * R R R R, F * F, P Water Quality, .-............. ........ . ... * R, F, Rev, P * R, Rev P Erosion .-......................... .. * R, F, Rev, P ·*P Coastal Recreation ----- - -- ....,,...._... *FP '- * R Rev, P p p Wetlands & Critical Area Preservation - ------- ..- -----. - R, * R * P Subaqueous Mineral Extraction -.-.---,, . . .---. * R, P P P Energy ,,-------- ------ ,---------R. F, Rev Rev F, Rev, P P * Agency directly addresses issue. Rev, Review authority. R, Regulatory authority. P, Planning and promotional authority. F, Funding authority. Florida maintains permit and/or base control grant, lease, license, and permit recprds; and moni- over most estuarine water or margin uses admin- toring shellfish waters. The Department of Conserva- istered by the Department of Natural Resources tion maintains navigational marking and clearances; or the board of trustees of the Internal Develop- administers the "Keep Maine Scenic" Law; manages ment Trust Fund. submerged lands; maintains ,the Coastal Island Reg- istry; and is responsible for watercraft registration GEORGIA - and safety. The Department of Transportation houses the Main Port Authority. Monitoring safety of coastal waters for water contact sports and licens- Estuarine management in Georgia is primarily the responsibility of the Department of Natural ing of individual home sewage disposal facilities are Resources. Within this department, the Game and the responsibility of the Department of Health and Fish Division is responsible for coastal marshland Welfare. protection and coastal fisheries management while the Environmental Protection'Division is responsible Governor for the water quality standards, water use classifica- tion, and the shellfish sanitation programs. I Estuarine planning is the responsibility' of a Coastal Zone Management Policyttee Coastal Zone Management Policy Development Committee which reports to the Governor. The organization for coastal zone management planning CZM Coordination CZM Technical Governor's Office of Federal Agency in Georgia is shown in Figure 1. Committee* Planning and udget Council MAINE Research Coastal Zone Management i Reference Community Forum . Council Five departments share significant responsibility for estuarine management in Maine. Pollution con- trol is primarily focused in the -Department of' En- vironmaental Protection which is responsible for The'CZM Technical Committee consists of: Department of Community Development licensing of waste discharges and structures in tidal Forestry Commissionment Department of Human- Resources waters or subtidal lands; administration of Maine's Office of Planning and Budget Coastal Conveyance of Petroleum Act (including Georgia Ports Authority Board of Regents, University System of Georgia licensing of oil terminals); and enforcement of laws Soil and' Water Conservation Commission Department of Transportation relating to water discharge licenses, air emissions, Coastal Area Planning and Development Commission waste dumping, and water quality laws. The De- partment of 'Marine Resources is responsible for FIaURE 1.-Coastal Zone Management (CZM) Planning fishery law, regulation, and research; maintaining Organization in Georgia. 694 ESTUARINE ROLLUTION CONTROL MARYLAND ; Overall responsibility for] coastal zone manage- ment in Massachusetts is housed in the Executive Estuarine management in Maryland is focused in Office of Environmental Affairs. the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (H&MH). Other departments such as Transporta- NEW HAMPSHIRE tion (port administration), State Planning (land use planning and state development plan), Agriculture New Hampshire's estuarine management programs (soil conservation and pesticide control), and Eco- are not focused in any particular agency or depart- nomic and Community Development (waterfront ment. Major water supply and water quality pro- renewal) also contribute to estuarine management. grams are administered by the Water Supply and Estuarine pollution management is exercised by Pollution Control Commission. Coastal zone plan- three agencies: the Maryland Environmental Service ning has been assigned to the office of Comprehen- and the Water Resources Administration in DNR sive Planning. and the Environmental Health Administration in Ht&MH. The Environmental Health Administration NEw JERSEY is responsible for water quality and shellfish stand- ards, sewage treatment plant operations, and the All environmental protection in New Jersey is ad- statewide health policy. The Water Resources Ad- ministered by the Department of Environmental ministration administers the discharge permit system Protection (DEP). The Division of Marine Services for point sources and is responsible for water quality within the DEP is responsible for coastal zone standards for ground and surface waters. The Mary- management, wetlands and shore protection. New land Environmental Service is responsible for pro- Jersey has a Coastal Area Facility Review Act viding regional and river basin plans for waste passed in 1973 which divides the coastal areas into water, solid waste, and water supply management. various sections, with each section designated for Most other major estuarine management facets particular purposes. Management divisions affecting such as wetlands management, shore erosion con- estuaries within these designated areas must be trol, oil terminal licensing, power plant siting, water- compatible with these purposes. way improvement programs, marine policy, fish and wildlife administration, recreation; and coastal zone management are the responsibility of DNR. NEW YORK A major feature of Maryland's estuarine manage- ment program is the Power Plant Siting Act (Anno. New York has recently consolidated its environ- Code of Md. Article 96A, Section 23-25) admin- mentally related legislation into one act, the environ- istered by DNR which levees a surtax on electric mental Conservation Law. A marine coastal district energy generation in the state to be used for pur- has been established which includes all tidal estu- poses related to power plant operations, particularly arine waters as far up the Hudson as the Tappan ecological baseline studies, monitoring existing op- Zee Bridge. erations, long range planning, and acquisition of The Department of Environmental Conservation sites for future power plants. is responsible for environmentally oriented estuarine management programs, including coordination of regional and local plans. MASSACHUSETTS Massachusetts, which was cited by the 1969 NORTH CAROLINA "National Estuarine Pollution Study" as having the most advanced estuarine management program, has North Carolina estuarine management and plan- had a major reorganization of state government. ning agencies are primarily within the Department An Office of Environmental Affairs has brought to- of Administration and the Department of Natural gether a number of related agencies. Of particular and Economic Resources. concern to estuarine management is the Department An Office of Marine Affairs in the Department of of Natural Resources (DNR) which has the major Administration established in 1973 has the responsi- responsibility for estuarine management. The re- bility of coordination and serving as a communica- sponsibilities of Massachusetts agencies with regard tion link with various· marine-related programs in to several estuarine management activities are shown North Carolina. A Coastal Resources Commission in Figure 2. was legislatively created in 1974 to establish policy, CONCLUDING REMARKS 695 NAVIGATION- FISH &0 WILDLIFE PROTECTION POLLUTION CONTROL ELECTRIC POWER WATER-RELATED RECREATION GENERATION a z P4 H P 40 .-c a ,oa 0 -=- a,- 44 0- ; 3 o c u a N - 4N w3 0 0 W XN 11 a N u5 : I o an Z Z 0Q o W 0 z cH X;" 0 .2 0- .. 4J. -h · .. ...... · . W G ... o O , a . 0 · · ' a N a a oc) > In w ' .0 h 9 . 0 3 E Z C) J4 "0 m 0044 a, P 0 N E4 NO P NC) 0 P C N -HCOd U .d F .a -, - H H 0 0 O 0 H 0O H 0 a) H - Ha) 0) 003. a P I a U-CaNI 0a a CO-a0 0 Na a a, a la 0 ao a N a Planning * * * * * * * 0 · WiSettings . S tand ars 0 · 0 0 00Regulations 03 N - -0. M -H 0 onitoring C H 0 - Field Studies a · · · Assistance 0 0 * Dissemination 0 0 00 N N Manpower Training C C * . N * Project Management .0 0 0 0 ·- C , 0 N - Intergovernmental Coordination * * * - -.* * 0 N C - Planning 4 · ·4 * · · · . · Project ReviewSt · · · · , · · · · · · · bkGURE 2.-Estuarine management responsibilities of Massachusetts state agencies (adapted from the Commonwealth of Massa- chusetts' Coastal Zone Management Planning grant to the U.S. Department of Commerce). develop regulations, and adjudicate coastal area is composed of the directors of the Department of peregt application s. Health along wih representatives of the state legis- The Division of Health Services in the Depart- lature and the general public. The Division of ment of Human Resources administers the state Coastal Resources of the Department of Natural shellfish sanitation program. Resources provdes administrative support to the council. The State Department of Health ·estab- PNSLANIAishes water quality standards. Pennsylvania's only estuarine area connected to the Atlan tic Ocean is a short section of the Schuylkill River below Philadelphia. The Department of En- The Wildlife and Marine Resources Department vironmental Resourcesis responsible for the develop- and the Department of Health and Environmental ment of the state water plan, management of the Contr ol share the major management role with Project management r o * *. a a a a th state's land and water programs, and all aspects of regard to South Carolina's estuaries. The Depart- IntCrgovernmental chusetts' Coastal Znvirone Management Planning gralnt to the U.S. Department of Control is re- sponsible for managem ent o f water pollution, sewage permitHODE ISLicatD disposal , shellfish sanitation, wa ter supply, and solid waste disposal. The Wildlife and Marine Resources In Rhode Island, management of estuaries is cen- Department is responsible for fisheries resources, tered in a proastal Resources Management Council dredge and fill operations, and coastal wetlands. which report cesis diretsponsibley for the develop- and the r states, many other agencies which reports directly to the Governor. This council As with many other states, many other agencies ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Economic Resource . ,. Natural Environmen Development Utilization Intrastructure Pollution' Environment tal Hazard 43 a a 0 0 - o E a U U o _v -P H4 4U o- 41H -sa 4o --- 4. I n U (o 4' HHODI t r04 H D e4s rl c 0 0 0 1 0 0 c s o 0 0 0 H n O cO F O > i 4 ., i " A a I Id 0 o 4 'a 1 1 o a o 9 o "" < a) 54R I 'H 1-1 0)4U a 54 V -e 4J o 1 '-H 0 4 . O.H5 4) 0 H -4y 4J - '0 I1 a 4J' O dJ 4J a Z 0 '0HH a-H oa- H o- o1) 0 a)o 0 0 4054 O cocX ar c O o OH 0 (A ro 0 c -H a41 5 no O 0 4C0 Division of Administration P P P P P State Development ' - Board P PT T T P T P D State Hightgay PM Department D 0 D D Land Resources P P PM PM PM P Conservation Comm. T T R R T T Wildlife & Marine PM P pM T TR PM PT PMD PM P Resources Dept. T T T TR R RT TR- TR Commission R Parks, Recreation, PM PM and Tourism DT R Commission of Forestry RT Dept. of Health & PM Environmental Control R R R R R R 4R R TR PR R PR State Ports Authority PM PM DR DR Public Service PMPM Commission R R R R R R FIGURE 3.-South Carolina: state involvement in estuarine management. P, planning; T, technical assistance; M, management; - D, direct development; R, regulation. contribute e to estuarine management. Figure 3 indi- sanitation and through its Bureau of Shellfish Sani- cates the contribution of South Carolina agencies tation administers the state shellfish sanitation to estuarine management. : program. Virginia's wetland management laws (Title 62.1, Ch. 13, Code of Va.) are strongly oriented towards VIRNIA -,local management. If localities choose (and most . have so chosen), initial permit approval of permitted Thirty-seven entities have been identified which activities is the responsibility of a local wetlands play a role in state or regional level estuarine man- board. The Marine Resources Commission serves as agement (Laird, 1974). Some have only minor roles, an administrative board of appeals for challenges to and some occur within the same department under local decisions. a unified administrative head. These entities have The Marine Resources Commission and the State been broken down into six categor ies as shown in Watier Control Board ars made bodies made up primarily Table 8 . .. of informed, knowledgeable citizens not otherwise Principal management responsibility rests at pres- connected to state government. A commissioner of ent with the Virginia Marine Resources Commission marine resources is appointed to serve at the pleasure which manages the state's marine and estuarine of the Governor and serves as chairman of the Marine fisheries. The commission has review authority over Resources Commission and its chief executive officer. wetlands permits, and initial 'authority over sub- The other members of the Marine Resources Corn- aqueous permits or leasing for activities affecting mission are appointed by the Governor for fixed estuarine bottoms, including oyster leases, dredging, terms. The State Water Control Board is admin- and subaqueous mining. The State Water Control istered by an executive director. Permit disposition Board is responsible for water quality and water authority rests in these boards, and all decisions quality management. The Department of Health related to permit activities must be made in meetings also has permit authority in the field of marina open to the public. . CONCLUDING REMARIKS 697 Table 8.-Entities of state government with planning, management, or scientific and engineering responsibilities in estuarine management in Virginia (after Laird 1974) 1. Departments with Overview Responsibility IV. State Agencies Which Have Responsibilities in the Coastal Zone Which Indirectly Affect Estuarine Management Office of the Governor Council on the Environment Department of Conservation and Economic Development Office of the Attorney General Division of Forestry -Division of Mineral Resources II. State Agencies Concerned Primarily with Estuarine and Coastal Areas and Adjacent Division of Mined Land Reclamation Marine Areas 'Virginia State Travel Service : . Historic Landmarks Commission Marine Resources Commission Virginia Outdoors Foundation Virginia Institute of Marine Science State Air Pollution Control Board Department of Health. Bureau.of Shellfish Sanitation ; V. Intrastate Agencies Authorized by the Code of Virginia but Which Are Supported by Virginia Port Authority Local Funds and Have an Impact on Estuarine Management III. State Agencies Which Have Responsibilities in the Coastal Zone Which Directly Affect Hampton Roads Sanitation District Commission Estuarine Management - Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority Virginia Beach Erosion Commission State Water Control. Board Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries VI. Interstate Agencies Relevant to Estuarine Management to Which Virginia is a Party Department of Conservation and Economic Development 'Division of Parks Potomac River Fisheries Commission Commission of Outdoor Recreation Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission Division of Industrial Development Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin Virginia Soil and Water Conservation Commission Division of State Planning and Community Affairs Virginia Department of Highways Department of Agriculture and Commerce Department-of Health Division of Engineering Bureau'ofSanitary Engineering Bureau of Solid Waste and Vector Control Bureau of Industrial Hygiene Division of Local Health Services State Corporation Commission Virginia -is unique among the Atlantic coastal Game and Inland Fisheries, and the Department of states for having an estuarine and marine state re- Conservation and Economic Development. State search laboratory, the Virginia Institute of Marine level coordination between state agencies is being Science, which is a separate state agency coequal focused in a developing secretariat which reports with the management agencies within the state directly to the Governor. At present, each state apparatus. In most states, the estuarine research agency reports to a secretary. The majority of agen- programs are usually subordinate arms of the man- cies which have a major role in estuarine manage- agement agencies or conducted through formal or ment report to the Secretary of Commerce and informal arrangements with the state university Resources. system. -The Virginia Institute of Marine Science, however, is independently chartered by the Code of SUMMARY Virginia (Title 28.1, Chapter 9). With an independ- ent charter and separate legislative mandate, the As can be seen by this brief review of state pro- Virginia Institute of Marine Science is able to influ- grams, many approaches are used for estuarine ence estuarine management practices independent management among the various states. The critical of direct pressures from management agencies. management decisions which impact the estuarine Coastal zone coordination in the Commonwealth areas usually involve specific site-related permit de- of Virginia is the responsibility of the Coastal ZLone cisions. In many states, these individual decisions Advisory Committee, co-chaired by the Department are made within the framework of overall state of State Planning and Community Affairs and the guidelines, policy, or legislative mandate. Institute of Marine Science. Other agencies making ; All but one of the Atlantic states (South Carolina) up the advisory committee are the Division of In- have adopted specific wetland management pro- dustrial Development, the Commission'of Outdoor grams; all have adopted water quality standards; Recreation, the Marine Resources Commission, the and some (Delaware and New Jersey, in particular) State Water Control Board, the Commission ·of have adopted strict coastal area zoning programs. 698 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 9.-Summary of estuarine related State Land Acquisition Authority State Agency Purpose Authority Connecticut ..-..... Dept. of Environmental Protection Wetland Acquisition C.G.S.A. 26-17a General Purposes C.G.S.A. 22a-25 Delaware .......... . Dept. of Natural Resources & Environmental Control Parks D;C. 7-5802 Florida -. . ................... Water Management Districts Wetland & Water Management F.S. 373-139 Georgia .- .._-.. ... State Forestry Commission Forests G.S. 43-207 Maine ...-..._ . Board of Environmental Protection Wetlands Acquisition M.R.S.A. 12-4701 Commission of Sea and Shore Fisheries Flats & Waters for Scientific Purposes M.R.S.A. 12-3701 Maryland ......- ..... Dept. of Natural Resources General Purposes M.C.A. 66C-186 Massachusetts ..-D........... Dept. of Natural Resources Coastal Wetlands M.G.L;A. 130-105 Wildlife Sainctuaies M.G.L:A. 131-7 State Parks & loqrests M.G.L.A. 132A-2A New Hampshire - - ------------ Dept Of Fish & Game Coastal Wetlands N.H.R.S. 483-A:1 New Jersey .-.. . Commissioner of Conservation & Economic Development Wetland Acquisition N.J.S. 13:8A:4 & N.J.S. 13:8A-24 Hackensack Meadowland Development Commission Wildlife Habitats N.J.S. 13:1B-15-5 Wetland Development N.J.S. 13:17-6(g) New York -.. .---. Dept. of Environmental Conservation qWetlands & Forest Preservation L.N.Y. ECL §260 Fish & Wildlife Management LN.Y. ECL §10501 North Carolina -.-.......... Dept. of Conservation and Development Natural & Scenic River Areas and Estuarine Areas S.N.C. 113A-34 Rhode Island ..- .......... Dept. of Natural Resqurces Wetlands Acquisition R.I.G.LA. §2-1-15 South Carolina .-...... No Programs Virginia - .. .............. Cities, Counties, Towns Federal Water Resource Development Projects Va. Code 62.1-150 Various State Agencies Open Space Lands Va. Code 10-152 Virginia Outdoors Foundation Open Space Lands Va. Code 10-163 Commission of Outdoor Recreation Scenic Rivers Areas Va. Code 10-175 No states have organized separate estuarine man- All Atlantic coastal states have some type of land agement agencies which exercise all management acquisition authority relevant to estuarine manage- functions. Within most states, estuarine manage- ment. These are listed in Table 9. ment is the function of agencies which exercise re- It is apparent from the multiplicity of agencies lated management functions on a statewide basis. with managerial responsibilities that coordination Some states have centralized environmental man- is a necessary element to effective estuarine man- agement into a single "super" department. In these agement. Coordination of environmental regulatory departments, there are often separate divisions activities has been achieved in several states by which deal with marine resources, but estuarine centralization of agencies into a super agency. This water quality management functions are usually the still, however, leaves the problem of activities which responsibility of a division or agency with statewide have a measurable impact on estuaries but which authority. are not directly regulated by environmentally ori- At the opposite end of the spectrum from the ented agencies. "super" department exercise of estuarine manage- The Coastal Zone Management Act has provided ment is the private "citizen board" concept of the initiative to states to effect better coordination management decisionmaking used in Virginia at of those activities important to sound estuarine both state and local levels. management. Although not devoted solely to estu- State overview in Rhode Island is by a board arine management, coastal zone management en- made up of ex officio agency heads, state legislative compasses all aspects of estuarine management. representatives, and private citizens, while in Florida Improvement in this coordination should be appar- this authority is held jointly by seven elected offi- ent in the very near future. cials, the Governor and the independently elected As mentioned earlier, all Atlantic coastal states cabinet. In addition to permit systems, another tool are participating in the planning phase of the Coastal available to estuarine managers is land acquisition. Zone Management Act. All states received planning CONCLUDITN REMARKS 699 grants during 1974. Because of the recency of these difficulties in reconciling federal, state, and local planning grants, there has been insufficient time to goals, responsibility, and authority. These difficul- produce specific accomplishments. ties, with application of the emery powder of federal State preparations anticipating funding of the funding, will be smoothed sufficiently so that more CZMA have, however, resulted in formation of effective management of estuarine systems will be either legislatively or executively mandated inter- developed. agency committees, commissions, councils, or task Estuarine management has improved in the period forces in most states. The CZMA guidelines strongly 1969-1974. Much of this improvement is the direct encourage management at the lowest possible level result of increased federal funding supported by the of management, primarily localities, within, how- general awareness of the importance of a quality ever, state and federally agreed upon principles. The environment in the average citizen. Care must be great advantage to the states in developing and exercised, however, that "ecological fervor," un- adopting an approved CZM program is that once accompanied by a sound educational program, does approved by the Secretary of Commerce, the state not create an environmental backlash. The reverse plan also becomes the guideline for and is binding is also true, however, that care must be exercised upon federal programs operating in state coastal to ensure that temporary crises (of long or short areas. duration) such as the energy squeeze of the early The success of estuarine management programs and mid-1970's, are not used as an excuse to dis- in future years probably depends upon the success mantle the sorely needed apparatus for environ- of developing the state-local coordination and co- mental concern that has been and is being con- operation necessary to implement developing coastal structed. It has become apparent to taxpayers that zone management plans. a quality environment is expensive. Without well- Experience in various states differs as to the effec- documented, understandable evidence that sug- tiveness of local control over environmental matters. gested pollution control methods are necessary, In Virginia, local management of wetlands is con- public support will not be available and environ- sidered to be successful to date (the Virginia Wet- mental quality will not be maintained or improved. lands Law became effective July 1, 1972), and is The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 recog- being studied as a possible model for coastal zone nizes many of these problems and the regulations management within the state. implementing the program emphasize the need for Estuarine management, particularly as exercised developing citizen awareness, participation, and through permit programs, receives much criticism support. from both environmentalists and developers. The A critical factor in future estuarine management major criticism of both sides is the multiplicity of will be the roles of federal, state, and local manage- permits required for a single authorization to proceed ment agencies. Unfortunately, there is little data with a proposed project. Frequently advocated by available from which to deduce the exact mix of both groups are "one stop" permit systems, each responsibilities which will ensure success. The gen- side of course assuming "one stop" systems will eral approach of the Coastal Zone Management favor its position. Until a different system is devised Act-that of a state program developed under which will adequately assess an activity's impact federal guidelines which, when federally approved, on the various facets of estuarine management, provides the criteria for federal actions in the however, a "one stop" system will probably not region-is readily acceptable at the state level. serve the best interest of the citizens of a state taken Still to be determined is the acceptance of possible as a whole and divorced from particular advocacy state constraints on certain federal agencies and roles in a given controversy. even more important, the acceptance by localities It is unlikely that agencies will be created within of the state plan. the states' organizational frameworks which will The principal factor in estuarine management function solely or primarily as the manager of a improvement in the next five to 10 years will be local state's estuarine areas. What can be expected is an acceptance and support of coastal zone management. increasing awareness of the need for closer coordina- tion and cooperation between agencies serving plan- REFERENCES ning, management, and advisory roles in estuarine areas. This need has already been recognized by Commerce Clearing House, Inc. 1974. Topical Law Reports. most states and several have begun to effect this Washington, D.C. coordination. The next several years will see marked Delaware Governor's Task Force on Marine and Coastal improvement in this area, although there will be Affairs. 1972. The Coastal Zone of Delaware. Final Report of 700 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL the Governor's Task Force on Marine and Coastal Affairs, New England River Basin Commission. 1970. Fiscal Year College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, Newark. 1970 Annual Report of the New England River Basin Commission. Boston, Mass. Florida Coastal Coordinating Council. 1972. Florida Coastal Zone Management Atlas. Coastal Coordinating Council, New England River Basin Commission. 1971. Annual Report, Tallahassee. Fiscal Year 1971. Boston, Mass. New England River Basin Commission. 1972. New England Iuckenbecker, D. J. and E. L. Long. 1973. Will municipal River Basin Commission 1972 Annual Report. Boston, sewage continue to threaten primary watercontact recrea- Mass. tion: an appraisal of the 1972 Water Pollution Control Act. Rutgers Camden Law J. 4:260. Ponder, Hal. 1974. Survey of State Coastal Management Laws. School of Law University of Maryland, Chesapeake Laird, Beverly L. 1974. Virginia State Agencies Concerned Research Consortium Publication. with Coastal Zone Planning, Management, or Scientific and Engineering Activities, 1974-1975 Edition. SRAMSOE Rasmussen, F. 1973. The Federal Water Pollution Control No. 67, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester Act Amendments of 1972. Wis. L. Rev. 1973: 893. Point. U.S. Department of Commerce. 1973. Status of State Coastal Lynch, Maurice P., Martha A. Patton, and Theodore F. Zone Management Efforts. Coastal Zone Management Smolen. 1974. A policy study of marine and estuarine sanc- Task Force, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- tuaries: background information. Pages 3-56 in M. P. tration, Washington, D.C. Lynch, B. L. Laird, and T. F. Smolen, eds. Marine and Estuarine Sanctuaries, Proceedings of the National Work- U.S. Department of Commerce. 1974. State Coastal Zone shop on Sanctuaries. SSR No. 70, Virginia Institute of Management Activities 1974. Office of Coastal Zone Marine Science, Gloucester Point. Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis- tration, Washington, D.C. McMahon, M. J., Jr. 1973. The Federal Water Pollution U.S. Department of Interior. 1969. National Estuarine Control Act Amendments of 1972. Boston College- Ind. & Pollution Study. Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis- Commercial Law Rev. 14:672. tration, Washington, D.C. 3 vol. - -, - , t- . . - 0 . I EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY IN ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS WILLIAM J. HARGIS, JR. Virginia Institute of Marine Science Gloucester Point, Virginia ABSTRACT Estuaries and coastal waters, comprising less than 5 percent of earth's surface, are under ever- increasing pressures from growing populations and demands. Yet these complex and dynamic waters are the key to preserving the viability and productivity of the oceans. Maintenance of their quality is vital to man and his future, causing much concern, especially in the United States. Consequently, considerable research, legislation, and other efforts oriented at improving manage- ment of estuarine and coastal waters have gone forward in the last 10 to 15 years. These are discussed in this chapter. Despite all these efforts, the condition of estuarine environments and resources continues to decline. Several factors appear to be causal. The "state of the art" for control of quality in estuarine and coastal waters must be rapidly improved to reverse the downward trend. Recom- mendations are made. As these improvements are accomplished, we will slow and eventually stop, even reverse, the degradation of these vital waters. While making control procedures more accurate and precise, we must also reduce the economic and social costs of controls without lessening their effectiveness. INTRODUCTION and the vast oceans, themselves, been attended. The sights and smells of pollution, long apparent in Historical natural inland waters, appeared in most estuarine and oceanic waters very late. Awareness that the Humans and human activities have long been oceans and seas of earth are not as remote or in- concentrated on the shores of the seas, or along the violate as formerly believed has been slow in coming tributaries which empty into those seas. Given this compared with man's ability to use, to exploit, and to shoreward distribution of a rapidly multiplying pollute. people and their burgeoning societal activities, it It is now clear that control of the condition of is small wonder that we are now greatly disturbed oceanic waters will depend primarily upon achieving over the worsening condition of the coastal waters reasonable control over estuaries and other coastal and tidal tributaries fringing the oceans of earth. waters. Additionally, control of coastal waters is Concern with quality of the environment focused necessary in and of itself because it is these waters early on its decline in natural waters. Recognition of which most affect man and it is important to main- atmospheric problems such as contamination of air tain an adequate environment for human society. by heat or chemicals and the possibility of uninten- Belated though awareness of estuarine and coastal tional weather modification, developed later. Prob- waters may have been, much attention has been ably because they are more easily damaged and more given them since the 1960's when the strong concern readily observed, upland brooks, small rivers (run- manifesting itself today surfaced and the Water ning waters), and ponds and confined lakes (still Quality Act of 1965 (PL 89-234), the Clean Water waters) called for and received attention first. Later, Restoration Act of 1965 (PL 89-753), and the Na- the larger upland rivers and the Great Lakes began tional Environmental Protection Act of 1969 (PL to show regular fish kills and other signs of degrada- 91-190) came into being. tion. Thus, much of the early effort at pollution Legislation aside, concern has also been apparent abatement by science and technology, government in the growing number of publications relating to and industry was devoted to these essentially upland environment, its relation to man, and to the worsen- waters. Only in recent decades have the great tidal ing status of many environments and resources. tributaries, with their massive fresh and saline Many governmental groups have been commissioned reaches, and the coastal waters of the world's seas to consider these problems at all levels-local, re- 701 702 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL gional, state, interstate, federal, and even interna- The first responsibility was given to the National tional. Reports have been written, new legislation Council on Marine Resource and Engineering Devel- passed, and organizations established and modified. opment (NCMRED-also known as The Marine Unfortunately, reorganization has occurred so many Science Council), a federal body consisting of the times as to make some agencies unstable and render several departmental Secretaries, the Director of the it difficult for them to accomplish their objectives. National Science Foundation, the Chairman of the For example, because of its changing and confusing Atomic Energy Commission and chaired by the organizational milieu, progress and improvement of Vice President. Dr. Edward Wenk, Jr. was its first the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has executive secretary. A series of annual reports was been slowed. issued by the Council under the general title, "Ma- A large number of major studies of the nation's rine Science Affairs," with appropriate dates and estuarine systems and of individual estuaries have subtitles (cf. References). One of its four interagency been conducted since 1960 along with a host of committees, the Committee on Multiple Use of the lesser, but useful smaller works. See, for example, Coastal Zone, helped focus attention on the fragile (Lauff, 1967), (USDI, 1969), (USDI, 1970), area called the coastal zone in various publications (Stroud, 1971), (Chabreck, 1973), (Clark, 1974), and reports and in doing so, joined others in con- (Odum et al., 1974) and many others. tributing to that developing national program. The task of conducting a comprehensive nation- wide review of all ocean-oriented matters (the last by Legislative Action charge mentioned above) fell to the civilian-com- posed Commission on Marine Science and Engineer- ing Resources (COMSER-sometimes called the Among the landmark federal enactments which Stratton Commission after Dr. Julius A. Stratton, have resulted from this growing awareness and con- havcern from t his growing awareness and con- its chairman). This commission expired at the end of a fruitful 3-year life that resulted in a series of com- 1. The Water Quality Act of 1965 (PL 89-234) prehensive reports. The summary volume of the which among other things, initiated the National four volume set entitled, "Our Nation and the Sea," Wathoer Quality Standards Program [Sec. 10 (c)]. is an effective distillation of the entire national Water Quality Standards Program F ec. 10 (c) I marine effort to that point. 2. The Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966 (PL marine effort to that point. 89-753), which focused on problems of maintaining The commission found great need for considerable and restoring quality and uses of the Nation's sur- attention to the pressured and deteriorating coastal face waters. Additionally, in that act the Secretary one and its recommendations for correction form of the Interior was directed [Section 5 (g)] to study one of the strongest foundations for the current nationwide problems of estuarine pollution. The lnphasis on the margins of the sea. With those resultant 3-year effort yielded a very interesting groups mentioned above, the commission contrib- report submitted to Congress in November 1969. ated significantly to the Coastal Zone Management This three volume report was entitled, "The Act. National Estuarine Pollution Study" (USDI, 1969). 4. The Estuary Protection Act (PL90-954) reiter- Noteworthy among its recommendations was de- ated Congress' awareness of the critical nature of velopment of a comprehensive national coastal zone coastal waters and directed the Secretary of the management system. (This recommendation, sec- Interior "to conduct an inventory and study of the Nation's estuaries and their natural resources" in upon partially by enactment of PL 92-583, The cooperation with the states. National Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972). This study, authorized in August 1968, and funded 3. The Marine Resources, Engineering and Devel- initially in July 1969 was completed and resulted in opment Act of 1966 (PL 89-454), which focused a report entitled, "National Estuary Study." Its attention on marine waters and their resources, seven volumes were transmitted to Congress in environments, and uses by society. It also directed: January 1970 (USDI, 1970). They, too, concluded a) evaluation of and improvement in the federal that the estuarine zone of the United States is a critical environmental and resource area and recom- efforts in ocean affairs, and b) a comprehensive review of all ocean-oriented matters. This review mended stronger efforts to manage it wisely, focusing was designed to lead to development of a compre- the management responsibility and capability in the hensive national effort to better control, utilize, states. and preserve the resources and environments of ma- 5. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend- rine waters. ments of 1972 provided for establishment, publica- CONCLUDING REMARKS 703 tion, and, where necessary, revision of comprehensive ards from these criteria, will be interesting to see. water quality criteria, among other provisions. It is too early to tell. As will be shown below, EPA Accomplishments and offshoots of this legislation has responded by utilizing a large number of these are discussed in greater detail below. criteria directly in developing their own proposed criteria (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Special Studies and Reports 1973). While these legislative efforts came into being and Other Activities the activities they called for were pursued to fruition, the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration There have been a number of other significant (FWPCA-now EPA) of the Department of the activities relating to problems of coastal and estu- Interior has established the National Technical arine environments which impinge upon assessment Advisory Committee on Water Quality Criteria of the status of those waters and of the seas and Advisory Committee on Water Quality Criteria oceans into which they empty. Among them have (NTAC). The body, which was advisory to the oceans ito which they empty. Among them have Secretary of the Interior, was developed in response been the various pollution-related research efforts of to Paragraph 3, Section 10 of the Federal Water the National Science Foundation through its pro- Pollution Control Act ajects administered by the International Decade of Quality Act of 1965. The Committee, named in Ocean Exploration Program. Several useful publica- early 1967, worked vigorously throughout the year tions have resulted. See, for example, Goldberg and submitted its report to the Secretary in April (1972b), and Duce, Parker, and Giam (1974). Too, 1968. NSF's Research-Applied to National Needs Program The work dealt extensively with problems of (RANN) has contributed significantly by supporting maintaining the maximum utility and quality of water quality-related activities in various estuarine estuarine and coastal waters and presented a large and coastal areas. RANN has also sponsored several number of water quality criteria recommended for review activities such as workshops and symposiums use in the management of those waters. These cri- devoted to problems of coastal waters and lands. As teria were supposed to form the basis for new water examples see: "The Water's Edge: Critical Problems quality control standards, and they did! Both the of the Coastal Zone," (B. H. Ketchum, ed., 1972) criteria and standards have been in widespread use and "The Chesapeake Bay: Report of a Research since. Planning Study," (Beers, et al, 1971). In 1971 the Environmental Protection Agency, The massive report in four volumes prepared for anticipating the Amendments of 1972 to the Federal FWPCA as part of the National Estuarine Pollution Water Pollution Control Act, commissioned another Study of 1968 and 1969 and published by the Con- examination of the status of knowledge of surface servation Foundation under the general title, and ground waters and the elements related to qual- "Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States" ity. Under a contract to the National Academy of (Odum, Copeland and McMahan, eds., 1974), is Sciences-National Academy of Engineering (NAS- worthy of special note here as are the 1971 reports of NAE), several subcommittees comprising the overall the NAS-NRC Ocean Affairs Board, "Marine En- Committee on Water Quality Criteria of the En- vironmental Quality," aid NAS-NAE Committees vironmental Studies Board of the National Research on Oceanography and Ocean Engineering (NASCO Council (NRC) were established to review and, if and NAECOE) "Waste Management Concepts for necessary, revise the water quality criteria previously the Coastal Zone," (NAS-NRC, 1970). developed. Its report entitled "Water Quality Cri- All of these activities have served to focus attention on the nation's coastal and estuarine waters and on teria 1972" was completed in 1972 but not made on the nation's coastal and estuarine waters and on widely available until recently, (NAS-NAE, 1973)1. the need to understand and manage these waters As indicated above, the NAS-NAE effort was effectively so that they will be of maximum utility to undertaken as a contractual obligation to EPA. society and will be available in undiminished quality Whether the different status of the NAS-NAE and quantity to posterity. They have also served to appointment group, as contrasted with the old establish a stronger basis for developing management NTAC, which was an official advisory committee efforts and to indicate where current knowledge and reporting to the Secretary of Interior, will have an managerial ability are weak. effect on the ultimate development of revised stand- Purposes 'Though the title indicates that the report was completed in 1972 internal evidence in the "Blue Book" indicates that it was not actually Some aspects of the legislative and technical printed for circulation until early 1973. It was not widely available until then. history of the effort to manage the quality of estu- 704 ESTUA4IINE POLLUTION CONTROL aries and coastal waters have been presented above. Pritchard (1967), Clark (1974); and Odum, Cope- Important as it is to understand these historical land, and McMahan (1974). Many of the systems aspects, the overall purpose of this chapter is a presented in those works are quite significant scien- general evaluation of water quality in the nation's tifically. While all of them are interesting and estuaries as a whole. In doing so, we seek to examine some are useful to management, a complete review the current status of the national estu{arine system. of classifications is beyond the scope of this report. This will be done in relation to modifications in For our purposes it is sufficient to note the existence quality, quantity, and utility of the resources and of the different ones, adopt one with utility, and environments of those coastal waters resulting from move on. the activities of man. In this effort the intention is to Along with others who have considered the prob- consider existing quality, trends in quality, existing lems of managing the quality of waters of the coasts, water quality criteria, and the state of the art in I have found it expedient to simplify terminology. establishing and evaluating the same. Ability to Consequently, in this essay the word estuary is monitor will be examined also. construed broadly, covering all semi-enclosed basins and tributaries which interact with the world's seas and oceans (including the tidai bodies frequently THE WATERS IN QUESTION classified separately, such as fiords, tidal rivers to the upper limits of tide, lagoons, brackish and saline To accomplish the purposes projected above, we bays and sounds, and others). must first define the various components of the waters under consideration and examine them in some detail. It is only in the light of adequate factual COASTAL WATERS knowledge about these waters that effective manage- ment can be cast! For all open coastal situations the term coastal waters suffices. Both estuarine and coastal waters Estuarine and Coastal Waters interact with'the land; with surface runoff and sub- terranean aquifers, and with man and his activities While most of the legislation previously mentioned and properties. Both receive his effluents directly especially referred to and used the terms estuary, and indirectly. Both retain or transmit them to the estuarine and estuarine zone it soon became clear sea or to the bottom. To protect the oceans, husband that the, coastal waters, those on the coast of the their qualities and uses, and properly serve present open ocean, also were involved. They, too, are ln- and future societies both must be effectively under- termediary between land and land drainage and the stood and managed. Adequate understanding is seas and oceans. Both estuaries and coastal watfers absolutely necessary for management! See especially must, therefore, be considered, if our management the background materials comnenting on these system is to be complete in its coverage. points presented in the NAS-NRC paper "Waste Management in the Coastal Zone," (NAS-NRC, 1970, p. 2). ESTUARINE WATERS . - The word estuary usually denotes a semi-enclosed Characteristics of Estuarine body of water opening into or debouching from the and Coastal Waters ocean, receiving ocean waters and tides and, gen- erally, contributing freshwater to the seas. This The oceans, themselves, and the highlands (or definition is rather broad. Some, for example fastlands) comprise about 95 percent of the surface Pritchard (1967), construe it more narrowly, re- of the earth. The waters and adjacent lowlands stricting the term to those areas or reaches of tidal which interface between these two major geographi- tributaries within which ocean waters are measurably cal realms make up less than 5 percent of the total affected by or mixed with freshwater from upstream. area of the globe. This is the "coastal zone." Corn- Much discussion has been devoted in the literature paratively minor in area, this small portion of inter- to the various categories into which the estuaries acting land, water, and air is highly critical. It is all- and coastal waters of the world may be divided. A important to the condition and welfare of land and number of classification schemes for estuarine waters sea and of society. Like all such transition zones it have been devised and published in various scholarly is a dynamic and changing fraction-a zone of high and technical papers, such as Williams (1962), energy flux. CONCLUDING REMARKS 705 FEATURES OF ESTUARIES Geophyszcal features--Even within themselves estuaries contain different zones or reaches, as for As indicated, many attempts at definition have example, a) the upriver, fresh, but tidal reaches been made and several classifications pubhshed The occurring immediately below the fall lihne, b) the snmple definition utlllzed here, i e. estuaries are bodies mtermediate brackish transition reach which con- of water regularly connected with the ocean, within nects both oceanic and land-originating waters, and 'which measurable quantities of ocean water occur c) the near-oceamc zones at their mouths. Figures and/or winch experience ocean tides, encompasses 1, 2 and 3 depict various features of a partially-mixed all known types occurring around the United States, estuary which features partial stratification and two- from the several hypersalne lagoons (winch receive way surface and bottom non-tidal currents (To the only hmited amounts of freshwater, have weak latter two reaches occurrming at the lower ends of tidal flushing action and contribute salty water to adja- tributaries the term estuary 'is restricted by cent coastal areas) to the mighty estuary of the Pritchard, 1969) Another classification applied to lower Mississlppi River (whinch inmects massive these reaches or zones is oligohaline, or low sea salts amounts of freshwater, sediments, and other ma- (0 5bo-8 0%o), mesohaline, or intermediate sea terials into the northern Gulf of Mexico). salts (8 0%v-18 0%o), and polyhaline or high sea The frmingmg coastal bays, sounds and lagoons salts (18 0%o-30 0%o) Thirty-five parts per thousand protected behind the barrier Islands of the Atlantic is standard full seawater salinity and gulf coasts and the fresher, more elongate and Not only are these reaches, extending up and frequently larger tidal bays and tributaries of all downriver, different but there are marked variations coasts also fall within the defimnition The Laguna from side to side and from top to bottom involving Madre of Texas, the Carolina sounds, the seaside such characteristics as currents, temperature, oxygen bays of Vlrgnma, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, content, transparency, and other aspects. Too, these and Long Island are examples of the former (fringing zones may move horizontally landward or seaward, coastal bays and sounds) Cook Inlet, the various or vertically toward the surface or the bottom, fiords and river mouths of Alaska and the Great depending upon regular (seasonal, monthly, or Northwest, Mobile Bay, Tampa Bay, Wynyah Bay, daily) changes in tides or freshwater mflux or ab- Charleston Harbor plus its entering tidal tributaries, normal winds, coastal surges or land runoff. the Ashley and the Cooper Rivers, Chesapeake Bay, Just as morphological and physical aspects of Delaware Bay, the lower Hudson, the lower Charles estuaries and coastal waters are immensely com- plus Boston Harbor, and the Passamaquoddy-all phcated and ever-changing so also are their other fall within the latter grouping features. In terms of structural and functional These estuarine bodies occur at many latitudes complexity-blologlcally, chemically and geologi- (and longitudes on east-west oriented coast) m cally-these waters have no natural peers They are every coastal reach from the northern border of extremely dynamic and productive. Maine to Brownsville, Tex, and from southern Cahforma to the North Slope of Alaska Hawah California to the No rth Slope of Alaska Hawaii Bsologtcal aspects.-In these chemically rich and and the far-flung commonwealths and terrtores con- fertile estuarine waters and the shallow oceanic tam them also, though Island estuaries are usually areas to which they drain grow most of the marine very small Thins extremely wide geographical range blologcal organisms-the plants, marine fish, and has a profound effect on their diverslty. shellfish that help nourish many peoples of the world. Obviously, with such a range of type, location, and A large number of authors including Stroud (1971) size, estuaries are difficult to generalize about There have concluded likewise. are considerable differences in the sizes and slopes of Accorling to Teal, Jameson and Baden (1972) the land areas they drain and in the geometry, there were harvested from estuarine and shelf areas hydrography, and biology of their watercourses 10 billhon pounds of commercial finfish and shellfish Too, estuaries are subject to varying prevailing in 1970. Most of these fish are species which live in atmospheric climates and weather in accordance (at one time or another m their life stages) or are dependent upon these productive waters Were the with their locations, being subjected to widely differ- dependent upon these productive waters Were the p a tterns a ndamo raa s t ad figures utilized by Teal, Jameson and Baden (1972) ing patterns and amounts of ramnfall, sunhght, and expanded to include the amounts and kinds of ani- temperature See, for example, the maps, zonal mals and plants taken by recreational fishermen as concepts and classifications presented in USDI well as those which are harvested for sale but un- (1969 and 1970), Odum, Copeland, and McMahan reported (undoubtedly a significant'number!), the (1974), and Clark (1974). poundage taken would be even more Impressive. 706 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL BRACKISH FRESH WATER ESTUARINE OCEANIC 7271- ESTUARINE CURRENT ESTUARINE COUNTER CURRENT Z., CO FRESH WATER BRACKISH - OCEANIC _.. . . . ..ESTUARINE --_ \_ s UPWELLING ESTUARINE COUNTER Ca?, CURRENT Z hi -\ I \ -- FRESH WATER BRACKISH - ESTUARINE OCEANIC ESTUARINE FIGURE 1 (top) -Tidal tributary-profile of mixed type FIGURE 2 (center) -Tidal tributary-partially mixed bottom clrcu- lat16n. FIGURE 3 (bottom) -Tidal tributary-partially mixed surface circulation Of course, these figures do not incorporate the mil- Bacteria, countless millions of phytoplankton and hons of tons of nonharvested animals and plants zooplankton plants, wetlands grasses, attached and which grow in the waters of the coastal zone or feed sessile organisms all contribute to this tremendous upon their products and which nourish those that productivity In any one estuary thousands of species are harvested. may occur. Some have extremely complex patterns of CONCLUDING REMARKS 707 migration and several life stages. For example, the This bears directly, of course, on difficulties of blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) has separately identi- establishing meaningful baselines, criteria, and fiable stages and molts several times before reaching standards for many chemical constituents. its final size. The young stages are planktonic while the adult, an active swimmer as well as walker, lives on or in the bottom most of the time. Their numbers Geological aspects.-The geological processes of and species composition change from year to year, inshore waters are variable and varied. The amount season to season, day to day, between day and night, of suspended matter (hence transparency and color), and even from hour to hour. which includes particles of geological origin as well Their physiological activities and dependent as microscopic plants and animals (the plankton), environmental requirements are diverse. Some, like varies with, a) fluvial or riverine and lateral runoff, the hardy adult Fundulus can survive wide ranges of b) winds and currents, and c) biological processes temperature, oxygen, and pollutants. Others are and other hydrographic factors. It also depends extremely fragile, like the larvae of the Atlantic upon the condition of the soils of nearby land masses. oyster, Crassostrea virginica, which have been found High water flows caused by spring rains and thaws recently by scientists at the Virginia Institute of and by storms scour the upland river bottoms and Marine Science to be very sensitive to chlorine, with adjacent lands. Downstream, estuaries run turbid an LCo0 of 0.005 ppm. in 48-hour bioassays. (LC Nwith the reds or browns of dislodged soil particles. means lethal concentration, referring to that con- These particles are quite active in picking up and centration at which 50 percent of the individuals transferring chemicals, bacteria, and viruses from subjected to the substance being tested die within land to water, from water mass to water mass, and the time specified). Levels well above these (0.02- from water to bottom sediments and back again. In 0.03 ppm) have been observed in the lower James this way beneficial chemicals, i.e. necessary nutrients estuary over a mile from the nearest sewage treat- and trace elements, are brought into the system. ment plant outfall. In some species the adults are Unfortunately, toxic molecules and microbes are considerably different in habit, appearance, and also. resistance. For example, adult Atlantic oysters can While dancing about in estuarine waters, sus- tolerate much higher levels and appear to do quite pended silt acts to "scrub" the water and to enrich well on beds in the same waters of the James, which it by releasing nutrients. Pollutants carried to the contain chlorine concentrations two orders of magni- bottom by falling silt and stored in the sediments tude above the LC50 established for larvae, (Huggett, later may be recycled during periods of high tur- R. J., personal communication). bulence induced by winds or currents. They can also be recycled and relocated by dredging and spoil dis- posal operations. Too, processes of erosion, transport, Chemical aspects.-Natural chemical constituents and deposition move geological materials up and of coastal zone waters are derived from land runoff, down the estuary and from shallower to deeper subsurface terrestrial drainage, interchange with the waters (and vice versa where conditions are right). bottom and with oceanic waters, atmospheric fallout Estuarine sediments are carried on outgoing tides and precipitation, and from biological processes. The and currents into the waters of the open coast and actual numbers of inorganic and organic molecules the reverse may be true. in estuarine (and coastal) waters are great, Even af- Eolian earth particles, generally with attached (or ter decades of analysis many molecules remain to be accompanied by) chemicals and plant and animal identified; more must yet be properly and fully matter are deposited in estuaries. Fallout and pre- characterized. As with the biota, the kinds and cipitation also inject natural and unnatural atmos- amounts of chemical constituents vary considerably pheric travelers. Some, like lead and its derivatives over time and with various weather conditions. Add and radioactive particles, can be troublesome. the thousands of, manmade compounds in varying The biology and chemistry of shallow waters of the mixes and concentrations contributed in sewage and sea are closely dependent upon the geological activi- industrial effluents and entering from the atmosphere ties mentioned above. Since these waters and their and by land runoff, and an already complex and constantly changing chemical soup is further ncmp processes are all complex and varying, the resultant constantly changing chemical soup is further com- plicated. "broth" is likewise, contributing further to difficul- Indeed, their natural complex and dynamic ties of understanding, definition, and control. Thus, chemical systems are the features which render they present great and growing problems to scientists, separation, or detection, and analysis of the various engineers, and management people alike. Great, chemical components of these waters so difficult. because of the natural complexity and their dynamic 708 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL nature. Growing because of the added contributions estuarine situations. In such cases, assimilative and and pressures of burgeoning coastal populations. dispersive capacity may be restricted or reduced and the system may behave like an estuary or lagoon. Sewage outfalls and sludge deposits should not be FEATURES OF COASTAL WATERS placed in such coastal reaches unless slow dispersion or containment is desired. Outside of the mouths of the great bays and tidal tributaries and of the passes and inlets of the fringing bays, lagoons, and sounds lie the coastal waters. People-Another Shallow and turbulent, yet bordering on the depths Estuarine Concept of the oceans, these coastal waters are subject to effects of wind and of water injected into them from Coastal waters and/or estuaries have been estab- upland drainage and from the wetlands, estuaries, lished above as complex and dynamic natural sys- bays, and sounds they drain. tems in their own right. Neglected has been mention In the- deeper passes and rivers and through the of people, people in concert-of society and its im- bay mouths -a two-way flow exists with saltier shelf pacts on these difficult and fragile ecosystems. water flowing inward at the bottom while fresher and lighter estuarine water flows outward at the top. In some this flow pattern is reversed. In yet others THE EFFECTS OF MAN the lighter, fresher water flows out at one side and the saltier, heavier water in at- the other. Thus, coastal As we have seen, even without society and its waters receive fresher estuarine and surface runoff varying needs and wants and its changing demands waters- (or saltier water from -hypersaline embay- and pressures, estuaries and coastal systems are ments) as well as contribute directly to estuarine sufficiently complex and dynamic to confuse com- flows. Additionally, inshore coastal waters may be prehension and confound management. Add man augmented by upwelling from deeper oceanic basins, and his works and the difficulties of understanding, by water masses moving alongshore, and by injec- working with, or managing them are magnified and tions and meanders -from powerful' ocean currents compounded. like the Gulf Stream. As shown schematically in Figures 1, 2, and 3, all receive surface drainage and lateral flowage into their surface waters, to say noth- Society's demands.--Society has been living on the ing of injections from the atmosphere via precipita- shores of the seas since before written history and tion. - long before the problem of waste management In-these coastal waters mixing is usually vigorous became a major concern. Society's demands on the and large volumes of water are available; hence, environments and resources of the estuaries have quality as determined by dissolved oxygen is gen- grown and changed over the millennia as they are erally good. However, domestic and industrial out- doing even today. Beginning with simple wants and falls dominate in some places. Where they do, quality needs, the demands of the small populations com- is often poor. There are some locations, too, where prising early families and tribes and tribal confedera- circulation patterns may concentrate pollutants or tions probably worked no significant hardship on flotsam and jetsam, which remain either offshore or estuaries. However, as engineering capabilities have move toward and onto shore. These places are developed and human populations and maritime usually unsightly or foul, or both. There are reaches industries have grown and changed, man's impact on of beaches where wave energy is focused into such the estuaries has magnified also. It is sufficient to strongly erosive forces that surface and subsurface point out here that the impacts of society on estuaries structures are endangered by buffeting and erosion. and coastal waters have increased markedly in size, (Goldsmith, V. G., personal communication). Ob- number, and complexity and that they are dynamic, viously, such features would have to be considered changing as society's needs, demands, and technolog- when placing, building, and operating ocean sewage ical abilities do. outfalls or in disposal of dredge spoils, sludge, trash, Man's activities, too, can only be roughly ca-tegor- or other materials. ized and understood, at least partially, but their dynamic effects introduce a whole new dimension of difficulty into our attempts to understand -the Semi-estuarine situations.-At places along the ecosystems involved. With man in- the picture, estu+ coast peninsulas and promontories may so restrict arine and coastal ecosystems become increasingly circulation as to produce semi-lagoonal or semi- difficult to understand. CONCLUDING REMARKS 709 Growth-one factor.-That most of the people management', use, and preservation developed. in the United States live on the shores of the oceans But prescription of uses or the most economical and their tidal tributaries or of the Great Lakes has and reasonable basis to meet the needs of nature and been stated and demonstrated many times. Further society can only be accomplished by a detailed local repetition is unnecessary. Sometimes neglected, knowledge of each estuary or inshore zone and of however, is the fact that each year the populations of each of its affected operational segments. the coastal counties of the nation change in numbers, generally increasing ("The National Estuarine Pollution Study," USDI, 1969). Too, the specific The Receiving Streams demands placed on estuarine ecological systems vary from region to region, from estuary to estuary, or Having established that coastal waters and estu- even within estuaries. aries are complex, dynamic, variable in location, extent, depth, and in other critical dimensions and Time--the other factor.--One other natural factor that they are subjected to varying conditions of tides plays a role in both coastal waters and society, that and climate and other features, it remains to estab- of long-term, one-way and normally irreversible lish clearly why these features are important to our change-evolutionary change. As do natural, un- ps because these are the receiving disturbed estuaries, societies undergo evolutionary streams, the waters for the effluvia and rejecta of changes as well as short-term modifications. Those coastalsocieties (and even those far inland). And it alterations wrought by nature usually require longer is their absorbing, diluting, and modifying powers periods of time, while those of man often require which, coupled with the contaminants and altera- only a short time. Man-caused modifications are tions of many will determine the ultimate questions taking place at an increasingi rate and are of growing of quality within coastal zone waters or even far at magnitude as technological skills permit. sea-of whether or not pollution exists and its extent. Long and short-term changes.-Superposition of the U1DERSTANDING FOR MANAGEMENT short-term, dynamic characteristics of estuaries and coastal waters with their daily, seasonal, and other These waters, therefore, must be understood and cyclical changes upon the slower, largely unidirec- that understanding must be utilized in any sound tional alterations of nature makes understanding and program of water quality (or wastewater) manage- control difficult. Adding the alterations of man and ment. Obviously, all of the factors mentioned above, his changing numbers, needs, and uses compounds natural and social, must be known and considered this dynamism. In truth, -estuarine and coastal when water quality criteria are being developed, ecosystems with their added burden of society are when standards are established, when control and not only complex and sometimes fragile but they are monitoring schemes are projected, and when projects variable and varying. Thus, even without man they for industrial development, recreational develop- are difficult to study, to learn, and to know. Add ment, utilities, housing, and other activities are society and these difficulties are worsened. Man can being planned, sited, constructed, and operated. make substantial changes even while conducting The biological, chemical, geological, and physical studies designed to learn how' things were! These characteristics of estuaries and coastal waters and changes can so alter the nature of the system as to the realities of social activity on the coasts will make new studies necessary, 'even before the old ultimately determine not only the nature of the uses one is completed! to which these environments can be put without severe'damage to them and to society but also de- termine the costs. How can estuaries, and coastal waters be under- Economics also must be considered. Under current stood.--There are certain basic similarities 'among conditions of world wide economic stress it is appar- the-myriad and unique estuaries and coastal waters, ent that':every effort must be made to maximize the to be sure. Similarities of structure and function, productive uses to which marine resources and en- which can be used to develop understanding, princi- vironments can be put while retaining their utility, pies, and models' can be detected and described. By viability, and potential. The food, minerals, recrea- doing so, common factors of the classes, systems, tional, and aesthetic aspects and the' cooling and and phenomena of estuaries and coastal waters absorptive properties of estuarine'and coastal waters can be ascertained and generalized frameworks for' are of great economic value! 710 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Variation and environmental management.-Thus, the two extremes. However, there can be little ques- estuaries, which in reality are complexes of natural tion that man and his demands are pressing the ecosystems and ecotones (smaller zones of transi- resources and environments of the coastal margins tion between ecosystems), are extremely varied of the World Ocean-and heavily. and variable. Because of their variety and changea- bility and their wide variation in size and location, CLASSIFICATION AND QUALITY estuaries are hard to generalize about, to know, or to deal with as a group or in classes. They are almost as variable and difficult as human individuals and t iny ings of "The National Etuarine Pollution present similar difficulties to students and managers Study."-This work (USD, 1969) divided coast- alike. Groupings can be mades but s t u d e n s land anag er lines, the United States, and its commonwealths and alike. Groupings can be made, but in the last analy- territories into the 10 biophysical regions depicted sis they must be understood and managed as in- territories into the 10 biophysical regions depicted dividuals. Doing so poses massive problems in Figure 4. It then proceeded to typify the classes of dividuals. D oi n g s o poses lassive problems anestuarine and coastal waters within each region and great strain, and requires considerable knowledge, estuarine and coastal waters within each region and care, and skill. Careful environmental and resource to discuss their condition. engineering is required. Management must be It would be profitable to examine anew and in sophisticated and well-equipped with technological detail the conditions of uses, modification, and the capability. It must also be well-staffed and provided quality in each of these 10 zones and to conduct a -with scientific knowledge of the environments and thorough review of all estuaries and coastal waters resources involved and of society's needs and de- included; however, restrictions of time and space do mands. A close interaction between management not allow it. Fortunately, we can utilize previous work. and science and engineering is required. Unfortun- work ately, at present there are many shortcomings in the ability of each to respond to the problems. Not the find that 25 estuarine systems (page II 60), including least of these is a lack of understanding of the com- Penobsc ot Bay, Boston Harbor, New York Harbor, plex and dynamic environments and resources which Raritan Bay, the Delaware Estuary, Baltimore we seek to utilize wisely or of the "real" present and rbor, the upper Potomac, the James, Charleston future needs of society. Harbor, San Juan Harbor (P.R.), Tampa Bay, the lower Mississippi Laguna Madre, San Diego Bay, Puget Sound, Silver Bay (Alaska), and Hilo Harbor WATER QUALITY ASPECTS (Hawaii) "show definite documented water quality degradation as a result of human activities." It It is not within the province of this essay to com- further stated that for "38 percent of the systems of ment in detail upon possible organizational arrange- the United States there is a lack of information to ments for management or for all of the myriad allow judgment of whether there is ecological scientific and engineering activities required to de- damage, or whether there are just no easily identi- termine how much of man and his various demands fiable problems present"-yet. the environments can tolerate and support. Instead, The report proceeds to point out that, "Wherever it is our task to evaluate trends in the quality of people live, work and play in the estuarine zone the estuarine and coastal waters, to examine existing demands of their social and economic activities water quality criteria, and to evaluate the state of the place stresses on the biophysical environments. art in establishing and evaluating water quality and These stresses frequently result in degradation of water quality criteria. that environment, perhaps not immediately or even in a few years, but nonetheless certain in its devast- Quality of Estuaries ing final impact." and Coastal Waters The study continued (Page II 61) "The complex nature of pollution in the 'estuarine zone (Author's Many authors and groups have examined and note-used broadly in that study to include all tidal commented on quality of marine waters in the last coastal waters as is done herein) prevents the separa- two decades. Their pronouncements range from tion of sources of pollution, kinds of pollution ahd doomsday statements (such as the public pronounce- types of environmental damage into neat compart- ments made by irresponsible, unfettered environ- ments of cause and effect. All of human activities in mentalists) to euphoric, optimistic ones (such as the estuarine zone can damage the environment and those propounded by some industry spokesmen or most of them do." The report imparts a decidedly development-oriented propagandists). As frequently negative impression of the condition of the Nation's happens, the truth seems to lie somewhere between estuaries. CONCLUDING REMARKS 711 PACIFIC NORTH NO RTHWEST ATLANTIC MIDDLE CHESAPEAKE BAY ATLANTIC PACIFIC SOUTHWEST SOUTH ATLANTIC LALASKA | GULF OF MEXICO C CARIBBEAN GUAM ·u PUERTO RICO ;' HAWAI I ALASKA PACIFIC ISLANDS CARIBBEAN FIGURE 4.-Biophysical regions of the United States (from The National Estuarine Pollution Study, U.S.D.I., 1969). Whether one subscribes to this somewhat dismal a large majority (73 percent) of the estuaries and and dismaying conclusion, there is no question that subestuaries in the United States had been moder- for each use to which man puts these waters there is ately or severely modified by man. Even though a cost in quality or quantity or both. The objective some of the modification described is in the form of of good management is to arrange it so that our uses summer-home encroachment on scenic areas (an and demands absorb only what nature can spare- activity whose damaging impacts are often difficult that we use only the overage or excess, the interest to establish or qualify), this is a staggering per- and not the principle. We must be "good" parasites centage considering the fragility of estuaries and and not kill the host. their importance to the adjacent seas and to the economic and social welfare of man. Much of the modification recorded by this study, directly relates Findings of "The National Estuary Study".- to the problem at hand-degradation of water qual- After developing a series of interesting color-coded ity by pollution and modification. maps depicting the condition of estuaries and coastal waters according to whether they were: 1) relatively unmodified, 2) moderately modified, or 3) severely Good is not good enough!-It is possible to find modified, this effort (USDI, 1970) presented a table weaknesses in both studies and in all other such illustrating the degree of modification of estuaries. nationwide, general evaluations. It is easy to point Like the chart previously mentioned (Figure 4) out that, some of these systems are naturally "dirty;" this table (adapted for use herein as Table 1), uti- that they were on the evolutionary road to oblivion lized biogeographic zones. Of all of the American long before the industrial and technological revolu- estuaries and subestuaries reviewed, 23 percent were tions began and the population pressures of today severely modified and 50 percent were moderately developed. We can even point with pride at the modified while only 27 percent were slightly changed. efforts being made to eliminate or reduce toxicants, Thus, in the opinion of the preparers of that study, nutrients, and harmful changes-and we should! 7/12 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table i.-Modifications of the Natron's estuaries.' Most estuarine areas of the becomes'a problem, one which must be directly ht- United States have been modified more or less severely by man's activities. The degree of modification Is indicated by regional zones in the following table: tacked and solved. We talk of food and resource shortages and environmental problems, but never Degree of Modification of Estuaries seem willing to face its root causes-too many people, Biogeographic Zone Slight Moderate evere too many demands. We seem to have a blind side when it comes to population and to growth. We 4till Percent generally seem to believe the more the better, even if not the merrier. This abysmal attitude is discouragZ North Atlantic ..- ..... 44 48 8 ing. Middle Atlantic .. -- - -- 5 68 27 i n Chesapeake Bay -.-.-.--..- - - 44 50 6 It is not possible to agree, however, with the doom- South Atlantic .-. ......... 36 60 4 sayers that the oceans must die in a decade or three Biscayne and Florida Bay .. 50 50 50 0 Gulf of Mexico --- - -- --15 51 34 or even five decades. Nor is it possible to agree with S.W. Pacific -... . . ... 19 19 62 those who apparently believe that man has no right N.W. Pacific- --- - --13 50 37 to occupy the coastal zone or to use or modify its Alaska -------------------.. 80 20 0 Hawaii --------------------. 54 15 31 resources and environments. Both conclusions seem Great Lakes ...- ..... 35 46 19 overdrawn. The last is foolish! Man, too, is a product of nature, of the evolutionary process, and belongs United States - - - -- - ---------- 27 50 23 naturally on planet earth. It is necessary to conclude, Source: Field evaluation carried out by Fish and Wildlife Service's personnel during however, that the quality of the coastal zone is course of Estuary Protection Act study. being degraded and that we have neither learned to appreciate and apply the well established concepts of o From the "National Estuary Study" (u.S.D.I., 1970) i From the "National Estuary Study" (U.S.D.I., 1970) carrying-capacity, nor how to match ourselves with 2 All estuaries and subestuaries were individually rated for each zone. The per- centage refers to the proportion of these individual areas that were rated as indicated. nature--nor to understand and manage either well. Much must yet be learned! The condition of some estuarine areas has been im- proved or the rate of degradation altered, as for Existing Water example the upper tidal Potomac, New York Harbor, Quality Criteria and San Francisco Bay. There must remain, nonethe- less, the conclusion that the best that we have done The con'clusion' that the United States continues or can do under present conditions of knowledge, to lose ground in its fight to reverse the trend' of technology, and commitment is not enough. All of degradation' of estuaries and 'of coastal water does the signs available today indicate that the quality of not detract from the positive effiorts that have been estuaries and coastal waters continues to decline. made at the federal level, by Congress and the We are making 3 knots against a 4 knot current. Executive, by state legislative and executive authori- Our water quality management-<effort is making ties, and even by many regional and local bodies. "sternway"-more slowly than without the effort, Fruitful efforts to improve management capabilities but sternway nevertheless. We are still losing! have gone forward under the several acts mentioned It is to be expected that the current economic above. Most states, counties, and cities have in- downturn and the lowering trend in population creased their efforts at controlling pollution and ,growth will slow the rate of degradation or modifica- engineering and 'there has been general improve- tion of estuarine and coastal environments and ment. As pointed out above, some estuarine areas resources but it is doubtful that progressive deg- have been partially cleaned tiup. In others, the'prog- radation will be stopped until knowledge and con- ress of degradation continues with little abatement. trol techniques and arrangements improve mark- Among the efforts that have contributed positively edly. Pressures of the coastal zone continue to grow to our increasing control ovei the factors affecting as the population of the United States rises '(by water quality have been the Water Quality Criteria births, decreasing mortalities, and immigration) developed by the National Technical Advisory and especially as the populations of the'counties, Committee (NTAC, 1968) and the several panels of cities, and towns in the coastal zone grow due to the the Water Quality Committee of the Environmenital continuing coastward movement of people. We have Studies Board of the National Academy of'Sciences- not yet learned how'to establish' carrying capacity National Academy of Engineering (NAS-NAE, of specific land areas or' river basins or how to Control 1973). population levels in specific regions.; We mustf In- The Environmental Protection Agency has also deed, there is as yet no 'general agreement that in recently developed suggested criteria (EPA, 1974). some places or at certain rates and levels, growth These will be considered in order. CONCLUDING REMARKS 713 THE NATIONAL TECHNICAL · mitted quickly into standards of control for wide geo- ADVISORY COMMITTEE graphic application. Several other cautionary notes or warnings included -in the report were apparently Based upon a review of published data and con- unheeded. As a result, many of the standards pre- clusions, and including even unpublished data, a scribed are impossible of attainment. group of scientists and engineers familiar with the various problem areas was gathered, to accumulate, evaluate, and summarize a wide range of the existing Mixing zones and zones of passage.-Too, the kriowledge related to water quality with the purpose Committee addressed itself to other problems re- of establishing water quality criteria and recom- lated to management of water quality in estuaries mendations for management. The results of their and coastal waters such as "mixing zones" and considerable effort were published in 1968 and the "zones of passage." These two subjects are quite report quickly became known as '"The Green Book" important since as long as there are effluents to be (NTAC, 1968a). Of course, the NTAC owed much released there will be mixing zones and the problem to earlier encyclopedic efforts such as those by will be to keep them limited in extent and number to Vinogradov (1953), McKee and Wolf (1963), and to the bare minimum required. many technical papers produced by previous Limitation of mixing zones is necessary to allow workers. multiple use of the waterways in question and sur- vival of the fish, wildlife, and other species of the normal biota so vital to the economic and aesthetic The Results.-In addition to addressing the water activities of man. Additionally, effluent mixing zones quality requirements for the various broad categories must be so arranged within an estuary (or along the of uses to which natural waters are put, or for the coast) as to allow adequate zones of passage for aquatic resources on whichithe various uses may be species which must travel (or be transported) up based, the Advisory Committee considered certain and down stream or along shore, such as herring and details of the many pertinent sampling and analytical shad, striped bass, and most other coastal and/or procedures. estuarine-dependent fishes. Pelagic larvae of oysters Within these categories of uses and the resources and clams and a host of other ecologically or econom- on which those uses depend, many species of chemi- ically important shellfish are also involved. cals and groups of manmade contaminants were con- sidered. These included toxic or damaging chemicals, oils, and heavy metals, as well as other factors, for Research Needs for Water Quality.-In addition to example, nutrients, turbidity producers, and color the water quality effort, the National Technical modifiers. Advisory Committee also reviewed the research Summaries of the demands and requirements for needs related to establishing and improving water water by various major industrial activities con- quality criteria and standards and for monitoring sidered were also provided in "The Green Book."' natural and modified aquatic systems. Its report, "Research Needs" (NTAC, 1968b) was- published after "The Green Book" appeared. Unfortunately, Specific criteria and standards.-Specific criteria its recommendations have not been well-heeded and or recommendations for management of quality were much of the important research and development developed where possible. Unfortunately,; the water activities urged in that report has not yet been quality criteria established by NTAC were too accomplished. quickly converted by the authorities responsible into "Standards." The word "unfortunate' is used be- cause in the rush to develop those standards the THE NAS-NAE ENVIRONMENTAL caveats so clearly specified by the committee in pre- STUDIES BOARD paring the report, were ignored. They were restated by J. G. Moore, commissioner of FWPCA, in his let- The efforts of the various panels of the Environ- ter of transmittal to then Secretary Stewart L. Udall; mental Studies Board of the National Academy of Moore pointed out that "Regional Variations in Sciences-National Academy of Engineering seem to climate, typography, hydrology, geology, and other have been patterned after the work of the NTAC. factors must be considered in applying the criteria This activity, conducted under a contract from the offered by the Committee to the establishment of Environmental Protection Agency, resulted in water quality standards in specific localities" a voluminous report which is, not surprisingly, (NTAC, 1968a). However, the criteria were trans- coming to be called "The Blue Book" because of its 714 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL striking blue cover. The report utilizes the same current change induced by the deepening of an broad categories of water uses and water-dependent estuarine channel or by diversion of freshwater resources (aquatic life and wildlife) as did the NTAC inflow can have as far-reaching effects on water effort. Too, the NAS-NAE report makes recom- quality, on fishery and wildlife resources, and on mendations for management guidelines and criteria users as any chronic contaminant. for the various classes of contaminants and the im- portant chemical molecules known or believed to be of importance in water quality. A basis for revised criteria and standards.-Despite these criticisms (and there likely could be others) "The Blue Book" should provide a broader and Improvements over earlier efforts.-"The Blue firmer basis for specific improvements upon the cri- Book" effort of NAS-NAE included far more data teria and standards developed in earlier efforts. It in its presentation, than did that of the NTAC. Of will be necessary for the standards-setting agencies course, the NAS-NAE panels had the benefit of such as EPA and state governments to consider well several more years of research but they also seem the qualification stated in the general introduction, to have been able to encompass more of the avail- to wit: "The Committee wishes to emphasize the able data than the 1968 study did. Review of the caveat so clearly stated in the introduction to "The report in preparation of this article, confirms the Green Book." The Committee does not want to be statements of Drs. Handler and Linde, presidents of dogmatic in making its recommendations. They are the National Academy of Sciences and the National meant as guidelines only, to be used in conjunction Academy of Engineering respectively, which said, with a thorough knowledge of local conditions." In "The 1972 report drew significantly on its 1968 other words, the Committee can be interpreted predecessor; nevertheless the current study repre- as saying that these recommendations and criteria sents a complete reexamination of the problems, and should not, indeed cannot be, automatically adopted a critical review of all the data included here." as nationwide, regional, or even statewide standards. Shortcomings.-While generally a significant im- EPA's PROPOSED CRITERIA provement upon the earlier NTAC work, the 1972 FOR WATER QUALITY report has some shortcomings. For example, "The Blue Book" fails to address the possible water de- Following the work of the NAS-NAE Committee grading effects of modifications of the various geo- on Water Quality, EPA prepared its own report physical parameters, such as: a) bottom topography, ("Proposed Criteria for Water Quality," Volume I depth, and shoreline contours by dredging and spoil and "Water Quality Information," Volume 11, disposal; b) shoreline contours and basin cross- 1973) in partial fulfillment of the provisions of section by shoreline filling or cutting; c) cuifrent Section 304(a) of the Federal Water Pollution Con- modifications as by training wiers; and d) inflow trol Act Amendments of 1972. According to Vol- changes as by impoundments and diversions of up- ume 1, page 12: stream waters. As the NTAC study pointed out in "The Green Book," these modifications may have Water quality criteria as compiled in this document are defined as the acceptable limits of constituents in receiv- profound effects on such important factors as circu- ing waters based upon an evaluation of the latest scien- lation patterns, tidal patterns, and salinity levels, tifie information by the Environmental Protection others. The significance of modifications in Agency. They are to form the datum for the Agency's among others. The significance of modifications in 1983 interim goal of improving the Nation's waters to a the natural order of things caused by these activities, quality that provides for the protection and propagation, both by themselves and in concert with introduced of fish and wildlife, and for the health of humans in their contaminants, has been treated by a number of pursuit of recreation in and on these waters. authors. (See for example the works of Hargis, 1966 and 1972; Chapman, 1971, and others, as well as AN EPA COMPARISON the appropriate sections of the NTAC report). OF CRITERIA These aspects have also been ignored in the de- velopment of many of the various water quality The EPA Document, "Comparison NTAC, NAS standards by the states and EPA. Perhaps this is and Proposed EPA Numerical Criteria for Water because many state water quality management or- Quality" (EPA No. 449, no date, probably 1974) ganizations do not have primary jurisdiction over comprises a comprehensive tabular comparison of channel dredging or water diversions or similar those criteria which can be presented in numerical engineering-type projects. Nonetheless, a salinity or form or as brief narratives. It is based upon all CONCLUDING REMARKS 715 three documents mentioned above, i.e. the NTAC probably the best that could have been achieved by "Green Book," the NAS-NAE "Blue Book" and any reasonable national effort, examination of the EPA's "Proposed Criteria for Water Quality" and foundations on which they are based is necessary. is useful in drawing a great deal of data together, To develop the most effective and least costly man- allowing a quick comparison. agement effort possible requires, among other things, In general, a review of these new EPA documents standards that reflect reality as accurately as pos- indicates that the current proposed EPA criteria sible. Poorly founded standards place unnecessary are based closely upon those presented in "The burdens on the user and his customers, if any, (if Blue Book." This seems an acceptable procedure too high) and on the public's environments and since the NAS-NAE effort is the most recent and resources (if too low). Like other types of engineer- complete compendium currently available, as far as ing, environmental engineering must be based on this author is aware. reliable or "real" data and it must be done to as close tolerances as possible! All three of the groups involved with developing Missing parameters.-Unfortunately, several of national criteria had to deal with certain difficulties, the significant chemical parameters such as nitrates, though NAS-NAE and EPA had fewer to handle nitrites, phosphorous, salinity, and others, are not than did the NTAC-the pioneer group. Each was indicated in the EPA Criteria even though one or faced with formidable tasks of attempting to accu- the other (or both) of the two basic compendia of mulate and evaluate data from many sources within criteria (NTAC, 1968a and NAS-NAE, 1972) did restrictive periods of time. The NTAC effort prob- think them sufficiently important to examine and ably suffered most in this last respect; its working mention. This lack should not deter states, or EPA life was limited to a few months. for that matter, from addressing these ecologically and economically important features. ADEQUACY OF BASIC DATA Development of Standards The data that are available are variable in statis- The purpose of criteria is to provide a basis for tical and analytical reliabilit. Frequently, it is development of standards and management proe- difficult to validate them, even with adequate time. dures. However, the cautions expressed above re- Under pressing time constraints a great deal must garding the universal applicability of any of the be taken on the reputation of the author or institu- previously developed criteria for adoption or modi- tion performing the work-or on pure faith! fication as standards must be considered. Standards developed directly from criteria without due care developed directly from criteria without due care Status of scientific knowledge.-Actually, the cover- of their limitations for use in specific locations or Status of science of the various chemical, physical, and situaions.annot ind wl n t,= bage by science of the various chemical, physical, and situations cannot, indeed will not, be adequate. The biological parameters involved in water quality is biological parameters involved in water quality is ills of estuaries and coastal waters, like human variable. Sonie have been well investigated-some health, must be managed on an individual basis varale. ome have been well vestgated-some Too, as will be seen, many of the data currently only superficially Fortunately, the coverage and the available and used in developing criteria and stand- competence of t hat erage has reased rapidly ards are not especially well-verified nor is their in the last decade, but serious gaps rema significance known. In many instances sufficient data are lacking. All of these factors present very Analytical weaknesses.-It is extremely difficult to real limitations upon criteria and upon standards detect many of the possible harmful chemical consti- developed from them and future revisions in both tuents in estuarine and coastal waters because these will be necessary. Like many current medical data waters contain so many natural chemical substances. and practices, however, they are the best we have As the analytical chemists aver so colorfully, these to work with, and the patients (the marine waters waters are extremely "dirty." Often, the contami- in this case) have problems and must be treated now! nants involved are effective or toxic in extremely minute quantities, (i.e. tenths or hundredths of The State of the Art: parts per million or even tenths or hundredths An Examination of parts per billion). Too, they are frequently so similar to natural constituents of tidal waters that Having concluded that the water quality criteria they are difficult to separate analytically. Also, they developed by the three groups mentioned above are may appear, do their damage, and be removed by 716 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL natural processes of sedimentation, flocculation, cir- so dear to the hearts of medical experimenters) are culation, or dilution. Because of these problems almost unknown. Unfortunately, little effective sus- effective analyses are difficult. tained effort to overcome these weaknesses is in For some chemicals, techniques of detection are progress. still poor. In other words, analytical methods are weak or they are cumbersome-requiring specialized equipment or skills. For many chemical constituents, Weaknesses in bioassay data.-Man of the estu- only especially well-staffed and equipped laborato- arne and marine criteria adopted by NAG and ries are competent. All too frequently, enforcement NAS-NAE are based upon bioassays conducted on laboratories are neither. The same may be said of freshwater species alone. Often those done with some institutions engaged in basic research involved actual marine and estuarine species have utilized in generating the data which are later incorporated only the most hardy, the most difficult to damage into reports such as those under discussion. or kill. It is desirable, as EPA workers have said (EPA, 1973), to base criteria and standards on the most important (importance is defined in several Standardization weaknesses.-Standardization Of ways, i.e. in numbers, economic importance, position sampling, analysis, and reporting is weak. It is, in food chains and others) species in the estuarine therefore, difficult to compare results or evaluate or coastal system for which they are being developed. them. In addition to all of these negative factors, This is an objective rarely attained! As a conse- instrumentation and other facilities for sampling in quence, criteria and standards are often based upon the field and laboratory, are in many instances, poor extrapolations from less important and tougher or nonexistent. An excellent example is the lack of species. readily available reliable and rapid analytical tech- The uncertainties devolving from these short- niques for detection of chlorine and chlorine by- comings render certain of the current criteria and products in estuarine waters. Standard chemical standards of dubious validity or significance. Too, techniques are poor and instrumentation weak. Only the safety factors involved in extrapolation to ac- in the last year has there been a promising break- count for and cover the basic weaknesses in the through in this area due to joint efforts of the data are extremely high, often placing severe eco- National Bureau of Standards and the Virginia nomic burdens upon the users who must engineer Institute of Marine Science (R. J. Huggett, personal to meet the standards. communication). To the all-too-frequent incompetence of specific sampling and analytical groups must be added the Criteria for certain biological contaminants.-The extreme variability and dynamic nature of the estu- above described difficulties occur in many of the arine and coastal waters, themselves. These aspects chemical analyses (organic and inorganic), envi- were discussed in detail above. ronmental observations, and bioassays utilized in management of estuarine and coastal waters. But nowhere is the data base as weak as those on which Sampling and experimental difficulties.-Estuarine the criteria and standards for pathogens, fungi, and marine animals and plants are difficult to sample bacteria, and viruses, must be founded. There are effectively in nature. Statistically significant sam- many basic unknowns concerning the viability of ples are hard to secure. Laboratory experimentation viruses in natural waters. This is especially true of is even more difficult since the organisms involved viruses in estuarine and coastal waters (Vaughn, often have complex life cycles with several stages, 1974). The same applies, but to a lesser extent for some of completely different habits. It was pointed bacteria where the significance of the basic examina- out earlier that adult oysters are sedentary but the tions, measurements, and standards have been in spawn of many species are discharged into the water. question for almost 20 years. Despite its human Many of the larvae are free-swimming. The larval, health significance and importance to quality con- free-swimming stages are more susceptible to adverse trol, this aspect of water quality has been badly water conditions than are their sessile parents. neglected. The criteria and standards suffer accord- Few marine species have been effectively held in ingly. Much additional work is required. Unfortu- the laboratory even for one life stage, much less for nately, few research laboratories are equipped or a complete life cycle. Far fewer have been reared or staffed for (or concerned over) observations and cultured under controlled conditions. Laboratory experiments in this area. Apparently, many local, lines of known genetic makeup and environmental state and federal water quality laboratories are weak history (as for example in the mice or rat populations also. The number of competent microbiologists and CONCLUDING REMARKS 717 mlcroblological technicians with experience working and signmficance of petroleum hydrocarbons, halldes, with estuarine and coastal waters is believed to heavy metals, viruses, and bacteria are serlousl be small Others are understood better This lack of intelest and broad capability with such important health-related factors is especially troublesome Unfortunately, no good techniques for sterilization or removal of viable viruses from effiu- be based on competent local knowledge usmg the ent waters now exist (Vaughn, 1974) nationally developed criteria as a guide In most There are many other areas of weakness in basic mstances, the level of knowledge required is very understanding of the factors important to effective hgh and quite detailed for a specific locahzed envr- -water quality management. ronment Frequently, information does not exist or is weak Most often, data have been hastily gathered, covering only a short span of time Glven the nature BASELINES of biological cycles and the seasonal and annual variabllty of precipitation over estuarine and coastal Given the complex and dynamic nature of the systems (and the extreme perturbations (i e wet waters under consideration and the vast volumes or dry) and other extreme weather phenomena) and areas involved, it is little wonder that baseline many of the observations now available for use in knowledge, or understandmg of the natural ambient design and operation of industrial plants and sewage conditions, is not strong Until recent years effort m outfalls are weak Inasmuch as tins ignorance intro- the field and laboratory has been spare and weak duces uncertainties into the criteria, standards, and To be sure, conditions have improved in the last pernut systems that obtain, and since engineering decade-and-a-half, but holes in the data remain A to cover those uncertainties requires much effort number of the estuaries and coastal waters of the and cost, if one must overdesign and overconstruct, United States have been investigated, but many adequate baseline knowledge is importantl Examl- have not As an example of the magnitude of the nation of the current situation indicates that much task involved, the Chesapeake Bay has been the additional effort directed toward improving our home and arena of activity for what has been prob- baseline knowledge is required ably the largest aggregation of estuarine scientists in the world since before 1950, yet much remais Monitoring to be done As an example, among the several insti- tutions involved have been the Chesapeake Blologi- Even after water quality criteria and standards cal Laboratory at Solomons, Md., and a part of the have been developed and programs for construction have been developed and programs for construction University of Maryland, the Chesapeake Bay Insti- and operation of treatment plants are under con- tute of The Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, sideration-or actually m bemg-more remains to Md, the Virgima Institute of Marine Science at be done Public and private managers must track Gloucester Point, Va ,the National Marine Fisheries and learn the amounts and characteristics of dls- Service Laboratory at Oxford, Md ; the Environ- charges and they must determine the condition of mental Protection Laboratory at Annapolis, Md, the environment and biota on a frequent, even con- Old Dominion Umnversity in Norfolk, Va., the West- tlnuous basis Momtormg capability is required? inghouse group at Annapolis, and the several state Without it it is impossble to evaluate success or investigative units m both Maryland and Virgima. failure of the management program, to establsh Other institutions and individuals have been active blame, or to rectify problems. CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING Monstoring requirements -For momtorng to be PRESENT CRITERIA AND STANDARDS effective, it must be timely, accurate, precise, and complete in coverage For many parameters it must Clearly there must be shortcormngs in existing also be frequent and regular Its reliability should criteria and standards since they are based, in part, be assured upon the current, somewhat inadequate baseline knowledge of a) the environments involved and b) the requirements and tolerances of those environ- Monztoring limitatzons -Unfortunately for man- ments and of the ammals and plants livung therein agement, the same factors winch made baseline or dependent thereupon For some parameters, these development and bioassay difficult also plague mom- shortcomings such as uncertainties over the fate toring efforts. In sltu momtoring instruments of 718 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL reliable quality are not readily available at reason- are concerned. Not only are there weaknesses of able cost even now. Analytical techniques are in- fact and of extent (detail, comprehensiveness, range) adequate and adequately trained technicians are of basic understanding but also of technique. Our sparse. The salaries of water-treatment technicians ability to conduct meaningful bioassays, using those are frequently too low to attract people of the re- marine organisms that are really critical (as opposed quired level of training and reliability. Management to being hardy and amenable to handling), to detect of treatment facilities is often weak. and analyze many natural and manmade substances, All too frequently public water quality control to provide effective instrumentation, and to mount agencies are forced to rely on effluent data gathered adequate monitoring capability must be strength- and supplied by the discharger. Properly controlled, ened! Otherwise, baseline knowledge, criteria and this obvious shortcoming need not be too damaging standards, planning, operating, monitoring and en- but often there is no adequate followup or check. forcement will continue inadequate. Without adequate checking such self-monitoring by dischargers must always be suspect. Many treat- ment plants are plagued by chronic overloads, poor Imnprovements.-Sufficient improvements in these management, and inept personnel. Breakdowns in areas have been made in the last decade and a half equipment and procedures are frequent and the to allow greater confidence in present criteria, stand- "midnight valve" appears to be the ready resort of ards, and management capability. We are doing operators with troubles. better and can improve. It is not unusual that the public agency whose task it is to provide management-level surveillance or monitoring of effluents in estuarine and coastal Research needs.-Unfortunately, we lag badly in waters, is poorly prepared to do so. These weaknesses support of meaningful background research, in de- are unfortunate because: velopment of better treatment techniques, and in training personnel and staffing waste treatment The effectiveness of water management programs depends facilities. Improvements in these aspects are possible in major part on the scope, accuracy, and precision of also-even now! the characterization of both the waste sources and the receiving waters. Rational waste control systems and facilities cannot be developed and operated without accurate information on the significant sources of waste, New forces.-New forces are upon us such as: and on their relation to the receiving water characteris- a) the increased apparent need to develop new tics established for protecting the beneficial uses. Only in the light of this type of information can the limited sources of energy by bringing Outer Continental financial resources available for waste control measures Shelf oil and gas supplies into use; and b) the need be effectively allocated. to develop more nuclear generating plants, and other water-affecting energy facilities. In the meantime, The preceeding quotation is the paragraph that with inflation and a declining economic situation, introduced the excellent chapter dealing with moni- pressures to reduce or eliminate controls and man- toring included in the NAS-NRC (1970) study agement efforts, which undoubtedly addto costs of entitled "Waste Management Concepts for the development and use, are growing! It is a great Coastal Zone." The reader is referred to that docu- temptation today to forget environmental safety in ment for a more comprehensive treatment' of the order to reduce costs to meet an emergency of money, problem. energy, and time-especially when many other coun- The NAS-NRC Committee examined the needs tries have done so. To do so would be extremely of monitoring carefully and in detail. Others have foolish and short-sighted! We must resist the pres- recently addressed the problems of monitoring ma- sures! This can be done in part by increasing knowl- rine pollution at a workshop sponsored by the edge, tightening quality control specifications, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration managing to closer quality tolerances. in southern California (Goldberg, ed., 1972a). Their results confirm the opinions expressed above. Zero discharge-a nonviable concept.-It must be noted at this juncture, however, that the zero- A Summary of Shortcomings discharge concept of waste disposal and the urge and effort to release to the environment effluents Weaknesses.-There are, then, weaknesses in our which are "purer" than the natural waters of the basic understanding of the estuarine and economic receiving stream are not reasonable or viable con- environments and of the resources with which we cepts. Both ideas have contributed to: a) the antip- CONCLUDING REMARKS 719 athy that the clean-water movement receives; b) a they otherwise would be. But all concerned must lessening of legitimate efforts to acquire much needed realize that additional efforts are necessary before knowledge; c) a weakening of the development of we can prevent or reverse the processes of degrada- improved effective management; and d) a certain tion as effectively as we must. false sense of security and accomplishment in legisla- tion and regulation. This is not to say that it may not be technically possible to accomplish such objec- What Must Be Done? tives but it will be extremely costly for society to do so-even unnecessary. Several shortcomings in ability to understand and to devise and bring about effective systems for con- trolling the quality of estuaries and coastal waters A point of urgency!-Hopefully, the current eco- have been identified and described above. What nomic downturn, the urge for economy in govern- must be done to reduce or eliminate them? ment, and the strong thrust for development of new energy sources will not result in reversal of the recent trend toward improving the ability to prevent IMPROVEMENT OF pollution, or rather to contain it within reasonable RESEARcH AND MANAGEMENT bounds. We cannot afford unnecessary expenditures of money to achieve levels of environmental control The need for additional knowledge of the estuarine beyond those actually required. Neither can we allow environments and organisms in question and the degradation of environment or unfettered use of forces that act upon, and especially against them, resources! is clear. So is the necessity for improved manage- ment technology and organization. Additional finan- CONCLUSIONS cial support for research and development and for management applied in the right place is clearly required. It is beyond the scope of this essay to The Current State of indicate in greater detail or more specifically where Estuaries and Coastal Waters the needs for research and management are. It can be said, however, that water quality criteria for Headway in development of standards and con- estuaries and coastal waters and for dependent biota trols and greater public awareness and concern and uses must be improved! To do so, additional has led to considerable improvement in ability to effort at research and engineering development is slow, even prevent, contamination of estuaries and necessary. As noted above, noteworthy effort was coastal waters. Older cities, located on estuaries devoted by the National Technical Advisory Com- or coastal waters, such as Richmond, Va., and mittee (USDI, 1968b), the NAS-NAE group (NAS- Washington, D.C., have stopped spewing raw sew- NAE, 1973) in "The Blue Book," and by the EPA age into the upper James and upper Potomac, or Water Quality Group (EPA, 1973) in reviewing are supposed to have. The volume of untreated research and engineering needs and those publica- sewage and the level of treatment have both changed tions should be consulted for details. Most of the for the better in most places. However, in certain, needs identified in the excellent document, "Waste even most, estuaries the trends of degradation con- Management Concepts for the Coastal Zone: Re- tinue and at a much faster rate than in other waters. quirements for Research and Investigation" (NAS- As a result it must be concluded that, however NRC, 1970) remain unmet. It, too, provides a effective the effort has been, we still lose more than well-developed guide to scientific and engineering we win. Thus, despite bright spots and the growth requirements for all phases of waste-management of understanding and the ability to control, the related water quality work, establishment of criteria general quality of the waters of our estuaries and and standards, treatment, monitoring, and other coastal waters taken as a whole is worsening-at a aspects of management, technology, and operations. slower rate in comparison with the growth of popu- If the research and engineering needs described in lations and industry than 20 years ago-but still these and other recent papers are carried out rapidly, worsening. management will improve soon. If they are not--it The agencies, institutions, and persons who have will be later! The same applies to improvements on been involved in the evolution of water quality a) organization for management, b) criteria and criteria and standards deserve credit. American estu- standards, c) waste treatment techniques, d) system aries and coastal waters are in better shape than design engineering, and operation, and e) monitoring! 720 ESTUARINE POLLUTION, CONTROL REFERENCES National Academy of Science-National Academiy of Engi- neering, Committee on Water Quality Criteria. 1973. Beers, Roland F., Jr. and 12 others (1971). The Chesapeake Water Quality Criteria 1972: A Report of the Committee Bay: Report of a Research Planning Study, The Johns o Wter uality Criteria. Government Printing Office, Hopkins University, the University of Maryland 'and the Washington, D.C. EPA R3-73-003, March 1973. Virginia Institute of Marine Sciehce. National Academy of Science-National Research Cobuncil Chabreck, R. H. 1973. Proceedings of the Coastal Marsh Com mittee on Oceanography and National Academy of and Estuary Management Symposium. Louisiana State Wastes Management Concepts for the Coastal Zone, University, Baton Rouge. Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Chapman, C. R. 1971. The Texas Water Plan and Its Effect on Estuaries, in a Symposium on the Biological Signifi- 1971. Marine Environmental Quality: Suggested Research cance of Estuaries. Sports Fishing Institute Publication, Programs for Understanding Man's Effect on the Oceans, Washington, D.C. A Report of a Special Study of the NAS-NRC Ocean Affairs Board, August 9-13, 1971, NAS, Washington. Clark, John. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems: Ecological Considera- tions for Management of the Coastal Zone. T eConserva- National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering tions for Management of the Coastal Zone. The Conserva- tion Foundation, Washington, D.C. In cooperation with Development 167 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971 Marin Engineering Affairs. A series of Annual Reports of the NCMRED, considering Federal Oceanic Activities. Government Print- Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources. ing Office, Washington, D.C. 1969. Our Nation and the Sea: A Plan for National Action. House Document No. 91-42. Government Printing Office, Odum, H. T., B. J. Copeland and E. A. McMahan. 1974. Washington, D.C. Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States. The Conservation Foundation and National Oceanic and At- Duce, R. A., P. L. Parker and C. S. Giam. 1974. Pollution mospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Environment- Transfer to the Marine Environment. Deliberations and Washington, D.C. 4 volumes. Recommendations of the National Science Foundation: International Decade of Ocean Exploration Pollutant Transfer Workshop, January 11-12, 1974, Kingston, RIPolltant Pritchard, D. W. 1967. Observations of Circulation in Coastal Transfer Workshop, January 11-12, 1974K. Plain Estuaries, in Estuaries. G. H. Lauff. American Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington, D.C. AAAS Publication No. 83. Federal Interagency Committee on Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone. 1968. A Report on the Seminar on Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone. National Council on Marine Re- Stroud, R. H. 1971. Introduction, in A Symposium on the sources and Engineering Development. Government Print- Biological Significance of Estuaries. Sport Fishing Institute, ing Office, 870-042, Washington, D.C. Washington, D.C. Goldberg, E. D., Convener. 1972a. Marine Pollution Monitor- Teal, J. M., D. L. Jameson and R. G. Baden. 1972. Living ing Strategies for a National Program. Report of the Resources, in the Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Marine Pollution Monitoring Workshop at Santa Catali Coastal Zone. E. W. Ketchum, ed. MIT Press, Cambridge Marine Biological Laboratory. NOAA, Washington, D.C. and London: 37-62. Goldberg, E. D., Convener. 1972b. Baseline Studies of Pollu- U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution tants in the Marine Environment and Research Recom- Control Administration. 1969. The National Estuarine mendations: The IDOE Baseline Conference, May 24-26, Pollution Study, Washington, D.C. 3 volumes. Also 1972, New York, 1972. available at Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Senate Document 91-58. Goldsmith, V. 1974. Personal Communication. U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Hargis, W. J., Jr. 1971. An Evaluation of Physical and Control Administration, National Technical Advisory Biological Effects of the Proposed James River Navigation Committee. 1968a. Water Quality Criteria: Report of the Project. VIMS SRAMSOE 7. National Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the Interior. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Hargis, W. J., Jr. 1972. Engineering Works and the Tidal Chesapeake in Remote Sensing of the Chesapeake Bay. U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution A Conference held at Wallops Station, Va. National Control Administration, National Technical Advisory Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C. Committee. 1968b. Research Needs. Government Printing NASA Sp-294: 105-123. Office, Washington, D.C. 0-311-141. Huggett, R. J. 1974. Personal communication. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the Bureau of Lauff, G. H. 1967. Estuaries. American Association for the Commercial Fisheries. 1970. National Estuary Study. Advancement of Science. Washington, D.C. AAAS Pub- Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 7 volumes. lication No. 83. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 197? (likely 1974). McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf. 1963. Water Quality Criteria. Comparison of NTAC, NAS, and Proposed EPA Numerical The Resources Agency of California. State Water Quality Criteria for Water Quality. Environmental Protection Control Board. Publication No. 3.-A. Agency, Raleigh, N.C. EPA 449. CONCLUDING REMARKS 721 US Environmental Protection Agency 1973 Proposed Vmogradov, A P 1953 The Elementary Chemical Composl- Criteria for Water Quality, Washington, D C 2 volumes tion of Marine Organisms Sears Foundation, New Haven, Conn Vaughn, J M 1974 Human Viruses as Marine Pollutants Williams, J 1962 Oceanography An Introduction to the m Marinne Pollution Oceanus, Volume 18, No 1 Woods Marnne Sciences Little, Brown and Company, Boston, Hole Oceanographic Institutlon, Massachusetts 24-28 Toronto SEVEN WAYS TO - OBLITERATION: FACTORS OF ESTUARINE DEGRADATION JOEL W. HEDGPETH Pacific Marine Station Dillon Beach, California ABSTRACT The most significant factor contributing to the degradation of our estuaries is our failure to treat an estuary as a natural system, rather than as a convenience serving man's many and conflicting purposes. This attitude is exacerbated by lack of competence on the part of con- sultants called upon to predict the results of interfering with natural processes they do not under- stand in the first place. When this is combined with notions of cost-benefit analysis and trade-offs that justify to ourselves the addition of deleterious substances and chemicals, alteration of tem- perature and sediment regimes, and spillage of oil, the synergistic action may accelerate the demise of an estuary. INTRODUCTION sewage, heavy metals, organochlorine compounds, industrial effluents of all kinds, cooling water, oil, Estuaries have been a major factor in the develop- radioactive material, and inert dumped material ment of civilization and man's institutions. As from estuaries. Many of these can be treated to- sheltered environments for the establishment of cogr- gether, e.g., chemical wastes of various kinds, al- merce and, for the most part, pleasing sites for though we do not understand the effects of many settlement, estuaries provide the environment for of them. There is also the danger that we may most of the great cities of the world. Yet, they are synthesize some extremely deleterious substance also valuable resources for food gathering, and are whose action will become apparent before we realize the site of man's first attempts to farm the sea. They that we should never have produced it in the first are often thought of as fragile environments but, if place. they were, they would have been destroyed long In this context, it is useful to consider some state- ago. It is the daily fluctuation and the regime of ments from a British report on estuarine pollution: environmental changes, both tidal and seasonal, that protect the life of estuaries from excessive In considering pollution in estuaries and coastal waters, damage, at least from moderate amounts of pollu- we frequently met the assumption that pollution is not tion, for the life of estuaries is adapted to, and de- a hazard unless it directly endangers human health. pends on the environmental fluctuations. The same Wbetherefore emphasize that dangers to other forms of life may be no less serious. For example, if it were ever mechanisms that make estuaries excellent nutrient to become the case that a pollutant which inhibited the traps and enhance their value to life also make them capacity of microorganisms in the sea to convert carbon dioxide to oxygen, or to break down organic matter, pollution traps, as emphasized by W. E. Odum became widespread, this could be a menace. Concern (1970). There can easily be too much pollution and, for the eventual impact on man of the ecological cycle most dangerously, combinations of various kinds of which ultimately sustains life is sometimes misinformed, but this concern is not mere sentimentality. pollution that together may have much more effect than several factors acting singly. This synergistic the sea. Some of it is effect is difficult to estimate and predict. discharged through sewers directly into tidal waters; One of the most significant sources of environ- some reaches the sea through rivers. Some is carried into the air and brought down to the sea with rain; and some, mental degradation in estuaries is not usually thought including some very toxic wastes, is dumped in containers of as "pollution." This is man's habit of digging from ships. The sea is a powerful and effective scavenger up estuaries for harbors and filling their borders of many pollutants,butrecently biologists have become apprehensive about its capacity to deal indefinitely and sometimes middle parts, for land on which to with the waste materials being put into it. There has build docks, factories, and even residences. At least already been enough degradation of the environment to 10 classes of polluting materials are discharged into justify this apprehension, notably in enclosed seas like the Baltic and the Mediterranean, which have very estuaries and coastal waters; some of these are little tidal rise and fall. 723 724 ESTUARiNE POLLUTION CONTROL Two attitudes to the problems of pollution in estuaries ECOLOGICAL INEPTITUDE - now confront the public. Contamination is without any doubt taking place and some estuaries are, by 'general consent, highly objectionable. Impressive quantities of One of the greatest endangering factors which offensive and, in some cases, potentially dangerous sub- contributes less to .direct degradation of estuaries stances, are being put into them. and out into the sea. than to inadequate protection measures and im- Evidence is available to show that these discharges may damage or destroy shellfish, birds, and fish. The im- proper restoration recommendations is a peculiar mediate emotional reaction is to urge that this contami- form of half-ignorance or lack of competence on the nation should be stopped and stopped at once, before it is too late to reverse the process of destruction. part of the consultants and administrating officials. This deficiency usually takes the form of oversimpli- The opposing attitude is to play down the'harm that fied statement of ecological theory and a resulting is being caused and to point out, with every justification, doctrinaire approach to such matters as food chains that the discharge of sewage and industrial effluent or webs, viewing diversity index as a magic number into the estuaries reduce the costs of industry by a considerable amount. Those who hold this attitude for administrative purposes. The uninformed espouse point out correctly that to eliminate entirely these dis- the mistaken notion that because sea and estuarine charges would throw a heavy burden on certain of the industries concerned and generally on the local com- munity, sufficient in some cases tocause some enterprises loss of 99 percent is part of the course of nature, to be abandoned and people to be thrown out of work. another small percent of loss of survivors can do Simultaneously, they argue that the tangible benefits to be gained, which can actually be costed, are minimal, no harm. Inadequate understanding of ecology is amounting to little more than what would be saved by not peculiar to those involved with estuaries, but reducing damage to inshore fisheries. They claim that the estuarine situation is beset with many more pit- no damage to human health has resulted from these discharges nor has any long-term danger been proved to falls for unwary and inadequate ecologists than exist. Granted that many people are offended by the terrestrial and freshwater environments. squalid condition of some estuaries; that does not justify One would hope that such a statement as the fol putting local' government and industry to vast cost to remove the offence. lowing, made in behalf of releasing pollution in a bay instead of into the ocean, is exceptional, but The Commission's conclusion is that the truth lies similar gems from the soft paper literature. suggest somewhere between these two sets of views. However otherwise: desirable it would be to remove contamination from estuaries, there is a practical limit to the burden which should be placed on the community to achieve this aim. More important than the argument of plant reliability This limit can be defined as the point beyond which the because it deals with a falsr concept, is the argument of marginal cost of abating pollution exceeds the marginal fragile ecosystem populations. Biologists recognize that cost 'of the damage being done by pollution. But the a population that has a high diversity is more shock- inputs for this sort of calculation are rarely at hand; so resistant than one that has low species diversity. No in practice, arbitrary constraints have to be put on the matter what the shock that occurs to a highly diverse amount of pollution. This does not only mean the tangi- population, there is some species within that population ble measurable damage such as the loss of fishery pro- that is capable of dealing with that shock. There is a duction, but includes any loss of welfare that the great deal of give and take in a highly complex environ- community may suffer as a result of the pollution. In ment such as that found in the bay. The bay is, in com- addition, it may be some time, even years, before the parison, a more diverse ecosystem than that of the open damage caused by certain forms of pollution-becomes ocean, particularly in the case of such a limited aspect apparent. of the ocean as the near shore environment off the Samoa Peninsula. Indeed, environmentally, 'we miist consider that the bay is more amenable to transient (Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution, plant operation disruptions than is the open ocean. LIj.M.S.O., 1972.) It is on this particular error that the whole policy failure of the State Water Quality Control Board rests, as have some of the mistakes of other public agencies in This rational view of the situation, as the com- the past. It is true that many estuarine systems have mission concedes, constitutes an attitude of trade- suffered from hypereutrophication and toxicity due to various waste discharges, including municipal effluents, off, of potential sacrifice of life or environment 'None of those estuarine situations are similar to that of that can be averted only by "arbitrary constraints." Humboldt Bay. Humboldt Bay does not contain the Too often, from the environmentalist point of view, freshwater-saltwater wedge th at is present in most rivermouth estuarine systems. The populations of Hum- constraints are relaxed in favor of the short-term boldt Bay are not subject to a daily or twice-daily shock advantage to man. Without clearly realizing the of fresh water and salt water which limits the number of species. They are composed of hardy forms that have implication of this attitude, we -are treating our evolved in a system of fairly uniform temperature, fellow passengers on this planet, and the environ- salinity and density gradients subject to minor shocks of freshwater and of heavy organic loads from fresh- ment 'that supports us all, as secondary in im- water streams; in short, situations very much like portance to our own desires and as potential municipal sewage treatment facility effluents. These populations have evolved to handle such minor shocks nuisances that get in our way. and to utilize the nutrients provided to attain high - CONCLUDING REMARKS. 725 levels of productivity. Great-diversity at the lower for inadequate environmental impact reports. They trophic levels of a system will be reflected in the high diversity at the upper levels of the system. It is very have' committed themselves to predicting the effects difficult to imagine, a system with its high productivity of a process when they do not understand the process and high diversity at the upper levels of a system without involved. Many of the people concerned are unaware a great deal of diversity and productivity in the lower levels of the system. One of the higher levels of a system of their inadequacies, serene in the delusion that such as that of the bay is the bird life. Birds eat the since we all live in the same environment we are animals that ive on thh pankton smdaller marine all qualified to study it. The complexities of en- debris in the bay. Humboldt Bay is noted for its wildlife viromnental studies make it difficult to set standards and especially for its waterfowl population which are and qualifications for consultants and experts, how- highly diverse and very abundant. Birders come from all over the country to watch birds on Humboldt Bay. ever. Perhaps many of the less endowed would One of the favorite spots for watching waterfowl 'on retire from the field if they were required to reduce Humboldt Bay is the sewage oxidation ponds of Arcata their fee at least 50 percent if their environmental where the concentration is great and the diversity of species to be found is truly amazing. It can be easily impact reports were disqualified as inadequate by inferred that the steps of the food web below the bird courts or hearing bodies. population are equally diverse, equally productive. Education in the basic concepts of ecology is (Challenge of Water Quality Control Plan, North needed urgently. There has been too much haphazard Coastal Basin 1B, 1974.) and inadequate teaching by persons whose own grasp of ecological problems is inadequate and in- The reasoning behind this kind of inept ecology complete to begin with. Perhaps we need a concise provoked Michael T. Ghiselin (1974) to remark: text book for administrators and hearing Officers, a "Undergraduate instruction and public policy, at guide to the interpretation of environmental impact least, are seriously threatened by ecological ortho- reports. Yet, it would seem that there hasbeen genesis. It is as if we were teaching medicine out of enough bad ecology in environmental assessment Science and Health." and impact reports to inspire the judicious skepticism This may seem harsh, but much of modern ecolog necessary for interpreting inadequate work. Ob- is a sort of glass-bead game of rarefied abstractions viously, our greatest scarcity in this, as in so many manipulated with algebraic dexterity into pretty other problems, is that rare commodity, horse-sense. designs of many colors by young men eager to im- Nowhere is ecological ineptitude more clearly press their masters. The Glass Bead Game of demonstrated than in the notions of cost-benefit Hermann Hesse's novel was an ironic parody of and tradeoffs. An economist who suggests that we scholasticism withdrawn from reality; its greatest set a money value to the fish or amenity that practitioner, the nMagister Ludi, died in the icy may be destroyed by a power plant, and submit the waters of an alpine lake while trying to keep up with cost-benefit ratio to a public vote, is proposing an his last student. True, he had left the sanctuary of evil and senseless procedure. This notion that we the Glass Bead players, but too late. can assign money values to such diverse matters The problem is not so much ignorance as it is asclean water,'fisheries, pleasing scenery; kilowatts, the great demand for ecological "interpretation and and parking lots is a recent contribution of man's administration, prompted by the concern for en- hubris, especially when we make a decision on the vironmental protection. Proper or adequate deter- basis of this arithmetic of apples and oranges that mination of environmental conditions and estima- may extirpate other species from the scene and set tion of the effects of man's intervention call for more irreversible ecological decay in motion; this notion informed talent than is currently available. Mere is reprehensible. The idea of assigning a dollars and possession of a PhD does not of itself guarantee cents value to life-any life--can lead to the end of competence or even knowledge of the subject area, life on earth as it now does to the exhaustion of and some of the suggestions made in California by non-renewable resources, a mining-out of life as if W. F. Libby and Chauncey Starr at UCLA to it were some raw material. This approach to the require certification of environmental specialists or problem of environmental insult assumes that the to license consulting ecologists, as engineers are processes of nature are simple and can be safely licensed, could blanket in unsuitable people. tampered with in terms of our idiotic anthro- Nevertheless, we do have too many self-styled pocentricism.l Not only may we destroyone or environmental consultants whose qualifications are several species, we may destroy gene pools by little more than a small sum of money to pay a obliterating "worthless" wild relatives of cultivated printer's bill for letterheads and calling cards. VSignifide the graded scales of one-ness wih nature," sense of awe," Significant sums of money are paid to these people etc., i Dee, 1972. 726 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL or exploited stocks. We are-or should be--aware imagine a greater change than this produced by the influence of man in nature. Our Concord River is a dead of the danger of this in agriculture where we have stream in more senses than we had supposed. In what produced plant varieties incapable of adjusting sense now does the spring ever come to the river, when themselves to change in an artificial ecological the sun is not reflected from the scales of a single salmon, shad or alewife? No doubt there is some compensation system. In fisheries also, we need reservoirs of wild for this loss, but I do not at this moment see clearly genetic stocks against inevitable ecological change. what it is. That river which the aboriginal fishes have Another danger of this cost-benefit approach is not deserted is a more primitive and interesting river to Another danger of this cost-benefit approach is me. It is as if some vital quality were to be lost out of a that we do not know, in many cases, the key species man's blood and it were to circulate more lifelessly in an ecological system and we could vote or recom- through his veins. We are reduced to a few migrating mend a significant species out of existence without suckers, perchance. being aware of what we have done until an ir- retrievable loss has occurred. To think of economics FILLING AND DREDGING in this sense as hard and objective is a mistake, for in the field of cost-benefit analysis, economics is the No factor affecting the degradation of estuaries squishiest and most subjective of human thought is more permanent than filling. Once filled, for what- processes. It leads us to the position that in times ever purpose, an estuary is no more, and even partial of economic crisis we cannot afford to preserve the filling can have serious consequences. The other side environment or our fellow species as we must of this coin is dredging; sediments dredged to main- maintain our standard of living, even if it is our tain channels and turning basins or to provide standard of living that has brought us to this crisis access to docks must be put somewhere, and often with national resources. they constitute a valuable addition to waterfront In 1864, George Perkins Marsh, formerly a mem- real estate from the viewpoint of commerce, navi- ber of Congress from Vermont and for 20 years gation, and industry. Indeed, it is the chief interest ambassador to Italy, published his famous book, of harbor commissions that undesirable tidal flats "Man and Nature." In this book, he predicted that be converted to useful real estate as rapidly as pos- if mankind continued his misuse of the earth at a sible. In recent years, however, we have become like rate as he had done since civilization began, aware that filling is a kind of pollution and that a the earth would become unfit for human habitation tacit national policy of filling all available tidelands in about the same period of time. In Marsh's day, is in the long run not in the national interest. We they thought that civilization was perhaps 5,000 have only so many estuaries, and their prime im- years old. But our abuse of the earth has increased portance, both to commercial fisheries as nursing exponentially in these last 100 years so that our grounds for the young of various stocks and to the time has been reduced, at least an order of recreational fisherman, dictates a much more strin- magnitude, from thousands to hundreds of years. gent policy on dredging and filling than we have At the rate we are going, our children may be the had in the past. Yet, it was not quite 70 years ago last human generation on this earth, that Nathaniel Southgate Shaler (1906), otherwise It is too precious a refuge from time to be sub- a man before his time in many of his environmental jected to the irrelevancies of ill-informed economists concerns, could write: and incompetent ecologists; if we are to survive at There are in all the great lands vast areas of lakes, all, we must drive these miserable moneychangers There ad all the gawaiting the skillful labor which of cost-benefit analyses, trade-offs, and externalities has won Holland from the sea. The largest opportunity out of our temple. of profits is in such brave combats with the incomplete work of nature. We talk of the "needs of man." What are they? If we put the survival of a species to a vote-and in such an election, all must vote who lead lives of Shaler was not a bolognst, although he was one quiet desperation-it is the inevitable step to the of the moving spirits behind Agassizs first seaside destruction of the quality of environment that man laboratory experiment at Penikese, so he perhaps needs to continue his "standard of living." In the c ould not have been expected to r ealize the end, man will drink water from his sewage plants, margins of the sea, the marshlands, and the tidal breathe the exhaust of his factories, and reside on flats constitute essential parts of nature's natural his own garbage heaps. Henry Thoreau, writing in his journal on April 11, 1857, foresaw it all: polished off for man's economic benefit.2 2 Agassiz's concept for the future of Penikese as a center of practical application of studies of "fish... oysters, lobsters...."is a startling The very fishes in countless schools are driven out of a anticipation by a 100 years of the present sea grant program. See Edward river by the improvements of the civilized man, as the Lurie, "Nature and the American Mind" (Science History Publications, pigeon and other fowls out of the air. I can hardly New York, 1974), pp. 59-60. CONCLUDING: REMARKS 727 It is this aspect of dredging and filling, the de- missionary zeal and fire. So it is often with public struction of the margins, or separation of them from bodies, no matter how high-minded. the waters of the estuaries, that is most serious. Unless, of course, they are harbor commissions. Much of the nutrient source for the maintenance of These bodies are always concerned with developing estuarine life comes from the runoff across the ports and harbors. Quite often, the development is marshlands and upland borders, yet often such wet- related to the personal interests of some of the lands are not protected by restrictions on dredging members, but it would be impossible to form such and filling. Referring to these areas as "wetlands," a body otherwise. In some parts of the country, it as if they were separate from the estuaries, is a would appear that there is not enough disinterested mistaken classification. It is the reduction of the and knowledgeable talent to staff the commissions, wetlands and of tidal access to marshes, as much yet these commissions often have powers that are as the filling itself, that has resulted in the $1.4 greater than those of any other local bodies, since million estimated loss to fisheries in Boca Ciega Bay they are responsible for state lands. Some years ago, since 20 percent of its surface area has been filled, the Harbor Commission for Bolinas Lagoon, a small primarily for the development of small boat facili- marine embayment just north of San Francisco, ties (Taylor and Salomon, 1968). The combined planned extensive marina development which would factors related to the loss of fisheries value are the have completely changed the character of the lagoon. reduced bay volume, disturbance of bottom by As a result of public outcry, the Harbor Commission dredging and bulkheading (which also separates the itself was abolished in 1969. This ought to happen borders from tidal action), and consequent impaired to more small harbor commissions which forget that tidal action. they are in charge of a living environment, not There are many examples of piecemeal, bit-by-bit potential marina property. filling in our estuaries; it was considered the best thing to do with the shallower parts of bays, and DIVERSION subsequent efforts to unfill illegally filled or obliter- ated tidelands have not been successful. Such an Since an estuary is a region mixing fresh waters area as Pony Village in North Bend, Ore., was built of terrestrial origin and saline water from the sea, by filling the upper end of Pony Slough, without so it follows that diversion of fresh water in sifit much as by your leave. A large shopping mall, a motel, asny seral lacre. Afl-pa rge soing spall ar quantities will change the character of the estuary motel, and several acres of paved parking space are difficult to retract. system involved. Diversion of all the fresh water ifencroachment of would turn an estuary into a marine lagoon; in tiConcerdn Snfor preventing further encroacihment o such an event, the productivity base of the system this kind in San Francisco Bay led to the establish-ea and would depend entirely upon the neighboring sea and ment of the San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission in 16. At that time, it the vagaries of tidal exchange. Such systems, as e t m n 5s te exemplified by the saline lagoons of south Texas, was realized that more than 250 square miles of the may fluctuate and be less dependable in their fisher- original open water surface of San Francisco Bay ies resources than a well-balanced estuarine system. had been filled, and more was in prospect. One had been filed, and more was in prospect. One Yet, major diversions have been proposed for the project would have cut down a large part of San project wou ld h ave cut down a large part of San Texas bays and, while these may be pipe dreams of Bruno Mountain to fill in areas near the San Fran- engineers one cannot forget that such ideas have cisco Airport. Among the possible effects of such a been proposed an that, in one ase, are well on continued haphazard filling of San Francisco Bay could be a loss of the climatic amelioration related the way to fulfillment unless there is a drastic to the surface of San Francisco Bay itself; in short, change in water policy. This is, of course, the diversion of water from if there were to be no bay, there would be no bay area. A pc ctio b.enob lhere toul the s tabl - northern California to putative agricultural lands of area. A public action movement led to the establish- ment of the commission although the legislature the San Joaquin Valley and the megalopolis of Los t he commission, is Angeles. The diversion is to be accomplished by an elaborate bypass system, called the Peripheral Canal, of representatives from state and local agencies as around the delta (confluence) of the Sacramento- well as public members, has jurisdiction over filling. The diversion scheme has Unfortunately, its jurisdiction includes only the bay proceeded in the absence of sound environmental and harbor development, not the entire estuary sys- or hydrological information; it is considered impos- tem. It has undoubtedly prevented some excesses, sible, for example, to compute the volume of water but as the interests of the membership become more that flows out of the delta into San Francisco Bay, vested, it shows signs of losing some of its original because of the complex nature of channels, sloughs, 728 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL and streams. Estimates of diversion of water to other life during the summer months, so that there Los Angeles that would leave perhaps about 50 per- would be no serious effect on the estuaries1 cent of the net outflow required to maintain water One of the serious aspects of diversion of water is quahty and protect fishlife aroused alarm and stimu- the reduction of the natural sediment load of streams lated lengthy hearings before the California Water flowing into bays and estuaries As brought out m Resources Control Board m 1969-1970 The upshot the hearings about the diversion of water from the of these hearings was Decision 1379 (1971), which delta m San Francisco Bay, this reduction could recommended substantial increases m flow from the have a serious effect on primary productivity and delta in low water periods, winch would reduce the the ablhty of the estuary to handle pollutants, since diversion to the southlands desired by the California fine sediment particles protect the waters from ex- Department of Water Resources by perhaps 0 9 cessive sunlight and function as scavengers by bring- milhon acre feet. Decision 1379, which in effect ing down heavy metals when they flocculate on recognized ecological water rights, has been con- reaching the saltwater part of the estuary. sidered a landmark decision, but it has been bitterly In this context, it Is not encouragmg to find that opposed by the diversion interests and is under detailed consideration of altered sedimnentatlon proc- appeal In the meanwhile, the Department of Water esses has been omitted from the environmental Resources has issued its environmental impact re- impact report on the Peripheral Canal prepared by port on the Peripheral Canal, contending that all the Callfornia Department of Water Resources One will be well If water is released m a sort of bleeding is reminded that the excessive sediment loads m action at various places along the canal into the San Francisco Bay from hydraulic mimng were not delta system stopped because they were shoalihng the bay and In all, the EIR for the Peripheral Canal has not altering the tidal prism as a consequence (Gilbert, satisfied everyone and, most conspicuously, there is 1917), but because the mimng debris was destroying not an adequate assessment of the impact of the farmlands vast quantities of electrical energy needed to operate A point often forgotten about natural sediment the pumping system upon the economics of the loads m our estuaries is that the heaviest occur diversion and other energy needs during the runoff season, when river temperatures There are other ways to accomplish diversion of are lowest A sumilar heavy sediment discharge or water from an estuary besides turmng the water accelerated erosion m summer, from construction into a ditch to be carried away Our concern for actlvltles or farming is deleterious to the life of an protecting estuaries from temperature increases from estuary coolhng waters may result in practices that could in the long run achieve the same effect by reducing CALEFACTION the volume of river flow Proposals for power genera- tion m the Susquehanna Valley, for example, could Calefaction, the process of makig thigs a bit lose large volumes of water by evaporation m closed circuit cooling systems and towers, perhaps amount- Merrman a few years ago (1970a) The idea implct ing to a third of the low-water flow of the Susque- in Merriman's usage was that a little calefaction hanna, one of the major tributaries of the Chesa- did no serious harm, the increases m temperatures peake Bay (Olson, 1974) associated with the power plant on the Connecticut Such a possibility suggests that more serious con- River that was his principal concern were not cas- sideration be given to reducing evaporation loss m ing any significant change th e sequence of events, coolihng systems; certainly, the great battery of cool- excepg any s omeficant catfish were sequence of events except that some catfish were not doing well But ing fountains at the Pacific Gas and Electric cool- the Connecticut River i the region of the power ing ponds at Pittsburgh function admirably as plant question s subect to tidal action and t he evaporators. Large numbers of such coolhng systems, thermal pl um e did not really cal action and the combined with the flow reduction for the California thermal plume dd not really aefy the river So m the sense of increasming the temperature of the waterworks, might increase the loss of water to the environment, there was not any real calefaction at system by unacceptable amounts. all, and the observed effects could be just as reason- Not long ago, it was suggested in Oregon that, ably attrbuted to entramment, the drawig m of because of the scarcity of fresh water in many coastal water through the plant, and to scour from the regions during dry years, entire streams be diverted steady effluent current from the discharge outfall of from above tidewater during the summer months. the plant It was thought by whoever made this suggestion Nevertheless, calefactlon is a real concern and we that the estuaries were not being used by fish and are aware of situations where temperature increases CONSCLUDING REMARKS 729 from the use of environmental water as a coolant of conditions that occur on land. Very few organisms may reach significant values. Furthermore, while are adapted to survive even a small part of the total the present scale of operations may not have serious range of temperatures occurring in the sea. Many effects on open coasts, our increasing reliance upon of the organisms of the Antarctic and abyssal seas coastal water to cool down the exponentially expand- experience temperatures within the narrow range of ing power-generating installations suggests that the about -2.0 to +1.5°C or so, whereas species of time is not far off when we may anticipate significant shallow tropical waters may live within the range changes in nearshore temperatures. A few massive between 20 and 30°C. Most organisms appear to power plants here and there, releasing warmer water be able to withstand short period extremes of tem- into a small region near the outfall may have no perature; such tolerance depends upon other factors real effect except upon the organisms ground to bits in combination with the temperature rise or fall, within the plumbing, but arrays of ever larger such as oxygenation, or reduction of internal tem- generating plants pumping significant percentages perature by evaporation in intertidal species. Many of the nearshore currents of an open coast or of an organisms can adjust themselves to long-term altered estuary into their condensers and release of the warm temperatures, within certain limits; such adjustment water into the environment may cause a serious is called acclimation. Many others are adapted to alteration of the environment. regular variations or seasonal temperature cycles. It was suggested, for example, that our engineering Others, we suspect; meet the temperature variations capacity might make it possible for us to construct in nature, especially those associated with changes perhaps 4,000 nuclear parks along the shore to in strength or position of currents, turbulence, and utilize coastal water for cooling purposes (Weinberg internal waves by producing an excess of reproduc- and Hammond, 1970). A series of power plants on tive stages, most of which are sacrificed to environ- that scale, designed to meet all our exaggerated mental vicissitudes. Therefore, we must consider the demands for energy by supplying power to 20 billion temperature regimes of each situation somewhat people at our present rate of consumption, would differently. undoubtedly change the character of coastal waters. With respect to the attrition of reproductive It would also seem that such a bulk of people would stages, it cannot be assumed that because 99 per- of itself increase the temperature of the earth. One cent of the young produced by a species are lost, would like to think that the authors had a satirical we may safely levy upon the remaining I percent. intent and did not really believe their own estimates, For many organisms, the cleavage stages may be since they gave no serious thought to possible effects most sensitive to temperature, and later stages pro- on nearshore circulation patterns or plankton popu- gressively less so, but the vulnerability of all stages lations. Some lip service is given to ecological con- suggests that exposure to artificially high tempera- siderations in a brochure titled "Siting Considera- tures should be as short as possible. And, while the tions for Offshore Nuclear Power Plants" (Dames adult may be the least sensitive, it must produce and Moore Engineering Bulletin 42, 1973); it is this vast excess of young to ensure at least one adult stated on p. 31 that "part of the overall objective survivor for the next generation. A single reproduc- is to see whether the site is sufficiently decoupled ing adult (or a pair) may not be enough, conversely, ecologically from. . . associated estuarine systems." to establish a new population, as demonstrated by Temperature is a relative measure of the amount the many failures to establish exotic species. of heat, and heat is the energy of molecules in Some critical mass of reproducing adults seems motion. The lowest possible temperature would be necessary to establish populations in new waters. that of the situation in which there is no molecular Thus, at both ends of the logarithmic curve of popu- motion, or -273.15°C (0°K); at the other extreme, lation, matters are difficult for survival in nature; the temperature of the sun is several thousand whatever the optimum may be, the sea is not a degrees. Temperatures in the sea range from -2.0 benign and undemanding environment, but quite or -1.8° in the deepest trenches and near surface the reverse. Antarctic waters to over 400 at the surface in semi- It would be impossible to summarize the exten- enclosed tropic waters such as the Red Sea. The sive literature on studies of the effects of temperature average temperature of all water masses of the world upon organisms in anything less than a large book, ocean is about 3.9°C. yet this work taken together leaves something to be No form of life that we know can withstand the desired when we try to understand the actual rela- extremes of absolute zero or the heat of the sun, tions of temperature to organisms in the environ- and the range of temperature encountered in the ment. Environmental events usually have not been sea and estuaries is but a small fraction of the range synchronized with laboratory tests and seldom have 730 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL experiments taken into consideration the fluctuating more significantly, the range of variation, the re- regimes of the actual environment. As with many bound from very warm conditions at low tide to the other factors, laboratory tests are simplifications or daily immersion in water many degrees cooler, is abstractions which may give us clues to how or why not taken into consideration. The situation is ex- things happen in nature, but fail to explain what treme in estuarine and intertidal organisms; many may really be happening. of these, however, are, the organisms most likely Now, to the sometimes irrelevant data of expdri- to be within range of a warm water plume from a mental physiology, we have added the even less power plant. relevant data of environmental impact studies. Too It must be remembered that while there may be often, such studies are beside the point and leave no direct relation :between a warm surface tempera- the basic problem untouched. For example, an in- ture and the organisms only a few centimeters below, vestigation of the possible effects of a warm water the surface layer is one of the most biologically effluent on shallow water organisms presents tem- active regions of the sea, and that what happens in perature measurements of the uppermost surface this interface between sea and air ultimately affects layer taken by a distant infrared sensor, and lists of all life in the sea (MacIntyre, 1974). Thus, while species, numbers, and size classes of invertebrates some fish or clam or other invertebrate may well living from several centimeters to perhaps two or withstand the increased temperature of a power three meters below this measured layer, or within plant and perhaps survive a trip through the con- the sediment still further removed from the surface denser tubes, the real impact on the environment layer. Values are correlated and regression lines may be of a different order entirely, subtle, not drawn, indicating as might be expected that there easily measured, and not perceptible for perhaps is no relationship between surface effluent tempera- several years. Here in the active surface layer is the tures and the biota beneath. Unfortunately, the mare incognitum of calefaction. Tentative evidence conclusion is then offered that the altered tempera- suggests that there may be danger of interfering tures have no effect on the biota, a conclusion that with the basic productivity of the system, which cannot be substantiated by the data offered (Adams, would be far more serious than Merriman's "maras- Price and Clogston, 1974). mus of catfish." Such misleading interpretations of inadequate The literature on thermal relationships of orga- data are far too common and there is little to choose nisms is a tide that shows no sign of ebbing. Coutant between this quasi-scientific approach, often invested and Goodyear (.1972) listed 394 references, most of with the trappings of quantitative ecology, and the them published, during 1971. The application of public relations interpretation that the warm water much of the experimental work to practicaliproblems effluent outfall of a power plant enhances fish life. of thermal alteration is debatable, as the authors The latter approach is based on the observation emphasize: that more fish may be caught there than in other parts of the nearby environment. However, this Determining the tolerance of aquatic organisms to tem- perature extremes, both upper and lower, is a common rationale fails to make it clear that perhaps the peri mental goal which has been given new relevance power plant site may be the only place at which by thermal discharges from the electric power generating fishing is possible along that part of the waterfront; industry. In principle, the data obtained should have predictive utility for managing thermal discharges for nor does it point out that nowadays such fishing is minimum ecological impact.... Critical study of the welcomed, to promote the idea that fish are thriving reports published largely in 1971, however, indicated there or that a parking lot for company employees that any predictive utility is severely hampered by the plethora of experimental methods employed in the is open to visitors who desire to fish during off hours. laboratory and the wide divergence of the quality of Much of the literature of physiological responses field observations.... Anyone wishing to use tolerance data from most of these reports must certainly read in to temperature by fishes and invertebrates is diffi- its entirety the experimenter's paper in hopes of finding cult to interpret without adding this kind of logic a rationale for that particular methodology and the to the confusion. Too often, experimental data is particular limitations of results. based on restrictive conditions not typical of- what is actually happening in the environment. A lethal (Coutant and Goodyear, 1972, p. 1263.) temperature for sea urchins may be demonstrated The barrage of impact studies, pre-operational in the laboratory that is below the actual conditions surveys of plant sites, and luncheon speeches circu- under which the species may survive at low tide in lated in mimeographed form that comprise such a nature, because the cooling of the animal by evapo- large part of the soft paper literature suffer similar ration and its access to abundant oxygen are factors defects without even the purgative of editorial eliminated from the experimental protocol. Even review. CONCLUDING REMARKS 731 Natural temperature regimes, the seasonal varla- ticular and the climatic variations wlthin historic tion from cold in winter to warm m summer, are not times in many parts of the ocean, one may well ask consistent and undeviating from year to year, al- why we should be concerned at all over a little though much of the discussion of thermal alteration calefaction. The problem is that our meddling with of the environment by human activity would imply the climate, inadvertent or deliberate, may result that the only change m the environment is that in temperature anomalies that are out of phase with possibly induced by human agency As with the environmental events This is essentially what hap- terrestrial climate, however, temperature changes in pened m England where an attempt was made to the sea vary m their onset throughout the seasons, domesticate the eastern American hard shell clam and often m unexpected ways which may be related (quahog, Mercenaria mercenara) m the warm efflu- to the global climatic fluctuations. Variations m ent of a power plant adjacent to a sewage treatment temperature of the seas are often in the order of works Here was a situation where everything seemed two or three degrees above or below the yearly aver- right: a source of warm water, a source of carbon age There appears to be some relation between such dioxide, and nutrients for plant growth. But the small magnitude temperature changes and the suc- larvae of the clams could not be held m place, and cess of major fisheries stocks; the catastrophic decline were produced out of phase with the natural cycle m the abundance of the Cahfornia sardine may have of the adjacent sea. been related to changing temperatures m the 1940's It should be emphasized also that maintenance along the Pacific coast of North America We do of stable temperatures m such situatlons may depend know, for example, that the eggs of the California on the operating conditions m the power plant, that sardine hatch most rapidly at 17°C and that a de- such conditions depend on the demands of industries crease of 1° adds six hours to the hatching time, so and mumclpahtles, and that these demands may at that at 15° the hatchiung period is increased from times conflict with the seasonal requirements During 54 to 77 hours It was estimated that a 3° decrease the slummer, for example, power demand may be in temperature (and since the sardme egg floats at reduced and the schedule of plant operation reduced, the surface, these are surface conditions) during the with a resultant drop m delta T at the outfall, on a period of hatching and development of the larvae cold upwellhng coast such as Oregon, where up- could decrease survival of the eggs by as much as welling is most intense m midsummer, it might 10 times prove uneconomical to operate m accord with the The world's climate may be in a warming phase, temperature demands of the local shrimp or mussel according to some meteorologists, whereas others farm with equal reasonableness have announced that the Or, for that matter, to maintain artificially altered present warm mterglaclal period has about run its local environmental conditions for the benefit of the course and withm a few hundred years (or millema) acclimated fauna This is illustrated by an episode the glaciers will be back The prospect of climatic m the Chesapeake Bay where fish, attracted to a change induced by man's industrial activities is warm water effluent, were killed by cold water also seriously considered by such authorities A num- during a shutdown of the power plant in winter ber of proposals for tampering with the earth's Our present knowledge of the subtle and intricate thermostatic system, the ocean-including the re- relations of life wilthn the environmental ranges of arrangement of the freshwater supply of North temperatures m which they have evolved and be- America, Africa, and Siberia by massive unpound- come adapted is madequate to reassure us that even ments and canals-could have unanticipated effects a little calefaction can do no harm In his effort to on coastal and estuarne environments of the regions reassure us that the warm water effluent of the concerned, since the freshwater contribution would Haddam's Neck power plant is doing no real harm be severely reduced. to the environment or its blota, Merriman (1970b) Proposals for tampering with the regime of the nevertheless suggested that the present limits were sea itself include the Bering Strait Dam, which about as far as we should go Certainly we can exceed would, it is hoped, result m warming waters of the biological limits with very little increase m temper- Arctic Ocean, although some oceanographic oplion ature m the tropics where the marine blota is already suggests that such an effect would be masked or living near its upper limits of tolerance Who knows negated by the natural variations of the Atlantic what the effects of warming the Arctic might be water flowing into the Arctic Basin. upon slow-growing organisms adapted to low tem- In view of the natural fluctuations in the sea and peratures? Inevitably, artificial calefactlon will be possible major interrelations between events in the subject to fluctuations because of the added pertur- northern and southern Pacific Ocean masses in par- bations and off-and-on phases associated with opera- 732 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL tion of the associated machinery. The limits of Primary Organic Pollution calefaction may be much lower than we think. From the viewpoint of a naturalist, it may not be . only the amount of temperature change we may Nondecomposed organic matter of Environmental modifications bring about, but the rate of such changes which organic effluents tH c., turbidity, certain may have unforeseen consequences on the biota of our coastal seas and estuaries. So much of our data Nutrients: P N, Micr- Community modifications is tentative or applicable only to individual speci- elements, Vitamins, other 4 biologically active com- Diversity decrease mens or species that we must be conservative about pounds Reducti on of Reduction of the effects of potential calefaction upon communities consumption 4. competition or the interactions of animals in nature. We are Clima development of fe.- told that "we do not have the time toe wait" for such understanding, which is the same as saying Secondary Organic Pollution S.OP. "we do not have the time to consider the conse- quences of our action." Such anthropocentric arro- Increase in total productivity gance! Do we really have the authority to tell the Surplus in ttal rganic matter Surplus in total organic matter rest of 'organic life that their future-is contingent .r upon our immediate understanding of what our Decomposition processes aerobic needs may be? Oxygen dpletion Oxygen depletion It must be reemphasized that, with respect to tampering with the phenomena of nature, the view- Decomposition processes anaerobic point of the naturalist is profoundly different from Secondary toxicity of pollution that of the engineer. The engineer approaches such 4 problems with an attitude of complacence, -or with Mass mortalities and temporaryor permanently azooic conditions the assumption that if what we do is bad, we can change or stop what we are doing. The naturalist FIGURE 1.-Schematic presentation of processes of organic knows that life is not a reversible process--an envi- pollution and its consequences in marine environment ronment to some extent, and a species absolutely, (Stirn, 1973). once destroyed, cannot be restored. A "try it and see" attitude about any pollutant inimical to life extirpation or elimination of more valuable species processes is profoundly dangerous. Calefaction can- to such an extent that their return to a revitalized not be considered an exception, even where it might estuary may be long delayed or impossible (Figure seem most permissible, in our coastal waters. The 1). Bascom (1974) has suggested that the ocean is naturalist can only view changes in temperature as the best place for our effluents, but it is still too he does all pollutants, as potentially damaging unless early to be certain that massive releases of excess proven otherwise. material will be processed for us by the ocean with- out some damage or alteration of the natural system. In any event, we have come to the position that estuaries are not the best place for untreated sewage Pollution of rivers and estuaries by man's effluvia outfalls There seems to be no deleterious effect of disposing unprocessed human sewage in the cold has been with us since the establishment of cities, but wholesale release of wastes in liquid form as waters of Cook Inlet, Alaska; at least, the major factor in the inlet is tidal exchange, rather than domestic sewage is a comparatively new environ- mental factor. To the extent that sewage consists of bolocal processes within the system However readily biodegradable or natural substances, its ef- the capacity of the inlet is said to be finite, and not readily biodegradable or natural substances, its ef- adequately understood (Murphy, 1972) fects may not be irreversible and, in time, estuary t is often -pointed out that we may be wasting systems heavily polluted by sewage may recover. It is ofte-pointed out that we may be wasting Reovery is apparently now happening in the valuable material by open ocean disposal and that excess discharges into bays must be prevented. A Thames River, which, a century ago, was a foul- recent statement of the case for use of our wastes in smelling distressing mess, but to which fish are now maricultue is t hat of Joze Stirn (1973): returning. This is not to say that we can continue to pollute estuaries indefinitely with sewage, under In my opinion, a theoretically ideal solution for sewage the notion that, once we stop, all will be well. disposal would follow these requirements: effluents Excess production of blooms and large biomasses should not have a destructive influence upon marine ecosysterfs, which happens as a rule in quite large of not-altogether, desirable species may result in the territories encircling underwater outfalls, and they CONCLUDING REMARKS 733 should not accelerate uncontrolled and useless eutrophi- to discharge purified fresh water into the sea, yet cation, which is also the case whether the effluents have been previously treated or not. This leads to undesirable some water quality requirements have approached changes, including aesthetical and sanitary ones, par- this extravagant ultimate. ticularly and in a drastic way, in shallow cdastal waters, i.e., in these parts to which the recreational activities and with them the important growth of the national ALL OTHER CHEMICALS economies as well are focused. Sewage-born nutrients, including biologically active We throw everything soluble (and often the in- organic compounds, should be saved and returned to soluble substances as well) into our streams and bioproductive processes in a way which could enable their utilization as food for the growing human popula- -estuaries; our rivers may "wind somewhere safe to tion.... an optimal solution might be found within a sea," but with a burden of substances alien to the potential possibility of developing a combined treatment- mariculture technology. There is of course no ambition environment as man knew it barely 200 years ago. of using this idea as a universal suggestion, which it The era of affluence and effluence is still in its cannot be, among others, because of a particular reason: beginning and, while it may not last much longer for every coastal mariculture, an adequate geomorpho- logical formation (bay, fjord, estuary, abolished salinas, even in the terms of human history, the potential lagoon) has to exist, available for this purpose, and out damage from the complex of chemical wastes we of competition of space with more rentable industries. are producing is incalculable. Even in the terms of Considering the Mediterranean or similar areas (where the mariculture has to be promoted anyway), we are a human lifespan, the effects of a particular sub- dealing from this point of view with an enormous num- stance are difficult to assess, because it may take ber of adequate geomorphological formations, located as a rule just in the economically passive (excluding 25 or 30 years for a cancerous condition related to tourism) territories, many of them desert, whether real some substance to develop, or at least to be noticed. Ones in the south or karstic barelands in the north and We do not know what we are doing, yet if every- in the east. thing does not turn up dead because of some chem- ical we discard into the estuary, we seem to think Such direct use of organic wastes in maricultural we card into the estuary, we seem to think projects will not of course take care of all the organic There an cont inu e to dump in discussing all the pos- There seems little point in discussing all the pos- wastes generated by man and processed in sewage sible kinds of chemicals individually (as opposed to plants, and use of solid wastes on land has been and o t should continue to be a significant application of natural or quasi-natural organc substances that re this valuable resource. Nevertheless, we have not include the unusable or economically unretrievable progressed far since the extravagant waste of this wastes of our advanced and complicated chemical valuable resource in France was so eloquently de- indust ry as it operates along our watercourses- nounced by Victor Hugo in "'Les Miserables:"3 industry as it operates along our watercourses-- from pulp mills to petrochemicals from the growing Paris throws five millions a year into the sea. And this plastics industry. This last industry, it might be without.metaphor. How, and in what manner? day and noted, is based on the wastage of resources in all night. With what object? without any object. With sorts of plastic accessories and containers, and evi- what thought? without thinking of it. For what return? for nothing. By means of what organ? by means of its dently assumes free disposal of all this junk to the intestine. What is its intestine? its sewer. environment. It may not be long before the most common object dredged from our estuaries will be We fit out convoys of ships, at great expense, to gather the plastic ballpoint and felt-tip pen cases that are up at the south pole the droppings of petrels and pen- the plastic ballpoint and felt-tip pen cases t guins, and the incalculable element of wealth which we produced by the millions. It is now impossible to have under our own hand, we send to the sea. All the walk along an ocean shore without finding a few on human and animal manure which the world loses, re- any gi stored to the land instead of being thrown into the any given day. I have picked up disposable syringes water, would suffice to nourish the world. and discarded ballpoints at Punta Espinosa in the Galapagos; discarded, I am sorry to say, by visiting Sea disposal of recyclable organic wastes is not scientists. the extravagance that Hugo supposed, however, for Toward the closing years of World War II, we we do owe the sea some of its substance and the released four categories of pollutants into the envi- steady drain of protein from the sea in our great ronment which we now realize as deleterious to life: fisheries should be repaid. But it is not economical radioactive isotopes from military and industrial to take it back to Peru, so we dump it into the sea uses, antibiotics (sulfa drugs and 'others), insecti- at New York, Los Angeles, and other great maritime cides (such as DDT), and detergents. To these Four centers of population. A far greater waste would be Horsemen of the Ecological Apocalypse, we have since added a Fifth, the effluvia of our plastics I "Les Miserables" .was published in 1862. The two paragraphs quoted industry, the polychlorinated biphenols, chlorides, are a small part of the panegyric to the sewers of Paris, from Jean Valjean, the last book of the novel. and all the solid bits and pieces that are now turning 734 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL up in the surface layers of the ocean, far from land. An increasing source of heavy metals is from mal- It is difficult to decide which substance may produce functioning heat exchangers; in one recent incident, new and greater dangers to aquatic life. Many of enough copper was released from the tubing of the them persist for years, and may surface in un- condenser of the nuclear power plant being con- expected places with unanticipated effects. It is not structed at Diablo Canyon on the California coast easy to estimate the significance of potential pol- to kill large numbers of abalone (San Francisco lutants in the sea and estuaries, as indicated by a Chronicle, January 24, 1975). recent study conducted by the National Academy 2. Mill wastes. The effluents of pulp mills consist of Science (Goldberg, et al., 1974). of sulfate or sulfite liquors, indigestible wood parti- Always remember that we develop pesticides and cles (lignin) and other substances; often, the exact herbicides to kill things. We apply tons of them to composition of the wastes is considered a proprietary farmlands, gardens, and marshlands every year; by secret, as it would betray the nature of the proc- 1972, 390 or more kinds of chemicals were used to ess. Steel mills may release cyanides, phenols and kill or control unwanted organisms. It says some- ammonia. thing for the ecological viability of many of these 3. Refinery effluent usually consists of volatile pests that we must continue to use noxious sub- hydrocarbons; crude oil is in a special category and stances to get them out of our way; at the same may produce a catastrophic environmental mess in time, we risk destruction of other forms of life which confined waters, although direct long-term damage we may not be able to afford to lose from our envi- is not easily measured. Some fractions such as diesel ronment in the long run. As for the pests, their or heating oil act differently from the rest, moving ecological viability depends primarily on the ideal into the bottom sediment and persisting in a condi- conditions we have set up for them, especially in our tion hazardous to benthic life for many years. vast areas of single crop agriculture. Conversely, 4. Pesticides, herbicides, and other agricultural run- we must also add fertilizers to keep the crops grow- off. In some regions, as predicted for San Francisco ing, and if we do not continue this double jeopardy Bay, there may be added the salinized agricultural of fertilizers and biocides, the whole artificial system runoff water from irrigated fields. A new addition collapses into the diversified but less immediately to synthetic organics are artificial pheromones, sub- productive system of undeveloped or preindustrial- stances that act like hormones and upset the natural ized agriculture. sexual cycles of insects. Some of these may be As we continue to keep our chemists busy develop- dangerous to marine anthropods in very low concen- ing new and more deadly substances, the danger trations, but they are only now being investigated. that we may develop some universal biocide in- 5. Chemical processing plant wastes. Ours is an era creases. Insecticides developed specifically to kill of chemistry and the kinds of pollutants from our arthropods may in time kill off many arthropods vast and complex industry are legion. They include in estuaries and seas; some herbicides may sterilize acids, alcohols, all sorts of inorganic salts, and chem- a stream of all arthropod life. Yet, too often we ically inert materials that may interfere with filter find out about the effects of these substances after feeding organisms. (The effect of taconite processing they have been tried out, not before. It is admittedly wastes could be very different from that in Lake difficult to decide what effect, if any, new sub- Superior, for example.) Many chemicals are neu- stances being synthesized and put to use may have; tralized or rendered inert by interaction with sea- for one thing, many industries keep their processes water in more saline estuary conditions; others may private and it is difficult to determine what some become danerous to life. become dangerous to life. proprietary substance is, or what processes may produce dangerous chemicals. The long generation 6. Litter. Bits of flotsam and jetsam have always time of some diseases in man and of the induction been with us, but a new feature of our culture is the of ecological imbalances also make estimation of the vast amount of material that is for the most part effect of a newly-synthesized chemical difficult. chemically inert, and reducible, if at all, by mechan- In a general way, the chemical pollution of estu- ical action. The surface of the oceans almost every- aries consists of the following kinds of substances: where is littered with small pieces of plastic and the shores of estuaries are an unsightly mess of 1. Heavy metals, e.g., mercury, zinc, copper, cad- plastic receptacles, parts of toys, ballpoint pens, and mium, primarily from industry, but in some cases, sheets of plastic. Cans, bottles, and boxes degrade as probably in San Francisco Bay, much of the in time, but such things as the bridles for six packs mercury detected in sediments may come from drain- of beverage may persist for years. None -of this is ages through cinnabar-rich deposits in the region. pleasing to the eye and its effect on organisms, other CONCLUDING REMARKS 735 than physical entrapment or clogging the alimentary beyond Carquinez Strait. At the present time, tank- tract, is yet to be determined. ers of 30,000 tons dead weight can be accommo- I'i i dated; the increased depth would make it possible Obviously, it is impractical to monitor all the for tankers of 70,000 tons dead weight to unload. substances being released into the environment, es- One cannot of course afford to spill oil these days, pecially when the presence or nature of some of and doubtless every precaution would be taken to them are unknown. One would like to have everyone prevent loss, but the public was not reassured to assume, as good biologists should, that until proved have the company attorney state that no expansion harmless, a new substance should not be released of dock facilities was planned for the Pittsburgh in the environment for any purpose, and perhaps dock, at the same time the permit was being applied this is done on some other planet in some other for. Such lack of communication within the company galaxy, but not on the only planet we have. suggests operational difficulties could develop at the peril of the environment. OIL Puget Sound will be especially vulnerable to tanker accidents, because of the narrow passages to the proposed facilities near Bellingham and the density So far, there have been few oil spills in estuaries; proposed facilities near Bellingham and the density So far, there have been few ol spilnls in estuaries; of maritime traffic. In anticipation of the potential the spectacular Santa Barbara incident of 1969 oc- difficulties in the region, a group of students and 1urred on .he open coast. Fortunately, most of th difficulties in the region, a group of students and curred on the open coast. Fortunately, most of the spillage from the tanker collisionat the mouth of instructors at the University of Washington at- spillage f rom the tanker ollision at the mouth of tempted to assess the problem and recommend pro- San Francisco Bay on January 8, 1971, passed out of the bay, but major spill, and leakage from in- cedures in the event of a major oil spill. The resulting creased loading and unloading operations in busy document, "Oil on Puget Sound: an Interdisciplinary ports is inevitable. Small leakages, in the order of Study in Systems Engineering" (University of Wash- perhaps several barrels a day, are considered a nor- ington Press, 1972), f irst of a most instructive analysis mal part of operations in an oil port, and such of the problems, first of all of getting any accurate leakages are predicted for Port Valde in Alaska idea of the present magnitude of oil loss in Puget when tankers will be loaded from the end of the Sound and, most significantly, in revealing the lack when tankers will be loaded from the end of the Alaska pipeline. The example of what is happening of any coordinated plan or procedure to cope with the situation. These problems are concisely stated in Bantry Bay on the west coast of Ireland is not the situation. These problems are concisely stated mlassuring. lT e lae min the preface to this bulky contribution, and the reassuring. There have as yet been no adequate statement can serve for other ports and estuaries studies of the effects of such chronic pollution; most in the United States as well: of our major ports have been subjected to this sort of thing for so long that no baseline is available The objectives set forth at the beginning of the study from which to judge such effects. Port Valdez would were to define the oil spill problem in Puget Sound and be an ideal site for a baseline study, before the oil- to formulate a model for the solution of the problem. facilities become operational. The study group discovered, as the study progressed, loading facilities become operational. that identifying the sources and consequences of oil Few harbors in North America are adequate for spills was a most time-consuming task. If solving a the massive new supertankers which may draw problem warrants a ten dollar reward, then definition of that problem should be worth at least one hundred more than 60 feet when loaded; recently, a medium- dollars. At least, this was the sentiment of the group sized (100,000 tons, dead weight) tanker was un- upon completion of their study. Thus, the primary loaded in San Francisco Bay at Richmond, but it efforts of the students were in collecting, analyzing, and evaluating data on Puget Sound and its related oil was necessary to transfer three 15,000 tanker-loads industry. It was only after completion of this tedious from the large tanker before the ship could be moved task that a meaningful solution could emerge. to the dock. This sort of thing means more dangers * * * * from spillage with increased handling and, eventu- solution to the oil study to evolve into an effective solution to the oil spill problem, the organizations in- ally, from an expensive fire along a commercial volved, and the people within them, must consent waterfront. willingly to change. Nothing could be worse than blindly instituting some legislation, technique, or procedure Unloading oil at refineries or pipelines is not the institut fu lly understanding or acepting the overall only source of potential pollution; many large power impact of its activation. Too often, such fragmented plants have their own oil docks, or plan to increase actions are taken to obtain short run, narrow solutions their facilities. For example, the Pacific Gas and to problems without evaluating the bigger picture. Electric Company has applied for a permit from the Historically, plans to cope with oil spills have emerged Corps of Engineers to dredge 56,000 cubic yards as the aftermath of disasters, or have been formulated from San Francisco Bay, to increase the capacity in a vacuum, without considering the implication or conse dockuence of such plans. Therefore, the most impor- of its dock at Pittsburgh, some miles up the bay tant message of this report is: The environmental preser- 736 ESTUAAINE -POLLUTION CONTROL vation of the Puget Sound region requires the cooriinated exacerbated by our incomplete understanding of effort of all responsible and capable parties, whether they ecological processes and the confused idea that ost- represent society or industry. ecological processes and the confused idea that cost- benefit ratios and trade-offs are intelligent manage- (Vagners et al., 1972.) ment policies. Such concepts have-no real meaning in the maintenance of natural conditions in the It is to be hoped, as oil becomes more expensive environment. It follows that most of our problems and scarce, that economics will force more concern with estuaries (and of course with everything else) and less wastage if environmental concerns remain rise out of our own inadequacies and shortcomings, ineffective. Public concern was increased in the prompted by our anthropocentric concerns. Puget Sound region by a series of articles in the It is symptomatic of our present state of knowl- Seattle Post Intelligencer during the last week of edge of estuarine management that Perkins (1974) October 1974, which concluded with the question in his text on the biology of estuaries, should devote of the value of Puget Sound itself--is it worth the more than 90 pages (including a list of 402 refer- risk of a catastrophic oil spill, or do the "benefits" ences) to biological effects of waste disposal, and of massive oil commerce offset such a loss? Senator six pages (with 10 references) to management. Magnuson, running for reelection, evidently sensed One should not, however, stand too long at the the public sentiment by taking the public position wailing wall, but hope that we can learn to manage that the big tankers must be kept out of the inland our estuaries without altering them for the worst. waters of Puget Sound. We have abundant information to help us in under- Attention was called during this controversy-to standing many'of our estuaries. What we need is the:large oil spill from the tanker Metula in the respect for them as unique and significant environ- Straits of Magellan; a more recent account suggests ments; as I have stated in another context, we that the results of this spill, which occurred on should develop an "estuarine conscience," a concern August 9, 1974, may persist for years (Washington for estuaries on their own terms, not on ours, and Post, Feb. 19, 1975). Because of the remoteness of get on with the task: the area and the expense, the government of Chile has been unable to make any attempt to clean up The continued reliance upon consultants and other ad- the 18 million gallons of oil. Obviously, these vast studies, an produce vmontoring programs are di- tankers should be kept to the open sea and broad, verting funds from needed activities. The broad national easily navigated harbors. Our estuaries do not meet policy is that estuaries must be preserved and main- these criteria. tained, and it is time that we began to do just that. (Hedgpeth,. 1973.) SUMMARY To put it more concisely, we have recognized that Since this review is essentially a summary of vari- estuaries are places for life, not death, the places ous factors degrading estuaries, a summary seems where the rivers should come safely to the sea. hardly necessary. If there is any conclusion to draw from this recital of estuarine ills, it is that much of what has happened to our estuaries is the result of REFERENCES our obsession with managing this most valuable of Adams, J. R., D. G. Price, and F. L. Clogston. 1974. An evalu- interface environments from the viewpoint of some ation of the effect of Morro Bay power plant cooling water specific use desired by man, or that planning pana- discharge on the intertidal macroinvertebrate community. tea, "multiple purpose." Our recognition of en- Pacific Gas & Electnc Coipany, Dept. of Engmeenng cea, "multiple purpose." Our recognition of en- Research, San Ramon, Calif. April 1947 mimeo. vironmental quality, of the need for maintaining "environmental integrity," suggests that our pri- Baecom W. 1974. Disposal of Waste in the Ocean. Sci. Amer. mary concern should be to manage estuaries on 231(2): 16-25. Aug. 24, 1974. their own terms, as natural environments. Such management is inhibited by ecological ignorance or California Department of Water Resources. 1947. Draft Environmental Impact Report. Peripheral Canal Project. misunderstanding and, especially in most large estu- Sections separately paged. Aug. 1974. aries, by conflicting jurisdictions and interests, by refusal of various local governmental agencies, as Coutant, C. and C. P. Goodyear. 1972. Thermal Effects. well as state and federal jurisdictions, to surrender Jour. Water Poll. Control. Fed. 44(6): 1250-1294. sovereignty for the good of the natural system as a whole. All the mechanical (filling, dredging, diver- ee N. resourct al. 1972. Environmental evaumbus Laboratories. sion) and chemical pollution of our estuaries is NTIS, PB-208 822. CONCLJUDING REMA'RKS 737 Ghiselmn, M T 1974 The Economy of Nature and the Murphy, S R (ed) 1972 Effect of Waste Discharges into a Evolution of Sex Umv of Callf Press, Berkeley Silt-laden Estuary. A Case-study of Cook Inlet, Alaska Unmv of Alaska Institute of Water Resources Gilbert, G K 1917 Hydrauhc mining debris in the Sierra Nevada U S Geolog Survey Professional Paper 105-154 Odum, W E 1970 Insldious alteration of the estuanne en- vironment Trans Amer Fish Soc 1970(4) 836-847 oldberutants E. A et al 1974 AssesOsing ptential oceanrs Bd po Olson, M C 1974 The Hot River Valley The Nation, Aug lutants Nt. Acad of Sciences, Ocean irs d 3,1974 Hedgpeth, J W 1973 Protection of environmental quality Perkins, E J 1974 The Biology of Estuaries and Coastal m estuaries Chap 13 m Environmental Quahty and Water Waters London, New York Academic Piess Development Ed by C R Goldman, J McEvoy III, and P J Richerson W H Freeman, San Francisco 233-249 Shaler, N S 1906 Man and the Earth. Fox, Duffield & Co New York Hesse, H 1927 Steppenwolf Eng transl 1929 Stirn, J 1973 Orgamc pollution as the main factor causing MacIntyre, F 1974 The top millimeter of the ocean Sci biological disequlibrna m coastal waters Archo. Ocenogr Amer 230(5) 62. Lmmnol 18 (suppl) 111-119 Marsh G P 1964 Man and Nature Belknap Library, Har- Taylor, J L and C H Saloman 1968 Some effects of hy- ard Uiversity Press, 1965 reprnt Ed by D Lowenthal drauhc dredging and coastal development m Boca Ciega Bay, Fla Fish Bull US Fish & Wivdl Serv 67(2) 213-124, 13 figs Mernman, D 1970a The Calefactlon of a River Sci Amer 222(5) 42-52. Vagners, J (supervised by) and P Mar (coordinated by) 1972 Oil on Puget Sound An Interdisciplinary Study m Merrnman, D 1970b Does mdustrnal calefaction jeopardize Systems Engmeenng Washington Sea Grant Pubhcation the ecosystem of a long tidal river? Preprint IAEA/SM- Umv of Wash Press 146/31, Symposium on environmental aspects of nuclear power stations International Atomic Energy Agency, U A, Weinberg, A M and R P Hammond 1970 Limits to the New York, 10-14 Aug 1970 use of energy Amer. Scientist, 58. 412-418, 3 figs INTERACTIONS OF POLLUTANTS WITH THE USES OF ESTUARIES L. EUGENE CRONIN University of Maryland Cambridge, Maryland ABSTRACT Twelve principal uses are made of estuaries, providing exceptional value to human interests. In the United States every one of these uses is expected to increase in the next 20 years above its present high level. At present, at least 16 major classes of pollutants are placed in estuaries, with effects that range from minor inconvenience to serious reduction in the usefulness of the system for other purposes. Some present pollutants have high potential for beneficial introduction if the quantity, site, and characteristics of the material are appropriate. In this overview, the uses and pollutants are identified, the trend for each is noted, the principal deleterious effects of pollutants in coastal waters are summarized, and visual summaries are presented to suggest which of the uses may be affected by each class of pollutant. INTRODUCTION might be damaged by each important class of pollut- ing substances. The purpose of this report is to identify the princi- This presentation draws upon many of the other pal uses of estuaries and the significant pollutants reports presented at this conference to help identify entering estuaries in the United States, and to indi- the principal present uses of estuaries, distinguish cate which of the uses are likely to be affected by the most important pollutants at this time, and each pollutant. It is intended that this information discuss some of the significant trends in both uses be presented with both technical accuracy and ease and pollution. of comprehension. Such a summary is necessarily limited to the broad national situation, and must be THE PRINCIPAL USES OF ESTUARIES applied with care and local information to any estuary. The method for such local use will be sug- The values which estuaries serve in relation to gested. human activities have been summarized rather The International Oceanographic Commission frequently in recent years, and it is helpful to review (IOC) for the United Nations' Educational and the listings developed. They are presented in Ap- Scientific Commission (UNESCO) defines pollution pendix A. It is apparent that these lists were pre- as: Introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of pared for various purposes and from diverse points substances into the marine environment (including of view. They have been employed to assist the estuaries) resulting in such deleterious effects as harm preparation of a fresh listing which attempts to to living resources, hazards to human health, or hin- include all significant uses in the simplest set which drance to marine activities (including fishing), im- is adequate and accurate. pairing the quality for use of seawater and reduction Table 1 presents my listing of principal general of amenities. (Ketchum, 1972) uses of estuaries in the United States. Each of these This definition will be used in subsequent dis- is important to the people of the nation. However, cussion, with the interpretations that "substance" subclasses of some of these uses merit specific at- includes heat and that the term "foxygen demand" is tention, even in this national overview, since the employed as a short substitute for "substances which effects of pollutants can be substantially different increase chemical or biological demand for oxygen." between the subclasses. For instance, recreational This definition requires that one of the diverse use for boating is not likely to be harmed directly uses that man makes of the aquatic area is or is by some of the chemical pollutants which may de- likely to be deleteriously affected. Therefore, it stroy fishing or hunting. Therefore, a limited number seems reasonable and constructive to summarize of subordinate categories has been chosen and in- the uses of the estuary and illustrate which of them eluded in Table 2, Principal Specific Uses. 739 740 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 1 -Principal general uses of estuaries Commercial shipping, involving many kinds of ves- sels, increased substantially in recent decades to a Commercial Shipping Military Purposes level of 1 6 bilhlion tons min 1972, and is projected to Shoreline Development Research and Education Recreation and Aesthetics Climate Control continue that trend in the foreseeable future Mining Biological Harvest (Langlois, 1975) The NES forecasts predict in- Electricity Generation Preservation WaElectrcty Gene Extration Waste Placement creased commercial shipping m all eight case study estuaries (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970) Table 2.-Principal specific uses of estuaries Shoreline Development Commercial Shipping Water Extraction Shoreline Development Military Porposes Construction and other engineering of the shallow A For Residences Research and Education floor, shoreline, and adjacent land mass have been B For Industry Climate Control ntensive around every coastal city, and extensive as C, For Recreation Biological Harvest Recreation and Aesthetics A Food thousands of miles of estuarme edge have been modl- A Boating , B Industrial Materials fled for residential and recreational use The popula- B Swimming,Surfing, Sunnng Preservation tion of the United States is rapidly shifting to the C Hunting A Species D. Fishing B Ecosystems coastal area with resultant intensification of such E Aesthetic Enjoyment C Productivity development (Belcher, 1975) Exceptional growth Mining D Other Features A Aggregates Waste Placement In populations is expected to continue in coastal B Oil and Gas A Human Wastes regions (Belcher, 1975), so that such alterations are Electricity Generation B Industrial Wastes likely to increase Conservation has been apparent recently in managing wetland conversion and, indeed, all modi- The intensity and value of each use varies widely fications of estuarine edges This backlash to the for the 850 estuaries of the nation, and each system almost ungoverned development of such areas is merits analysis and management on a specific and presently slowing the changes The uncertainties of individual basis For such analysis, these tables economic probablhtles and legislative predilection provide checklists to be culled and applied appropri- preclude useful forecastmg of specific trends ately. Each of the prmeincipal and specific uses is briefly discussed in the following pages, with notes on FOR RESIDENCES magnitude and trends if information is available Extensive additional information is available m These include permanent homes, part-time cot- "The National Estuarnne Pollution Study" (Federal tages, and campsites They frequently involve altera- Water Pollution Control Admiistratlon, 1969) and tlons from grading and construction and the use of especially in other papers presented at this confer- bulkheads and piers for land protection and recrea- ence "The National Estuary Study" of the Fish tion The quahty of sites for use for residences usually and Wildlife Service (1970), in its Appendix G, depends on the aesthetic quality of the estuary and provided predictions (which will be called NES surrounding lands, and secondarily on potentials for forecasts) of uses for selected estuaries including such actlvlties as fishing and boating Belcher's Penobscot Bay, Delaware Bay, Charleston Harbor, summary of recent trends for the eastern seaboard Tampa Bay, Galveston Bay, Newport Bay (Cal), suggests that residential use of estuarine edges is San Francisco Bay, Yaquma Bay, Puget Sound, and likely to be increased by the shift of population, by Cook Inlet These and other projections are noted more leisure, by early retirement, by the growth of below commuting, by the trend toward more dwelling units per family group, and by the quest for a new quality of life with more contact with nature In all of eight specific estuaries, increased residential development is expected (Fish and Wildlife Service, The estuaries include every port m the nation, 1970 since offshore ports have not yet been developed Therefore, all surface import and export, as well as all coastal and local traffic by ships, tankers, and FOR INDUSTRY barges, involve estuaries The great boastal cities were sited as they are because of estuarmine shipping, This development covers waterfront facilities and continue to be dependent on such transport (deepwater, piers, intake and effluent structures, CONCLUDING REMARKS 741 bulkheads, fills and specialized structures) and on- palatial. Kalter reports that 49,045,000 days in- land buildings, transportation systems, utilities, volved boating in the U.S. BEA areas adjacent to and other appurtenances. No statistical summary of estuarine zones in 1972, and that every area is ex- recent and prospective trends is available to me, but pected to increase by 1978, with an average of 17 future use for these purposes seems likely to be percent. All eight case estuaries are predicted to substantially affected by, nationwide efforts to zone undergo increased boating (Fish and Wildlife Ser- coastal activities. NES forecasts project greater vice, 1970). industrial development in all of the eight example estuaries studied (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970). SWIMMING, SURFING, SUNNING'; FOR RECREATION The variety of pleasant activities along the beach and in or on water needs no definition. This combina- Public and private parks and beaches are included tion of activities is, according to Kalter, the largest here, as well as camping areas, facilities to support recreational activity in the BEA areas adjacent to boating, and other installations. The use of estuarine estuarine zones, involving at least 250,000,000 person shores and waters for recreation is very large and days in 1972. By 1978, increases of 12 percent expected to grow (Kalter, 1975), and the develop- for swimming and 14 percent for skiing are forecast ment of associated facilities is expected to follow by Adams (1973). parallel trends. Kalter slunmarizes from Adams et al., 1973, relevant data on recreational activity and expected demand in all of the BEA areas ad- HUNTING jacent to estuarine zones. This totaled over 500 mil- lion activity days in 1972, not all on estuaries. Every Waterfowl, shorebirds, game mammals, and activity (boating, swimming, nature walks, fishing, reptiles are all hunted for recreation. Irby (1972) water skiing) is expected to increase from 1972 to notes the dependence of many of these on the estu- 1975 for each of the 37 estuarine areas documented ary and their presence in many different estuarine in the 1972 survey. Kalter notes that the demand for habitats. Bird hunting can involve use of several facilities is unlikely to vary much from the demand estuaries at once since many species are highly mi- forecast based on population and that facility supply gratory and may reproduce, feed and rest on different is the balance wheel to the demand. Significant varia- bodies of water-all of which are necessary. No data tion is apparent by region and by types of recreation, are at hand on the extent of use of estuaries for and change in preference is expected. The national hunting, on recent trends, or on future probabilities. trend of development for this use is strongly pre- dicted. Recreation also is expected to increase in each of the eight case study estuaries inNES forecasts. FISHING Angling, with gear ranging from the simplest hook Recreation and Aesthetics and line to the complex rigs used for giant carnivores, is popular on all coasts. Clark (1975) summarizes Use of estuaries for personal pleasure and refresh- data from a 1970 survey by the National Marine data from a 1970 survey by the National Marine ment takes many forms in the almost infinite variety Fisheries Service to note that 10,000,000 coastal of specific situations which exist in, on, and around anglers caught 350,000,000 fish along the coasts and such bays and waterways. Predictions for continued 468,000,000 in estuaries-which provide essential increases in population movement to, and personal support for many or mst of thecoastal catch. en o support for many or most of the coastal catch. Vtom use of, estuarine areas provide similar prediction of 1960-1970, participants increased by 50 percent. Ad- greater recreational and aesthetic use. Brief addi- ditional data provided by Kalter describe 110,000,000 tional comment on each selected subclass of use is itionaldataprondedbyKalterdescribe Io estu- fishing days in 1972 in BEA zones adjacent to estu- appropriate. ' aries and project a 9 percent increase by 1978. NES : ' forecast&, predict Igreater fishing in all eight sample BOATING estuaries,,(Fish and Wildlife, 1970). Bollman (1975) expects increase in ,value of the fish. caught, of the This category is widely diversified, from dinghys social activity, and of related goods and services. and paddleboats through canoes, rowboats, kayaks, As with commercial harvests discussed below, it is pirogues, small to large outboards, sailing vessels, important to note that estuaries are essential breed- houseboats, and barges, to yachts from modest to iLg and nursery grounds for most of the coastal 742 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL species and provide necessary migratory pathways erals, including precious metals, are known to exist for a wide variety of fish. and mining is likely to increase. Salt, sulfur, and potash minerals are primarily associated with evapo- Ay STHETIC ENJOYP MENT rite deposits, and Biggs considers the increased ex- traction of these to be highly probable. Mining is Visual pleasure from water and shores; laing in expected to grow in six of eight case study estuaries, and to remain at about the same level in Charleston the environs of estuary; observing birds, plants and o an ata a e fresto Htarbor and Yaquina Bay (NES forecasts). animals; and a great variety of other uses engaging the senses and emotions are widely enjoyed. Counts and measurements of such use are difficult to OIL AND GAS obtain-and not easily separated from other recrea- tional uses. Kalter provides one index, reporting Extraction of these materials within estuarine that nature walks involved over 62,000,000 activity areas has been occurring in Louisiana, Texas, and days in 1972 and may increase 14 percent by 1978. Alaska, at least. No data are available on present As for other uses, fuel expense or shortage may en- and future trends. hance such usage for those nearby, and reduce it for those who must travel. Electricity Generation Mining Direct use of estuarine water for condenser cooling water, the most-discussed use of estuaries in the Sand, gravel, oil, gas, shell, and commercially generation of electricity, was generally avoided as useful quantities of various chemicals occur under long as utilities could obtain fresh water and elim- estuaries as under many other surfaces on the earth. inate the problems associated with use of saline or Except for such biogenic deposits as shells of estu- brackish water. arine molluscs or of coral, their presence has no Production of electricity may utilize estuaries in relationship to the existence of the estuaries, with several different ways. The most direct use is for which they are in accidental coincidence. The uses condenser cooling in steam electric stations. Water of such materials have varied, and probably will may constantly flow through the system or be with- vary, as different materials become useful, as tech- drawn to make up evaporative losses in cooling niques for locating and extracting minable substances towers. The dependence of large nuclear plants on are improved and as more easily accessible sources on estuaries as the only feasible means of transporting land become partially or completely exhausted. massive containment vessels and other large com- Estuarine mining is now relatively limited, and Riggs ponents sometimes controls the siting of such plants. (1975) points out that our knowledge of the po- Such uses are relatively recent in coastal bays, and tentials of both estuaries and the continental shelves no summary of present estuarine use has been seen. is presently only superficial. Because populations and industrial activities are growing in coastal areas, demand is expected to AGGREGATES increase and there have been predictions of as many as 10 large nuclear plants in upper Chesapeake Bay For the purpose of this summary, and at some and its tributaries, for instance. Mihursky (1975) For he prpos of his ummay, ad atsome notes the recent regulations which may substantially variance with geological terminology, this includes notes the recent regulations which may substantially surface and near-surface sediments, gravels, sands, affect the direct usage that such systems will make of clays, shells, and chemicals. Biggs describes the estuaries. No simple prediction appears feasible at this time. huge American demand for some of the materials and the difficulties of making reliable estimates of estuarine production,, and notes that increased Water Extraction populations near estuaries are highly likely to in- crease demand for the exploitation of useful deposits. The salt content of most estuarine waters seriously Shell deposits by oysters, brackish-water clams, and hampers use for drinking water, agricultural irriga- other species have many uses (including that of tion, industrial processing, and other purposes com- cultch to assist the production of more shellfish), mon for fresh water, although all of these occur at but some of the massive deposits are apparently some sites, especially in fresh or nearly fresh tidal showing depletion (Biggs, 1975; Espey, 1975). waters. Such use as that of a heat transfer medium Special purpose clay mining and extraction of min- in generating electricity or some other industrial CONCLUDING REMARKS 743 processes is not an extraction but a borrow, since the of scientific personnel involved with the eastern total quantity is usually returned near the intake. estuarine environment indicates that research inter- The principal extractive use of water is from the ests among 644 respondents to 1,200 queries were total watershed of estuaries. Withdrawal may occur overwhelmingly biological in 1972 (Kerby and for inter-basin transfer (Delaware to the Hudson, McErlean, 1972). All of the many other fields listed Sacramento Valley to Los Angeles, and so on), for lagged far behind, confirming impressions at con- irrigation, or for other uses which permanently re- ferences on coastal topics. move water and may drastically affect the estuary. Recent trends have been for increased research Uses which involve substantial alteration of the and teaching. Large estuarine research societies now pattern of flow releases into the estuary (damming exist, with the umbrella Estuarine Research Federa- for hydroelectric generation, water supply, recrea- tion having about 1,200 members in constituent tion, flood control) are not extractive but may also societies in New England, Middle Atlantic, South have important estuarine consequences. These differ Atlantic, and gulf coast regions. Several similar from the extensive borrow-and-return pattern of groups have been formed on the west coast. Estuaries most domestic and industrial use, which has little will be used extensively for these purposes, but estuarine effect. future trends are difficult to predict because most No data are available for estimating present financial support is from state and federal funding, extractions of estuarine water nor for predicting which in itself is presently unpredictable. "The trends. National Estuary Study" predicted increased use for research and education of seven of eight selected estuaries, with continuation at the same level in Military Purposes Galveston Bay (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970). These include transportation, firing and ordnance Climate Control ranges, research on vessels and equipment, filling for air strips and other land use, storage of vessels, Modification of climate is perhaps the most exten- vessel construction and maintenance, coastal patrol sive, least measurable, and least priceable use of and its support, and education in naval operations, estuaries. As compared with land masses, they estuiaries. As compared with land masses, they flying, and related fields. No summary has been seen moderate summer and winter temperatures, lag moderate summer and winter temperatures, lag of the present extent of these uses, although they are spring and fall temperature transitions, and increase obviously large in some bays and estuaries. Prediction in anall e tue rres humidity. These substantially affect uses for resi- is impossible, since extended periods of peace may dential, recreational, industrial, and aesthetic pur- bring reduction in some of these activities as being e , t tral o sheti u poses, but the value of such effects is obviously unnecessary or inappropriate for estuaries--and escalation toward war would make other considera- complex and elusive. The trend of this use, if indeed escalation toward war would make other considera-thtwrisapoiteisrprinteote that word is appropriate, is proportionate to the tions relatively trivial. activities listed above. Since they are expected to grow, so too will the importance of climate modifica- Research and Education tionbyestuaries. Research is conducted in estuaries to solve the Biological Harvest problems which occur and to broaden understanding. Since estuaries have many problems which are in- Since estuaries have higher natural rates of produc- creasingly recognized to be important, there has tion of organic materials than almost any other been rapid increase in the number of projects related biological system (Teal and Teal, 1969), large bio- to fisheries, waste management, water quality, and logical populations exist and have been harvested the social, economic and legal aspects of estuarine throughout the world. Most of the harvest is achieved use. In addition, the diversity and dynamicism of by hunting techniques, capturing the yield with the geological, physical, chemical, and biological little or no investment in cultivation, although components of estuarine systems have also attracted management through public agencies and by private growing use as wild laboratories. efforts exists and may increase. Harvest for food and Similarly, estuaries are highly used in training harvest for industrial materials are not significantly students, both in livelihood (fishing, recreational different, despite the different distribution of the bbating, maritime skills, and so forth) and funda- products-and consequent difference in the ultimate mental sciences and arts. Marine and estuarine bi- users. These two subclasses of the biological harvest ology has been the most popular field, and a survey will be treated together in this brief discussion. 744 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL The catch of estuary-dependent species was worth and encouragement for increased preservation in about $660 million at dockside in 1973, about 73 estuaries, so that such use may be expected to grow. percent of the total commercial fish landings value of $900 million for the United States (Tihansky and Meade, 1975). All of the principal species are useful Waste Placement for food except menhaden, although some of the food species also yield industrial products (bait, 'meal, Waste placement is used with intentional avoid- shell, and so on). Menhaden, the great industrial ance of the comforting term "waste disposal" since species which provides meal, oil, and many chemical even slight critical thought proves that most of our products, had a 1973 landing of 1.9 billion pounds, placement of waste materials has not disposed of valued at $73 million at dockside (Broadhead, 1975). them-merely transferred them from one site to Both food and industrial species increase at least another. Estuaries have always received substantial severalfold in value as they move through processing, quantities of the materials humans wish to dispose distribution, and sales to reach the consumer. Even of because (1) estuaries le in the basin-catching at dockside values, Bollman (1975) notes that the position for all land drainage; (2) population clusters capital required to produce $660 million would, at along the coast; (3) the chemistry, geochemistry, 5 percent yield, be about $13.2 billion dollars, an and dynamics of estuaries provide large capacities approximation of the value of estuarine fisheries- for some wastes without harm, or at least visible and of this use of estuaries, harm, to other users; and (4) the magnitude and Prediction of use trends for estuarine biological extent of possible damage from wastes was not even resources is exceptionally difficult. In the "National partially known until recent decades. The cheapness, Estuary Study," increased fisheries were predicted convenience, and capacity of estuaries for receiving for all of the eight case study estuaries, but this may wastes favor their use within appropriate limits-the have mixed estimates of demand with estimates of extraordinary values, dispersive nature, and relative yield. Broadhead (1975) has stressed the instability fragility of the biological systems require conserva- of marine populations and the complexity of the tive use for such purpose. factors which may affect abundance. It is not pos- sible to forecast the supply, although demand for Human Wastes both food and industrial harvest will increase. At source, human wastes are already complex. Preservation Undigested foods and liquid products of metabolism, neither of which is chemically simple, are quickly Estuaries contain many biological forms, assem- mixed with shower and bath water, kitchen wastes, blages, environments, and other features which washings, and anything else put in the toilet or sink. merit preservation. These have been noted and In systems for sewage collection and treatment, these extensively considered in the volume "Marine and are frequently combined with industrial wastes and, Estuarine Sanctuaries, the Proceedings of the Na- intermittently, with surface runoff from storms. tional Workshop on Sanctuaries" (Virginia Institute Even after some degree of treatment, such wastes are of Marine Science, 1975). Preservation may be usually composed of many materials. For instance, needed to assure the continued existence of a species the discharge from the Hyperion and White Point or system, to protect such a component for future outfalls on the west coast contains more than 20 availability, to guarantee the productivity of all or components to a level of a ton or more discharged per part of an estuarine system or to preserve a unique day to the receiving waters. The specific composition physical, geological, chemical, or biological feature. of the discharge varies principally with the sources. of Partial preservation now occurs in various wildlife waste and the kind of treatment, generally but im- refuges, sanctuaries, parks, and preserves, but there precisely described as none, primary, secondary, or is no national summary of the quality or quantity of tertiary (advanced). No operating plant completely such protection. Those participating in EPA's Con- removes all potential pollutants from domestic ference on Estuary Pollution Control vigorously pro- wastewater except on an experimental or pilot scale. posed substantial increase in this use of some parts The magnitude of such wastes is difficult to of the national estuarine complex, and provided estimate. As an example, a recent inventory of sew- detailed guidance for such preservation, Both the age treatment plants for Chesapeake Bay (Brush, Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972,(P.L. 92-583) 1974) identified 243 such plants, of which 35 pro- and the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctu- vided primary treatment and 208 were secondary. aries Act of 1971 (P.L. 92-532) contain authorization The total effluent was estimated to be 2.8 percent of CONCf/rDING RFMARKS 745 Table 3.-Generated municipal wastes "- best achievable" by July of 1983, and states a national goal of eliminating all pollutant discharge. 1960 1970 1980 Increase 1970-1980 THE REAL WORLD OF USES Wastewater, billion gallons .-.... 1,612 1,902 2,131 229 or 12% Standard BOD, millions of pounds:. 2,230 2,632 2,974. 342 or 13% ttleables oafnd suspended solids11 ,1 380 or 2% Rarely, if ever, is an estuary utilized significantly for only one of the uses noted above. Even primitive populations of low technological capability are likely to fish, use boats, place wastes, and recreate in the average freshwater flow into the bay; Without such waters. This, then, is the simplest form of similar data from other estuaries, national summa- multiple use, and the most complex form occurs in tion is impossible, but the use is obviously a very the harbors of industrialized cultures with large large one. populations, where every listed use may be occurring Trends will be affected by the developing pressures at once. The problem lies in the fact that almost from population increase and the changing con- every use can become so large that it impinges upon straints through regulation. The first of these has other uses and users. been briefly described above, and the very great Several interesting and potentially useful concepts changes in national regulations have been summar- for managing uses of estuaries have received recent ized by Hargis (1975). "The National Estuarine attention and may become incorporated in coastal Pollution Study" (1969) quoted (P IV-334) from zone management. One may be called an exclusion a FWPCA publication "The Cost of Clean Water" concept, which dictates that the exceptionally valu- that the national estuarine population would gener- able shoreline will be reserved for those uses which ate the following quantities of several components are genuinely dependent on such siting-and in the areas served by sewers. excludes those which are not. For instance, docks, No certain prediction is possible, because economic, swimming beaches, and large marine railways can political and environmental efforts are all likely to only exist at the edge of water. Processing plants be intense. The outcome cannot be foreseen, (even for seafood), power generating stations, and oil refineries can frequently be sited as well, or better, away from the estuary. Such siting may become Industrial Wastes mandatory. Another concept receiving present currency is that of clustering of uses, an intense The composition of unwanted materials from form of zoning. If industrial activities are concen- commercial activity is as variable as the industry. trated, the argument runs, efficiencies are possible in (See "The National Estuarine Pollution Study;" providing utilities, handling wastes, and arranging 1969, pp. IV-386 to IV-389, Volume II; for a catalog transpoi'tation, as well as in surveillance and en- of such wastes, their characteristics, and the dis- forcement. With clusters, more of the total estuarine tribution among the states.) Through most of the shoreline is left without problems of such use. These industrial period in this country, industries were concepts, and many additional ideas, seem likely to permitted to take full advantage of the economy of receive increased attention as the task of balancing placing wastes in nearby waterways as long a's they uses, the focal thrust of the Coastal Zone Manage- did not endanger human health or cause quite hnent Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-583), is implemented. obvious damage. Change in public knowledge and It is appropriate to note, in this discussion of the concern in recent decades has brought all new in- interactions of pollutants with the uses of estuaries, dustry, and much old, under considerable control in the obvious but very important fact that use is usu- this regard. As a result of this transition, 'waste ally the source of pollution. Most, but not all, of the placement has been drastically reduced, although listed uses have this potential. Change in usage or there are residual uses in the forms of (a) contam- change in the regulation of pollution can have major inated deposits from previous activities, (b) -uncor- effects on each other. rected violations of regulations, 'and (c) transport of The large task is that of achieving, through suffi- wastes short distances to the oceanic water as a cient knowledge and wise government, the optimal means of disposal. - ' balancing of multiple uses of estuaries so that they The Federal Water:Pollution Control Act Amend- serve the-public interest most effectively. To achieve ments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500) direct use of "best this, all human activities must be constrained so as available" control technology by July of 1977, to remain within the inherent capacities of the estu- 746 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Table 4-Principal pollutants of estuaries forest clearing and agriculture, surface alterations in urbanization, mmmg activites, channelhzation, Pathogens Brine poor sediment control during construction of roads Sediments Toxic Inorganlcs Solid Wastes Toxic Organics and other facilities, excessive enrichment, sohd waste Color Sources Petroleum placement, and dredging and spoil placement have Odor/Taste Sources Nutrients FlodorTables Radioactivity massively increased the rate and quantity of sedi- Heat Oxygen Demand ment input, deposit, resuspension, and redistribution Freshwater Acids and Bases in many of the nation's estuaries Storage reservoirs and improved land management practices have sometimes effectively reduced sediment input See. arine system-lest they destroy the system and its Boyd et al, 1972, Carpenter, 1975, Commuttee on uses Water Quahty Criteria, 1969, Hedgpeth, 1975, Hood, 1975, Lee, 1975, "National Estuarine Pollu- THE PRINCIPAL POLLUTANTS tion Study," 1969; Schubel, 1975 OF ESTUARIES Solid Wastes Introductions by human activities which can be damaging in estuaries have been cataloged several Accumulated unused solid wastes are presenting times, and some recent lists are provided in Appendix one of the serious problems of all urban, and many B Taking advantage of these summaries, a new hlst- suburban, areas Domestic materials, Agricultural ing of 16 pollutants has been prepared, again wastes, and, especially, industrial unused products attempting to include all significant Introductions in are involved Estuarine placement has been widely the simplest set which is both accurate and adequate used as one of the alternatives, with placement (Table 4) Each of these is defined or described, and ranging from dumps in the marsh and edge of the references are provided to selected papers which river to ship transport to deeper water. The composl- contain information on the quantity and probable tion of such materials defies single description, and future trend of each the effects include those of sediments, toxicants and many other pollutants See' Committee on Water Quality Criteria, 1972, Veibusch, 1975, Gross, 1969, Hood, 1975, Srmth, 1975 Living organisms which can cause pathology or sickness in either the animals and plants within the Color Sources estuary or in humans who eat or contact materials taken from the water include a wide variety of bac- Natural sources of color in estuarine waters include teria, protozoa, viruses, and fungi Human pathogens leachates from marshes, swamps, and other vegeta- are frequently abundant in sewage, but may enter tive areas, suspended particles, and blooms of plank- the water from other waste disposal or from ton. Human effects on color are most likely from accidental spills. The pathogens of aquatic species industrial effluents or accidental spills Color is not are often introduced with transplanted orgamnisms, toxic, but affects the quality and quantity of light and are often indirectly affected by environmental penetration and availabllity, and the material alterations such as sallmty increase or decrease causing color may have additional effects See' Colwell, 1975, Ketchum, Ed, 1972, McEwen, 1972, "National Estuarine Pollution Study," 1969, Smdermann, 1972 Many materials can affect the odor or flavor of Sediments edible (to humans) estuarmine products or the aesthetic quality of the estuarine environment. They are Inorganic particulate materials ranging in size primarily organic, and the most common are oils and from clays and silts up to at least sands may occur petroleum products Little is known about the effects in many forms, from essentially single-size loads to of various materials on the edibility of estuarne extremely complex mixtures of particles with loose species by other species, although it is reasonable to and firm aggregates containing many materials. suspect that it occurs and may be important The Estuaries are inherently sediment traps, but the effect on human seafoods is economic, since the effects of man's activities through practices m presence of offensive odor or taste usually prevents -CONlCLUDING REMARKS 747 eating sufficient quantity to cause illness. See: "The Toxic Inorganics National Estuarine Pollution Study," 1969. Although every inorganic element or compound can be toxic at some level of concentration and Floatables exposure, attention is usually most appropriate for those of exceptionally high toxicity or probability of Low-density materials on the surface may be in the release. Thirty-five to 40 elements and a much larger form of slicks, globs, wood and fibrous organic mater- number of compounds are known to be potential ial, undigested plastics of many types, rubber goods, serious pollutants. These exist in industrial effluents, sealed bottles or cans and many other substances domestic waste treatment effluents, biocides (espe- which are either inherently light or capable of holding cially as the result of chlorination), drainage from gases. They occur on the surface and usually move to mines or quarries, and many other sources. Especially s';he shoreline. See: Pearson, 1975. thorough summary has been presented by the Com- mittee on Water Quality Criteria, 1972. See: Blus Heat et al. 1975; Committee on Water Quality Criteria, 1972; Hedgpeth, 1975; Hood, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., Heat is introduced into the estuary from conden- 1972; Middaugh and Davis, 1975; "National Estu- ser cooling in power plants, cooling by other industry, arine Pollution Survey," 1969; Smith, 1975. and in relatively small amounts incidentally with other waste discharges. After initial warming, the Toxic Organics receiving waters act essentially as a transfer medium, conveying virtually all introduced heat to the at- Most of the especially toxic organic compounds mosphere. This release may involve extremely large turned loose in estuaries are synthetic compounds, estuarine areas, because of dispersion by tidal flow and the most serious are those which are highly and mixing processes. See: Blake, 1975; Committee persistent. They arise primarily from the wide range on Water Quality Criteria, 1972; Clark and Brownell, and large quantities of biocides employed on land 1973; Cronin, 1975; Hedgpeth, 1975; Jensen 1975; (fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides) Mihursky, 1975; Smith, 1975; Water Resources but also from additional halogenated hydrocarbons, Criteria, 1972. petroleum, and industrial chemicals. The nature and experimental toxicity of these creations of man have been detailed by the Committee on Water Quality Criteria, 1969. See: Blus et al. 1975; Butler, ii ii 1975; Committee on Water Quality Criteria, 1969; Darom man'sg introducons of fresh water resulting Hedgpeth, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., 1972; Lincer, 1975; from man's activities can result from opening of Smith, 1975; Walsh, 1972. spillways and diversion channels, release of large volumes of low salinity effluent in water of higher salinity, and land use practices which permit flashier Petroleum runoff than would have occurred under natural regimes. See: Cronin, 1967; Smith, 1975. Petroleum and its complex components are prin- cipally organic but the extraction, transportation, handling, refining, and distribution of these fossil Brine energy sources have created a distinctive set of problems in pollution. Since estuaries are the waters Salt in detrimental concentration may be intro- of entry, and petroleum pollution is highly associated duced as true brines from industrial activity or from with transporting, handling, and refining, consider- blowdown residues in cooling towers. It may also be able concern exists and will continue. See: Blus et al. added in more dilute form observable as salinity 1975; Brown, 1975; Committee on Water Quality increase above that which would have occurred Criteria, 1972; Farrington, 1975; Hedgpeth, 1975; without human causes. This can be caused by diver- Hood, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., 1975. sion of freshwater from the watershed for consump- tive uses like inter-basin transfer, irrigation, or evaporative cooling. towers; by deepening of channels; Nutrients by up-stream release of condenser cooling water; and by other mechanisms. See: Hedgpeth, 1975; Schubel - Nutrients are the chemical raw materials which are and Meade, 1975; Smith, 1975. essential for biological processes. These enhance 748 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL productivity m appropriate quantities but can exceeded by large additions, and thus' would dan- seriously disrupt the estuarine ecosystem through gerously alter the environment of the biota', which excessive enrichment Nitrogen, phosphorous, and cannot survive much change of this kind In addl- carbon are the most noted specific elements, but less tion, the toxlcity of most other pollutants increases abundant elements and compounds can be signrfi- under such circumstances Acids or bases might cant Polluting quantities can be introduced from reach the estuary from mme drainage, accidental sewage effluent, runoff from cleared or agricultural spills, or industrial wastes See Committee on land, detergents, street runoff, and industrial wastes Water Quality Critleria, 1972 As eutrophication occurs with increasing frequency afhd at additional locations, many consider these additions to present one of the most serious threats THE EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS* to best use of estuaries See Champ, 1975, Commit- tee on Water Quality Criteria, 1972, Hobbie and The introduction of a chemical compound or a Copeland, 1975, Ketchum, Ed, 1972, Pearson, 1975; change m the physical environment may affect a Smith, 1975 natural marine ecosystem in many ways In coastal waters undisturbed for long periods of time, the ecosystem has adjusted to the existing conditions Rad ioactivity The system is productive, species are diverse, the biomass is high, and the flow of energy is compara- RadioactLve elements and compounds can enter tlvely efficient The addition of pollutants to such a the estuary from fallout from atmospheric burden, system mght. from testing of weapons and other uses, release of wastes from nuclear power plants and other users of reduce the iput of solar energy ito the such fuels, drainage of mines, accidental spillage min hospitals, and with wastes from reprocessmg plants ecosystem, m increase the minput of organic matter and nu- and some industries. Because of increased mtroduc- tnents winch nught stimulate the growth of unde- tion, longevity of emission, and the knowledge that it can cause somatic and genetic damage m estuarineents by ireased biota and possibly in humans, this relatively new sorptmn and sechmentaon, pollutant is of national significance. See- Committeer eate intolerable physical extrementats for some on Water Quality Criteria, 1972, Ketchum, Ed, orga tsms, as by the addhilon of heat, 1972; National Academy of Sclences-Natlonal Re- ga kll or reduce the success of he dual organ- searcha Council, 1971. * klll or reduce the success of indlvdual organ- isms, as by lethal toxicity or cripplng with oil, eliminate species by adding a toxic material or Oxygen Demand making an essential element unavailable, * interfere with the flow of energy from species to Some additions can create additional demand for species, as by a chemical that interferes with feeding the finite quantity of oxygen m estuarine water behavior, Sewage sludge, wood wastes (pulp, bark, chips), · reduce species diversity m the system, sediments stirred during dredging operations, and . interfere with regenerative cyclng by decom- the secondary effects of excessive enrichment can posers, all contribute to this demand Freshwater manage- o decrease biomass by reduction of abundant ment practices which increase vertical stratification species or disruption of the processes of ecosystems, during periods of high temperature will enlarge the * increase biomass by removing important con- area and volume of oxygen depletion in some estu- sumers, allowing runaway production of other aries See' Committee on Water Quality Criteria, species 1972; Hood, 1975; Ketchum, Ed, 1975, Pearson, 1975 All of these may involve changes in production and lowered human usefulness of the system These are Acids and Bases examples, additional effects can occur The specific impacts of pollution at a site can be determined only A complex carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate through long-term study of that portion of the ocean system buffers estuarine waters to help stabilize them and the changes that occur against change from the addition of acidic or basic * Verbatim from Committee on Water Quahty Criteria, 1972, pp chemicals The buffering capacity can, however, be 219-220 CONCLUDING REMARKS 749 VISUAL SUMMARY OF components, processes, and systems of estuaries- THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN and many of the pollutants might either interfere POLLUTANTS AND USES with or substantially enhance such research and the effective education of students. Matrix charts have been prepared to suggest These matrices may have several uses. They which of the uses are likely to be significantly suggest which pollutants are potential threats to the affected by each pollutant (Figures 1 and 2). A fewest and to the most uses, and which face the simple set of symbols was selected, so that: largest and smallest number of probable sources of damage--and all of the intermediate probabilities. Black: Danger, this pollutant can have se- Thus, they may help in identifying the pollutants of rious effects on that use.- ; y highest priority for control in national, regional, state, or local programs. In. any one estuarine system, Hatched: Caution, this pollutant may in some ' w cutn s utat sselection of the uses most valuable to, or preferred by, the people of the region can. be followed by pre- ' Grey: This pollutant can be beneficial' to liminary identification of the most probable sources that use in favorable circumstantces. of destruction for those uses. Such a preliminary that use in favorable circumstances. identification from these matrices would, of course, Blank: No' substantial effect is known to be but the first step in constructive local' efforts to assure good balance. One of their most stimulating aspects is the display of many potentials for con- As with all efforts to reduce massive complexity to 'structive use of possible pollutants-of 'conversion an unqualified simple summary, the viewer shares of problem materials into positive resources. If some of the responsibility for preventing mis- or preparation of these summaries facilitates that over-interpretation. The following qualifying com- necessary process, value will hae been achieved. ments may help: REFERENCES 1. The selection of signals is subjective, not quantita- tive. It is based on about 35 years of scientific ex- Adams, R. L., et al. 1973. Outdoor recreation: Appendix perience with estuarine pollution, participation in "A", an economic analysis. U.S. Dept. Interior (cited several of the panels' cited, and the advantage of through Salter). excellent reports prepared by many expert specialistS. R . D. 2. The time scale is dificult to handle. As regulations Bargmanrkhurst.. 1969. Evluation of sources and characteristics of waste discharges. Background are changed, -or enforcement is modified, or new paper, NASCO-NACOA Study Session on Coastal Wastes knowledge emerges, the real threat from a pollutant Management. is altered. So, too, may the importance of a use vary with tinm t:hese estimates applycher, J. C. 1975. Report on population redistribution and water pollution on the estuaries of the Eastern Seaboard. 3. EacBr estuary is ound paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary ally stresses the most likely interaction among the Pollution Control. 850 or more such systems in the nation, but each case can be effectively' understood only on its own Blake, J. 1975. Impact of waste heat discharged into estuaries terms. Perhaps the matrix can best be posed as a when considering power plant siting :requirements. Back- terms. Perhaps the matrix can best beground pape r for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution series of questions for each estuary--"Is this pollu- Control. tant reasonably likely to have -the suggested effect on that use? If not, what is the' real local relation- Blus, L. J., R. C. Stendell,;S. H. Wiemeyer, H. M. Ohlendorf, ship?" At least, a useful set of questions may be J; A. Herwin and LJ F. Stickel. 1975. Impact of estuaine Iummariaed in the mpollution on birds. Background paper for the EPA Con- summarized in the matrices. ference on Estuary Pollution Control. In most cases, it is probably easy to comprehend Bollman, F. H. 1975. The values of estuarine fisheries habitats: the opinion of the author, but one set of symbols some basic considerations in their preservation. Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. requires explanation--those under the use of Re. search' and Education. While the presence of a pol- Boyd, M. B., R. T. Saucier, J. W. Keeley, R. L. Montgomery, lutant offers opportunity for study and for teaching, R. D. Brown, D. B. Mathis and C. J. Guice. 1972. Disposal that interaction was not chosen for emphasis. Rather, of dredge spoil-problem identification and assessment the symbol indicates how the pollutant is expected and.S. Army ch progrways develperiment Tech. Repti Hs-72-8, to affect research and education on the basic nature, Miss... 750 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Pathogens t_|r| 0 , %. \. % : \ Sediments x W , g _ I Solid Wastes @1 Color Sources Odor - Taste Sources Floatables _} g } Heat vt 'X "b $ Fresh Water } Brine g % Toxic Inorganics Toxic Organics Petroleum Nutrient s Oxygen Demand Acids & Bases * Damage Caution 3 No Effect Benefit FiGuR] 1 -Probable effects of pollutants. CONCLUiDING REmAIUB, 5 5"& OF ?t ONE $* ME IM ME NXX K Ram 0 am_ noD4A NE N agog 0 M 5Z M m ORONO& -1 PI fil 4 xx * (, xo0x 752 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL Broadhead, G. C. 1975. Our estuaries and future commercial Fish and Wildlife Service (Bur. Spt. Fish Wildlife, Bur. fishing trends. Background paper for the EPA Conference Comm. Fish.). 1970. National Estuary Study. U.S. Dept. on Estuary Pollution Control. Interior. 7 volumes. Brush, L. M., Jr. 1974. Inventory of sewage treatment plants Gross, M. G. 1969. New York City-a major source of for Chesapeake Bay. Publ. No. 28, Chesapeake Research marine sediment. Background paper for the NASCO- Consortium. NAECO Study Section on Coastal Wastes Management. Butler, P: A. 1975. National Estuarine'Monitbring Program. Hargis, W. J., Jr. 1975. Evaluation of water quality in Background paper' for The EPA Conference on Estuary estuarine and coastal waters. Background paper for the Pollution Control. EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Carpenter, J. H. 1975. Limiting Factors that Control Dredging Hedgpeth, J. W. 1975. Seven ways to obliteration. factors of Activities in the Estuarine Zone. Background paper for estuarine degradation. Background paper for the EPA The EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Conference on Estuary Pollution. Champ, M. A. 1975. Nutrient Loading in the Nation's Hobbie, J. E. and B. J. Copeland. 1975. Effects and control Estuaries. Background paper for The EPA Conference on of nutrients in estuarine ecosystems. Background paper Estuary Pollution Control. for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Clark, J. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems. Ecological Considerations Hood, D. W. and J. J. Goering. 1975. Pollution problems in for Management of the Coastal Zone. The Conservation the estuaries of Alaska. Background paper for the EPA Foundation, Washington, D.C. Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Clark, J. 1975. Status of Estuarine Sportfish Research. Irby, H..D. 1975. Problems encountered in wildlife manage- Background paper for The EPA Conference on Estuary ment and factors controlling wildlife management programs Pollution Control. in the nation's estuaries. Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Clark, J. and W. Brownell. 1973. Electric Power Plants in the Coastal Zone: Environmental Issues. Am. Litt. Soc., Jensen, L. 1975. Effects of thermal discharges on estuarine Highlands, N.J., Spec. Publ. No. 7. ecosystems. Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Committee on Oceanography (NAS-NCR) and Committee on Ocean Engineering (NAE). 1970. Wastes Management . . 1975. Recreation activities in the nation's Concepts for the Coastal Zone-Requirements for Research estuarine zone. Backgr o und paper for the nationference an netyof Sciences and estuarine zone. Background paper for the EPA Conference and Investigation. National Academy of Scie nces and Estuary Pollution Control. National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C. Committee on Power Plant Siting, National Academy of Kerby, Catherine and A. J. McErlean. 1972. Scientific per- Engineering. 1972. Engineering for Resolution of the sonnel resource inventory: list and index to research scien- Energy-Environment Dilemma. Washington, D.C. tists involved with the estuarine environment, especially the Chesapeake Bay. OLP/Smithsonian Inst., Ref. No. Committee on Water Quality Criteria. 1972. Water Quality 72-li; U. Md. Natural Resources Inst. Ref. No. 723. Criteria. 1972. Environmental Studies Board, National Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering, Ketchum, B. H. 1969. An ecological view of environmental Washington, D.C. management. In: Systems Analysis for Social Problems, pp. 236-248. Washington Operations Research Council, Cronin, L. E. 1967. The role of man in estuarine processes. Wash., D.C. In: G. Lauff (ed), Estuaries. A.A.A.S. Publ. No. 83, pp. 667689. Ketchum, B. H. (Ed). 1972. The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone. Product of the Coastal Cronin, L. E. 1975. Ecological implications. In: Water Zone Workshop held May 22-June 3, 1972, sponsored by Management in the Electric Power Industry. Water Res. the Inst. of Ecology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Symp. 8, Center for Research in Water Resources, U. Texas Inst. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass. at Austin. In press. Langlois, E. 1975. Factors limiting and controlling the Ellis, R. N. 1973. Analysis of critical management issues operation of U.S. ports located in estuarine areas from the related to Chesapeake Bay. The Center for Environment standpoint of pollution control. Background paper for the and Man, Inc., Hartford, Conn. EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Espey, W. H., Jr. 1975. Environmental aspects of dredging Lee, G. F. 1975. Limiting factors for the controlling of in the Gulf Coast zone with some attention paid to shell pollution from dredging in estuarine areas. Background dredging. Background paper for the EPA Conference on paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Estuary Pollution Control. Control. Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 1969. The National Estuarine Pollution Study. U.S. Dept. Interior, Lincer, J. L. 1975. The impact of synthetic organic compounds 3 volumes. on estuarine ecosystems. Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Feibusch, H. A. 1975. Solid waste disposal and its relationship to estuarine pollution. Background paper for the EPA Con- McEwen, T. D. 1972. Human wastes and the Chesapeake ference on Estuary Pollution Control. Bay. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 62(2) :157-160. CONCLUDING 'REMARKS' 753 Mlddaugh, D P and W P Davis 1975 Impact of chlornna- Smith, S V 1975 Environmental status of Hawaiian estua- tlon processes m marinne ecosystems Background paper for ries. Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control Pollution Control Mlhursky, J -A 1975 Thermal discharges and 'estuarne Teal, J and Mildred Teal 1969 Life and Death of the Salt systems Background paper for the EPA Conference on Marsh Little, Brown and Company, Boston and Toronto Estuary Pollution Control Teeters, Robert D, Jr 1968 Present and future demands National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council upon the coastal zone A panel working paper for the 1971 Radloactlvity m the marine environment. Nat Acad Semunar on Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone Nat Council Sci, Washlngton, D C on Mar Resources and Eng Dmt pp 77-96 Pearson, E A 1975 Estuarmine wastewater management Tlhansky, D. P aid N F Meade 1975 Estimaing the Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary economic value of estuaries to US commercial fisheries Pollution Control Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control Riggs, S R 1975 The extractive industries m the coastal zone of continental Umted States' Background paper for Vlrgima Institute of Marinne Science 1974 Marine and the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control estuarnne sanctuaries November 28-30, 1973 S S S Rept No 70 Schubel, J R and R H Meade 1975 Man's nmpact on estuarine sedimentation Background paper for the EPA Walsh, G E 1972 Insecticides, herbicides, and polychlorn- Conference on Estuary Pollution Control nated blphenyls m estuaries J Wash Acad Sci, 62(2) 122-139 Smindermann, C J 1972 Some blologlcal indicators of marine environmental degradation J Wash Acad Scl, 62(2) Center for Environmental and Estuarmne Studies, Umverslty 184-189 of Maryland Contributlon No 653 ·` I APPENDIX A Previous Lists of Uses Transportation of Estuaries and Coastal Waters Mining Waste Disposal (Chronologlcal [order) Pest Control (predominantly minsects) Defense Batelle, 1966 In Development Potential of U S Continental Agrculture Shelves ESSA, Dept Conmmnerce (Cited from Teeters 1968) Power Production Water Supply Mmmining and Petroleum Recreation Marine Engmeernng Commercial Fishing Recreation Research and Education -ealth and Welfare Transportation The Natsonal Estuarne Pollution Study, 1969 Volume I, Part Food and Agriculture 2, pp 30-44 Defense and Space Research and Development Fishing Other Industry Recreation Transportation and National Defense The original report noted 51 specific uses under these Municipal and Industrial Water Supply categories Waste Disposal Exploitation of Mmineral Resources Resources for the Future, 1967 In NationaI Interests in the Aquaculture Marine Environment (Cited from, and as modified by, Shorehline Development Teeters 1968) Ketchurn, B H, 1969 Economic Development Resource Development Swlmmnmg Transportation and Commumnicatiqn Facilities Boating Recreation Sportfishing Disposal of Wastes Commercial Fishing National Security Boat Yards and Marinas Defense of U S Territories I{ousinmg Support of U S Forces Land Fill and Development Promotion of Cultural and Social Values Marine Transportation Research and Development Dredgming and Filling Preservation of Natural Beauty Industry Enjoyment of the Environment Minimmg and Petroleum Cosrel, 1968 "Coordminatming Governmental Coastal Activities" National Estuary Study, 1970 Appendix F, pp 6-7 (Cited from Teers 1968) Water Transportation Resources Commercial Fisheries Animal Extractive Industries Non-living Water Utilization and Estuarine Discharge Vegetable Urbanizatlon Energy (tidal) Recreatlon Repository for Wastes Research and Education Enjoyment Recreation National Estuary Study, 1970 Appendix G Aesthetic Transportation Commercial Sea-ormented Cmeca Sea-oriented Deep-draft Transportation Land-oriented Boating National Defense Mining and Minerals Land and Sea Use Fisheries Private Wildlife Comm ercla r r Commercal Waste Disposal Industrial Recreation Mg xtary Recreahton Military Aquaculture Other Resldential Industrial Ipon, 1968. "Identification of Problems and Opportuimties Education-Research and Needs, Existing and Potential" (Cited from Teeters Water Supply 1968) Agriculture Defense Urbamnization Power Production Industry Log Storage 754 CONCLUDING REMARKS - 755 Lill, Gordon, 1970(?). For California Advisory Committee Non-renewable Resources on Marine Resources (These are apparently more accu- Petroleum and Natural Gas rately called activities than uses) Sand, gravel and shell Minerals Policing, Control, Inspection, Regulation Recreation and Aesthetics Breakwaters, Dredging, Coastal Maintenance Swimming Right of Way, Easements, Access Roads Skin Din Commercial Harbors and Terminals s aing Shipping Pleasure Boating Commercial Fishing Sport Fishing Kelp Harvesting Tourism and Recreation Shellfish Farming Coastal Preserves Sand and Gravel Production Urbanization and Industrial Development Petroleum Production Housing Nuclear Power and Desalination Plants Industrial Development Non-petroleum Offshore Platforms and Other Construction Energy Needs Federal Government Reservations Government Uses Public Coastal Parks .Transportation and Coastline Modification Public Underwater Parks Shipping and Commerce Underwater Research Parks Assigned Use Waste Disposal Resorts Housing and Other Real Estate Development . Ellis, Robert N., 1973. Uses of Chesapeake Bay Swimming, Surfing, Water Skiing, Sunbathing Surf fishing Boat Sport Fishing .Waste Disposal Marinas and Recreational Boating Wetlands (Natural Production) Waste Disposal Commercial Fishing Water Supply Coastal Zone Workshop on Critical Problems of the Coastal Commercial Marine Transportation Zone, 1972. Discussion topics Recreation Shoreland Residential Development Food Shoreland, Commercial/Industrial Development Waste Disposal Preservation Mining and Extraction Mineral Resources Recreation and Aesthetics Commerce (Transportation) Habitation (Human) Clark, John, 1974. Coastal ecosystem uses Scientific Preserve Industrial Land Use Power Production Cmmercial Fishing Water and Chemical Extraction M inin g Military Uses Mariculture Species Preservation Transportation The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone, Utilities 1972. p. 13 of Summary of Results and Conclusions Recreation Residential Construction Living space and Recreation Preservation of Fish and Wildlife Industrial and Commercial Activities Waste Disposal EPA, 1975. Conference on Estuary Pollution Control-Uses Food Production listed for discussion Natural Preserves Special Governmental Uses Waste Disposal The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone, Sport Fishing 1972. Uses discussed in various chapters. Commercial Fishing Mining Living Resources Transportation Commercial Fisheries Electric Generation Sport Fisheries Wildlife Aquaculture Recreation APPENDIX B Previous Lists of Water Quality Criteria, 1972. Principal categories considered Pollutants of Estuaries by the Panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife (Chronological Order) Temperature Inorganics (including Heavy Metals and factors affecting The National Estuarine Pollution Study, 1969. Volume I, pH) Part 2, pp. 52 Oil Toxic Organics Decomposable Organic Material Oxygen Demand Flesh-tainting Substances Radioactive Materials Heavy Metals Sewage and Nutrients Mineral Salts Solid Wastes Pathogenic Organisms PToxic Materials Clark, John, 1974. Environmental Events Thermal Pollution TSediment aPoBiological Oxygen Demand Sediment Dissolved Oxygen Oil . Nutrients Pathogens Wastes Management Concepts for the Coastal Zone, 1970. Pathogens Floatabios Provides discussion on the following: Odors and Tastes Pesticides Color Toxicity Sludges and Solid Wastes Dissolved Salts Heat Radiological Oil Oil Temperature Toxic Substances Temperature Nutrients pH Buffering Dissolved Organics Ground Water Oxygen Demand Brine EPA, 1975. Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Pollu- Fresh Water tants listed for discusssion The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone, Oil 1972. Considered to be of special concern: Solid Wastes Sediments Trace Metals Nutrients Plant Nutrients Sewage Organic Additions Heat Solid Wastes Synthetic Organics Radioactivity Metals Pathogens Chlorination Heat Bacteria and Viruses Dredging, Filling, Marine Mining Agricultural Wastes UAJ.S. GOVERNMiENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977 Z00-369 1-3 756