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    Coastal Zone 1                        /,de37,
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     Center
      ESTUARINE: POLLUTION CONTROL

      AND A~SSESSMENT

        Proceedings of a Conference
                     VOLUMEII1

                    WTAL -zoNE

       5z~~~~~~TJ E

     0~~~~~-v-III

                                               ESTUARINE
                              POLLUTION CONTROL
                                AND ASSESSMENT

                                              Proceedings
                                        of a Conference
                                                       VOLUME II

                                                             's%  ,o

                                            U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                                          OFFICE OF WATER PLANNING AND STANDARDS
                                                          WASHINGTON, D.C.

                                          U. . c   ,Fr"-RTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
    i-                                                        t \ r.- r. atF '.it' CES CENTER
       c '*                                                   ,J ~,. t.    "" a i FSON AVENUE
       ..., Ir.-L.10N, SC  29405-2413

                                  Property of CSC Library

    The contents of this publication do not reflect official policies of either
    the Environmental Protection Agency or any other goverinetal' unit.
    Statements contained herein are to be ascribed solely to their authors.

          !ferd    ZY ''O v.           -

    CONTENTS

    VOLUME II
                                                                  PORTS
    OTHER POLLUTANTS
                                                                     Factors Bearing on Pollution Control in U.S. Ports
                                                                     Located in Estuarine Areas-                  ...................529
        Oil Pollution in the Coastal Environment    -      ------- 385  Located in EstuarineAreas
       John W. Farrington
                                                                     Factors Bearing on Pollution Control in West
        Consequences of Oil Pollution in the Estuarine
                                                                     Coast Estuarine Ports-                      . ........................545
        Environment of the Gulf of Mexico                   401        C oast Estuarine  Por ts
        Lewis R. Brown
        Solid Waste Disposal and its Relationship to
        Estuarine Pollution---- ------------ 409    THE PUBLIC'S ROLE
        Hans A. Feibusch
                                                                     Sea Grant Estuarine Studies ------------------ 555
        Impact of Chlorination  Processes on  Marine                   Leatha F. Miloy
        Ecosystems  415
        William P. Davis, D. P. Middaugh                               Escarosa: the Anatomy of Panhandle Citizen In.
                                               '  -'.            .   volvement in Estuarine Preservation   .--             --- 567
        The Impact of Synthetic Organic Compounds on                   Thomas S. Hopkins
        Estuarine Ecosystems -..---------------.------ 425
                                                                     The Role of the Public in Texas Estuary Protec-
        Jeffrey L. Lincer                                              tion                                                 581
        Trace Metals in the Oceans: Problem or No?__-  445             Vernon Smylie
        Earl W. Davey, Donald K. Phelps                                The Role of Citizen Action Groups in Protecting
        Pollution in Nation's Estuaries Originating from               and Restoring Wetlands in California       -       --------- -   593
        the Agricultural Use of Pesticides ---------    -   451        Fred S. Farr
        Ming-Yu Li

        The Impact of Offshore Petroleum Operations on             LEGAL ASPECTS
        Marine and Estuarine Areas----         ---------------..    467
        Keith G. Hay                                                   Land Use Controls and Water Quality in the
                                                                      Estuarine Zone                   ------------------- ------- 607
                                                                      Marc J. Hershman
    RESEARCH APPLICATIONS
                                                                      Structuring the Legal Regulation of Estuaries  617
        The Effect of Estuarine Circulation on Pollution               Angus MacBeth
        Dispersal                                          .............................. 477
        HugoB.Dispersal------------------------------------ 4          Estuarine Management-the Intergovernmental
        Hugo B. Fischer
                                                                     Dimension -----------------------  629
        The Crucial Role of Systematics in Assessing                   John J. Bosley
        Pollution Effects on the Biological Utilization of             Basic Factors of Population Distribution Affecting
        Estuaries- -------------------------------------487   Demand for Water Resources  ---------    637
        Melbourne R. Carriker                                          John C. Becher
        Bacteria and Viruses-Indicators of Unnatural
        Environmental Changes Occurring in the Nation's
        Estuaries                    --------------------------  507 ESTUARINE ECONOMICS
        Rita R. Colwell
                                                                     Economic Analysis in the Evaluation and Manage-
        National Estuarine Monitoring Program ---- ---- 519            ment of Estuaries                 ----------------------------   659
        Philip A. Butler                                               John H. Cumberland
        A Brief Assessment of Estuary Modeling-Recent                  Establishing the Economic Value of Estuaries to
        Developments and Future Trends           -         ------------- 523  U.S. Commercial Fisheries----- --- ----   671
        R. J. Callaway                                                 Dennis P. Tihansky, Norman F. Meade

                                                                                                                          iii

    IV                                                       CONTENTS

    CONCLUDING REMARKS

       Organizational Arrangements for Management of                    Seven Ways to Obliteration  Factors of Estuarine
       Atlantic Coast Estuarine Environments ------687    Degradation ------------------723
       Maurtce P. Lynch                                                 Joel 'W  Hedgpeth

       Evaluation of Water Quality in Estuaries and                     Interactions  of  Pollutants  with the  Uses  of
       Coastal Waters-----------------701  Estuaries--------------------739
       Wzllsam J Hargm, Jr                                              TR ugene (Cronrn

                                                                7                            -'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~J

                                                   Ag

        OTHER
    POLLUTANTS

    OIL POLLUTION IN THE
    COASTAL ENVIRONMENT

    JOHN W. FARRINGTON
    Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
    Woods Hole, Massachusetts

                ABSTRACT

                Petroleum and petroleum products such as fuel oil and lubricating oil are very complex mixtures of
                chemicals with individual compounds numbering at least in the tens of thousands. This very com-
                plex chemical mixture is introduced into the already complex system of interacting physical,
                chemical, biological, and geological components which constitute the marine environment. Thus,
                the investigation of the impact of oil pollution on the marine environment is a difficult undertaking
                which will require much more research before some of the potentially most serious problems are
                fully understood.

    INTRODUCTION                                            1973, 1974) leading to the first draft, that areas of
                                                           controversy remain. It is also clear from reading
      Oil pollution in the estuarine and coastal environ-    these same reports and reviewing current literature
    ment is the subject of many strong political, eco-    that significant progress towards understanding the
    nomic, and environmental arguments. The advent    inputs, fate, and effects of oil in the marine environ-
    of new and/or expanding refinery operations, port    ment has been achieved.
    facilities, deepwater oil terminals, offshore drilling
    and production, pipelines, ocean dumping, and
    tanker traffic requires an understanding of the im-    OBJECTIVES
    pact of accidentally or intentionally discharged oil
          on the coastal zone environment.                    The objectives of this paper are as follows:
    on the coastal zone environment.
      A major portion of our knowledge about oil pollu-       1) To provide a summary of available information.
                                                              1) To provide a summary of available information.
    tion has been obtained during the past five years.
    The acquisition of this knowledge was catalyzed by
    such well publicized incidents as the massive Torrey    limited knowledge
    Canyon oil tanker spill, the Santa Barbara oil well       3) To suggest information which can be of use in
    blowouts and smaller but extensively studied spills making management decisions regarding the estu-
                                                           arine and coastal environment.
    such as the West Falmouth, Mass., oil spill (Anon.,        4) To suggest some  approahes towards providing
                                                              4) To suggest some approaches towards providing
    1971; Smith, 1968; Straughan and Kolpack, 1971;    the further information needed to adequately under-
         Blumner et al., ,971a).                            stand and/or monitor oil pollution.
      The findings of many oil spill studies and labora-
    tory and field surveys of oil pollution are subjects       A review and discussion of the engineering aspects
    of serious debate within the scientific community,    of the prevention, control, and abatement of oil pol-
    and also within the governmental, public, and private    lution will not be attempted. They are subjects
    sectors of the world. The controversy involving    better treated by someone more knowledgeable in
    seemingly conflicting reports about the impact of    the field of engineering. Readers interested in these
    oil pollution resulted in the convening of a study    topics will find them discussed in the Proceedings
    group by the National Academy of Sciences to    of the Conferences on the Prevention and Control of
    ascertain the state of our knowledge with respect    Oil Pollution (API, 1969  1971, 1973).
    to the inputs, fates, and effects of oil pollution in
    the marine environment and to point to areas in
    need of further research. The study group met    SOURCES OF INFORMATION
    in -May 1973. The report will be issued late in 1974
    or early 1975 after more than a year of debate and         There are numerous sources of published informa-
    revision. It is clear after reading the final drafts of    tion about oil pollution. These sources include news-
    this report and also the background papers (NAS,    paper accounts, technical reports, and refereed scien-

                                                                                                            385

    386                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    tific journal publications. Generally, the latter is   Table 1.-Estimate of petroleum and petroleum hydrocarbon inputs to the
    the information source most highly regarded for its                      marine environment
    accuracy and objectivity. Scientific journal articles                (Millions of metric tons per year)
    are usually rigorously reviewed by the authors' peers                                  World      U.S.
    prior to acceptance for publication. There are numer-
    ous scientific journal articles dealing with oil pollu-   Normal Operations
                                                             Offshore Production a-............. ----.... 0.02  0.003
    tion. There are, however, far more technical reports    Transportation  I
    reporting on oil pollution studies. The preponderance   Load on top tankers - .. ..-      0.31      0.05
    of technical reports is the result of the need to get    Non-load on top tankers         0.77       0.12
                                                               Dry docking -...........................  0.25  0.039
    information to decision makers, including the public,    Terminal operations .--    - ----- ---...i  - 0.003  0.0004
    as rapidly as possible. If a scientist waited for the    Bilges bunkering  .--- --....    0.        0.078
    normal review and publication process in a scientific    Coastal Refineries  a -0..... ..  ..2      0.03
                                                             Coastal Mlunicipal Wastes a I- - ----------------0.3  0.10
    journal he would experience a delay of approximately   Coastal Non-Refinery Industrial Wastes a   ----- 0.3  0.10
    6 to 18 months after writing a report of the study.    Urhan Ro.    .-     - ------        3        010
                                                             River Runoffb - -        -        --------- 1.6    0.53
    The demands for information often require a more       Atmosphere 0- .-  -                0.6       0.18
    rapid transfer process from the arena of science to    Natural Seeps b .    . l -         0.6       0.12
    that of decision makers. But a penalty is paid. The    Accidents a
                                                               dOffshore production .-. .      ....... . .-......-0.06  0.01
    peer review process is circumvented unless the deci-     Tankers     -                    0.2       0.03
    sion makers arrange for peer review of the report.       Non-tanke-s  .-.                 0,.10     0.02
    They are well advised to do so, including peer review                                    6.113      1.510
    of this report.
      It is fortunate that, as previously mentioned, the   a Esti6mate wiih high confidahce trtiftlO
    subject of oil pollution in the marine environment     b stimate with modest confideick 'aling.
                                                             I Estimate with low confidedee rating,
    has recently been reviewed by the National Academy
    of Sciences study group. Readers interested in a
                                                            Table 2.--United States petroleum ahd 0 tfoloulm hydrocarion iriluts to the
    detailed review of the subject are referred to the                        a  eSidiit
    Background Papers for this study and the Final
    Report (NAS, 1973, 1974). There are also several                                    Million Metric  % of
                                                                                           Tdns per Year    Total
    other reports from workshops, symposiums, or con-
    ferences, and books which provide a broad review of   Offshore Production
    the literature or contain in one collection several    Normal operations -.  0,003                   0.20
    papers on recent progress (API, 1969, 1971, 1973;    Accdents                             001        0.66
    Duce and Parker, 1974; Goldberg, 1972 a, b, c;            Subtotal -.. ..... ... .      ' 0.013      0.86
    Ketchum, 1972; SCEP, 1970; Smith, 1974; NAS,    Tankers
    1971; Mathews et al., 1971; Hoult, 1969; Boesch,       Normal operations                 0.209       13.84
    et al., 1974).                                         Accidents -                        0,03   1.99
      Two large collections of references dealing with       Subtotal ..-. ........- .        0.239      14.73
    oil pollution studies are those of the Oil Spill Infor-   Non-Tankers
    mation Center, University Library, the University      Bilges bunkering -. .. .....       0,078      5,17
    of California, Santa Barbara; and the Plymouth         Accidents------------             0.02        1.32
    Laboratory of the Marine Biological Association of        Subtotal -                      0.098      6.49
    the United Kingdom. I have avoided listing an ex-   CoastalRefineries-0.03                            0.99
    tensive bibliography because there are over 2,000   Coastal Municipal Wastes ....- ....   0.10       6.62
    references dealing with the various aspects of oil   CoastalNon-Refinery Industrial Waste  0.10       6.62
    pollution contained in the files of the two biblio-  URirn Runoff               ..-       0.13        6.62
    graphic collections, books, reports, and papers cited   Atmosphere -.-.-.-.-.-.-.-   0.18            11.92
    above. Rather key references or references to reviews   Natural Seeps                     0.12        7.95
    are given.                                                Subtotal ...- ............... 0.10
                                                                   Total --------.-.--------------.... 1.51

    SOURCES OF OIL INPUT
    TO THE UNITED STATES COASTAL ZONE                     for each source. Figure 1 provides a graphical pre-
                                                            sentation of the pathways of oil input to the marihe
      There are several sources for oil entering the    environment. Table 1 compares the estimates for
    marine environment. These are given in Tables 1   the world input and those fbr the United States
    and 2 along with the estimated annual input rate   inputs. Table 2 presents the United States input in

                                              OTHER POLLUTANTS                                            387

         NON-ACCIDENTAL               ACCIDENTAL          the inputs from tanker operations. The largest input
         NORMAL OPERATION INPUTS
          INPUTS                                           in tanker operations is from ballasting operations.
                                                         These normally should occur at sea well away from
           . TANKERS~0,R, S [ OFFSHORE '        SHIP       coastal areas. How  much  of this input actually
              OTERS      L CRILLINGc   O   RE COLISI Nreaches the coastal areas is a complex function of
                    VESSELS  CRAFT  PROOGOTID   ~~LOADING,
                                             U-NLOADING  the physical, chemical, and biological weathering
                   URBAN~~~ o     X           k ~~~and degradation of the oil and also the surface cur-

     POLLUIO
                                                         rent system off the coast. My guesstimate is that
                          s~\\STr~~~ORM~ ~very little of the total tanker discharge reaches the
               STORM S                                    U.S. coast although the portion that does in the
                              tWASTE 0XMUNICI Lform of tar particles, tarballs, or slicks may be
         OIT    UNICIPAL ]API Shaesthetically unpleasing and contribute to the total
                        ,pIL~~   SEWERS                   ~~~impact of oil pollution on the ecological integrity of
                         IND_, ~UST~RIA,,L~~ ~the coastal zone.
                                   EFFLUENTS 9 ~ ;           6) The atmospheric input figure given in Table 2
                                                         is the estimated U.S. input to the world oceans. The
                                                         input to the coastal zone from dry fallout and rain
                                ! (~~~SEEPS  )            is some unknown fraction of the value in Table 2.
                                     /sO  I   r       ~7) The input from rivers and from land opera-
                         FIGUE 1.-Pathways of oilinput.   tions contiguous with the U.S. coastal waters is
                                                          substantial and accounts for 57 percent of the total
                                                          input.
    terms of annual input rates and the percentage of         8) The effect of the input from the various sources
    the total input in each category.                       can be quite different. For example, accidental spills
      Several important points about these tables are:     are point source and point in time inputs which
                   1) The  orlinput values and some of the United    may have immediate acute effects and long term
                   Stahes d input  values weakn sec of  the  chronic effects. Municipal or industrial effluents on
    States input values were taken directly from the
                                                          the other hand may have no measurable immediate
    NAS (National Academy of Sciences) report (1973,    i
                                                          impact but may have long term chronic effects as
    1974). Other values for the United States input    lpc   u   a    aeln   emcrncefcsa
    1974). Other' values for the United States input    the concentration of the petroleum chemicals builds
    were calculated from values given in the NAS report.
                                                          up in the ecosystem receiving the input.
      2) The, estimated input rates are in some cases    up n the ecosystem receiving the input
    approximations with ' wide6 'range of uncertainty.
    The NAS report ranked 'thl  estimates according to    Management Decisions Suggested
    the degree of confidence in the yalue given. These    by the Input Data
    rankings are given in Table 1.           i
      3) These estimates are giotil or national averages.    Several important points relating to the control
    The relative importance of the various sources of   of oil pollution discharges are suggested by our cur-
    oil entering the marine environment varies with geo-    rent knowledge of oil inputs to the coastal zone.
    graphical location and time. For example, a large         1) The largest category of inputs is the chronic
    well blowout would be a massive input of oil to a    dribbling of oil into the coastal zone by industrial
    given location and even when averaged over a 10    and municipal effluents, urban runoff, and river
    year period bof time would result in the offshore    runoff from inland areas. Thus a substantial amount
    drilling and production accidental input category    of oil will be discharged to the U.S. coastal zone
    dominating inputs for that geographical location.      regardless of whether it is transported to the coastal
      4) The largest inputs of oil are from normal    zone via tanker or produced by offshore wells in the
    operations and are intentional discharges  Acci-    U.S. coastal and continental shelf waters. Unless
    dents account for only 4 percent of the U.S. input    steps are taken to reduce it this input will increase
    and 6 percent of the world input to the marine    as our oil consumption increases.
    environment.                                              Management decisions which would have a signifi-
      5) Oil tanker operations account for 16 times gs    cant effect in reducing this input are:
    much oil input as offshore production for the U.S.,
    and 20 times as much for world inputs.                      a. Reduce per capita oil consumption.
      When considering the oil inputs to the coastal            b. Encourage re-refining or reuse of waste oils.
    zone, as opposed to the total marine environment,              This would reduce inputs and help conserve
    some consideration must be given to the location of            a valuable natural resource.

    388                                  ESTUARINE 'POLLUTION CONTROL

         c. Require the application and/or development    inology. 'This is not the case. The- former" is in its
           of technology to reduce the. amount of oil in    infancy as a technique.
           industrial: effluents, including refinery efflii-  The success of passive tagging in actually proving
           ents. This applies both to effluents discharg-    beyond a reasoinable doubt the source: of a spill
           ing directly to streams, rivers, or coastal    depends on having a complete collection of all pos-
           waters and those discharging to municipal    sible sources. Then the analytical chemi't applies
           sewers.                              .     -    increasingly more sophisticated analytical techniques
                      -                 : -                 until the parameters of one potential source match
      2) Drilling and producing oil in offshore areas is   the parameters of the spi 1'sample. However,';if the
    safer for the total marine environment than import-    actual source is'not present in the, sample collection
    ing equal quantities of oil because current estimates    incorrect identification could result. It could be that
    are that approximately 0.014 percent of'oil produced    a further application of more sophisticated cheinical
    offshore is discharged to the marine environment,    analysis 'would haive shown that in' fact the source
    whereas about 8 times as much Or -0.11 pericent of    was not among the collection of possible sources.
    the oil transported by tanker i's discharged to the    Passive tagging can be used to eliminate possible
    marine environment. This assumes that oil produced    sources and give a probability estimate of the source.
    offshore from a given location is piped ashore and        The status of passive tagging in criminal or civil
    refined dr used there without subsequent transporta-   court cases involving oil pollution has yet to be
    tion by sea to other locations. The statement must    extensively tested. The technique is of use in proving
    also be qualified in that it is assume'd that the impact    potential sources of a mystery oil spill were not the
    of 'accidental spills and chronic small inputs from    actual source. The technique used, in conjunction
    oil tankers and from offshore production 'and drill-   with other corroborative evidence may provide suffil
    ing have' similar effects per 'unit' amount of oil   cient evidence to identify the source of a spill. Aside
    input. Finally, this statement does not take into    from the legal aspects, passive,tagging may provide
    account the ecological-damage which may resultiin    some estimate of the extent ancs severity of oil pol-
    coastal areas due to the construction 'and mainten-    lution from a known source such as a refinery: efflu-
    ance of pipelines and onshore;facilities.               ent, producing well, or accidental spill of known
                                                           origin.            '
                                              .'       ..-  . The scientific and technical aspects "as well as
    IDENTIFICATION OF SOURCES'                   - -       limitations of passive tagging are discussed in detail
    OF MYSTERY OIL SPILLS                                   by Zafiriou et al. (1973), Gruenfeld (1973),'Lynch
                                v)-  -  '  -   ^       -   and Brown  (1973), Miller (1973), .and Coakley
      Mystery oil spills for which the source is unknown    (1973).
    account for 30 percent of the oil spills in United                     '   .                         -.
    States waters (NAS, 1973, 1974). There are two
    potential means by which the source of mystery oil        AT A     OF TRANFER
                                                           AND  FATES OF OIL INPUTS
    spills can be identified. The first method is active              MARINAE ENVIRONI NPTS                   .
    tagging of oil tanker cargoes, pipeline loads., and
    storage tank, contents with microscopic spheres or
    -special chemicals. The size of the bureaucracy neces-     A basic understanding .of the various pathways
    sary to ensure accurate records renders this method    of transfer and fate of oil inputs has been arrived at
    impractical.                                            from laboratory studies, field. studies, and the appli-
      The second method involves detailed chemical    cation of existing scientific knowledge of processes
    analysis of the spilled oils and potential sources.    in - the . marine environment. These pathways sand
    The chemical parameters are theh compared and    fates are diagrammed in Fig. 2. Fundamental ques-
    the best match of a potential source with the spilled    tions which are yet to be satisfactorily answered
    oil is attempted. This techniqie 'is called ''j.assiVe    about transfer pathways and fates are          ;
    tagging" and makes use of the unique chemical                                                .        -
    composition of each oil to distinguish oils one from     �   What portions of oil inputs follo w each of the
    another and match oils from source and spill sam-    various pathways of trafhsfer? .  .            -
    ples. The technique is also referred to as "finger-        - What are the rates of biochemical and chemical
    printing,"' which is perhaps unfortunate. MAiany non-    degradation of whole- oil and components' of dil
    scientists in the field of oil pollutioncontrol have    during the various stages of movement through the
    mistakenly equated "fingerprinting" in identifying    marine environment?                -              -
    mystery oil, spill sources with fingerprinting in crim-    . What are the finial rates' of removal of; oil -by

                                             OTHER POLLUTANTS    .                                     389

        PHOTOCHEMICAL            eVAPORATION             Kolpack, 1971; NAS, 1973, 1974; Blumer et al.,
          REACTIONS                                      1970). Man also plays an important role in this
         ROCKS  ' \X           /       I CLEAN UP I      process by dumping oil polluted sediment from har-
           ROCKS                 OPERATIONSI             bor dredging and sewage sludge in coastal areas
    BEACHES                         TARBALLS     R        such as the New York Bight (Farrington, 1974).
           IPARTICULATE E          (PARTICLES)           The result of the natural or manmade processes is
             I MATTER   .I~ Z   L       t                to spread the oil polluted sediment and thus the
                                        $   ii  <  t     affected area increases even though dilution proc-
         -  INGESTION eY  [ /GDISSOLUTION                esses may ameliorate the effects somewhat.

                    KIISEDIMENTSI             ,         Biodegradation of Oil

                     X BIOCHEMICAL   /BR IAL               Extensive research has been aimed towards a
                      OXIDATION       IGEOCHE JCALE    better understanding of the biodegradation of oil
                                         ,  DEPOSIT      and individual classes of compounds, and individual
                      RATE ?                             compounds found in oil (NAS, 1973, 1975; Davis,
                                                         1967; Zobell, 1969; Ahearn and Meyers, 1973). The
                FIGURE 2.-Fate of oilinputs.
                                                         majority of these studies are laboratory studies.
                                                         There is little doubt that several species of micro-
    biochemical and chemical degradation, and by deep    organisms, e.g. bacteria and yeasts, will completely
    burial in sediments?                                  degrade certain components of oil given the right
                                                         conditions in' the laboratory or in the field. It has
                                                         been established that the rate of degradation will
    Physical-Chemical Processes                           depend on many factors such as the concentrations
                                                         of nitrate, phosphate,. and dissolved oxygen in the
      M[any of 'the processes which act on the oil result water, the presence of other organic compounds,
           -                                             water, the presence of other organic compounds,
    in a fractionation of the oil and selective removal of   and the history of previous exposure of an area to
    certain components from the marine environment    oil inputs.
    more rapidly than others. Lower molecular weight        Bacteria capable of partially degrading oil have
    components of the type found in kerosene, gasoline,    been isolated from severl locations in the world's
    and in varying concentrations of crude oils and fuel
                                                         oceans. However, the rate at which the degradation
    oils will evaporate more rapidly than the heavier    of oil will proceed in the various types of coastal
    molecular weight components such as those making    areas is unknown. Also questioned is the potential
    up the bulk of lubricating oils. The lower molecular    pathogenicity towards marine organisms for some
    weight components are also more soluble than the    species of bacteria which might increase in number
                                                         species of bacteria which might increase in number
    heavier molecular weight molecules. For exampl9,    near or in an oil spill area (NAS, 1974). Likewise,
    several experiments  (Boylan  and  Tripp,  197f;   little is known about the toxicity of the chemicals
    Frankenfeld, 1973; API, 1974) have shown that    produced by microbial degradation of oil. In fact,
    when No. 2 fuel oil is placed in contact with sea-    we have only rudimentary knowledge of the bio-
    water, the aromatic hydrocarbons of the fuel oil are    chemical pathways and products of the biochemical
    dissolved or accommodated in the water to a greater   degradation of oil (NAS, 1973, 1975; Davis, 1967;
    extent than are the saturated hydrocarbon compo-    Zobell, 1969; Ahearn and Meyers, 1973).
    nents of the oil.
      The adsorption of oil onto or into suspended
    sediments and subsequent washing with water can    Oil inr Marine Organisms:
    result in fractionation of the oil with some coinpo-    Input, Retention,
    nents adhering more readily to the sediments than    Release, Metabolism
    others (Meyers, 1972). However, this may not
    always occur. Mixing of a No. 2 fuel oil with sedi-     The pathways of oil incorporation into marine
    ment by wave action and turbulence resulted .in   organisms are outlined in the left portion of Figure 3.
    essentially intact oil being incorporated into sedi-   Oil may enter marine organisms by ingestion of
    ments (Blumer et al., 1971b).                         contaminated food, Oil may also enter marine orga-
    , Once oil is incorporated into sediments it may.be    nisms from water across membrane surfaces such
    transported to other areas by resuspension and trans-   as gills.                                 .
    port of the oil polluted sediment (Straughan and        Data collected in three independent studies sug-

    390                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                              _   :1. COATING             Aside from the few measurements mentioned above
                                  DIREDUCTE RESISTALL CE   (Blumer, 1971), there are no studies of the retention
                                   OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL    of petroleum hydrocarbons taken up under condi-
                                   STRESSES. e.g. TEMPERATURE  of petroleum hydr ocarbon s taken up under condi-
                                   DISEASES, OTHER POLLUTANTS    tions of massive inputs to the organisms' habitat
                                                          by oil spills. There are also no studies on the uptake,
    SOLUBLE .1   $            2. OIL INGESTED OR INCORPORATED  retention, and discharge of petroleum hydrocarbons
     OIL EMUSIIEDO             ACROSS MEMBRANES. e~g. GILL
                                l/ASUDREFACT KILL   E     Svia ingestion with food. The studies cited above do
                                 A. DIRECT KILL
         DISSOLVED OR           B. SUBLETHAL EFFECTS       provide a good model for future studies of longer
         ACCOMODATED  iPLANKTON    1. REPRODUCTIVE FAILURE
          INTO WATER      /         2. CHEMICAL COMMUNICATIONS   duration which could test the effects of years of
                                   3. STRESSED AT DISADVANTAGE   exposure to chronic inputs of oil via uptake across
                                     TO OTHER SPECIES e.g.
                                     ABILITY TO AVOID PREDATOR   membrane surfaces from water or ingested with food.
                                     AND TO CAPTURE PREY.                   question       L b these studies
                                   4. DISRUPTION OF MIGRATION  An important question for which these studies
                     SHELLFISH      e.g. SALMON           provide some insight is whether or not there is food
                   WORMS                                   web magnification of oil pollutants. An example of
                                                          food web magnification is the process where oil pol-
                   EFFECTSON MARKETING O                               concentration                   would
                 COMMERCIALLY VALUABLE SPECIES            lutants of X concentration pnytoplankton would
                                                          become 10X concentrated in the zooplankton which
               1. TAINTING-ASTHETICALLY UNPLEASANT
               2. HUMAN HEALTH HAZARD - POTENTIAL         eat the phytoplankton, and 100X concentrated in
                 HAZARD: LITTLE KNOWLEDGE                  the fish which eat the zooplankton. This process
    FIGURE 3.-Pathways of oil incorporation into marine life   would occur if the zooplankton and fish, the higher
                   and effects on marine life.             members of the food web, accumulated all the pol-
                                                           lutant they ingested and did not metabolize or
    gest that oil incorporation into shellfish and fish is   discharge a portion of the pollutant. This process,
    reversible to some extent when the shellfish or fish   if operative, would mean that many commercially
    are placed in clean water for a period of time    valuable species of marine organisms which are
    (Stegeman and Teal, 1973; Lee et al., 1972 a, b;    higher members of the food web may concentrate
    Anderson, 1973). Most, but not all, of the oil taken    petroleum pollutants to the extent that adverse
    up from water by the shellfish was discharged within    effects would ensue There is also the question of
    weeks to months. Indications, however, from a lim-    whether concentrations would reach a limit which
    ited number of analyses for one experiment reveal    would adversely affect the human consumer. The
    that oysters exposed for two months to oil from an    data collected in these and two other studies (Burns
    oil spill did not appreciably reduce their oil pollut-   and Teal, 1971, 1973) suggest that food web mag-
    ant content even after 180 days in cleaner waters.    nification is not operative for some communities of
    The fact that this experiment gave somewhat dif-   marine organisms.
    ferent results than the other experiments may be a
    result of the heavy dosage of oil experienced by' the    Application of Existing Knowledge
    shellfish under spill conditions.
      Fish tested in the laboratory partially metabolized    BIODEGRADATION OF OIL INPUTS
    several different aromatic hydrocarbons of the type
    found in crude and fuel oils (Lee et al., 1972b).        Investigations of the feasibility of seeding oil
    Mussels, however, did not metabolize these com-    spills with bacteria shown to be capable of degrading
    pounds under similar laboratory test conditions.    oil in the laboratory have been initiated (Miget,
     (Lee et al., 1972a). This points to the obvious    R. J., 1973). This has been suggested as only a last
    danger of extrapolating from one class or species of   resort approach by the NAS  report (1974). The
    organism to others. Furthermore, caution should be    benefits accrued from releasing an essentially un-
    exercised in extrapolating from the few compounds    controlled chain of unknown events are far out-
    tested to other compounds in petroleum since dif-   weighed by the potential hazards at this time.
    ferences in the molecular structure of compounds         Applications of existing knowledge about biodeg-
    can have profound effects on the rates at which the    radation of oil may find widespread use in the near
    compounds are metabolized, if they are metabolized    future. Biodegradation of oil in industrial effluent
    at all.                                               holding ponds, tanker ballast waters either in tanks
       The above studies provided several replicate tests    on the ships or in holding facilities on shore may be
    of the uptake of petroleum hydrocarbons from water    a feasible method of partially cleaning up this type
    by marine organisms and the retention and release   of input to the marine environment while it is still
    once these organisms are placed in clean water.    concentrated at its source (NAS, 1974).

                                               OTHER POLLUTANTS                                            391

    PATHWAYS OF TRANSFER AND FATi                          an integral component of their environment, this
                                                           same exposure may affect the adjacent marine en-
      It is known to some degree how oil pollutants    vironment in varying degrees.
    move through the marine environment and where             An additional important point to make regarding
    they tend to accumulate. This information facilitates   oil pollution of marine organisms consumed by man
    surveys of the extent and damage of the oil inputs    is that negative indications of oil pollution by taste
    to the marine environment. It also provides input    panel tests have occurred even when the shellfish
    to models which attempt to predict the movement    tested contained at least 2 ppm (wet weight) of oil
    -of oil spills and their severity and extent.            pollutants from a No. 2 fuel oil spill as determined
      Another application is in the evaluation of the    by chemical analysis (Blumer et al., 1971b). The
    advantages and limitations of methods of treating    chemicals responsible for the adverse taste may be
    or cleaning up oil spills. For example, the use of    metabolized or released more rapidly than the bulk
    non-toxic emulsifiers (see later section on effects)    of the oil pollutants in the organisms. Therefore,
    or dispersants on an oil spill would result in increased    negative taste panel tests do not assure the'absence
    dissolution of the oil and accommodation into the    of oil pollutants. Furthermore, there has yet to be
    water column, adsorption into particulate matter,    a study to calibrate taste panel tests with seafood
    and incorporation into sediments. On the one hand    containing known concentrations of oil.
    this might further the biodegradation of the oil by
    increasing mixing of oil, nutrients, oxygen, and nat-
                                                           Recommendation
    urally occurring microbial populations capable of Recommendation
    degrading the oil. On the other hand, it would spread     It is essential that further research be conducted
                                                             It is essential that further research be conducted
    oil throughout the water column and sediments,
    potentially increasing the extent and severity of the    on the transfer of oil pollutants into marine orga-
    potentially increasing the extent and severity of the nss attoigo h oltnswti h
    toxic effects on organisms. The incorporation of sig-   nisms, partitioning of the pollutants within the
    nificant quantities of the oil into sediments could organisms, metabolism within the organisms, and
         niog heexo eof ian area tof the oil and have    cudrelease or discharge of oil pollutants once the orga-
    prolong the e    axposur e                             ofanarato  thelin o i lan d    havenisms are no longer exposed to the oil pollutants in
    an adverse effect on the bottom dwelling organisms.
                                                           their habitat. This information is basic to under-
    Resuspension of the sediment and transport to other    the   ht          s   fortion     ai           n
    areas would increase the size of the affected area.    standing the effects of oil pollution on marine
      The use of sinking agents to remove the slick from organisms, to understanding pathways of transfer
    surface waters would also result in the incorporation    and fate of oil pollutants in the marine environment,
    of the oil into sediments and thus may not be ad-    and to understanding if, when, and how oil pollutants
                                                           accumulate in seafood.
    visable for the same reasons cited in the previous    accumulate in seafood.
    paragraph. Of course, in cases where dangers from
    fire or extensive damage from coating of boats or    MEASUREMENT OF AND
    beaches is the primary concern then the use of sink-    CURRENT LEVELS OF OIL POLLUTION
    ing or dispersing agents would be advisable.            IN THE UNITED STATES COASTAL ZONE
      The discussion in the preceding paragraphs under-    AND CONTINENTAL SHELF
    lines the point that prevention of accidental dis-
    charges is preferable to cleanup operations. Like-    Analysis of Marine Samples
    wise, it is clear that research and development.con-    to Detect Petroleum Pollution
    cerned with physical contamination and cleanup of
    oil spills should continue.
    oil spills should continue.                               Discussions of the procedures used and the prob-
                                                           lems encountered in analyzing marine samples for
                                                           quantities of oil not visible to the eye are given in
    Summary                                                several references (NAS, 1973; NAS, 1974; API,
                                                           1969,  1971,  1973;  Goldberg,  1972b;  Goldberg,
       Once oil is released to the marine environment it   1972c). The discussions are of a very technical
    is subjected to multiple processes and moves via    nature and are best summarized for a report of
    many pathways through the marine environment,    this type as follows:
    Research during the past few years has documented
    beyond any doubt that the absence of a visible oil        1) Several cases have been reported in which
    slick in no way assures the absence of oil in the    petroleum hydrocarbons from accidental spills and
    underlying waters, sediments, or organisms. Further-    from chronid inputs have been detected.
    more, oil incorporated into sediments may persist         2) No one method of analysis will provide reliable
    for years (Blumer et al., 1970). Since sediments are    estimates of the concentration of the entire range of

    392                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    petroleum compounds. Fuel oils and crude oils are   Table 3.-Concentrations of petroleum pollutants in water, sediments, and
    complex mixtures of compounds with wide molecu-        organisms of the coastal and continental shelf areas of the United States
    lar weight ranges. There has yet to be a complete   Water:         less than 2 pg/liter to 50 pg/liter
    analysis of a single crude oil.
      3) There are marked differences between hydro-   Sediments:     less than Ipglg dry weight to 3500 pg/g dry weight
    carbons biosynthesized by organisms and hydrocar-   Organisms:    less than 1 ,g/g wet weight to 230 pg/g wet weight
    bons in petroleum. The latter are very much more
    complex than the former and include a wide variety   Tar on Beaches:  East Coast (1969)--5 g/meter to 8 g/meter
                                                                         Florida, Miami Beach to West Palm Beach (1973)--avg. of
    of compounds which have not been found in orga-                    5.4 gfmeter
    nisms in laboratory culture experiments or in areas               California (1961)-3 to 100 g/meter
    where there is little or no petroleum pollution. How-
    ever, many sources exist for small amounts of hydro-   NAS (1973, 1974), and references therein.
    carbons in marine samples: biological processes, geo-
    chemical processes, pollution processes. Careful at-
    tention to recognizing the possible inputs from these   nism samples have been reported in the literature
    sources is needed in order to detect man's input of   to date exclusive of reports of visible sheens on
    petroleum pollutants. In areas where natural oil   the water.
    seeps occur, this problem is extremely difficult.       The fact that there are so few published measure-
      4) Reports of the presence or absence of petroleum    ments of the extent and severity of oil pollution in
    pollution should be carefully evaluated to be certain   sediments and organisms in United States coastal
    that the methods of chemical analysis employed    waters probably testifies to the difficulty of making
    would indeed provide the information claimed to   analytical measurements to detect petroleum pollu-
    have been obtained.                                  tion. (Goldberg, 1972a).

    Present Concentrations of                            EFFECTS OF OIL
    Oil Pollutants in U.S. Coastal                       ON THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
    and Continental Shelf Areas
                                                           Aesthetic Effects
      There are a limited number of measurements of
    oil pollutants in the water, sediment, and organisms   The coating of beaches, shorelines, and recrea-
    of the United States coastal zone. Only a few loca-   tional and commercial boats and ships by spilled
    tions have been sampled more than once. In addition   oil is an obvious adverse effect. This represents a
    to the lack of data, it is difficult to compare one    financial loss to boat owners and to the recreational
    area with the other because of the differences in   and aesthetic value of a shoreline (NAS, 1974;
    methods of analysis and criteria for distinguishing   Butler et al., 1973).
    oil pollutant hydrocarbons from hydrocarbons pres-
    ent due to biogenic or contemporary geochemical
    processes. Despite these restrictions the data do    Biological Effects
    provide estimates of the present concentrations of
    oil pollutants and are given in Table 3. These data    Toxic EFFECTS
    are taken mainly from the NAS Report with elimi-
    nation of the data for coastal areas of other countries  Toxic effects involving the death of the organism
    and for deep sea samples.                            exposed to oil may occur soon after exposure to the
      General- conclusions which can be drawn from   oil slick or to oil components transported through
    these -data and the data given in the NAS Report    the water or via sediments as indicated in Figures
    from which they were summarized are as follows.      2 and 3 and previous discussions. Toxic effects may
      1) Oil pollutants have been detected in sediment,    also occur at later dates as the concentrations of oil
    water, and organisms in areas of large oil spills.   in the organisms increase or the oil is transported
      2) Oil pollutants have also been detected in sedi-   to new areas.
    ment, water, and organisms from areas where no         Toxic effects generally can be divided into two
    large spills have occurred in the past months or   categories: effects from smothering in the oil, or
    years. These areas are near sources of small spills   effects from oil taken into the organisms or absorbed
    and chronic dribbling inputs.                        into the organisms from water or sediments. Toxic
      3) No more than an estimated 300 analyses for   effects have been reported for spilled oil and from
    petroleum pollutants in sediment, water, and orga-   studies in the laboratory (NAS, 1974).

                                              OTHER POLLUTANTS  .                                       393

    SUBLETHAL AND CHRONIC EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS    effects in other functions such as reproduction and
                                                         metabolism.
      These effects do not directly result in the immedi-   4) Blue mussels which were juveniles in the area
    ate death of the organism exposed to oil. There are   of the West Falmouth oil spill at the time of the
    numerous ways that oil can have an adverse effect   spill developed almost no eggs or sperm the next
    on marine life without the result being immediately    season (Blumer et al., 1971a). The development of
    apparent in the form of dead plants or animals. The  .sand dollar eggs has also been shown to be adversely
    types of effects in this category which have been    affected by oil in the laboratory studies (Parker,
    observed or suspected as -being important for indi-   1974).-effects on reproduction.
    vidual organisms are effects on:                        5) Effects at the cellular and organ level in clams
                                                         have been reported. Soft shell clams from .an area
                                                         near an. oil spill had a higher incidence of gonadal
        Fertilization and development                    tumors than soft, shell clams from a control area
        Growth
                                                         (LaRoche, 1973)-effects on cells and organs and
        Metabolism-photosynthesis and respiration         probably on reproduction.
        Behavior
        Cells and organs
                                                         EFFECTS ON THE COMMUNITIES
      Some specific examples of the above are given    OF MARINE ORGANISMS
    below. A more detailed presentation: is given in the
    NAS Report (1974).                                      Closely related communities of organisms may
      1) The reduction in the intake and metabolism    also be profoundly affected. For example, effects
    of phytoplankton detritus by mussels  (Gilfillan,   on marsh grasses may cause the marsh to be an
    1973)-an effect on metabolism.                        unsuitable place for the crabs and mussels which
      2) Reduction in the rates of photosynthesis of   live in the marsh. Effects on worms in the sediments
    phytoplankton cultures (Kauss et al., 1973; Parker,    can affect the fish which feed on the worms. Many
    1974). This is' an interference with the process by    worms also play an important part in sediment
    which carbon dioxide is converted to food for the   stability. Their tubes contribute to holding the sedi-
    major part of marine life-an effect on-metabolisnm.    ment in place. If the worms are killed and the tubes
      3) Interference with the chemical communication    decay the sediment may be easily eroded and the
    between marine animals. Many marine animals com-   polluted sediment transported to other areas. The
    municate with one another via chemicals given off   movement of the sediment will disturb other orga-
    to the water, i.e. odors. Some predators are attracted    nisms living on the bottom even though they might
    to their prey by smell. One study has shown a sig-   not have been directly affected by the oil.
    nificant adverse effect on the finding of food by a
    predator (Jacobson and Boylan, 1973)..
      Chemical communications or chemotaxis are also    OIL SPILLS
    important to the reproduction of some animals.
    Male lobsters are attracted to feminale lobsters .for   One of the most heated controversies regarding
    reproductive purposes by a chemical released by the   oil pollution is that surrounding studies of the bio-
    female. Low concentrations of chemicals resulting   logical effects of oil inputs to the marine environ-
    from oil in the water may interfere with this process.    ment. The controversy is due in part to a seeming
      A third area where chemical communications is   contradiction of the reported effects or lack of effects
    important is in the areaof migration to home rivers   when comparing studies of oil spills. The contra-
    by anadromous fish for the purpose of spawning.    diction -arises when one does not carefully read
    One laboratory study has shown that oil in seawater    reports -and take into account two basic sets of
    repels salmon from entering the water of their home    factors for oil spill studies.
    stream (Rice, 1973).                                  : The first set of factors pertains to the oil spill
      The significance of these' studies is that they   itself. These factors were set forth by. Straughan
    demonstrate the potential effects that low concen-    (1972) and have recently been restated (NAS,
    trations of oil in water might have if -a spill or    1974). They vary from spill to spill and influence
    chronic release occurred at the time of year when    the effect and fate of the spilled oil. They are:
    marine animals were entering the reproductive
    phase. The effects on predator-prey interactions           Type of oil spilled
    would be important throughout the year. These             Dose of oil in a given.area -
    are effects on behavior which result in adverse           Physiography of the area of the spill

    394                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

        Weather conditions at the time of the spill      have shown, as one might expect, that concentrations
        Biota of the area of the spill                   of oil at which biological effects occur can vary from
        Previous exposure of the area to oil pollution    fuel oil to fuel oil and crude oil to crude oil when
        Exposure to other pollutants                      tested against one species. The studies have also
        Treatment of spill, e.g. use of emulsifiers, dis-   shown that different species and adults and juveniles
          persants, or sinking agents                    of the same species vary in their susceptibility to
                                                         toxic effects when tested against the same oil.
      A second set of factors influencing oil spill stud-
    ies are:
                 ~~~~~ies are:    ~EFFECTS OF OFFSHORE
                                                          DRILLING AND PRODUCTION
      1) A spill is not predictable as to its location and
    time. In the past, studies of spills have been of the   The question of the long-term effects of offshore
    nature of getting out into the area with the best   drilling and production on fisheries is one which has
    available means at hand and studying what could    no easy answer. Certainly, the fisheries in the Gulf
    be studied within the expertise of the scientists in-   of Mexico have not been destroyed and are a viable
    volved. In an ideal situation this would involve    sector of the economy. This experience suggests at
    biologists, chemists, geochemists, geologists, meteor-   first glance that no long-term  effects have been
    ologists, and physical oceanographers. Such a team    noticed. However, for the sake of argument I pro-
    of scientists is rarely sitting around waiting for an    pose the following scenario: Prior to offshore produc-
    oil spill to happen and as such it is difficult for   tion in the Gulf of Mexico the fisheries there were
    them to drop everything they are doing and head    at a very low level of productivity due to natural
    out for the field or immediately begin laboratory    causes. During the past 30 years or so the fishery
    studies.                                              would have increased in productivity potential by a
      2) The different methods used to study oil spills,   factor of 10. However, because of some unknown
    the different animals or plants studied, and differ-   and undetected effect of the oil* production the
    ences in the duration of the study vary from one    fishery only increased in yield by a factor of 2. This
    spill to the next. Thus, the task of trying to com-    factor of 2 suggests by itself that the oil production
    pare studies from one spill to the next is a frustrating    had no long-term effect and may have been some-
    one somewhat akin to comparing measurements of   what beneficial. However, we cannot state for cer-
    distance in kldlometers to measurements of distance   tain that there was no effect, since in reality we do
    in miles without having more than a foggy idea of   not know what the fishery potential would have
    the conversion factor.                                been without the oil production. The hypothetical
                                                          factor of 10 which was used for the sake of the argu-
      The oil spill studies to date have shown that    ment might have been realized without the presence
    spilled oil does adversely affect some marine orga-    of the offshore drilling and production activities.
    nisms (NAS, 1973, 1974). The effects vary in   Likewise, it may be argued on a hypothetical basis
    severity and duration. Complete recovery may take    that without the offshore drilling and production
    years and is not related to whether or not there are   rigs the fishery may have declined due to natural
    visible concentrations of oil present.                causes. Without knowledge of natural fluctuations
                                                          in fisheries it is impossible to conclude whether or
                                                          not offshore production adversely affects fisheries.
    LABORATORY STUDIES                                      Several other factors suggest caution when using
    OF BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS                                 the Gulf of Mexico fisheries as an example for
                                                          advocacy of drilling and production in other areas.
      A comparison of laboratory studies of the effects    The oil produced may have a much greater effect
    of oil on marine organisms suffers from many of the    per unit weight than the oil produced in the Gulf
    same restrictions cited in the above section on oil   of Mexico. The fisheries may be of a different type
    spills. A variety of oils have been tested on a variety    and dependent on species much more susceptible to
    of marine organisms under a variety of laboratory    the effects of oil. The combined effects of oil and a
    conditions.                                           different environment may be more severe.
      However, several studies have been conducted          It is certain that pipelines coming onshore and
    under conditions similar enough or conducted in the    support facilities on shore can have a severe effect
    same laboratory so that the following  comments    on coastal areas if not properly managed (St. Amant,
    can be set forth (NAS, 1973, 1974). The studies    1972).

    396                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    more spectacular. It is known that offshore drilling   consumption of oil. Since this does not seem likely,
    and production discharges only a small fraction of   programs to reduce the dribbling of oil into the
    the total oil input to the marine environment. It is   marine environment should be instituted. Reuse or
    also known that the major input of oil to the marine    re-refining of waste oils is an example of a program
    environment is the result of the chronic dribbling    which would help to reduce inputs and conserve a
    losses which accompany present methods of using oil.   valuable resource.
                                                            2) A reduction in ship accidents might be accom-
                                                         plished by better traffic and safety regulations. Re-
    Pathways of Transfer                                  duction in the amount of oil spilled in an accident
    and Fates of Oil Inputs
    to the MF arine Environment                           might be accomplished by the construction of false
                                                         bottom tankers. The use of the false bottoms as
      It has been demonst;rated onc$ again that the    segregated ballast tanks would, also reduce the
    cliche "out of sight, out of mind" should not apply    amount of oil entering the marine environment
    to environmental problems. The disappearance of    from tanker ballasting operations. A detailed discus-
    an oil slick does not mean that the oil has dis-   sionofthissubjectisgivenintheFinalEnvironmen
    appeared from the marine environment. Oil inputs    tal Impact Statement,  Maritime Administration
    move by a variety of pathways through the marine    Tanker Construction Program (NTIS, 1973).
    environment and are affected by many processes.          3) Offshore drilling and production with its at-
    The ultimate fates of oil discharged to the marine    tendant risks appears to be safer in the long run
    environment are chemical or biochemical degrada-    for the marine environment as a whole than import-
    tion, and/or buirial at depth in sediments. Our    ing an equal quantity of oil. This argument assumes
    knowledge is mostly of the qualitative nature of   that the oil produced offshore is piped ashore and
    these movements and processes. Extensive quanti-    not transported elsewhere.
    tative estimates of rates of movement and rates or      If we assume that we will continue to consume
    processes affecting oil inputs are still lacking.     oil and even increase consumption, then we should
                                                         proceed with offshore drilling and. production as
                                                         ,soon as the problems with coastal land use plans,
    Effects of Oil                                        jurisdiction over offshore operations, and socio-
    on the Marine Environment                             economic problems are resolved.
                                                           The arguments about the longrterm- effects of
      The known or suspected effects are diagrammed    offshore drilling and production involve such large
    in Fig. 3. The aesthetic effects are obvious. The    segments of the marine environment that satisfac-
    immediate toxic effects are also apparent from stud-    tory answers will only be obtained by conducting
    ies of accidental oil spills. Subtle long-range chronic    the experiment. That is, conduct the offshore drilling
    and sublethal effects are known in a few cases and    and production in such a manner as to ensure close
    suspected in many others. Effects can be at the    monitoring and control. Given close monitoring and
    level of cells and organs, whole organisms, or com-    accompanying research in the laboratory and the
    munities of organisms.                                field there is a good chance of averting an ecological
      The chronic long-term effects of offshore drilling   catastrophe before it occurs. This does not mean
    and production are largely guessed at or suspected.    that all adverse effects will be detected, but rather
    The long-term environmental hazards or the long-   that any effects which escape the monitoring and
    term safety of offshore drilling and production are    control processes mill be small and acceptable in
    both unproven.                                        return for the benefit of the oil resource utilization.
      Human health hazards resulting from eating oil
      Human health haoards resulting from eating oil        It should be emphasized the sacrifice of the long-
    contaminated seafood are suspected but not yet   term potential productivity of the offshore fisheries
    proven.                                               resource is, not advocated. In fact, this would be a
                                                         primary consideration of any research and monitor-
    APPLICATIONS OF                                       ing program.
    OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE                                   4) The knowledge of pathways of transfer and
                                                         fate of oil inputs is sufficient to provide an evaluation
      1) It appears that the major sources of oil input    of some methods of combating oil slicks. In addition,
    to the marine environment have been defined. It is  -the movement of oil slicks and oil in the marine
    clear that the only hope of a significant reduction    environment is sufficiently documented to be of
    in the major oil input to the marine environment    some use in making first approximation models of
    in the immediate future is a reduction in the total   the fate of oil, spills (MIT, 1973).

                                              OTHER POLLUTANTS                                            395

    EFFECTS OF REFINERY EFFLUENTS                           treated and explained as the problem of radionuclides
    AND OIL DISCHARGED                                      in seafood is treated and explained. Average inputs
    IN EFFLUENTS FROM                                       or average consumptions should not be used. Rather,
    MUNICIPAL AND STORM SEWERS                              care must be taken to ensure that all segments of
                                                          the population are protected (Bowen, 1974).
      Investigations of the effects of oil refinery efflu-    A cceptable level for oil in seafood should not
    ents have shown that release of effluents in sheltered    be set simply because the average New York resident
                 tida watrs klledneaby mrsh lant (Baerbe set simply because the average New York resident
    tidal waters killed nearby marsh plants (Baker,    is exposed to 200 times or more carcinogens from
    1971). Refinery effluents released to waters exposed    other sources. Rather, the acceptable risk level, if
                                                          other sources. Rather, the acceptable risk level, if
    to rapid flushing characteristics had little noticeable    there is one, should take into account the Maine
    effect (Baker, 1973). However, only a few segments    shellfisherman who eats far more shellfish and may
    of the community of marine life were investigated.      be exposed to far less carcinogen input from other
      No studies of the effects of oil discharged by    sources.
    sewage and storm sewer effluents have been con-
    ducted. It would be difficult to unravel the effects
    of the oil from the effects of the other chemicals in    Summary
    these effluents.
                                                            Documented studies of the effects of oil on marine
                                                          organisms are limited in number. The data available
    SYNERGISTIC EFFECTS                                     show that different oils have different degrees of
                                                          effects on organisms. Effects range from immediate
      There is concern that oil pollutants and other    lethality to subtle long-range effects. The effects of
    pollutants such as PCBs will act in concert such    asingle oil vary from species to species and within
    that their combined effects are more severe than    a species vary from adult to juvenile.
    predicted from the sum of their effects when acting       O   knowledge of the subtle sblethal and chronic
    individually. No reports of such studies have been    effects of oil is severely limited. Data from a fe
                  published to date. ~~~~effects of oil is severely limited. Data from a few
                  ~~~published to date.  ~studies provide a basis for concern. Certainly, fur-
                                                          ther studies are warranted based on the data col-
    Human Health Considerations                            lected on these problems.
                                                             It is impossible to decide at present whether or
      The most significant potential human health haz-   not offshore fisheries suffer long-term adverse effects
    ard is the consumption of seafood contaminated    from offshore drilling and production. The data
    with oil. There are at present no standards for decid-    needed is not available and will be extremely difficult
    ing if a particular concentration of oil in seafood    to obtain.
    represents a human health hazard.
      A very emotional controversy centers around the    SUMMARY OF MAJOR AREAS
    carcinogenic potential of oil contamination of seafood    OF PROGRESS TO DATE
     (Anon., 1974). The NAS Report (1974) states-
    "That the amount of one carcinogen, benzopyrene,          The last five years have provided significant over-
    entering the oceans from oil is small compared to   all advancement in our knowledge of the input, fate,
    the amount released into the total global environ-    and effects of oil in coastal and continental shelf
    ment from other sources." The report further states   areas. There has also been a significant increase in
    "Our knowledge of the properties of all the constitu-    the awareness of oil pollution in the public, gov-
    ents of petroleum is not complete and therefore          ernm ental, and industry sectors. New  laws and
                                                           ernmental, and industry sectors. New laws and
    there might be some dangerous materials present    regulations have resulted as well as research and de-
    in petroleum that are still unidentified."
     ein              petroleum that are still unidentified."  velopment of new technology to reduce oil pollution.
       The manner in which the NAS report (1974) ap-
     proached the problem of carcinogens in seafood could
     be misleading to the public and decision makers. The    Inputs
     report places emphasis on the point that the con-
     sumption of oil contaminated seafood by the average       Our knowledge of the sources of oil entering the
     consumer would expose the consumer to a very small    marine environment is now at the stage where we
     amount .of carcinogens relative to the amount he    can estimate their relative importance and begin
     is exposed to from other sources such as air pollu-   studies to better quantify the inputs. It is known
     tion. I submit that the problem of consumption of   that accidental inputs are a small fraction of the
     carcinogens in oil contaminated seafood should be    total input even though accidental spills are much

                                              OTHER POLLUTANTS                                            397

      5) We have a fair understanding of the immediate    reducing costs. Samples would be collected from
    toxic effects of oil. We also have a suspicion and in    several locations within study areas and control
    some cases rudimentary knowledge of the subtle    areas. However, only samples from key representa-
    sublethal and long-term chronic effects of oil on    tive locations would be analyzed to determine if
    marine life. The foundation has been laid for future    adverse effects and/or increased petroleum contain-
    studies to detail the concentration levels and envi-   ination were present. If such increases or effects
    ronmental conditions at which oil will affect marine    were detected, then the entire sample set for that
    life.                                                  season or year could be removed from archives and
      6) It is known that seafood consumed by man    analyzed to determine the geographical extent and
    can be contaminated by oil. This should stimulate    severity of the effect or increase.
    research to set acceptable levels for human consump:
    tion. In this regard, it is essential that the worse    Cost of Oil Pollution Research
    possible case be considered for the consumption of
    oil-contaminated seafood. The experience in protect-      The sophisticated types of investigations which
    ing seafood consumers from radionuclides should be    are needed to understand the inputs, fates, and
    used as a guide (Bowen, 1974). Use of an average    effects of oil pollution in the marine environment
    rate of consumption of oil contaminated seafood to    require substantial funds. For example, the costs
    arrive at a decision whether there is a serious public    for collecting, analyzing and reporting data on the
    health hazard may expose a segment of the popula-    level of petroleum pollutants in samples of water,
    tion to unwarranted risk.                              sediments, and organisms from four sampling sites
                                                          in an offshore production area and two control areas
    RESEARCH AND MONITORING NEEDS                          would be about $180,000 per year if sampling were
                                                          conducted four times a year. If the costs of biological
      Any study of marine environmental quality prob-    analyses, geological and physical oceanographic stud-
    lems is based on current knowledge of biological,    ies are added and the total multiplied by monitoring
    physical, chemical, and geological processes in the    of three potential offshore drilling and production
    marine environment. Continued and increased fund-    locations on the Atlantic Continental Shelf, then
    ing of research towards understanding these basic    the cost would be about $2.5 million per year. These
    processes in the marine environment is absolutely   estimates are based on current costs of obtaining
    essential for short-term and long-term protection    such data in research programs and may be re-
    and upgrading of marine environmental quality.         duced  somewhat  by  concentration  of activities
      Research into general aspects of oil pollution    and reduction in cost per analysis because of the
    problems or in specific areas should be conducted    large volume of analyses needed.
    in a manner which is scientifically sound and flexible
    enough to pursue interesting and relevant problems    SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS
    as they develop. Available funds should be primarily    FOR RESEARCH AND  MONITORING
    funneled to scientists via research grants. This
    mechanism is preferable to the Request for Proposal    Inputs
    (RFP) route which seems to be gaining favor in
    government environmental research management. mntrn fvraiiyo nus
    government environmental research management.             1)  Reliable  identification,  quantification,  and
    Research grants written by scientists and reviewed    monitoring of variability of inputs.
    by their peers have a better chance of producing 2) Development and application of better remote
    useful scientific information than the RFPs issued monitoring capabilities.
    in the field of oil pollution research.
      More extensive measurement of the extent and    Measurements
    severity of oil pollution in United States waters is
    needed. Measurements should be made in a manner           1) Development and/or application of reliable
    which will provide answers as to pathways of trans-    methods for detecting and quantifying oil pollutants
    fer, rates of transfer, processes of transfer, and fates   in water, sediment, and organisms.
    of oil inputs in the marine environment.                  2) Application of these methods in conjunction
      MIeasurements in areas of offshore production, oil   with investigations. of biological effects, transfer
    ports, and refinery locations as well as control areas    processes, and fates of oil inputs.
    remote from these locations are needed to detail          3) Wider geographical coverage and time series
    man-induced and natural fluctuations. Monitoring    measurements of oil pollutants in the marine envi-
    should make use of sample archiving as a means of    ronment.

    398                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    Transfer and Fates                                        A  mechanism for ensuring quality of oil spill
    of Oil Pollutants                                       studies and at the same time involving competent
                                                            scientists in oil spill studies is as follows.
      1) Development of models for predicting move-          Provide funding to a few key laboratories for
    ment and fate of oil spills and chronic oil inputs.    laboratory and field studies on the effect and fate
    This should be undertaken for harbor areas handling    of new refinery discharges and offshore production.
    large volumes of oil cargoes, offshore drilling and    This would ensure that a good solid nucleus of re-
    production areas, oil storage areas, and pipeline    search scientists and associated facilities would be
    routes.                                                 actively engaged in oil pollution research. When an
      2) Research to better document the rates of bio-   oil spill occurred which, in the judgement of the
    degradation of oil in situ in the marine environment.    Environmental Protection Agency project officers
    This includes research to identify pathways of me-    and the research scientists, was of interest from the
    tabolism or chemical reaction and the effects of the    point of view of gaining some knowledge about the
    products of these processes.                            fate and effects of oil spills then a study team could
      3) Research to better understand the uptake,    be formed by the expansion of the existing research
    retention, metabolism and release of oil pollutants    team.
    from marine organisms. This includes further re-          This plan does away with the need for "instanta-
    search as to whether or not food web magnification    neous" emergence of a research team at the time an
    of oil pollutants is operative and, if so, when and    oil spill study is desirable.
    where.
      4). Research to quantify the rates and processes
    affecting movement  of oil through the marine    Laboratory and Field Studies
    environment.                                              The understanding of inputs, transfers, effects,
                                                           and fates of oil inputs which is needed for effective
    Effects                                                management of oil inputs and protection of the
                                                           marine environment will only be obtained by both
      1) Toxic effects measurements.                       laboratory and field studies. For example, field
      2) Long-term chronic, lethal, and sublethal effects    measurements will provide an estimate of the exist-
    measurements both in the laboratory and in situ.       ing concentration levels of oil. Laboratory bioassays
      3) Research on human health aspects of oil pollu-    can then proceed to determine if these have a long-
    tion of seafood. Needs to be resolved as soon as    term effect. Conversely, laboratory studies can pro-
    possible. This is a very emotional issue and one    vide an estimate of the acceptable concentration
    which places federal, regional, state, and local health    level of oil in the marine environment. Field studies
    authorities in a quandry. They have no guidelines to    can establish how close the current concentration
    use in deciding when to restrict or allow consumption.    levels are to the acceptable concentration level and
      4) All studies of effects should be accompanied by    project when closer control of inputs will be needed
    reliable controls and quantitative measurements.        in a given area. Furthermore, it is impossible to
                                                           reconstruct an entire natural ecosystem in a labora-
    Oil Spill Studies                                      tory. Field studies are essential to investigate effects
                                                           on large segments of ecosystems or entire ecosystems.
      I have read several final or draft reports of oil
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                                                      OTHER POLLUTANTS                                                       399

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      Energy Policy Project of the Ford Foundation, Ballinger          of some recent methods. p. 179-193 in API (1973).
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                                                                      Griffiths. 1973. The toxicity of crude oil and its components
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      Volumes I and II. Ocean Affairs Board, National Academy        Stegeman, J. J. and J. M. Teal. 1973. Accumulation, release,
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                                               :           .,                 i:

    CONSEQUENCES OF OIL POLLUTION
    IN THE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT
    OF THE GULF OF MEXICO".

    LEWIS R. BROWN
    M ississippi State University
    Mississippgi State, M ississippi

                ABSTRACT
                Incidences of oil pollution have been recorded for over 200 years, but only within the last 10 years
                has public attention been focused on the problem. Initially, the concern was for the aesthetic and
                acute effects; but attention has now been largely redirected toward low-level chronic effects,
                especially those posing a human health hazard. Other areas of increasing concern are the potential
                synergistic action of oil in conjunction with other pollutants and the long-term chronic effects of
                oil on the ecosystem. Data available in the literature have served to identify the potential prob-
                lems, but definition and resolution must await additional data. -More emphasis must be placed
                on. translating scientific data into 'information utilizable for making estuarine management
                decisions.

    INTRODUCTION                                             acteristic alone makes it extrerriely' easy to detect oil,
                                                           even to an unskilled observer, and it is interesting to
      The estuaries, unlike true marine. or freshwater    note that the Federal Sheen Regulation takes ad-
    habitats, continually vary in salinity, and chemical    vantage of this characteristic. Unfortunately, there
    composition and concentration (Christmas, 1973;    are water-soluble constituents in crude oil, and it
    Odum, et al., 1974). It has been shown that these    has been shown that these compounds can have a
    factors influence the toxicity of oil (Gilfillan, 1973;    deleterious effect on some biological species (Gilfil-
    Tagatz, 1961). Further complicating an assessment    lan, 1973; Nuzzi, 1973; Brocksen and Bailey, 1973;
    of oil pollution on the estuarine ecosystem is the    Katz, 1973). Therefore, the lack of a visible sheen
    fact that some biological species inhabit the estuary    does not insure that there is no damage to the ecosys-
    only at certain times of the year (e.g., shrimp),    tem resulting from oil pollution.
    while other permanent inhabitants (e.g., oysters)           Ever since 1754 there have been reports on oil
    have different life stages present at different times    pollution (Nelson-Smith, 1973). The Torrey Canyon
    of the year. Coupling these characteristics with the    incident in 1967 served to focus worldwide attention
    interaction of other pollutants, the complexity of    on the problem of oil pollution, and there has been
    the problem is clearly illustrated.                      an almost overwhelming number of papers on oil
      While all estuarine areas are under constant threat    pollution since that time. While it has been major
    of damage from oil pollution, particularly in terms of    oil spills as the Torrey Canyon and Santa Barbara
    the acute effects caused by major disasters, the    that have been responsible for the intense interest
    estuarine areas of the gulf coast are uniquely sus-    in the impact of oil pollution on the environment,
    ceptible to low-level, long-term, chronic pollution    it is ironical to note that these major spills account
    because of the shallowness of the coastal waters and    for only a fractional amount of the oil added to the
    the comparatively small tidal action. Considering    environment  each year. By  and large, the huge
    the fact that the gulf receives 60 percent of- the    quantities of oil that find their way into the estuaries
    drainage of the contiguous United States (Geraghty,    of the gulf coast have gone unnoticed by the public.
    et al., 1973) and many years are required for recycl-    Only recently the public has been aroused to the
    ing the waters of the gulf, the precarious position    potential health hazards of low-level oil pollution.
    of the gulf coast estuaries is evident.                  For example, a 1973 report (Anonymous, 1973;
      Crude oil is not a chemical compound but consists    Hites and Biemann, 1972) on the presence of a
    of thousands of chemically identifiable compounds    variety of organics (including some from oil) in the
    and no two crude oils have the same composition.    Charles River must have caused some public con-
    Fortunately, or unfortunately as the case may be, the    cern, particularly in view of the speculation on the
    addition of an extremely small amount of oil to water    possibility of biological magnification of potentially
    will cause a visible sheen. Fortunately, this char-    toxic compounds. Even more recently, press releases

                                                                                                           401

    402                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    have resulted from the EPA report on the New    VALUE OF CURRENT INFORMATION
    Orleans water supply, linking pollutants contained in    FOR ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT
    drinking water derived from the Mississippi River to      From a standpoint of the acute effects of oil, there
    cancer (Anonymous, 1974a; Anonymous,  1974b).    are numerous reports on laboratory studies and field
    Mercifully, the articles did not speculate on the po-    investigations of accidental spills (Blackman, 1973;
    tential biological accumulation of these compounds    Cimberg, et al., 1973; Chan, 1973; Straughan and
    in seafood. This problem will be addressed in more    Abbott, 1970; Holme, 1969; Holmes, '1969; Mackin,
    detail later in this report.                            1973; Jones, et al., 1969; Stebbings, 1970; Anony-
      The widely circulated article by columnist Jack    mous, 1956; Spooner, 1969; Straughan, 1969; Burns
    Anderson emphasized the possible connection be-    and Teal, 1971; Valery, 1968; North, 1967; Mackin
    tween oil pollution and the almost hysterically feared    and Sparks, 1962; Hay, 1974; Battelle Memorial
    disease, cancer (Anderson, 1974). It is not the pur-    Institute, 1967; Blumer, et al., 1970). These accounts
    pose of this report to delve into the moral and/or    have documented the fact that crude oils and petro-
    legal aspects of this disclosure (Seltzer, 1974), but    leur  products will kill a wide variety of biological
    merely to illustrate vividly one of the major areas in   species. Whil
    need of immediate scientific research. In the eyes of    mining or predicting the extent of damage to a given
    many people, the fouling of beaches and the death of   area, the amounts of oil required to produce acute
    large numbers of birds after a major oil spill shrink    effects are sufficiently large that they are completely
    to insignificance in comparison to the threat of in-dpoint alone.
    gesting cancer-causing compounds in seafood or    Obviously then the information is of little value in
    drinking water.                                        formulating water quality criteria, effluent stand-
      Ecological disaster is ecological disaster, no more,    ards and so forth
    no less. The causative agent is inconsequential in
    this respect, and pesticides and mercury already have    of oil can cause a myriad of long-range, chronic
                                           bnrinow is being   oil can cause a myriad of long-range, chronic
    been brought to the public attention. Oilnwisbeing    effects and may even pose a serious human health
    emphasized as the perpetrator of ecological doom.    haard  (Blumer,  1969; Tarzwell,  1970; Nelson-
    The facts of the case are that the fundamental prin-   Smith, 1970). This has caused a considerable amount
    ciples of nature which govern the behavioral, phys-    of concern in the public sector.
    iological and genetic phenomena are the same ir-          Laboratory studies are generally carried out under
    respective of the toxicant involved. The problem    controlled conditions and are useful in identifying
    really becomes more one of quantitation and study    and defining potential problems. The data from this
    of the causative agent rather than one of identifying    type of investigation also are valuable in designing
    and studying some strange new biological principles.    field experiments, but it is hazardous to project
    Admittedly, there are some differences in specifics,    laboratory findings into usable information from a
              bite ly uther   arexisti   differenoed    inthp ec ies ,  decision-making standpoint. In the case of oil pollu-
    but by utilizing existing knowledge, the cost and
                                                          tion, laboratory studies have identified a multiplicity
    time required to obtain the data necessary for mak-    of problems that may occur in the estuaries but have
                                                          of problems that may occur in the estuaries but have
    ing estuarine management decisions can be signifi-   not completely defined these problems.
    cantly reduced.                                           Data from field investigations on the long-range
      There are many facets to the problems of oil pol-   effects from oil spills are of very limited value for a
    lution in the estuarine environment which will not    variety of reasons, including: (1) the lack of ad-
    be addressed in this report. The quantities and    equate ecological baseline data for the area; (2) the
    sources of oil input and its fate in the environment is   iripact of cleanup operations; (3) the lack of estab-
    the subject of another paper for this report. Methods    lished control areas required for comparative pur-
    of treating oil wastes, cleanup procedures after acci-   poses; (4) the inability to deploy sufficiently large
    dental spills and the impact of oil drilling and pro-   teams of competent experts within the required time
    duction operations are not considered in this report.    frame; and (5) the nonuniformity of methodology
                                                e  this  report.    and techniques employed by investigators. As a re-
      The purpose of this report is to (1) comment on    sult of these defects, there is an understandable
    the usefulness of available information on oil pollu-    difference of opinion among investigators as to
    tion from a standpoint of estuarine management; (2)    the long-range effects from these oil spills. While
    highlight some of the developing areas of concern;    differences of opinion are healthy and are to be
    and (3) make concrete recommendations concerning    expected, in some cases existing data are manipu-
    future research needs.                                 lated to prove a given position on the damage caused

                                               OTHER POLLUTANTS                                             403

    by oil pollution rather than objectively interpreting    munity on the possible links between oil pollution
    the data as it exists (Mackin, 1973). Surely, many of    and cancer. There is agreement that considerably
    these seemingly conflicting points of view will be    more research is needed before a true assessment can
    resolved in the foreseeable future.                     be made.
      To date the available data have offered very little     These problems are particularly germane to the
    information of direct value in making estuarine    gulf coast for reasons cited earlier: the continual in-
    management decisions, but have identified some of    put of large volumes of pollutants, the long residence
    the areas of developing concern. Following is a brief    time, and the utilization of seafood resources from
    summary of the information available in four of the    this region.
    more important areas of concern.                           To date, the data available only have served to
                                                          identify this most important problem, but have not
                                                          made available the kinds of information required for
    ComPote ntially Carcin ogeni c                          making estuarine management decisions.
    Compounds in Oil

      The potential health hazard that could arise from    Oil as a Concentrator
    the biological magnification of carcinogenic com-    of Other Toxicants
    pounds from oil has been mertioned previously.
    Highlights from the scientific literature will help to     Potentially, the role of oil as a concentrator of
    put the problem in better perspective and serve to    other toxic materials may outweigh its other effects
    illustrate some of the complexities involved. In the    in terms of contributing to the human health prob-
    first place there are reports relating constituents of    lem. For example, one study has shown that the
    oil to cancers in a number of fish species (Battelle    concentration of mercury in oil was 4,000 and 300,000
    Memorial Institute, 1967; Tarzwell, 1970). Addition-    times greater than it was in sediments and water,
    ally, there are reports that potentially carcinogenic    respectively, taken from the same area (Walker
    hydrocarbons are widespread in the marine environ-    and Colwell, 1974). Further, increased oil content
    ment, even in plants and animals taken from areas    of -sediment samples was associated with increases
    considerably distant from any known oil pollution    in zinc, chromium, lead, copper, nickel, cadmium,
    (Nelson-Smith, 1973; ZoBell, 1971; Newman and    and mercury (Walker and Colwell, 1974).
    Olson, 1974). This raises the question as to the source    The problem of biological magnification of pesti-
    of the compounds involved, and it has been pointed    cides and its potential significance to the health of
    out that many carcinogenic hydrocarbons are pro-    the ecosystem and to human health has already been
    duced by various species of bacteria, algae and higher    mentioned. In this respect, a recent report on the
    plants (ZoBell, 1971; Borneff, et al., 1968). Labora-    action of oil slicks as concentrators adds a new di-
    tory studies have demonstrated that microorganisms    mension to the impact of oil on the ecosystem.
    are capable of degrading these carcinogenic com-    Aldrin, dieldrin, DDT, and possibly lindane, hep-
    pounds (ZoBell, 1971).                                  tachlor expoxide, and chlordane were identified from
      The fundamental principle of preferential utiliza-    samples taken from surface slicks, but were not in
    tion of nutrients by bacteria is well established,'and    detectable amounts in the seawater samples from
    it has been shown that this occurs in the case of oil   the same area (Seba and Corcoran, 1969).
    (Phillips, 1972); furthermore, many of the most           The implications of the concentrating character-
    resistant compounds  pose the greatest potential    istics of oil for both toxic heavy metals and pesticides
    health hazard. Therefore, the basic issue involved is   are obvious.
    what really happens in the environment. The re-
    ports on the persistence of many of these carcinogenic    Effect of Environmental Factors
    compounds tend to support the view that their    on Oil Pollution
    biodegradation in nature is a slow process.
      Bioaccumulation of many pesticides, particularly        It is a well established fact that the physical,
    the chlorinated hydrocarbons,  has received con-    chemical, and biological structure of a system has a
    siderable attention by the scientific comimunity.    significaht effect on the action of a given toxicant-
    There is reason to believe that the same phenomenon    oil is no. exception. For example, the toxicity of oil
    would be observed with components of oil, and, in-   increases as the oxygen  concentration  (Battelle
    deed, there are reports to this effect (Nelson-Smith,    Memorial Institute, 1967; Kontogiannis and Barnett,
    1973; ZoBell, 1971).                                    1973) or salinity (Rice, 1973) decreases.
      Differences of opinion exist in the scientific corn-    The point to be made here is that there is an ur-

    404                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    gent need to understand the action of oil under    other pollutants on the whole situation,' it 'would
    different environmental conditions, since' the facts    appear that a complete understanding of the impact
    indicate clearly that while a given level of oil may be    of oil on the estuarine environment is impossible both
    ecologically tolerable under one set of circumstances,    scientifically and economically.
    it could be disastrous under other conditions.              The immensity of the overall problem makes it ev-
                                                          ident that a considerable effort must be put forth in
                                                          establishing the areas of priority and coordinating
    Long-term Impact of                                      individual research. Otherwise, as past experience
    Oil on ~the Ecosystem        0-         !has demonstrated, there will be a. proliferation of
                                                          small programs resultingin   information that is
      From the literature, a multiplicity of responses to    difficult, if not impossible, to use effectively -for
    oil would be expected and have, indeed, been re-    managing the estuaries. The urgency of the situation
    ported.' Such things as diminishing growth rates in    cannot be overemphasized:    '
    phytoplankton  (Mommaerts-Billiet, 19'73), phys-            In terms of priorities, emphasis should be placed
    iological stress and degeneration of gill tissue and    on gaining a better understanding of the long-term
    muscle il oysters' (Clark, et al.,' 1974), changing    chronic effects of oil pollution rather than studying
    respiratory rates in salmon and striped bass" (Brock-    the acute effects resulting from major accidents. As
    sen and Bailey, 1973), and altering behavioral pat-    indicated earlier, the acute effects are obvious andy
    terns (Rice, 1973; Ecological Research Series, 1973;    by definition, are iof a short duration, while the
    Boylan and Tripp, 1971) are but a few of the vast    long-term chronic effects may remain for many
    array of oil pollution effects.                          years and may not manifest themselves-.until -ir
      To gain some concept of the potentially cata-    reparable damage to the area has been ,done. More�
    strophic effects of oil pollution on the ecosystem,    specifically, the following problem  areas' are in
    it is necessary only to draw an anialogy to the work    urgent need of extensive research, condueted in such
    on pesticides.                                           a fashion ;that- the data are utilizable for making
      1') Gross changes are not required to bring about    estuarine management  decisions  directed: toward
    untimely extinction of a species.                   '    maintaining our estuaries in a healthy viable state..
      2) A slight lowering of the primary productivity
    by reducing photosynthetic capability would reduce
    dramatically the productivity of the entire ocean.       Areas of Research
      3) Changes in migratory habits, .feeding areas, or
    spawning grounds would jeopardiie the current fishing
    industry.    ''1) Problems directly related to, human health (par-
      4) Slight changes in reproduction ritual could up-    ticularly cancer). Projects in this' category should
    set the balance of the ecosystem.                        generate data 'on the fate of carcinogens from oil in
      All biology is geared to survival of the species and    the environment, assess the role'6f oil in contributing
    is reflected in a buildup of resistance to pollutants or    carcinogens to the environment, establish the likely
    other adverse conditions that may well exact penal-    pathways of biological magnification to seafoods for
    ties in other species-including man. For example, it   htman consumption, establish standards in regard
    has been shown that mosquitofish that have acquired    to maximum levels allowable in the environments
    a resistance to insecticides will accuimulate these    from which' human  seafoods are harvested,  and
    compounds to such high levels that they are fatal    establish methods 'and standards for allowable con-
    to higher members of the food chain (e.g., birds and    centrations of various constituents in seafoods for
    snakes) (Ferguson, 1967).           -        '  '   :   human consumption. A minor effort also should be
                                                          put 'forth to examine ways of reclaiming polluted
                                                          areas and to develop additional miethods of pre-
    RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR THE FUTURE                          venting pollution in regard to the carcinogens'inoil.
                                                            2. Oil as a concentrator of other :toxic pollutants.
      When one considers the fantastic complexities of    With the widespread presence of many kinds of
    the estuarine ecosystem with its highly complicated    agricultural (pesticides)'and industrial (heavy met-
    interactions, the literally'thousands of coampounds    als) pollutants already present in fhe environment;
    present' in cruide oil, the impact of environmental    knowledge'of the interaction of these materials with
    conditions on the effects of oil on the system, the    oil is'of vital concern. Numerous laboratory studies
    multiplicity of responses 'elicited from the presence    have been conducted on the impact of various pol-
    of 'oil on the various organisms, and the impact of    lutants on a wide array of biological specimens but;

                                               OTHER POLLUTANTS                                             405

    essentially, no studies have been made on these    Types of Research
    materials in the presence of oil.                        Efforts Required
      The specific questions to be answered are: (1)          To formulate effectively the overall kind of pro-
    Does oil concentrate these other pollutants from the    gram required to meet the needs, three general
    environment, and (2) Does oil enhance the uptake of    types of investigations are needed.
    other pollutants by the biota. The major thrust            . Labora      investigations.   any of the problems
    should be investigations in the field and/or in pilot    can be handled effectively by individual researchers
    plant systems as described below. To a lesser degree,    working in individual laboratories, but there should
    some laboratory investigations should be conducted    be some overall coordination of the specific objec-
    to determine if oil and these other pollutants act    tives to be accomplished, though not necessarily the
    independently, synergistically, or antagonistically.    procedures to be employed. In other words, these
      A closer coordination with other research programs    problems could best be answered by a grant type
    could decrease substantially the cost of these studies
                                                           program, where the emphasis is on the creativity and
    by a merging of efforts.                                expertise of the individual scientist. These results
      3. Long-term chronic effects of oil on the ecosystem.    will serve as vital inputs to larger programs con-
    The list of problems in this category is rather long    ducted under more natural conditions. Their value
    and priorities vary considerably from investigator to    cannot be minimized in terms of their contribution
    investigator. Emphasis should be placed on the more    to the effective long-range management of the estu-
    long-lasting, potentially disrupting influences that    aries.
    may last for generations, rather than the shorter-         2. Pilot plant investigations. Conceptually, the use
    term effects for which there is evidence of quick    of pilot plant systems is routine in the engineering
    recovery and which are thus concerned primarily    profession. These systems are necessary to test the
    with a single generation.                               validity of laboratory findings on a more realistic
      Furthermore, the data should be generated in such    basis.
    a form as to be useful in estuarine management de-        For oil pollution studies, the pilot plant could take
    cisions and, as a general rule, should include both    the form of either an artificially constructed im-
    laboratory and field experimentation. Some of the    poundment in the field or a natural area that can be
    more important questions needing attention are:    regulated and controlled. Under these circumstances
    (1) Does oil cause any genetic changes; (2) Does    a physically and biologically manageable system
    oil alter reproductive processes; (3) Does oil increase    with a minimal amount of perturbations from outside
    susceptibility to disease or increase the virulence    forces can be studied. The system would more closely
    and/or numbers of pathogens; and (4) Does oil   approximate the natural environment and increase
    interfere significantly with vital behavioral char-    the reliability of predictions based on the results of
    acteristics. Of necessity, most of these studies will    the investigations.
    require multi-year efforts.                               There seems to be little doubt that investigations
      It is probable that much valuable information    of this nature have the greatest chance of generating
    could be obtained by the long-term monitoring of the    useful estuarine management data in the shortest
    environment after a catastrophic spill. It is highly    time frame. These efforts must involve large teams of
    important that an immediate post-spill evaluation    competent scientists iorking in a well-planned co-
    be made by a coordinated team of competent sci-   ordinated program. Unquestionably, large amounts
    entists; this evaluation could serve as a yardstick    of money will be required, but the cost effectiveness
    both for immediate effect and for long-term recovery.    will be an order of magnitude greater than if smaller
      4. Effect of environmental conditions on oil toxicity.    programs are conducted simply on the basis of multi-
    Because of the constantly changing conditions in the    ple use of control data alone. For example, the anal-
    estuary, information concerned with the impact of    yses for oil in the water column and sediments are
    these various parameters on oil pollution is required    time-consuming and expensive, and if diffjerent in-
    in order to manage the estuaries effectively. The    vestigators are working in different locations or on
    effects of salinity and temperatures are but two of the    different organisms, each would require the same
    parameters that can change significantly ihe im-    analyses.
    pact of oil on the ecosystem. The major value of this      3. Investigations of accidental oil spills. As indicated
    information is in determining the time and condi-    previously, two of the major reasons for the limited
    tions wherein the estuaries are most vulnerable to    value of the data derived from investigations of
    oil; it will be useful in establishing operational pro-    accidental oil spills are (a) lack of adequate pre-spill
    cedures within the estuaries.                           baseline data, and (b) the inability to deploy the

    406                                     ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    desired scientific staff in time to maximize the value    maintain and/or reclaim our estuaries as a healthy
    of the data obtained. While this report is directed    viable resource.
    toward the impact of oil on the estuarine environ-            One cannot help but be impressed, in a negative
    ment, it should be realized that a thorough under-    way, by the lack of usefulness of the data on oil
    standing of the ecosystem is necessary for the most    pollution in terms of estuarine management.  To
    useful management of this valuable resource. This    date, the major value of the research has been in
    understanding also is of vital importance in deter,    identifying the potential long-range problems that
    mining the impact of pollutants other than oil (e.g.,    could result from oil pollution of the estuaries. The
    pesticides, thermal pollution, and so on). Economics    fact that an ecological catastrophe has not occurred
    dictates that only representative areas can be sub-    is fortunate and an increased research effort on oil
    jected to these kinds of investigations, but years    pollution should reduce significantly the probability
    will be required before meaningful data are obtained.    of such an event. The translation of scientific data
      In this connection, it should be pointed out that    into information  utilizable for making  estuarine
    the institutions of higher learning are an excellent    management  decisions  must  be  accelerated  and
    source of expertise and resources for this type of    more emphasis must be placed on determining the
    undertaking. While having the scientific guidance of    costs (both monetary and ecological) as well as the
    senior scientific personnel, much of the work can    benefits of the various solutions to the oil pollution
    be handled by graduate research assistants. In this    problems.
    fashion, not only will the scientific aspects of the
    program be met economically, but also this plan    REFERENCES
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                                                                  5~~~~�~~- -

                                                                                                                       : .

    SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
    AND ITS RELATIONSHIP
    TO ESTUARINE POLLUTION

    HANS A. FEIBUSCH
    Environmental Impact Planning Corporation
    San Francisco, California

                ABSTRACT
                The general relationship of solid waste to estuarine pollution is described. Current major impact
                of solid waste on estuarine pollution comes from fills, legal and illegal, where leachates contain
                pollutants including pesticides, heavy metals, and oxygen-demanding materials. Most coastal
                states have regulated against the further use of estuarine areas for the disposal of solid wastes.
                It is recommended that the Federal government establish a data bank to determine where the
                various kinds of waste materials originate and where they are disposed. Long-range solutions to the
                danger of estuarine pollution by solid waste materials lie in reduction of the quantity of solid
                wastes generated and in large-scale recycling efforts.

    INTRODUCTION                                            15 pounds, and industrial wastes, nearly 130 pounds
                                                          per day.
      Each year the average person in the United States       Since nearly 80 million people in the United States
    uses 17,500 pounds of fuel (for warming offices and    live within 50 miles of an ocean coastline, while
    houses, running automobiles and trains, firing fac-    another 30 million live within 50 miles of the Great
    tory boilers, and many other tasks), 23,000 pounds    Lakes and the St. Lawrence River (U.S. Department
    of construction and other non-metallic materials,    of Commerce, 1973), the use of estuarine areas for
    6,800 pounds of metallic ores, and almost 6,000    waste disposal is an important consideration because
    pounds of agricultural materials (Morton, 1974).    these have historically been favorite solid waste
    The annual per capita consumption in the United    disposal sites for municipal and industrial wastes.
    States, then, is over 50,000 pounds, or nearly 150    Agricultural wastes have generally been left on
    pounds per person per day. Since "consumption"    fields, burned, or allowed to wash into water courses.
    really means one-time  (usually short-term) use,    Fortunately, as will be shown later, most coastal
    this quantity of material becomes a per capita solid    states have now prohibited the use of estuarine areas
    waste disposal problem. This contrasts rather dra-    for waste disposal. So while filling of estuarine areas
    matically with the "tip of the iceberg" of solid   is still going on, principally in San Francisco Bay
    wastes visible to most of us who generally think of    and Hackensack Meadows in New Jersey, no ex-
    solid wastes as household garbage and rubbish.    tensive new filling of estuarine areas with solid
    But household garbage and rubbish are just one of    waste appears to be taking place.
    the 11 major streams of solid waste produced in this
    country, and account for a minute percentage of the
    150 pounds per person per day total waste pro-    CURRENT DISPOSAL METHODS
    duction.
      The 11 major streams of waste may be lumped             The four primary methods of solid waste disposal
    into the three broad categories of municipal waste,    are, in order of decreasing usage, landfill, resource
    agricultural waste, and industrial waste. Municipal    recovery, incineration, and ocean disposal. Since
    waste includes residential, commercial, and demoli-    estuarine areas have in the past been favorite sites
    tion wastes; agricultural  waste  includes  animal    for "reclamation" by filling them with solid wastes,
    manures and waste from fruit and nut crops and    this disposal method has had a primary impact on
    from field and row crops; industrial waste includes    them. Therefore, as resource recovery and incinera-
    waste from food processing, manufacturing,  and    tion become more prevalent, less pressure exists to
    lumbering, as well as chemicals and petroleum.          fill estuaries with garbage. Of course, much solid
      On a per capita basis, municipal wastes account    waste is illegally dumped in estuarine areas.
    for about 3 to 5 pounds, agricultural wastes, about        Landfill is by far the most prevalent method of

                                                                                                          409

    410                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    disposal in use today, with about 90 percent of    posed of annually into the oceans off the continental
    municipal waste going there  (Feibusch, 1970).    United States. In addition, at least 53 million tons
    Unfortunately, most landfills still do not qualify    of dredging spoils are being dumped into the ocean
    as "sanitary" landfills as these are defined by the    (Smith,  1971). The  question of dredging spoils
    American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). A    disposal is currently the subject of a $30 million
    sanitary landfill according to the ASCE is "a method    study by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under
    of disposing of refuse on land without creating    its national Dredged Material Research Program
    nuisance or hazards to public health ... (volume)    and will not be further discussed here.
    and to cover it with a layer of dirt at the conclusion
    of each day's operation ..."                            REVIEW OF COASTAL STATES'
      Properly developed sanitary landfills create useful    SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT  EFFORTS
    land for park and recreation facilities. On the other
    hand, the ecological disruption caused by landfills,      In order to provide an up-to-date review of the
    particularly in marshland or wetland areas, is a    status of solid waste management efforts in the
    major negative environmental fgctor.                   individual states, a telephone survey of the 20 coastal
      Significant amounts of waste  (particularly in-   states was made between October 30, 1974, and
    dustrial wastes) are being reused. The salvage in-    November 11, 1974. In each case, contact Was made
    dustry today probably does an annual volume in    with a senior official in state government responsible
    excess of $10 billion. However, most materials now    for solid waste regulation and management. Table 1
    being salvaged are the homogeneous  remains of    summarizes information obtained from this survey.
    manufacturing processes that are free of contami-         Eighteen of the 20 states surveyed have assumed
    nants and can therefore be directly reused. Recovery    primary jurisdiction for solid waste management and
    of materials from municipal wastes is currently    regulation. Only California and Washington have
    receiving a great deal of emphasis from planners in   total local control. Actual situations in Texas and
    the waste management industry. In later sections    Louisiana reveal effective local control, but South
    of this report, we will discuss what efforts the States    Carolina under present procedures cannot exercise
    of Massachusetts and Connecticut are currently    effective state control. Seventeen of the 20 states
    making in implementing statewide resource recovery    surveyed have adopted solid waste management
    plans.                                                 legislation since 1970, indicating at least a recogni-
      Probably the major  constraints to increased    tion of state responsibility in the solid waste manage-
    salvage and reclamation efforts are the absence of    ment field.
    sustained demand for salvageable material and the         Two states, Massachusetts and Connecticut, are
    incentives to use them. In any case, energy con-    proceeding to implement statewide resource recovery
    siderations are now forcing all waste management    plans, while two other states, Delaware and Califor-
    planners to reconsider resource recovery as a major    nia, are working with demonstrations that may have
    factor in solid waste management.                      significant results. Data concerning the location of
      The best available data indicate that incineration    solid waste fills in estuarine areas were not readily
    accounts for about 8 percent of the solid waste dis-   available, although the problem seems confined to
    posed in the United States. Many communities have    the states of Maryland, North Carolina, South
    recently renewed their interest in incineration in    Carolina, Florida, Texas, and California. In Loui-
    light of the predicted energy shortage. Modern    siana, a state with many estuarine areas, the popula-
    incinerators are said to be 90 percent efficient in    tion in the five parishes where most of the estuaries
    terms of residual waste. That is, for each 100 tons    are located is quite small. It is encouraging to note
    of combustible material burned, 10 tons remain to    that only one or two states allow new fills for solid
    be disposed. Of course, the basic law of physics    waste in estuarine areas, and that ocean dumping
    stating that matter cannot be destroyed is still   appears to be practiced only in New York and New
    valid, so the 90 tons of material burned are dis-   Jersey.
    charged either into the air or into sewers. The
    problem of non-combustible materials also remains.    PROBLEMS OF SOLID WASTE
    Studies in Los Angeles County indicate an overall    LANDFILLS IN ESTUARINE AREAS
    incinerator efficiency of 48 percent with respect to
    the average raw refuse composition collected (in-         Landfilling of solid wastes in estuaAne areas
    eluding bulky materials and non-combustibles).         presents a twofold problem. First, it causes a reduc-
      Less than 10 million tons of solid wastes are dis-   tion in the limited acreage of marshland and wetland

                                                     OTHER POLLUTANTS                                                     411

                                                            Table 1.

                        Population              Date of Enabling Status of Resource  Number of   New Estuarine   Acres of Estuarine
          State        (Millions)   Jurisdiction    Legislation   Recovery Efforts  Existing Fills in  Fills Allowed  Ocean Dumping    Area (f)
                                                                          Estuarine Areas                         (Thousands)

    Maine .-........... 1.01 P*                 12/73        ?                       2 No            No                     39.4
    New Hampshire .   .        ....       ...76 P  '72       ?            ?             No           No                     12.4
    Massachusetts . .        ...... 5.76 P       4/71        P.l***                  1 No            No                    207.0
    Rhode Island               .96 P              '74        ?                       1 No            No                     94.7
    Connecticut     -        --------- 3.07 P     '71        P.I.          ?            No           No                     31.6
    New York .-    -         ------- 18.35 P     9/73        ?             ?            No           Yes                   376.6
    New Jersey      .        .......... 7.31 P    '70        ?                       1 No            Yes                   778.4
    Delaware                   .56 P             7/73        Demot                 None No           No                    395.5
    Maryland .....- .   ..    4.01 P              '70        ?                     15(c) No          No                   1406.1
    Virginia .-    .......... 4.72 P             4/71        ?                        1 No           No                   1670.0
    North Carolina   . ....... 5.16 P             '69        ?                       20 No           ?                    2206.6
    South Carolina .  -       ---- 2.63 P(d)     9/71        ?                     30l  Yes          ?                     427.9
    Georgia                   4.66 P              '72        ?                     None No           No                    170.8
    Florida                   7.03 P             7/74        ?            ?             No           ?                    1051.2
    Alabama  ..-  .....       3.49 P              '69        ?                     None No           ?                     530.0
    Mississippi               2.25 P              '74        ?                     None No           No                    251.2
    Louisiana -    -          ----------- 3.69 P(a)  ?       ?                          ?            ? ?                  3545.1
    Texas .-                 11.43 P(h)           '69        ?                   Many(e) No          ?                    1344.0
    California -   -         ---------    - 20.29 L*  1/73   Demot                  31 No            ?                     522.1
    Oregon                    2.14 P             5/71        ?                       1 No            No                     57.0
    Washington      -        ---------- 3.44 L    '72        ?             ?            No           ?                     193.8

                            111.77

     (a) State must use parish district attorney to prosecute. Since district attorneys are also parish legal advisors, they do not prosecute.
     (b) Counties may assume control by adopting solid waste permit system. Only 4 of 254 counties have done so.
     (c) Small facilities on Eastern Shore serving total of 20,000 people.
     (d) Can be overruled by any professional engineer-prepared plan -
     (e) Mostly small sites.
     (f) Presented by Dr. Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary of Interior, in testimony to the Subcommittee on Fisheries and Wildlife Conservation.
     * Primary state jurisdiction.
     *" Local control.
     *** Statewide plan implementation.
     t Demonstration project.

    remaining in this country, and secondly, it creates             SOLUTIONS-LESS  WASTE,
    the danger of polluting vast areas outside of the               MORE  EFFECTIVE  RECOVERY
    fills themselves through contamination of leachates
    when water percolates through solid waste. A recent               As suggested in the previous section, much prog-
    article in Nation's Cities (Weddle, 1974) suggests             ress has been made in reducing the negative effect
    that dumps, both old and new, may be a potential    of solid waste pollution on estuarine areas. However,
    threat to many groundwater supplies. Certainly if    ultimately the answers to pollution problems from
    this is the case, estuarine areas in which dumps are    solid waste of estuarine areas do not lie solely in
    located are also affected. Leachate generation in this    more rigid regulations or more detailed guidelines.
    country, according to the Environmental Protection              They lie also in producing less waste and in doing a
    Agency  (EPA),  may  approach  some  46  billion    more  effective job of recovering fractions of the
    gallons annually. A  significant percentage of this    waste that we do produce.
    leachate enters estuarine areas where it introduces               Management plans for solid waste can no longer
    toxicants, heavy metals, and pesticides, and produces          be based on least first cost alone. They  must be
    oxygen depletion.                                              based on the concept of least net cost, taking into
      The  Third National Congress on Waste  Tech-    account  a  direct  monetary  outlay,  the  cost  of
    nology and Resource Recovery, sponsored jointly    environmental pollution, and the value of resources
    by the EPA and the National Solid Waste Manage-                 conserved. The "hierarchy of choices" concept for
    ment Association, in San Francisco November  14    solid waste management is suggested as a systematic
    and 15, 1974, may provide the impetus needed to    approach to solid waste management, minimizing
    tackle the problem of leachate contamination on a    resource waste and maximizing resource recovery.
    national level.                                                Under  the hierarchy  of choices,  the best waste

    412                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    management choice is carried to its logical and    Burial
    practical limit, and then the next best choice is
    applied to what remains. There are six choices, and       Some materials will always need to be disposed in
    the waste that is finally left over for burial is a small   landfills. But these landfills should be located where
    fraction of the original amount. The hierarchy of    development plans call for changes in existing ground
    choices is as follows:                                  elevations. Since the material that remains. after
                                                          having. been processed through the previous five
                                                          steps in the hierarchy is inert and earthlike, the
    Source Reduction   .                                    problem of landfill stability will be greatly reduced.
                                                            The hierarchy of choices concept will have to be
      This involves modifying some products and mate-    employed in a flexible way, since local conditions
    rials and stopping the manufacture of others. It    may obviate some and favor others, but if it is
    would require that serious consideration be given in    employed in a systems engineering sense, it can be
    the design stage to ultimate disposal of any manu-    appropriate under any given set of circumstances.
    factured product. Superfluous packaging materials
    are obvious candidates for this approach. Action by    ENERGY CONSIDERATIONS
    state and federal legislatures, vigorous support from
    local agencies, and strongcitizen support would be        As a nation, we are currently involved in a massive
    necessary to reduce the production of waste.            drive to find alternate sources of energy, having
                                                          recently discovered that a dependence of foreign oil
                                                          could have devastating effects on our way. of life.
    Reuse Without Processing                               To a large extent, the whole problem of solid waste
                                                          management has become affected by the "energy
      Some glass, metal, and paper articles are suitable    crunch." As with all such crash efforts, it will take
    for direct reuse. More consideration must be given    several years before we realize that the crucial prob-
    to encouraging a collection system that separates    lemjis not how much energy we generate but what
    these materials at the point of origin. The contro-    our real net energy needs are. Thus it may be that
    versial Oregon "bottle law" is an example of state    according to the hierarchy of choices concept in the
    efforts toward reuse of resources.                      previous section, organic municipal and agricultural
                                                          wastes can be more useful when converted and added
                                                   '  '   to the land as a' soil amendment rather than being
    Reuse With Processing                                  burned. Much work needs to be done to minimize
                                                          the need for energy in solid waste management. The
      Materials not suitable for direct reuse, but which    institution of transfer stations where waste materials
    can be successfully blended with virgin materials at    are transferred from small to large vehicles is one of
    time of processing (glass, aluminum, paper, tin cans),    the more obvious energy-saving devices being con-
    can be separated at transfer points and made    sidered by many communities.
    available to industry as raw materials.
                                                          PROGRAMS WITH.PROMISE

    Conversion                                                As we have mentioned, the States of Connecticut
                                                          and Massachusetts have taken a leading role in
      The organic part of the remaining material can be    developing statewide solid waste management plans
    decomposed into a soil-like humus by composting or    that emphasize resource recovery. The Connecticut
    pyrolyzed by applying heat in the absence of oxygen.    plan (Anon., 1974b) proposes 10 regional solid waste
    Composted materials would be applied to the land    recycling centers to be constructed by the Connec-
    to produce stable topsoil.                              ticut Resource Recovery  Authority  (CRRA),  a
                                                          non-profit, tax-exempt public service corporation.
                                                          Private firms in the resource recovery industry will
    Change of.State                                         contract with CRRA  to design, construct, and
                                                          operate the 10 regional centers. Firms have been
      The combustible material that still remains can be    selected to build plants at Bridgeport and Berlin,
    incinerated, producing gas and energy. Incinerators    Conn. The plants are scheduled to go into operation
    need to be located where there is a demand for steam    at the rate of one per year. The first two plants will
    in the immediate vicinity.                 -.          recover fuel, ferrous metals, aluminum, and glass.

                                                                                                                      3

                                             OTHER POLLUTANTS                                            413

      The State of Massachusetts, with a somewhat less    dikes for support and to raise the land levels, which
    ambitious program than that of Connecticut, has    have been dropping steadily for many years. The
    approved the development of the first resource    composted material would be used to stabilize dikes
    recovery facility in Lawrence to serve the regional    and to serve as a growing medium for agricultural
    needs of the Merrimack Valley. This plant is to be    products. A pilot demonstration lasting three years
    built, operated, and owned by private entrepreneurs.    and using 200 tons of composted material per day
    Recovery of metals and fuel is envisioned (Anon.,    has been proposed. To date, the California legislature
    1974a).                                                has appropriated $2.3 million toward the demonstra-
      The city of St. Louis and Union Electric Company    tion. The local agencies are currently negotiating
    are jointly undertaking a significant program for   with federal representatives for matching funds.
    utilization of refuse for energy production. Shredded
    air-sorted refuse and coal have been used for some    THE FEDERAL ROLE
    time now on a test basis to generate electricity at
    the Meramec Power Plant of Union Electric Con-            Current Federal authority in the field of solid
    pany in St. Louis. Extensive tests have not revealed    waste management as it affects estuarine areas is
    any serious problems of air pollution, although modi-    held by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers under
    fication of the refuse-coal composition and close   the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899. The Corps,
    mixture control were found necessary. Union Electric    under the same act, issues permits for dredging and
    Company and the city are currently developing a    filling in navigable waters and may  deny these
    $70 million program  for five to seven transfer    permits based on fish, wildlife, and water quality
    stations throughout St. Louis, making it possible    consideration (Anon., 1974c).
    to use all of that city's combustible solid waste for     The EPA's Solid Waste Management  Program
    energy.                                                has no regulatory authority. Its present role is
      The Delaware Reclamation Project proposes to    confined to establishing broad national policies,
    use 500 tons of solid waste and 230 tons of sewage    administering research and development programs,
    sludge per day and recycle them into marketable    encouraging state and area-wide solid waste manage-
    materials. This demonstration is essentially to prove    ment planning; and providing technical assistance.
    the viability of an aerobic digester to produce           Many of the concepts proposed in the hierarchy
    humus. Other machinery would produce solid fuel,   of choices for sound solid waste management and
    carbon, fuel gas, ferrous and non-ferrous metals,    resource recovery are embodied in legislation cur-
    paper, and glass cullet. The plant will be designed    rently pending before various committees of Con-
    with enough capacity to handle all the wastes in   gress. The Resource Conservation Energy Recovery
    Newcastle County (Wilmington).                         Act of 1974 is the most comprehensive bill currently
      In the San Francisco Bay Area, a group of 15    being considered. It addresses freight rate discrimina-
    local agencies joined together in 1972 to test the    tion for recycled products, source reduction efforts,
    feasibility of using composted organic solid waste in    hazardous waste disposal standards, long-range state
    the low-lying areas of the Sacramento-San Joaquin    solid waste management planning, and grant and
    Delta for levee stabilization, land building, and    loan programs for large-scale energy recovery and
    agriculture. These local agencies, calling themselves    resource conservation demonstrations as well as full-
    The Bay-Delta Resource Recovery Action Com-    scale plants.
    mittee, took a first step not only in solving the         Committees of the House of Representatives are
    problem of solid waste (including sewage sludge) in    discussing legislation for tax credits to recycled
    the bay area but also in forming the regional institu-   products manufacturers  and  rapid amortization
    tion framework necessary to do this. This effort   proposals for recycling equipment. Both of these
    was entirely voluntary without coercion from either   pieces of legislation would have a major beneficial
    state or federal agencies.                             effect on reducing the quantity of solid waste that
      Briefly, the plan called for strategically located    might be destined for estuarine areas.
    processing transfer stations where directly recover-      New legislative proposals are urgently needed that
    able materials would be removed. The balance would    would require the EPA to establish and maintain a
    be shredded and air classified, with the light fraction    data bank of waste materials generated and dis-
    being mixed with sewage sludge and composted,    posed. No one today has even a general idea as to
    while the heavy fraction would undergo further    how much and what kind of material we are throw-
    recovery processing. The composted fraction would    ing away, where it is being thrown,  and what
    then be shipped by barge to the Sacramento-San    damage it is causing. The information gathering
    Joaquin Delta, where it would be placed behind    effort required to develop this data bank is very

    414                                   ESTUAtINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    large. However, intelligent long-range planning by         It is to be hoped that the federal role in the solid
    both industry and regulators will be impossible until    waste management field will soon be expanded with
    better information is available.                         the provisions embodied in the proposed Resource
                                                             Conservation and Energy Recovery Act of 1974
    SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION                                   becoming law.
                                                               In general, it can be said that much improvement
                                                             has taken place in the solid waste management field
      Each of us in this very affluent country consumes    has t         he  solid waste management neld
    on the average 150 pounds of raw material every day.    in          the past a grep t  d eal more ne
    Since nearly half of us live within 50 miles of coast-    to be done before the threat of pollution of estuarine
    Since nearly half of Us live within 50 miles of coast-         fo      l  w             -
    lines having estuaries, estuaries offer convenient
    dumping grounds for our leftovers. Fortunately,
    most coastal states have recognized the ecological    REFERENCES
    importance of estuarine areas and have prohibited
    their filling with solid waste. So while some filling
                  of esturine areas is still going on, not many new    Anon. 1974a. Massachusetts selects Merrimack Valley as
    of estuarine areas is still going on, not many new first solid waste region. Solid Waste Report 5 (3):28.
    fills will be started.
      Concerns for raw material and energy shortages               . 1974b. State to recycle 85% of cities' solid wastes.
    are likely to have a positive influence on resource        Engineering News-Record 193(17):39-40.
    recovery and conservation efforts. This will help to
    reduce the pressure on filling estuaries since less            . 1974c. The wetlands: how well are they protected?
    waste will be generated.                                   Conservation Foundation Letter, September:l-8.
      Most states have assumed regulatory control over    Feibusch, Hans A. and F. M. Stead. 1970. A solid wastes
    solid waste disposal and appear to have established        management system for the Bay Region. San Francisco
    on-going enforcement programs to prevent estuarine         Planning and Urban Renewal Association, November.
    pollution. Massachusetts and Connecticut are em-
    barking on ambitious statewide resource recovery    Morton, Rogers C. B., Secretary of the Interior. 1974. Letter
                                                               to Senator Walter Huddleston. September.
    programs, while several demonstration projects with
    great potential are being initiated elsewhere.           Smith, D. D. and R. P. Brown. 1971. Ocean disposal of
      A systems engineering approach is urgently needed        barge-delivered liquid and solid wastes from United States
    to measure the least net cost of solid waste manage-       coastal cities. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
                                                               Solid Waste Management Office.
    ment programs, taking into account cost of pollution
    prevented and resources conserved. The hierarchy of    U.S. Department of Commerce. 1973. Bureau of the Census.
    choices concept is a useful tool in selecting waste        Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1973. Govern-
    management programs. In the hierarchy, source              ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
    reduction (i.e., not making the product in the first
                                                             Weddle, B. and G. Garland. 1974. Dumps: a potential threat
    place) is the ideal waste management solution, while    We e, B. ag d Gn Garlan  197NatDupsCs 12(10) -21-22,
                                                               to our groundwater supplies. Nation's ities 12(10) :21-2-25, 42.,
    throwing it away is the worst.                             24-25, 42.

    IMPACT OF CHLORINATION
    PROCESSES ON
    MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

    WILLIAM P. DAVIS
    D. P. MIDDAUGH
    Gulf Breeze Environmental
    Research Laboratory
    Wadmalaw Island, South Carolina

                ABSTRACT
                The use of chlorine as a disinfectant and antifouling agent is reviewed. Chemical reactions of
                chlorine in aquatic environments are discussed, with particular emphasis on the formation of
                halogenated organic constituents in freshwater and marine systems. Studies of the effect of chlo-
                rinated sewage effluents and cooling water from generating stations on marine organisms and
                ecosystems are summarized.

    INTRODUCTION                                             ated  organic  compounds  possibly  persisting  in
                                                         marine ecosystems. Twenty-three other states border
      Chlorine gas has seen industrial use since 1800 as    marine ecosystems where some form or another of
    a bleaching agent and has become one of the most    chlorine discharge currently persists in one manner
    versatile chemicals known. In freshwater it is well    or another.
    known as a disinfectant for drinking and recreational      The purpose of this paper is to compile the scarce
    water, biocide for slime and fouling control, and    data presently available for chlorine effects upon
    treater of municipal wastes for pathogen control.    aquatic life of estuarine and marine ecosystems.
    In these applications, vast quantities of chlorine are    The chemistry of chlorine is briefly reviewed to
    used, and find their way through society's effluents    point out some of the unique features of chlorination
    to natural ecosystems. The toxicity desired in disin-    in marine waters. Although some data exists on
    fection and biocide applications can continue with    effects of residual chlorine and a limited number of
    non-desirable effects to wildlife and their ecosystems.    byproducts upon specific organisms, virtually no
    Recent findings of halogenated organics traceable    information exists on transport processes, persist-
    in drinking water in 80 cities, underscore the need    ence, bioaceurnulation,  and  fate of halogenated
    for responsible assessment of the management and    compounds from chlorination processes.
    effects of our chlorination processes, and the en-
    vironmental costs incurred.                              CHEMISTRY OF CHLORINE
      The State of Maryland is often used by planners
    as a minimodel for the United States. In the case of       Chlorine is presently manufactured by a variety
    rate of chlorine use, some of the most accurate    of methods, including:
    statistics exist for Maryland. Furthermore, resulting
    chlorination constituents from Maryland mostly    the electrolysis of brine,
    drain into the Chesapeake Bay. An inventory of
    chlorine discharge from Maryland alone into the                          eleNtrI curNent
    Chesapeake Bay, assuming no degradation, results
    in the statistic of 97 million pounds per year of
    chlorine from municipal treatment plants and 2.2
    million pounds per year from power generation    3NaCl+4HNO3 -3NaN03+Cl2+NOC-+2fo20
    facilities. It would appear to the casual observer
    that without the action of degradation processes,    and the hydrochloric acid oxidation process,
    these amounts would soon sterilize the bay. It is
    calculated (but still to be confirmed experimentally)                4-650�C
    that 1 percent of these totals may become halogen-    4HC1 + O  -            2C12 + 2H120.

                                                                                                        415

    416                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    Chlorine in Freshwater Systems                       Table 1.-Summary of reactions of chlorine' with'organic compounds in
                                                                        freshwater (modified from Ingols et al. 1953)
      Chlorine gas dissolves rapidly in water and hy-      Organic Substrate    HypochlorousAcid   Monochloramine
    drolyses,
                                                            Alanine -....--- Pyruvic acid   Organic monochloramine
             Cl2 + H-20 T HOC1 + H+ + Cl-.               Cysteine-... ........ RSOsH      RSSR
                                                            Glycylglycine ,. ..... Oxidative  ------------
    This hydrolysis is nearly complete and only when
    the pH is below 3.0, or the chlorine concentration   Glycylgycylglycine .... Hydrolysis and deaminization Terminal organic
                                                                                                monochloramine
    over 1000 mg/i is there any measurable quantity of                                     m     ane
    molecular chlorine present. The oxidizing capacity   Tyrsine -     Ketone             Organic monochloramine
    of chlorine is retained in the hydrolysis product,   Hemin - -    ------------Violent change  Irreversible addition or
    hypochlorous acid. Hypochlorous acid dissociates to                                    oxidation
    form,

                   HOC1    H  + C10-. l                   (1948) determined that at pH 5.0, the ratio was
                                                            16 percent monochloramine and 84 percent dichlor-
    This reaction is pH dependent. For a neutral pH    amine. For a pH of 8.0, the ratio: was 85 percent
    (7.0) at 20�C, the equilibrium is approximately 75    monochloramine and 15 percent dichlorartine. Tri-
    percent HOC1 and 25 percent C10-. For a pH of 8.0,   chloramine is found in significant quantities only at
    the reverse is true with approximately 25 percent   pH values of less than 4 (McKee and Wolf, 1963).
    HOC1 and 75 percent C10- (Sawyer and McCarty,   I Ingols et al. (1953) determined that hypochlorous
    1969).                                               acid and monochloramine in freshwater will react
      The addition of hypochlorite salts to water forms    with various organic constituents. Some of these
    hypochlorite ions followed by hypochlorous acid,   reactions resulted in the formation of organic
                                                            monochloramines although, none were persistent,
               Ca (C10) 2 = Ca+ + + 2 C10-,               Table 1.
                                                               The formation of chlorinated organic compounds
    and                                                  during chlorination of sewage effluents and power
                   H+ + C10- z HOCI.                      plant cooling waters has recently been documented
                                                             (Jolley, 1973; Jolley et al. 1975). Isotopic 36C1
    If ammonia or organic amines are present in the   tracers and high-resolution anion-exchange chro-
    water, they will react with hypochlorous acid to   matography were used to separate over 50 chlorine
    form chloramines,                                    containing constituents from chlorinated secondary
                                                            effluents. Fifteen of these were tentatively identified
                                                            Nand quantified, Table 2.
              NH3 - HOC1= NH2C1 -  H2O.

      Like the ionization of hypochlorous acid to   Table 2.-Tentative identiifications and concentrations of chlorine containing
    H+ + C10-, the reaction rate between ammonia          constituents from chlorinated sewage effluents (modified from Jolley, 1973)
    and hypochlorous acid is pH dependent, occurring
                                                                             identification         Cone, of Organic
    most rapidly in solutions with a pH of 8.3. This                                             compound ug/L
    reaction is also dependent upon temperature and
    the ratio of ammonia to hypochlorous acid.           5-Chlorouracil-....---- 4.3
      Monochloramines react with hypochlorous acid    SChlorouridine-1.7
                                                             -Chlorocaffeine .-..... -.-.-.................... 1.7
    to form di- and trichloramines,                      6-Chloroguanine ...-. ....................  0.9
                                                             8-Chloroxanthine .-......        -    1.5
               NH2C1 + HOCI = NHC12 + H20,               5-Chlorosalcyic acid .-.      ----.-----    0.24
                                                             4-Chloramandelic acid .--------------------------------------- 1.1
    and                                                  2-Chloraphenol-  .. e.. .--................. ...:_ ,-....    - 1.7:
                                                             4-Chloraphenylacetic acid .------------------ 0.38
               2NH2CI -+I- HOCl = NC13 -+- H20.          4-Chlrbzoic acid -                         0.62
                                                            4-Chlorophenol -.-------------------------------------------- 0.69
                                                             4-Chlororesorcinol .................--------- 1.2,
    Low pH favors a shift, in equilibrium toward the   3-Chloro-4-hydroxybenzoic acid.   1.3
                                                             formation of di  and trichoramines  Fair et al   4-Chloro-3-methyl phenol -.-1... ......-.-.. .. i.5
    formation of di- and trichloramines, Fair et al.

                                              OTHER POLLUTANTS:                                           417

    'Chlorine in Marine Systems                               When ammonia is present in seawater, it will react
                                                         with hypobromous acid to form monobromamine.
      Major sources of chlorine contamination in the   1\Monobromamine  in turn. will react *with hypo-
    marine environment are related to postchlorination    bromite ion to form dibromamine,
    of secondary sewage effluents with outfalls located on
    coastal and estuarine waters, and chlorination of                N-H3 + HOBr = NH2Br + H20,
    seawater used fr cooling of thermal electric generat-
    ing plants (White, 1972, 1973; Markowski, 1959).    and
      The addition iof chlorine to seawater results in a
    complex series of chemical reactions; the most ob-              NH2Br +BrO  = NHBr2 + OH-.
    vious one frees bromine,
                C12 -:-2Br'  -  ;*-   _r_    . -In addition, monobromamine at near neutral pH
                Cl  +� 2Br- = 20C1-  Br+ .                 will form ammonium bromide which dissociates into
                                                          ammonium ion and free bromine (Johanneson,
    This reaction goes to completion and is the basis for    1960).
    the manufacture of bromine from seawater (Lewis,
    1966).    .           '                         >                    NH2Br + H+ T- NH3Br+
      The industrial extraction of bromine, from sea-
    water requires that the pH be reduced below 3.0,    and
    so that molecular chlorine can release molecular
    bromine." The  hydrolysis. products- from adding                      NH3Br+ -  NHa + Br+.
    chlorine to seawater, HOC1  and C10-, will also
    release bromine from the bromide ion in 'the form of      Block and Helz (1975) have prepared a reaction
    hypobromous acid and hypobromite ion,                   series model to illustrate the theoretical degradation
                                                          processes occurring after the addition of chlorine to
               C10- + Br- = BrO- + CG-,i                   natural, saline waters, Figure 1. Compounds in each
                                                          successive level can give rise to ones on a lower level.
    and                                                     In general, compounds occurring on lower levels
                                                          will not contribute to the formation of those in the
                  BrO- + Ht+: - HOBr.                      levels above.
                                                            The reaction occurring between levels I and II
    Hought0on (1946) has also suggested that'chlorina-   is a result of chlorine decay from a diatomic gas to
    tion of water containing free ammonia and bromine    hypochlorous acid, hypochlorite ions, and sodium
    may result in the formation of bromamines. Johan-    hypochlorite. As pointed out by Moore (1951) and
    neson (1958) added chlorinated water to a sodium-    Lewis (1966), this reaction occurs rapidly and goes
    ammonium salts solution buffered to pH 8.3. This    to completion within seconds after the addition of
    resulted in the formation of monobromamine and    chlorine.  The  inclusion of sodium  hypochlorite
    some monochloramine., The  addition of sodium
    hypochlorites'olution produced mostly' monochlor-                     CL2
    amine. The hypochlorite in solution apparently                        I
    'reacts with both the bromine aid ammonia,
                                                           11                                HOCL,OCL-, NAOCL
                C10- + Br- =BrO- + Cl-,
                                                                                             NH2CL, NHCL2, NH2BR,
    and                                     .    '                                          '   NHBR2, BRO-, HBRO

              010- + NH3 =:NH2C1 + OH-.
                                                                                             HALOGENATED ORGANIC
                                                            IV                                CONSTITUENTS
    Injection of chlorine gas may result in localized
    acidity, favoring the first reaction above, which is
    rapid at pH values of less than 8.0. The second           V,,,                              CL-, BR-
    reaction is favored when chlorine is added as sodium
     hypochlorite since there is no accompanying reduc-    FIGURE 1.-Degradation processes for chlorine in saline
     tion in-the normal pH of 8.0-8.3.                         waters (modified from Block and Helz, in preparation).

    418                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    within level II is based on the results of work by    Chlorine Toxicity to
    Sugum and Helz (1976).                                Marine Phytoplankton
      The chemical composition and abundance of
    products formed from level II to level III is a         The effects of chlorination and thermal pollution
    function of physical and chemical parameters of the    onphytoplanktonproductivityhavebeeninvestigated
    water, including but not limited to temperature,    in some detail, Table 3. Carpenter et al. (1972)
    pH, ammonia, and bromine, available as reaction    observed an 83 percent decrease in the productivity
    components. In seawater it is possible that the    of phytoplankton passed through the cooling system
    predominant species would be bromamines, espe-   of a nuclear generating plant on Long Island Sound.
    cially if NH4+ ions are less abundant than Br- ions.    Intake water was chlorinated at a rate of 1.2 mg/l
      Level IV includes halogenated organic constituents    with a residual of 0.4 mg/l measured at the dis-
    which may be formed by level II or level III species,    charge. Addition of 0.1 mg/l chlorine at the intake
    including chloramines, hypobromite and broma-    with non-detectable residuals at the outfall decreased
    mines. The stable end products in level V occur    productivity by 79 percent. Essentially no decreases
    through a diverse group of mechanisms taking    in productivity were observed when phytoplankton
    place in steps I-IV.                                  passed through the cooling system without addition
      Charge balance results in one atom of C1 passing    of chlorine. Hirayama and Hirano (1970) measured
    from level I to level V to each atom passing from    the effect of chlorination on the photosynthetic
    level I to level II. Reduction of hypochlorite by Br-    activity of Skeletonema costatum and found that cells
    or Fe2+ and Mn2+ may release C1- from level II to    were killed when subjected to 1.5 to 2.3 mg/l
    level V. Movement of C1- from level III to level V    chlorine for 5 and 10 minutes.
    can also occur in a number of ways; the most             Gentile (1972, 1973 unpublished data, Environ-
    obvious, suggested by Laubusch  (1971) involves    mental Research Laboratory,  Narragansett)  ob-
    the destruction of chloramines when the OC1-/NH4+    served a 55 percent decrease in the ATP content of
    ratio is large.                                       marine phytoplafikton exposed to 0.32 mg/1 re-
      Some of the chlorinated organics identified by    sidual chlorine for two minutes and a 77 percent
    Jolley (1973) are persistent and the decay from level   decrease after 45 minutes of exposure to chlorine
    IV to level V is probably a slow process, relative to    concentrations as low as 0.01 mg/l. A 50 percent
    decay from levels I through III to level V.           depression in the growth rates of 10 species of marine
                                                         phytoplankton exposed to chlorine concentrations
                                                         ranging from 0.075 to 0.25 mg/l for 24 hours was also
                                                         measured.
    TOXICITY OF CHLORINE                                  measured.
    IN ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS                               Morgan and Stross (1969) used photosynthetic
                                                         rates to evaluate the response of estuarine phyto-
                                                         plankton passed through the cooling system of a
      The relative toxicity of chlorine in water is related    steam electric power station on the ooling system of a
    to the amount and proportions of free and residual   steam electric power station on the Patuxent River,
    to the amount and proportions of free and residual    Md. The photosynthetic rate increased with an
    chlorine. Several investigators have found that free   Md  The photosynthetic rate increased with an
    chlorine. Several investigators have found that free    8C rise in temperature when ambient water tem-
                                                         peratures were 16�C or less. Inhibition occurred
    organisms than chloramines (Douderoff and Katz,   peratures were                        above  20'C. In  a
    1950; Merkens, 1958), even though the toxicity of   related study, conducted at the same site, Hamilton
    the various forms of chlorine was of the same order    et al. (1970) measured a 91 percent decrease in
    of magnitude. Rosenberger (1971) and Basch and    primary productivity during intermittent chlorina-
    Truchan (1973), found that dichloramine was more    tion.
    toxic than monochloramine in freshwater. A com-
    prehensive review paper by Brungs (1973) sum-
    marizes the toxic effects of residual chlorine on    Chlorine Toxicity
    freshwater aquatic organisms.                         to Invertebrates
      In seawater, Holland et al. (1960) determined
    that dichloramine is apparently more toxic than         Muchmore  and Epel  (1973)  investigated the
    monochloramine and that the chloramines were    effects of chlorination of wastewater on fertilization
    more toxic than free chlorine. These findings may    in marine invertebrates, Table 4. Unchlorinated
    reflect the complex chlorine-bromine reaction kine-   sewage (from the Pacific Grove, Calif.) was a weak
    tics suggested by Johanneson  (1958, 1960) and    inhibitor of fertilization in the sea urchin, Strongyl-
    Lewis (1966).                                         ocentrotus purpuratus. Exposure of gametes of the

                                                                 OTHER POLLUTANTS                                                                                  419

                                    Table 3.-Summary of toxic effects of chlorinated wastes and water on marine phytoplankton

            Species                    Toxicant            Measured Residual          Duration of Test                      Effect(s)                         Reference
                                                       Chlorine mg/I

    Phytoplankton -.   ..........Cl2 injection                        0.05-0.40  12 hrs + 4 hrs incubation   50-98% loss of productivity               Carpenter et al. (1972)
    Chlamydomona sp..-.       .... Hypochlorite solution              0.69-12.9  5 min                         Reduced growth rate                     Hirayama and Hirano (1970)
    Skeletonema costatum ....                                          0.18-2.4  5 min                         None up to 0.29 mg/I; greater amts.
                                                                                                  inhibited growth
    Phytoplankton .- ..._ Hypochlorite solution                            0.32  2 min                         55% decrease in ATP                     Gentile et al. (1972, 1973)
                                                                  0.01  45 min                       77% decrease in ATP
                                                            0.075-0.25  24 hrs                        50% decrease in growth
    Phytoplankton -.    .      .........Cl2 injection                               in... ..-.... 15 min       91% reduction in photosynthesis         Hamilton et al. (1970)

                                     Table 4.-Summary of toxic effects of chlorinated wastes and water on marine invertebrates

            Species                    Toxicant            Measured Residual          Duration of Test                      Effect(s)                         Reference
                                                     Chlorine mg/l

    Strongylocentrus           Chlorinated sewage                          0.02  5 min                         None                                    Muchmore and Epel (1973)
      purpuratus (gametes)-.-   effluents                                  0.11  5 min                         100% inhibition of fart.
    Urechis caupo (gametes)_-                                               0.2  5 min                         22% inhibition of fort.
                                                                   1.0  5 min                        100% inhibition of fart.
    Phragmatopoma                                                           0.2  5 min                         22% loss of motility
      californica (sperm)  ... 1.0  5 min                                                                      86% loss of motility
    Ostrea edulis -     .. .  .-Residual chlorine                           10.0  48 min + 10 C                None                                    Waugh (1964)
    Elminius modestus     .                                                 2.0  10 min                        Death and inhibited growth
                                                                   5.0  3 min                        None
    Balanus sp. .-    .        ........... CI2 injection                    2.5  5 min                         80% mortality                           McLean (1972, 1973)
    Acartia tonsial-........ 2.5  5 min                                                                        90% mortality
    Melita nitida ....... 2.5  5 min                                                                           Near  100%  mortality 96 hrs after
    Palaemonetes pugio....... 2.5  5 min                                                                         exposure
    Bimaria franciscana..-....                                              4.5  4 days                        None
    Anemones ....- .     ------ Residual chlorine                          10.0  1, 2,4,8 hrs/day for 10 days  None                                    Turner et al. (1948)
                                                                   2.5  8 days                       100% mortality
                                                                   1.0  15 days                      100% mortality
    Mussels                                -----------------                10.0  1, 2, 4, 8 hrs/day for 10 days None
                                                                   2.5  5 days                       100% mortality
                                                                   1.0  15 days                      100% mortality
    Barnacles . ...      .--- 10.0  1,2,4,8 hrs/day for 10 days  95-100% mortality
                                                                   2.5  4 days                       100% mortality
                                                                   1.0  7 days                       100% mortality
    Mytilus edulis -. .-...  Cl2 injection                            0,02-0.05  A few hrs                     Detachment and migration                James (1967)

    sea urchin to a 10 percent unchlorinated sewage-    resulted in a loss of fertilization ability. This was
    seawater  mixture  typically  reduced  fertilization    attributed to a loss of sperm motility which was not
    success by 20 percent. A 0.5 percent dilution of   restored after washing to remove the hypochlorite.
    moderately  chlorinated sewage  (11 mg/l TRC    Gametes of the echiuroid, Urechis caupo, and sperm
    undiluted), significantly reduced fertilization. It was    of the annelid worm, Phragmatopoma californica,
    also determined that chlorination had more effect    were not as sensitive to chlorine toxicity.
    on sperm cells than on eggs. Eggs incubated for 5                                             A number of power plant related studies have
    minutes in a 0.77 mg/l hypochlorite solution and    been conducted to determine the effect of chlorina-
    subsequently washed to remove the hypochlorite,    tion of seawater on fouling organisms. Waugh (1964)
    showed no reduction in fertility. Incubation of    observed no significant difference in the mortality
    sperm at a 0.07 mg/l hypochlorite concentration    of oyster larvae, Ostrea edulis, exposed to 5 mg/l

    420                                 ESTUARIN. POLLUTION CONTROL

    chlorine for 3 minutes at ambient temperature,    canal contained a prolific growth of algae, Entero-
    compared to control mortality. Exposure of larvae    morpha sp. but fewer invertebrates. Balanus im-
    to thermal stress (10�C above ambient) and 10 mg/l    provisis, which was collected with some regularity
    chlorine for 6 to 48 minutes also had no significant    from the intake canal was never observed in the
    effect on survival 64 hours after treatment. Barnacle    outfall canal. The mollusk, Eubranchus sp. was more,
    nauplii, Elminius modgstus, showed more acute    abundant on the intake slabs than in the outfall.
    sensitivity to chlorination. Residual chlorine read-
    ings in excess of 0.5 mg/l caused heavy mortality    Chlorine Toxicity
    and reduced growth for survivors.                     to Estuarine Fish
      McLean  (1973)  simulated the conditions en-
    countered by marine organisms passing through a         Tsai (1968, 1970, 1975) has observed decreases in
    power plant on the Patuxent River, Md. Intake    the abundance and occurrence of brackish water
    chlorination to 2.5 mg/l residual, entrainment for   fish species in certain areas of the Upper and Little
    approximately 3 minutes and sustained exposure    Patuxent Rivers receiving chlorinated sewage ef-
    to elevated temperatures for up to 3 hours were    fluent. Tsai suggests that chlorinated .sewage  ef-
    used as experimental parameters. While barnacle    fluent may also block the upstream migration of
    larvae, Balanus sp. and copepods, Acartia tonsi,   such semi-anadromous species as the white catfish
    were not affected by a 3 hour temperature stress of   and white perch. He attributed the blocking effect
    5.5 and 11�C above ambient, exposure to 2.5 mg/l    to chlorination products rather than reduced dis-
    chlorination for 5 minutes at ambient tempera-    solved oxygen or pH resulting from organic decom-
    tures caused respective mortality rates of 80 and    position of the effluent, Table 5.
    90 percent. The amphipod, Melita nitida, and the        Tsai (1973) measured the diversity index of fish
    grass shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio, showed a delayed    upstream and downstream of 98 sewage treatment
    death response after exposure to 2.5 mg/l for 5    plants in Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania.
    minutes. Nearly 100 percent mortality was observed    Sewage treatment plants were categorized as Type I
    for both species 96 hours after exposure to the    engineering facilities (sludge activation, aeration,
    chlorination. McLean  (1972) showed that estab-    sedimentation and filtration) with effluent chlorina-
    lished colonies of the euryhaline colonial hydroid,    tion; Type II, engineering facilities with chlorination
    Bimeria franciscana, were not greatly affected by I   and an effluent holding lagoon; and Type- III;
    and 3 hours of exposure to 4.5 mg/l chlorination.     engineering facilities with a lagoon and effluent
      Turner et al. (1948) determined that continuous    chlorination at the lagoon outlet. Reductions in the
    treatment of seawater conduits with 0.25 mg/l    number of fish, number of species and the species
    chlorine prevented fouling during a 90 day interval    diversity index were significant downstream  of
    when the flow velocity was 52 cm/second or less.    Type I and III plants. These reductions were at-
    Intermittent treatment with 10 mg/l "residual chlo-   tributed to total residual chlorine levels and tur-
    rine" for 8 hours a day was ineffective in preventing    bjdity. Diversity indices showed  no  significant
    fouling by anemones, mussels and barnacles.           changes in downstream areas associated with Type II
      James (1967), working in Great Britain, observed    plants.
    that chlorination levels of 0.02 and 0.05 mg/l caused    Massive fish kills occurred on the James River,
    detachment and movement of mussels in the direc-   Va., during May-June 1973 (Virginia State Water
    tion of water flow through an aquarium, with    Control Board, 1974). Species affected by the kill'
    eventual  elimination  of the mussels.  He  con-   included spot, Leiostormus xanthurus; 'white perch,,
    eluded that the most effective way to prevent    Morone americana; bluefish, Pomatomus saltatrix;:
    fouling by mussels was not to kill, but to discourage    grey seatrout, Cynoscion regalis and menhaden,
    settling in cooling water systems by continuous low    Brevoortia tyrannus. A majority of the fish kill in
    level chlorination.                                   the James River occurred adjacent to sewage treat-
      Markowski (1960) compared the occurrence of   ment plants. Chlorination oxidation levels as high
    marine organisms on concrete slabs placed in the    as 0.7 mg/l were. observed in the James. Effluents
    intake, and -outfall canals of an electric generating    from both plants showed more than 3.0 mg/l.
    plant. Chlorine was injected into the condensors of     Distress symptoms of fish' dying included spiral
    this plant for two hours a day at a concentration    swimming patterns, broken vertebral columns, list-
    betweeen 1 and 2.5 mg/l. No vegetation was ob-   less floating, inverted swimming, distension of the
    served growing in the intake canal Where dense    air bladder in some, loose body scales, mucous on
    animal populations occurred  (predominantly in-   the skin and hemorrhaging along the fins and body
    vertebrates, Coelenterata and Polyzoa). The outfall   surface.

                                                 OTHER POLLUTANTS                                             421

                         Table 5.--Summary of toxic effects of chlorinated wastes and water on marine and freshwater fishes

          Species         Toxicant     Measured Residual  Duration of Test      Effect(s)            Reference
                                         Chlorine- mg/l

    Freshwater an'd brackish
     fishes .-.. -.-.-... chlorinated sewage  0.6-2.0 Long term       Decreased popn. size and diversity  Tsai (1968, 1970, 1973)
                       effluents
    L. xanthurus--.... ...... chlorinated sewage  0.07-0.28 May-June, 1973  Probable kill 5-10 million fish  Virginia State Water Control
    Morone sp   ...    effluents                                                                 Board (1974)
    Polatomus saltatrix -.----
    C. regalis .--------------
    Brevoortia tyrannus ....
    L. xanthurus .- ... sodium hypochlorite     0.09 96 hrs           50% mortality            VIMS for VSWCB (1974)
                                                 0.14 24 hrs           50% mortality
      .:1    .                                  0.28  6 hrs           50% mortality
    0. nerka.- ..- .... chlorinated sewage   0.02-0.26 24 hrs         100% mortality           Servizi and Martens (1974)
    O; gbrbuscha (freshwater).   effluents      0.16  72 hrs          100% mortality
    0. gorbuscha .- ... ... Residual chlorine    0.5 80 min + 10 C    50% mortality            Stober and Hanson (1974)
    0. tshawytscha .....--.... 0,5 10 min + 10 C                      50% mortality
    Morone americana..- .-.. residual chlorine  0.08 10onains         Avoidance                Meldrim et al. (1974)
    Menidia menidia -...                        0.08 10 min           Avoidance
    F. heteroclitus          --------- 0.03 10 min                    Avoidance.
    Trinectes maculatus                         0.03 10 min           Avoidance
    Pleuronectes platessa
     (eggs) .-..-.-..... free chlorine      0.04-0.08 8 days          None                     Alderson (1972)
                                                 0.62 72 hrs           50% mortality
                                                 0.10 96 hrs           50yq mortality
     (larvae)            ........... -   0.032 48 hrs                 50% mortality
                                                0.026  96 hrs         509 mortality
    Cyprinus carpioe ........ 4-Chlororesorcinol  ----------------, 3-7 days  Reduced hatch    Gehrs et al. (1974)
                     5-Chlorouracil (0.001 mg/l)

      Live box tests conducted adjacent to'the James          Separate field studies on the spot, Leiostomus
    River sewage treatment plant (STP) demonstrated    xdnthurus, found up to 40 percent of juveniles from
    a correlation between rates of effluent chlorination    the 1973 year class exhibited deformities in the
    and mortality of juvenile spot and croaker. With an    vertebral column. These abnormal forms are iden-
    average daily chlorine feed of 1,200 pounds (total   tifiable as a distinct year class in 1975 population
    flow of water was approximately 10 mgd during    samples from the James River,  (Labbish Chao,
    tests) and a measured activated oxidant level of    personal communication).
    3.0 mg/l, caged fish suffered 100 percent mortality       A  study of the effect of chlorinated sewage
    within 20 hours. After a cutback to a chlorine feed    effluents on sockeye salmon, Onchorhynchus nerka,
    rate of approximately 400 pounds per day, only 20    and pink salmon, 0. gorbuscha, has been conducted
    percent mortality was observed among caged fish    by Servizi and Martens (1974). They used three
    after 20 hours.                                         study sites to conduct cage bioassays. The first,
      On-site aquaria tests confirmed the results of the    Site I, was adjacent to a primary treatment plant
    cage tests. Water from an area adjacent to the outfall    with effluents chlorinated following settling and dis-
    of the James River (STP) was pumped through    charged through a 600-foot pipeline directly into:
    aquaria containing juvenile spot. Mortalities ranged    the receiving stream.  Site II was on a stream
    from 91 to 100 percent after 40-85 minutes of    receiving wastes from an activated sludge plant in
    exposure prior to the cutback in chlorination. After    which chlorinated effluents were discharged into a
    chlorination rates were reduced, mortalities were    large efflihent holding lagoon and retained from 30
    0-26 percent after 120 minutes of exposure.             to 60 days. Site III was located on a stream receiving
      Continuous flo* laboratory bioassays were also    effluents which were  chlorinated as they left a.
    conducted.' The 96 hour LC5o for' juvenile spot was    non-aerated lagoon.
    estimated at 0.09 mg/1. The estimated 24 hour             Measured  chlorine  residuals  in the  receiving
    LCUo was 0.14 mg/l and the 6 hour LC50, 0.28 mg/l.    stream at Site I ranged from 0.02-0.26 mg/l. These

    422                                    ESTmUARn     POLLUTION CONTROL

    concentrations resulted in 100 percent mortality of         Gehrs et al. (1974) tested the sensitivity of carp
    caged sockeye fingerlings placed 30, 60 and 250 feet    eggs, Cyprinus carpio, to two of the compounds
    below the effluent discharge point. Additional tests    identified by Jolley, 4-Chlororesorcinol and 5-Chloro-
    indicated that the primary effluent without chlorina-    uracil. Significant reductions in the hatchability of
    tion was also toxic. However, fish exposed to the    non-water hardened carp eggs were observed in
    unchlorinated effluent lived 10 times longer than    concentrations of each compound as low as 0.001
    ones exposed when effluents were being chlorinated.    mg/l.
    Toxicity of the unchlorinated effluents was attributed      In California, Young (1964) observed tumor-like
    to MBAS and ammonia.                                      sores around the mouth of white croakers, Genyone-
      Tests  at  Site  II  indicated  that  chlorinated    mus lineatus, collected near the Hyperion sewage
    effluents retained for 30 to 60 days were not toxic    outfall in Santa Monica Bay. While there was no
    to sockeye fingerlings and alevins and pink salmon    direct evidence to link the occurrence of lesions with
    alevins after 26 days of exposure.                        chlorinated sewage effluents, a general decline in
       In  tests at Site III, with fingerling sockeye    fitness of croakers and other species found in close
    salmon,  chlorinated  sewage  effluents  (measured    proximity to the outfall area was observed.
    0.85 mg/1) resulted in 50 percent mortality after
    48 minutes. Fifty percent mortality occurred after
    13 hours of exposure to the unchlorinated effluents.
    Sublethal exposures of fingerling sockeye salmon to    Alderson, R. 1972. Effects of low concentrations of free
    the effluents from Site III (1-3 hours of exposure          chlorine on eggs and larvae of plaice, Pleuronedes plafessa
    to 0.22 mg/l) resulted in gill damage, including            L. In: Marine Pollution and Sea Life. Fishing News, Ltd.,
    hyperplasia, swollen epithelial cells, and separation
    of epithelium from pillar cells.                          Basch, R. E. and J. G. Truchan. 1973. Calculated residual
      The toxicity of chlorine and heat to pink, Oncor-         chlorine concentrations safe for fish. Interim Report,
                                                                Michigan Water Resource Commission, Bureau of Water
    hynchus gorbuscha, and chinook salmon, 0. tshawyt-          Manag       Commission,   ureau of chate
    scha, has been determined by Stober and Hanson
    (1974). Juveniles of each species were tested in sea-    Block, Rt M. and G. Rt Helz. 1975. Biological and chemical
    water at five chlorination concentrations, ranging          implications of chlorine in estuarine and marine systems.
    from 0.05-1.0 mg/I, and four temperatures from              Chesapeake Sci, In press.
    t 0-10�C. Salmon were exposed to each matrix for    Brungs, W. k 1973. Effects of residual chlorine on aquatic
    7.5-60 minutes. A decrease in the tolerance of both         life. Jour. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 45(10) :2180-2192.
    species to chlorination was observed with increased
    temperature and exposure time. The most toxic ef- Carfenter, B. S., B. B. Peck and S. S. Anderson. 1972.
                                                               Cooling water chlorination and productivity of entrained
    feet was observed at a t of 9.9-10�C where the LTo          phytoplankton. Marine Biology 16:37-40.
    (lethal time for 50 percent mortality) ranged from
    approximately 10 minutes at 0.5 mg/l for chinooks    Davis, Wm. P. and D. P. Middaugh, 1976. A review of the
    to 80 minutes for pinks.                                    impact of chlorination processes upon marine ecosystems.
                                                               Proc. Conf. Environmental Impact of Water Chlorination,
      Meldrim et a. (1974) in flowing water bioassays Oak Ridge, 1975.
    studied the effect of chemical pollutants on estuarine
    organisms. They found that white perch, Mforone    Doudoroff, P. and M. Katz. 1950. Critical review of literature
    americana, consistently avoided levels as low as 0.08       on the toxicity of industrial wastes and their components
    mg/l  at temperatures from  7-17�C. Silversides,            to fish. Sew and Ind. Wastes 22(11) 1432-1458
    Menidia menidia, also avoided 0.08 mg/I at term-    Fair, G. M., J. C. Morris, S. L. Chang, I. Well, and R. P.
    peratures from 8-28�C but showed a preference for           Burden. 1948. Chlorine as a water disinfectant. Jour.
    0.08 mg/I when fish acclimated to 7�C were exposed          Amer. Water Works Assoc. 40:1051-1061.
    at 12�C. Mummichogs, Fund/ulus heterodlitus, and
                                                             CsGehrs, C. W., L. D. Eyman, R. L. Jolley and J. E. Thompson.
    hog chokers, Trinectes maculatus, avoided levels as         1974. Effects of stable chlorine-containing organics on
    low as 0.03 mg/l.                                           aquatic environments. Nature 249:675-676.
      Alderson (1972) found that the 48 and 96 hour
    TIm of free chlorine for plaice larvae, Pleuronectes    Gentile, J. H., J. Cardin, M. Johnson, and S. Sosnowski.
                                                               1972. The effects of chlorine on the growth and survival
    platessa, was 0.032 and 0.026 mg/l respectively.            of selected species of estuarine phytoplankton and zoo-
    Eggs were not affected when exposed to 0.075 and            plankton. Unpublished manuscript, Environmental Re-
    0.04 mg/l free chlorine for 8 days, indicating that         search Laboratory, Narragansett.
    the egg membrane  gives considerable protection
                  over long periods. The 72 and 192 hour TI  for    S. Cheer, and N. Lackie. 1973. The use of ATP in
    over long periods. The 72 and 192 hour Tltrx for            the evaluation of entrainment. Unpublished data. En-
    eggs was 0.7 and 0.12 mg/1 respectively.                    vironmental Research Laboratory, Narragansett.

                                                     OTBHER POLLUTANTS                                                     423

    Hamilton, D. H., D. A. Flemer, C. V. Keefe, and J. A. Mi-    Merkens, J. C. 1958. Studies on the toxicity of chlorine and
      hursky. 1970. Power plants: Effects of chlorination on          chloramines to the rainbow  trout. Water and Waste
      estuarine primary productivity. Science 169:197-198.            Treatment Jour. 7:150-151.

    Hirayama, K. and R. Hirano. 1970. Influence of high tern-    Moore, E. W. 1951. Fundamentals of chlorination of sewage
      perature and residual chlorine on marine phytoplankton.         and wastes. Water and Sewage Works 98:130-136.
      Marine Biology 7:205-213.
                                                                   Morgan, R. P., and R. G. Stross. 1969. Destruction of phyto-
    Holland G. A., J. E. Lasater, E. D. Neumann, and W. E.            plankton in the cooling water supply of a steam electric
      EldriAge. 1964. Toxic effects of organic and inorganic          station. Chesapeake Sci 10:165-171.
      pollutants on young salmon and trout. State of Washing-
      ton, Dept. of Fish Res. Bull. No. 5.                          Muchmore, D., and D. Epel. 1973. The effects of chlorination
                                                                     of wastewater on fertilization in some marine invertebrates.
    Houghton, G. U. 1946. The bromine content of underground           Marine Biology 19.93-95.
      waters. Part II: Observations on the chlorination of water
      containing free ammonia and naturally occurring bromide.      Rosenberger, D. R. 1971. The calculation of acute toxicity
      Jour. Soc. of Chemical Industry 65:324-328.                     of free chlorine and chloramine to coho salmon by multiple
                                                                     regression analysis. Thesis, Michigan State Univ., East
    Ingols, M S., H. A. Wyckoff, T. W. Kethley, H. W. Hodgden,        Lansing, Mich.
      E. L. Fincher, J. C. Hildebrand, and J. E. Mandel. 1953.
      Bactericidal studies of chlorine. Industrial and Engineering    Sawyers, C. N., and P. L. McCarty. 1969. Chemistry for
      Chemistry 45:995-1000.                                          Sanitary Engineers. 2nd Ed., McGraw-fill, New York.

    James, W. G. 1967. Mussel fouling and use of exomotive    Servizi, J. A., and D. W. Martens. 1974. Preliminary survey
      chlorination. Chem. and Ind. 24:994-996.                        of toxicity of chlorinated sewage to sockeye and pink
                                                                     salmon. Pacific Salmon Fisheries Comm. Progress Report
    Johanneson, J. K.  1958. The determination of monobroma-          No. 30:1-42.
      mine and monochloramine in water. Analyst 83:155-159.
                                                                   Stober, Q. J., and C. H. Hanson. 1974. Toxicity of chlorine
            1960. Bromination of Swimming Pools. Am. Jour.            and heat to pink, Onchrhynchus gorbuacha and chinook
      Publ. Health 50:1731.                                           salmon, 0. tsiawytscha. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 103(3):
                                                                     569-576.
    Jolley, Rt L. 1973. Chlorination effects on organic constituents
      in effluents from domestic sanitary sewage treatment plants.    Sugam, R. and G. PR Helz. 1976. Apparent ionization con-
      Ph.D. Dissertation, Univ. of Tennessee.                         stant of hypochlorous acid in seawater Environmental Sci.
                                                                     and Tech. 10(4) :385-86.
    Jolley, R. L., C. W. Gehrs, and W. W. Pitt. 1975. Chlorina-
      tion of cooling water: A source of environmentally sig-    Tsai, C. 1968. Effects of chlorinated sewage effluents on fishes
      nificant chlorine-containing organic compounds. Proceeding      in upper Patuxent River, Md. Chesapeake Sci. 9(2) :83-93.
      of the 4th National Symposium on Radioecology, Corvallis,
      Ore.                                                                 . 1970. Changes in fish populations and migrations in
                                                                     relation to increased sewage pollution in Little Patuxent
    Laubusch, E. J. 1971. Chlorination and other disinfection         River, Md. Chesapeake Sci. 11(1):34-41.
      processes. In: Water Quality and Treatment. Am. Water
      Works Assoc.                                                  -      . 1973. Water quality and fish life below sewage out-
                                                                     falls. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 102(2) 281-292.
    Lewis, B. G. 1966. Chlorination and muscle control. I.
      The chemistry of chlorinated seawater. A  review of                  . 1975. Effects of sewage treatment plant effluents
      the literature. Central Electric Res. Lab., Lab. Note           on fish: A review of the literature. Chesapeake Research
      No. RDfL/N/106/66.                                              Consortium. Publ. No. 36:1-229.

    Markowvki, S. 1959. The cooling water of power stations:    Turner, H. J., D. M. Reynolds, and A. C. Redfield. 1948.
      A new factor in the environment of marine and freshwater        Chlorine and sodium pentachlorophenate as fouling pre-
      invertebrates. Jour. Animal Ecol. 28:243-258.                   ventives in seawater conduits. Indus. and Engin. Chem.
                                                                     40:450-453.
          .1960. Observations on the response of some benthonic
      organisms to power station cooling water. Jour. Animal    Virginia State Water Control Board. 1974. James River
      Ecol. 29:349-357.                                               Fish 1Mi 73-025. Bureau of Surveillance and Field Studies,
                                                                     Division of Ecological Studies.
    McKee, J. E., and H. W. Wolf. 1963. Water Quality Criteria.
      2nd Ed., Publ. 3A, Calif. State Water Quality Control    Waugh, G. D. 1964. Observations on the effects of chlorine
      Board, Sacramento.                                              on the larvae of oysters, Ostrea edulis L., and barnacles,
                                                                     Elmtinieus modestus, Darwin. Ann. Appl. Biol. 54:423-440.
    McLean, R. I. 1972. Chlorine tolerance of the colonial hy-
      droid, Bimeriafra  caa. Chesapeake Sci. 13t229-230.           White, G. C. 1972. Handbook of Chlorination. Van Nostrand
    -----. 1973. Chlorine and temperature stress in estuarine          Rheinhold Co. New York.
      invertebrates. Jour. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 45:837-841.
                                                                          . 1973. Disinfection practices in the San Francisco
    Meldrim, J. W., J. J. Gift, and B. R. Petrosky. 1974. The         Bay Area. Jor. Wat. Pollut. Contr. Fed. 46:89-101.
      effect of temperature and chemical pollutants on the be-
      havior of several  estuarine organisms.  Ichthyological       Young, P. H. 1964. Some effects of sewage effluents on marine
      Assoc. Inc. Bull. No. 11:1-129.                                 life. Calif. Fish and Game 50(1) :33-41.

    THE IMPACT OF SYNTHETIC
    ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
    ON ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEMS

    JEFFREY L. LINCER
    Mote Marine Laboratory and
    Eco-Analysts, Inc.
    Sarasota, Florida

                ABSTRACT
                The presence and effects of synthetic organic compounds is briefly reviewed with reference to the
                recent literature on the estuarine ecosystem. Pesticides and industrial toxicants are discussed in
                general with some attention given to synergistic and modifying effects. Recommendations for
                future research are made which include elucidating the effects of synthetic organics at the eco-
                system level.

    INTRODUCTION                                               DDT  and other synthetic organics are termed
                                                          toxic when, because of their physical or chemical
      For the purposes considered herein, the term    properties, they interfere with normal biological
    "synthetic organic compounds" refers to manmade    functions. The interference can occur at any level,
    compounds and includes pesticides, polychlorinated    whether it be as subtle as pesticide-induced decreased
    biphenyls (PCB's), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and    growth in oysters or as gross as reproductive failure
    phthalate esters (PAE's) as well as toxic contam-    in bald eagles or mass fish mortality. Naturally-
    inants of some of these, like chlorinated dibenzodi-    occurring toxic substances include resin from certain
    oxins and dibenzofurans.                                 plants and the toxins associated with red tide or-
      The estuarine ecosystem has been variously defined    ganisms. By far, however, most deleterious sub-
    but for the sake of simplicity it will be considered as    stances find their origin with modern-day man and
    that zone where fresh and salt water mix. This estu-    his efforts to promote "progress."
    arine ecosystem serves a vital function in that most        A logical breakdown of synthetic organic com-
    marine finfish and shellfish depend on a high quality    pounds which are considered in this paper along
    estuary for some critical portion of their life history    with available production and/or consumption in-
    (Clark, et al., 1969; Douglas and Stroud, 1971). In    formation follows.
    addition, many salmonids and other anadromous               1. Pesticides are chemicals which kill organisms
    fishes spend a variable amount of time in this habitat    identified as "pests" and include insecticides, fungi-
    before ascending the rivers to spawn.                    cides, piscicides, herbicides, miticides, etc. Insecti-
      Unfortunately, the oceans are the recipients and    cides are commonly broken down into: (a) chlori-
    ultimate accumulation sites for persistent pollutants    nated hydrocarbons (organochlorines), like DDT, al-
    like organochlorines (Dustman and Stickel, 1966;    drin, dieldrin, heptachlor, toxaphene, and chlordane;
    Risebrough, et al., 1972). In fact, an estimated 25    (b) organophosphates, like malathion, parathion,
    percent of all DDT applied to the land has found its    diazinon, and guthion; and  (c) carbamates, like
    way to the sea (S.C.E.P., 1970). Risebrough and his    Sevin and zectran. Fungicides include dithiocarba-
    co-workers (1968a) indicate that 11 tons of DDT          mates (e.g., ferbam and ziram), nitrogen containing
    per year are transported down the Mississippi River    compounds (e.g., phenylmercuric acetate), triazines,
    to the Gulf of Mexico alone! Because of their unique    quinones, heterocyclics, and inorganics like the heavy
    physical  and  chemical  characteristics,  estuaries    metals. Hexachlorobenzene (C6C16 or HCB)  is a
    tend to be toxicant traps. The detritus which forms    fungicide but is, in addition, used in organic synthesis
    the base of the estuarine food chain may contain    processes. Herbicides are quite varied with the most
    up to 50 ppm total DDT. Odum, et al., (1969), and    common being the phenoxy acids like 2,4-D and
    Woodwell, et al., (1967), estimated that total estu-    2,4,5-T. Frequently used aquatic herbicides include
    arine ecosystem levels as high as 14.7 kg/hectare    endothal and diquat which are often used in com-
    were possible.                                           bination with a surfactant (like a detergent).

                                                                                                         425

    426                                    ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                         Table 1.-U.S. production of synthetic organic pesticides by class, 1967-1972*. In thousands of pounds.

                                     1967          1968          1969           1970          1971          1972

    Fungicides ..-. . .. ..            177,886        190,773       182,091        168,470       180,270         170,569
    Herbicides --------- 439,965                      499,514       423,840       434,241        458,849        481,618
    Insecticides, fumigants, rodenticidest....  503,796  581,619    580,884        495,432       564,818        569,157
    Total ....-...... ... ..          1,121,647      1,271,906     1,186,815     1,098,143      1,203,937      1,221,344

     * Fowler, 1974.
     t Includes small quantity of synthetic soil conditioners; does not include the fumigants carbon tetrachloride, paradichlorobenzene or inorganic rodenticides.

      The U.S. production of the major synthetic or-             Phthalate esters (PAE's) were introduced in the
    ganic pesticides is reproduced in Table 1. In 1971,    1920's to overcome the problems of camphor in the
    the production of synthetic organic insecticides in    plasticizer industry. Major uses of PAE's include
    the United States climbed nearly 14 percent from    construction products, automobile and home furnish-
    the year before, reaching 557.7 million pounds, third    ings, clothing, food coverings and medical products.
    highest on record (Fowler, 1973). Insecticides ac-    Phthalates are also found in biochemical pathways
    counted for 49 percent of the tonnage of synthetic    and several natural products such as poppies and
    pesticides produced. As one can see in Table 1, the    tobacco leaves (Graham, 1973; Mathur, 1974). The
    trend was reversed for 1972.                               documentation that PAE's were readily assimilated
      Table 2 reveals the domestic disappearance of    into blood from plastic storage bags and other medi-
    selected pesticides for the years 1966 through 1971.    cal devices was the original basis for the fear that the
    Except for the aldrin-toxaphene group, there is a    human population might be continuously exposed
    fairly consistent downward trend. Domestic disap-    (Anonymous, 1973).
    pearance of DDT,  for instance, was 18.2 million             PCB's and PCT's  (polychlorinated terphenyls)
    pounds in 1971, down more than 28 percent from    are produced under the trade name Aroclor� by
    1970. The  consumption  of the aldrin-toxaphene    Monsanto in the United States. PCB  production
    group continued its rise during 1972. Sales for that    peaked during the period 1967-1970 (Table 3). PCT
    group  (not including  Strobane�)  soared to 140    production shows a similar, but later, production
    million pounds for 1972 (U.S. Tariff Commission,    peak during 1970-1971. PCT's are no longer being
    1974).                                                     produced and the manufacture of PCB's is directed
      2. "Industrial Toxicants" is a catch-all term that    exclusively towards the heat transfer, transformer,
    has  been  variously  subdivided.  Polychlorinated    and capacitor sales categories. In an effort to over-
    biphenyls (PCB's) are chlorinated compounds which    come some of the potential environmental problems
    find use in almost every sector of modern man's
    world and have recently come under close scrutiny    Table 3.--Production of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) and polychlorinated
    (Peakall and Lincer, 1970). In the past, they have    terphenyls (PCT's) by Monsanto Industrial Chemicals Company for years
    been used in such diverse products as printer's ink                    1959-1973. (Pers. comm., W. B. Papageorge).
    to swimming pool paint; however, a voluntary cur-                                   U.S. Production (Thousands of Pounds)
    tailment by Monsanto has restricted their use.                     Year               PCB's            PCT's

    Table 2.-Domestic disappearance of selected pesticides at producers' level,   1959 - . ....         . *       2,996
         United States, 1966-1971, In thousands of pounds. (Fowler, 1973).  1960 - .... .      .... 37,919        3,850
                                                               1961 ---------- 36,515                             2,322
                                                               971t 1962-.......38,353                           4,468
       Pesticide    1966*  1967*  1968:   1969t  1970t  197t   196344734                                          4920
                                                               1963 .-- ..-----... . ....... .              .. 44,734'  4,920
                                                               1964            -------                    -- -  50,833  5,288
    Aldrin-toxaphene                                           1965 .-............... 60,480                      6,470
     group-** .- --- 86,646  86,289  38,710  89,721  62,282  85,005   1966                     65,849            8,190
    Calcium arsenate.  2,942  2,329  1,992  2,117  2,900   2,457   1967                        75,309             9,450
    Copper sulfate_.. 104,020  85,274  87,452  99,840  77,344  70,272   1968                   82,854             8,870
    DDT .- ..-  45,603  40,257  32,753  30,256  25,457  18,234   1969 -------                            -      --------------- 76,389  11,600
    Lead arsenate....  6,944  6,152  4,747  7,721  5,860   4,142   1970 -................... ... 85,054          17,768
    2,4-D .-.-   ----- 63,903  66,955  68,404  49,526  46,942-  32,174   1971                  34,994            20,212
    2,4,5-T - - ------- 17,080  15,381  15,804  3,218  4,871   1,389   1972 .-. ..             38,600             8,134
                                                               1973 .----------------- 42,178                       **
     * Year ending September 30.
     t Year ending December 31.                                 * Data unavailable.
     �* Includes aldrin, chlordane, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, Strobane� and toxajhene.  ** Production terminated in April, 1972.

                                               OTHER POLLUTANTS                                          427

    of existing biphenyls, Aroclor 1016 was produced.       Table 4.-Consumption of plasticizers by type (in thousand metric tons)*.
    Approximately 23.5 million pounds of Aroclor 1016
    were sold domestically in 1973. The 1973 sales for
    Aroclors 1221, 1242 and 1254 were recorded at 0.04,   Adipates -                28.0      28.4        27.3
    6.20 and 9.98 million pounds, respectively. All other   Azelates        .        6.8       7.2        7.3
    PCB's showed no domestic sales (personal communi-    DOP/DIOP/DIDP -           345.0      379.5      363.6
                                                           B p rEpoxy ----- - --------                 - 50.0  56.8  59.1
    cation, W. B. Papageorge).                            Linear phthalates ....-.. . -.. 109.0  125.5    143.2
      "Plasticizers" are obviously produced by a variety   Polyesters -.. ..        22.7      25.4       24.1
                                                           Trimellitates ---- - ----                      -------- 8.1  8.5  10.5
    of  manufacturers,  however,  phthalates  (DOP,    Others  ------               110.0     113.0      113.6
    DIOP, DIDP and linear) are the major groups con-                               -          -          -
    sumed (Table 4) . During 1972, production of phthalic    Total .--------.-------.  679.6  744.3      748.7
    anhydride esters totaled 1,145,693 pounds and sales
    followed closely at 1,138,493 pounds (U.S. Tariff    *Source:Anonymous,initialedR.M.(1974).
    Commission, 1974).
                                                          pesticides are advertised as short-lived, there is
                     PRESENCE OF SYNTHETIC ORGANICS       evidence that some may not be. In an application of
    IN ESENCTUARIES                                       carbaryl (Sevin) at rates comparable to those used
                                                          to control oyster pests, the chemical could still be
    Pesticides                                            detected in the mud 42 days post-treatment (Kar-
                                                          inen, et al., 1967). Similarly, 14 days after a standard
      Considering only the organochlorine pesticides,    ground application of malathion, the organophos-
    DDE  (the major breakdown product of DDT) is   phate could still be found in the estuarine plant
    probably the most widely distributed in fish and    Juncus (Tagatz, et al., 1974).
    wildlife (see Appendix A). Being lipophilic (i.e.,       The fungicide hexachlorobenzene  (HCB),  has
    "fat-loving"), DDE  like other organochlorines is   recently been reported in several species of fresh-
    not very soluble in water but accumulates in the fat   water and some species of anadromous fish including
    of organisms (for overview, see Table 1 in reference    coho salmon from Michigan and striped bass from
    entitled EPA, no date). Organochlorine pesticides    Maryland and Florida (Johnson, et al., 1974).
    are passed from prey to predator with little lost by
    way of excretion. This biological magnification with    Industrial Toxicants
    each transfer from one food level (i.e., trophic level)
    to the next results in animals at the tops of food      Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) are as widely
    chains acquiring inordinate amounts of these poisons    distributed as DDT. Because of similar molecular
    (Woodwell, et al., 1967). For instance, DDE con-   shape and composition, the physical and chemical
    centration reached 1,100 ppm (parts per million) in   properties of PCB's also confer the same lipophilic
    the fat of brown pelican eggs collected off the coast    characteristic that allows biological accumulation
    of California and 1,000 ppm in the eggs of the white-   and food chain magnification.
    tailed eagle collected in the Baltic (Risebrough,       Estuarine organisms like fiddler crabs and shrimp
    et al., 1972).                                        readily pick up PCB's from the sediments (Nimmo,
      Organochlorine pesticides are readily accumulated    et al., 1971a) and filter-feeding oysters accumulate
    by shellfish and this characteristic has been taken    these chemicals, like organochlorine pesticides, from
    advantage of to characterize the geographic distri-   the water (Lowe, et al., 1972).
    bution of pesticide contamination. As part of the       Like the organochlorine pesticides, PCB's accumu-
    National Pesticide Monitoring Program by EPA    late to high levels in organisms representing the tops
    (Butler, 1973), shellfish were collected from coastal   of food chains. Fat from the eggs of California brown
    zones of the United States. Analyses of over 8,000    pelicans contained 200 ppm PCB's while similar
    samples for 15 persistent organochlorines showed    samples from the Baltic white-tailed eagle contained
    that DDT-type residues were ubiquitous, with the    540 ppm (Risebrough, et al., 1972).
    maximum DDT  level at approximatlely 5 ppm.             An ever-increasing list of industrial toxicants has
    Dieldrin was the second most commonly detected    been found in our waterways. Phthalate esters have
    compound with a maximum of 0.23 ppm. Other    been found in water collected from the Charles River
    organochlorine pesticides found occasionally which    in New England. Levels of 0.88-1.9 ppb were re-
    are also extremely toxic to estuarine life, included    ported with higher levels associated with increasing
    endrin, mirex and toxaphene.                          distances upstream (Hites, 1973). Mayer, et al.,
      Although most organophosphate and carbamate    (1972), reported on PAE's in selected samples from

    428                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    North America. They found from 0.09 ppb DNBP    Table 5.-Relative sensitivity of typical estuarine organisms to three major
                  /di-n-butyl phthalate  in Missori River   tgroups of pesticides. Higher numbers reflect greater sensitivity. Reworked
    (di-n-butyl phthalate) in Missouri River water to                        from Butler, 1966b.
    200 ppb in Mississippi River channel catfish and 500
    ppb in tadpoles. Similar values for another phthalate,                            Pesticide Type
    DEHP  (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate), were 4.9, 400           Organism
                                                                              Herbicides  Organophosphates   Organochlorines
    and 300 ppb. These residue levels were roughly com-
    parable to PCB levels in the same samples.
                                                            Plankton............     1         0.5
      Although the above rivers drain directly into   Shrimp ....   .1                     1,000          300
    estuaries and one suspects that phthalates, like other   Crab....                  . ............. 1  800  100
    adsorbed toxicants, would "salt out" upon reaching   Oyster                    1          1            100
    the saline environment, apparently no published re-   Fish                     1          2            500
    search on phthalates has been directed towards that
    habitat.
      Although the preliminary work of Bowes, et al.,'  et al., 1968), but no tests on estuarine species have;:
    (1973), was directed at determining levels of chlori-   been reported to the author's knowledge.
    nated dibenzofurans and dibenzodioxins in wildlife      The sensitivity of a particular taxonomic group to
    populations exhibiting embryonic mortality, it did    any particular toxicant will vary appreciably.
    not reveal either of these two compounds. However,    Although toxic to crustaceans, the carbamate Sevin.
    they reported hexachloronaphthalene in gull eggs   is fairly nontoxic to fish and mammals (Lowe, 1967).
    but no chlorinated compounds of interest in sea lion   In very general terms, Table 5 (reworked from But-
    samples.                                              ler, 1966b) displays the relative toxicities of different
                                                            pesticide groups to estuarine fauna.
                                                              In a toxicity test which included 12 insecticides
    BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF                                 and seven species of estuarine fish, the descending
    SYNTH ETIC ORGANLIFE                                  order of toxicity was: endrin, DDT, dieldrin, aldrin,
                                                            dioxathion, heptachlor, lindane, methoxychlor, Phos-
                                                            drin, malathion, DDVP,  and 'methyl parathion
     Pesticides                                           (Eisler, 1970).  For a more comprehensive listing of
                                                            the toxic effects on estuarine life, 'by pesticide, the
      Organochlorine insecticides have been shown to
                                                            reader is encouraged to read Appendix Table' 3 of
    interfere with almost every level of biological func-
    tion tested in marine life (see Appendix B). Levels of    EPA, no date
                  DD   in the water as low as 0.001 ppm caused marked  California seems to have taken the lead in 1963 in
    DDT in the water as low as 0.001 ppm caused marked
    reduction in oyster growth (Butler, 1966a) and high    descrbig the presence and effects of pesticides
    levels of organochlorines have been associated with
                                                            1963). This precipitated many studies and many
    teratogenic effects in terns (Hays and Risebrough,nn                                                  n
                               1972) and premature births in marine mammals    questions. Perhaps the most important question a
    1972) and premature births in marine mammals
                                                            decision-making politician or coastal-zone admini-
    (Delong, et al., 1973).
      Some organochlorines, like Mirex, a chemical used    strator ought to ask with reference to toxic dis-
                                                            charges is "How much should be allowed in our wa-
    to control the imported fire ant, Solenopsis saevissima,    ters and  what  chmicals should  not be applied at all
                                                            ters and what chemicals should not be applied at all
    iln the southeastern states, are particularly toxic to
                                                            near the estuaries?" Attempts have been made to
    estuarine organisms. For example, juvenile shrimp    answer these and similar questions. The National
    and crabs died when exposed to one particle of mirex    Technical Advisory Committee to the Secretary of
    bait; and 1 ppb (part per billion) mirex in seawater                     zoned in on this topic and reco
                                                            the Interior (1968) zoned in on this topic and recom-
    killed 100 percent of the shrimp exposed (Lowe,
                                                            mended that the following organochlorines not be
    et al., 1971a). Similarly, 0.1 ppm dietary dieldrin
    brought about maladaptive behavior in fiddler crabs    applied near the marine habitat because of their
                                                            extreme toxicity:
    (Klein and Lincer, 1973).
      Some urea herbicides, like Diuron, significantly
    inhibit the growth of marine algae at levels as low    Aldrin                 DDT
    as 1 ppb (Walsh and Grow, 1971) and a few parts    BHC                        Dieldrin
    per million of DDT, dieldrin or endrin is enough to    Chlordane              Endosulfan
    reduce  phytoplankton  photosynthesis  (Wurster,    Endrin                    Methoxychlor
    1968; Menzel, et al., 1970).                          Heptachlor              Perthane
      Hexachlorobenzene has been shown to be especially    Lindane                TDE
    toxic to birds under laboratory conditions (Vos;                              Toxaphene

                                              OTHER POLLUTANTS                                            429

      Mirex also has been  shown to be exceptionally         The biochemical effects of PCB's have also come
    toxic to estuarine invertebrates like shrimp and    under scrutiny.  Keil, et al.  (1971)  tested the
    should be considered in this category. Hexachloro-    effects of Aroclor 1242 (0.01-0.1 ppm) on marine
    benzene is particularly toxic to birds (Vos, et al.,   diatoms and found that it inhibited growth, RNA
    1968)  and  deserves  special  attention  around    synthesis and chlorophyll production. Aroclor 1221
    rookeries.                                             has been shown capable of impairing osmoregulation
      A similar list for organophosphates included:        in the killifish at relatively high levels (7.5-75 ppm)
                                                         by Kinter, et al., (1972).
    Coumophos        Fenthion         Parathion               Although no work has apparently been done on
    Dursban          Naled            Ronnel               the effects of PCB's on estuarine fish-eating birds,
                                                         some data are available on ducks. Friend and Trainer
      The above organochlorines and organophosphates    (1970) showed a marked influence of Aroclor 1254
    are acutely toxic at concentrations of 5 mg/l or less    on the duck's susceptibility to viral infection. Heath,
    and should not be permitted to exceed 50 nano-    et al. (1972), testing a series of PCB's, revealed that
    grams/l. The next group they discussed is generally    toxicity was positively correlated with degree of
    not quite as toxic but should not be allowed to ex-    chlorination and Haegele and Tucker (1974) estab-
    ceed 10 mg/l in estuarine waters. This group in-   lished the effect of 1254 on eggshell thinning.
    eluded:                                                  Very little toxicological work has been done with
                                                         dioxins, dibenzofurans, and phthalates and nothing
    Arsenicals            2,4'5-T compounds                has been directed at the estuarine habitat, to the
          Arseo~ nicals  24   Tcopusauthor's knowledge. Miller, et al. (1973) reported
    Botanicals            Phthalic acid compounds          on the effects of tetrachloro-dibenzo-dioxin (TCDD)
    Carbamates            Triazine compounds
    2,r4-D compounds 'Substituted urea compounds           on various aquatic organisms. Approximately 50
    2,4-D compounds    Substituted urea compounds
                                                         percent of the young cho salmon exposed to 131
                                                         mg/l died by day 20. They also showed a marked
      This kind of information and guidance as to allow-    growth inhibition by TCDD  on both salmon and
    able levels of these and most other common toxicants,    rainbow trout.
    including radionuclides, heavy metals, PCB's,  et         Zitko and his colleagues (1973) reported on the
    cetera, is presently being updated by the Environ-    acute and chronic oral toxicity of chlorinated di-
    mental Protection Agency (see National Academy of   benzofurans to immature brook trout. They con-
    Science and National Academy  of Engineering,    eluded that 2,8-dichlorodibenzofuran has a low acute
    1972).                                                 toxicity to that species since even a high level of 122
                                                         mg/kg produced no mortality.
    Industrial Toxicants                                     Work on phthalate esters has been limited to
                                                         freshwater or anadromous organisms. In an effort to
      A great deal of research has been carried out on    establish LC50 values for freshwater  organisms,
    the effects of PCB's on estuarine life (Appendix B).    Mayer and Sanders (1973) reported DNBP to be
    Perhaps most of it has been done at the EPA Gulf    less toxic to rainbow trout (96-hour LC60   6.5
    Breeze Laboratory,  PCB's have been shown to    mg/l) than to the other fish tested. Phthalate esters
    significantly decrease oyster growth at levels as low    are metabolized by freshwater fishes (Stalling, et al.,
    as 5 ppb (Lowe, et al., 1972) and be lethal to shrimp    1973) and both DEHP and DNBP are apparently
    at 1 ppb (Nimmo, et al., 1971b). Duke, et al. (1970)    not  acutely  toxic  to  freshwater  invertebrates
    showed that crabs concentrated the PCB Aroclor    Sanders, et al. (1973) reported that although in-
                                                         vertebrates rapidly accumulate these compounds,
    1254 and 72 percent of the shrimp exposed to 5 ppb
                                                         their 96-hour TL5so (2.1 - > 32 mg/l) is appreciably
    died after day 10. Hansen, et al. (1974a) demon-g
    strated that estuarine fishes and shrimp displayed    greater than DDT, by comparison. However, the
                             of avoidance to the same PCB at    TL50 values for aquatic organisms are 700 to 11,000
    levelaryis  001 to 10 ppm. Bioassays with Aroclor    times that which inhibited reproduction in one of
    levels 0.001 to 10 ppm. Bioassays with Aroclor    the invertebrates tested (water fleas).
    1254 indicated that 5 ppb caused mortality to
    estuarine fish and the effect was delayed (Hansen,
    et al., 1971). In response to the change in emphasis of    Synergism and Modifying Effects
    PCB production and subsequent increase in Aroclor
    1016 manufacture, Hansen and co-workers (1974b)          No report, however brief, on the effects. of syn-
    established the acute 96-hour LC5o's for estuarine    thetic organics on estuarine life would be 'complete
    shrimp, fish, and oyster..                             without including the area of synergistic effects and

    430                                  ESTUARINE  POLLUTION CONTROL

    modifying  factors.  The  term  "svnergism",  un-    many generations or seasonal cycles without any
    fortunately, has many definitions. For our present    damage to the real world.
    needs, we will consider it to mean more than the          Even at the community level, little has been done
    anticipated additive effects.                          with respect to the effects of synthetic organics. A
      This subject has been addressed in depth elsewhere    variety of community parameters have been sug-
    (Livingston, et al., in press) however, a few examples    gested as reflectors of a community's health. Mar-
    particularly germane to the estuary will follow.   galef's "species richness" and Peilou's "species di-
    Once again, most work in this area has been done in    versity and evenness" are but a few. Researchers are
    freshwater, however, Lowe, et al. (1971b) reported    only now finding out that many of these parameters
    that oysters exposed to a mixture of 1 mg/l each of   are not the panaceas they thought they were. The
    DDT,  toxaphene and parathion showed reduced    main problem lies with trying to use these techniques
    growth and histopathological effects. When these    out of the context for which they were originally
    mollusks were exposed to the individual pesticides,    intended.
    sinilar results were not observed.                        If it is possible to consistently and accurately
      Eisler (1970) reported on the modifying factors    describe some ecosystem parameter, then it ought to
    affecting the toxicity of organochlorines and or-   be theoretically possible to quantitate a change in
    ganophosphates to the mummichog, an estuarine    that parameter. The absence of this kind of effort in
    fish. The toxicity of organophosphates increased with    the estuarine and other habitats is merely a re-
    increasing temperature and salinity and decreasing   flection of our current inability to describe such
    pH. The toxicity of organochlorines was greatest at    changes, not evidence of its non-existence.
    intermediate temperatures (20-250C) and least at
    an intermediate pH (7-8). Salinity had little effect    RECOMMENDED RESEARCH
    on organochlorine toxicity.
      Nimmo (1973) reported that sublethal levels of         It goes without saying that there are existing pro-
    the PCB, Aroclor 1254, became lethal to estuarine
                                                          grams that have to continue. One such program is
    penaeid  shrimnp when  the test organisnm-s  were   the National Pesticide Monitoring Program. It is
    stressed by reduced salinity. Since this species is   also imperative that we have an established frame-
    migratory and experiences a wide variation in sa-   work, like the one at the Gulf Breeze Laboratory,
    linity, this finding is particularly significant.       work, like the              o     ne at the G ulf Breeze Laboratory,
      The effect of temperature may be of paramount    tiny can be puickl tsted.
    importance in modifying the toxicity of pesticides to    tAs an overview, emphasis i future research should
    estuarine invertebrates. For example, Koenig, et al.   be given to determining the significance of the resi-
    (in preparaDtion)  found that blue crabs contarni-    dues being reported in the literature. This can be
    unated  ith DDa dicd rnont cdue gc   a feld experiment    accomplished by stressing the diagnostic aspects of
    until a cold front caused significant reductions in   experimentation during the planning stage and e-
    w-aiter temperature.                                   experimentation during the planning stage and en-
                                                          couraging toxicological studies that have direct
                                                          relevance to the real world.
    Effects of Synthetic Organics                             In this light, the area of field-testing toxicants
    at the Estuarine Ecosystem Level                       has progressed in a manner that reflects individual
                                                          idiosyncrasies and the idiomatic characteristics of
      With all due deference to the title of this report,    the funding and/or research organization(Appendix
    pitifully little research has been addressed to the    C). Efforts should be made to, at least, roughly
    ecosystem level. Although a variable amount of   standardize field-testing techniques with a keen
    effort has gone into testing the effects of particular    awareness of the possible modifying and synergistic
    toxicants under field conditions (see Appendix C),    effects that one will encounter in the estuary. Inter-
    this is still not approaching the problem on the    pretation of field exposures will require coordinated
    ecosystem level.                                       efforts in the laboratory under less real, but more
      Odum and others have developed methods for   controlled, conditions. It is only there that statis-
    simulating ecosystem energy and material flow on    tically and logistically complicated designs can reach
    analog computers, but this approach is still twice-    fruition and elucidate specific modes of action,
    removed from reality. On the other hand, such    synergy, latent effects, food-chain magnification,
    models often indicate what types of information are    and so forth.
    lacking and also have the advantage that the effects      On the gobal scene, interdisciplinary efforts should
    of even extreme manipulations can be tested through    be made to more thoroughly characterize the ki-

                                                  OTHER POLLUTrAr                                                 431

    netics, marketing patterns, and use of widespread    Anonymous (initialed "R. MV"). 1974. Plasticizers. Modern
    synthetic organic compounds, like phthalate esters,           Plastivs September: 62-3.
    other plasticizers, chlorinated dibenzofurans, and    Bagley, G. E., W. L. Reichel and E. Cromartie. 1970. Identi-
    dioxins and HCB. We need to know more about                   fication of polychlorinated biphenyls in two bald eagles
    their environmental kinetics, especially their metab-         by combined gas-liquid chromatography-mass spectrom-
    olism in soil and water.                                      etry. J.A.O.A.C. 53: 251-260.
      As to specific chemicals that need experimental    Bookhout, C. G., A J. Wilson, Jr., T. W. Duke and J. I.
    attention, PAE's, HCB, dioxins and dibenzofurans              Lowe. 1971. Effects of Mirex on the larval development of
    are high on the list.                                         two crabs. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 1: 165-180.
      PAE's are widespread in freshwater fish with
    higher residues appearing to be associated 'with in-    Bourne, W. 1  P. and J. A. Began. 1972. Polychlorinated
                                                                 biphenyls in North Atlantic seabirds. Mar. Poll Bull
    dustrial areas (Stalling, et al., 1973). They have            3: 171-175.
    been shown to be more toxic to aquatic organisms
    than warm-blooded animals. These esters disturb    Bowes, G. W., B. R. Simoneit, A. L. Burlingame, B. W.
    reproduction and growth in aquatic invertebrates              deLappe and R. Wi   Risebrough. 1973. The search for
                                                                 chlorinated dibenzofurans and chlorinated dibenzodioxins
    and fish yet nothing is known about their effects on          in wildlife populations showing elevated levels of embryonic
    estuarine species.                                            death. Envir. Health Perspectives Exp. Iss. No. 5: 191-19&
      Although not widely reported in the literature,
    lUB  has been found in environmental samtples    Burnett, It 1971. DDT residues: Distribution of concentra-
                                                                 tions of Emerita ana/aga (Simpson) along coastal California.
    (HEolden, 1970). In view of the possible analytical          Science 174: 606-608.
    confusion with benzene hexachloride (BH1C), HCB
    may be even more widespread. With this potential    Butler, P. An 1965. Reaction of some estuarine molluscs to
    and the documented toxicity of this compound to               environmental factors. 999-W.S. Pu. Health Serv. Pub..
    birds in mind (Vos, et al., 1968), the effects of HCB         No. 999-WP-25.
    on fish-eating birds is of concern.                        Butler, P. A. 1966a. Pesticides in the marine environment. J.
      Initial work with the dioxin TCDD  indicates               App. Eco. 3 (suppl.): 253-259.
    important effects on the growth and reproduction
    of anadromous and freshwater species (Miller et al          Butler, P. A. 1966b. The problem of pesticides in estuaries.
    1973). Again, nothing is known about the effects
    on estuarine species.                                       Butler, P. A. 1966c. Fixation of DDT in estuaries. Trans. 31st
      Dibenzofurans were not particularly lethal to the          N. A.  Wildlife and Nat. Res. Conf., 14-16 March. The
    trout they were tested on (Zitko, et al., 1973), how-         Wildlife Mgmt. Inst., Wire Bldg., Washington, D.C.
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                                                      OTHER POLLUTANTS                                                        435

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    APPENDIX A

                                                                 Synthetic Orgariic Residues Found in Estuarine Organisms

                  Taxa                              Pesticides   - Industrial Toxicants :  Comments                                                                              Reference

    PISCES
    Fish    ... ---------- -       .  DDT, DpE, DDD                                                              Shows "biological magnification"                    Woodwell, at al., 1967

    Fish Britain          - -... .-. DDT, DDE, DDD, BHC, heptachlor                                              Residues vary with species                          Moore & Tatton, 1965

    Seatrout eggs          - - --------- --. DDT                                                                 Causes spawning failure                             Butler, 1969

     Fish and fish oil .-...        .  DDE, DDD                                  PCB's                            Residue greater in industrialized coastal area  Jensen, et al., 1969

     Fish in estuary               -        - ----___ -                         :Aroclor'1254                    Appears to have no effect on juvenile stage-   Duke, et al., 1970
                                                                                                                (pinfish)

     Fish              .------------------.. DDT                                   .  Residues up to 16 ug/g                                                   -   Butler, 1968

     Pacific fish         : .-....-- - ..-. DDT             x                                                     Highest concentration in coastal fish               Risebrough, et al., 1967

     Fish .- -.-...              .... DDT                                                                         Mortality following tidal ditch spray               Croker & Wilson, 1965

     Pacific fish-livers -         .R BHC, heptachlor, aldrin, toxaphene,                                         Bottom dwellers contain higher concentration   Duke & Wilson, 1971
                                         chlordane, methoxychlor, dieldrin,                                        than pelagic
                                         endrin; DDE, DDD, DDT

     Atlantic fish .-      -           - ---------- DDE, DDT, DDD, hexachlorobenzene  Aroclor 1242, 1254, 1260    Higher concentration in surface swimmers            Zitko, 1971

     Fish estuarine ...-      --..-.-.. DDT                                                                       Fatal-to predators at different trophic levels  Butler, 1966c

     Atlantic fish......           .            -                                 Phenoclor DP6                   Lower chlorinated PCB's more frequent in fish   Koeman, et al., 1969
                                                                                                                than birds

     Processed and unprocessed
       Canadian fish............- Phthalates                                                                     Low levels were found in 21 samples of fish  Williams, 1973
                                                                                                                 available to the Canadian consumer

     Many species-.         .          ..         . .......... DDE               PCB's                            Compilation of residue data                         Zitko & Choi, 1971

     Many species ....--......... Aroclor 1254                                                                    Geographic comparisons                              Risebrough & de Lappe, 1972

     Groupers; Gulf of Mexico and
        Bahamas, .        -- -         -------.... DDE, DDT                       Aroclor 1260                    Geographic comparisons                              Giam, et al., 1974

     Fish                                    --- ----------------RHCB   :                                         Reported 0.002 ppm (salmon eggs)-0.11 ppm   Johnson, et al., 1974
                                                                                                                 (menhaden oil)

     MAMMALIA

     Dolphin  .....-....                 .. DDT                                                                   Concentrated in blubber                             Butler, 1966c

     Dolphin aned'eal .-   ..... dieldrin,:DDT, DDE, TDE                                                          Largest.amounts in blubber                          Holden & Marsden, 1967

     Seals ...- .           . .............,. DDE, DDD                            PCB                             Level consistent throughout all parts of body Jensen, et al., 1969

     AVES

     Bald eagle .........-..DDT, DDD                                                                              Caused death?                                       Reichel, et al., 1969a

     Seabirds; North Atlantic-- -- DDT                                            Aroclor 1254                    Present in nonmigrating Arctic birds                Bourne & Bogan, 1972

     Seabirds and their predators..  DDT                                          PCB                             Data on DOT/PCB ratios                              Risebrough, et al., 1968b

     Bald eagle and eggs .-     -      ----- DDE, dieldrin          "            PCB                              From many areas around North America                Wiemeyer, et al., 1972

     Bald eagle and golden eagle_.  DDE, DDD, dieldrin, DCBP, endrin,                                             Higher levels in bald eagles                        Reichel, et al., 1969b
                                         heptachlor

     Terns -.     _.. -.-..                .  DDT, DDE                            Aroclor 1254                    Deformities in young                            - Hays and Risebrough, 1972

     Sea birds (Britain)                DDT, HEOD                                                                 Seasonal variation                                  Robinson, et al., 1967

      Sea birds and eggs   .-       -. DDE, dieldrin                              Aroclor 1254                     Highest residues in freshwater fish-feeding  Prestt, et al., 1970
                                                                                                                 birds

     436

                                                                                OTHER POLLUTANTS                                                                      .             -  437

                 Taxa                             Pesticides                      Industrial Toxicants                          Comments                                    Reference

    Brown pelican eggs .-..          ..         . .. DDT                       PCB                            Eggshells thin                                     Schreiber & Risebrough, 1972

    British sea birds .-     -       ------ DDE                               PCB                             More PCB's than organochlorines                    Holmes, et al., 1967

    Sandwich tern .-             . .  telodrin, dieldrin, endrin, DDE          Phenoclor DP6                  Population decline due to pesticides               Koeman, et atl., 1967

    Birds and eggs  ..        .---- Phenoclor DP6  Some parts of mixture metabolized                                                                             Koeman, et al,, 1969

    Brown pelicans, petrels add
      shearwaters                  .          .. .........                                    . Aroclor 1254  Geographic comparisons                             Risebrough & de Lappe;,1972

    Cormorant and gull--..  DDE, DDT                                           Aioclor 1254                   No dioxins nor benzofurans found in eggs and  Zitko, et al., 1972
                                                                                                              tissue

    Gull eggs .-          .......  DDE                                         PCB's                          Hexachloronaphthalene present but no dioxins  Bowes, et al., 1973
                                                                                                               nor benzofurans found

    Eggs  of  Florida  fish-eating
      birds            _ .- -        ------------          - DDE, dieldrin.   Aroclor:1254                    2-20 ppm (OD) DDE; 1-161 ppm PCB                   Lincer & Salkind (sic), 1973

    Brain and eggs of endangered
      petrel --------.-.----..... DDE                                                                         0.23-0.38 ppm (OD) in eggs                         King & Lincer, 1973

    Bald eagles       ,..       ...                                            Aroclor 1254                   Confirmation by mass spectrometry                  Bagley, et al., 1970

    Many species of 'fish-eating
      birds .-..         ..... DDE                                            PCB's                           Compilation of residue data                        Zitko & Choi, 1911

    Shorebirds  and   fish-eating
      birds ----------                                                                          .           -.-----....DDE  PCB's  Compilation of residue data and comparison of Keith & Gruchy, 1972
                                                                                                              DDE residues to eggshell thickness

    Heron egg, Britain ..-.s .... PCB                                                                         Application of mass spectrometry                   Richardson, et al., 1971

    British seabird eggs       ...-  dieldrin, DDE, DOT, BHC, heptachlor                                      Higher levels in eggs of larger birds              Moore & Tatton, 1965

    Sea birds ....- ......... DDT, DDE, DDD                                                                   "Biological magnification"                         Woodwell, et al., 1967

    Pacific sea birds ...-    ... .. DDT, DDE, DDD                                                            Residue levels higher in California birds than  Risebrough, et al., 1967
                                                                                                              northern migrants

    Swedish sea birds .-     -      ------- DDE, DDD                           PCB                            "Biological magnification"                         Jensen, et al., 1969

    Birds and eggs, Long Island,
      N.Y.    .....       --.. .....  DDT and its metabolites, dieldrin          .                            Residues in eggs of fish-eating birds              Foehrenbach, 1972

    MOLLUSCA

    Mollusks, Britain ..- .     .- .  dieldrin, DDT,  DODE, DOD,  hepta-                                      Traces present in all mollusks tested'             Moore & Tatton, 1965
                                       chlor, BHC,                              .                               I

    Oysters ...-   .      ...--.  DDT                                                                         Rate-of shell growth indicator of pollution level Butler, 1969

    Mussels .-      .... .... DDE, DDD                                         PCB's                          Lower average concentration in less indus- Jensen, et al., 1969
                                                                            -   .  .                           trialized area

    Oysters ..........          ..                                             Aroclor 1254                   Shell growth of juvenile completely inhibited  Duke, et al., 1970
                                                                                                               upon exposure

    Oysters ..........-..             . DDT                                                                   A good monitoring organism                         Butler, 1968

    Mussels -.. ._....... DDT                                                  PCB                                                                               .Koeman, et al., 1969

    Oysters,clams,mussels,snails   DDT, DDE, DDD, dieldrin                                                    Amounts varied with proximal land use              Foehrenbach, 1972

    PLANKTON

    Phytoplankton .-.... .-          - DDT, DDD, DDE                                                          Concentrations tripled 1955-1969                   Cox, 1970

    Zooplankton -         .......   DDT, DDE, ODD                                                             Low residues shown for low trophic level           Woodwell, et al., 1967

    CRUSTACEA

    Sandcrab -          -            ------- ........ DDT, DDE, DDD                                            obnicentrations due not only to agriculture  Burnett, 1971
                                                                                                              usage but industrial waste discharge (DDT
                                                                                                               plant)

    Crayfish and shrimp .------- Aroclor 1254                                                                 Concentrate rapidly to equilibrium                 Sanders & Chandler, 1972

    438                                                              EsTuAuiRm PoLL-uToN CONTROL

                 Taxa                            Pesticides                      Industrial Toxicants                        Comments                                    Reference

    S hri r           mp        ---------- DDT, DOE, ODD                                                   Sensitivity correlated to substantial reduction  Woodwell. at aL, 1907
                                                                                                           in population

    Shrimp. crabs                 ------- Areclor 1254                                                     Higher concentration than oysters                 Duke, et al., 1970

    Fiddler crabs --D------- DDT.,O DODD  dieldrin                                                         Residue levels in tica                            Foebrenbach, 1972

    MISCELLANEOUS

    Aquatic insect larvae                          -----Areclor 1254                                        Failed to metamorphose to adult stage            Sanders & Chandler, 1972

    Sea urchin, snail -------DDT compounds                                                                 All insecticide in gonads of sea urchin           Risebreugh. it al.. 1967

    Water & sediment------ Aroclor 1254                                                                    A gradient with distance fromn pollution source  Duke, et al., 1970

    Suspended organic matter;
      San Francisco Bay                            -----Plithalate esters                                  Utilization of mass spectrometry methods          Simoneit, et al., 1973

    Crown of thorns; Pacific          -          -        -         -        FCH (similar to 1254)          Estimated levels of 0.01-0.05 ppm                McCloskey & Deubert, 1973

    Green sea tattle eggs; South
      Atlantic          -          --------- DOE                             1242.12481, 254               0.2-1.81 ppmn FOB(lipid basis); ND-0.08 ppm  Thompson, etal., 1974
                                                                                                           DOE

    River water; New England                          ---phithalate                                         Reported 0).9-1.9 ppb                            Rites. 1973

    APPENDIX B

                                                          Effects of Synthetic Organic Compounds on Estuarine Organisms

                                                                                                                      Organochlorine Insecticides
                        Treatment                               Taxa
                                                                                                          Observed Effects                                        Reference

    Seven pesticides; .1 to 5 ppb; 5 year monitoring    clams                     Different species take up pesticides at specific rates. Sublethal long  Butler, 1971
                                                        oysters                    range effects more significant than acute toxicity.

    Endrin, aidrin, heptachler                           oysters                  Linear relation between concentration and shell growth.                 Butler, 1965

    Dieldrin, kepone                                    oysters                   Sharp threshold of toxicity relative to shell growth.

    DDT, 1 ppb                                          clam                      No effects for 3 months. 30% mortality 4th month.

    DDT-toxaphene,  parathion-together and sepa-  oysters                         10% less body weight Tissue changes, loss of resistance to parasite.  Lowe, et al., 1971b
      rately, <3.0 ppb

    12 pesticides ranging from lindane, 9.10 ppm to  oyster eggs & larvae    50% of eggs develop normally at given concentrations.                        Davis & Hidu, 1969
      CoRal 0.11 ppm

    12 pesticides ranging from lindane & aldrin <10  clam eggs                    Same as above.
      ppm, to N3514, <1.0 ppm

    DDT >1 ppm                                           oyster                   Remain dclosed er show spasmodic shell movements at higher levels;  Bufter, 1966a
         <1 ppm                                                                     decrease in shell deposition at lower levels.

    DOT in oil spray, .2-16 IbiA                        isopods                   High mortality.                                                        Springer, 1961
                                                       amphipods                High mortality.
                                                        prawns                   High mortality.

    0.3 to 0.8 Ib/A                                      blue crab                10-f10%  mortality.

    Repeated applications                               spiders                   High mortality.
                                                       crabs                    High mortality.
                                                       insects                  High mortality.
                                                       marsh crabs              Resistant.
                                                       red mites                Net affected.
                                                       fish                     Some deaths.
                                                        molluscs                NHot affected.
                                                       snails                   Not affected.
                                                       turtles                  Not affected.
                                                       frogs                    Not affected.
                                                        mammals                  Not affected.

    Aldrin 0.2 IblA                                      insects                  More affected than by DDT.                                              Springer, 1951
                                                        prawns                   Less affected than by DDT.
                                                       crabs                    Less affected than by DDT.
                                                        fish                     Less affected than by DDT.

    Gamma BHC 02 Ib/A                                    crabs                    Most toxic insecticide tested.

    DDOT-2 ppm fed                                      fish                      50% mortality. ODT in dead laboratory animals less than in seemingly  Butler, 1966c
                                                        shrimp                     healthy ones in field.

    DDT 1-500 ppb                                        phytoplankton            Photosynthesis reduced.                                                 Wurster, 1968

    DDT 0.2 Ib/A                                        fish                      Some mortality among animals that could not avoid pesticides.
                                                        crabs

    Strobane 0.3 IbIA                                    3 species                Same as DDT.
                                                        crabs

    BHC 0.1 Ib/A                                        fiddler crabs             Fiddler crabs lost ability to escape predators.                        George, et al., 1957

    DOT in oil spray, .3 to 16 IbhA                     snakes                  . High mortality following symptoms of poisoning.                         Herald, 1949
                                                        amphibians
                                                        lizards
                                                        turtles

    Dieldrin, .000 to .012 ppm                          sailfin molly             Killed by 72 hours. Raised serum glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase  Lane & Scura, 1970
                                                                                   to 1500 to 1700 units.

    440                                                                ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                                                                                                         Organochlorine Insecticides
                         Treatment                                 Taxa
                                                                                                             Observed Effects                                           Reference

    .003 ppm                                                                          Survived to 120 hours. Raised SGOT to 6006-11,954 units.

    Dieldrin .012 to .003 ppm                              sailfin molly              100% mortality Ist to 31st week.                                          Lane &  Livingston, 1970
            .0015 and .0075 ppm                                                      More than half survived to week 34; growth and reproduction ad-
                                                                                     versely affected.

    Aldrin & dieldrin                                      fiddler crab               Selectively inhibited cholinesterase activity in homogenized tissues.  Guilbault, et al., 1972
                                                         trout                        Cholinesterase very sensitive to small amounts of pesticide.
                                                         crayfish tissues

    DDT 1.0 ppb/2 wks                                      fish                       Maximum concentration reached at 2 weeks. 38,000 x test water conc.  Hansen & Wilson, 1970
         0.1 ppb/5 wks                                                                  Loss of 78-87% in 8 weeks.

    DDT, endrin 0.1 to.00001 ppm                           minnows                    Avoided water containing pesticides. Did not distinguish concentra-  Hansen, 1969
                                                                                     tion differences.

    DDT 50 ppm                                             eel intestine              Inhibition of water absorption. Inhibition of (Na+ and K+) activated  Janicki & Kinter, 1971
                                                                                     Mg 2+-dependent adenosine triphosphatase.

    Mirex, 1-5 particles of bait in standing sea water  juvenile shrimp               40 to 100% mortality                                                       Lowe, et al., 1971a
      or Mirex in flowing sea water 1.0 to 0.1 ppb         juvenile shrimp           Up to 100% mortality delayed until shrimp in Mirex free water.
                                                         juvenile blue crab        Up to 96% mortality, delayed.
                                                         fiddler crabs             Accumulated Mirex in bodies.
                                                         fish                      Accumulated Mirex in bodies. Gill parasites reduced.

    DDT 2-5 ag/ig                                          shrimp                     35-100% mortality.                                                         Butler, 1968
                                                         crab
                                                         fish
                                                         pinfish                   Accumulated DDT in bodies.

    DDT <1 ppm                                             oyster                     Feeding & shell growth stopped. Erratic shell movements.                   Butler, 1967

    DDT 2-4 ppm on food                                    fish                       50% mortality in 2-4 weeks.
                                                         shrimp

    DDT in flowing sea water 0.1 ppm                       shrimp                     Lowered Na+ and K+ in hepatopancreas, change in Na+ and K+ only  Nimmo &  Blackman, 1972
                              0.05 ppm                    shrimp                      after day 20.                                                                 ;

    DDT in flowing sea water 10 ppb                        juvenile shrimp            100%  mortality.                                                           Nimmo, et al., 1971b

    DDT 0.05 to 0.17 ppb                                   shrimp                     DDT concentrates in hepatopancreas. Flushed from hepatopancreas  Nimmo, et al,, 1970
                                                                                     within 6 weeks.
         0.12 to 0.20 ppb                                                            100% mortality 18 to 28 days.

    Mirex .001, .1, 1.0 & 10 ppb                           crab larvae                Larval stages prolonged. Increased mortality.                              Bookhout, et al., 1971

    DDT 10 ppm on detritus                                 fiddler crabs              100% lost coordination by day 5. Three-fold accumulation in claw   Odum, et al., 1969
                                                                                     muscles.

    Toxaphene                                              fish                       Established 96 hour TLo values; includes data on synergy and histo-  Courtenay & Roberts, 1973
                                                         shrimp, crabs                pathology.

    DDE                                                    duck                       Eggshell thinning complete after 4 days on 40 ppm diet; electron  Peakall, et al., 1973
                                                                                     microscopy.

    DDE, dieldrin                                          duck                       20 ppm DDT or 10 ppm dietary doses resulted in eggshell thinning.    Davison & Sell, 1974

    DDT group, dieldrin, heptachlor, toxaphene             duck                       Established effects on eggshell thinning.                                  Haegele & Tucker, 1974

    DDE                                                    duck                       LC0o values varied with age of ducks (1200-1600 ppm).                     Friend & Trainer, 1974

    Dieldrin; .1-50 ppm                                    fiddler crabs              Levels correlated with maladaptive behavior and mortality. Latent  Klein & Lincer, 1973
                                                                                     effects.

                                                                                                                        Organophosphate Insecticides
                         Treatment                                 Taxa
                                                                                                             Observed Effects                                           Reference

    Parathion                                              oysters                    Sharp threshold of toxicity relative to shell growth.                      Butler, 1965

    4 pesticides ranging from guthion.62 ppm,to TEPP  oyster eggs                     50% of eggs develop normally.                                              Davis & Hidu 1969
      10.                                                  clam eggs

    Malathion, dursban; 10-.01 ppm                         minnows                    Did not avoid Malathion.                                                   Hansen, 1969
                                                                                   Did avoid Dursban.

                                                                            OTHBER POLLUTANTS                                                                                   441

                                                                                                                    Organophosphate Insecticides
                        Treatment                               Taxa
                                                                                                          Observed Effects                                       Reference

    Paraoxon, DDVP parathion, methyl parathion         fiddler crabs            Selectively inhibited cholinesterase activity in homogenized tissues.  Guilbault, et al., 1972
                                                       trout                      Cholinesterase sensitive to small amounts of pesticide.
                                                       crayfish tissues

    Malathion, naled, guthion and parathion             fishes and pink shrimp  Revealed comparative AChE inhibition.                                 Coppage & Matthews, 1974

    Parathion                                           duck                     Established effect on eggshell thinning.                              Haegele & Tucker, 1974

                                                                                                                        Carbamate Insecticides
                        Treatment,                              Taxa
                                                                                                          Observed Effects                                       Reference

    Sevin 0.1 ppm                                      juvenile fish            Survived normally, neural parasite may not be related to toxicant.    Lowe, 1967

    Sevin 0.01-10 ppm                                   minnows                  Did not avoid Sevin.                                                  Hansen, 1969

    Sevin                                               gastropod (oyster drill)  Swelling at 6-7 hours exposure.                                      Wood & Roberts, 1963

    Matacil, mesurol, zectran, baygon, sevin            fiddler crabs            Selectively inhibited cholinesterase activity in homogenized tissues.  Guilbault, et al., 1972
                                                       crayfish                   Cholinesterase very sensitive to small amounts of pesticides.
                                                       trout

                                                                                                                    Herbicides, Bacteriocides, etc.
                        Treatment                              Taxa
                                                                                                         Observed Effects                                       Reference

    12 herbicides ranging from amitrol 733.70 ppm to  oyster eggs                50% developed normally.                                               Davis & Hidu, 1969
      silvex 2.4 ppm nemagon, sevin                    clam eggs

    19 bacteriocides, algicides, fungicides from un-  oyster eggs                50% developed normally.
      tinted sulmet 1000 ppm to phygon .014 ppm        clam eggs

    2,4-D acid                                          duck                     Established effect on eggshell thinning.                              Haegele & Tucker, 1974

    4 herbicides in sea water                           6 genera algae           Carbohydrate concentration depressed. Varies with salinity.           Walsh & Grow, 1971

    Nitrilotriacetic acid                               phytoplankton           Low toxicity as long as chelate:metal ratio favorable; NTA alone,  Erikson, et al., 1970
                                                                                  trace metal deficiency.

    2,4-D, 0.01-10 ppm                                  minnows                  Avoidance of herbicide.                                               Hansen, 1969

    Antimycin A 7 ppb                                   38 species fish          Killed in three days.                                                 Finucane, 1969
                                                       other fish               No effect.
                                                       oysters
                                                       plankton
                                                       crabs

    Polystream (chlorinated benzenes)                   oyster drill             Under recommended dosage, 50% of animals killed by day 7.             Wood & Roberts, 1963

                                                                                                                         Industrial Toxicants
                        Treatment                               Taxa
                                                                                                         Observed Effects                                       Reference

    Aroclor 1254 .94-100 ppb                           juvenile shrimp          51 to 100% mortality.                                                  Nimmo, et al., 1971b

    Aroclor 1254 2.5-3.5 ppb                           adult shrimp             50% mortality, accumulated in hepatopancreas. 23% died after return
                                                                                  to sea water.

    Aroclor 1254 in Corexit 7664 colloidal solution  Gammarus                    Lethal threshold 0.001 to 0.01 ppm.                                   Wildish, 1970
      emulsions                                        Gammarus                 Lethal threshold .01 to .1 ppm.

    Aroclor 1254 1 ppb to 56 days                       fish                     No apparent effect at 1 ppb;                                          Hansen, et al., 1971
                 5 ppb 14-45 days                                               Mortality occurred, though delayed at 5 ppb.

    Aroclor 1254 100 ppb 48 hours                      shrimp                   100% mortality.                                                        Duke, et al., 1970
                                                        oysters                 Shell growth inhibited.
                                                        pinfish                 Concentrated PCB.

    5 ppb 20 days                                      shrimp                   72% mortality after day 10.
                                                       crabs                   Concentrated PCB.

    442                                                             ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                                                                                                          Industrial Toxicants
                        Treatment                                 Taxa
                                                                                                          Observed Effects                                        Reference

    Aroclor 1242 and Aroclor 1254 +  radiocarbon         phytoplankton            Radiocarbon uptake reduced at as low as 1-2 ppb.                        Moore  Harriss, 1972

    Aroclor 1242 in water .01 to .1 ppm                  marine diatom            Inhibited growth, RNA synthesis and chlorophyl index.                   Kiel, et al., 1971

    Aroclor 1254 in sediment 61.0 ppm (dry wt.)to 1.4  shrimp                     Amount of PCB residue in animal varies with amount in substrate.  Nimmo, et al., 1971a
      ppm for 30 days                                   crabs

    Aroclor 1221; 7.5-75 ppm                             killifish                Decreased ability to osmoregulate.                                      Kinter, et al., 1972

    Aroclor 1254                                         shrimp                   60% died at 9.1 ppb (7 day exposure); no significant mortality at 0.62  Nimmo, et al., 1974
                                                                                   ppb.

    Aroclor 1254; 0.001-10 ppm                           shrimp                   Demonstrated that some animals could avoid Aroclor 1254 under  Hansen, et al., 1974a
                                                        fishes                     laboratory conditions.

    Aroclor 1016                                         oyster                   Established acute 96 hour LCO's.                                        Hansen, et al., 1974b
                                                        shrimp
                                                        fish

    Aroclor 1254                                         oyster                   5 ppb for 24 weeks reduced growth and produced tissue atrophy and  Lowe, et atl., 1972
                                                                                   degeneration.

    Aroclor 1254                                         duck                     Showed PCB influence on susceptibility of birds to virus.               Friend Trainer, 1970

    Aroclor 1232, 1242, 1248, 1254, 1260, 1262           duck                     Toxicity positively correlated with percent chlorine.                   Heath, et al., 1972

    Aroclor 1254                                         duck                     Established effect on eggshell thinning.                                Haegele & Tucker, 1974

    Dioxin (TCDD) in water and food                     salmonids                 Marked decrease in growth; latent effect.                               Miller, et ail., 1973

    Dibenzofurans                                        salmonids                Dietary doses up to 122 mg/kg resulted in no mortality.                 Zitko, et al., 1973

    Phthalate ester                                      rainbow trout            LC6o (96 hour) = 6.47 ppm.                                              Mayer & Sanders, 1973

    APPENDIX C

                                                                    An Overview of the Field-Testing of Pesticides

     Ecosystem         Pesticide         Observed             Taxa            Reference              Ecosystem         Pesticide         Observed             Taxa           Reference
                                        Parameters                                                                                      Parameters

    F/W Pond        DDT                 Mortality          Fish              Tarzwell, 1948       Tidal Marsh    DDT                 Mortality &       Fish               Croker &
                                                        Plankton                                   Ditch                              population;    Crabs                 Wilson, 1965
                                                        Benthic Inverts.                                                            Residue moni-
                                                        Reptiles                                                                      toring
                                                        Birds
                                                        Mammals                                  Estuaries       2,4-D              Mortality         Fish               Rawfs, 1965
                                                        Terr. Insects                                                                                  Crab
                                                                                                                                                      Oysters
    Enclosed area  DDT                 Population        Fish               Tarzwell, 1948                                                              Clam
      of F/W
      Pond
                                                                                                 Salt Marsh      Dursban           Mortality          Fish               U.S.D.I., 1967a
    Tidal Marsh    DDT                 Mortality         Fish               Springer and             F/W Pond                                           Shrimp
                                      Gross behavior   Crabs                 Webster, 1951                                                             Crabs
                                      Growth (snails)   Shrimp                                                                                         Oyster
                                                        Insects                                                                                       Insects
                                                        Mollusks                                                                                      Terr. Verts.
                                                        Amphibbds
                                                        Worms                                    Mangrov'e       Dibrom             Mortality         Fish               U.S.D.I., 1967b
                                                        Mites                                      Swamp                            Cholinesterase    Crab
                                                        Birds                                                                       Population        Mammals
                                                                                                                                                      Birds
    Tidal Marsh    Strobane, DDT    Mortality            Fish               George et al.,                                                              Insects
                      & HCB           Gross behavior   Crabs                 1957
                                        on fiddlers     Birds                                    Salt Marsh      bursban            Mortality          Fish              Ludwig, et al.,
                                                         Mammals                                                                     Monitoring        Crab                 1968
    Tidal Marsh    Dieldrin           Mortality          Fish               Harrington &                                                                Shrimp
      Ditch                                              Crabs                Bidlingmayer,                                                             Birds
                                                                             1958                Tidal Marsh    bursban             Mortality         Fish               U.S.D.I., 1968
    Tidal Marsh    DDT, aldrin,       Mortality          Fish               Springer, 1961                                           Cholinesterase    Crabs
                      dieldrin &                         Prawns                                                                        inhibition      Shrimp
                      BHC                               Anthropods                                                                                     Mammal
                                                         lIso-ad Amphi-                                                                                Bird
                                                           pods
                                                         Crabs                                    Salt Marsh      Malathion          Mortality         Fish               Tagatz, et al.,
                                                        Worms                                                                       Cholinesterase    Crab                  1974
                                                         Mollusks                                                                                      Shrimp
                                                         Birds                                                                                         Mollusks

                                                                                                                                                                                   443

    TRACE METALS IN THE OCEANS:
    PROBLEM OR NO?

    EARL W. DAVEY and DONALD K. PHELPS
    National Marine
    Water Quality Laboratory
    Narragansett, R.I.

                ABSTRACT

                Increased input of mercury to the estuarine environment resulted in bioaccumulation in marine
                food chains that affected man (Irukayama, 1966). Toxic effects of other metals on marine animals
                has been demonstrated under laboratory conditions. However, cause and effect between elevated
                environmental metals levels and toxicity to marine animals has yet to be conclusively demonstrated
                under field conditions. Municipal waste water treatment plants, dredging and spoiling activities,
                and the dumping of sewage sludge and industrial wastes are the major sources of metals to the
                marine environment. These sources are likely to increase in the future unless the Federal Water
                Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972 (PL-92-500) are carefully enforced.

    INTRODUCTION                                           cal component of estuarine benthic systems (bottom
                                                          related systems, including sediments, plants, and
      Estuaries, because they are landward extensions of    animals living on or in them) is alive and well, the
    the sea, have become centers of industrial, commer-    naturally enriched sediments appear to be processed
    cial, and related activities. As a consequence, estu-    and metals are biologically recycled into the system.
    aries have received an increasing input of metals,    However,  frequently these benthic systems  are
    the byproducts of modern industry and technological    stressed beyond the biological breaking point, and
    advancement. Metals can be introduced indirectly    the biota is eliminated or drastically reduced. If the
    from contaminated rivers and land runoff or directly    biological recycling system is destroyed, an anaerobic
    by pumping from land based industries and munici-    sedimentary system develops, and among  other
    palities, ship and barge discharges, and aerial fallout   things, becomes a metals sink. The elements that
    (Merlini, 1971). When viewed as a whole, ocean    were formerly recycled accumulate  to orders of
    systems appear to be beyond compromise in their    magnitude  above those observed in biologically
    ability to dilute introductions from man's activi-   active systems. There is a "leaching out" of these
    ties-after all, the continental masses are continually    metals, but the rates now controlled primarily by
    bathed in their oceans and seas. Where then do    physical-chemical processes go on at a very slow
    problems occur?                                        pace.
      Ocean waters, especially estuaries, are not uni-        Two problems emerge when sediments become
    formly mixed and non-uniform dilution can cause    sinks rather than recyclers for metals.
    local concentrations of metals. Metals tend to be         1) Due to relatively rapid sedimentation that
    concentrated at air-sea, sediment-water, or fresh-   occurs in upper estuarine areas, channels must be
    water-saltwater interfaces and boundaries between    dredged. Very frequently, dredged materials are
    water and living or dead particles (Fig. 1). Some    anaerobic and rich in elemental composition. Where
    metals discharged even in small quantities can be    can they be dumped with assurance that those ma-
    accumulated to alarming and lethal levels by certain   terials which enrich the sediment may not prove
    marine biota. Seafoods harvested by man can become    noxious to man directly or indirectly through re-
    extensively impacted when excessive metals are    duction in marine resources?
    added to the sea. A classic example of the human          2) If an estuary which receives feedback from its
    aspect of this problem first received widespread    sediments in the form of nutrients-both organic
    attention when mercury poisoning occurred in Japan    and inorganic-loses a part of this benthic recycling
    in 1953 through consumption of contaminated fish   activity, what are the long-term and short-term
    and shellfish (Irukayama, 1966).                       effects? For example, does the creation of a metal
      Sediments in estuaries naturally tend to have    sink in estuarine sediments affect plankton produc-
    relatively high levels of metals. As long as the biologi-   tivity and species composition?

                                                                                                         445

    446                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                        Aerial fallout of PM

     Air-Water
     Interface                           SOMWPM

                                                           -PM(lo)                  Sai N.resh
                                                             SM(hi)                      Interface
                                                         /sal>10%

                                                           Ta I >I s
                                                                                 PM = particulate metals
                                                                                 SM = soluble metals
                                           /  SOMlo)  /\                          SOM'= soluble metals,
                                           V-  PM(h I ) --    A                         organically complexed
                                           sa1>30%.
                       Food Chain           s>3                 \* especially under anaerobic
                                                                                   conditions

     Sediment-Water
      Interface       \   \  \  \   \   \ PM(hi)*
                                           SM(hi)
                                           Organo-metal  I I c formation

    FIGURE 1.-Generalized diagram for sites of metal concentration and transformation of metal forms in the marine environment.

      The possible problems of metals in estuaries is   tion in laboratory studies with levels and pathways
    emphasized to illustrate the complexities that sur-    defined in the natural environment.
    round this problem area. Some aspects of the metal         A summary of two metals matrices which were
    problem are of more direct concern to the welfare    constructed  mainly  from  literature reviews  by
    of man and estuarine systems than others. In an    Ketchum, et al., (1972), and Eisler (1973), more
    effort to prioritize and define metal problems in the    recent additions from the open literature, and in-
    marine environment a metal matrix has been created.    house experiments performed at the National Marine
                                                          Water Quality Laboratory  (NMWQL)  are pre-
    METHODS AND MATERIALS                                   sented in Tables 1 and 2.

      Trace elements are essential to all life systems,    RESULTS
    yet excess amounts are toxic. Also, non-essential
    elements such as mercury, cadmium, lead, and so            The metals matrix indicates that we have informa-
    forth can be toxicants and  bioaccumulated to    tion on only 36 elements and of these only 18 have
    large quantities to affect organisms within marine    toxicity data listed and of the 18 perhaps only four
    food chains, including man. Therefore, a matrix of    (Cd, Cu, Hg, and Zn) are sufficiently documented to
    existing toxicity and body burden data using marine    formulate good criteria. Since the NMWQL has had to
    species as one axis and metals as the other has been    respond to unexpected requests for elemental toxicity
    formulated in order to assess, broaden, and validate    and bioaccumulation data, in order to anticipate
    the data base needed to establish criteria. The metals    future requests, we have undertaken an in-house
    matrix helps to point out information gaps, thereby    program to develop acute and chronic marine bioas-
    defining research goals; it also provides a basis for    say information on a wide spectrum of elements.
    comparing metal levels and their modes of applica-        However, because combinations of marine biota

                                                         OTHER POLLUTANTS                                                            447

            Table 1.-Matrix of elements versus marine biota response           Table 2.-Matrix of elements versus marine biota bioaccumulation

                 Environ-    Spp.               Most                        Element   Spp. (Phyla)      Organism         Level     Toxic
       Element    mental   (Phyla)   Organism  Sensitive   Response                      Tested                          Reached   to Man
                  Oceans   Tested               Level
                  Clean
                                                                        Aluminum-       .... 7 (1)  Phytoplankton    5000*
    Aluminum-.. 0.01         4 (3) Redfish      88*    Death              Antimony   .    ... 42 (10) Octopus           0.92              +
    Antimony .-... 0.0005    2 (2) Algae         3.5   Inhib. cell div.   Arsenic  ..- .   88 (12) Squid(gills)         198               +
    Arsenic .-. ... 0.003    6 (4) Copepod       0.1   72hr LCo           Barium....       . 3 (1)  Phytoplankton       262
    Beryllium -  0.0000006    1 (1) Mummichog    0.0001 Deer. enz. act.   Beryllium         1 (1)  Phytoplankton        8.4               +
    Cadmium ..... 0.0001    34 (7) Oyster        0.015  Slowsex. devel.   Bismuth           1 (1)  Phytoplankton        7.7               +
    Chromium .--   - 0.000005   13 (5) Algae     0.0001 Deer. culture     Cadmium         136 (12) Abalone(digest, gland)  1162.7         +
                                                        yield           Cerium           16 (5)  Fish                64
    Cobalt ..- ... 0.0001    1 (1) Copepod       0.01   72hr LCso         Cesium .-...     20 (6)  Algae                0.64
    Copper -. ..... 0.003   48 (9) Diatom        0.001  Inhib. growth     Chromium .. .. 30 (4)  Zooplankton            260               +
    Germanium ....  0.00006  2 (1) Diatom        1,0   Inhib, growth      Cobalt .-.-      -- 34 (7)  Zooplankton       110               -
    Gold - -     ------- 0.000004  1 (1) Pinfish  0.069  Death            Copper - -      ----- 101 (8)  Squid (liver)  15,160            -
    Iron-...     ..... 0.0013  1 (1) Diatom      0.027  Cell clumping     Gold   - -        3 (1)  Mollusc              282               -
    Lead .-...... 0.00003    14 (7) Ciliate      0.15   Inhib. growth     Iron             73 (8)  Annelid              42,800            -
    Manganese ....   0.005   2 (2) Oyster       16.0   LCso of embryos    Lanthanum ....    4 (2)  Fish                57                 -
    Mercury -- ---. 0.00003    43 (8) Oyster     0.0056 48hr LCso of      Lead            102 (7)  Algae                3100              +
                                                        embryos         Manganese,__.    51 (5)  Algae                226
    Nickel .-.. .. 0.002    17 (4) Algae         0.0002 Inhib. growth     Mercury .-.-    198 (15) Algae               7400               +
    Selenium ----- 0.0004    5 (2) Copepod       0.01   96hr LCso         Molybdenum__.     5 (3)  Zooplankton         36
    Silver - .   ......  0.00004  9 (5) Copepod  0.0033 72hr LCsa         Nickel ------. 45 (6)  Zooplankton            480
    Yttrium .-- --- 0.003    1 (1) Oyster        0.001  Abnormal larvae    Plutonium ...    38 (7)  Algae               21,000(CF) 6      +
                                                        (98%)           Polonium -.   1I (1)  Fish                   61 pCi/gm          +
    Zinc .-.-    --- 0.01    28 (8) Annelid      0.05   Abnormal larvae                                                  wet wt
                                                                       Rubidium.        6 (3)  Algae                2.3               -
                                                                        Ruthenium ....   11 (7)  Sponge              10,000 (CF)       -
     * All concentrations expressed in mg/kg.                            Samarium          15 (3)  Annelid             3.6
                                                                       Scandium  ..     20 (4)  Annelid             26.4              -
                                                                       Selenium ..     ... 11 (5)  Octopus          71                +
                                                                       Silver ---             - 18 (4)  Squid (liver)  1044
    versus elemental compounds exist in infinite variety,                 Strontium _     _-. 18 (5)  Algae            4160
    a number of elements can be eliminated from con-                      Thorium           5 (3)  Octopus             9.2               +
                                                                       Tin .u....  Tin-  2 (2)  Phytoplankton       101
    sideration in the following categories:                               Titanium. .     .... 6 (2)  Phytoplankton    940
                                                                       Uranium  -         - 1I (1)  Fish            21                +
       1. Elements such as mercury with sufficient in-                    Vanadium          6 (2)  Pteropod            290
                                                                       Yttrium.. .      .... 2 (2)  Mollusc         1000 uCi
    formation for good water quality criteria.                            Zinc .- .      ..... 130 (10) Mollusc        99,220
      2. Major constituents of seawater, s.a. Na, Mg,
    Cl, S04.                                                                * All values in mg/kg, except where noted.
      3. Major constituents of marine organisms, s.a. C,                   6 CF-concentration factor.
    H, N, O.                                                                Toxic to Man: + yes; - no.
      4. Noble gases, i.e. He; Ne, et cetera.
      5. Elements which are short half-life isotopes.                    associated with particles larger than 0.45,u) or dis-
      6. Rare earthst                                                    solved  (<  0.453). Dissolved  metals  can  be  cate-
                                                                       gorized further as inorganically associated, organi-
      The  remaining, approximately 50 elements,  can                    cally bound,  i.e. chelated, or metal-organic  com-
    be listed in priority according to the following con-                 pounds. Dissolved metal forms are likely to interact
    siderations:                                                          with most marine biota; however, the effects may
                                                                        differ if the metals are organically bound. If a metal
       1. Known toxicity to man.                                          such as copper is chelated, there may be a reduction
      2. Information indicating elemental impact in the                  in metal toxicity response by organisms such as ma-
    marine environment.                                                   rine  phytoplankton;  whereas,  if the  metal  is an
      3. The form of the element in seawater.                            organometallic like methyl-mercury, this compound
      4. No information available.                                       is more toxic than the inorganic form and can also
                                                                       be concentrated in food chains. Particulate metals,
      It must also be recognized that it is not necessarily              probably  occurring  in  high  levels near  industrial
    the total amount of a metal present in seawater or                    outfalls or ocean dumping activities, are likely to af-
    marine sediments but the form of the metal which                      fect filter feeding organisms which ingest and con-
    may  be important  to consider with respect to its                    centrate   particulate  matter.   Consequently,   the
    effects on marine biota. Metals in seawater can be                    form of the metals may be the dictating factor in the
    operationally  characterized  as particulate  (metals                 response of marine biota to heavy metals.

    448                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      On the basis of these considerations, elements are   Table 3.-Inorganic chemicals to be considered as pollutants of the marine'
    chosen for short-term, acute bioassays. Acute bioas-                      environment.
    says involve a rapid response of a single species to           Natural conc in Worldproduction Routeso entry  Pollution
    increasing concentrations of a toxicalnt1 The results  EElement  sea water pg/l metric tons/year intoth sea  categories
    of the acute bioassay are reported' as the median
    tolerance limit (TLm or TL60) which signifies the    H (acids) - pH = 8           7 D,A       Illo
    concentration of toxicant that kills 50 percent of the         (alk = 0.0024)
                                                            Be ............. o.oot     250 u       Ivc
    organisms within a specified time span, usually in 96   Ti -2                1,000,000 A 7   IV b
    hours. Organisms for acute bioassay are being   v .-......           2          9,000 A       IV a
    selected from a wide range of representative marine                  0.04    i,     RU        IV
                                                            m   Fe ----- - 10    480,000,000 D,R    IVc
    phylla and growth stages.                            cu. .           1       5,000,000 D,R   IV c
      Elements having low TL5o are in turn chosen for   Zn               2       5,000,000 D,R   Illc
                                                            Cd -.........0.02        15,000 AR    'l
    long-term  chronic  bioassays..,Chronic bioassays   Hg ..........    0.1       9,000 A,R      I b
    involve a continuous exposure to a sublethal con-   Al               . 10 -  s,000,000 D,R    Vce
    centration of the toxicant. In the chronic bioassay,   CN-----------              7 ? D,R    Il c
                                                            Pb ---------- 0.02    3,000,000 A,R    Ia
    any biological response, such as reduction of growth    P            0-02 . ..... -  A 7     IVc
    or reproduction, behavior change, histopathological   As             2 .       60,000 D      Ilc
    change, et cetera, can be used to monitor effects.   Sb-             045       60,000 U      IV
                                                            Bi ----- ---- 0.02        3,800 U       IVc ?
    Also, test organisms are analyzed to determine possi-   se -0. .45            .1,000 U       Ill c?
    ble bioaccumulation of the element which could in   F-------------.  1,,340  1,800,000 D,R    Ie?
    turn indicate a potential pathway back to man.
                                                             D dumping, A through atmospheric pollution, R through rivers (runoff) or pipelines,
                                                            Uiunknown;
                                                             I-IV order of decreasing menace; a worldwide, b regional; c local (coastal, bays,
    DISCUSSION                                           estuaries, single dumping).
                                                             Referenced from FAO FisherieS Reports, No. 99 Suppl. 1. Report of the seminar on
                                                            methods of detection, -measurement arid  monitoring of pollutants  in the marine en-
      A definite need exists to carefully inventory all   vironment: Inorganic chemicals, Panel 3. Dyrssen, D., C. Patterson, J. Ui and G. F.
    natural and manmade element sources which might   Weichart.
    impact the marine environment. Table 3 is a general-
    ized inventory. Assessing potential ocean pollutants,   4. Sewage outfalls.
    Robinson, et al., 1974,'have presented an extensive    5. Desalinization plants.
    and important approach for budgeting pollutants;       6. Offshore ocean disposal areas for industrial
    however, the report deals only with the metals irqn,   wastes, sewage sludge, and dredge spoils.
    copper, and plutonium and concludes that plutonium
    is the only element of potential global pollution.      However, Cross and Duke (1974) have 'tmpha-
    Similar assessment should be made for all elements;    sized that it is 'essential that present efforts be con-
    however, 'these assessments. should be focused at   tinned and new efforts initiated to determine base-
    more localized areas, such as coastal or estuarine   line levels of trace metals in marine organisms and
    areas as well as on a global scale. These inventories    the environmental variables that affect them. These
    would highlight elements of major environmental    studies should be conducted not only in contam-
    concern which should be carefully bioassayed in the    inated environments such as Long Island Sound,
    laboratory. Also, these budgets should point out    New York Bight, and  the Southern  California
    specific areas of high metal impact in the United    Bight, but also in relatively pristine or uncon-
    States.                                              taminated environments. The concentration of any
        Field investigations of metal impacted areas   trace metals can be highly variable both within and
    throughout the U.S. are necessary in order to de-   between species and influenced by a number of
    termine the extent, fate, and effects of metals on    environmental factors. Until we understand the
    marine biota. Have metals per se directly or indi-   variability that exists in healthy ecosystems, it may
    rectly caused environmental damage and, if so, to   be difficult to identify a contaminated ecosystem.
    what extent? What are the inputs, rates, routes, and    Also, because trace metals occur naturally in the
    reservoirs of metals within impacted areas? Special    marine environment as a result of weathering and
    consideration should be given to areas of:           volcanic activity, the problem of determining the
                                                            contribution of anthropogenic additions of trace
      1. Mining activities.                              metals to natural levels in marine organisms is more
      2. Smelters.                                       difficult than with halogenated hydrocarbons or
      3. Industrial outfalls, especially metal plating   refined petroleum products.
    industries.                                            Other questions concerning potential metal pol-

                                               .OTHER PO~LiUTr~S                                               '449

    lutants which need to be answered'are as follows:           The solution to problems of metal waste disposal
                                                             -might be expected to be dilution into the vastness of
      1: Are certain industries, such as power plants,    the sea. However, because metals can be concen-
    producing excessive metal inputs which should be   :trated by geological, chemical, and'especially biolog-
    controlled?                                               ical processes in the sea, the 'solution to metal dis-
      2. Can elemental transformations occur Within    posal problems is not dilution. The solution must be
    marine areas to produce more lethal and/or bioac-    to stop pollution at its source by the development of
    cumulated  compounds such  as methyl-mercury?    the"proper'technology to 'control and recycle metal
    If so, which elements are capable of transformation    wastes.' Metal wastes entering the marine environ-
    and under what circumstances?                             ment should be' reduced if the Federal Water Pol-
      3. Dredge spoils removed from navigational chari-    lution Control Act Amendfients of 1972 (Public
    nels are often taken from areas which act as traps    Law 92-500) to minimize environmental pollutants
    for sediments laden with river and estuarine-borne    are'carefully enforced.
    waste. What are the long-term effects of these ocean-
    dumped  dredge ma'terials upon the cleaner shelf
    areas?  How  should  ocean-dumped  materials be    REFERENCES
    handled to lessen environmental impact to disposal
    areas?                                                    Cross, F. A. and T. W. Duke. 1974. Trace metals. In: G. V.
      4. Liquid effluents from' wastewater treatment            Cox (ed.), Marine Bioassays. Marine Technology Society,
    plants probably will be' a major source of trace
    metals to estuarine and, coastal waters during the    Eisler, R. 1973.' Annotated bibliography on biological effects
    next several decades. Efforts should be made to             of metals in aquatic environments. (No. 1-567) U.S.
    evaluate the impact that these discharges will have         Environ. Prot. Agen. Rpt. R3-73-007.
    on concentrations of trace metals'in: harvestable
                                                             Irukayama, K. 1966. The pollution of Minamata Bay and
    marine species that complete a major portion of             Minamata disease. In: Third International Conference on
    their life cycle in coastal areas.                          Water  Pollution  Research.  Water  Pollution  Control
                                                               Federation, Washington, D.C.
      According to Schroeder  (1973), environmental
                  pollution by toxic metals is a muh   oe seii   and    Ketchurn, B. 1972. Marine aquatic life and wildlife. In: Water
                                                               Quality Criteria 1972. National Academy of Sciences,
    insidious problem than is pollution by organic sub-         Washington, D.C.
    stances such as pesticides,-'vweed killers, "sulfur di-
    oxide, oxides 'of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and    Merlini, M. 1971. Heavy-metal contamination. In: D. Hood
    other gross contaminants. Most organic substances           (ed.),' Impingement of Man on the Oceans. Wiley-Inter-
                                                              �science, New York, N.Y.
    are degradable by natural processes; no metal. is
    degradable. Elements in eleme6ntal form or as salts    Robinson, E., L. Falk, B. Ketchum, and S. Piotrowicz. 1975.
    remain in the environment until they are leached by         Metallic wastes. In: E. Goldberg (ed.), Assessing Potential
    .rains~ into rivers and into the sea. Therefore, every      Ocean Pollutants. National Academy of Sciences, Wash-
    effort must be made to slow down the environmental            gt, D.C
    build-up of those elements which are toxic and can    Schroeder H. A. 1975. Elements and Living Systems. Plenum
    cause degenerative diseases.                                Press, �ew York.

             -Y                  �                           .i         e

    POLLUTION IN NATION'S ESTUARIES
    ORIGINATING FROM THE
    AGRICULTURAL USE
    OF PESTICIDES

    MING-YU LI
    University of California
    Davis, California

                 ABSTRACT

                 Estuaries are particularly vulnerable to pollution because they are repositories of wastes which do
                 not come from a point source, such as pesticides. Agricultural pesticides enter the estuarine environ-
                 ment by several means: direct application to water; runoff from treated lands; industrial dis-
                 charges; domestic sewage; atmospheric drift; and accidental spills. The fish kills in the Mississippi
                 River by insecticides are well known and particularly well documented. Monitoring data have been
                 limited primarily to chlorinated hydrocarbons because of their number, wide use, great stability
                 in the environment, and toxicity to certain forms of wildlife and other nontarget organisms. A
                 recent national survey on organochlorine residues in estuarine mollusks reveals that "at no time
                 were residues observed of such a magnitude as to imply damage to mollusks." However, residues
                 were large enough to pose a threat to other elements of the biota through recyling and magnifica-
                 tion. The maximum pesticide residues can be correlated with proximity of monitoring stations
                 to agricultural runoff. Long-term, sublethal effects of pesticides in estuaries are difficult to assess
                 at present, as most data on pesticide effects are limited to a few species and concentration that
                 is lethal in short-term tests under laboratory conditions. Pesticide pollution in the estuarine en-
                 vironment can be minimized through the use of alternative pesticides, more effective use of pesti-
                 cides, removal of pesticides from water, improvement of farm management practices, regulatory
                 control of pesticide use, and a better understanding of the pesticide behavior in the estuarine
                 ecosystem.

    INTRODUCTION                                                 estuarine and coastal waters-is posed by wastes
                                                             which do not come from a point source, such as
      The ocean's biological productivity is largely con-    pesticides from  runoff and  drifts, and  fertilizers
    centrated in the coastal zone, from the rivers seaward    spread on fields. They find their way into streams
    to the salt marshes, the bays, and estuaries. Produc-    and rivers and eventually the estuaries and oceans
    tivity is high here because basic nutrients, the    in ever larger amounts. Some argue that these pol-
    minerals and organic material washed down river    lutants are even more dangerous to estuarine plants
    from land, feed plants and animals at the base of    and animals (including man)  than municipal and
    the marine food chain.  y weight, about a thousand    industrial wastes.
    times more food is caught or harvested from the                 Synthetic organic pesticides when used properly
    coastal zone than from the open sea. To put it    have been of tremendous benefits to man and his
    another way, most  fish and  shellfish are caught    environment, but when misused or carelessly used,
    within sight of land. Some 70 percent of the valuable    they cause considerable harm. Fortunately, the ad-
    sport fish depend on estuaries for their survival.    verse effects have so far been relatively minor in
    Like all wildlife, marine animals establish themselves        comparison to the beneficial role that pesticides have
    where conditions for life are most favorable-plenty    played, and most likely will continue to play in
    of food,  areas for spawning,  and  freedom from    the production of food as the world's supply of raw
    predators.                                                    agricultural products continues to decline in propor-
      Estuaries are particularly vulnerable to pollution    tion to jncreasing population.
    for two reasons: (1) their natural populations are              During recent years the overall use patterns of
    in delicate balance and thus are easily upset by    pesticides have changed considerably. The risk or
    pollutants, and (2) they are the repository for most    hazards of using pesticides have increased with the
    of a river's pollution load as the river meets the    sharp rise in their consumption by agriculture, house-
    estuary, slows down, and releases its wastes.                holds, industry, and government. Today, more than
      The most difficult pollution control problem-for    34,000 products made  from one or more  of 900

                                                                                                               451

    452                                           ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    chemical compounds are currently registered by the                  Table L.-Synthetic organic pesticides: Production and sales, United States,
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency  (EPA)  for                                                1963-72
    use in the environment.                                                Year      Quantity    Change from I Value"2 '   Change'from
       Pesticides are poisons, they can present an im-                                           previous year            ,previousyear .
    mediate  danger to the user if applied improperly                            :                                  .         e
    or without sufficient knowledge of their toxic effects.                          ,pounds       Percent
    In  addition,  potential  future  hazards  to  human
    health and  other living foris can be  created  by                                                   Production
    residues from long-lived pesticides that build up in
    the food chain.                                                                                                444 046          3
                                                                            1964 -..-82,-9 2. 8            2 .:473,815 .:           6.7
                                                                          1965 .....     872;197         121';   , 57,787           21.7
                                                                         1966    .......: f 01�'1   A    1.5  :-712 362 :F,:    24.0
    CURRENT  PESTICIDE  USE                                             'i967-  -.'         3 Ito 656             715  36    24.11
                                                                                        1'049 663         36 , .    960  ;:         34.2
    IN THE  ENVIRONMENT                                                 1968..:. ' - 1i92l,360          13s  I,6    869 084         7.2
                                                                         1969 .......  1,104,381        -7.4        953,592         -7.3
                                                                         190 -.......   1 034,075       -6.4      1 058 389         1141
       Except for, 1969 and 1970 when  there were slight                197       1 ___'___ i35 4,7i7    9 ' 1i 282 636              1.2
    declines, sales of synthetic organic pesticides in the              19723....s..    1,157,698        1.9     1,344,832          4.8
    United States have increased every year since 1963
    (Table 1). In 1972, the latest year for which figures                                         Sales (domestic and export)
    are available, production was 1,158 million pounds.
    The  volume  of sales that, year, was  1,022 million                '963            651,471   .      2.8       369,140           6.6
                                                                         1964     ....-__. 692,355       *6.3       427,111       '15.7
    pounds,  and  the value  of these sales was  $1,092                 1965 -          763905          10.3       497,066          16.4
    million. The volume and value of producers' sales                   1966            822,256          7.6       583,802          17.4
    were the highest of any year for which records are                  1967--------    8975963          9.1       787,043          34.8
                                                                        1968wr   t.....  959,631'        69:   ' 849,24B9   '       .:.9
    available.                                                          1969            -928,663     '    -3.2 i-.  851,166  O.2
       "Pesticides Review 1973," published by the 'US.                  1970            880,914         -5.1  870,314            '   2.2
    Department of Agriculture, provides information on                  1971            946,337          7.4       979,083          12.5
                                                                        19723-.... 1,021,565             8:6     1,091,708 .        11.5
    the calculated domestic use at the producers' level
    for pesticideS'(Table 2). It is interesting to' note   I   Includes a small quantity of soil conditioners.
    that, following a general decline in recent  years,                  2Value of production calculated: unit value x quantity; sales-value as reported by
    DDT  in 1972 was up nearly 78 percent over, 1971.                   the Tariff Commission.
                                                                           aPreliminary.
    The 'sharpest decline in 1972 was made by 2,4,5-T                    Tariff Commission, Chemical Division, "Synthetic Organic Chemicals, United States
    which dropped 64 percent. Use of 2,4-D' declined                    Production and Sales."
    over one-fourth in 1972; however,; the use of'the
    aldrin-toxaphene  group  of pesticides increased  by
    nearly one-fourth that year.
       It is predicted that the use                                          2.-of pesticides  s:ill con-  Table  m-Pesticides: Domestic disappearance at the producers' level of selected
    tinue to increase and the sales value was expected                                     kinds, United'States, 1967-212
    to reach $1.4 billion in 1974 (Figure 1). One reason                   Pesticide    19673,   196831 19694   1970'   1971    1972'
    for this optimism is that acreage devoted to the
    major  field crops accounting for most of the total                                1,o00    1,00    100ooo  1,0oo    100    1,000
    U.S. 'pesticide' use will be increased by  6 percent                               pounds  pounds'  pounds  poundspounds  pounds
    that year. The five major crops (corn, cottoli,' rice,
    soybeans,  and  wheat)  account  for approxiimately                  group         86,289  38,710  89,721'  62,282  65,005  105,980
    75 percent of the total pesticide use in the United                 Calcium arsenate   2,329   1,992   2,117   2,900   2,457    1,751
    States. Moreover, with prices of all farm crops at                  Copper sulfate_-.  85,274  87,452  99?840  77,344  70,272'  72,214
                                                                        DDT -   ---------- 35,757  28,253  25,756  20,457   13,234   23,546
    or near- all-time highs and yields per acre moving                  Lead arsenate..--    6,152   4,747   7,721   5,860   4,142.  5,024
    up steadily, farmers will have more money available                 2,4-D .....     66,955   68,404  49,526  46,942  32,174   23,179
    to spend on pesticides, even after allowing for higher              2,4,5-T -.-    15,381   15,804   3,218   4,871   1,389      498
    prices. (Chemical Week, v. 114, no '4, January '23'                                    :                              '    "' �   -
                     ~19~4) . Additi6hally, the demand for farm produ     Disappearance for all domestic uses, including all nonagricultural and chemical
    1974) . Additi6hally, the demand for farm products                   isperane  f           any exts by frms otherthan prodocers
                                                                        intermediate uses. Includes any exports by firms other than producers.
    is growing rapidly worldwide. Since the farmdr is   2   Includes military shipments abroad; these are not considered exports.
    the major supplier of farm products in world trade,                  3 Yeariending September 30.           .
    he will need more pesticides to meet the growing                     4 Year ending December 31.
                                                                          Calculated'from data supplied by the chemical industry, Tariff Commission, and,
    demand.'                                                            Bureau of Mines.
                  -~~�                                     - f,  i                   .    I     �:

                                               OTHER POLLUTANTS                                             45

                                                  --     ^ side-effects, these operations are generally managed
                '74: Another big year for pesticides       by professionals. However, control of the amounts
     1.6                                                   used may be lax in massive applications (e.g., emer-
          _FIIIungicides                                    gency mosquito control). In some instances, non-
     1.2   P   Insecticides                      -         target species may be very adversely, affected.
          _  Herbicid~es        _r-          ' 11  R          Post-use dissipation is an extremely important
                                                           factor in the application of herbicides for the control
      .8                     _                          _    lo  _ 1 Dll _ 111_ of aquatic weeds in irrigation and drainage canals,
                                                           river banks and ditch banks. Most of the herbicides
                                                 4   1 _  - | ' registered for use in aquatic situations have water
                                                           4 se restrictions which require at least partial dissipa-
                                                           tion of the herbicide before' normal water use is
                                                 61  - 7 4  resumed (Timmer et al. 1970)  The pathways of
                                                           dissipation are almost as varied as the chemicals
                                                           themselves. For example, volatilization is the most
    FIGURE 1.-Pesticide sales, 1969-1974. Source: Chemical    important means for the dissipation' of aromatic
               Week. v. 114, no. 4. January 1974.           solvents and acrolein. Adsorption processes pre-
                                                           dominate in the dissipation of herbicides such as
      Obviously, as the production and use of pesticides    diquat, paraquat; and possibly endothal. Biological
    continue tot increase, the potential for environmental    and  chemical degradation processes account  for
    contamination becomes more prevalent.                   much of the disappearance of 2,4-D, silvex, dichlo-
                                                           benil and other herbicides.
    ROUTES OF PESTICIDE ENTRY
    INTO THE AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT                            Runoff and Sediment Transport,

      Pesticides can become! widely dispersed in the en-      Runoff from terrestrial applications is generally
    vironment, mainly by the action of wind and water.    considered as the major route of pesticide movement
    Naturally, the most significant residues have been    into the water environment. Intensive studies have
    found in. and' near the areas of intensive use, but    demonstrated that runoff is probably the single
    traces have also been found as far away as the Ant-    most widespread and significant source of contamina-
    arctic (Tatton and Ruzicka, 1967; Peterle, 1969).       tion (usually less than 1 ppb) of surface water
      Contamination of the aquatic environment by    (Nicholson, 1970; Nicholson and Hill, 1970). Ter-
    pesticides has been of public concern for the last   restrial application of persistent pesticides also re-
    two decades. The compounds most frequently in-   sults in their being directly carried into surface
    criminated are the organochlorine insecticides: DDT,    waters and, through adsorption on silt and debris,
    TDE, endrin, heptachlor,, aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane,    transported into rivers and eventually estuaries.
    toxaphene, and lindane. There is little doubt that         During runoff the pesticide may be adsorbed on
    DDT and, to a lesser extent, dieldrin have been the    eroding soil particles, suspended in the runoff water,
    major contaminants. Traces of these chemicals can    or both. Pesticides of low persistence naturally would
    be found in almost all compartments of the world's    have lower runoff than persistent ones. Chlorinated
    ecosystem. Rivers, streams, lakes, estuaries, oceans,    hydrocarbons, because of their persistence and low
    and bottom muds are major reservoirs -for these    solubilities in water, are usually transported on the
    pesticide residues. These pesticides reach aquatic    soil particles.
    environments through many routes (Edwards, 1973;           Soluble pesticides enter surface -waters dissolved
    Reese et al. 1972;. Nicholson; 1970; Nicholson and    in the water runoff and drainage from the land.
    Hill, 1970; U.S. Dept. of HEW, 1969).                   However, most of the pesticides reach the water
                                                           with sediments washed from the -land. The chlori-
    Direct Application to Water                             nated hydrocarbons have been -found extensively
                                                           in surface waters, and in bottom sediments at 126
      Many organic pesticides -are applied directly 6n    locations in the Mississippi River. The deposits are
    water to control aquatic weeds, non-game fish, and    assumed to come from agricultural usage (Barthel
    aquatic insects. Most of these applications, are made    et al. 1969).,
    for a particular puirpose and the amount of pesticide      Organic phosphates are generally more soluble
    used is closely controlled. To minimize undesirable    than the chlorinated hydrocarbons. Herbicides, par-

    454                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    ticularly the inorganic types, are highly soluble in    the northeast trade winds. Recently, several studies
    water. The greatest danger from the runoff of soluble    have also presented evidence that the trade wind
    pesticides is in the period immediately following    system of the Atlantic region may deposit amounts
    their application and prior to their becoming ad-    of chlorinated hydrocarbons comparable to those
    sorbed onto soil particles. To some degree, this    transported into the sea by major rivers (Sepa and
    condition is under control in the major agricultural    Prospero, 1971; Bideleman and Olney, 1974; Gaskin
    areas since weather conditions are closely observed    et al. 1974).
    and, to some extent, control the time of pesticide
    application. The same, however, cannot be said for
                                                          Industrial and Municipal Wastes
    household application.
                                                            Industrial waste constitutes perhaps the second
    Atmospheric Transport                                   most significant source of pesticides in water. The
                                                          wastes from manufacturing and formulating plants,
      Atmospheric transport to the aquatic environ-    unless very closely controlled, contain pesticides.
    ment can be' due to (1) drift of pesticides applied    Additionally, the effluents from plants that use
    aerially, (2) volatilization of the pesticides from    pesticides in their manufacturing processes may
    the terrestrial environment, and (3) wind erosion.      contain various amounts of pesticides. The distribu-
      Direct drift has been found to occur from spray-    tion of DDT residues in Emerita analoga (Stimpson)
    ing operations, especially when using aerial applica-    along coastal California was recently investigated
    tion (Frost and Ware, 1970). Fallout from aerial    (Burnett, 1971). The'findings showed that aquatic
    pesticide application is a principal source of water    organisms near the Los Angeles County sewer outfall
    contamination (Spencer, 1971; Goldberg et al. 1971).    contained over 45 times as much DDT as those near
    High levels of atmospheric contamination by pesti-    major agricultural drainage areas. The probable
    cides (DDT, toxaphene, parathion) were measured    source of this high concentration of DDT  in the
    in agricultural areas such as Dothan, Ala.; Orlando,    sewer outfall was thought to be a plant that man-
    Fla.; and Stoneville, Miss. Higher pesticide levels    ufactures DDT. This suggests that historically the
    were found when pesticide spraying was reported    buildup of residues in California coastal marine
    than when no spraying was in progress. Only p,p'-   organisms could be attributed, to a significant degree,
    DDT and o,p'-DDT were found in the atmosphere    to industrial waste discharge rather than merely to
    at all nine sampling localities, in both urban and    extensive agricultural usage.
    agricultural areas. Levels are highest in the agricul-     Pesticides can also enter water along with munici-
    tural areas of the South, and are generally lower in    pal wastes, such as sewage effluents. A 1971 review of
    urban areas (Stanley et al. 1971).                      pesticide monitoring programs in California prepared
      Volatilization is a major pathway for loss of ap-    by an Ad Hoc Working Group of the Pesticide Advi-
    plied pesticides from plant, water, and soil surfaces    sory Committee to the State Department of Agricul-
    (Spencer et al. 1973). It has been shown that nearly    ture reported that substantial quantities of pesti-
    half the amount of DDT applied to the surface of the    cides, mainly chlorinated hydrocarbons, have been
    soil in field conditions may volatilize, thus making a    discharged to surface waters through municipal and
    slow, long-term contribution to the atmosphere    industrial waste discharges. The quantities of waste
    (Lloyd-Jones, 1971). Volatilization of a pesticide    waters discharged were so large that even low con-
    depends on many other factors, such as air velocity,    centrations of pesticides in water could result in a
    pesticide concentration, pesticide vapor pressure,    large emission. The report indicated that if large
    temperature, relative humidity, soil water content,    emissions from the Los Angeles County sanitation
    and bulk density of the surface soil (Igue, 1970).      districts' outfalls have been occurring for a number
      Pesticides can be transported by wind and depos-    of years, this one source may overshadow all other
    ited in water far from an area of application; they are    sources of DDT in southern California marine waters.
    now considered to be universally present in the air.       Effluents from sewers of large urban centers may
    Their distribution to sites removed from application    contain small amounts of pesticides originating from
    areas depends on prevailing patterns of wind cir-    home use but the great magfiitude of discharge does
    culation and deposition rates. The European-African    not allow this source to be overlooked. It is signifi-
    land area was regarded as the source of chlorinated    cant to note that as much as 25 percent of the pesti-
    hydrocarbon insecticides found in airborne dust at    cides in the San Francisco Bay waters, amounting
    Barbados (Risebrough et al, 1968). The insecticides    to 4,000 pounds per year, enter the bay through
    (absorbed on the dust) were carried some 3,600    municipal and industrial wastewater discharges.
    miles (6,000 km) by the transatlantic movement of          Researchers at the University of Georgia Marine

                                               OTHER POLLUTANTS                                             455

    Station studied the effects of estuarine dredging on    pal or industrial wastes,  agricultural activities,
    toxaphene concentrations of the marine biota (Dur-    transportation operations, and other projects such
    ant and Reimold, 1972). Results indicated that, in    as water manipulations that significantly alter the
    the estuary, the sediments near a toxaphene plant    quality of the aquatic environment.
    outfall in Terry  Creek,  Brunswick,  Ga.,  were           Fish are significant indicators of water quality.
    found to be contaminated with toxaphene approach-    When fish die in large numbers at one time, it is
    ing 2,000 ppm, and oysters collected two miles from    usually a sign of an unnatural phenomenon within
    the outfall were found to contain residue levels near    the aquatic environment. The destruction of fish
    6 ppm. In a later study Reimold and Durant (1974)    not only indicates a severe problem occurring in the
    found that the monitoring of dredge spoil, fauna, and    water environment, but reduces a natural resource of
    flora showed toxaphene concentrations to be higher    recreational and often economic value.
    during dredging than before or after. The concentra-       The Environmental Protection Agency  (EPA)
    tions in oysters ranged between 2.0 and 5.0 ppm.    publishes an annual report on fish kills caused by
    The eastern oysters, reported tobe the bestbiological    pollution since 1961. This report is the result of
    monitors, did not demonstrate large changes in    cooperative teamwork between EPA, state pollution
    toxaphene content resulting from the dredging. A        control agencies, and private citizens. It includes
    report released by the Georgia Marine Science Center    reports of fish kills where water pollution is known or
    in 1973 discussed the effects of toxaphene contamina-    suspected to be the cause of death. Since numerous
    tion on estuarine ecology. It indicates that as the    kills resulting from pollution go unnoticed or un-
    toxaphene content in the plant effluent decreased    reported, the report cannot be considered complete.
    during the 3-year study period, the toxaphene con-    Despite these gaps, the data compiled in these annual
    tent of fauna, flora and sediments decreased also.    reports provide useful and basic information, serve
    This reflects in part the pollution abatement practices    to point out potential pollution problems, and alert
    initiated at the toxaphene production plant which    officials and the public itself to the need for stricter
    greatly reduced the quantities of toxaphene in the    safeguards to keep dangerous substances out of the
    plant effluent (Reimold, Adams and Durant, 1973).    nation's water resources. In the 1972 report, for the
                                                           first time since inception, every state in the Union
    Accidents and Spills                                    participated.
                                                              Table 3 contains a 10-year (1963-1972) fish kill
                                                           summary by source of pollution. The 17.7 million
      Accidents and spills occur during storage, packag-    fish killed in 1972 brought the cumulative total of all
    ing, transport, disposal, and application and may be    fish reported killed by water pollution since 1963 to
    very serious because of the usually highly con-
            centra t ed semio cals.   Althouh they uualy a t only    225 million. While there was a 76 percent decrease in
                  centrate  chemicals. Altoug  tey may ae  ony    fish reported killed in 1972 compared to the record
    a localized area for a short period of time, the pos-
    sibilities are almost unlimited and much needs to be    73.6 million fish killed in 1971, the year 1972 was the
    done to bring this unintended entry of pesticides into    fifth highest year in the number of fish reported
    the aquatic environment under control.
      On August 11, 1974, parathion, a highly toxic           Industrial pollution was identified as the largest
    organophosphorus insecticide, and dead fish were    killer of fish during the 10-year period. About 85.5
    discovered in the Yuma  main canal, that city's    million (38 percent) fish died from this type of pol-
    source of drinking water. Fortunately, none of the    lution. Municipal operations, which handle wastes
    poisoned water reached the city treatment plant    from cities, ranked second in the total number of
    before the accident was discovered. No injuries or    fish killed-60.4 million or 26.8 percent. Unknown
        death were reported, but the California Fish and    operations, a new classification added in 1971 to
    Game Department estimated 10,000 fish were killed,    include fish kill which cannot be linked to a specific
    Authorities said they were unable to deterrhine how    pollution source, accounted for 39.1 million (17.4
    Authorities said they were unable to determine how    percent) of the fish kill. This resulted from 219 re-
    the insecticide was put into the canal (San Francisco
    Chronicle, Tuesday, August 13, 1974) .                  ported incidents resulting in approximately 35.3
                                                           million fish killed in 1971 alone. Agricultural opera-
                                                           tions ranked fourth, and were responsible for the
    FISH KILLS                                              killing of 17.5 million (7.8 percent) fish. The fifth
                                                           ranking category-other operations-accounted for
      Fish mortalities result from a variety of causes,    the death of 17.3 million (7.7 percent) fish.
    some natural and others man-induced. Fish kills           Table 4 provides a 10-year summary of fish kill
    brought about by man may be attributed to munici-    by subcategories of the agricultural operations. It

    456                                                      ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                             Table 3.-Fish kill summary by source of pollution (No. of fish killed)

                Year                  Agricultural        Industrial        Municipal        Transportation    Other Operations     Unknown              Total

    1963 .------------- 560,967                                 2,690;601           914,379             78,388            100,912         2,471,283           6,816,530
    1964 ------------- 1,415,092    12,525,301                                    3,893,687             22,211             13,423                -           17,869,714
    1965 ------------- 1,390,136                                3,763,948         5,911,604            306,810             20,941                -           11,393,439
    1966 ------------- 1,259,599                                4,622,790         1,347,248            102,631          1,410,569                -            8,742,837
    1967   ..--                             ------ 1,607,267    8,087,091           643,304            143,123            638,266                -           11,119;051
    1968 ------------- 375,548                                  6,255,713    6,791,464                 825,365            578,124                -           14,826,214
    1969 ------------- 6,293,880                               28,680,182         1,155,027          2,057,030         2,450,909                 -           40,637,028
    1970 ------------- 1,809,541                                9,588,949         6,601,845            465,005         3,820,994                 -           22,286,334
    1971 --------------.1,023,337                              4,652,392         24,798,432            664,180         7,257,478        35,257,226           73,653,045
    1972 --------------1,807,555                                4,694,390         8,360,594             456,526         1,028,869         1,369,284          17,717,218

    Total ------------                                          - 17,542,922  85,561,357  60,417,584  5,121,269        17,320,485        39,097,793         225,061,410
    % Total -----------                                                             - 7.8%  38.0%  26.8%  2.3%              7.7%              17.4%               100%

      Source: Data extracted from "Fish Kills Caused by Pollution" series, published annually by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

    shows that pesticides comprised the leading source of    totaling 31.4 million fish which were reported in two
    agricultural pollution, with 11.4 million (64.9 per-    localized areas-Escambia Bay, Fla., and Galveston
    cent)  fish fatalities. Reports  of fish kills under    Bay, Tex. It should not be interpreted as a national
    pesticides include incidents in which spraying ma-    trend. The number of fish reported killed in estuary
    chinery and pesticide containers were cleaned or    water in 1972 decreased appreciably from the number
    dumped into nearby streams, lakes, or estuaries.    reported in 1971. Nevertheless, the significant in-
    However, the majority of reported incidents resulted    crease of fish kills in the estuaries since 1968 is of great
    from pesticides being washed into water by rainfall    national concern since estuaries serve as breeding
    after spraying for agricultural purposes.                                           and nursery grounds for many species of marine fish.
       Fish kills by type of water are summarized in
    Table 5. For the period 1963-1972, approximately   MONITORING OF PESTICIDES
    60 percent (134.5 million) of the total reported fish   IN RIVERS AND ESTUARIES
                                                                              IN RIVERS AND ESTUARIES
    were killed in freshwater, while 37 percent (83.4
    million) fish fatalities occurred in estuary-type water                                 Reports of insecticide  eidues in streams  and
                                                                                Reports of insecticide residues in streams and
    In 1971, about 77 percent (56.4 million) of the total    rivers in the United States began to appear about 10
                              I ~~~~~~~~~~~rivers in the United States began to appear about 10
    reported fish were killed in the estuary-type water,    years after the introduction of organochlorine in-
    and for the first time since the annual report system    secticides and it soon became obvious that small
    started in 1960, more fish were reported killed in    amounts of these insecticides occurred in many
    estuarine waters than in freshwater. The large kill in    waterways. At present, all of the different organo-
                      1971was rimrilydueto anumer o lage kllswaterways. At present, all of the different organo-
    1971 was primarily due to a number of large kills   chiorine insecticides have been reported from U.S.
                                                                             chlorine insecticides have been reported from U.S.

      Table 4.-Fish kill summary by agricultural operations (No. of fish killed)                Table 5.-Fish kill summary by type of water (No. of fish killed)

       Year        Pesticides      Fertilizers    Manure-silage        Total                Year          Fresh            Salt           Estuary           Total
                                               Drainage
                                                                             1963 ----5,478,130                 1,234,300         104,100*        6,816,530
    1963        -       -- 401,415         1,400          158,152          .560,967      1964             15,334,099        2,531,700            3,915       17,859,714
    1964        -       -- 191,167        67,040       1,156,885         1,415,092       1965  - -        11,255,658          102,121           36,660       11,393,439
    1965        -       -- 770,557         2,697         616,882         1,390,136       1966              8,698,607 .         19,050           25,270        8,742,927
    1966        -       -- 217,406         1,200        1,040,993        1,259,599       1967             11,086,012           30,000            3,039   .    1,.9,051
    1967       .       . 329,130          10j000        1,268,137        1,607,267       1968              9,869,851            1,888       4,954,475        14,826,214
    1968_---- 325,94                      15,116          35,238           375,548       1969             34,956,048          641,150       5,039,830        40,637,028
    1969 -    -        - 5,982,877        73,569         237,434         6,293,880       1970  _ -        11,991,099          536,000     .9,759,235         22,286,334
    1970 ---1,409,794                      4,069         395,678         1,809,541       197       1       5,205,913        2,014,914      56,432,218        73,653,045
    1971        -       -- 264,504        65,760         693,073         1,023,337       1972 --- 10,669,294                   37,766       7,010,158        17,717,218
    1972 --- 1,500,147                    30,944         276,464         1,807,555
                                                                             Total     _ ... 134,544,711        7,148,889      83,367,900       225,061,500
    Total-  --      -- 11,392,191        271,795       5,878,936        17,542,922       % Total        -          60               3               37              100
    % Total        -       - 64.9            1.5             33.6              100
                                                                               Source: Data extracted from the "Fish Kills Caused by Pollution" series published
     Source: Data extracted from "Fish Kills Caused' by Pollution" series, published   annually bythe U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
    annually by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.                                  *"Brackish water."

                                              OTHER POLLUTANTS                                            457

    rivers, sometimes in large qiantities. DDT has been    once. DDT was the most frequently occurring in-
    found in the largest amounts, but it is not always    secticide, and 2,4,5-T the most common herbicide.
    the most common residue, although some rivers    The amounts observed were small; the maximum
    have contained it in all the sampling programs. There    concentration of an insecticide was 0.46 mg/liter
    have been relatively few  reports of residues of,  for DDT; and of an herbicide 0.99 mg/liter for
    chlordane, endosulfan, and toxaphene in U.S. water-    2,4-D  . .;. Concentrations were highest in water
    ways, although these are commonly used in the U.S.    samples containingappreciable amounts of suspended
    Since 1962, there have been surveys of pesticides. in    sediments." Pesticide concentrations never exceeded
    most of the, major waterways. A National Pesticide  - the permissible limits established for public water
    Monitoring Network was set up in 1964 as a coopera-    under the Water Quality Criteria published by the
    tive effort of the Federal departments making up the,   Department of the Interior in 1968, although in
    membership of the Federal Committee on Pest Con-    several instances concentrations were measured that
    trol. It was initially designed on the basis of the    were above the environmental levels of 0.05 mg/liter
    minimum monitoring needed to establish baseline    recommended for marine and estuarine waters.
    levels of pesticides in substrates of food, humans, soil,  Organochlorine insecticides are not usually in
    water, air, wildlife, fish, and estuaries and to assess.   solution in water because they are all of very low
    changes in these levels. This program continued until   solubility. Tests on river water emptying into the
    the passage of the Federal Environmental Pesticide    ocean, even after draining land heavily sprayed with
    Control Act of 1972 (Public Law 92-516) at which    pesticides, may contain relatively low concentra-
    time the program, received legislative status. The    tions of pesticides. Yet, in certain conditions, such
    Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had taken    as during periods of high turbidity caused by sedi-
    important steps to assure an uninterrupted study of    ment load, it seems probable that rivers could carry
    environmental residues and to enlarge and upgrade    a heavy concentration of, pesticides to the sea. The
    the program. Additionally, as the focal point of    mud at the bottom of many rivers is heavily con-
    legislative authority,: EPA accepted the responsibil-    taminated with pesticides and will continue to be a
    ity of financing several of the large projects by con-    reservoir for periodic future contaminations.
    tracts with another government agency having field        As a part of a study to assess the potential con-
    staff qualified to do the work.                         tamination of the 'San Francisco Bay from chlo-
      Pesticides in the surface 'waters of th:i.U.S:. for   rinated hydrocarbon compounds, bottom materials
    the period 1964-1968 were' reported by Lichenberg    from 26 streams tributary to the bay were analyzed
    in 1970. The monitoring was restricted to chlorinated    for chlordane, DDD, DDE, DDT and PCB residues.
    insecticides. It was found that individual insecticides,    These compounds were found in all stream bed
    when present, were in fractions of a part per billion    samples analyzed, thus illustrating their widespread
    (ppb).                                      '          distribution in the bay. Chlordane was ubiquitous,
      A study entitled "Pesticides in Selected Western    with,, a concentration range similar to that of the
    Streams" was initiated in 1965 by the U.S. Geologi-    other compounds (Law and Goerlitz, 1974).
    cal Survey as a contribution to the national program.   . Accumulation of pesticides in bottom sediments
    The period of 1965 through' September 1968' is cov-   plays a very important role in their disappearance
    ered by two publications (Brown and Nishioka,    from contaminated water. Pesticide concentrations
    1967; Manigold and, Schulze, 1969). In the '1967-    in the sediments may be much higher than the con-
    1968 period, 62.5 percent of the "whole 'water"    centrations in the water. Studies in major agricul-
    sampled contained no detectable insecticides (rmin-    tural river basins in California revealed that an
    imum detectable level 0.01 ppb) and the remaining    average pesticide concentration of 0.1 to 0.2 ppb
    had individual pesticide levels only in fractions of a    in river water may mean that bottom sediments
    part per billion. The pesticides monitored were~rather    contain 20 to 100 ppb.
    restricted' in number (DDT and its metabolities; al-      It can be expected that rivers would carry pesti-
    drin; dieldrin; endrin; heptachlor and its epoxide;    aides down to -the sea so that large amounts of resi-
    lindane; chlordane; t6xaphene; endosulfan; phos-    due' could be deposited in estuaries and near the
    phorothioates; PCB's; and three herbicides: 2,4-D.;   mouth  of rivers. However,  there is surprisingly
    2,4,5-T; and silvex).   '      :                        meager evidence of pesticide residues in those areas.
      During the period 1968-1971 (Schulze, Manigold    The report on "Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in the
    and Andrew, 1973) compounds: found included the    Marine Environment" (National Academy of Sci-
    common  chlorinated insecticides and herbicides.    ences, 1971) estimated that "as much as 25 percent
    "Heptachlor and its expoxide were not detected    of the DDT compounds produced to date may have
    during the 3-year period, and aIdrin was found only    been transferred to the sea. The amount of DDT

    458                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    compounds in the marine biota is estimated to be    found only occasionally and generally at low levels,
    less than 0.1 percent of total production, yet this    with exception of toxaphene.
    amount has produced a demonstrable impact upon
    the environment."            -                              The report further points out that "at no time,
      It was estimated that 1.9 metric tons of pesticides    were residues observed of such a magnitude as to
    are carried into the San Francisco Bay annually by    imply damage to mollusks; however, residues were
    the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers (Risebrough    large enough to pose a threat to other elements of
    et' al. 1968), and that 10 metric tons reach the Gulf    the biota through the processes of recycling and
    of Mexico each year from the Mississippi River.    magnification." It is also of interest to note that 38
    Although these may seem very large amounts, they    samples (0.5 percent) had DDT residues exceeding
    are small relative to the pesticide usage in the vicinity    1.0 ppm. These samples were collected in California,
    of these rivers. These residues represent no more    Florida and Texas in drainage basins having in-
    than 0.1 percent of the amounts of pesticides used in    tensive agricultural development.
    the area supplying water to the estuaries, but some         With regard to California, where approximately
    may be rapidly taken out to sea because of the strong    22 percent of the nation's pesticides are sold, the
    tidal exchange in the San Francisco Bay  (Frost,    report states:
    1969).
      The Estuarine Monitoring Program was organized              DDT residues in mollusks were consistently larger in
                                                                California than in any other area monitored with the
                                                                exception of a single station in south Florida. There is a
    monitor the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides              clear pattern of maximum pesticide residues being cor-
    reaching the major estuaries on the Atlantic, gulf            related with proximity of the monitoring station to
                                                                runoff from agricultural lands. In southern California,
    and Pacific coasts. In July 1972, the National Marine         where most samples contained typically large residues,
    Fisheries Service of NOAA  withdrew its financial             residues were consistently higher at Hedionda and
    support and EPA took over the responsibility of the           Mugu Lagoons, the recipients of agricultural runoff
                                                                waters, than at Anaheim Slough which receives inter-
    entire estuarine study. This study has been rede-             mittent runoff from the urban and industrialized sec-
    signed to include marine life in all of the 200 primary       tions of Los Angeles. Residues in samples from estuaries
    estuaries listed in the "National Estuarine Survey."          draining the intensely cultivated central and southern
                                                                parts of the state were larger, by one order of magnitude
      A  recent publication  entitled "Organochlorine            usually, than those in samples collected from water-
    Residues in Estuarine Mollusks, 1965-72-National              sheds north of San Francisco Bay where dairy land
    Pesticide Monitoring Program" reports the findings            predominates.
    covering 15 coastal states during a 7-year period
    (Butler, 1973). Shellfish were chosen as 'indicator'       A preliminary report regarding the influence of
    organisms because they are sessile and readily con-    pesticide runoff in Monterey Bay, Calif., points to
    centrate pesticides from the environment, yet the    the Salinas River as the source of pesticide pollution
    chemical is flushed out of their tissues at a uniform    (Haderlie, 1970). This is the only major river en-
    rate when the pesticide is no longer present in the    tering the Bay, and it drains the 100 mile long
    environment  (Duke,  1970). The findings of this    Salinas Valley with a drainage area of 4,000 square
    study are summarized as follows:                         miles. The Salinas Valley is one of the richest agricul-
                                                           tural areas in California, specializing in lettuce,
      1. The analyses of 8.095 samples for 15 persistent    broccoli, celery, sugar beets and so on. During a 10-
    organochlorine compounds showed that DDT was    year period between 1960 and 1969, it is conserva-
    the most commonly identified pesticide and occurred    tively estimated that 63 tons of DDT were sprayed
    in 63 percent of all samples analyzed. In most cases,    on the crops and soil of the valley each year. Students
    estuarine pollution with DDT was intermittent and    at the Hopkins Marine Station:hear the bay made a
    at levels in the low parts-per-trillion range. The    study during the late spring of 1969 of the DDT
    maximum DDT residue detected was 5.39 ppm.               content of the sand-dwelling mole crab, Emerita.
      2. In most estuaries monitored, detectable DDT    This animal does not seem to concentrate DDT con-
    residues have declined in both number and magni-    tent in high concentrations. Emerita taken from the
    tude in several species of estuarine mollusks in recent    open coast outside Monterey Bay had too little DDT
    years. DDT pollution peaked in 1968 and has been    in their tissue to be measurable, yet Emerita taken
    declining markedly since 1970.                           from sand near the mouth of the Salinas River had
      3. Dieldrin was the second most commonly de-    DDT  concentrations of 0.14 ppm. In addition, it
    tected compound with a maximum residue of 0.23    was noted that during the late spring and summer of
    ppm.                                                     the same year, more dead seabirds' were found along
      4. Other organochlorine residues (endrin, mirex,    the shore of Monterey Bay than ever before. At one
    toxaphene, and polychlorinated biphenyls)  wered   period 440 dead birds were found on one stretch of

                                              OTHER POLLUTANTS                                            459

    beach less than a mile long. Of these, 37 percent had    adsorbed by plankton and insects are transferred in
    been oiled, 14 percent shot, and 49 percent had died    increasing concentration to fish, birds, animals,
    of unknown causes. The livers of this third group of    and eventually to man. There is evidence that con-
    birds were subjected to tests for chlorinated hy-    centrated pesticide residues act adversely on the
    drocarbons. The dead seabirds contained concentra-    reproduction and behavior of certain wildlife species
    tions of pesticides as high or higher than that re-   and may threaten their survival. In certain instances,
    corded anywhere. A brief summary of the data is as    pesticide residues accumulated through food chains
    follows:                                                have been implicated as causing death of contamin-
                                                          ated animals. For example, the loss of fish-eating
                                                          waterbirds at Tule Lake and Clear Lake in California
    DDE Concentrations in Livers                           and the reduction of pelican population on the Pacific
    of Dead Seabirds
                                                          coast were attributed to pesticides which had trav-
                                                          eled through biological networks and accumulated in
    Brandt' cormorants                 --107-155 ppm    the bodies of these birds.
    Western grebes --------------------192-292 ppm            Several review papers have recently been published
                                                          which bear on the subject of pesticides and estuarine
    Fork-tailed petrel- -----------------373       ppm    organisms. Butler (1971) discussed the influence of
    Ashey petrel-, -412                            ppm    pesticides  on  marine  ecosystems; Foehrenbach
    Ring-billed gull-_____;________ - ____805      ppm    (1972) described experiments on chlorinated pesti-
                                                          cides in estuarine organisms; Whitacre (1972) et al.
                                                          reviewed the pesticides and aquatic micro-organisms;
    Although one cannot be certain that it was the high    and Edwards (1973) summarized the literature con-
    concentrations of DDT  residues that killed these    cerning the persistent pesticides in the environment.
    animals, circumstantial evidence seems to indicate    Perhaps the most comprehensive review on the sub-
    pesticides as the cause of death.                       ject is the paper written by Walsh (1972) entitled
      In an earlier study concerning the chlorinated    "Insecticides, Herbicides, and Polychlorinated Bi-
    hydrocarbon pesticides in California bays and estu-    phenyls in Estuaries."
    aries, it was found that pesticide residues in estuaries
    geographically isolated from agricultural areas seldom
    exceeded 100 ppb. Pesticide residues frequently    Phytoplankton
    exceeded this level in agricultural regions and were
    found as high as 11,000 ppb in shellfish from polluted    Phytoplankton probably act as primary concen-
    areas (Modin, 1969).                                    trators of pesticides in water. There is evidence that
      A similar study was conducted to investigate the    these toxicants reduce photosynthesis, but biocon-
    chlorinated hydrocarbon residues in shellfish (Pel-   centration by algae may be more important ecologi-
    ecypoda)  from estuaries of Long  Island, N.Y.    cally because they transfer many materials to higher
    (Foehrenbach et al. 1971). Results indicate that    trophic levels. Under laboratory conditions, algal
    the distribution of residues could at times be cor-    samples were found to contain dieldrin concentra-
    related with agricultural use or type of community    tions ranging from 0.1 to 100 milligram per kilogram
    in the watershed surrounding the various stations.      dry weight. Algal concentrations of dieldrin were as
                                                           much as 30,000 times those occurring in the water
                                                           (Rose and McIntire, 1970). Algae are the primary
    EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES                                  producers in the aquatic environment. Grazers and
    ON  ESTUARINE ORGANISMS                                 higher consumer organisms depend upon algae as a
                                                           food source, either directly or indirectly.
      It is becoming apparent that increased information      Extensive pesticide accumulation by select algal
    is necessary about the distribution, concentration;    communities constitutes a contaminated food source
    and elimination of pesticides in estuarine areas.    for animals which feed on those forms.
    Most literature reports on pesticides in estuaries
    concern chlorinated hydrocarbons such as DDT,
    endrin, dieldrin, and aldrin. However, the overall    Invertebrates
    picture of the dynamics of these compounds in the
    estuarine environment is obscure.                         Organochlorine insecticides are so toxic to aquatic
      Potentially more hazardous are pesticides that    invertebrates that these aquatic organisms have long
    persist in the environment and move up in the food    been used to bioassay insecticides. A more complex
    chain. For example, small amounts of chemicals    problem than that of toxicity is the accumulation of

    460                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    pesticides in various  aquatic  organisms.  When    pesticides can reduce productivity of estuarine fish
    pesticides reach water, they are rapidly adsorbed by    and shellfish (Butler, 1969). The insecticides DDT,
    the bottom sediment, plankton, algae, aquatic in-    toxaphene, and parathion are toxic to oysters at
    vertebrates,  aquatic vegetation,  and  fish. Such    concentrations of approximately I ppm in water.
    accumulations, often increasing through different    When exposed to only 1.0 ppb of each of these in-
    trophic levels in aquatic organisms, have been    secticides separately, no effects were noted in young
    demonstrated experimentally by several workers and    oysters (Loew et al. 1971). The population of marsh
    are well-known.                                         fiddler crabs was significantly decreased by treat-
      Organochlorine  insecticides  are  relatively  in-    ment of their habitat with abate, an organophos-
    soluble in water but seem to have a great 'affinity for    phorus insecticide, according to Ward and Howes
    the tissues of aquatic invertebrates. Most of these    (1974). The population decrease may have resulted
    aquatic organisms seem to contain some residues    from sublethal effects which rendered the animals
    of these insecticides; the only difference is that those    more vulnerable to predators.
    from the more remote areas such as Antarctica Seem         The  effects of organochlorine  insecticides  on
    to contain less than those from more temperate    aquatic invertebrate  populations may  constitute
    regions closer to main usage areas of these insecti-    both direct and indirect hazards to other animals.
    cides. Other than this, the amount reported does    The most susceptible of these organisms are the
    not seem to differ significantly between organisms    smaller crustacea, which are killed by amounts of
    that live in freshwater, seawater, lakes, rivers, or    the order of 1.0 ppm X 103. Still susceptible, but
    estuaries.                                              less so, are the larger crustacea.
      Organic particulate matter of estuaries is an"im-       Invertebrates that are not killed may exhibit a
    portant food source for benthic organisms. In areas    variety of indirect effects of the pesticides, such as
    where most of the primary production occurs through    loss of coordination and other behavioral symptoms,
    the slow bacterial decomposition of such plant ma-    loss of fertility, or retardation of growth (Edwards,
    terials as marsh grasses, rushes, and mangroves; a re-    1973). Considerable changes in the species' habitat
    lease of pesticide residues to the water may occur.    structure may occur if predators and their prey
    This decaying plant detritus becomes an enriched    differ in susceptibility to these chemicals. All of
    food source when utilized by other microorganisms.    these effects may greatly influence overall popula-
    The mud dwelling fiddler crab concentrated DDT          tions of aquatic invertebrates and, since these are a
    residues in its muscle tissues after consumption of    major food source for fish, may exert strong environ-
    detrital food material from sediment (Odum et al,    mental pressure on fish populations. Moreover, the
    1969). In the field, DDT residues appeared to be    residues in their bodies may accumulate in the tissue
    associated with particulates in the range of 250 to    of fish and other animals that eat them and in this
    1,000 microns. Because crabs and other detritus-    way exert further environmental stress.
    feeding animals consume particulate matters of that
    size range, the authors concluded that organic de-
    tritus particles constitute a reservoir from which the
    pesticides enter the food chain.            'The literature on residues of organochlorine in-
      Oysters extract nutrition from the aquatic en-
    vironment by filtering particles of food from the
    water which is continuously passed in and out of    consider the subject very generallr and select data
                 their bodies. The organisms accumulate pesticide- from some of the recent studies, which should serve
    contaminated  particles in thisfashion.  Oystters    to provide a general assessment of current status of
    contaminated  particles in this fashion.  Oysters
    efficiently store trace amounts of pesticides and are    pesticide levels in fish and other vertebrates. It is
                                                          well known that marine fishes contain insecticides
    used as estuarine monitoring organisms by the Gulf
                Breeze Laboratory of EPA. They provide a sensitive and, in general, are less susceptible to poisoning than
    Breeze Laboratory of EPA. They provide a sensitive
    index of the initiation, duration and extent of chlor-    some other aquatic forms (Table 6).
    inated hydrocarbons' pollution in an estuary. The          In general, organophosphorus compounds tend to
                                             c  oysters is   be more acutely toxic than the organocliorines, and
    concentration or elimination of residues in oysters is   herbicides are less toxic than insecticides (Butler,
    dependent upon the level of pollution, the water
                                                          1971). Effects of organophosphates may last for only
    temperature, and their position relative to the'water    hours or days, whereas the organochlorines are more
    flow. To eliminate DDT residues of 150 mg/kg may    persistent and exert their effects following bioac-
    require three months or longer while residues of less    cumulation and magnification in trophic pyramids.
    than 0.1 mg/kg may disappear ih about two weeks.           Of all the organochlorines, DDT is by far the most
      Chronic exposure to sublethal concentrations of    common and occurs in the greatest amounts. There

                                              OTHER POLLUTANTS                                             461

      Table 6.-Acute Toxicity (24 hours) of 240 Pesticides to Estuarine Fauna  resistance is probably a complex interaction of
                                                          many, many factors.
              No Effect     Toxic to 20% of Test Population    y,        factors.
                                                            Organochlorifie insecticides in the estuarine en-
      (pPesticide m)      0..1    0.00-0.0                  vironment constitute both direct and indirect haz-
                                                          ards to fish and to those organisms that feed on
    Fish     .      ... 46     16         28                fish.' The indirect aspect is that plankton and other
    Shrimp   s . 1              1 33                  20   fish food may adsorb large quantities of these chemi-
    Oysters   .      41         2133                   5
                                                          cals, thus poisoning the fish that eat them. Alterna-
     Source: Butler, 1971                                   tively, when the fish take up residues, they may be
                                                          affected by them. Many indirect sublethal effects of
                                                          organochlorine residues on fish have been reported;
    is some evidence that the amounts of organochlorine    they include lower disease resistance, sub-normal
    residues accumulated by fish are influenced by the    feeding rates, and reproductive failure, to mention a
    lipid content of the fish; the more lipid they contain,
    the less susceptible they are to the pesticide. Simi-    fish esults from the fact that these animals are a
    larly, the larger the fish, the greater the coneentra-    major source of human food. If residues in fish are
    tion of residues they may contain. Hannon et al.   large, they may accumulate in man to a possibly
    (1970) found that fish in the higher trophic levels    hazardous level. In countries with more stringent
    tended to have a large proportion of the organochlo-    legislation, these fish would be unsalable as human
    rine residues that they contain in the form of metabo-    food. The rejection of fish products because of high
    lites such as DDE, DDD, heptachlor epoxide, and    concentrations of pesticides, e.g., DDT  in Cali-
    dieldrin. It has been reported that there-were greater    forniajack mackerel, can pose a hardship to fisher-
    concentrations of organochlorine residues in fish    ren and an economic burden on govern
    from higher trophic levels, even when movement of
    the residues through a food chain was impossible
    (Hamelink et al. 1971).                                 Estuarine Birds and Mammals
      The amount of pesticide in a field population may
    also vary over the seasonal cycle in different species.   Extensive literature exists detailing effects of
    Concentrations of DDT in the Triphoturus mexicanus    pesticides on estuarine birds (Moore and Tatton,
    taken from the Gulf of California increased with size    1965; Heath et al. 1969; Anderson et al. 1969; Lamont
    of the fish (Cox, 1970). The annual variation in the    et al. 1970; Lamont and Teichel, 1970). A recent
    content of DDT and its metabolites in five species    report by Johnston (1974) indicates a decline of
    of fish from the estuary near Pensacola, Fla., was    DDT residues in migratory songbirds killed when
    observed by Hansen and Wilson (1970). They stated    the birds flew into television towers in Florida. The
    that pesticide residues in benthic fishes which remain    results showed a progressive -decline in 'the con-
    in one location are better indicators of pollution than    centration of DDT and its metabolites (DDD and
    residues in pelagic fishes.                             DD'E) in their fat depots for the period 1964 to 1973.
      Fishes are generally more resistant to pesticides    This decline is apparently correlated with decreased
    than shrimps and oysters but are more sensitive    usage of DDT in the United States during the same
    than other vertebrates to organochlorine-pesticides.    time, according to the author.
    Fishes do, however, vary in their responses to avoid      Little is known, however, about pesticides in mam-
    water containing DDT, endrin, Dursban and 2,4-D.    mals. DDT was found in seals' from the Antarctica
    When fish were given a choice of two concentrations    and in grey seals, common seals,'and harbor porpoises
    of the pesticides, the highest concentration of 2,4-D    in England and Scotland. Pesticides have also been
    was avoided, but the highest concentration of DDT       found' in whales (Wolman and Wilson, 1970). Blub-
    was preferred (Hansen, 1969). The author suggested    ber of grey whales and sperm whales from waters
    that if the capacity to avoid a pesticide is controlled    near San Francisco contained up'to 6.0 ppm of DDT.
    genetically, fish which survive pollution by this
    means would produce more offspring with the capa-
    city to avoid the chemical. Thus, genetic ability to    MINIMIZING PESTICIDE POLLUTION
    avoid pesticides would have survival value for the    IN THE ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENT
    species. Fabacher and Chambers (1971) found that
    mosquitofish probably result from other factors in         Estuaries are vital nursery and feeding grounds
    addition to increased lipid content. These may in-   for major commercial fisheries. The possibility that
    clude decreased uptake, "resistant" nervous tissue,    they might act as "a sink for the persistent pesti-
    stress-tolerance, or others. The total mechanism or    cides" is intolerable (Butler, 1971).

    462                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      There is little doubt that the persistent pesticides,    Better Use of Pesticides
    particularly DDT and dieldrin, are major long-term
    contaminants of the aquatic environment, and small        Many of the pesticide problems that have arisen
    traces can be found in almost all compartments of   through the use of persistent pesticides are due to
    our ecosystems. The situation with respect to estua-   careless use as well as unnecessary use of chemicals.
    rine pollution from pesticides emphasizes the need for    Too often, large areas of land have been indiscrim-
    more basic research. Investigations to establish safe   inately sprayed to control forest insects, mosquitoes,
    limits for toxicants in water cannot be done on a    or agricultural pests. Aerial sprays fall on all parts of
    short-term basis. Effective research in this area    an ecosystem. Such spraying operations should be
    requires long-term  commitment  of government    severely limited, even with non-persistent pesticides.
    agencies and the public at large.                      A notable example is the disastrous effect on aquatic
                                                            animals resulting from the use of mirex to control
                  Use of Alternative Pesticides            fire ants in the southeast United States. This pesti-
                                                            cide is highly persistent in the natural environment
                                                            and has been shown to be moderately carcinogenic
      The main problem of finding alternatives for    and has been shown to be moderately carcinogenic
                   The   ain roblm offindng aterntive forwhen injected in  laboratory mice. Subsequent long-
    persistent insecticides is not that suitable insecticides when injected in laboratory mice. Subsequent long-
                  persistent         inetiieiotauialiterm studies have demonstrated chronic toxic effects
    cannot be developed, but is economic, because per-    on crabs and shrimp. A national survey of oysters
    sistent insecticides can be made and sold so cheaply.            and shelihdonsre t     a      m    sh
                                                            and other shellfish demonstrated that mirex is the
    Additionally, one dose gives protection against soil f       th  shlf    e stre                  rei t
    pests for several seasons. The recent shift in pesticide    fourth most commonly found pesticide residue. It
                                                            was also reported that mirex contaminates shellfish
    usage from the organochlorines to the so-called
    "substitutes" or "non-persistent" pesticides is an    in estu    rain  are  o aiae teso so tates.
                                                              New formulations are now available to slowly re-
    encouraging trend. However, the less persistent
    substitutes such as organophosphates and carba-    lease pesticides at the time needed. Recently, EPA
                  subutes,  ch as    gaini npopuaty, and alo    granted final label approval for the first commercial
    mates, which are gaining in popularity, are also
    more toxic to man and certain other non-target    marketing of a microencapsulated pesticide, Penn-
    organisms. Although there is a considerable knowl-    walt Corp's Penncap-M, which consists of a suspen-
    edge about the residues of these substitutes and    sion in water of polyamide microspheres containing
                  edgeabot th reidue ofthes sustittesandmethyl parathion. Such formulation offers a promis-
    about their metabolism in target organisms, little is   methyl parathion. Such formulation offers a pros-
                                                            ing approach to achieving more efficient, more econ-
    known about their overall effects on our aquatic
                  knownabout  theroeralffetsnuromical, safer, and more controlled use of pesticides.
    environment.
      Metcalf et al. (1972) demonstrated the possibili-
    ties of producing selective and biodegradable ana-    Integrated Pest Management
    logues of organochlorine insecticides using a model
    ecosystem for the evaluation of pesticide biodegrada-     In recent years, the concept of integrated pest
    bility and ecological magnification(1972a). Metcalf    management  has b       een re-emphasi ed. Th e goal is to
                                                 selctiity management has been re-emphasized. The goal is to
    (1972b) emphasized that the principle of selectivity    bring the best of all available control techniques to
    and biodegradability must be included in the future    bear against pest problems rather than to rely solely
    development of better pesticides if we are to begin to    on chemical pesticides. Its strategy is one of "man-
    solve the many problems of human ecology and    agement and containment" rather than "seek and
    environmental pollution arising from pest control.     destroy." This method combines the intelligent man-
      The use of biological agents is promising. Two    ipulation of natural control techniques with the
    bacterial pesticides are now commercially available    essenti      al use of pesticides;  it ha s been successfully
                  and hve rgistred  ith EA-Baillu  popluae essential use of pesticides*; it has been successfully
    and have registered with EPA--Bacillus popilliae    applied in several parts of the world. In Israel, effec-
                                                            applied in several parts of the world. In Israel, effec-
    and B. thuringiensis. These insecticides have a num-    tive programs have been set up against citrus pests;
    ber of important advantages. They effectively con-    in California for pests on cotton, alfalfa and grapes;
    trol specific insects, do not harm humans, livestock,    and in central Europe for pests in orchards.
    fish, wildlife, and beneficial insects, and do not dam-
    age plants. Furthermore, insects do not become re-
    sistant to these control agents. On the other hand,    Removal of Pesticides
    the bacterial insecticides are not as fast-acting as
    most conventional chemical insecticides. Usually,         Runoff from agricultural land is an important
    bacterial insecticides are a more expensive means of   source of pesticides in rivers and estuaries. Control-
    insect control. And poor weather conditions may    ling such runoff through good soilconservation prac-
    prevent proper control.                                tices would substantially decrease the contamination

                                               OTHER POLLUTANTS                                              463

    of water. In regard to industrial and municipal    Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) of 1947. All provisions of
    discharge, efforts should be made to increase the    the Act must be in effect by October 1976. The new
    efficiency of extraction of pesticides from the water    act, FIFRA as amended, extends federal registration
    and other detoxification processes such as microbial    and regulation to all pesticides, including those dis-
    degradation and energetic radiation (ultraviolet or    tributed or used within a single state. It requires the
    gamma ray).                                              proper application of pesticides to insure greater
                                                          protection of man and the environment.
                                                             The FIFRA was administered by the U.S. Depart-
    Better Understanding                                     ment of Agriculture until the authority was trans-
    of Estuarine Ecosystems                                  ferred to the Environmental Protection  Agency
      There is an urgent need for detailed and extensive    (EPA) when it was established in December 1970.
    studies on the effects of pesticides in the estuarine    EPA has the authority to cancel a pesticide registra-
    and marine  environments.  Only with additional    tion if it was later determined that the directed use
    scientific data will a sound estuarine management    of the pesticide posed a serious hazard to man or the
    policy be possible. Immediate attention is required    environment. EPA also can suspend a pesticide regis-
    to clarify the effects of environmental variables on    tration and stop interstate shipments immediately.
    the acute toxicities of pesticides to sport and com-    Unlike cancellation, suspension orders can be initi-
    mercial fishes as well as on their effects on various ele-    ated only when the products present an "imminent
    ments in the food web. In addition to laboratory re-    hazard.
    sults, information is needed on toxicity under natural     Withi  the last few years EPA has taken several
    conditions. For example, what effects do water chem-    control actions against a number  of persistent
    istry, temperature, biota, and many other environ-    organochlorine pesticides. In 1971 EPA  initiated
    mental  factors have  on  toxicity? What  is the    cancellation  proceedings  under  FIFRA  against
    significance of the size, age, and condition of the fish?    DDT,  mirex, aldrin, and dieldrin. After extensive
    This information is essential if sound predictions    hearings, the agency  announced  cancellation of
    concerning the biological effects of pesticides are to    nearly all remaining uses of DDT  in June 1972,
    be made.                                                 based on potential future hazard to man and his
      Little is known about the long-term, sublethal    environment. The agency has also limited the use of
    effects of pesticides on fishes or other aquatic or-    mirex against the imported fire ant in the south-
    ganisms. To gather information requires prolonged    eastern United States, primarily because of hazard to
    exposures of fishes to variable concentrations of the    aquatic life.
    toxicant in question.                                       On August 2, 1974, EPA issued suspension notices
      Much information is needed on the manner in    for aldrin and dieldrin, citing evidence of "imminent
    which an "unstressed" estuarine system operates    hazard." On October 1, 1974 EPA  administrator
    before one can properly assess the impact of a pesti-    Russell Train ordered an immediate suspension of
    cide or other chemicals on such systems.                 further production of aldrin and dieldrin, because of
    cide or other chey may                                                       cause cancer. This order became
      The interactions of the various communities with    evidence they may cause cancer. This order became
    each other and with their physical environment could    final on May 27, 1975 when EPA Chief Administra-
    be affected by a pesticide. One way to quantify such    tive Judge H.L. Perlman announced that the U.S.
    effects is to construct an experimental ecosystem in    Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia had
    which several species of organisms and their sub-    ruled  that aldrin                     create "imminent
    strates can be subjected to the pesticide (Duke,
    1974) to obtain information on rates, routes and           On November 26, 1974, EPA gave notice of its
    reservoirs of accumulation. Once a satisfactory com-    intent to cancel all registered uses of heptachlor and
    partmental model is developed, substituting different    chlordane which are now in widespread use for home,
    data enables the impact of different variables to be    lawn, and garden pest control. Their major agricul-
    evaluated.                                               tural use is on corn crops. On July 30, 1975, EPA
                                                           ordered an end to the manufacture and sale of the
                                                           two pesticides, citing an imminent human cancer
    Governmentali Control                                    hazard and the available substitute pesticides now
    of Pesticide Use
                                                           registered with EPA. However, this suspension
      On October 21, 1972, the President signed into    order allowed continued production of these two
    law H.R. 10729, the Federal Environmental Pesti-    pesticides for termite control by ground insertion
    cide Control Act of 1972  (Public Law  92-516),    and the dipping of roots and tops of nonfood plants.
    amending the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and           In 1971 and 1972, EPA issued suspension and

    464                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    cancellation notice for mercury pesticides. A variety     Long-term sublethal effects of pesticides in estu-
    of organic mercury compounds are used in agricul-   aries are very difficult to assess at the present time,
    ture as fungicides and in the paper industry as    as most data on pesticide effects are limited to a few
    slimicides. If they find their way into the aquatic    species and concentrations that are lethal in short-
    environment  they  are readily  converted  under    term tests under laboratory conditions. It is only,
    anaerobic conditions to methyl-mercury compounds,    perhaps, in regard to the persistent organochlorine
    which are very readily taken up by aquatic organisms    pesticides, DDT  and dieldrin in particular, that
    and accumulated in the food chain.                      more information is available concerning their be-
                                                             havior in the aquatic environment. It is now rela-
                                                             tively easy to determine the concentration of a wide
                                                             variety of organochlorine pesticide residues in estu-
                                                             arine and marine samples. It is, however, much more
      Trends in the production and use of pesticides in    difficult to establish the signicance of the residues
                                                             difficult to establish the significance of the residues
    recent years indicate that there will be an increased    either at the species or community level
    demand for pesticides during the next decade due tos o                                       el
                                        nneed to reduce        Health hazards to man arising from pesticide pol-
                      the mounting demand for food and the  lution in the estuarine environment have resulted
    the devastation of food supplies by insects, weeds,
                                     the devastation of food supplies by insects, weeds,    from the persistence of pesticides in water, bioaccum-
    and diseases. Acc6rding to a World Health Organiza-    ulation in estuarine food chains, and some localized
    tion estimate, about a third of the agricultural
                                                             contamination of the coastal waters. Depending on
    products grown by man worldwide are consumed or
    products grown by man worldwide are consumed or t       the chemical nature of the pesticide and its biological
    destroyed by insects. There is little doubt that pesti-    behavior, the health haard to man may be of an
    cides will continue to play an important role in the    acute nature for people exposed locally or the result
    production of food.
                  prolVduct~ioJnlV ,of  .o ..       ,       of chronic low level exposure of the general popula-
      The most difficult pollution control problem-for    tion from ingestion        of co ntaminated food . Critical
                                                  .w.stes 1  tion from ingestion of contaminated food. Critical
    estuarine and coastal waters-is posed by wassessment of the ultimate health hazards of  di-
    which do not come from a point source, such as
                               whch do not come from a pont source, such as    vidual pesticides requires an adequate knowledge of
    pesticides from runoff and drift. Agricultural pesti-behavior in the estuarine ecosystem, their
    cides enter the estuarine environment through their                         the                    st
                                                             pathways through the dynamic system existing in
    direct application to water, runoff and sediment
                              direct application to water, runoff andsediment    the estuaries, and their fate in terms of accumulation
    transport from the treated fields, atmospheric trans-
    port, industrial and municipal waste discharge, ac-    or transformation.   It is alsonessary to have quan-
    cidents andu spills.  and municial waste dichargetitative data for each of the various stages through
                                                             which a pesticide passes before it finally comes in
       Fish iulls in the United States are well known.
                                 Fish  lls in the United States are well known.    contact with the human organism. As in other areas
    Agricultural operations ranked fourth in the total    of toxicological research, there is the added difficulty
    number of fish killed, and pesticide was the leading    of
          so.urce of agriculturalpollution, with 11.4 miion of extrapolating experimental studies in animals to
             fishr 'fatalitiesbetw  atnd1972.In 171 ma.ou1t  1man in order to measure the probable hazards to man.
    fish fatalities between 1963 and 1972. In 1971 about
                                                                Recent regulatory actions taken by the Environ-
    77 percent (56.4 million) of the total reported fish   mental Prote       ction Ag eny    hav e  placed a neartot
    kill occurred in the estuary-type water. The signifi-    ban  on domesti    c us  e  of DDT, aldrin, deldrn, hep-
                                                              ban on domestic use of DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, hep-
    cant increase of fish kills in the estuaries since 1968or, and chlordane  Undoubtedly, for many years
                                                              tachlor, and chlordane. Undoubtedly, for many years
    is of great national concern since estuaries serve asome, these persistent chemicals will continue to
                       breeding andnursergroundformanyspc e.  to come, these persistent chemicals will continue to
    breeding and nursery ground for many species.           be detectable in the estuarine environment due to
       Monitoring data have so far been limited primarily    seasonal fooding and the resuspension of estuarine
    to chlorinated hydrocarbons, because of their num-               .
                                                              sediments.
    ber, wide use,. great persistence in the environment, Pesticide pollution in the estuarine environment
                                                                Pesticide pollution in the estuarine environment
    and toxicity to certain wildlife and non-target or-    can be minimized through the use of alternative
    ganisms. At present, all of the different organochlo-   pesticides,  ore effectiv e  useof p    es ticid e, removal
    rine insecticides!have been reported from U.S. rivers
                           and est ,  soi  lg         Al-    of pesticides from water, improvement of farm man-
    and estuaries, sometimes in large -quantities. A-    agement practices, and a better understanding of
    though these residues do not seem to present immedi-         ptic                               st
                                                 - to. fpesticide behavior in the estuarine ecosystem.
    ate- danger to fish and shellfish, they were large
    enough to pose a threat to other elements of the
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                                                       OTHER POLLVTANTS                                                       465

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      Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 6: 372-376.                          Metcalf, I. L. 1972b. Agricultural chemicals .in relation to
                                                                        environmental quality: insecticides today and tomorrow.
                                                                       : J. Environ' Qual.: 1: 10-14.
    Frost, J. 1969. Earth, air, water. Environment 1- i'.14-20.' :
                                                                      Metcalf, R. IB I.. 'P. Kapoor and A.': S- irwe. 1972. Deyelop-
    Frost, K. R. and G. W. Ware. 1970. Pesticide drift from aerial      ment of biodegradable anal}ogues of DDT. Chem. Technol.
      and ground applications. Agr. Eng. 5i: 460-464.  p' 105-109.

    466                                        ESTUA.RINE POLLUTION CONTROL                                                   .

    Modin, J. C. 1969. Chlorinated pesticides in California bays    Risebrough, -R. W.  et al. 1968. Pesticides: transatlantic
      and estuaries. Pestic. Monit. J. 3: 1-7.                        movements in the northeast trades. Science 159: 1233-1236.

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    THE IMPACT OF OFFSHORE
    PETROLEUM OPERATIONS
    ON MARINE AND
    ESTUARINE AREAS

    KEITH G. HAY
    American Petroleum Institute
    Washington, D.C.

                ABSTRACT
                American is facing a serious energy crisis, as domestic petroleum supplies are consumed at a
                greater rate than new reserves can be located and placed in production. It is necessary to the
                nation's economic and political security to expand the search for crude oil and natural gas into
                the frontier areas of our Outer Coitinental Shelf. Expertise gained through more than two decades
                of exploration for and production of crude oil and natural gas in the Gulf of Mexico and the
                advances in exploration, drilling and production technology and equipment, minimize the danger
                of environmental damage from offshore petroleum operations. Studies of the impact of oil on the
                marine and estuarine areas are continuing, and the results so far indicate that petroleum operations
                can be and are being conducted in an environmentally acceptable manner.

    INTRODUCTION                                             natural gas, 31 percent. Our heavy dependence on
                                                          petroleumff  is the product of many factors, not the
      A great deal of misunderstanding exists concein-    least of which have been-and continue to be-
    ing the impact of petroleum operations on the    environmental considerations.
    biological, economic, and environmental sectors of          In the case of coal, which currently provides 18
    the marine and estuarine areas. This misunderstand-    percent of the energy market, environmental restric-
    ing, in turn, has led to public concern, particularly    tions have played a major role in limiting production.
    in light of proposed expansion of offshore petroleum    Bans or severe restrictions on the use of the more
    industry activities following the energy crisis.         economical mining methods, as well as sulfur emis-
      It would be naive-and inaccurate--to suggest    sion control standards-some of which go far beyond
    that a significant expansion of exploratory, produc-    the need to protect national health and safety-
    tion, transportation, and refining activities would    have greatly hampered moves to increase coal pro-
    be without some impact on shore and near-shore life.   duction and use. This has been an important factor
    But it would be equally naive-and inaccurate-to    in increasing demand for petroleum, as an alter-
    suggest that such impact as would occur would be    nate fuel in manufacturing and electrical power
    all negative, or that any impact, per se, would be    generation.
    intolerable from an environmental point of view.            Further demand has been placed on petroleum by
      There is clearly an urgent need to not only protect    the seemingly interminable delays in trying to site
    and sustain the viability of our estuaries, but to    and construct nuclear power generating plants, and
    develop secure domestic petroleum reserves as well.    in allowing onstream operations of existingifacilities.
    Our economic and political structure was visibly    While technological problems have caused some of
    shaken by the 5-month embargo of Arab crude oil   these delays, environmental considerations were at
    and products refined overseas from Arab crude, and    the base of many delays-and, in some cases, cancel-
    by the fourfold increase in the cost of imported oil   lations-of nuclear plant construction. Thus, despite
    imposed by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting    the rosy future predicted for power from nuclear
    Countries.                                               reactors during the 1950's and '60's, less, than 2
                                                           percent of U.S. energy is now .derived from nuclear
    THE NATION'S ENERGY MIX                                  generators.
                                                             A similar fate has befallen potential hydroelectric
      Petroleum, that is, crude oil and natural gas, pro-    power plant construction. Virtually every attempt
    vides this nation with 77 percent of its current    to develop a new hydroelectric power site is blocked
    energy requirements. Crude oil supplies 46 percent;    by environmental opposition. The few remaining

                                                                                                          467

                                        ESTUARINEv PoLLUTION CONTROL

    sites for hydropower installations have-for all prac-    OFFSHORE PETROLEUM
    tical purposes--been ruled out of consideration by    ,EXPLORATION AND PRODUCTION
    enviironmental actiVities.                           -           '
      Thus, we have been left with a growing depend-         The United States Geblogical Survey has esti-
    ence on oil and natural gas- as. the suppliers--at    mated that the discoverable, recoverable petroleum
    least for the next 10 to 15 years-of our'nation's    resources of the OCS may range from 10 billion to
    lenerga. Continued reliance on potentially insecure    49 billion barrels of crude oil and 42 trillion to 181
    and high cost foreign oil, however, is not a'practical   trillion cubic feet of natural gas. By geographic
    solution to our energy problems. The economic con-    area, these deposits are thought to be within the
    sequences of over-dependence on imports-both    following estimated probability range:
    from a security and balance of payments aspect-
    should have been 'indelibly' engraved olA the public                          Crude oil      Natural gas
    conscience in the aftermath of Winter 1978-74 and                            (in billions    (in trillions
    in the outflow of U.S. dollar's in 1974.'                 Offshore Area      of barrels)    of cubic feet).
      Yet, if we aie'to keep evein bur present level 'f   Atlantic-                 2-4             5-14
    piroductivity-much' less ihc'oease our industrial ac-    Gulf of Mexico         3-8            18-91
    tirities'to meet the needs of an economic uipswing-    Pacific .--          -------- 21 5       2-6
    U'.S imports of crude and refined oils must: temipo-    Alaska --3-31                           8-80
    rarily continue. There is no viable alternative, just
    as there is' no viable alternative 'to increasing our    Development' of this potential becomes all the
    domestic exploration and production activities. Only    more expedient in light of the almost steady decline
    increased availability of petroleum will permit the    in the ratio of U.S. proved reserves to production;
    nation to buy the time needed to develop alternate    stemming, for the most part  from gover
                                                           stemming, for the most part, from governmental
    energy sources.                                  "     interference in-the fuels marketplace. U.S. domestic
        There is, on the- horizon, the vision of a number    production peaked in the early 19705s. And it will
    of self-renewing, non-polluting energy sources 'These    be several years before that situations begins to be
    include-but are not limited'to-ocean, tidal and
                                            includebut are not limited to-ocean, tidal ad    reversed by the flow of oil from Alaska's north slope,
    wind power, geothermal energy, nuclear fission, and    increasedproduction through'secondary and:tertiary
    solar power. Prototype facilities and/or laboratory    recovery methods, and new production from exist-
    models exist for some of these energy alterniatives.   ing, but not fully developed, fields. Nevertheless,
    But it will be a number of years-perhaps into the    the master key to petroleum security rests firmly in
    next century-before  they become  economically    unlocking the as yet undiscovered potential of our
    feasible. iTime, however, is the critical factor. For    Outer Continental Shelf.
    all practical purposes, petroleum is the only-major      Petroleum exploration and production from ma-
    energy source with the proven technology' capable    rine areas is not an experimental undertaking  As
                                                           far back as the    late 1890's, underwater drilling was
    of producing sufficient fuel' to tide this nation 'over   far back as the late 1890's, uiderwater drilling was
                                                           a fact of life in California, where piers were extended
    until alternate energy sources become reality.
                                                           into the water to support drilling and production
      The United States Geological Survey estimates   facilities. However, modern drilling and safety tech-
    that, the remaining total petroleum resources of the    nology had its origin in petroleum operations in the
    United States, discoverable and recoverable -under    Gulf of Mexico, with drilling starting in earnest
    today's technology and economics, may range as   following World War II.
    high as '189 billibn barrels Of oil and 1,094 trillion.  To date, more than 19,000 wells have been drilled
    cubic feet of 'natural gas. The onshore potential,    in-the U.S. marine environment. And, in fact, nearly
    however, appears less readily recoverable' than the    17 percent of all domestie oil and 19.5 percent of-our
    potential of the, Outer Continental Shelf (OCS).    'natural gas production in the U.S., today, comes
    The' larger more readily located onshore areas 'are    from offshore activities.
         believed tor have been found and laced intoproduc   Yet, despite the headlines which would indicate
    believed to have been found and placed into produc-
    tion. The primary locations for additional onshore
    tion. The primareyt lioeatigns for additiona 'onshore   spills from drilling and production operations in our
    resources are thought to lie at greater depths and    offshore areas. And  none, hot even the much-
    in undeveloped hostile areas. Thus, the need to    publicized spill in the Santa Barbara Channel-in
    search out, the :oil and natural' gas deposits of the    1969, 'caused permanent ecological damage.
    OCS assumes greater importance.          'i;             Since that spill, marine exploratory and produc-

                                             OTHER POLLUTANITS �                                        469

    tion technology has improved greatly: Both industry    wanted to determine the immediate and long-term
    and governmental specifications have 'underigone    effects of an oil spill, and how this differs from
    significant upgrading to decrease oil spill potential.    chronic oil pollution sustained by persistent natural
    Safety equipment,. monitoring techniques, and per-   seepage.
    sonnel training in spill prevention and cleanup have     At this early date, all. of the results of this ambi-
    advanced. The capability of the industry to mini-    tious research program are not in. However, the
    mize environmental damage has been substantially   facts that have evolved-coupled with other investi-
    enhanced.  gations throughout the world-confirm certain data
                                                         and put to rest certain myths and speculations.
                                                         These known facts are:
    EFFECTS OF OiL ON MARINE BIOTA
                                                           1) The fate of oil and its immediate and long-
      Quite frankly, prior to the Torrey Canyon acci-   term impact depend upon a highly complex inter-
    dent off the Cornwall Coast of England, and the    relationship of physidal, chemical, and biological
    Santa Barbara spill about two years later, there had    factors. These include evaporation, dispersion, flush-
    been little investigation of the fate of oil in the   ing, dissolution, photo oxidation, littoral deposition,
    environment. Such is no longer the case. While much    sedimentation, accumulation, microbial oxidation,
    is yet to be learned in this area, a number of facts    and last, but most important, organismI uptake.
    have evolved from existing research.                   In the majority of, spills, winds, currents, and
      In May 1969, a series of studies-part of a multi-   tides rapidly dilute or disperse the oil below toxic
    million dollar research program-was initiated by    concentrations.
    the American Petroleum Institute. These studies          2) Oil is ingested by marine organisms, such as
    were designed to develop scientific answers to ques-   shellfish, shrimp, and finfish. The effects depend on
    tions surrounding the fate of oil in the marine    the particular species, its stage of growth, and the
    environment and its biological impact. The studies    amount and kind of oil ingested. Recent uptake
    have been and are being conducted by some of the    and depuration studies have been conducted by the
    nation's leading universities and independent reL   Battelle Northwest Laboratories in Puget Sound, at
    search laboratories. Research contracts have been    the Texas A & M  Marine Research Laboratory in
    awarded to such institutions as the University of    Galveston, and at the Scripps Institution of Ocean-
    Southern California, University of Maryland, Texas    ography in California. Admittedly, laboratory stud-
    A & M University, Scripps and Woods Hole Institu-   ies have their limitations when it comes to predicting
    tions of Oceanography, Battelle Northwest and Bat-    the effects of oil on organisms in the real world.
    telle Columbus Laboratories, Exxon Research and    Nevertheless, the results of such studies have con-
    Engineering, and the Bermuda Biological Station.      'firmed that marine organisms do accumulate petro-
      The petroleum industry, through the API pro-    leum hydrocarbons, but once placed in an oil-free
    gram, wanted to find out, for example, answers to    environment, the organism quickly discharges the
    these questions: What happens to oil in the sea;   ingested.oil. For example:
    how much is evaporated, goes into, solution, is phys-
    ically dispersed; what are the mechanisms that           (a) At Texas A'& M, brine shrimp were found to
    brought about these changes; and what are the    abs'orb and purge aromatic hydrocarbons in a matter
    effects of climatic, oceanographic, meteorological,    of hours. No metabolization of the oil fractions
    and chemical influences on oil in the sea.      '      occurred.
      The studies sought answers to: biodegradation          (b) At Scripps, however, three different species
    processes and how they vary as a function of climate,    of fish were. found to detoxify these  hydrocarbons
    bacterial composition and distribution, nutrient up-    by metabolizing them in the liver and excreting the
    takej and seasonal variation. The effects of oil on    byproducts in their urine.
    the food chain have been studied, including the          (c) At the Battelle Northwest Laboratories, Pa-
    impact on organisms at the egg, larvae, juvenile,   cific oysters that had assimilated oil were found
    and adult stages, and on their subsequent genera-    to depurate the hydrocarbons 'within a few days
    tions. Questions as to the .effect of dispersants    when returned to an oil-free' environment.
    superimposed on an oil-polluted biosystem have been      (d) In the Plymouth Laboratory in Englahid, the
    considered. Bioassay data on No. 2 fuel oil, various    spider crab Maia squinrado was found to rapidly
    crude oils, and residual fuel oil were sought, includ-    detoxify and excrete naphthalene."
    ing the retention, concentration, and depuration of      3) Biological damages to an ecosystem depends
    such oils by marine organisms. Finally, the industry    upon such factors as: the type of oil spilled, biota

    470                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    of the area, the dose of oil, the physiography of the     10) Low levels (10-100 ppm) of oil dispersant
    area, the season, weather conditions,,previous expo-    emulsions can, under laboratory conditions, reduce
    sure of the area to oil, exposure to other pollutants,    primary productivity of marine phytoplankton and
    and treatment of the spill.                            its production of chlorophyll a. Oil dispersant emul-
      4) Three conditions must prevail for damage to    sions at a level of less than 1 ppm, however, have a
    occur from a spill: (a) a refined oil must be in-    stimulatory effect on the phytoplankton resulting
    volved; (b) the volume of oil spilled needs to be    in an increase in the mean productivity rate.
    large with respect to the receiving body of water;        At such low concentrations, oil.is a nutrient-a
    and (c) storms or heavy surf must thoroughly mix    source of carbon. When flagellates are exposed to
    the water, oil and sediments in the area.               highly toxic water-soluble oil concentrations for 24
      5) Crude oil constituents, especially the volatile    hours, their growth rate and production of chloro-
    aromatics-naphthalenes and olefins-which have    phyll a is virtually stopped. When transferred to a
    a low boiling point, are far more toxic than are the    fresh medium, they resume normal growth rates
    remainder, and are more soluble in water. Fortu-    (1 to 12 generations each 24 hours) and chlorophyll
    nately, these lighter constituents quickly evaporate,    a production within three to four days. Only a
    so that the risk is a short-term one.                  relatively small number of flagellates need to survive
      6) Certain polynuclear  fromatics, such as 3,4    to repopulate rapidly a given area after a spill.
    benzpyrene, are potential carcinogens. Some of them       11) Salt marsh grasses, when exposed to oil, will
    occur in crude oil in minute quantities. It has been    recover very quickly, especially if no detergent
    postulated that these carcinogenic polynuclear aro-    treatment is undertaken and repeated oilings do
    matics are assimilated by marine organisms and are    not occur.
    concentrated as they are passed up through the            12) With rare exceptions, oil spills do not cause
    food chain to man. There is no evidence, however,    death to free swimming finfish. Such fish evidently
    that abnormal growths, either tumors or cancers, in    sense the presence of oil and swim clear of the slick.
    man or marine organisms result from oil spilled in    However, fish that swim near the surface, such as
    the marine environment and subsequently trans-    pipe fish and capelin, would be most susceptible;
    ferred through the food chain. Another team of   those found at intermediate depths, such as shiner
    scientists, who did their research on the Sargasso    perch, would be less susceptible; and those inhabit-
    Sea ecosystem, found that petroleum hydrocarbon    ing the water column near the bottom, such as
    concentrations were essentially constant throughout    flounder and sculpin, would be least susceptible.
    the food chain. Polynuclear aromatics, incidentally,      13) In general, an organism is more susceptible
    are produced by vegetation and phytoplankton in   to oil at the larval stage than at the juvenile stage;
    large quantities, and are, moreover, biodegradable.     and the juvenile stage is more vulnerable than the
      7) Refined oil, such as No. 2 fuel oil, is generally    adult stage. There is always an exception to the rule.
    more toxic than crude oil. When massive amounts    It is found that the least susceptible stage for brown
    of such oil inundate coastal areas for sustained    shrimp is the post-larval period of life.
    periods of time, extensive damage to marine fauna         14) Chronic and acute exposures to oil in labora-
    can occur and complete restoration may take years.    tory tests have not resulted in any growth inhibition
    Fortunately, such episodic spills are rare.             in brown shrimp or oysters.
                                                             15) The health of a marine community in the
      8) No spill, not even the most severe (e.g. Torrey      15) The health of a marine community in the
                 Canyon, West Falmouth, and the Tampico Maru),    immediate vicinity of a natural oil seep was compa-
    has rnyonesulted in any permouth, anent damage  to the en- Maru),    rable to the health of a similar (control) community
    has resulted in any permanent damage to the en-
    vironment.  In most spills, biological recovery is   far removed from seepage areas.
    achieved w       ith in a few generations,   involving less    . These, then, are some of the facts that are surfac-
    achieved witha n       one year.                       ing from studies of the impact of oil on the marine
                                                          environment. Many more questions and myths re-
      9) Only about 20 percent of the more than 100    main to be clarified. They will require thorough
    spills classified as "major," that occurred between    and dispassionate studies. Such work is ongoing,
    1960 and 1971, resulted in sizeable seabird mortality.    not only by the oil industry and the federal govern-
    According to one study, for other forms of marine    ment, but by state and private laboratories through-
    life, damage was described as extensive in approxi-    out the world.
    mately 15 percent of the spills. In several of the
    spills, damage to marine life was caused by the    OFFSHORE OIL SPILLS STUDIES
    misuse of highly toxic dispersants. Such dispers-
    ants have now been largely replaced by nontoxic           The widely circulated charges of massive and per-
    substitutes.                                           manent damage to nearshore and estuarine life re-

                                              OTHER POLLUTAN'TS                                          471

    suiting from petroleum exploration, drilling, and    duction. More than 16,000 oil and gas wells have
    production operations offshore have, to a large    been drilled in Gulf of Mexico waters.. without
    extent, been generated out of fear of the unknown,    damage to the fish population.
    and nurtured by non-factual information from a           The commercial fish catch in the gulf increased
    host of instant experts on the effects of spilled oil.   from 571 million pounds in 1950 to 1.5 billion
    This was made particularly clear at the time of the    pounds in 1973, according to the U.S. Department
    Santa Barbara spill. And, unfortunately, the dis-   of Commerce's National Marine Fisheries Service,
    proved charges are still repeated from time to time    while the value of the commercial fish catch rose
    in the media.                                          from $50.4 million to $268 million-an increase of
      The facts concerning the damage from that spill   432 percent. During the same period, the percentage
    are readily available, the results of two independent    of the total commercial fish catch in the U.S. taken
    scientific studies of the area. The first, by the Allan    from the Gulf of Mexico rose from 12 to 33 percent.
    Hancock Foundation of the University of Southern    Most of this increase is attributable to improved
    California, noted that, while there was some loss of   fishing techniques and the taking of menhaden (a
    life among certain species of the Channel's flora and    formerly non-commercial fish). However, the in-
    fauna attributable to the spill, other factors present    crease does indicate that petroleum operations in
    in the area at the time of the spill contributed sig-   the area have not decreased the commercial fish
    nificantly to the mortality rate. Among these con-   population.
    tributing factors were:                                  Sport fishing has actually improved in the area
                                                          of the oil platforms. The platforms provide a founda-
      . For centuries, crude oil has been entering the    tion for the growth of sea plants and invertebrates,
    Santa Barbara Channel from natural seeps (natural    thereby creating the first step in the food chain.
    seeps off Coal Oil Point, for example, exude from 11    About a dozen or more species of fish virtually
    to 160 barrels of crude oil daily into the sea);       unknown in the area prior to drilling operations
      � In winter (as when this particular spill oc-   have been recorded near the rigs. Many of these
    curred) marine life in the channel is at a low ebb-    fish are believed to have been brought to the instal-
    a seasonal factor unrelated to pollution; and          lations by ocean currents as eggs or fry, and remained
         . The worst floods in 40 years had taken place    to mature under the favorable food and cover condi-
    just prior to the spill, placing sealife under extraor-    tions created by the platforms.
    dinary stress from freshwater runoff, storm debris,      Shrimp landings from the Gulf of Mexico, in 1973,
    sewage, sediment, and pesticides.                      accounted for almost one-half of the total U.S.
      The Allan Hancock Foundation study, based on    shrimp catch (182.1 million pounds out of the 372.2
    on-site observations and comparisons to pre-spill   million pound total), and for 79 percent of the total
    data, found that, of the 18,000 birds in the channel    value of the U.S. shrimp catch. And the National
    at the time of the January 1969 spill, 3,500 to 4,000    Marine Fisheries Service reported marked produc-
    birds died from all causes. By May, seasonal migra-    tion increases in hard blue crabs taken from the
    tion had brought the bird population up to 85,000.   gulf in 1973.
    Only isolated traces of oil remained buried on the       In reference to the effects of oil spills from marine
    beaches a year after the spill. Damage to the biota    platforms in the gulf, Dr. John G. Mackin, professor
    was not widespread, but was limited to several    emeritus of biology, Texas A & M  University, has
    species; and the area has recovered well. The channel    concluded that they have had little harmful effect
    fish catch was actually found to have increased in    on the area's marine life. Dr. Mackin has studied
    a 6-month period following the oil spill, compared    the inshore and nearshore Gulf of Mexico ecology
    to the year-earlier period. Despite the claims of   and marine communities extensively since 1947. His
    some people at the time of the spill, the incident    view is supported by Dr. Lyle St. Amant, assistant
    had no apparent effect on whales and seals.            director, Louisiana Wildlife and Fisheries Commis-
      Commenting on the Santa Barbara spill, a scien-   sion, who stated recently-in connection with marine
    tist at the California Institute of Technology (which    operations in Louisiana gulf waters: "We cannot
    was not a party to the 40-man investigation by the
    Allan Hancock Foundation) concluded, "There is   detect any harmful effects on fish."
    one unavoidable fact-all animals are reproducing         In-depth studies of the effect of petroleum off-
    now in the Santa Barbara area."                        shore operations, over an extended period of time,
      While marine operations have been undertaken    can and do provide vital information on changes
    over a longer period of time in the California offshore    in the marine community. Too often, however, other
    area, operations in the Gulf of Mexico have been    information is presented which lacks the necessary
    significantly greater, both in exploration and pro-    foundation for accurate conclusions. Baseline stud-

    472                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    ies, which fail to extend through a continuum of   store and maintain both shallow-water and open-sea
    seasons and fail to cover a number of cycles, fre-   equipment in a state of 24-hour readiness.
    quently result in questionable data. For example,       Included are helicopters, skimmers, booms, com-
    a baseline study provides a reference point for a    munications systems, bird rescue and cleaning ma-
    particular area at a particular time. A second base-   terials, and sorbent generating equipment. All can
    line study taken later-without the benefit of a    be easily transported by air, land, or water. Fast
    continuous history of environmental events-would    response equipment is also stored at several strategic
    provide a similar reference point for its area and    locations, enabling on-the-scene activities to begin
    point of time. The interstitial, unrecorded events,    at a spill as far as 100 miles distant, within 12 hours.
    however, could so distort the differences as to make    Oil spill cleanup cooperatives have demonstrated
    comparisons of little value.                          their ability to respond promptly and effectively in
      A  temporary gyre moving through the water    sheltered waters or in open seas under relatively
    column-pr a number of other ephemeral events-    calm conditions. However, technology for handling
    could significantly alter the benthic marine com-    spills under heavy sea conditions needs to be further
    munity, perhaps leaving a permanent change in the    developed. The petroleum industry is committed to
    biota of the area. If unrecorded for want of the    expanding its cleanup skills to meet needs wherever
    baseline continuum, the conclusions drawn from    they arise, and is continuing its efforts to ad-
    the change in the benthic community might easily-    vance the state of the art through research and
    and erroneously-be assigned to other causes, for   experimentation.
    example, a later recorded oil spill, invalidating the   Among the projects under study or in develop-
    results of the more recent baseline study.            mental process are these: establishing and updating
                                                          compendiums' cataloging information on available
                                                          Csorbents, surfactants, combustion promoters, sink-
    PREVENTION AND CONTROL'
    OF OIL SPILLS                                         ing agents, and biological agents; developing and
                                                          testing an open-sea oil skimmer; researching methods
      The petroleum industry has expended a great   for protecting shorelines and beaches exposed to oil
    deal of effort, time, and money on oil spill prevention    from spills, using petroleum-consuming microorga-
    through employee training courses and sound main-    nisms and polymeric films; and improving training of
    tenance programs. Even with these .continuing ef-   personnel in theuse of techniques and equipment
    forts, some risks remain. Accordingly, the industry   for oil spill cleanup.
    has also taken the initiative in developing the means   Work is also continuing to improve avian protec-
    to minimize spills that do occur.              X      tion techniques. Experiments are under way on
      The harbor cooperative has been one of the results   methods to frighten sea birds away from spill ar~eas,
    of industry efforts to increase response capability.   using, distress cries and other sonic techniques. And
    The form of these cooperatives varies with the needs    substantial progress has been made in the area of
    and location; the object, however, is to pool the    improved rescue and treatment of oiled waterfowl.
    funds and/or equipment of companies in: a given         The industry feels that the best way to handle oil
    area, thus significantly increasing their response   spills is to prevent their occurrence. To this end, a
    capability. In some cases, these cooperatives include    sophisticated array of hardware and practices has
    municipal fire departments, and other local govern-    been developed. An indication of the extent of spill
    mental agencies.                                .     . prevention techniques and equipment can be found
      There are in existence, or in the planning stage,   in the following description, although the material
    some 100 harbor cooperatives in the Unitecd' States.    mentioned is by no means all-inclusive.
    They are located not only on the gulf, east and west    At the well, where prevention begins, automatic
    They are located not only                             on the gulf, east and west shutdown devices ate installed as part of the offshore
    coasts, but also on inland lakes and rivers. These    shutdowndevicesareinstalledaspartoftheoffshore
    include several basic forms of cooperatives: industry-   drlling and production program. These devices de-
    wide (oil companies in the area); communitywide    tect increases and drops in pressure, changes in flow
    (oil companies, other companies, government agen-   rates, and other production factors. Subsurface
    cies, corand public organiations i an area; and  ub-   valves, for example, close down the flow of oil in
    scription (an experienced local contractor supplying    event of an accident, malfunction, or other incident at
    cleanup equipment, materials and key manpower).    the surface. Master switches are installed which can
      For example,, one such cooperative-funded by    stop the entire production system, should an emer-
    the oil companies searching for energy resources    gency threaten life, property, or the environment.
    in the Gulf of Mexico-employs a contractor to   Fire detection devices can trigger the emergency

                                              OTHEER POLLUTANTS                                           473

    shutdown system. For day-to-day operations, drain- 'before any attempt was made to develop the offshore
    age and containment systems collect any spillage or    potential. The first year of recorded petroleum pro-
    waste oil. Other safety devices in common use on    duction in the State of Louisiana was 1902, and for
    marine platforms include navigational aids to warn    Texas, 1889. While drilling in the estuarine areas of
    vessels.                                                Louisiana began in the 1930's, offshore exploration
      The platforms, themselves, are designed to with-   and development began in the late 1940's, with
    stand storms equivalent in intensity to that of the    significant activities continuing since that time.
    worst storm recorded during a 25- or 100-year period,     However, several sound projections can be made
    depending on location. When storms of sufficient    concerning the impact of petroleum operations along
    intensity to affect drilling occur, all operations cease,    the east coast. First, advancements in the state of
    and the drilling platform is secured. If the storm is    the art of petroleum offshore operations will mini-
    expected to be especially severe, personnel are re-   mize any environmental risks that might be associ-
    moved from the platform.                                ated with such activities. Additionally, there are in
      Other measures are taken during daily operations    effect today in the United States stringent environ-
    to prevent pollution from petroleum activities. These    mental laws, regulations, and controls that will
    include the onboard processing of water from wells    prevent the construction of environmentally un-
    to remove oils, or the'transportation of these liquids    acceptable support facilities.
    to shore for separation processing.                       Second, the social and economic aspects of Atlantic
      When an oil reservoir is depleted, the wells are    coast offshore and onshore support operations will
    plugged with cement to protect underground strata,    be minimized by the nature of the areas nearest the
    and to prevent any leakage to the surface. Equip-    most likely exploration and production activities.
    ment is removed, and underwater piping is cut off    Unlike the gulf coast region during the early years
    below or at the seafloor, to eliminate any hazard to    of petroleum operations there, industrial complexes
    commercial fishing.                                    already exist along the east coast, for example, the
      Pipelines play a major role in transporting oil and    Newport  News-Norfolk,  Philadelphia-Baltimore,
    gas produced offshore to onshore facilities. There is   and Greater Metropolitan New York areas. This
    little reason to anticipate increased pollution from    industry is well-suited to provide many  of the
    this source, because pipelines are constructed to    requirements anticipated in implementing any At-
    safety standards set forth in strict industry codes    lantic offshore programs.
    and, in the United States, in government regulations.     Local helicopter services, water transport, ship-
    These standards include specifications for design,    yards, and other businesses would logically be called
    construction, operation, and maintenance. They    upon to provide much of the materials and support
    make provision for automatic safety alarm systems,    needed offshore. And, certainly, the impact on local
    shutdown devices, and regular inspections along the    payrolls, work orders, and employment opportunities
    lines to check for possible leakage, 'damaged piping    would be beneficial. At the same time, roads, schools,
    or construction; and, inland, for any watercourse    and public services are presently in place, signifi-
    changes that might affect pipe security. The record    cantly lessening any negative impact on government
    in oil pipelining has shown it to be the safest and    finances from offshore exploratory and development
    most secure mode of transporting oil.                   operations.

    ONSHORE IMPACTS                                         COASTAL ZONE
                                                          MANAGEMENT PLANNING
      A concern closely related to the need for an accept-
    able environment is the question of onshore de-           It takes from three to 10 years to bring a new oil
    velopment resulting from offshore production of    or gas field into full production, once petroleum is
    petroleum. The social, environmental, and economic    discovered, if the search turns up commercially
    impacts of existing offshore and nearshore produc-    significant 'quantities of petroleum. Add to'this time
    tion in the Gulf of Mexico and the Santa Barbara    the years required 'to develop leasing schedules,
    area, unfortunately; cannot be used as an accurate    hold environmental impact hearings and draw up
    gauge of impacts that might be anticipated in the    impact statements, hold lease sales and conduct
    areas adjacent to potential frontier Outer Conti-    exploration activities, and the time before significant
    nental Shelf areas, such as the Atlantic coast. In    impact could occur is placed into proper perspective.
    the Gulf of Mexico, for example, onshore petroleum        That time could-and should-be used to develop
    production development started a number of years    the coastal zone management plans that would en-

    474                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    able orderly and environmentally acceptable sup-    of waiting until our known supplies are exhausted,
    port facilities to be built. And that time would also   in the blind faith that new sources will be provided.
    allow for the programming of any governmental    Rather, we must pursue-in an orderly and expedi-
    services that might be required over the productive    tious manner-the development of our petroleum
    life of the reservoirs. Thus, environmental, social,   potential. The technology exists for such develop-
    and economic impacts could be anticipated and    ment. And those potential sources of oil and gas
    intelligently accommodated within a logical time    can be located and produced with minimal impact
    frame.                                                on the environment.
                                                           While studies continue to evolve even safer meth-
                                                         ods of petroleum production, and while new energy
    SUMMARY                                               sources are being researched and developed, we must
                                                         proceed ini the search for secure domestic petroleum
      There is a critical need to develop energy resources    reserves. That means opening up new areas to
    in the United States, resources that will protect the    development-both offshore and in the more remote
    political, social, economic, environmental, and mili-   areas, such as onshore Alaska-on a timely basis
    tary security of the nation. Petroleum-crude oil   designed to accommodate the petroleum industry's
    and natural gas-will be called upon to provide the    capability to safely explore and develop leased areas.
    lion's share of that energy security until alternate    There is no other viable alternative to such develop-
    energy sources can be developed.                      ment, if we are to reduce dependence on imported
      This nation and its people cannot afford the luxury    crude oil and refined products.

        RPPLESEARCIONS
    APPLICATIONS

    THE EFFECT OF
    ESTUARINE CIRCULATION
    ON POLLUTION DISPERSAL

    HUGO B. FISCHER
    University of California
    Berkeley, California

                ABSTRACT

                This paper gives a brief review of different types of circulation in estuaries, how they act to
                disperse pollutants, and to what extent the dispersion process can be modeled by existing
                analytical, numerical, and hydraulic models.

    INTRODUCTION                                           TYPES OF CIRCULATION

      One important feature of estuaries is their ability     The flushing of estuaries results from three influ-
    to assimilate wastes and transport them to the ocean.    ences: the ebb and flood of the tide, the wind stress,
    It is possible, by adequate mixing with the receiving    and the higher density of ocean water relative to
    water, to discharge a larger quantity of waste into    river water. Some estuaries are influenced equally
    an estuary than into the rivers that feed it, while    by the three factors, some by only one or two.
    still meeting a given receiving water standard, be-    Which factors are important controls how the estu-
    cause in addition to the inflow of river water the    ary flushes its pollutants, and, perhaps more impor-
    estuary contains a continuous circulation of water    tantly, determines the effect of such projects as
    from the ocean to help with dilution. Pollution in    dredging, harbor extension, and the like. This section
    an estuary, or more precisely the concentrations of   describes five types of circulation. The first, gravita-
    undesirable materials, depends on two things: the    tional circulation, results from the relative heaviness
    quantity and makeup of the waste discharges, and    of ocean water; the second, third, and fourth are
    the rate of flushing. In general, the flushing rate    three different mechanisms caused by the tide; and
    increases towards the ocean end. At the landward    the fifth is circulations driven by wind.
    end the only flow available for flushing is that of
    upland rivers, but the closer one approaches the    Gravitational Circulation
    ocean the more recirculated ocean water is available
    to increase the flushing rate and decrease the con-       Gravitational circulation is so called because it
    centration of wastes. Temperature, also, is affected    results from gravity pushing heavier ocean water
    by the flushing rate; except, close to the source    landwards up the bottom of the estuary. Figure 1
    discharges of warm or cold water are diluted in the   is a simplified profile sketch of a purely gravitational
    same way as other wastes.                               circulation; in three dimensions the circulation is
      This paper discusses how flushing rates can be    landward along the bottom of the deeper channels,
    quantified, predicted, and used as part of the process    upward and transversely across the cross section,
    of specifying allowable waste loadings. First, in    and returning seaward mixed with freshwater in
    section II, we discuss the various mechanisms which,    the surface layers. This type of circulation has re-
    in concert, drive the circulation of ocean water.    ceived a great deal of analytical, laboratory, and
    Section III describes a practical analysis for com-    field study; Fischer (1976) discusses the results of
                                                          approximately 20 previous reports.
    puting flushing rates, while section IV describes    approximately 20 previous reports.
                                                            Where there is little tide, as in the Gulf of Mexico,
    procedures that can be used in a more predictive
                                                          there may be little mixing between the ocean and
    way, but are still in a state of research and develop-    freshwater; the ocean intrudes as a wedge and the
    ment. Section V discusses both practical needs rele-   freshwater rides over the ocean water. This situation
    vant to current legislation and longer-term research    occurs frequently at the mouth of the Mississippi.
    needs.                                                  Similarly, in the Alaskan fjords the freshwater

                                                                                                         477

    478                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                          ---          -    + - c River                        _  _   _____Fresh Water
    Ocean                  -        __                     Ocean

    FIGURE 1.-A typical pattern of gravitational circulation in   FIGURE 2.-Outflow of a layer of fresh river water over
    a partially stratified east coast estuary.             stagnant saline water; this flow pattern is typical of fjords.

    overrides the salt and reaches the ocean almost    In 4a a cloud of pollutant is being carried landward
    without dilution (see Figure 2). In these cases the    by a flooding tide. In 4b part of the cloud is detained
    dispersal of a pollutant depends crucially on whether    in a side embayment, which is being filled by the
    it goes into the upper; freshwater, or the lower,    flood. In 4c the water surface has begun to drop
    saline water. In fjords, the flushing time of the salt   and the embayment is emptying back into the chan-
    water may be on the order of years, while'the fresh   nel. Because of the hydrodynamics of tidal flows
    layer may traverse the fjord in a few days or at   the current in the channel does not slack until after
    most weeks. It is particularly important that design    high or low tide, with the result that shoreline
    procedures be used to make sure that pollutants are   irregularities spread out a cloud of pollutant some-
    not trapped in the slowly circulating lower level;:   what as shown in the figure.
      Conversely, along the east coast most estuaries
    are either partially or well mixed; the difference in    The Shear Effect
    salinity between upper and lower layers in Chesa-
    peake Bay, for instance, is usually on order of 15       The shear effect is an additional spreading mecha-
    percent of the difference between ocean and fresh   nism which takes place in any flow, tidal or not. It
    water. In these estuaries it does not matter so much    results from the faster flow velocities found at the
    where the waste is discharged as turbulent mixing    center and surface f the cross section, as compared
    will distribute the waste over the cross section.
                                                          to the slower velocities near the bottom and shores.
                                                          Turbulent mixing spreads a'pollutant across the
    Tidal Pumping                                          cross section, and then-the difference in longitudinal
                                                          velocities spreads the pollutant up and down the
      "Pumping" is a term used to describe circulations    channel. In rivers this mechanism. is primarily re-
    induced by the ebb and flood of the tide. The tide    sponsible for longitudinal dispersion, but in estuaries
    usually flows in more strongly in some channels    the other mechanisms usually seem to be more
    and out more strongly in others as though a pump    important.
    were pushing the water around. Sometimes sailors
    of small boats know more about these currents than    Wind-driven Circulation
    do engineers, but they are very important in flush-
    ing pollutants. Pumped currents can be simulated         The visible effects of wind are white caps and
    by numerical programs; for instance Figure 3, taken    violent turbulence where waves break near shore.
    from a report by the California Department of   Impressive as they may be, they usually have little
    Water Resources (Nelson and Lerseth, 1972), shows    to do with pollutant dispersal, being limited in scale
    a computed pumped circulation in San Francisco    and unable to accomplish long distance transport.
    Bay. Note, for instance, the circulatory current in    Wind does play an important role in some estuaries,
    San Pablo Bay (between Valleio and San Rafael)    however, because it can drive large scale horizontal
    having a predicted magnitude of approximately    circulation. In a large open bay a constant wind
    10,000 cfs. This is 'about fivd times the combined    will push. water in the wind direction across shallows
    inflow of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers.    ' arnid at the surface, while a return flow will be found
                                                          underneath in the deeper section. Figure 5 shows
    Chopping                                         '    such a circulation around an island in a bay which
                                                          is-deeper on one side of the island than on the other;
      "Chopping" is a term sometimes used'to describe    the circulation goes with the wind on the shallow
    the detention of a pollutant by side embayments,    side, and against it on the deeper side. This sort of
    shoals, and the like. This mechanism is also very    circulation has the same effect as tidal pumping; it
    important in the spread of pollutants, because of   is as though a large pump. is pushing the water
    the typical sequence of events shown in Figure 4.   around and dispersing the pollutant.

                                                 RFEsuAncH- APPLICATIONS                                                  479

        SAN RAFAEL0

            SAUSALITO                             0

                                                                      DELTA OUTFLOW - 1800 CFS

                                                          SAN LEANDRO

                                                                                       SCALE

                                                                                        *     15,000  CFS:

                                                                                             10,000 CFS

                                                     REOWO~~~D CITY 0 ~~~Arrowheads indicate
                                                                                          direction of flow

    FIGURE B.-Circulation due to tidal "pumping" in San Francisco Bay. This circulation pattern was obtained by a computer
    program, and is taken from a report by Nelson and Lerseth to the California Water Resources Control Board.

    -480                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                                             Each of the mechanisms described above exists
                                                           to some extent in almost every estuary. In concert,
                                                          the circulations result in a "flushing discharge"
                                                          which can be used to compute pollutant concentra-
                                                          tions. Each mechanism can be analyzed, but with
                                                          varying degrees of accuracy and by different means.
                                                           In section IV we discuss several analytical tech-
                                                           niques and mention which is suitable for analyzing
                                                           which mechanism.

                                                           EFFECTS OF CIRCULATION-
                                                           ON  DISPERSAL-

                                                             The combined 'effect of the various circulations
                                                          -is to greatly increase the assimilative capacity of an
                                                           estuary by providing an effective flow much greater
                                                           than the flow of the rivers which feed the estuary.
                                                           This effective flow is the flow relevant to pollutant
                                                           concentration computations, and is the flow that
                                                           should be used for regulatory purposes. In the saline
                                                           portions of existent estuaries one can compute the
                                                          :effective flushing discharge by a simple procedure.
                                                           All one does is to measure the average salinity near
                                                           an outfall; then, to a good approximation, the effec-
                                                           tive discharge is computed by the formula

                                                                           Qd    f   S                  -  (1)

    FIGURE 4.-An example of the "chopping" mechanism for   where So is the ocean salinity, S the salinity near
    dispersing a pollutant. The side embayment acts as a stqring   the outfall, and Q, is the inflow from upstream
    basin which fills and empties out of phase with the flow in the
    main channel. A portion of the cloud of pollutant is detained   rivers. The concentration ofa pollutant discharged
    by the embayment and subsequently reinserted into' the   in the vicinity of the outfall, is given by a mass-
    channel some distance from the rest of the cloud.       balance computation using the effective discharge.

                                                                             C = Cl[Q/Qd]                  (2)

                                                           Co and Q are the concentration and flow from the
                                                           outfall, and Qd is the result obtained from equation
                                                           (1) at the location of the outfall.
                    ie"". >gp;TSE/ 0Concentrations upstream and downstream of the
                                                           discharge point decrease from the peak near the
                                                           discharge. A complete description of the analysis,
                               '  t.    />+tS              for a non-conservative pollutant, was given more
                                                           than 20 years ago by Stommel (1953). One impor-
                                                           tant result is that moving an outfall nearer to the
                                                           ocean does not decrease the concentrations of con-
                            " WIND - INDUCED               servative pollutants in the estuary seaward of the
                            CIRCULATION                    outfall; it does, however; decrease the peak concen-
                                                           tration and the concentrations landward of the
                             *"-_..~CIRCULATI~ ~           outfall.
    FIGURE 5.-An example of a circulation driven by a steady   Stommel's analysis does have some serious limita-
    .wind. The effectis similar to that of tidal "pumping," although    tions. First, it can only be used with an existing
    the cause is different.                                 salinity distribution. It is of no use at -all to predict

                                             RESEARcH APPLICATIONS                                          481

    changes in concentratibns because of construction
    projects. Second, the analysis assumes steady state;
    the pollutant inust be discharged at a constant rate,
    and the inflow from upstream rivers must be con-    -,
    stant. Neither of these conditions is often seen in                                                - :
    'practice. Third, the analysis assumes complete and                J-  -, __              ..C..- e-t,-
    instantaneous mixing of the pollutant across the                                        .      ' "
    cross section, and a uniform salinity across the cross_ _                                          _  _
    section. In practice, mixing within a cross section                 Id --                -- .
    may take considerable time; for instance, a recent
    dye experiment in a.section of the Dielaware- Estu-
           dry, wre ex erimentua i    s     of the Demila ware Es tu-d 1 FIGURE 6.-A sketch of the zones of mixing from an outfall
    ary, where the estuary is abo ut 1 mile wide, showed    in an estuary. The direction of the drift changes with the
    that the cross sectional mixing time was approxi-    changing tide, but during the tidal flow the pattern is as
    mately 10 days (see Fischer, 1974). If mixing is not    shown. At slack tide there is a build-up of concentration near
    complete equation 2 gives a concentration that can    the outfall.
    be much too low; higher concentrations will be found
    in the vicinity of the outfall.                        estuaries. Recently, attempts have been made to
       Concentrations near outfalls, and cross-sectional    relate the longitudinal dispersion coefficient to the
    mixing times, may be predicted in several ways.    salinity gradient in order to predict salinity intrusion
    Immediate diffusion of an effluent from a pipe may    analytically (Thatcher and Harleman, 1972, and
    usually be analyzed as a problem of mixing of a    Fisher, Ditmars, and Ippen, 1972). These efforts
    buoyant jet. This subject has been studied in con-   remain in the research stage, however, and in general
    siderable detail, as described in a recent review    it can be said that analytical models are not a de-
    paper by Koh and Brooks (1975). In the zone close    pendable predictive tool unless based on empirical
    to the outfall where mixing is controlled by the    observations of salinity distribution.
    method of discharge, it is a straightforward matter
    to predict the dilution within the jet. This zone is
    usually small, however, and there is a substantial
    mid-field zone in which the concentration disperses
    as a plume, and mixing is primarily due to the turbu-     The past  o years have seen considerable effort
                                                           and progress in the development of numerical models
    lence in the receiving water. Figure 6 shows a sketchumerical models
                   ofa plume diff g i se   v      l ml     for marine pollution. Numerical models usually con-
               ox ae pluumme    usngnan esaturnd the ertil  ane    sist of two parts; first, a model of the tidal hydro-
    horizontal'extents of the plume and the time re-
                                                           dynamics, and secondly, a model of the transport
    quired for approximately complete mixing can be
                                                           and reaction of pollutants carried by the tides. At
    predicted at least within an order of magnitude in
                            .or  e t rults  le l~  ~the present time virtually all operative numerical
                                                           models are two-dimensional. That is, the velocities
    prototype dye dilution studies are usually required.    and transports are   considered  to be only  in hori-
                                                           and transports are considered to be only in hori-
                                                           zontal directions along and across the estuary. The
    STATUS OF PREDICTIVE CAPABILITY                        hydrodynamic portion of the model predicts the
                                                           vertically averaged velocity vector at various grid
    Analytical Models                                      points within the estuary, and then the transport
                                                           portion of the model simulates the motion of pollut-
      The use of analytical mbdels is generally limited    ants which are carried by the computed velocities.
    to estuaries which are long and narrow and can be    Some numerical models use a fixed rectangular
    considered to be one-dimensional. A basic assump-    grid, while others use link and node arrangements
    tion of most analytical models is complete mixing    or variable grid spacings so. that the grid spacing
    across the cross section, as in the empirical analysis    can be adjusted to fit the requirements of different
    described in the previous section. The use of ana-    parts of the estuary.
    lytical models is limited partly by their one-dimen-      Numerical models are in current use to study pol-
    sionality, and partly by the need to assume some    lution problems in a number of estuaries. The state
    value of a longitudinal dispersion coefficient, whose    of the art can be shown by three recent examples.
    magnitude is difficult to predict. Analytical models    Figure 7 is from a report of a study of pollution in
    are sometimes useful; for instance, O'Connor (1965)    Boston Harbor by the firm of Hydroscience, Inc.,
    gives analytical solutions for distribution of dissolved    completed in July 1973. The study used the hydro-
    oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand in several    dynamic model developed by Leendertse (1967) to

    482                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    predict tidal velocities throughout the harbor. Pol-                                         N
    lutant distributions were computed for a number of
    hypothetical releases of unit waste loads; the figure
    shows the distribution 12 hours after a unit release                                     BOO HARBOR
    at the mouth of the Neponset River. The results of
    the modeling study were used to predict concentra-  RAR:OF.3...                                      II/h,
    tions of pollutants resulting from alternative water    F                                 I  .1
    quality management schemes.                             X ,                                - D      :2
      The second example is from a study of the disper-
    sion capability of San Francisco Bay-Delta waters                                     t                  a
    by the California Department of Water Resources.
    Figure 8 shows the computed distribution of pollut-                                                     V
    ant discharge. The methodology of this study Was
    somewhat different from that of Boston Harbor
    because of the much greater size of the bay. The
    north bay was modeled by a series of one-dimensional
    segments, and the south bay by a two-dimensional
    arrangement of segments. The scheme was prob-
    ably not as accurate as the Boston Harbor scheme,                                     .,
    but the scheme used for Boston Harbor requires               IVER
    much more computer storage and running time and
    to date has not been used in an estuary approaching         "o"cH~'G    .  .     ...
    the size of San Francisco Bay.
      The third example is from a study of the dispersion
    of wastes from a proposed industrial outfall in the
    Delaware River. Figure 9 taken from a paper by    FIGURE 7.-A predicted distribution of pollutannt concbntra-
    Fischer (1974), shows predicted and observed dis-   tion in Boston Harbor resulting from a two-hour discharge
    tributions of dye in the river 10 days after the    at the mouth of the Neponset River. This figure is from a
    beginning of a continuous release. In this case most    report of a study by Hydroscience, Inc., to the Massachusetts
    of the spreading was due to transverse mixing and    Water Resources Commission.
    the shear effect; the numerical model used, as de-
    scribed in the report, was specifically designed to    numerical models has received very little field veri-
    model these effects.                                   fication. For instande, the distribution shown in
      Since numerical models are being used so widely,    Figure 7 has not been verified in the bay itself.
                                   it is important to recognize that they will have    Even the hydrodynamic models lack extensive field
    it is important to recognize that they will have
    limitations. The models seem to do a good job of   verification, and their results must be viewed with
    computing the effects of tidal pumping and chop-    caution.
    ping. Wind-driven circulations can be predicted,
    although our knowledge of the wind stress coeffidient    Hydraulic Models
    is limited. Most numerical models do not model the
    shear effect very well, partly because the true mag-    years to study such problems as sediment transport,
    nitude of the transverse mixing coefficient is not    velocity distributions, and the effects of projects
    well known, and partly because the numerical proc-   such as construction of barriers and the effects of projects
                                                            such as construction of barriers and harbors. Re-
    esses tend to obscure the rate of diffusion in the
                                                            cently, hydraulic models have also been used for
    model. The greatest limitation of numerical models,    pollution studies. For instance, the San Francisco
    however, is their inability to account for stratifica-    Bay-Delta  model  is being used to study the effects
    tion or gravitational circulation. At the present    of the peripheral canal and a proposed ship canal
    time, numerical models of the effects of stratifica-   of intrusion of salinity into the Delta  Hydralic
                                                            on intrusion of salinity into the Delta. Hydraulic
    tion are strongly empirical. In some cases two-    models have also been used to study the distribution
    dimensional models which consider only a vertical    of an effluent from an outfall, by arranging an injec-
    plane have been used, with some success, but in    tion of a tracer into the physical model. Where a
    many estuaries, gravitational circulation and strati-    model has already been built for other purposes,
    fication have important three-dimensional compo-    use for a pollution study is relatively inexpensive.
    nents and no model is adequate. Finally, it should        Hydraulic models, like numerical models, are
    be stressed that the transport portion of most    capable of representing the effects of tidal pumping

                                                 REsmARca APPLICATIONS                                                     483

                                                                          FAiRFIELD

                                                  VALLEJO

                                       60o

         SAN RAFAEL

                                   R ICHMON0

                     SAIL       10               S~~~~~ERKELEY             POLLUTANT  CONCENTRATIONS

                                                                                      IN ML/L FOR
                                                                      POLLUTANT DISCHARGE PATTERN "A"
                                             *OAKLAND                   NTDLAOTLW-10    F
                                     *                                  ~~~~~~~~TIDAL EXCHANGE  RATIO.- 0.24
                  SA~N FRANCISCO

                                      ~~~~~~~~~SAN LEATNDR

                                          REDW0OD C;TY                 ./~

    FiGmnE S.-A Predicted distribution of pollutant concentration in San Francisco Bay resulting from a stipulated set of inputs,
    taken from a report by-Nelson and Lerseth to the California Water Resources Control Board.

    484                                    ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                                 LWRE,   ,

         ';.   :',  A  .'        i'    D    An''.-';              CONCENTRT aO,,   '.    '"
      DELAWARE

          DERLI~ARVE  COMPUTED DYE DISTRIBUTIOND
                                100I  0 10RE  3000   9.W -------        ARMY diRPS MODEL

       RIVER         COMPUTED DYE DISTRIBUTION

    FIGuRE 9.-Computed and observed distributions of dye    FIGURE 10.-A comparison of the spread of dye in a physical
    released froni the site of a proposed industrial outfall in the    model of San Francisco Bay and in the bay itself. The dye
    Delaware estuary. The dye simulates the spreading of the    was released north of the San Mateo Bridge near the west
    proposed waste discharge, and the dye results can be used to   shore. The dashed lines are concentrations observed in the
    compute expected concentrations of pollutants.            U.S. Army Corps of Engineers model; the solid lines are con-
                                                           centrations observed by the. State of. California Division of
                                                           Water Resources in the bay (corrected for dye loss). Both
    and chopping, because they are adjusted to produce    distributions are five tidal cycles after beginning of release
    the proper currents. Hydraulic models also repre-    of the dye.
    sent the effects of stratification, although perhaps
    not exactly. Where three-dimensional circulations    near field ormedium field concentrations from an
    and stratification are important a hydraulic model    outfall  even though the far-feld distribution may
    is probably as accurate a tool as any for predicting    be reasonably correct. Hydraulic modelsare perhaps
    effects of circulation, even though there is dispute    best used in a qualitative sense; various different
    over the accuracy of the results. Figure 10 shows    arrangements of outfall locations or various different
    one comparison of dispersion of dye in an estuary    designs for construction projects can be tried in the
    vs. dispersion of a similar release in a moddl. Un-    model, and the results compared. Even though the
    fortunately, not many such comparisons exist be-    results may not be quantitatively exact, compara-
    cause of the very large amount of dye required    tive results will usually determine which design will
    in the prototype and the difficulty of making field    produce the least degree of pollution.
    measurements.
      Hydraulic models do have one serious limitation.
    In order to conserve space and maintain turbulent    SUMMARY AND  RECOMMENDATIONS
    flow it is necessary that the model be distorted, so
    that the depth is relatively much greater than the          Estuaries can assimilate more waste with less
    width. This means that near source distributions    effect on the environment than can the rivers which
    are distorted, and that the turbulent mixing proc-    feed them, because of the flushing current from the
    esses are not properly represented. Thus, hydraulic    ocean. There is a simple procedure for estimating
    models sometimes will not properly represent the    the flushing current, based on measurement of salin-

                                              RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                            485

    ity in the estuary. In many cases this procedure    models, and further investigations of the limitations
    can be used with reasonable accuracy to predict the    of numerical and hydraulic models. As part of the
    concentrations of wastes resulting from an industrial    research there should be a vigorous program of spe-
    or municipal discharge.                                   cific field testing of present and proposed models.
      In several types of cases this simple procedure    This research will have the benefits of producing
    does not work: in estuaries of nearly constant salin-    more generally applicable and dependable models
    ity or very wide estuaries and bays; in fjords or    plus the desirable byproduct of increasing the pool
    strongly stratified estuaries; or where the shape of    of persons qualified to use the models.
    the estuary is to be changed by major construction.
    In these cases some form of hydraulic or numerical
    modeling is needed to predict the effects of waste
    discharges. Modeling, however, requires an under-    Fischer, Hugo B. 1974. Numerical modeling of dispersion in
    standing of the type of circulation to be expected in       estuaries. International Symposium on Discharge of Sewage
    the estuary and an understanding of the limitations         from Sea Outfalls, London, Paper No. 37: 1-8.
    of the types of models available. Modeling is not an
                                                             Fischer, Hugo B. 1976. Mixing and dispersion in estuaries.
    art for the semi-skilled; there is no one model suitable    Annual:Review of Fluid Mechanics, 8: 107-134.
    for use in all estuaries, and at present a relatively
    small number of individuals have the training and    Fisher, John S., John D. Ditmars and Arthur T. Ippen. 1972.
    experience required to do useful modeling studies.          Mathematical simulation of tidal time-averages of salinity
                                                               and velocity profiles in estuaries. MIT, Department of
      These considerations lead to the following recom-         Civil Engineering, Report No. 151.
    mendati ons:
                                                             Koh, R. C. Y. and N. H. Brooks. 1975. Fluid mechanics of
                                                               wastewater disposal in the ocean. Annual Review of Fluid
      1. It should be understood that modeling is an art       Mechanics, 8, in press.
    for extremely qualified experts and that sophisticated
    inumerical models are not a necessary part of every    Leendertse, J. J. 1967. Aspects of a computational model for
    water quality plan. Models should be used only              long-period water-wave propagation. Memorandum RM-
    where they are really needed, and then only by              5294-PR, The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, Calif.
    persons with extensive familiarity with the model
       persons with extensive familiarity with the model    Neison, A. W. and R. J. Lerseth. 1972. A study of dispersion
    and its limitations. Use of the wrong model can be          of capability of San Francisco Bay-Delta waters. California
    worse than use of no model at all.                          Department of Water Resources Report to the State Water
      2. There should be alnational listing and classifica-2-23.
    tion of estuaries to determine in -which portions of    O'Connor, D. J. 1965. Estuarine distribution of non conserva-
    which estuaries the simple procedure for estimating         tive substances. J. San Eng. Div. ASCE 91, SA.
    flushing currents is suitable, and in which it is not.
    Such a listing would be of great use to EPA in    Stommel, H. 1953. Computation of pollution in a vertically
    setting standards and proposing rules, as the Agency        mixed estuary. Sewage and Industrial Wastes, 25: 1065-
    could then specify the use of the simple method             1071.
    where allowed by the listing, and. require other    Thatcher, Llewellyn, M. 1972. A mathematical model for
    methods where the simple method is not allowed.             the prediction of unsteady salinity intrusion in estuaries.
      3. Continued research, development, and training         MIT, Department of Civil Engineering, Report No. 144.
    in the use.of models is essential. This research should
                                                             Hydroscience, Inc. 1973. Development of hydrodynamic and
    include more complete verification' of the accuracy         time variable water quality models of Boston Harbor.
    of present models, further development of numerical         Report t6 the Massachusetts Water Resources Commission.

                            fI                                  .        �.i

    THE CRUCIAL ROLE OF SYSTEMATICS
    IN ASSESSING POLLUTION EFFECTS
    ON THE BIOLOGICAL
    UTILIZATION OF ESTUARIES

    MELBOURNE R. CARRIKER
    U niversity of Delaware
    Lewes, Delaware

                 ABSTRACT
                 The data of systematics form the essential foundation for pollutional biology. Living targets
                 of pollution must be identified precisely; imprecision nullifies results and renders them non-
                 replicable. Most estuarine and coastal marine plant and animal groups are poorly known sys-
                 tematically. Major bottlenecks in the application of systematics to the problems of environ-
                 mental pollution result from the critical shortage of experienced systematic specialists and tech-
                 nicians, as well as lack of inventories of specialists, identification publications, and identification
                 services. Although water quality legislation implies the need for identification of organisms
                 involved in analyses of the biological impacts of pollutants, there has been no conspicuous financial
                 support for systematic work. Because basic and applied environmental research and its applica-
                 tion to the practical problems of pollution have grown far more rapidly than the supporting
                 base of systematic biology, it is imperative that existing human and material systematic re-
                 sources be conserved, and their further development be encouraged. Specific recommendations
                 are offered to maximize the service role of biological systematics in the identification and assess-
                 ment of the effects of pollution on the biological utilization of estuaries and coastal waters in
                 the United States.

    INTRODUCTION                                                species; and impairment or destruction of the quali-
                                                            ties fundamental to the health of the biosphere and
      In the course of teperthaps bfour billion years       the      welfare of humans. The critical role of a wide
                  surface of the earth has become populated by an diversity of organisms in promoting the health of
    estimated  10 million kinds  of recent  organisms,           the estuary is indisputably clear. We reaffirm with
    ordered in self-sustaining, self-regulating, ecological    Woodwell (1974) that humanity lives as one species
    systems. About one million species of animals and    within a biosphere whose  essential qualities are
    a half million species of plants have been described,        determined by other species and that we must give
    and an estimated additional half billion species are    careful thought to  these  relationships. There  is
    extinct in fossil strata (Mayr, 1969). Evolution tends    urgent need, accordingly, to examine in some depth
    to sustain these living systems, accumulating cor-    the functions of systematics in the identification
    plex arrays of organisms that stabilize the environ-    and assessment of the effects of pollution on the
    ment, and conserve and reuse resources to support    biological utilization of estuaries. This will be done
    the maximum amount of life; whereas disturbance    in this paper.
    causes a systematic alteration of biotic structure
    (Woodwell, 1969, 1974). Estuaries, biologically
    complex,  delicately balanced,  coastal transitional    What is Systematics?
    zones where seawater is measurably diluted by land
    drainage are integral parts of the biosphere. If not           Systematics may be defined as the scientific study
    perturbed,  they likewise tend to be stable, self-    of the kinds and diversity of organisms and of the
    sustaining,  self-regulating,  biologically productive    relationships  among  them  (Simpson,  1961). Al-
    systems (Carriker, 1967).                                   though the term taxonomy is often used for the
      But human tenants on the shores of estuarine    theory and practice of identifying and classifying
    ecotones, through heedless technological activities    organisms,  systematics  and  taxonomy  are  often
    and massive discharge of deleterious residues, con-    loosely treated as synonymous (Davis and Heywood,
    tinue severely to disturb these coastal zones (Ket-    1965); this will be the practice in this paper.
    chum, 1972). The consequences are eradication of               Systematic biology provides scientific names for
    habitats; reduction, alteration, and extinction of    organisms, describes them, preserves collections of

                                                                                                             487

    488                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    them, provides classifications for them, keys for    pounds. The increasing refinement and quantifica-
    their identification, and data on their distributions;    tion of biological investigation requires comparable
    it investigates their evolutionary histories, and con-    exactness in the identification of organisms used in
    siders their environmental adaptations (Michener,    both basic and applied research. Imprecision in
    1970). Systematists now study organisms in all   identification neutralizes research rigor! If identi-
    stages of their life cycles, disclosing unexpected    fications are in error, published work becomes non-
    structural details by the use of scanning electron    replicable, and thus unscientific. In view of this
    microscopy,  analyzing  behavioral  patterns  and    significance, we examine next the utilitarian aspects
    chromosomal  configurations,  and  comparing the    of systematics in estuarine and coastal marine work.
    sequences of amino acids in protein and nucleic
    acid molecules.
                                                          BIOLOGICAL CENSUSES AND
      Systematic biology is perhaps the oldest of the    BIOLOGICAL CENSUSES AND
                                                          ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMfENT
    sciences, and is closely allied -and complementary to
    ecology. Systematics is one of the fundamental
                                                            Because differences in species reflect differences in
    perspectives in biology, integrating such disciplines
                                                          structure, function, and requirement of organisms,
    as ecology and behavior with functional morphology,
                 comparasie psologyn be .iorwist gen'tioanal mthe first step in any biological study should be identi-
    comparative physiology, biochemistry, genetics, and    fication of the organisms under investigation (Allen,
                                                          1974;  Carriker,  1967;  Steere,  1971). Hedgpeth
                                                           (1957)  cogently summarized the argument with
    Why Identification?                                     reference to ecology: "... an ecological investiga-
                                                          tion is essentially a study of organisms in situ ...
      The data of systematics form the essential founda-    The primary data of any ecological investigation,
    tion of all other biological disciplines, especially of   therefore, are the species of organisms concerned . . .
    such interactive sciences as marine biology, biologi-   The first procedure in an ecological investigation is,
    cal oceanography, estuarine ecology, and pollutional    or should be, essentially an exercise in systematics,
    biology. Wilson (1971) rightly points out that most    the identification of species, and understanding,
    of the central problems of ecology can be solved only    inter alia, the relation of these species to other groups
    by reference to details of organic diversity, and that    in both the evolutionary and physiological senses."
    even the most cursory ecosystemic analyses have to    The significance of specific names to ecologists may
    be based on a sound systematic treatment of the    be illustrated by this excerpt from a letter received
    organisms considered.  Pollutional ecology is no    by' Schmitt (1953): '"I have all of my' voluminous
    exception.                                             field notes ready and only await the names of the
      The basic functional unit in biology is the organ-    specimens which I sent you a long time ago. Have
    ism. Similar organisms are grouped by systematists    you had a chance to go over them? I have the names
    in a species and given a scientific name, a symbol for   of most, but there are still many left and I can pub-
    the recognition of the taxon. Historically, precise and    lish nothing until I get them." Elton (1927) con-
    complete identification of organisms has not been    cludes that one of the biggest tasks confronting
    available for many species, and has commonly been    anyone engaged in ecological surveys, owing to the
    inaccurate for others. It is crucially important that    lag of the systematic study of some of them, is that
    the biologist know the precise identity of the or-   of getting all groups identified to the species. A
    ganisms he studies-even more so now in view of the    popular method of studying pbytoplankton in the
    growing universal emphasis on estuarine and coastal    sea, which has purportedly obviated the need for
    marine environmental work.                              specific identifications, employs continuous plankton
      The, identity of microbes, plants, and animals is   recorders and chlorophyll extraction. Recent re-
    as significant to the microbiologist, botanist, and    search in mariculture, however, has demonstrated
    zoologist, respectively, as proper identification of    the nutritional role of some species of phytoplankton,
    elements, molecules, and compounds is to the chem-.   and the nuisance value of others (Epifanio and
    ist. Or stated in another way, the systematics of the    Mootz, 1974), evidence that number of individuals
    whole organism is no less significant than that of the    and identification of chlorophyll are insufficient to
    molecules of which it is made (Hedgpeth, 1961).    identify the value of species.
    Higgins (1974) notes that we have to learn to iden-       The magnitude of the task of conducting sound
    tify the living targets of pollution with the same    biological censuses in order to obtain a reasonable
    analytical competence as the chemist identifies the    picture of biological conditions even in a limited,
    elements, and to identify community structure in the    geographic area is difficult to comprehend in terms
    same way the analytical chemist deals with his com-    of people, time, and money. Nonetheless, in this

                                           RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                         489

    decade "before and after" surveys have become    47 taxonomists collaborated in the identifications.
    routine operations at sites of power plants and other    The field work consumed some five years, and six
    technological enterprises. Various commercial groups   'more years were required for final sorting, distribu-
    have sprung up about the country to conduct the    tion of specimens to specialists, return bf the reports,
    work. Unfortunately, some of this work tends to be    computer analyses, and preparation of final reports.
    superficial and lacks taxonomic credibility. To illus-   The local work at the laboratory involved eight
    trate the magnitude  of the job  of conducting    different senior people and approximately 40 to 50
    thorough, systematically sound, biological censuses,   full and part-time sorters at different times over the
    I will summarize three. These range in emphasis    11-year period of the project. In all, a total of 237
    from basic to applied.                                 families, 485 genera, and 782 species has been identi-
                                                          fied (Michael, 1975; O'Connor, 1975).

      Open ocean.-The first was a fundamental study
    of the biota on a course some 5,880 miles long west of   Connecticut River.-The third census is a pre- and
    Mexico, Ecuador, and Costa Rica, and in the Carib-    post-operative long-term study at the site of the
    bean (Schmitt, 1939, 1953). In 24 days at sea,   Connecticut Yankee Atomic, Power Company nu-
    Schmitt and associates collected some 11,000 biologi-   clear generating station at Haddam Neck in the
    cal specimens at 14 stations. Preliminary sorting    tidal region of the Connecticut River. The survey
    was done as birds and fishes were frozen and in-   was designed to examine possible changes in the
    vertebrates and plants were chemically preserved,    physical, chemical, and biological features along a
    Further sorting by two experienced biologists at the    5-mile stretch of the river in the vicinity of the plant
    Smithsonian Institution, so that the material could    after appearance of the warm water plume. The
    be distributed to specialists for identification and    study was begun in 1965 and will be completed this
    classification, required about two weeks. Shipping    year (1975), 10 years later. When the plant began
    to out-of-town taxonomists, and their acceptance    commercial operation in 1968, it was one of the
    and reporting extended over 35 months. Specimens    largest nuclear plants in the world. A staff of 10 to
    went to nine different divisions in the Smithsonian    12, based at the Essex Marine Laboratory, on the
    and to 21 specialists in four foreign countries and the    Connecticut River, conducted the study (Merriman,
    United States. Three years after distribution of    1973, 1974). In the course of the study, some 20
    specimens began, most of the reports from specialists   systematists assisted with identifications. A total
    were in hand, and by the end of another year most    of approximately 6,500 biological samples were
    of the reports were in print. In summary, 26 active    collected, including about 150 species of bacteria,
    taxonomists were involved over a 3-year period; the   plants, invertebrates, and finfish. The final report,
    19 systematic papers published as of 1953 covered a    to be published as a single volume, will contain
    collection of 191 families, 330 genera, and 469 species    approximately 200 printed pages.
    of animals, and 41 families, 70 genera, and 87 species
    of plants!              i                                The question may arise as to whether such long-
                                                          term, time-consuming, expensive censuses are neces-
      Cape Cod Bay.-The second is a qiantitative   sary. 'Regrettably, obvious substitutes to this ap-
    biotic census undertaken in'1'964 in Cape Cod Bay,    proach are not currently available; no better barotn-
    Mass., by the Systematics-Ecology Program, Marine    eters of the biological impact of perturbations exist
    Biological Laboratory (Young et al., 1971). The aim    than organisms themselves, and there is yet no other
    of the census was to provide a synthesis of informa-   way to obtain baseline information prior to the
    tion on the kinds, abundance, distribution, and    impact of perturbations. Identified organisms and
    diversity of benthic estuarine'invertebrates retained    general information about them (that is, systematics
    on a 1 mm mesh screen, in relation to particle size   collections) still constitute the fundamental resource
    and organic content of the sediments, depth, temper-   for basic evidence and assessment of what has oc-
    ature, and salinity in an as yet relatively undisturbed    curred, what is occurring, and what can be expected
    embayment. The bay was divided' into 300 one-mile   to occur in the environment (Allen, 1974).
    square grids, and alternate quadrats, about 100 of
    them, were sampled with four different types of gear.    STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL
    Samples were washed and preserved- on-board the
    research vessel, and hand sorted' and identified at     ' Accurate identification is the key which unlocks
    least to the family level in the laboratory' prior to   the'storage and retrieval system of scientific informa-
    being distributed to systematic specialists.'A total of   tion. All knowledge published on organisms is cata-

    490                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    logued and stored in the world scientific literature    recognize the organisms with which he worked." As
    under the scientific name of the species, or where the    a safeguard against repetition of error, it has become
    systematics is incompletely known, under the names    increasingly necessary that an identified sampling
    of higher taxa in the classification. If nothing has    of species (voucher specimens) mentioned in publica-
    been reported on a newly described and named    tions be deposited in permanent accessible museums
    species, its identification permits accumulation of    or herbaria so that scientists can check the accuracy
    information for future use. Accurate retrieval of    of identifications in the literature, and consequently
    information, consequently, can only be as reliable as    the reliability of the publication (Allen, 1974).
    precision of identification and classification. Names
    make information accessible on such aspects of    YARDSTICKS
    organismic  biology  as  geographic  distribution,
    ecological relationships, life cycles, behavior, com.
    parative  phy siology,  host-parasite  relationships, lifecThrough accurate scientific names and preserved
    parative  physiology,  host-parasite  relationships,
                                                           biological specimens, species collected at different
    predators, disease organisms, biological and chemical    times can serve as a yardstick for determining changes
                                                           times can serve as a yardstick for determining changes
    contro ls, and response and tolerance to adverse    which may have, or will, take place. Thus, over a
                                                           long period of time, systematics collections can play
                                                           a part in revealing the rate at which evolutionary
    PREDICTIVE ATTRIBUTES                                   changes  occur. -For  baseline information  IDOE
                                                           (1972) recommends storage of uncontaminated
      Michener (1970) indicates that placement of a    representative samples of plankton, fish, marine
    species which has been inadequately studied in a    plants, and so on, in a museum specially designed for
    genus and family makes possible prediction of some    preservation of environmental voucher specimens
    of its biological attributes. Although this may be a    (organisms, water, sediment, and air particles) where
    helpful practice under some circumstances, there are    subsequently they may be used as indicators of nor-
    so many exceptions that it is not recommended for    mal levels of pollutants.
    the non-specialist. There is serious danger that           Some species of living organisms, more sensitive to
    unfamiliar with species, he may apply the rule of    environmental deteriorational stress than others,
    thumb and draw false conclusions (Burbauck, 1975).    provide warning signals of pollution by physiological
    Allen (1974) notes that in current extensive testing    or behavioral responses; while other species, less
    programs for determining tolerance levels of species    affected by environmental change, respond to the
    exposed to pollutants, species that are similar in ap-    changes by unusual increases in abundance (Olson
    pearance do not always respond similarly physiolog-    and Burgess, 1967). Shuster (1974) suggests that by
    ically.  Such  considerations  underscore  the  im-    identifying the species most sensitive to pollution,
    portance of precise identification at all levels of    workers might recognize the impacts of pollution
    biological work.                                        long before it affects common, generally less sensi-
                                                           tive, species. Thus recognition of a "sick" ecosystem
                                                           might not require a species-by-species accounting.
    ELIMINATION OF DUPLICATION                              The stickler here is the problem of recognition of
                                                           species sensitive to specific pollutants, to what degree
      Needless duplication of biological research-which    such species could serve as accurate barometers for
    is becoming increasingly costly and time consum-    the health of an entire ecosystem, and whether they
    ing-can be avoided by a careful check of the world    have been insensitized to the pollutant through prior
    scientific literature. It is not uncommon for research    exposure. Rare species, possibly because they may
    to be repeated unnecessarily because the investigator    live closer to the limits of critical environmental
    did not consult the literature with sufficient thor-    factors than common species, may make more sensi-
    oughness, or because identification of his organism (s)    tive indicators than  common  species. Burbanck
    was in error. Libraries, unfortunately, store too    (1975) suggests that we place more emphasis on non-
    many examples of the results of very expensive re-    commercial organisms as indicators. Since they have
    search which have been discredited because of faulty    no economic value and are thus less disturbed by hu-
    identification of species (Allen, 1974; Clausen, 1942;    man collecting devices, they might constitute more
    Sabrosky, 1955). Stunkard (in Schmitt, 1953) suc-    sensitive indicators than species periodically buffeted
    cinctly summarized the problem:  "Much  of the    by collectors. He also believes that true estuarine
    fumbling and stumbling in biological work can be    species might be more sensitive than marine species
    traced directly to the failure of the investigator to    which move in and out of estuaries.

                                            RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                            491

    BIOLOGICAL CONTROLS                                       (1949) was one of the first to stress this in the evalu-
                                                           ation of the kind and duration of stream pollution.
      Accurate identification will also become critical as    Her research demonstrated that there is no satis-
    the use of pesticides is replaced by specific control    factory  shortcut  which  avoids  identification  of
    organisms. These species are often difficult to dis-    species involved. Tarzwell (1974) in the course of
    tinguish from closely related and nearly identical    some 40 years of investigating pollutional zones of
    forms that feed on different hosts. To date little has    streams in various parts of the country, discovered
    been done to control estuarine and coastal marine    that what may be considered sensitive or resistant
    pests by other organisms.                                 species in one stream may not necessarily be so in
                                                           another stream; in a different region these sensitive
                                                           or resistant species may be replaced by closely re-
    INDUSTRY, FISHERIES, AND CONSERVATION                     lated species. He also found that characterization of
                                                           population changes in streams over time as waste is
      The  following striking examples were cited by    introduced can be made only by specific identifica-
    Schmitt (1953, 1954) of the value, often with sub-    tion of organisms. Pawson  (1974), furthermore,
    stantial monetary return, of identification in these    stressed that to understand interactions between
    fields.                                                   organisms and pollutants, one must be quite sure
      1) Marine bivalves penetrated the outer casing of    that the organism in question represents one species,
    a power cable lying on the bottom of the bay between    and not a group of several species.
    Palm  Beach and West Palm Beach, Fla., in the               Systematic studies are also essential in establishing
    1940's, causing a series of serious blowouts. Adult    the quantitative characteristics of estuarine com-
    burrowing bivalves were identified as a new species    munities before real or possible pollution occurs;
    incapable of escaping from their burrows. The prob-    otherwise, effects of pollution may not be detectable
    lemr was easily solved by burying the cable beneath    (M. Abbott, 1974). Tarzwell (1974) noted that it is
    the bottom of the bay where the molluscs suffocated.    both the qualitative and quantitative composition of
      2) A  specialist on the systematics of benthic    the biota of streams which indicate the severity of
    sipunculid worms was asked in 1953 for copies of his    pollution and the distribution of pollutional zones.
    technical publications by an Alaskan cod fisherman    To control pollution, therefore, we must know the
    who had found that where these worms occur he    organisms affected and be able to recognize introduc-
    made good hauls of fish, The fisherman wanted to    tion and extinction of species (Turner, 1974). The
    plot the distribution of the worms in order to en-    need and value of accurate identification in pollution-
    hancehis fishery and extend his operation.                al biology are also emphasized by Pimentel (1971)
      3) In 1954 a sport fisherman took a specimen of a    in a publication for the Office of Science and Tech-
    mantis shrimp to a national museum. He sought in-    nology on the ecological effects of pesticides on non-
    formation  on its mode  of life, distribution, and    target species, and by Battelle (1971) in a report for
    abundance.  A  systematist,  after identifying the    the United States Environmental Protection Agency
    specimen, learned from the literature that the stoma-    on the effects of chemicals on aquatic life. Un-
    topod is the favorite food of certain panfish taken by    fortunately, misclassification of Balanus sp. under
    fishermen in the Chesapeake Bay-and thus the    the phylum Mollusca in the latter work tarnished
    sport fisherman's interest in the species.                the credibility of the systematic emphasis.
      4) In the Carolinas shad enjoy legal protection.          Some workers recommend the use of diversity
    In order to catch violators and enforce the conserva-    indexes for detection of the effects of pollution on
    tion laws, state conservation agents must be able    the community as a whole. A species diversity index,
    to distinguish between four or five species of fish, all    however, being only a single parameter of a complex
    superficially more or less alike.                         system, has merit only if cautiously interpreted
                                                           (Hedgpeth, 1973), and provided, as should be the
                                                           practice, that species are carefully identified. This is
    INHOW DOES SYTIFICAIN   AD                                not always the case. Some investigators identify and
    IN IDENTIFICATION AND
    CONTROL.OF POLLUTION?                                     count microorganisms only to suborder and family,
                                                           and employ these taxa for calculation of the indexes
      Pollutional biology is a subdivision of ecology,and    (Allen,  1974). We  must  emphasize that proper
    serious ecologists recognize that their work must be    systematic skills and familiarity with species-differ-
    based on sound specific identification of the organ-    entiating traits are necessary to construct accurate
    isms they are interpreting (Humes, 1974). Patrick    indexes (Williams, -1974). In spite of the general

    492                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    value of indexes; however, individual species cannot    change which can be brought about by man, re-
    be overlooked: changes in their abundance may oc-   sulting in decimation of entire species, is loss of
    cur which are not detectable by the index alone    genetic information through pollution-induced en-
     (Watling,  1974). To  be properly used, species   vironmental change. Processes leading to extinction
    diversity should also include the complexities of life   of large animals and plants are no longer likely to go
    cycles and trophic levels (Burbanck, 1975).            unnoticed even if they cannot be interrupted. In
      There is a tendency among some workers, when    certain cases predictions of immediate consequences,
    dealing with groups of organisms which are difficult   such as Cousteau's recognition of potential change
    or not well known taxonomically, to carry identifica-   in the oceans should filter feeding whales be elimin-
    tions only to familial or genetic levels. Turner (1974)    ated, are recognized. However, dearth of information
    argues with reason that this is simply not enough!    on small estuarine metazoan organisms, like nema-
    By taking her identifications to the specific taxon,    todes, prevents any reasonable capacity for predicting
    she was able recently to recognize introducton of   the consequences of pollution to the environment
    tropical species of the wood boring bivalves, Tere-   in the context of these small invertebrates. Although
    dinidae, into the warm water discharge canal of a    levels of pollution are probably most effectively
    nuclear generating station in New-Jersey. Had she    measured by physical and chemical techniques, im-
    identified the borers only to genus, she would have    pact of pollution is best measured in life systems,
    missed the tropical introductions altogether, and    and thus the requirement to recognize the total
    this critical aspect of the impact of the power plant    dependence of pollutional ecology-no, all ecology-
    on its local estuarine environment would have gone    upon the sophistication and thoroughness of its
    unnoticed.                                             foundation in systematics! The consequences of
      Systematics can be used to considerable advantage    pollution to the earth and to man are of such magni-
    in assessing the effects of changing environmental    tude that a compelling case is readily made for the
    conditions by recognition and study of variations in   study of a broad spectrum of micro-, meta-, and
    the morphology of organisms. The method has been    macroorganisms in assessing any influence of pol-
    little explored and merits much more attention.   lutants. However,  such undertakings remain so
    Estuarine species may be more plastic than oceanic    primitive and inadequately supported that a major
    forms, and may thus reflect the effects of pollution    research effort, to be measured in decades, is still
    more readily (Watling, 1974); Rasmussen's (1973)    required to determine the full extent to which sys-
    documentation of the variability of the genus Gam-    tematic knowledge, especially of small organisms, can
    marus in his study of the Isefjord fauna is a good    significantly aid in the identification and control of
    example of morphological plasticity. Remane and    pollution (Murphy, 1974).
    Schlieper (1971) recorded other examples.                What is said by Murphy about small metazoans
      Success in reducing or eliminating low levels of   in the identification and control of pollution, applies
    harmful pollutants, recognized only with- difficulty   to an even more critical degree to such ubiquitous,
    by chemical means, is determinable biologically and    abundant, estuarine microorganisms as fungi, yeasts,
    with reliability by the responses of the organisms    bacteria, viruses, and so forth. Bacteria, for example,
    affected. Some pollutants may exert their effects in    are more important than most of us realize in pol-
    very minute amounts over long periods of time.    lutant transfer, biological degradation, carbon as-
    Exposure to sublethal concentrations of detergent,    similation, and possibly in the control of soluble
    copper, and zinc, for example, caused fatal anatomi-    concentrations  of  elements  (Alexander,  1973).
    cal abnormalities in the second generation of the    Viruses, minute, highly mutable agents, are common
    polychaete Capitella capitata (Reish et al., 1974)..   in estuaries, move in the ground water, and inhabit
    Other pollutants may be progressively concentrated    water reuse systems, but lack of information on
    in food chains, and still others may interact synergis-   their behavior in these systems has impeded develop-
    tically. The latter may result in insidious alteration    ment of the reuse of water. Cooke (1969) is pessimis-
    of aquatic environments,  especially of estuaries   tic about the emergence of general descriptions of the
     (Odum, 1970). Yet additional organisms, preadapted    remarkably complex behavior of natural populations
    to survive or thrive in certain polluted environments    of microorganisms in native waters, and notes that
    that are noxious to most other organisms, become    research on the role of microorganisms in pollutional
    indicators of that pollution (Olson and Burgess,    biology must include study of specific chemical
     1967). Systematic knowledge of "normal" biotic    compounds and measurement of their degradation
    structures provides the base for comparison with    products. I would recommend, in addition, that
    that of poisoned communities.   -                      the research must include intensive systematic
       One of the potentially most damaging categories of   investigations (a) to provide the essential scaffolding

                                            RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                           493

    upon which to hang the results of the pollutional          A decrease in knowledge and services of system-
    research and (b) to aid in its interpretation.          atics would unquestionably mean that causes and
                                                           effects of pollution would remain unknown or con-
      ,Summary.-Fieid systematics aids in the identi'-   fused (Wigley, 1974). Pollutional researchers would
    fication of the kinds, distribution, severity, and dura-    find themselves i the same situation faced by many
    tion of pollution at individual, populational, com-    physiologists who a few years ago based researches
    munity, and ecosystemic levels. It does so by re-    and conclusions .on improperly identified organisms
    vealing (a) changes in the proportion of abundance    (Humes, 1974). Under these circumstances possibil-
    of individuals, (b) alteration in the composition of   ities for duplication of experimental work or for
    species (by elimination of some and introduction of    making comparisons of seemingly similar situations
    others and changes in ecological succession), (to)    would be slender indeed, and in fact, any compari-
    modifications in morphology, physiology; ecology        sons wouldbeautomaticallyinvalid (Pawson, 1974).
    behavior, and development at individual and pbpu-    If one remains unsure of the organisms he is dealing
    lational levels, and (d) emergence of hardy indicator    with, results of investigations based on them will
                                                           likewise be questionable and uninterpretable. In
    species which survive or even thrive in the altered                   q                                 .  In
    environment. Systematics also aids in identifying    this regard,  closely related species, particularly
    laboratory experimental organisms for study o&if the:   sympatric species, must be very carefully identified.
                                                             Should Systematics not be supported, Turner
    biological effects of pollutants on them, and their
                                                           (1974) envisions a decreasing number of system-
    responses to the pollutants.
      Systematics contributes to control of pollution in   atists, and chaos when scientists report experimental
    the sense that populations and physio-ecological    results on incorrectly identified organisms. Higgins
    systems, which themselves function in reducing or    (1974)  stresses that no cause and effect analyses of
    rendering innocuous the effects of pollutants, 'can    any ecosystem can occur without precise identifica-
    be recognin ed and augmented. Such species systems    tion of both the biotic and abiotic components, and
    are abundant, especially in the microbiological realm    because of its extraordinary complexity, this applies
    where they serve as shock absorbers in buffering the    to the estuar       ys
    effects of chemical perturbations.                       (1974) concern, if systematics continues at. its pres-
                                                          ent low level of support, is that international, na-
                                                          tional, and local policy directed at pollutional control,
    Beneficial Effects                                      and purportedly based on ecological considerations,
    of Increase in Systematic                               will continue to be pursued with a totally inade-
    Knowledge and Services                                  quate database.

      An increase in knowledge and services in systema          -
    tics will accelerate the'rate, and make possible    WHAT  HUMAN  ESTUARINE ACTIVITIES
    expansion, of systematics-dependent environmental    REQU'IRE IDENTIFICATION SERVICES?
    investigations currently in progress. It will also open
    to investigation problems not now undertaken be-           Allt6wiing the world- ecosystem to function in a
    cause of the difficulty or impossibility of'obtaining    viable, healthy way is a responsibility as well as an
    needed identifications. Questions are not now being    awesome challenge to man. The responsibility can
    asked on the identification and control of pollution,    be met, in part; bymnaintaining a high level of biolog-
    or go unanswered or are delayed, because of in-    ical diversity which is commensurate with biotic
    adequacy of identification services and facilities;   stability and insures against the onslaughts of cli-
    answers to these questions would probably materially    mate and disease' (Steere, 1971)-. But a pervading
    enhance biological assessment of the impacts of   thrust,: intrinsic in mnani's recreational, fishing, tech-
    pollution, and thus of pollution'control (Michenei,    nological, and control activities is making the task
    1970). The interstitial fauna, for example, are poorly    of preserving diversity increasingly difficult. No-
    known  (Hulings and Gray, 1971), yet intertidal    where' on''the globe is this thrust more stridently
    beaches and tidal marshes in estuaries are the first   evident than along coasts and estuaries. Organisms,
    zones to be attacked by floating pollutants. Coimpre-   including much of the human population, find them-
    hensive knowledge of these' fauna might  reveal    selves unwillingly embroiled, often helpless victims,
    improved ways of determining the impact of, the    of biotic instability in increasingly ravaged environ-
    various  fractions of these pollutants.  Adequate    ments.
    knowledge of interstitial organisms, most of which        Since kinds of species and numbers of individuals
    are minute and many are abundant, would: make    are ingredients of diversity, it is necessary that
    available large numbers of them for the assessments.    periodic biotic assessment of the impact of man's

    494                                     ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    Table L.-Human estuarine activities requiring identification and classification    species, including representatives of 15 new families,
                            of organisms
                                                                  in 10 years (Mayr, 1969)!
          Activity                   Organisms                    In time, with improved systematic resources and
                                                                  support, identification of most species should be
    Recreation        Species harmful or potentially harmful in recreational   required. Why? The answer is implicit in observations
                         activity which takes people into the water, or in the   paraphrased from Woodwell (1974): If qualities of
                         course of which there is danger of falling     i      nto that are essential for certain types
                         water; example, sea nettles.           the environment that are essential for certain types
                         water; example, sea nettles.
                                                                   of life are changed, the structure of natural systems
    Sports and commercial   Species taken commonly such as finfish, as well as of   change
     fishing           species which could be taken but because of custom
                         are not, such as squid and conchs; potentially poi-   populations can respond most rapidly to the changes.
                         sonous species, as shellfish causing paralytic poisoning    These species are mostly small bodied, rapidly re-
                         in man.
                                                                  producing forms that can exploit altered conditions.
    Artificial structures  Species influenced by, affecting, or associated with    Such modified conditions increase the frequency of
                         manmade bulkheading, piling, wharfs, anchors, buoys,
                         island structures, barnacles.          rapidly reproducing pest and weed species. When
                                                                   chronic disturbance of any kind changes the struc-
    Construction and operation Species associated with, influenced by, or affecting cool-
     of power plants    ing waters, thermal plumes, cooling towers, radioac-   ture of natural ecosystms, populations of hardy
                         tive discharge, and plant conduits through which water   resistant organisms characteristic of impoverished
                         passes; attached algae.                sites increase, food chains are shortened, and the
    Exploration and develop-  Species associated with, influenced by, or affecting   capacity for support of all life is reduced.
     ment for oil and gas  exploration, rigs, towers, pipe lines, etc.; spills and  Until  more  adequate  systematic  services  and
                         discharges; fouling organisms of all kinds.
                                                                   financial support are available-but as a short term
    Extraction of minerals    Species influenced by, affecting or neutrally associated    expedient  only-precise  identification in applied
                         with mining of sand, gravel, metals, and other mineral
                         resources (less gas and oil); surf clams.  work could include appropriate representatives in
    Sediments: dredging and  Species influenced by, affecting, or associated with   at least the functional categories of estuarine and
     filling            sedimentation and erosion resulting from this ac-   coastal organisms listed in Table 2. Which species of
                         tivity; tube worms, oysters.           plants and animals should be emphasized would
    Placement of wastes  Species influenced by, affecting, or associated with the    depend on the mission of each investigation. The
                         dumping of liquids and solids, or involved in effluent   unsolved problem in this approach is the serious
                         sinks; mussels,                        difficulty of defining what constitute representative
    Biological control  Species used in control as well as those affected directly   organisms !
                         or indirectly by biological control; none yet employed  On the surface it might seem that the systematics
                                                                   of estuarine species might be less complex than that
    Chemical control  All target and associated non-target species in the area   of marine groups because their number is proportion-
                         of pesticide spraying; intertidal oysters and mussels.
                                                                   ately less. Potentially, however, the problem is as,
    Ecological surveys  Basic surveys; wherever possible all species sampled; r more, complex, because the estuarine systematist
     (pollutional)     applied surveys: as representative identification as
                         possible (the problem: don't always know what species    has to be prepared to deal with, not only marine spe-
                         are representative of communities).    cies which normally move in and out of estuaries,
    Impact statements  All species known, or postulated to be involved, in   but those which may extend their ranges, be intro-
                         anticipated activity.                  duced by storms, coastal birds, or human activities,
                                                                   or float down rivers and streams during stormy
                                                                   periods.
    activities be made. A brief catalogue, suggestive of
    those activities in which estuarine organisms require    Why Not Ignore
    systematic identification, is presented in Table 1.         Undescribed Organisms?

    What Organisms                                                Is it necessary in both basic and applied biological
    Should Be Identified?                                      work to consider those organisms which man has not
                                                                   yet named and described, and which, therefore, are
      Only a few non-taxonomists appreciate how poorly    unavailable for consideration until taxonomically
    most plant and animal groups are known taxonomi-    treated?
    eally. A striking illustration of this was presented          Some (Ehrlich, 1961; Raven et al., 1971; Sokal,
    by Remane's work on the microscopic marine fauna    1970) would argue (a) that we should restrict identi-
    of the Kieler Bucht, an area previously considered    fication and classification to those organisms which
    to be well known. By thorough search and with the    are of actual or potential value, and (b) that to in-
    application of new methods, Remane found 300 new    sist that it is necessary to name every living organ-

                                                 RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                             495

    Table 2.-Functional groups of estuarine and coastal organisms which should   timber, fiber, pulp, medicine, ground cover, and so
    be considered for identification in the assessment of the impact of pollution.   on. (Keck, 1959). For example, (a) the sperm whale
            -Groups                    Eumplos                 is nearing extinction with loss of its natural product,
                                                                  sperm oil, but botanists discovered that an obscure
    Commercial and sports organ- Phytoplankton, seaweeds, sponges, corals, bivalves,   desert plant called jojoba produces a liquid wax
     isms: used and potentially  gastropods, cephalopods, polychetes, decapod    which may function as a substitute; (b) a little-
     useful               crustaceans, fin fishes, sea turtles, porpoises,    known beetle produces a medically important drug,
                            dolphins, whales (see Shapiro, 1971).
                                                                  cortisone, in amounts equivalent to the adrenal
    Organisms associated with com- Competitors, mutualists, commensals, predators,   glands of 1,300 cattle  and (c) prostaglandins im-
     mercial and sports organisms  and food organisms (see Henry, 1966); disease
                            and parasitic organisms: viruses, bacteria, fungi,   portant hormones available in very limited natural
                            sporozoans, ciliates, trematodes, cestodes, nema-    supply, occur in quantity in a soft gorgonian coral in
                            tods opepods, isopods, gastropods(see Sider-   the West Indies (Evans, 1973). Furthermore, we do
                                                                  not know whether certain organisms are essential to
    Organisms poisonous or poten- Animals that bite or sting: sharks, sting rays, manta,
     tially poisonous or harmful to  barracuda, moray eels, cat fishes, scorpion fishes,   the contiued functioning of the ecological processes
     humans as food, in swimming,  toad fishes, sea bass, sea lions, killer whales,    on  which  our  continued  tenure  on  the  planet
     or in other recreation  tridacna clams, sea nettles, cone gastropods,    depends (Fosberg, 1972)-and we dare not risk not
                            octopuses, sea urchins (see Halstead, 1959);
                            poisonous to eat: shellfish which have consumed    finding out!
                            toxic dinoflagellates, poisonous sharks and rays,  To complete the task of identification of all species
                            moray eels, poisonous fin fish (see Halstead,  require                        generations
                            1959); parasites: amebas, trematodes, cestodes,
                            nematodes; disease organisms: viruses, bacteria,   Considering the limited number of specialists, we
                            fungi, yeasts (see Cheng, 1967).    must take it for granted that a large part of the
    Organisms fouling surfaces of Algae, fungi, protozoans, sponges, coelenterates,   majority of the kinds of plants and animals will re-
     estuarine structures  bryozoans, annelids, bivalves, tunicates (see    main  unsampled,  unnamed,  and  unclassified for
                            Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 1952).  decades to come (Mayr, 1969). At present probably
    Organismsover, on, and inareas Most lower plant, invertebrate groups: plankton,   one-third of the living species of fishes remains un-
     to be, or being used for min- nekton, epifauna and epiflora, infauna, meiofauna. known. Our inventory of invertebrate animals re-
                                                                  known. Our inventory of invertebrate animals re-
     ing, dredging, filling, waste
     disposal, power plants, oil                              mains seriously incomplete. Insects are far and away
     and gas exploration and de-                              the most numerous in species; and the least known.
     velopment
                                                                  Oceanic and estuarine plant and animal life is very
    Organisms blocking screens of Primarily nekton: fin fish, some crustaceans; macro-   incompletely understood. Knowledge of the species
     power plant intakes and other  scopic algae.
     marine operations                                        of bacteria, viruses, yeasts, and fungi is sparse, a
                                                                  serious deficiency considering their great economic
                                                                  importance and the vast number of species (Steere,

    ism in order to complete the job of systematics, ig-    1971).
                                                                     Many well-known plant and animal species have
    nores the necessity for judicious sampling it our    passed into extinction in the last 150 years (Steere,
     efforts to understand the universe. This point of    1971), and thus are irreplaceable. It is postulated
    view, unfortunately, overlooks the critical question    that literally thousands of species will become extinct
    "How are actual and potential value determined?"    in the next generation in all parts of the world as a
    It also dismisses the significance of biological classifi-    result of the growing human population, pollution,
    cation which is intended to provide a framework on    and habitat destruction  (layr, 1969; Terborgh,
    which to arrange all levels of all available biological    1974; Uetz and Johns on         . Rav    en et al. (1971),
    information. Clearly, substantial gaps in the frame-           even more pessimistic about the survival of species,
                                                                  even more pessimistic about the survival of species,
    work leave voids in the content within which re-    doubt that even 5 percent of the world's unde-
    lationships can be expressed (Heywood, 1973).
      Others, whose point of view I share, feel that the        befor         e the currently undescribed 80 percentor
    primary job of exploring the flora and fauna of the    of   the wo rld'        s organisms become extinct.
    earth's surface desperately needs doing because the          Woodwell (1974) vividly summarized the trends
    natural resources of the globe are being destroyed    and the consequences of extinctions:
    at a fearful rate and hundreds of potentially in-
    valuable species will be wiped out of existence even
    before they are made known to science, much less               This is the pattern of life now, slow, progressive, cumula-
                                                                       tive and unidirectional as species are eliminated the
    analyzed for potential utilization (Fosberg, 1972;             pattern is already widespread, perhaps worldwide in
    Keck, 1959; Mayr, 1969; Steere, 1971). Many of                 some degree. It leads, not to a clear crisis, a cataclysm,
                                                                       but to the slow erosion of the quality of environment;
    these species may be found useful horticulturally,             to the loss of fish in fisheries, to the accumulation of
    agronomically, and economically, as food, forage,              pests, plant and animal; to the gradual erosion of the

    496                                                         ESTUARiNE POLLUTION CONTROL

           capacity  'df environment  to  stabilize  water  flows,  tO                        Table 3.-Status of taxonomic publications for identification and classificati on
           provide clean water, fiber and food, to hold and recycle                           of macro- and melofauna in the estuaries and continental shelf of the middle
           nutrients  on' the  land.  It  leads  to  accumulation  of                         eastern United States. (References are not listed in the literature section of
           biotically  impoverished  zones  almost  without  notice,                                                              this paper).
           zones that  are progressively less capable if supporting
           life, including man,  and it leads to a steady increase in
           requirements for human  intervention in the basic fune-                                                                Mabrofauna
           tion of Environment: more dams and more pesticides.                                Porifera: deLaubenfels (1949), Hartman (1958), and Wells, Wells and Gray (1960)
                                                                                            are good sources, but no comprehensive guide is available.
       I  am   convinced  that  all  organisms  on  the  globe                                Coelentdrata, Hydrozoa: Fraser (1944) is thorough but difficult to use, and species are
    have   a   functional   role,   directly   or  indirectly,  'of                             often difficult to distinguish; Nutting (1900-1915) is better but doesn't  cover all
                                                                                            families; many species need redescribing.
    consequence to man. In spite of the enormity of the
                                                                                          Coelenteratd, Anthiozaa: no complete source.
    task, we must proceed with a sense of urgency in
    the  systematic  exploration  of  the  world's  biota  in                                 Rhynchocoala: Coe (1943) is excellent, but some knowledge of internal morphology is
    order to salvage at least the most critical species                                         required.
                                                                                         Annelida, Polychaeta: some groups, such as the distinctly errant families, are covered
                                                                                           well in sources like Pettibone (1963), but there are serious difficulties with some
                                                                                           sedentary families, for example, the Cirratulidae and Capitellidae. Day (1973) is
                                                                                           also helpful.
    HOW ADEQUATE ARE
    HTAXON.OMW IAD  IE           ENTIE      FCATIONU        .          ..       .Sipunculida: the recent paper by Cutler (1973) is very helpful.
    TAXONOMIC IDENTIFICATION
    PUBLICATIONS   AND   SERVICES?                                                            Mollusca: the second edition of Abboft's (1974) book is indispensible since it lists all
                                                                                            molluscs found off this coast and gives references to descriptions.
                                                                                          Crustacea, Cirripedia: the unpublished preliminary 'eport by Zullo (1963) is helpful,
       The  lack  of  inventories  of  systematic  specialists,                                 but is relatively unavailable.
    publications on identification, and taxonomic identi-
                                                                                         Crustacea, Mysidacea: Tattersall (1951) is thorough, but difficult to use; a handbook
    fication services  constitue  a major  bottleneck  in the                                   by R. Wigley is in preparation.
    application of systematics to the serious problems  of                                    Crustacea, Cumacea: no complete source is available; a handbook by L. Watling is in
    environmental deterioration. In the United States                                           preparation.
    we  are  fortunate,  indeed,  that  an  active,  dedicated                                Crustacea, Tanaidacea: no complete source is available.
    group  of biologists has  recently organized nationally                                   Crustacea, Isopoda:the handbook by Schultz (1969) is excellent for identification.
    as  the  Association  of  Systematics   Collections  with                                 Crustacea, Amphipoda: Bousfield (1973) is excellent for the more commonly found
    the  primary  goals  of improving  (a)  the  condition  of                                  species; some of the older monographs are needed occasionally.
    biological  systematics  collections  as  a  national  re-                                Crustacea, Stomatopoda: Manning (1974) covers the few local species.
    source,  and  (b) the  quality and  efficiency  of system-                                Crustacea, Decapoda: Williams (1965, 1974) are both excellent.
    atic  services  associated  with  these  resources  (Irwin                                Bryozoa: papers by Osburn (1912) and Maturo (1957) are very useful: however, a com-
    et al., 1973). It is regrettable that several years may                                     prehensive guide is much needed.
    elapse  before  these  services  will be  available  at  the                              Echinodermata, Asteroidea: no complete source is available, but Gray et al. (1968) is
    level of performance at which they are so badly                                             helpful.
    needed.                              ,                                 .                  Echinodermata, Ophiuroidea: no complete source.
                                                                                          Echinodermata, Holothuroidea: Deichmann (1930) is very good.
                                                                                          UrOchordata: the monograph by Van Name (1945) is excellent, but difficult to obtain.
    Systematic Specialists
                                                                                                                             Meiofauna
       INo  current  lists of systemStists and  th'eir fields of                              Protozoa: Borror (1973) covers the genera of ciliates. While there is a profuse litera-
    specialization   exist.   An   international   directory   of                               ture on Foraminifera, no comprehensive key exists; there are no  complete sources
                                                                                            for other protozoan groups.
    botanical specialists appeared in 1958 (Roon,' 1958),
    and' another  on  zoological  taxonomists  of the  Wbrld                                  Platyhelminthes: no complete source.
    wvas published in 1961' (Blackwelder and Blackwelder,                                      Gastrotricha: no complete source, taxonomy is unsettled.
    1961). 'Regrettably,  these are now  sdmewhat  outof-                                     Kinorhyncha: American species largely unknown, and generally overlooked.
    date. As a result one'must generally rely on Word of
    mouth   for   this  information,   a   not   very   efficient                              Nematoda: no complete source; many species from Ame rican Atlantic waters have-been
                     ~mouth                                                                    for this inforationanotveryefficient   described, but the nematode fauna from mid-Atlantic shelf waters is virtually
    means  of distributing scientific. data                       .   :      . '                 unknown.
                                                                                          Annelida, Archiannelida: no complete source.
    I de ntif ication  Rejso urces'                   ``-   `                                 Annelida,;Oligochaeta: identification of speciesxis difficult but has beln made consid-
                                                                                            erably easier by the papers of Brinkhurst and Jamieson (1971) and Cook and Brink-
                                                                                            hurst (1973).
       Taxonomic information on a limited number of
    estuarine  and  coastal  riarine  plants 'and  animals  is                                Crustacea, Ostracoda: many scattered papers, but there is no complete source.
    generally   available   and   reasonably   cornplete,  but                                Crustacea, Copepoda: harpacticoid copepods from the mid-Atlantic continental shelf
                                                                                            are not well documented.                           l
    that on'most others is scattered and coverage is

                                            RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                          497

    seriously incomplete and spotty. Especially lacking    to their size, color, and ease of handling! Though
    are taxonomic monographs on major and minor taxa;    some improvement is evident in the number and
    illustrated keys, manuals, check lists, and atlases;    quality of identification 'publications, the level is
    and authoritatively identified, representative, ac-   still far from what is required and must be achieved
    cessible collections of organisms, their photographs,    in a reasonable time if we are to meet the needs of
    and resource literature (Carriker, 1967).              pollutional ecology and other fields of biology.
      Selection of some taxonomic groups for study is         In some regions of the United States the serious
    too often guided by chance rather than by careful    void in identification publications is being partially
    choice on the basis of.the greatest void in knowledge.    filled by series of illustrated identification manuals
    In other groups, systematists have not had the time    prepared aperiodically by collaborating systematic
    or assistance to prepare syntheses, even though much    specialists as resources and time are available.
    of the technical information may be at hand. Then         One of these, the "MIarine Flora and Fauna of the
    there are whole phyla, especially among marine    Northeastern United States," is well underway and
    invertebrates, for which there are no authoritative    provides a model for the organization of similar
    specialists. Moreover, early stages in the life history    series on other coastal regions where none exists
    of the biota are generally less well-known than adults;    (Carriker, 1974). The first manual was published in
    least known are the micro-, meio-, and small meg-    1973, and since then five additional ones on coastal
    abenthos. These several groups therefore pose in-   plants and invertebrates have appeared, printed for
    surmountablesystematic barriers to most ecologists.    the advisory board -of 'the series by the National
    The absence of systematic information has been    Marine Fisheries Service in NOAA Technical Re-
    circumvented by some biologists by giving potential    ports. Some 80 systematic specialists in the United
    species arbitrary codes until such time as these or-   States -and a few abroad are contributinig manu-
    ganisms can be investigated systematically. This    scripts. Much of the work on the "Marine Flora and
    expedient, however, excludes the value of positioning    Fauna" is done as a "labor of love," support, if any,
    species in the classification scheme for interpretative    coming from whatever source is available.
    analysis based on relationships.                          A second series, "Manuals on Marine Organisms,"
      The seriousness of .the problem of inadequate    dealing with tropical Atlantic American fauna, being
    identification resources is emphasized by Chace    prepared by G. L. Voss and F. M. Bayer and associ-
    (reproduced in Schmitt, 1953, Appendix A) and    ates, University of Miami, is representative of biota
    Watling and Maurer (1974).                ;   -        of the southeastern United States.' Two  guides,
      Chace in a revision of his list on the status of the    written for use by non-specialists in the fisheries and
    systematics of recent invertebrates other than in-   environmental fields, have been published,  and
    sects, included comments on 44 major taxa. The    several more are in preparation. Basic information
    following observations are representative.:            on poorly known groups is published in another
                                                           series, "Fauna Caribaea."
         .. identification difficult or impossible withoit living  A third series, "Biota of Freshwater Ecosystems,"
        material; more specialists greatly needed; virtually im-   sponsored by the Environmental Protection Agency
        possible to obtain identifications; the only experienced
        taxonomist is too busy with teaching and administra-    with the assistance of the Smithsonian Institution,
         tion for identifications; large collections still awaiting   is a valuable series of identification manuals on
         identification; few publications; the only specialist is   North American organisms prepared by specialists
         retired; poorly known groups, need-much more study;
         the only specialist just deceased; intensive studies now    (Smithsonian Institution, 1972--1973). Although not
         in progress; group fairly well covered, but world mono-    directly applicable to coastal waters, the set is an
         graph needed; coverage reasonably good except forment in the identification of fresh-
                                                           important supplement in the identification of fresh-
         Atlantic species.
                                                           water organisms floating into estuaries frqm streams
                                                           and lakes. To date 11 manuals have appeared in
    Clearly, prospects for identification were not promis-   print and others are in preparation.
    ing.
      The data compiled by Watling and Maurer (1974)
    indicate that a grave problem still faces benthic    Systematic Services
    ecologists in establishing monitoring programs, and
    that progress in systematics has been slow since the      For many kinds of organisms one investigator
    preparation of-Chace's list (Table 3).                 easily obtains enough speciinns in a short time 'to
       Watling (1974) observed that most groups (the    swamp several identifiers for months. Moreover,
    Mollusca, for example) have received systematic    there are many more requests than can be filled for
    coverage that is usually inversely proportional to    service identifications for ecologists, amateurs, pub-
    their ecological importance but directly proportional   lie health officials, and those conducting stream and

    498                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    forest surveys; for lists of organisms for impact    itself! It is clear that a strong, coordinated, long
    studies; and for the needs of pollution assessment    range, national plan is urgently required.
    and monitoring. These, and other economically ori-        Members of the Association of Systematics Col-
    ented service needs, have far outstripped the capac-    lections (ASC) have already formulated such a plan
    ity of taxonomists and their assistants to cope with    called "America's Systematics Collections: A Na-
    the flood of requests (Irwin et al., 1973). In spite    tional Plan" (Irwin et al., 1973). This stresses the
    of the fact that many state governments, experi-   importance of systematics collections to science,
    ment stations, or agricultural schools employ per-    society, and education, and outlines an approach,
    sonnel to provide identification services of species    carefully developed by the newly organized com-
    common in their geographic areas, the number of    munity of systematists, for the recognition and
    professionally capable systematists is still small. The    development of systematics collections as an impor-
    federal government maintains national identification    tant national resource and service.
    services for several groups of economically impor-         Specific goals of the ASC include: (1) manage-
    tant organisms, such as insects and related taxa,    ment of the national inventory of specimens and
    and parasites of domestic and other animals. Some    associated documentation in museums and herbaria
    of the federal services provide in-house identifica-    to insure a) permanent conservation of specimens,
    tions only, while others serve outside agencies and    b) ready access to them and their documentation,
    the general public. Even with these services, none-    and c) space, facilities, and library resources; and
    theless, identifiers for many taxonomic groups are    (2) addition of new specimens and associated infor-
    quite unable to keep up with the current demand    mation. Specific service-related aims include  (1)
    for determinations, much less provide for prbspec-    make available upon demand specimens or taxon-
    tive future needs. Some sorting centers have been    related information in a variety of useful forms,
    created for marine organisms, but none makes spe-    (2) enable incorporation of specimens and associ-
    cific identifications, and lag time is exasperating    ated data in an information management system,
    (Michener, 1970).                                       and (3) enable ready access to specimens themselves
      In addition to current requests, most taxonomists    and to associated documentation and library ma-
    are faced with a great accumulation of unworked,    terials. The ASC is moving ahead to implement
    undetermined specimens which have piled up for   these goals. Some of their activities, carried out
    years (Schmitt, 1953). Because systematists who    through a series of ASC Councils, include: (1) iden-
    are willing to function in a service role are invariably    tifying systematics collections of importance  as
    overworked and under-assisted, they are unable to    national resources; (2) developing standards for
    cope with the demands on their time. The needs of    systematics collections; (3) implementing electronic
    other 'biologists are thus often poorly served, and    data processing in collection management proce-
    available comparative collections are frequently in-    dures; (4) developing more effective use of system-
    adequately curated for proper study (Irwin et al.,   atics collections in the study and resolution of prob-
    1973).                                                  lems affecting the quality of the environment; and
      Traditionally, identifications have been provided    (5) developing technical training programs for pro-
    free of charge by taxonomists or organizations will-   fessional service personnel and their placement.
    ing to make them. This practice is patently unfair,        A major emphasis of the ASC is correct identifica-
    and has contributed to the lack of technical assist-   tion of species to indicate environmental changes
    ance to systematists, to the prolonged delay in    and their effects on human welfare. The association
    obtaining identifications, and to the unattractiveness    accordingly includes in its plan a survey of public
    of the service function. It is gratifying to report,    and private agencies to determine actual or potential
    however, that this trend is shifting, and sbme grants    availability of resources to support, among other
    are now including funds for taxonomic services.         systematic activities, contracts for specific identifica-
      Most critical in the long view, after all is said and    tion services.
    done, is the fact that the service role often prevents    Systeniatic resources in the United States of im-
    systematists from getting on with the urgent research    portaiice in estuarine biological work also include
    of preparing the basic floras,; faunas, and mono-    collections of living specimens. 'The American Type
    graphs-the very foundation of the service function.    Culture Collection, for example, is a national iden-
       There is thus unquestionably a strong basis for   tification center in Rockville, Md., which for a fee
    the alarm expressed, especially by organismic biolo-   identifies live viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozo-
    gists, over the service role of systematics to the    ans, The organization is now establishing a national
    nation and the future of the field of systematics    computerized  microbiological  strain data  center

                                            RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                          499

    which will permit investigators to compare micro-    organisms, and the consequent danger of misidenti-
    biological data with that at other centers in the    fication, voucher specimens should be made avail-
    country. Another important national research re-   able, preferably in museums and herbaria, whenever
    source is the Culture Collection of Algae at Indiana    possible. These insure that the value of ecological,
    University, Bloomington. Identification services are    behavioral, physiological, biogeographic, and other
    not provided because of lack of personnel, but living    biological work based on identifications will not be
    type cultures of algae are available for a nominal    reduced due to questions about inaccuracy of deter-
    charge.                                                 mination of the organisms involved (Irwin et al.,
                                                          1973).
    Non-Specialists and Identification
      The non-specialist is usually able to identify and    TRETEMATERED
    classify only those species which specialists have
    already described, named, and reported in the scien-      Unquestionably the degree of success of the service
    tific literature. Because of the frequent difficulty of    function of systematics in future years will be deter-
    use of the original systematic reports by nonspecial-    mined by the health of the field of systematics
    ists, systematists synthesize the original literature    today. It is thus important to review the current
    into a form which is more readily applied in identi-    state of the discipline.
    fication and classification. These syntheses take the     In IDarwin's time systematists enjoyed a high
    form of illustrated manuals, check lists, taxonomic    reputation. The turning point in disfavor came about
    monographs, and general systematic books. An ex-    the turn of the century, not because of the work of
    cellent example of the last category is the recent    systematists but because other fields of biology
    volume by R. T. Abbott  (1974) on the marine    seemed more promising (Hedgpeth, 1961). System-
    molluscs of the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of North    atics then received a substantial stimulus with the
    America. Others are E. L. Bousfield's (1973) fine    creation of the National Science Foundation in
    publication  on the shallow water gammaridean    1950. Although increased funding resulted in a mul-
    amphipods of New Englafid, and Light's manual    tiplication of systematic research, subsequent finan-
    on the intertidal invertebrates of the central Cali-    cial support from all sources has been insufficient
    fornia coast (Smith and Carlton, 1975).                 to keep pace with the needs of systematics in either
      Because closely similar species may be confused,    basic or applied areas. Consequently, the current
    it is highly desirable that the non-specialist confirm    resources of the field are inadequate to meet not
    his preliminary identifications by comparing spec       only present national service r.eeds, but much less
    mens with correctly identified specimens in museum    the needs of the future.
    and herbarium collections. This procedure is all the      For one thing, decreasing numbers of students
    more important as similar and closely related species    are attracted to careers in systematic biology. The
    not listed in publications readily available to non-    reasons, not hard to find,  contribute to the low
    specialists may be overlooked.                          number of trained systematists: a tight job market
      For careful research, comparison alone may not    and reluctance of many university departments to
    provide the necessary authoritative confirmation.    hire systematists, overshadowing of systematics by
    In this case the assistance of a specialist, or an    such fields as ecology and behavior, reduced amount
    assistant closely associated with the specialist, should    of available support for graduate students in the
    be solicited. Identification is not always a simple    form of fellowships, and general deemphasis of
    matter of identifying one standard form of indi-    systematics in graduate curricula (Humes, 1974).
    vidual. In a series of individuals from many locali-    In fast, systematists have been all but excluded
    ties, complications may be introduced because of    from many of the best biology departments in this
    such modifying factors as individual, sexual, sea-    country (Wilson, 1971). As a:result, many teaching
    sonal, ontogenetic, and geographic variations, as    systematists are trying, with little success (Steere,
    well as the possibility of intergradation with neigh-    1971), to leave academia and move into museums
    boring species (Schmitt, 1953). Moreover, intro-    which seem to have become the last ibastion of
    duced and immigrant species may be present that    defense for systematics-which is wrong! (Pawson,
    answer to the same criteria in a key as do local    1974).
    species. Hedgpeth  (1975) informs me  that over           'Because systematics does not occupy a prominent
    50 non-native species occur in San Francisco Bay    position in most educational institutions, much of
    alone!            -                                     the systematic research conducted in the country
      Because of the taxonomic complexity of many    is done in fragments of time snatched between ad-

    500                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    ministrative or teaching duties by biologists whose    the growing appreciation of the correct image of
    major responsibilities are nonsystematic.                the modern systematist; that is, one who concerns
      In spite of the fact that the' potential worth of    himself not only with preserved specimens in col-
    systematics to society is now greater than ever,    lections, but who also works in the field and in the
    only a handful of graduate university departments    laboratory studying whatever phase of morphology,
    in the United States and Canada are now strong    physiology, ecology, behavior, biogeography, and
    in systematics. These departments have to be' asso-   life history contributes to a fuller quantitative under-
    ciated in some way with research  collections to    standing of the likenesses, differences, groupings,
    conduct their teaching and research; and whereas    and evolution of the species of his specialty (Turner,
    several state universities and colleges used to main-    1974). Mayr (1969) notes that the systematist has
    tain museums with biological research collections,    every reason to be optimistic about the future of
    few do now because of funding problems: Default    his field. The laudable efforts of the Association of
    in this area has thus led to surrender of important    Systematics Collections may help to materialize this
    regional collections to the United States National    optimism. For the moment, though, we have to
    Museum. The result of this drift in collections has    agree with Redfield's (1958) observation for an
    been to remove resource materials from new scholars    earlier period, that "The line of advance in taxo-
    to some degree and to widen the split between edu-    nomic knowledge is held by a perilously thin force
    cational opportunity and young-biologists who could    of specialists."
    participate in this discipline. Many who become            With growth and strengthening of biological re-
    taxonomists, therefore, do so in spite of these diffi-   search, has come increased usage of systematics
    culties, or are self-trained (Mosquin, 1971; Watling,    collections. Researchers in increasing numbers are
    1974; Williams, 1974).                                   visiting the few systematics collections in their spe-
      Systematists at the doctoral level require many    cialties; The number of loans of specimens similarly
    years of training. Most rarely wish to devote full    has grown. Burgeoning collections and loan requests
    time, or even part time, to the service aspects of    are outstripping staff capabilities. Nearly  every
    systematics, particularly since such services are not    major institution responsible for major systematics
    professionally satisfying and have seldom been finan-    collections is crowded, and space is inadequate for
    cially compensated. Hopefully, with growing na-    effective research and efficient care of specimens.
    tional recognition of the importance of systematics,    A further depreciating factor is the prevalent short-
    more systematists will be encouraged to participate    age of clerical� and subprofcssional help, especially
    in service'oriented investigations; the resulting serv-    in institutions having ambitious systematic pro-
    ice resources (keys, inanuals, monographs, computer    grams and limited finances (Schmitt, 1953). It is
    programs, and so on) then being turned over to    thus no surprise that systematics collections are
    technical taxonomically trained assistants to carry    deteriorating. To all of this must be added the factor
    out the service activities. It is important that the    of inflation which results in lowered income.
    significant role of taxonomic assistants be fully
    recognized, and that they become the major working
    force in taxonomic' service centers under the direction
                  of professional supervisors.               tfication of estuarine and coastal organisms have
      Since the number of pure research positions in    greatly accelerated, present trends in systematics
      Since the number of pure research positions in
    systematics iS limited and most systematists earn
                        *  i      s       7 limitd ad ms l e.  Relative to the population growth of the country,
    their living as teachers, curators, members of identi-    (a)    there      a r      e fewer highly  trained- systeatists;
                                                            (a) there are fewer highly trained- systematists;
    fication services, or in other' branches of biology,
                                                            (b) there is a significant decline in the number of
    the borderlirfe between systeematists and other biol-
    the borderline betcween systematists and other bil-   practicing taxonomists (Higgins, 1974); (c) there
    ogists has' blurred. This is providing opportunity in    is less financial support for them and for systematic
    systematics for biologists of varied interests (Mayr,    activities ina all institutions; (d) there are fewer
                                                           activities in all institutions; (d) there are fewer
    1969). Many ecologists are a good example. Because    positions and (e) training opportunities; and (f)
    of the scarcity 'of systematists, -identification has    there is a  sc   a rcity of jo urnals inwhiclt  publish
                                                           there is a scarcity of journals in' which to publish
    fallen increasingly on the ecologist, and as a conse-    (Gosline, 1974).
    quence some have become highly-proficien            t in the  It is increasingly difficult to have organisms iden-
    systematics relating to their field of research. The    tified; capable systematists are so much in demand
    blending of systematics with closely related disci-    that they give service only to a selected few, gener-
    plines, both as pure science and in its application,    ally with preference to those who furnish specimens
    augurs well for the future of'systematists. So does    which remain in their collections or new species

                                           RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                           501

    that are to be described (Allen, 1974; Tarzwell,    is to be. made  (Federal Water Pollution Control
    1974).                                                  Act, Amendments of 1972, Public Law 92-500, Sec-
      The fate of biological collections in colleges and    tion 316(a),; see also Section 102(a) and Hedgpeth,
    universities depends to a deplorable extent upon the    1973). The legislation. implies the need for identifi-,
    research emphasis of the moment. As responsible    cation and classification of organisms, both target
    personnel move to other institutions, collections are    and non-target species, involved in analysis of the
    left in grave danger, or they are turned over to the    biological impact of pollutants. By way of example,
    large museums and herbaria of the country. These    consider the voluminous reports which have ap-
    changes invariably occur without increase of their    peared on such subjects as ecological effects of pesti-
    supportive resources. As a consequence these large    cides on non-target species (Pimentel, 1971) and
    institutions are increasingly charged with carrying    data on water quality criteria (Batelle, 1971; NAS-
    out and supporting systematic biology. At least one    NAE, 1972). As of this date, however, this emphasis
    danger of this trend is the weakening of instruction    of the federal legislation has not resulted in con-
    in systematic biology and thus the balanced and    spicuous financial support for systematic work on
    orderly development of the science of biology itself    any of the important taxa.
    (Schmidt, 1952).                                          It is certain that requirements for identification
      Progress has been made in some aspects of sys-    of biota will not only continue, but will increase,
    tematics, but serious setbacks have occurred in    because of the escalating concern of many agencies
    others. For example, there has been increased empha-    and the public with problems and issues of environ-
    sis on the taxonomy of both phytoplankton (espe-    mental quality. Emphasis  at the moment reflects
    cially nanoplankton)  and zooplankton (especially    needs anticipated and created by the energy crisis.
    larval forms and their developmental stages), but    Other issues concern mercury, lead, asbestos, PCB's,
    the systematics of nematodes which, appear to be    NTA, and oil spills (for example, see Eisler, 1973).
    the most abundant of the metazoans and are prob-    It is certain new concerns will emerge in the future.
    ably the most diverse in number of species, has    Specimens in museums, herbaria, and live culture
    hardly progressed from the status of 19th century    collections, and those made  to meet immediate
    science (Murphy, 1974).                                 needs, will continue to provide baseline data prior
      There is a definite, healthy trend toward nu-    to and following environmental alterations (Allen,
    merical taxonomy and phenetics to define species    1974). Organisms involved must thus be correctly
    assemblages, but a marked increase in casual iden-    identified; if not, costly mistakes can occur. It is
    tifications in applied systematics often by ecologists    consequently with dismay that one reads: "The
    engaged in biomass and community structural stud-    taxonomic level to which animals are identified
    ies (M. Abbott, 1974).                       .          depends on, the needs, experience, and available
      Finally, Steere (1971), writing about institutions    resources" (lWeber, 1973).
    which house biological systematics  collections, re-      Adequate environmental assessment cannot be
    ports that in the previous three years, operating    obtained without-the resources of systematics col-
    expenses almost doubled, and endowment returns    lections. The Environmental Protection Agency has
    and contributions halved. Predictably this has led    made a preliminary effort to contribute toward im-
    to substandard salaries, deterioration of personnel    proving the quality of data upon which environ-
    strength (because of unchanged staff size in the    mental decisions are based (see, for example, the
    face of swelling collections and increased demands    identification manuals of Correll and Correll (1972)
    for service), reduction of activities, and deferral of    and the Smithsonian Institution (1972-1973)), but
    expansion. This situation is totally unacceptable    unfortunately these efforts are giving way increas-
    if modern biology is to' develop in these institutions    ingly to mission oriented and mandated activities
    and they are to fulfill their service roles in applied    (Allen, '1974). Also note that monitoring of biota
    systematics!                                            was 'demanded in licensing by the Atomic Energy
                                                          Commission, but there has been no. visible increase
    Water Quality Legislation                               in the demand for systematists resulting from these
    and Systematics                                         requirements' (Higgins, 1974). ,
                                                            Man. is- an organism, of course, but since he does
      Water quality legislation assures "the.protection    not generally submit' to being used as a barometer
    and propagation of a balanced, indigenous popula-    of environmental conditions, he delegates this re-
    tion of shellfish, fish, and wildlife" in any body of    sponsibility to other forms of life. This is a weighty
    water into which, for example, thermal discharge    responsibility and necessitates that the 'taxonomic

    502                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    position of his substitutes be solidly established for    tions receive inadequate financial support and are
    purposes of comparison and prediction!                  understaffed, with the result that systematics col-
                                                           lections are receiving insufficient care, are deteriorat-
    CONCERNS AND CONCLUSIONS                                ing, and the service function is suffering-the prob-
                                                           lem being seriously compounded by inflation.
      Basic and applied environmental research and its
                                                             The most pressing systematic service needs at the
    application to such practical problems as pollution,    moment are (a) well trained technicians, (b) sys-
    have grown far more rapidly than the supporting
                                                           tematists with the time to supervise them, (c) iden-
    base of systematic biology. As a consequence of this    teanatistsd (d) funds to help system (c) idensts
    deficit and the conditions described in this paper,    tficatron aids, ands to help systematis
    systematists find themselves in a paradoxical quag-    carry out ther functions and elevate systematic
    s emire. Thus, though willing, they  are unable ad e- obiology to the position where it can more effectively
    mire. Thus, though willing, they are unable ade-
    quately to fill the needs of environmental biologists,    contribute  a             nd t o soc iety.
    pollution scientists, and others for systematic serv-ative th                        at everything possible be done,
                 ices. The concerns may be summarized as follows:  not only to conserve the human and material system-
                                                           atic resources already existing, but also to support
      1) There is an increasing shortage of systematists    and encourage further development  of these re-
    to handle and supervise identifications and classifi-   sources in a hospitable climate, appreciatively recog-
    cations; as a consequence, more and more inade-    nizing the economic and intrinsic worth of their
    quately trained persons are performing this service;    contributions. The tasks facing systematists are
      2) There is an insufficient number of systematists    unquestionably monumental and long-term.
    to conduct the basic research necessary to produce
    the systematic tools required in applied systematic    RECOMMENDATIONS
    biology;
      3) Identification and classification aids are inade-    The following recommendations are offered to
    quate or insufficient for most taxa, and are entirely    maximize the service role of biological systematics
    missing for others;                                     in the assessment of the effects of pollution on the
      4) The number of taxonomically well-trained    biological utilization of estuaries and coastal waters
    technicians to relieve systematists of the work of   in the United States:
    routine identification is grossly insufficient;
      5) Compensation to systematic specialists for           (1) A major, national, coherent force working in
    taxonomic services is generally nonexistent, a lack    behalf of systematics in the country is the Associa-
    foreign to professional services in other scientific    tion for Systematics Collections. The ASC estimates
    and engineering fields;                                 that it will cost $63.3 million in the next five years
      6) There is a total absence of current directories    to effect its national plan for the conservation and
    of systematic specialists, identification service cen-    development of systematics collections as a national
    ters, identification aids, and a national computerized    resource and service (Irwin et al., 1973). The various
    storage-retrieval system for the systematic resources    councils of the ASC are now preparing proposals
    of the nation;                                          for financial support to carry out the plan. We urge
      7) Both young and experienced systematists find    federal and private agencies to look with favor on
    it increasingly difficult to obtain positions in their    these proposals. A unique feature of the ASC plan
    fields of specialization;                               is its integrated national character, a necessary
      8) Young people are unable to obtain training in    attribute to provide systematic services in any estu-
    systematics in most colleges and universities where    ary or coastal area in the country. Support must
    the field receives decreasing emphasis and support;     go to aid in the development of aspects of the plan
      9) Valuable representative collections from envi-    as a whole, rather than for parochial units of re-
    ronmental studies are discarded or lost, and no    stricted regional interest. In view of the increasing
    voucher specimens are reposited in museums and    number of persons who are making professional
    herbaria for future reference;                          identifications without the advantage of adequate
      10) Environmental agencies have paid lip service    training, we further urge the ASC to establish a
    to the importance of systematics in environmental    roster of persons qualified to make service identifica-
    work, but have not provided the financial support    tions in the various groups of organisms.
    necessary to help prepare systematics more effec-          (2) In the face of growing, critical, environmental
    tively for this role;                                   problems in estuaries and coastal waters, institu-
      11) Most museums, herbaria, and living collec-    tions and agencies will accelerate their search for

                                               RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                              503

    financial support through grants and contracts to    cantly aid in the identification and control of pollu-
    attack these problems. In the interest of aiding the    tion is known. Moreover, completion of the task of
    service aspects of systematics, we  urge funding    identification of most undescribed species will re-
    agencies to look favorably upon requests involving:    quire several more generations. We thus urge that
    (a) compensation to systematic specialists in the    adequate support for systematics be sustained for
    private sector for identifications and confirmation    many years to come, allowing the maximum return
    of identifications; (b) proper curation of biological    on the investment in terms of basic systematic
    research collections resulting from environmental    knowledge and taxonomic services.
    and other broad investigations to serve as voucher
    specimens;  (c) services for taxonomically trained
    assistants; (d) enlargement of identification service    REFERENCES
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                                                  RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                                    505

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                                                                     Power Commission, Washington, D.C.
    O'Connor, J. 1975. Personal communication. NOAA, Stony
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    Odum, W. E. 1970. Insidious alteration of the estuarine en-
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    Olson, T. A. and F. J. Burgess (ed). 1967. Pollution and
      marine ecology. Interscience Publishers, N.Y.                 Smith, R. I. and J. P. Carlton (ed). 1975. Light's Manual.
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      Abstracts. Ann Arbor Science Publ., Inc.                          I would like to express my gratitude to the following persons
                                                                   for valuable assistance in the preparation of the manuscript:
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    Woodwell, G. M. 1969. Diversity and stability in ecological    Austin B. Williams.
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      Brookhaven Symposia in Biology no. 22: 1-264.                     Marine Studies.

    BACTERIA AND VIRUSES-INDICATORS
    OF UNNATURAL ENVIRONMENTAL
    CHANGES OCCURRING IN
    THE NATION'S ESTUARIES

    DR. RITA R. COLWELL
    University of Maryland
    College Park, Maryland

                ABSTRACT
                Microorganisms are useful indicators of alterations in the natural environment. As presently
                employed, however, "indicator organisms" such as fecal coliforms and total coliforms have severe
                limitations. Other organisms have been proposed in recent years as potential indicator organisms,
                viz., streptococci, clostridia, and pseudomonads. The indicator organism concept is reviewed
                and recommendations for future studies are made. In particular, detection, isolation, and identi-
                fication of viruses, effects of pollutants on the natural microbial flora, and reevaluation of microbial
                indicators are critical areas requiring research.

    INTRODUCTION                                             in proper balance, permit normal algal productivity
                                                          which, in turn, supports animal life.
      The bacteria, yeasts, and fungi naturally present        Changes in environmental conditions may cause
    in waters and sediments play an essential role in    more subtle effects on the normal microbial flora,
    the mineralization and cycling of nutrients necessary    leading to such conditions as increased disease in
    for normal plant and animal growth. A variety of    many resident fish species or unpleasant anoxic con-
    microorganisms may appear in given ecosystems    ditions arising from hydrogen sulfide production.
    from time to time because of the ubiquity of many
    bacterial species; in general, the normal flora of the
    aquatic habitat is distinguishable from bacteria asso-    INDICATOR ORGANISMS
    ciated with warm-blooded animals and man. More-
    over, the numbers and types of bacteria present in         In the case of microorganisms, indicators are usu-
    the natural habitat are generally in balance so that    ally considered in relation to human health risk.
    conditions are stable within recognizable, normal    The most common forms of water-borne human
    levels. When abnormal conditions occur, changes    disease are caused by bacteria excreted from the
    in the microbial populations will ensue. For exam-    intestines of man and warm-blooded animals. Fecal
    pie, with pollution from domestic or farm animals,    contamination is recognized as dangerous. However,
    influx from wastewater treatment plants, and so    pathogens normally are present in small numbers
    forth, the number of bacteria of animal or human    and are difficult to culture and identify. Thus, the
    origin increases. Hence,  a hazard to man  may    more easily identified organisms that are commonly
    develop.                                                 and specifically present in feces serve as indicator
      Estuarine eutrophication and coastal pollution    organisms. The most widely used are the so-called
    pose increasingly serious environmental problems.    coliform bacteria, with Escherichia coli or the less
    Nutrient loads in estuaries are based on watershed    specifically fecal coliforms being tested for in most
    characteristics, influent stream concentrations, and    cases.
    overall watershed management policies. The role of         Thus, for well over a hundred years, bacteria
    microorganisms, in particular the bacteria, is to    have been used as indicators of unnatural or un-
    break down the dead organic material and wastes    desirable environmental conditions, mainly as indi-
    so that organic nutrients necessary for plant growth    cators of human health hazards, i.e., warning signs
    are provided and organic wastes are removed by    that potential human pathogens may be present.
    mineralization. Thus, the role of the bacteria, yeasts,    In 1885 Escherich described the bacterial species
    and fungi, is, simply stated, to keep the wheel of    he believed to be characteristic of human feces and,
    nature turning by recycling complex organic and    therefore, an indicator of fecal pollution. The bac-
    inorganic materials. Nutrients, in moderation and    terial species of Escherich is now classified in the

                                                                                                        507

    508                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    Escherichia-Enterobacter group and comprises, with    levels. The isolation of enterococci from nature has
    other species, the complex now referred to as the    been enhanced by improved methods and media for
    coliform group. These organisms are to this day the   isolation. For example, azide dextrose broth, used
    indicator microorganisms employed by authorities    as a presumptive test, and ethyl violet azide broth,
    in determining rate and extent of pollution from    a confirmation test, permit two to three orders of
    domestic sewage.                                       magnitude improvement in the isolation and iden-
      Eijkman, in his studies carried out over 70 years   tification of enterococci (Litsky et al., 1i955).
    ago, recommended an elevated temperature incuba-         A variety of pathogenic microorganisms may be
    tion test that gave a positive reaction with fecal   present in the feces of warm-blooded animals, viz.,
    coliform organisms and a negative reaction with    Brucella, Salmonella, Shigella spp., Mycobacterium
    those of non-fecal origin (Eijkman, 1904). The    tuberculosis, Pasteurella, Leptospira, Vibrio cholerae,
    Eijkman test procedure is the basis of the EC test,   Entamoeba histolytica, and various enteric viruses.
    which is widely used to detect fecal coliforms. Un-    Most of these genera noted are present in the feces
    fortunately, no test is available for differentiating   of diseased animals. Hence, the main factor involved
    coliforms of human  versus animal  origin. The    is the occurrence in a population and shedding of
    Eijkman test, however, does indicate fecal coli-   the microorganisms into water via feces. Thus, the
    forms. The generally accepted principle is that the    density of pathogens in the aqueous environment is
    presence of fecal coliforms indicates the potential   affected by a variety of factors: (a) type and degree
    presence of disease-producing microbes (Kabler et   of sewage treatment; (b) ability of microorganisms
    al., 1964).                                           to survive the effects of antibiosis, predation, and
      Present methods depend on enumeration of lactose-    chemical nature of the water; (c) dietary habits
    fermenting bacteria by an MPN procedure and fur-   and socio-economic status of the community; (d)
    ther biochemical testing to establish whether these    the prevalence of specific disease in the community;
    organisms are coliforms, fecal coliforms, or E. coli.   (e) endemic conditions in the human and animal
    General standards have been developed to relate   population; and (f) existent carrier rates in the pop-
    the quantitative occurrence of these various types    ulation (Brezenski and Russomanno, 1969). There-
    to presumed acceptable or unacceptable levels of   fore, the introduction of specific pathogens via
    fecal contamination (Hoskins, 1934; Geldreich et    sewage or runoff into estuaries and coastal waters
    al., 1962).                                           is not constant, but rather tends to be intermittent.
      Streptococcus spp. known as enterococci occur in   With the uneven microorganism distribution in
    the gut of warm-blooded animals and man. Studies    water, coupled with effects of dilution and environ-
    of streptococci in water and sewage have shown that    mental parameters, such as temperature and salinity,
    these organisms can serve as indicators of fecal pol-   the density and distribution of pathogenic micro-
    lution. The sanitary significance of fecal streptococci   organisms has resulted in the search for indicator
    has been clarified and these bacteria can now be    organisms, as opposed to looking for the individual
    efficiently and accurately enumerated in water sam-    pathogen. More accurate and simplified techniques
    ples. All of the species or types of fecal streptococci   for the isolation of Salmonella have been developed
    found in feces of human beings and animals can be    in recent years so that confirmation of Salmonella
    isolated from sewage and water contaminated with    can be achieved (Cheng et al., 1971). Despite the
    sewage, including estuarine  and  coastal waters    fact that detection methods for Salmonella have
    (Bartley and Slanetz, 1960). A definite relationship    been improved, they are still likely to be missed.
    between the densities of coliform bacteria and en-       Where the bacteriological quality of the water is
    terococci in sewage has long been known (Litsky    poor, fecal coliforms and salmonellae can be isolated.
    et al., 1953). In fact, an increase in the coliform    Often in estuaries and coastal waters, wild fowl
    index is generally followed by a predictable increase   will contribute to the salmonellae population load
    in the enterococcus index, with a direct relationship    (Strobel, 1968). Salmonella, in recent years, have
    between the numbers of coliform bacteria and en-   been directly isolated from polluted tidal estuaries,
    terococci. Unfortunately, enterococci are found else-   but at low percentage recovery, i.e., 1 to 200'fecal
    where in nature, occurring on plants, in dairy    coliforms (Brezenski and Russomanno, 1969). Ne-
    products, and so forth, so that sources of these   vertheless, the prevalence of Salmonellac is greater
    microorganisms must be carefully scrutinized at each    than previously thought to be. Factors, such as
    time of assessment (Mundt, 1964; Geldreich et al.,   salinity, temperature, and others associated with
    1964). Because of their resistance to adverse condi-    the saline environment cannot be depended upon
    tions, enterococci are fairly widespread. Therefore,    to eliminate such pathogens. Greater survival of
    one must expect, and deal with, higher "natural"    salmonellae and fecal coliforms in shellfish, when

                                           RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                         509

    the water temperature reaches below 5�C, has been    ecosystem monitoring on a long-term basis, which
    observed by several workers. Clearly, isolation of   would help to clarify the role of these organisms, is
    salmonella from a polluted marine environment has    lacking.
    been improved by application of better techniques
    and enrichment media (Grunnet et al., 1970). How-
                                                          Improved Detection of
    ever, these pathogens, because of the complexity of    Indicator Organisms
    the methods required for isolation and identifica-
    tion, are not ordinarily searched for in an analysis     Detection of indicator organisms has improved
    of water quality.                                      considerably in recent years with the application of
      More recently the'anaerobic bacteria, i.e., the
                   More recently the anarob   batera,    , the    methods such as membrane filters (American Public
    Clostridium spp., the acid-fast bacteria, i.e., Myco-    Health Association, 1971; Presswood and Brown,
    bacterium spp., and yeasts have been suggested as    1973) and development of techniques employing
    indicators of sewage pollution. Selective procedures    nonfluorescing membrane filters and specific fluo-
    for these organisms are now being developed. Rapid                                   antiserum  (Guthrie
    isolation procedures are not yet available. The major    and Reeder, 1969). Fluorescent antibody methods
    Clostridium species in polluted marine sediments    for detection of Streptococcus faecalis, Escherichia
    have been shown to be Cl. perfrtingens, Cl. bife_-  coli and Salmonella spp. are now available, improv-
    mentans and Cl. novyi, these representing 58 percent    ing speed for processing samples over conventional
    of the population and reflecting the representation    water quality tests, without loss of reliability (Ab-
    of Clostridial spp. in sewage (Matches et al., 1974).   shire and Guthrie, 1972).
    Cl. perfringens, because it is more sewage related,      In the case of the fluorescent antibody, techniques
    appears to be of useful sanitary significance in cases
                                                          pertaining to the pathogens are more advanced than
    of high pollution levels. Similarlyj, the densities' of
            of high pollution levels. Similarly, the densities of   for the indicator bacteria, although fluorescent anti-
    yeasts in sewage and in polluted waters have been    body methods for the detection of fecal streptococci
    shown to be high, with Candida tropicalis, Tricho-   have been developed. Recent work has demonstrated
    sporon cutaneous, and Rho~dotorula spp. potential y    the applicability of the fluorescent antibody tech-
    serving as useful indicator organisms. In fact, the    nique employing commercially available antisera
    pathogenic yeast, Candida aibicanas, has been shown    (Pugsley and Evison, 1974). This, no doubt, will
    to be a good indicator of recent human sewage    usher in a new era for the use of fecal streptococci
    pollution (Ahearne, 1973).                             in conjunction with other indicator organisms.
      Clearly, bacteria and viruses serve as indicators
    of health in estuaries and coastal waters. Many
    studies over the years have shown that under    Problems with the
    natural conditions, i.e., in areas untouched by the    Indicator Organism Concept
    activities of man, a relatively stable total microbial
    population occurs in water and sediment. Under           Confidence has been decreasing in the significance
    conditions of imbalance, microorganisms will achieve    of the coliform group as an indicator of fecal pollu-
    very. high total numbers and frequently under such    tion. In recently reported epidemics, pathogens have
    conditions will cause foul odors, unacceptable bottom    been isolated from waters which, based on coliform
    or sediment conditions, slimes fouling fish nets and    standards, should have been safe. Salmonellae have
    floating objects, and depletion of dissolved oxygen    been isolated from water supplies containing less
    in the water, thereby affecting fish and other orga-   than 2.2 coliforms per 100 ml. A number of such
    nisms. In balance, microbial populations perform a    incidences where  Salmonella and enteric viruses
    necessary function in estuaries and coastal waters.    have been isolated from waters containing few de-
    Out of balance, the viruses, bacteria, yeasts, and    tectable fecal coliforms have  been  documented
    fungi become nuisances and threaten the health of    (Bonde, 1974; Dutka, 1973; Fugate et al., 1975).
    humans and of desirable plants and animals.            The ability of coliforms to multiply in nutrient en-
      Microbial quality changes in estuarine and coastal    riched receiving waters has been. observed. The
    ecosystems may prove to be valuable indicators or   sanitary significance of fecal coliforms in the en-
    "early warning systems." However, in the case of    vironment has been considered by a number of inves-
    ecosystem components, such bacterial groups as the    tigators (Geldreich, 1966). Convincing evidence has
    sulfur bacteria, iron bacteria, blue green algae, and    been presented, showing that viruses are more re-
    so forth, have not yet been sufficiently studied to    sistant to chlorination than bacteria. Rates of growth
    be easily isolated and identified. Hence, their use    and die-off of both S. typhimurium and coliform
    as indicator organisms is limited, particularly since    organisms have been found to be different under

    510                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    varying  environmental  conditions.  Furthermore,    relationships from the data presently available has
    conditions causing large reductions in coliforms do    not been observed (Dutka, Chan and Coburn, un-
    not always show correspondingly reduced numbers    published data). Fecal sterols may well prove useful
    of Salmonella (Dutka, 1973).                           in the future as pollution indicators, but the method
      The shortcomings of the coliform group as an    will require substantial developmental research be-
    indicator of pollution have led to the increased de-    fore proper evaluation and application are possible;
    sirability of employing the streptococci as indicators
    of recent and dangerous pollution. The fecal strepto-    Natural Estuarine
    cocci rarely multiply in water, as some of the coli-   Microbial Communities
    forms have been found to do. Thus, they offer some
    advantages as indicators of recent fecal pollution.       Microorganisms autochthonous to a given estua-
    Also, it has been suggested that domestic sewage    rine system play a fundamental role in mineralization
    pollution can be differentiated from animal wastes,    and cycling of nutrients. Estimation of the microbial
    land runoff, and storm water pollution by fecal   biomass comprising the natural flora of estuaries can
    coliform-fecal streptococcus ratios (Geldreich, 1972).    be accomplished by direct counts and morphological
      In general, the fecal streptococci are more resist-    observations using acridine orange staining and epi-
    ant to the natural water environment and to purifi-   fluorescence illumination of the bacteria collected
    cation processes than the coliforms or fecal coliforms  on non-fluorescent membrane filters. Measurement
    At points distant from the original source of pol-   of the activity of microbial populations directly in
    lution, the fecal streptococci are often the only    the environment can also be accomplished using
    indicators of the fecal nature of the pollution.    methods such as uptake rates of radioactively-
    Studies have shown that the survival of fecal strep-    labeled organic substrates (Wright, 1973) The use
    tococci parallel the survival of enteric viruses better    of ATP to measure standing crops of microorganisms
    than the coliforms (Cohen and Shuval, 1973). It   is widely accepted (Holm-Hansen, 1969) and the
    has been suggested by some workers that the fecal    ATP  method  offers promise as an indicator of
    streptococci may, in some cases, provide a better
    estimate of the probable virus content (Cohen and        The role of bacteria in the detrivore food chain
                                                             The role of bacteria in the detrivore food chain
    Shuval, 1973).                    a                    is only beginning to be understood (Hamilton, 1973;
      Dissatisfaction with the fecal coliform and fecal     osswall  1973. Effects of  ollutants on these
    streptococci has led to a search for other, better    natural processes require extensive study since very
    indicators. Coliphages (bacterial viruses) have been    little information, relatively speaking, is presently
    suggested as indicators of sewage pollution. How-
    ever, no consistent relationship is observed between
    coliform and coliphage levels (Hilton and Stotzky,
    1973). Although the complexity of the bacteriophage    Deterioration of Coastal
    method and time required before final results are    and Estuarine Waters
    available discount their use as indicators of fecal
    pollution of water, bacteriophages can serve well         Many studies have shown that coliform bacteria
    as models for detection of enteric viral pollution of    introduced into tidal, coastal, and deep sea waters
    water and in epidemiological applications (Scarpino,    disappear rapidly. A large number and variety of
    1974).                                                 factors have been shown to be involved in the die-off
      Pseudomonas aeruginosa is slowly gaining favor    of coliforms, especially Escherichia coli, in seawater.
    as an indicator of water quality, especially as an    Dilution, bacteriocidal action of seawater, grazing
    indicator of potential upper respiratory tract infec-    by zooplankton, adsorption on estuarine and coastal
    tions (Foster et al., 1971; Kenner and Clark, 1974).    sediments (Ketchum et al., 1952), salinity, effect
      Relatively recent approaches to estimating bac-    of heavy metals in seawater (Jones, 1963; 1971),
    terial quality of water are uptake of phosphorus,    lysis of coliforms by indigenous marine bacteria
    using radioactive phosphorous (Khanna, 1973), and    such as Bdellovibrio spp., and bacteriophages (Mit-
    assay for fecal sterols for water pollution indication.    chell et al., 1967; Carlucci and Pramer, 1960), low
    The intestinal bacterial flora is associated with pro-    nutrient levels in seawater (Jannasch, 1968), day-
    duction of characteristic fecal sterols discharged in   light (Pike et al., 1970) and temperature have been
    feces (Martin et al., 1973). Fecal compounds, in par-    offered as explanation for the die-off of E. coli in
    ticular coprostanol and cholesterol, thus, have been    seawater and for the absence of fecal coliforms in
    examined and a coliform-coprostanol relationship    ocean locations far from land. Nutrients have a
    has been reported. However, a consistency in the    marked beneficial effect on the survival of E. coli

                                            RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                          511

    in seawater. Some nutrients, such as cysteine, very    ating water chemistry, organic pollutants, and so on
    likely act by  chelating metal ions in seawater    (Wedemyer and Wood, 1974). If the occurrence of
    (Scarpino and Pramer, 1962).                            stress coincides with the presence of pathogenic
      Furthermore, above certain BOD levels, viz. 1-10    microorganisms, outbreaks of disease will occur. In-
    mg/l initial BOD, seawater will temporarily lose its   terestingly, in treated sewage the number of coli-
    toxicity and the maximum bacterial density becomes    forms is reduced, but in the bacterial population, the
    dependent on the initial BOD. In fresh seawater    coliforms appear to be replaced by Aeromonas which
    with BOD levels of 10 to 120 mg/l, the relationship    multiply in the slime lining of the pipes carrying
    between the log of the maximum bacterial densities    the  sewage  (Heuschmann-Brunner,  1970).  The
    and the initial BOD appears to be linear. Thus, by    quantity of Aeromonas in water can be related to
    themselves, total and fecal coliform bacteria may    the degree of pollution. Many Aeromonas, Pseudo-
    not be reliable indicators of the degree of recent    monas, and Vibrio species are bacterial fish patho-
    fecal pollution in seawater because, given sufficient    gens. Marine fishes in areas exposed to pollution
    nutrient levels, the bacterial density will increase    have been reported to show exophthalmus, open
    (Savage and Hanes,  1971). Growth of coliform    external sores, epitheliomas, and papillomas. In
    bacteria, isolated from soft-shelled clams, in estua-    fishes experimentally exposed to the polluted water,
    rine water has been demonstrated (Lear, 1962). The    skin hemorrhages, opaqueness of eyes, and blindness
    conclusion which can be drawn from the data avail-    were observed. In terminal stages fluid accumulated
    able is that the various factors in seawater which,    in the body cavity and internal hemorrhaging oc-
    under clean, unpolluted conditions, will act to elimi-    curred.' Aeromonas, Pseudomonas and Vibrio were
    nate coliforms from estuarine and coastal waters    isolated from the diseased fishes. All strains isolated
    cannot be depended upon in waters receiving heavy    from marine fishes were halophilic (Snieszko, 1974).
    nutrient input. In fact, increases in coliform popula-    The conclusion, therefore, is that there is a relation-
    tions will occur and it is possible that survival of    ship between incidence of disease in fish populations
    pathogens may be enhanced.                              and pollution of estuarine and coastal waters with
      A signal to this effect is the relative ease with    domestic and industrial sewage. A weakening of the
    which antibiotic-resistant coliforms can be isolated   fish, with subsequent invasion by microorganisms,
    from estuaries and coastal waters  (Colwell and    causing disease and/or death, appears to be related
    Sizemore, 1974; Feary et al., 1972). Many of these    to pollution. Unfortunately, in several incidences,
    bacteria have been shown to harbor R factors carry-    widespread distribution and prevalence of Aero-
    ing multiple antibiotic resistance which could be    monas spp. was noted with a general lack of coliforms
    transferred to sensitive Salmonella typhimurium,    and other sewage-related organisms. Recovery of
    Shigella dysenteriae, and E. coli. Of serious concern    "almost pure cultures of Aeromonas spp." from the
    is the fact that these bacteria are isolated from shell-   effluent of sewage-treatment plants has been ob-
    fish waters. Furthermore, chloramphenicol-resistant    served, particularly in estuarine water (Snieszko,
    bacteria of fecal origin may pose a particular health    1974). It can only be concluded that the incidence
    hazard, with reference to R factors which carry re-   of diseases of aquatic animals in which Aeromonas
    sistance determinants to chloramphenicol. Transfer    plays an important role will increase. The additional
    of chloramphenicol resistance to Salmonella typhi, a    factors of low dissolved oxygen, high temperature,
    water-borne organism, or to Vibrio parahaemolyticus,    and pollution by chemicals, such as pesticides, pe-
    would make treatment of typhoid fever or V. para-    troleum, and heavy metals, must contribute to out-
    haemolyticus food poisoning more difficult. It would    breaks of infectious diseases of aquatic animals. In
    appear, therefore, wise for sanitary quality measure-    fact, fishes although long considered important ani-
    ments of shellfish waters to include estimates of    mals for assaying water pollution are becoming
    chloramphenicol-resistant fecal coliforms. An impor-    valuable indicators of the environmental health of
    tant conclusion of the work on antibiotic-resistant    bodies of water. The Chesapeake Bay is highly pol-
    types found in rivers, estuaries, and coastal waters    luted by every type of waste. Some of the waste
    is that the R + E. coli comes from urban sewage    causes eutrophication, with increase of bacteria and
    (Smith, 1970).                                          algae and oxygen depletion. Fish kills are a frequent
      The coincidence of infectious disease in fishes    occurrence, particularly in summer months. Epi-
    with stress caused by temperature, eutrophication,    demics causing massive mortalities of fish in Chesa-
    sewage, industrial pollution, and pesticides has been    peake Bay have been recorded (Snieszko, 1974).
    documented (Snieszko, 1974). Estuaries and coastal        Deterioration of estuarine and coastal waters can
    areas affected by pollution expose the fish in these    be detected in increased nutrient input, with con-
    areas to frequent stresses, i.e., unfavorable or fluctu-    comitant rise in indicator or noxious microorganisms,

    512                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    and in increased prevalence of disease among compo-    ents can allow growth of this microorganism. Aero-
    nents of the natural biota, especially the commercial    monas, fecal streptococci, Clostridium perfringens,
    fishes.                                                 Bifidobacterium, Bacillus, Thiobacillus, and direct
                                                          demonstration of Salmonella spp. have all been sug-
                                                          gested as indicator organisms. A  conclusion that
                                                          can be drawn from the data available in the liter-
    Indicator Organisms                                     ature is that all of these indicators should be con-
                                                          sidered and that more than one indicator organism
      The value of the coliform test as the principal    should be examined  That is,ed two  r more indicator
    microbiological criterion for sanitary quality of estu-    species should be enumerated to improve the reli-
                 arine and coastal waters is a controversial issue    ability of estimating pollution and/or human health
    arine and coastal waters is a controversial issue.
                                                          hazard.
    indicator of fresh fecal pollution,-rather than total     Survival of pathoens and indicator organisms in
    colifdoroms  It is quesctionable whether colifors can    estuarine and marine water and sediment is an im-
    coliforms. It is questionable whether coliforni can     portant problem. Fecal streptoc'occi are supposed
    be regarded as true indicators of fecal pollution at    portant problem  Fecal streptococci are supposed
    all (Bonde, :1974).                                     to indicate recent fecal pollution and Cl. perfringens,
      Results obtained from Most Probable Numbers    because of its spore-forming capacity is considered
    (MPN)  measurements have not been sufficiently    to be highly resistant, hence of longer survival in
    examined to determine the variability of MPN data       nature. Coliforms and Salmonella typhi often survive
                                                          in sediment much longer than in the overlying water.
    Results obtained from the same area at short inter-   in sediment much longer than in the overlying water.
    vals of time, i.e., hours, need to be examined criti-    The distribution in mud reflects the effluent flow
    cally. If such results are extremely variable, the    pattern in the overlying water, with much higher
    value of monitoring MPN on daily or weekly inter-    densities of coliforms found in mud. Salmonellae
    vals is highly doubtful,                                can be isolated from bottom sediments with far
      There is no single test for the coliforms. Since    greater frequency than directly from the overlying
    most of the E. coli strains ferment lactose, with    water (Van Donsel and Geldreich, 1971; Hendricks,
    production of acid and gas, this characteristic is   1971). However, it should be pointed outthat the
    useful in presumptive, quantitative determinations.    mud-water interface is not a static system' Cur-
    Unfortunately, recent work in microbial genetics has    rents, storms, seasonal turnovers, and dredging op-
    shown that not all strains of B. colz are; able to    erations can shift sediment, scattering it widely.
    ferment lactose. Furthermore, this characteristic is   Such redistribution creates the additional hazard of
    not restricted to E. coli and may be found in other    recirculation of older pollutants in lower layers of
    related bacteria often present in polluted waters.    sediment. This, coupled with the fact that sediment
    Hence, false presumptive tests are not infrequent.    bacteria are part of the diet of tubificid worms and
    Another difficulty is that coliforms may be affected    other sediment-residing biota, provides a mechanism
    by their stay in water or sediment and may grow    of concentration and transfer of coliforms and poten-
    slowly or even lose some of their "typical" character-    tial pathogens among the indigenous fauna (Wavre
    istics; hence, difficulties in isolation, identification,    and Brinkhurst, 1971).
    istandienumeration are enouxtered.                         Survival of fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci
      Relatively high occurrence of "false-positives" in    varies according to season. During the summer
    MPN  estimates of fecal streptococci in estuarine    months, fecal coliforms can survive slightly longer
    and marine waters has been reported (Buck, 1969),    than fecal streptococci. During the autumn months,
    In heavily polluted marine waters, false-positives    survival is about the same and in spring and winter,
    are not a problem. Mainly in estuarine or marine    fecal streptococci may survive much longer than
    waters of low or varying salinity, all positive tubes    fecal coliforms. Withn bodies of water, thermal
    need to be examined microscopically for the pres-    transitional zones may create bacterial gradients
    ence of nonstreptococcal forms. In fact, an indige-    especially along inshore areas, acting to confine
    nous population of false-positive microorganisms    the  nearshore area. One of th e potential growths to
    may exist in coastal waters.                            the nearshore area. One of the potential hazards of
      Indicator microorganisms other than coliforms    such a thermal barrier, notably in estuaries, is that
    also pose problems. Pseudomonas spp. are widely    effuents discharged into a nearshore area are not
    distributed in nature. Determinations of P. aerugi-    diluted, as would occur under normal conditions,
    nosa, a known pathogen for man and warm-blooded    but are containe'd by the barrier effect of a thernral
    animals, have been suggested for estuarine waters    bar (Menon et al., 1971). Factors influencing the
    where high water temperatures and available nutri-    survival of enteric indicator organisms have been

                                            'RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                        513

    summarized in a recent symposium  (Gameson,    dependent upon temperature, biotic flora, degree of
    1974).                                                pollution, and virus type (Metcalf and Stiles, 1968).
                                                          A virucidal activity in seawater has been demon-
    �Viruses.                                              strated, but it may have only a minor role in inacti-
                                                          vating enteric viruses in estuarine and ocean wa-
      .During the past decade, there has been worldwide    ters
                                                            pThe importance of enteric viruses is not in their
    interest and concern that significant levels of Viruses       i                     vi
                 are being trnsmitted through potable  ndrerea    numbers but in their infectivity (Scarpino, 1974).
    are being transmitted through potable and recrea-
    tional water. Conclusive evidence for the transmis-sue-culture dose s considered to constitute
    sion of enteric viruses 'via this route lies in out-    an infectious dose, meaning that only a few virus
    breaks of infectious hepatitis, where sanitary prac-     particles are needed to initiate an infection in a
    tice or water treatment has broken down or con-    susceptible host. Thus, it has been necessary only
    aminc or wated  shellfishatment have broken consumed  (Berg, con-    to show the presence of viruses in water, with less
    taminated shellfish have been consumed  (Berg,
    1973). The opinion that viruses in estuaries and    emphasis placed on quantitation. Since enteroviruses
    coastal waters pose a threat to human health can be    of human origin in estuarine and coastal waters
    justified by the following facts. Most enteric viruses    may remain infectious for a significant peod of
    are more  resistant than indicator bacteria to in-   time, depending on environmental factors it has
    activation by water disinfectants. Infectivity tests   been suggested that enteroviruses themselves may
    have shown infection can be caused by one polio-   serve as the most valid indicator of pollution. Polio-
    virus TCD50 unit (Berg, 1971).                 a       virus and infectious hepatitis virus (hepatitis A)
      A consistently high endemic level of infectious    have both been suggested as indicator agents. Un-
    hepatitis has occurred in the U.S. with the con-   fortunately, the data show that virus inactivation
    comitant knowledge that the infectious hepatitis    or die-off in marine water is unpredictable. Marine
    comitants relatively resistant to inactivation in the    water with the same salinity collected from the same
    agqutic envir ent. Sp rradic outbreaks of non-    site on different days may show wide variations in
    aquatic environment. Sporadic outbreaks of non-
    bacterial gastroenteritis suspected of being water-   viral survival patterns (Atkins et al., 1974).
    borne have occurred, coupled with -a most likely         Thus, the major effort, at present, in research on
    high endemic level of the disease. Finally, surface-   water-borne viruses is in development of sensitive
    water domestichpolution has increased to the point    methods for recovering viruses from marine waters
    water domestic pollution has increased to the point
    that direct recycling of wastewater and reclamation    an      deterent  g  times of water (Berg, 1974; Malina and
    of estuarine waters is very nearly a reality in the    in different types of water (Berg, 1974;    in and
    -case of some water systems (Akin et al., 1974).    Sagik, 1974). Monitoring of estuarine and coastal
    Clearly, the danger of water transmission of enteric    waters for enteric viruses will eventually be common-
    viral disease is great enough to warrant the more    place. For the present, routine monitoring of potable
    careful consideration viruses are now receiving.       Water and wastewater for enteric viruses is yet to
      More than 100 new human enteric viruses have    be accomplished on a large scale.
    been described in the 25 years since the advent of       Methods available to detect   uses in water
    viral propagation techniques using tissue cultures    are many and varied, including gauze pads for
    (Scarpino, 1974). All of these enteric viruses are    pre-concentration in situ; membrane filter adsorp-
    known to be excreted in quantity in the feces of   tion; electrophoresis; ultrafiltration hydroextraetion;
    man, including enteroviruses (poliovirus, coxsackie-   precipitation, adsorption-elution; separation with
    virus, and echovirus),u infectious hepatitis, adeno-    two-phase polymers; soluble ultrafilter; and ultra-
    viruses, and reoviruses. Vfciruses do not multiply    centrifugation (Foliguet et al., 1973; Hill et al.,
    outside  of lireoving suseptibe ells;do  not  multiply    1971). The main problem in virus isolation, namely,
    outside of living susceptible cells; hence, human    the large volumes of water that must be examined
    enteric viruses can be expected to decrease in num-    (      up to 100 liters p er    s ampling) appears to have been
    bers with time, even when nutrient levels are high.
    hjers with time, even when nutrient levels are high.    (up to 100 liters per sampling) appears to have been
    However, the major question is how long will human    Overcome (Hill et al., 1972; Sobsey et al., 1973). A
    enteric viruses 'survive when discharged into estua-   virus concentration unit, designed by Melnick and
    rine and coastal waters. The plesence of enteric    co-workers, is being used for virus monitoring in
    viruses in estuarine and ocean waters has been    water supplies throughout the world. At the Inter-
    amply documented (Metcalf and Stiles, 1965, 1968;    national Conference on Viruses rand Water, Mexico
    -Shuval, 1970).. Survival of enteroviruses  in the    City, June 9-12, 1974, it was clear that adequate
    marine environment has been demonstrated by a    methods for concentrating large volumes of water
    �number :of investigators. Enteric virus survival in   for enterovirus monitoring are now available.
    estuary and ocean waters has been shown to be            In general, the methodology for isolation and

    5i4                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    characterization of indicator viruses is in the de-    Efforts of Specific Effluents
    velopmental stage. Perfecting these techniques is    on Microbial Populations
    the main concern of research work underway. Still
    unknown is how widespread viruses are in estuaries        Recent work has shown that in areas receiving
    and coastal waters. Also, the incidence of viral dis-    petroleum, pesticide, or heavy metal discharges, the
    eases transmitted via polluted estuarine and coastal    microbial flora contains significant petroleum-de-
    waters is not known. Some new methods for viral   grading,  pesticide-metabolizing,  or heavy-metal-
    detection may improve and speed up virus isolation    mobilizing bacteria  (Walker and  Colwell,  1973;
    and characterization, viz., the use of Australian    Nelson and Colwell, 1974). Similarly, in estuarine
    antigen as a marker for hepatitis B virus. Australian    and marine waters receiving sewage, pulp mill, or
    antigen has already been isolated from clams con-    canning wastes, the heterotrophic bacterial popula-
    taminated by untreated sewage from a coastal hos-    tions increase significantly. The point which can be
    pital (Mahoney et al., 1974). Other such markers    made is that these respondent bacterial species may
    may be discovered as research on the enteroviruses    be usefully employed as markers or indicators of
    progresses. Survival of viruses in estuarine and    such pollution.  Little research effort has been
    coastal waters remains to be fully clarified. There    directed explicitly along this line. It is suggested that
    is no doubt but that research to answer these ques-    such efforts may prove substantially rewarding for
    tions must be done.                                     those concerned with chronic, low-level environ-
                                                         mental impact, where the grosser symptoms of
                                                          environmental deterioration are not seen.
    Alteration of the                                         Implicit in such an application is,: however, that
    Natural Microbial Flora                                 extensive and relatively complete knowledge of the
                                                         natural microbial flora is available. Alas, this is
                                                         not so and, again, the plea which is now nearly a
      An aspect of the ecology of estuarine and marine    cacophonic chorus, sung by botanists, zoonelogists,
                                                    nis k cacophonic chorus, sung by botanists, zoologists,
    waters, about which next to nothing is known, is   limnologists,  oceanographers,  and,  now,  micro-
    the alteration of the natural microbial flora induced
                                                         biologists, is that baseline studies must be done.
    by introduction of pollutants. That bacterial species    Numerous studies and countless analyses have been
    in an estuary demonstrate seasonal cycles has been    discarded due to the lack of the necessary baseline
    shown (Kaneko and Colwell, 1972). It is logical to    data. It is of great importance that the yardstick
    assume that microorganisms associated with the    for measurement is available and that yardstick is
    biota, water, and sediment of estuaries and coastal    baseline data. Unpolluted environments, as well as
    waters are in a delicate balance.
                                                         polluted ones, must be studied to determine the
      Introduction of sewage, industrial wastes, or other    natural balance of the autochthonous microbial
    pollutants will first impact upon the microffora. The    species, so that impacts of pollutants can be assessed.
    microbial response is very rapid, within hours or
    days, at the most. A shifting of microbial species    pollutants as heavy metals, or serve to pass polluting
    and physiological types will occur in response to    materials on through the food chain, especially in
    the influx. Species selection will take place, as, for    the case of filter or detritus feeders and protozoans
    example, the dominance of Aeromonas spp. in sewage    (Wavre and Brinkhurst, 1971; Burke, Small, and
    effluent. The effects of such shifts in the microbial   (Cowell in press)
    populations are completely unknown.  Yet, they
    may result in fish kills, clam mortalities, marsh grass
    diseases, and noxious odors and appearance of the    EVALUATION OF PRESENT STATUS
    receiving waters.                                       AND RECENT ADVANCES
      Microbial populations may well prove to be the
    "fine-tuning" mechanism of the estuarine and marine       There have been improvements in the methods of
    ecosystem. However, not enough research is being    isolation  and  characterization  of the  indicator
    done to provide the necessary information. Since    organisms of human health significance, namely,
    new methods for automating microbial data collec-    E. coli Type I, Salmonella, Enterococci, GClostridia,
    tion and processing by computer have been devel-    and Enteroviruses. However, the concept of a single
    oped (Oliver and Colwell, 1974), such questions are    indicator organism as the measuring unit for the
    no longer so overwhelmingly complex and, in fact,    health of an estuarine or coastal ecosystem is in
    can be answered, if the proper research effort is   dispute. The indicator organisms are each subject to
    provided.                                               the vagaries of environmental and-biological param-

                                           RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                          515

    eters, so that consistent results in survival studies    accumulations of residues of these pollutants may
    are not always obtained. Enteroviruses appear to    be building up, especially in the sediments at these
    be the better indicators of human health hazard    sites.
    but the technology of virus isolation and char-
    acterization is cumbersome and complex, too much    FUTURE NEEDS
    so for routine monitoring applications.
      Indicator organisms for measuring the health of         1. The indicator organism concept must be revised.
    the ecosystem itself are not available although    For indications of public health dangers, combina-
    biological assessment of water pollution has been    tions of indicator organisms should be employed,
    studied in Central Europe, comprising a saprobity    viz., fecal coliforms, enterococci and Clostridia, or
    system (Bick, 1963). Estuarine and marine microbial    fecal coliforms and enteroviruses, and others. The
    ecology, in fact, is still in its infancy, relative to    advantages and disadvantages of each indicator
    molecular and medical microbiology. Understanding    organism should be determined so that they may be
    of the role of microorganisms in the food chain is   applied more intelligently to environmental assess-
    sparse and unreliable, at best. Too few competent    ment.
    experiments have been done and much too little
                                                            Additional indicator organisms must be sought
    igformation is available on this very important    which will point to ecosystem alteration. These may
    aspect of the estuarine and marine ecosystem.           be sulfur bacteria, iron bacteria, Aeromonas spp., or
    * It is obvious that microorganisms are expected to    physiological groups, such as mercury-mobilizing
    degrade the pesticides, heavy metal compounds,    bacteria  or  detergent-degrading  microorganisms.
    petroleum, and other pollutants entering the estuaries    Clearly, a need for ecosystem indicators is developing
    and coastal waters. Yet, embarrassingly little is   rapidly as the demand for environmental impact
    known about the mineralization of these pollutants    assessment increases.
    in situ. It is not only the pollutants that are of great  Further research to determine the variability of
    concern, but the overall processes naturally occurring    Most Probable Number (MPN) of coliforms must
    in any body of water, as well as the processes that    be done. It is critical that the variability of this count
    occur when any perturbing force acts on the system.    be determined, especially for given sites at short
    Bodies of water are in constant flux. Clearly our    intervals, i.e., hours, so that the value of monitoring
    knowledge of processes mediated by microorganisms    MPN  on daily; weekly, or monthly bases can be
    is far too meager for appropriate management con-    properly assessed.
    siderations. Furthermore, the realization that micro-     2. Improved methods for virus isolation and
    organisms may  actually concentrate carcinogens    identification are needed. Also, an understanding of
    in  petroleum  or  convert  relatively  harmless    virus survival in estuarine and coastal waters and
    petroleum components to carcinogens is only just    sediment is required. More ominous are the human
    now being perceived by both scientists and manage-    carcinogenic viruses. The presence, survival, and
    ment.                                                   distribution of these viruses in estuarine and coastal
      The improved methods for coliform, enterococci,    waters must be assessed, particularly in those areas
    virus, Clqstridia, and other microorganism isolation    receiving pollutants which can act as co-carcinogens.
    and characterization are directly applicable for use in   3. The impact of pollutants on the biota of
    the estuarine environment, The more recent work    estuaries and coastal waters must be determined.
    on isolation of bacteria and viruses from estuarine    Reports concerning diseases of fishes near sewer
    and coastal water provide improved methodology    outfalls and in the New York Bight area are dis-
    useful in assessing the human health hazard extant    turbing. The chronic effects of sewage and indus-
    in the nation's estuaries and coastal waters.           trial wastes on the microflora should be examined.
      The information now beiqg obtained on microbial         4. There is a serious lack of knowledge of the
    mobilization of heavy metals, pesticides, detergents,    microbial contributions to the estuarine and marine
    petroleum, and other pollutants in estuaries and    ecosystems. The role of bacteria and other micro-
    coastal waters will permit better assessment of the    organisms in mineralization and cycling of nutrients
    capability of such ecosystems to withstand the influx   is, at best, vaguely understood. A great deal of re-
    of such pollutants. One result may prove to be that    search work in both basic and applied microbial
    the scope and magnitude of pollutants now entering    ecology is both necessary and urgent.
    certain of the nation's estuaries and coastal water       5. There is a genuine need for automation in our
    regions are beyond the capacity of the indigenous    warning system. The use of fluorescent antibody
    microbial populations to mineralize them; hence,    lasers or other scanning devices may provide auto-

    516                                     ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    matic warning systems. With such systems, bodies            REFERENCES
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    RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR ESTUARINE                              Berg, G. 1974. Detection of viruses in waste and other waters.
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                                                                 Cheng, C. M., W. C.-Boyle, and J. M. Goepfert. 1971. Rapid
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    intelligent use of microbial indicators and a wider
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                                                                   Soc. pp. 427-430.
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    They may well tell us more about the environment    Dutka, B. J. 1973. Coliforms are an inadequate index of 'water
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    NATIONAL ESTUARINE
    MONITORING PROGRAM

    PHILIP A. BUTLER
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
    Gulf Breeze, Florida

                ABSTRACT
                About 8,000 samples of estuarine molluscs were monitored for pesticide residues in the period
                 1965-1972. Residue trends and typical pollution situations are briefly described. Beginning in
                 1972, fish were substituted for molluscs. The basic needs for a continuing monitoring program
                are described.

    INTRODUCTION                                           point that estuarine molluscs could be utilized as
                                                          biological tools to monitor levels of synthetic chlo-
      The importance of estuaries as either temporary or    rinated pesticides in the field (Butler, 1967). It was
    permanent homes for a majority of the commercially    recognized that residue data from field samples would
    important fish and shellfish led to numerous early    not be entirely comparable to data obtained in
    studies on man-induced changes that might affect the    laboratory exposure tests. Still, within certain limits,
    viability of these essential ecosystems. Preeminent    field data would indicate the kinds of pollutants
    among early studies were efforts to define the role of    present and whether the levels of contamination
    persistent pesticides which could collect in or pass    posed a threat to the biota or to human health.
    through estuarine systems in surface runoff from          in July 1965, the Gulf Breeze Environmental
    rivers to the sea.                                     Research Laboratory, at the time part of Interior's
      Concern about the potential threat of such pollu-    Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, initiated a com-
    tants in the marine environment was heightened    prehensive estuarine monitoring program in coopera-
    by the occurrence of significant kills of fish and other    tion with other federal and state agencies in 15
    non-target organisms in rivers and tidal marsh areas.    coastal states.
    That such kills were primarily accidental did not         Laboratory studies had  shown  that molluscs
    decrease the possibility that less obvious but not    containing moderate pesticide residues were able to
    necessarily less significant events might be taking    eliminate them in about two weeks in the absence of
    place as a result of chronic, low levels of pesticide    continuing pesticide pollution in their environment.
    contamination in estuaries. It was not known to    Consequently, the monitoring program was organ-
    what extent such contamination might follow the    ized so as to sample oyster, mussel, or clam popula-
    use of registered synthetic chemicals for the control    tions, depending on species availability, at 30-day
    of plant and animal pests in the surrounding drainage    intervals for a proposed 5-year period in each geo-
    basin.                                                  graphic area. Such a program could identify not
      To assess the significance of persistent chemical    only seasonal pollutional patterns but also long-term
    residues it has been necessary to monitor their exist-   trends.
    ence, magnitude, and seasonality in the environ-          In  the period  1965-72,  approximately  8,000
    ment. These field data, however, are useful only to    samples were analyzed for chlorinated pesticides.
    the extent that the effects of these chemicals on the    The data show that high levels of pesticide residues
    most sensitive life stages of significant species in the    occurred in molluscs from estuaries associated with
    estuarine community are understood. Such informa-    intensive agriculture, with large volumes of munici-
    tion must be gained under controlled laboratory con-    pal waste discharge, and with industrial wastes from
    ditions and, regrettably, data of this type are still   pesticide manufacturing  plants. In many  areas,
    mostly fragmentary.                                     there was good correlation between the fluctuating
                                                          levels of residues in molluscs and the seasonal agri-
    MONITORING BIVALVE SHELLFISH                           cultural use of pesticides.
                                                             The overall picture of pesticide pollution in the
      However, laboratory studies of the eastern oyster    nation's estuaries as revealed by the monitoring
    and related molluscs had progressed by 1965 to the    data was one of widespread contamination with

                                                                                                          519

    520                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    DDT and its metabolites but at generally low (non-    to sUispect this amount of DDT would be harmful to
    toxic) levels. In a few areas DDT  residues were    oysters themselves, nor are oysters preyed on in
    large enough to suggest damage to the fauna but at    nature to the extent that tissue residues of this
    no time was a human health problem indicated    magnitude would be detrimental to some carnivoire-
    (Butler, 1973).                                        including'man. Nonetheless; 'these residues would
      DDT residues in estuarine molluscs peaked in the    prevent the oysters being legally harvested. In this
    1968-69 period. Since then there has been a well-    instance, the use of DDT would have increased food
    defined decline in the number of positive samples    production on the farm and reduced it in the sea.
    and in the magnitude of residues in nearly all    The cure, again, is the utilization of a less persistent
    estuarine areas. The decrease in the number of    pesticide either alone or in combination with some
    samples with detectable residues has been as much       biological control of the agricultural pests.
    as 66 percent in areas where adequate data are avail-     The  third situation was  encountered  on  the
    able for evaluation.                                    Georgia coast. Oysters monitored in St. Simons
                                                          Sound in 1967 were found to contain toxaphene
                 ~~~Data Utilization         ~residues, a pesticide not known to have been used
                                                          in the area. Levels of toxaphene in water and sedi-
                 onitoring data can be of inestimable value in    ments were high enough to admit the possibility of
                   Moniorig daa cn b  of  nesimabe vlue    damage to many faunal groups. By the judicious
    detecting pesticide pollution sources and in develop-      d    amage t o  man y faunal groups,  By the judicious
    ing the background information necessary for the    placement of trays of oysters to monitor upstream
    efficient management of estuarine systems. In this    sites, increasingly large toxaphene residues were
    monitoring program, three characteristic pollution    accumulated, and the source of the pollutant was
    situations have been identified and a description of    identified as a component of the waste in the effluent
                 them will illustrate the general usefulness of moni- of a pesticide manufacturing facility. In this case,
    toring data in establishing some of the guidelines for    identification of the source resulted in a cleanup of
    toring data in establishing some of the guidelines forthcoamnedrvrbtmbyrdggadte
    regulating the manufacture  and  registration of    the contaminated river bottom by dredging and the
    pesticides.                                             construction of evaporation  ponds  for onshore
                 pesticides. ~~~~~~~~~~disposal of the toxic effluents.
      The Rio Grande River Basin on the south Texas    disposal of the toxic efuents.
    coast is an area of intensive farming of grain, citrus,
    and fiber crops. The subtropical climate permits        MONITORING  ESTUARINE FISH
    multiple harvests annually. During the mid-1960's,
    the recommended farm use of pesticides in this area       The  gradual  decline  in pesticide  residues  in
    was about five times the amounts recommended in    monitored oysters during 1970-72 pointed out the
    neighboring river basins. Oysters monitored in the    need for a pollution yardstick that would be indica-
    Laguna Madre consistently contained DDT residues    tive over a longer interval of time. The monthly ef-
    about five times that of oysters from other Texas    fort in monitoring oysters no longer seemed war-
    estuaries. There is good evidence that the DDT          ranted in view of the continuing absence of positive
    residues in the food of speckled seatrout in this area    samples in many areas. Both laboratory and field
    were large enough to seriously interfere with the de-    data had shown that, in contrast to molluscs, persis-
    velopment of the young. It seems clear, in retrospect,    tent pesticides accumulate with time in fish tissues.
    that the registered use of persistent pesticides on    Older fish in polluted waters contain progressively
    Rio Grande Basin farmlands permitted the agricul-    larger pesticide or trace element residues than do
    tural segment of the economy to work to the detri-    younger fish. However, body residues in individual
    ment of the local fishing industry. The continued    fish fluctuate unpredictably. This may be the result
    use of DDT would have eventually eliminated the    of dietary stress, spawning, or some other normal
    seatrout. The demonstrated need for pest control    metabolic process.
    throughout the year in this area requires the sub-        Since fish are readily available, a revised program
    stitution of non-persistent pesticides and biological    was initiated in 1972 to monitor them in all of the
    controls which will not degrade the environment.        principal estuaries of the United States and its
      In southwest Florida, however, the use of DDT        territories. Certain criteria were established to
    on maturing corn and sugar cane was distinctly    minimize unknown fluctuations. Sample size was
    seasonal. The runoff from farmlands in the Caloo-    increased to 50 individuals. Fish are sampled during
    sahatchee River Basin contained sufficient DDT          their first year prior to spawning. This narrows the
    during the February-April period in 1967 and 1968    time in which residues could be acquired and avoids
    so that residues in local oysters were above the    their loss in gamete production. Both particle-feeder
    suggested 'action' level of 5 ppm. There is no reason    and carnivorous fish are monitored in each estuary

                                             RESEARCH APPLICATIONS                                           521

    to broaden the possibility of finding any pollutants    of recycling between the physical and biological
    present. During the first two years,of the program,      substrates in the estuary. Or, alternatively, these
    fish were monitored semi-annually to determine           residues may be the result of a continuing influx
    whether this was necessary or whether  annual    of DDT from up-river reservoirs in farm soils and
    collections might be sufficiently informative.           river sediments.
                                                               It is apparent. that the monitoring of estuarine
                  ~~~~Data Utilization   ~fauna for persistent chemicals remains a continuing
    Data Utilization'
                                                            need. We must be in a position to gauge the effective-
                                                            ness of legal restraints on the usage of known
      Analyses of the more than 1,500 samples of    pollutants as well as be able to detect at an early
    estuarine fish (37,500 individuals) monitored since            at        e   apeabe  o   te   a   nk
                                                            date the appearance of other, perhaps still unknown,
    July 1972 show that, in a majority of areas ' DDT        persistent chemicals that may be toxic to the biota
    and other chlorinated pesticide residues have not
    been detectable. These data confirm the trend found      or endanger man's food supply.
    inr the molluscan monitoring and show that this type
    of estuarine pollution has indeed declined since the     REFERENCES
    restriction in DDT use. The analyses show, too,
    that in those 'few estuaries where oysters were
                  that in thosefewestuaries  where oysterswere  Butler, Philip A. 1967. Pesticide residues in estuarine mol-
    grossly polluted with DDT  during the 1965-72              lusks. In: Proc. of the National Symposium on Estuarine
    monitoring, yearling fish still have significantly large   Pollution. Stanford University, Stanford.
                                                            Butler, Philip A. 1973. Organochlorine residues in estuarine
    DDT residues. These residues, in the absence of the        mollusks, 1965-72-National Pesticide Monitoring Pro-
    agricultural use of DDT, are presumably the results        gram. Pest. Monit. Jour., 6(4): 238-362.

                                                                    [
                                   -I � �: - -; ~ ~   ~      I

                                                        T;

    A BRIEF ASSESSMENT
    OF ESTUARY MODELING--
    RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
    AND FUTURE TRENDS

    R. J. CALLAWAY
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
    Corvallis, Oregon

                ABSTRACT
                A brief, very informal, overview of estuarine modeling is presented; the great variety in estuarine
                environmental settings is exhibited with east and west coast examples. Typical problems con-
                fronted by the environmental scientist and engineer are discussed as well as some of the solution
                techniques employed to solve them.

    INTRODUCTION                                             structure of a given estuarine research program.
                                                          Suffice it to say that the field investigation designed
      Estuaries are classified according to their vertical    with a sample scheme based on a "good" model has
    salinity and velocity profiles. For the simplest sys-    several orders of magnitude  greater chance  of
    tem, the profiles exhibit little vertical gradient in    bringing glory to its research team than to one that
    either parameter. More complex systems, such as    simply "samples."
    fjords, can exhibit several changes in current direc-
    tion in the vertical. Tidally affected rivers are also
    sometimes referred to as estuarine although ocean-    PROGRESS IN THE LAST FIVE YEARS
    ographers consider the estuary section of a river as
    that containing a measurable amount of salt.               Progress has been made  in many  aspects of
      There are many  categories of "models."  One    estuarine simulation techniques in recent years.
    distinction that is made here is between a research    Theoretical development has been relatively slow
    model, which an investigator may never document,    except in the case of fjords, which have not been
    and a production model, which might be implemented    especially amenable to treatment due mostly to a
    as a tool for management decision making  (one    lack of observational data. The so-called partially-
    popular catch-phrase underlying present day funding    mixed estuaries are also at an intermediate stage
    rationalizations).                                       of development because of difficulties in treating
      Usually, no model is ever "final" since it is   vertical exchange processes. Theoreticians have been
    continually being revised as research develops. This    wrestling with this aspect for several years with little
    is particularly true in estuarine systems where the    success. Indeed, many believe that a whole new
    dynamics of motion and dispersion of pollutants is   theoretical approach will be required although it is
    highly complex. Added difficulties are encountered in    difficult to envision a breakthrough which will lend
    the modeling of chemical and biological interactions.    itself to practical application in the near future.
    For best use, feedback between the modelers and            In lieu of analytical solutions of differential equa-
    the experimenters is required on a continuous and    tions, numerical solutions can be employed. The
    cooperative basis. All too often problems arise due    former method is used on simplified, general, re-
    to a lack of communication between the two groups,    presentations of a given system. The simplifying
    the modelers usually earning a reputation of the tail-    assumptions employed allow investigations of many
    wagging-the-dog.                                         aspects of a system by, usually, rather formidable
      Some would suggest that a bad model is better    mathematical  devices. When  the devices aren't
    than no model at all since it does at least make an    available or the system is too complex, then recourse
    investigator think about the system, formalize his    to numerical methods is employed and the computer
    concepts, and make orderly what could otherwise be    is used to carry out the relatively simple but extremely
    a chaotic field investigation. A good model will be a    repetitive algebraic operations. There is a place for
    plus, of course, and can be the basis for the formal    both methods; as a rule of thumb, research models

                                                                                                        523

    524                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    are initially of the analytical variety while produc-    East Coast
    tion models are an end product of research and
    employ numerical integration techniques.                  First, consider a simulation on a small (25 sq.
      Of considerably more interest to environmental    nautical miles (n.m.)) well-mixed embayment on
    scientists has been progress in analyzing chemical    the east coast of the United States--Jamaica Bay,
    and biological interactions. While it is a necessity to    N.Y.  This work was  performed  by  Dr.  J. J.
    simulate hydrodynamic processes in the best possible    Leendertse and his associates at the Rand Corpora-
    manner, so-called pollution problems usually are    tion with financial support mainly from the city of
    concerned with the input and effect of anthropogenic    New York. As stated by Leendertse (1970) the study
    materials in the estuary or environment. If a pol-    was "... .intended as a first step toward providing a
    lutant is to be so considered then it must affect the    tool for a quantitative assessment of an environ-
    human population either directly or through a    mental problem, i.e., the study of technical alter-
    certain chain of events. This chain may be initialized   natives in the management of fluid waste discharges
    -by the uptake of materials by a given organism not    in well-mixed estuaries and coastal seas."
    primarily utilized by man. Pollution, as defined by a     The work developed in stages-from representing
    government organization, for instance, may not be    tidal motion in the system, verification of hydraulics,
    extant until several higher organisms have con-    simulation of dissolved oxygen and coliform con-
    centrated the substance to a detectable level-one    centrations, and a determination of the effect of
    which may or may not have deleterious effects on    storm water overflow on the system. The study is
    man. This kind of process has been known for many    essentially complete; an evaluation of the 'benefits
    years, of course, but only recently have models been    derived from this well-conducted effort in proportion
    developed to the point of practical application, i.e.,   to the costs incurred has not yet been made available.
    analysis or synthesis of these events.                 However, the project was designed to assess the
      Many of the models used today are variations of   effectiveness of several multi-million dollar sewage
    the rabbit and fox theme: a given population of   treatment schemes in the bay area. It is safe to
    rabbits is preyed upon by foxes; the fox population    conclude that the project costs are a minute fraction
    grows due to plentitude of food; both populations    of the construction costs to be expended. A benefit/
    increase up to a point where the 'rabbits become    cost ratio greater than I can only be determined if
    scarce due to excessive predation. Eventually the fox    construction cost savings were suggested by the
    population dies off due to starvation until a new    model. It is quite possible that the model could
    equilibrium point is reached, and the cycle begins    project alternatives that would prove more costly
    anew. Such events can be, and are, studied by    than ,the initial plan costs but of more benefit to
    mathematical models, each population being rep-   :water quality. No doubt the economists have an
    resented by a differential equation with appropriate    appropriate ratio for this not unlikely event.
    growths and death rates, and so 'forth. Interaction
    between the two is accomplished in the mathematical
                                                          West. Coast
    treatment by coupling the equations through, e.g., a
    predation' term.  This explanation, while overly
    simplistic, illustrates many of the simulations of
                                                          way, et al., (1969) is described. The system studied
    plankton growth and dieoff now analyzed through    was the Columbia River from the Pacific Ocean to
    numerical experimentation. Many other reactions    Bonneville  Da            m (146 m iles, plus many islands and
    are also described in terms of this approach. It might    tributaries); rather vast a  nd vastly  different from
    be said that the easy part of the analysis is the    Jam        aica Bay. During low runoff periods, the lower
    mathematics; obtaining the right relationships, co-
    mathematics; obtaining the right relationships, co-    25 n.m. of the system are, by oceanographic def-
    efficients, their forms and dependencies is, and will    25 itions, of the system  re b  oceanographic def-
                                                          initions, estuarine. The problem here was based on
    remain, the difficult part of the problem.             a federal government decision          to model the
                                                          a federal government decision "... to model the
                                                          Columbia River system from the Canadian border to
    SOME EXAMPLES                                          the Pacific Ocean for the purpose of evaluating
                                                          existing and/or potential thermal pollution
                                                          problems."
      It will be assumed that the reader is unfamiliar       The first part of the study consisted of a descrip-
    with the models that have been developed for, or    tion of the mathematical methods used, and the
    applied to, the systems to be described. What do    theory and documentation of the program. The
    these models do and, equally important, what don't    second part described input and verification pro-
    they do?                                               cedures, provided a test program, and gave examples

                                            RESeARCH APPLICATiONS:  525

    of output. The authors end with the following    pace '-ahead of the next. generation of computer
    admonition: "If a slide rule will do the work don't    juggernauts;)
    use this model or anyone else's."                         In summary, 'we seem to have  gone through a
      As a final example, the fjord system of Puget    period of extensive model development; in some
    Sound is briefly discussed. This work is presently    degree progress has been in parallel with-advances
    being supported by the EPA  with Dr. Donald    in computer hardware. Computerized model de-
    Winters, University of Washington, as principal in-   velopment,  involving  numerical witchcraft,  has
    vestigator. This study is more complex than the two    rapidly caught up with, and is capable of treating,
    just mentioned, due in part to the lack of, and    what we'know of biochemical interactions. Further
    difficulty in obtaining, observational data upon which    progress will be at a slower rate in the future because
    to develop theory. It is more comprehensive in that    basic research is required on all aspects of estuarine
    it is a grant objective to demonstrate ways in which    problems, includiing hydrodynamics.
    such models can be used in the numerical assessment      ' In this day of "mission oriented" research, there
    of biological activity in fjords. To date, the project   is a' danger in neglecting non-mission identified
    has determined  several important features' con-    programs: This neglect is, of course, pitiful in the
    cerning nutrient limitation and the effect of light    extreme when  the  neglecter is also a  federal
    penetration on plankton growth (Winters, et al.,   'budgeteer.
    1975). In addition, it has provided hydrodynamic
    input (Winters, 1973) to a commercial production
    model of parts of the sound.               ' ' ... REFERENCES'

                                                          Callaway, 'R. 'J. K. V. Byranmi, and G. R. Ditsworth. 1969.
    FUTURE TRENDS  AND NEEDS                                 Mathematicd model of the Columbia River from the
                                                            Pacific Ocean to Bonneville Dam. Part I. Theory, program
      Most of the major needs relating to simulation         notes,  nd programs. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Pac. N.W.
    models of estuarine phenomena do not -concern
    modeling as such, but basic research on vertical   Leendertse, J. J. 1970. A Water-Quality Simulation Model
    diffusion processes, kinetics of sedimentation proces-   for Well-Mixed Estuaries and Coastal Seas: Volume I,
                                                            Principles of Computation. The Rand Corp. Memorandum
    ses, air-sea interactions, rate processes of uptake by    RM-6230-RC.
    organisms, and so on. Model building is an interest-
    ing and useful occupation and proceeds at a greater    Ward, G. and W. Espey. 1971. Estuarine Modeling: An
                  rate than fundamental research on the aforemen-  Assessment. Capabilities and Limitations for Resource
    rate than fundamental research on the aforemen-           Management and Pollution Control. Sup. of Docs. Wash-
    tioned subjects. This is fortunate since the model       ington, D.C. St. No. 5501-0129.
    can be used to guide that research, point out short-
    cuts, arouse suspicion of results, and suggest linkages    Winters, D. F. 1973. A Similarity Solution for Steady-State
                                                            Gravitational Circulation in Fjords. Est. and Coast Mar.
    that would not be apparent without recourse to a  '  Sci. 1:387-400.
    model which is capable of thinking in a nonlinear
    fashion. (Lord Rayleigh and a few other selected    Winters, D. F., K. Banse, and G.. C. Anderson. 1975. The
    individuals are capable of nonlinear intuition'. One     Dynamics of Phytoplankton Blooms in Puget Sound, a
    individuals are capable of nonlinear intuition'. One Fjord in the Northwestern United States. Mar. Biol.
    can only hope that his like will continue to remain a    29:139-176.

    PORTS

    FACTORS BEARING ON
    POLLUTION CONTROL IN
    U.S. PORTS LOCATED
    IN ESTUARINE AREAS

    EDWARD LANGLOIS
    Portland Harbor Pollution
    Abatement Committee
    Portland, Maine

                ABSTRACT

                Ports must meet environmental demands during a period when they are faced with abrupt changes
                in terminal design and operations. Attention must be given to increased costs, due to delays and
                confusions that will affect the economic productivity of our ports. Additional and equal attention
                must be placed on the effect port development will have on the existing and future ecology of
                our estuarine areas.

    INTRODUCTION                                               FUNCTION AND TRENDS
                                                          OF U.S. PORTS
      Concern for the port environment is a recent
    phenomenon-10 years ago, the concern did not exist            If.we are to give proper attention to the subject,
    on a broad basis as it does today. Admittedly, it is   it is necessary to place in perspective the role U.S.
                                                          ports play in our economy today, and the projection
    still a new field in which the government and indus-in                   coe
                                                          of "things to come." The value of U.S. port opera-
    try along with individuals are seeking ways  of    tions and their impact on our economy are shown in
    operating within new legislation and guidelines.
    Environmental concerns at the level we know them
    today have grown so suddenly, U.S. ports have
    found it necessary to make immediate adjustments                         [FOREIGN
    to cope with them. These concerns include: legisla-                          T
    tion, federal agencies, dredging-disposal of spoils,             -           TOTAL OF DOMESTIC & FOREIGN
    federal permits, environmental impact statements,           1 B-S00 M                                          i
    disposal of oily wastewater and ballast water, dis-                                    ,
    posal of sanitary wastes, dilapidated piers-floating
    debris, land acquisition, oil spills, coastal zone man-
    agement, deepwater ports, insurance demands, and                                    X7
    vessel traffic safety systems.
      Ports are also faced with abrupt changes in ter-                      q
    minal and vessel design and operations, including
    increased size of petroleum and hazardous liquid
    carriers, super cargo ships in the container trade,           500 M
    bulk carriers, lash and feeder ships, tug-barge con-
    cepts, speedy hydro-foils, catamarans and surface
    effect ships, conversion or abandonment of finger
    piers, reclaiming flat lands for multi-million dollar                - E
    container facilities, specialized ports, and regional            0    1947        1957        1962        1972
    port concepts. The ship operator and customer con-                                      YEAR
    tinue to demand fast turn arounds. All have environ-    FIGURE 1.-Waterborne commerce in U.S., calendar year
    mental implications.                                                1947-1972 in million of tons (2,000 lbs.).

                                                                                                         529

    530                                     ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                                 PETROLEUM AND PRODDCTS
                                       /.%                   LUMBER2~42.1% 5

                                 ALL OTHERS 12.4%                      COAL AND COKE 13.4%

                                ~~~~~~~~SEASHEL                   \    AN IRON ORE

                                                          GRAVEL      ,
                                             /t y l   s~~RAND

                                          AND /       |STONE 2.2%             2.7%
                                                           7.8%

                           FORE GN  COMMERCE                                 DOMESTIC COMMERCE

                  1972 figuresETROLEUM AND PRODUCTS                         PETROLEUM AND PRODUCTShown
                dolar.3% income providing livelihood for over 1                      43.2 %

                                       COAL AND COKE                ALL OTH8RS       COAL AND COKE
                  ALL OTHERS               10.5% 95 1                                          15.2%

                                                             1Us~~  1.BI    ~RVEL T

                 Ois shown in Figure 1,. and the principal commodities    to  2000.
                LUMBER 4.? %               'SAND, GtR/.YEL, 22 7

                     FIGuRF, 2.-Principal commodities parried by water-calendar year 1972 total commerce.

    1972 figures, released by the U.S. Maritime Admin-    carried by water for calendar year 1972 are shown
    istration: "Port commerce totals over 1.6 billion   ini Figure 2.
    tons contributing 30 billion dollars annually in direct
    dollar income providing livelihood for over 1.2 mil-    VESSEL TRAFFIC
    liq people-representing over 3 billion dollars in
    terminal facility mivestments."                               Two excellent studies were recently completed,
      The growth trend in port commerce since 1947    projecting future tonnage at United States ports
    is Shown in Figure lj and the principal commodities    to 2000.1                      H

                                                    PORTS                                               531
                            DOMESTIC SHIPPING
                                                             700
       2 Billion                                                         =T anker Capacity Required

                                                             m   60�0  011 =Dry Cargo Ship Capacity Required
                                                                      I it
      1.5  Billion                                           500

    Eso�                                                  *!Ss gg400                                        0
       1   Billion
                                       0R~~~ '0~~~                 ~ 300

      500 Million                                             200!

                           1969               2000                                              It0
                                    YEAR                            1966     1973    1983     2003    2043
                                                                                    YEAR
    FIGURE 3.-Trends and projection of domestic ocean cargo
    growth, coastal and intercoastal (including Puerto Rico,   FIGJRE 5.-Litton Systems Study showing forecast of growth
    Hawaii, and Alaska) 1969-2000, as projected in the Kearney       in the world merchant fleet into 2043.
    Study.

                                                          have an impact on vessel traffic, hence concern for
      Figure 3 shows significant trends in domestic    the port environment (Figure 5).
    ocean cargo (coastal and intercoastal, including         The studies show that within the next 15 years
    Puerto Rico, Hawaii and Alaska), as projected in    development of coastal petroleum tank barge trade
    the Kearney Study.                                     will occur as a means of secondary distribution.
      The Litton Systems Study on the future of ocean-    During the past six years (1968 date of Litton
    borne shipping explores trends in the volume of   Study), there has been a growing use of tank barges
    oceanborne trade, from 1950-1966 with projections    carrying petroleum in the coastal trade. See Figure 6.
    to 2043. See Figure 4.                                   The Coast Guard is concerned about the increased
      The study also projects trends in growth of the    movement of petroleum and other liquids in tank
    world merchant fleet from 1966 to 2043, which will   barges, towed or pushed along our coastlines. They
                                                          currently monitor the tank barge service to deter-
                  ---Dry Cargo Trade .                    mine trends and problems.
                  '=Tanker Trade                            On July 7, 1972, Congress passed P.L. 92-339,
                                                          which among other issues, made it mandatory that
                                                          all operators of tow boats under 300 tons be licensed
      20,000                                              by the Coast Guard (qualify for Tow Boat Operators
                                                          License).
                                                            Barges carrying liquid product in the coastal trade
      � 15.000                                  rC4       must be inspected for seaworthiness by the Coast
                                                          Guard; however, towboats under 300 tons are not
    ~ 10000,                                   |required to come under Coast Guard inspection.

                                                          REGIONAL PORTS

                       e n    i~,~  ~                       Discussions are taking place in several port areas
         '-.0    ~                     H:f   throughout the country, focusing on a regional port
               1966    1973    1983     2003     2043      concept. Those areas include the Washington Public
                               YE^R           '~          Ports Association, the San Francisco Bay area, and
    FIGURE 4.-Litton Systems, study of the projection of-volume   the New York ports of Buffalo, Ogdensburg, Oswego,
                 of oceanborne trade into 2043.            and Albany.2 There is some thought -that the "re-

    532                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                BARGES                      the present include, by title:

       5000                                                      Refuse Act of 1889
                                                                Federal Water Pollution Coptrol Act (FWPCA)
                                                                of 1948.: (Asamended 152-61-65-66-70-72) P.L.
                                                                91-224 (4-3-70)-  : ,..
                                                                Federal Water Quality Standards Act of 1971.
       4000
                                                                Ports and Waterways Safety Act of 1972. P.L.
                                                                92-340 (7-10-72)
                                                                Marine, Protection, Research and Sanctuaries
       3000                                                      Act of 1972. (Ocean Dumping Act) P.L. 92-532
                                                                (10-23-72) (As amended 1974, P.L. 93-254)
                                                                Deepwater Ports Facilities Act of 1974.
                                                                Coastal Zone Management. Act P.L. 93-583
                                                                 (10-27-72)      ' -
        2000
                                                              'This legislation, with  resulting regulations and
                                                            federal-agency administration, requires constant at-
                                                            tention and monitoring by port personnel.
        1000
                                                            FEDERAL AGENCIES INVOLVED

                                                              As new federal legislation was passed, and regula-
                                                            tions and directives written, port directors and ter-
                                                            1960  93  inal operators found it difficult to keep informed.
                                  r9 0 YEAR ;; :1Communications between federal agencies and port
                                                            directors were improved   y a- 'series of meetings
    FIGURE 6.-Trend in use of tank barges (towed or'pushed)    arranged through the American Association of Port
    in inland waters and coastal services, under Coast Guard    Authorities and the U.S. 'Maritine Administration.
    inspection. Note: Inland waters and coastal numbers were
    not separated until 1973. Percentage increases for individual  Figure 7 is a matrix listing of federal agencies
    services will be recorded separately in the future;      involved in a port environment, depicting areas of
                                                            overlap in duties and responsibilities, which tend to
                                                            cause confusion in the port industry. This situation
    gional port concept" is sponsored by the federal    is particularly reprethensible-when the agencies work
    government and is an intrusion into the free enter-    in consort toprepare adv6rse reports on a specific
    prise system. However it must be noted th-at -tudies   project but then file separate objections as if their
    at current port areas were initiated at the local level.    determinations were individually'and independently
      One of the principal objectives bf the studie s is to: '. reached. -
    determine the'' valie of' ijiiumber of siali ports   '  It is 'dificut -to quantify the extent of the confu-
    versus a regional port to serve U.S. trade,. and keep - sion, its'impact and resultieg'delays and costs, other
    U.S. products flowing into competitive world mar- - than to state that it exists and attention must be
    kets. A secondary benefit would be cleaner' coastal    given-to clarifying the situation. The matrix shows
    water with all commercial activity centralized at    there are 69 separate port environment activities
    one port, rather than a number of small ports. The    involving over 50 federal agencies or bureaus. It
    major pollution concern would be to 'mobilize funds,    shows over 550 diffbrent steps must be taken to
    expertise, manpower, and equipmentat 'one port to,   process port-related activities.
    prevent and control' possible ioil spills and, other .
    pollutants from vesseltraffic 'nd port' operitions.      ' _           -      SL -
                                                            DREDGING-DISPOSAL OF SPOILS
                        FEDERAL LE~a~b~TION                         The Army Corps of Eigineers, in fulfilling its mission
    FEDERAL LEGISLATION                                           in the development and maintenance of the navigable
                                                                 waters of the United States is responsible for the dredg-
       Some of the pertinent federal legislation influenc-        q       uantities approach 40of msedllimnts cubiach yeards of drednnual
    ing port environment and operations from 1969 to              material for both maintenance and new work. Costs

                                                                                FEDERALAGENCIES
                             ARMY        COMMERCE  ~        HEW HUD       INTERIOR       LABOR   STATE    TRANS'PN   TREASURY  USDAI    OTHER

                                  -RMY  4OMMERCE 5 2L,                                                          rt I  04   A P              x
                                       'me-C  cAWNC004w                                               t c                 O 44  H I     4W0040
                                              COEnoinw~z~z~wa~Wa~s.  CFADin~esZ~o~oOf      OSHA   2Ou.         O          OC
    ACTIVITY                   COE i  o m m E. Z Z : Oli  CPA             m      3       S _

    Permits                    X                      X X      X                                                            X

    Licensing                          X              x   xx                                             Xxlxxx   xx                    xx
    Certification                                   X X       X                                                      X
    LetterofPermission or Approval    X   X   X       X  X             X X X X X X X X            X X

    Coordination               X     X X      X     X X            X       X        X          X                     X                  X
    Review                     X XX   XXXXXX X   X XXXXXXXX                                           XXXXX  XX                         X   X   X
    Enfdrcement                X       X      X       X   X X X            X        XX      X            XXXX        X X            XXX         XX
    Fines                                     X       XX   X                                X            XXXX              X
    Environmental Impact Statement    X' X XX XXX XXXX X X XXXXXX X X                               X  XXXX X  X X X X    X   X X X X  X X X  X  X X X   X X  X X X   X X   XXXXXX

    Dredging/Filling           X   X          X     XX                 x   X                               X                                       X
    Dredge Spoils Disposal     X   X          X     X X                X   X                                         X

    Anchorages                 X                 .                                                                   X

    Aids to Navigation                          X                                                                 X                 X

    Harbor Protective Works    X                X X
    Harbor Lines              -X                 X

    Pors & Terminal Facilities     X   XX  .( X   X                                 X       X            X         X        X                      X
    Intermodal Transportation               X      --                                                       X X X  X        X

    Vessels                            X X         X              X                         X        X             x        X  X        X

    PortSecurity& Safeyl                                              .                     x                         x     x            x
    VesselTrafficControl                                       .                                                     i              x             x
                                                                                                                                                 X X
    Loks,Dams.&Canals,         X              X            x[ I  i         x x  X                X                                              XX
    Bridges&Causeways          X        :;                J X   J                                   x     .X  X     Ix
    Harbor Tunnels             X                          J     1                                                 -1

    Pipelines                  X                                                    XX    X         XX         X              j              X

           Fiousm 7'.-Federl authorlzation foractivities in IYS. navigable waters or ocean waters relative lb environmental protection.

                                                                                                                                                                      Co
                                                                                                                                                                      03
                                                                                                                                                                     -0

                                                                                                            FEDERAL AGENCIES
                                       ARMY             COMMERCE  HEW HUD    INTERIOR                                      LABOR   STATE   TRANS'PN   TREASURY  USDA    OTHER

                 API~~~~~~~~~a2*CTIVITY                                      From                                                                                      S ~~ OSHABOC   HIS>i
                                                                ACTVO tu  SCPAD   O                                                              u.  u O    BOC                     HIS 2    u. u. ow  c~ - e:

    Submarine Cables                       X                                                                                                                                                   X

    Aerial Power Lines                     X                      X              X

    Recreation                            X                    X        X         X             X   X     X  X                                                    X

    Recreational Boating                                          X X                                 X                                                           X                                        X

    Boating Safety                                                X X                                                                                             X

    Marinas and Small Boat Facilities     X              X

    Inland Waterways                      X                 X                                         X                                                           X                                        Xx X

    Great Lakes                           X              X            X X   x X              X        X   X X              X            X X                       X                   X                      X

    St. Lawrence Seaway                   X                 X        X     X X                                                                              X                          X

    Panama Canal & Terminals              X                 X                 X                                                                                                                         X       L
    Waterborne Commerce                   X           X    X                                                                                  X                   X                                        X

    Foreign Trade Zones                               X    X                        X X                                                                                               X
    Offshore Ports & Terminals            X                             X                          X                X                                     X       X                               X

    Outer Continental Shelf                                       X                                                 XX  X X
    OffshoreOil Drilling

    and Mineral Extraction                                              X                          X                X X                 ,
                                                                                                                                                                                      -                           z
    Offshore Nuclear Power Siting                                       X        X                 X                                                                                        X X

    Offshore Oil Leasing                                                X                              Xi             X                                                                           X
    Energy Conservation                           .       X                      X                                                 XX                                                                      X
    Urban Development                     X                             X X X

    Urban Mass Transit                                                                       X

    Land Use Classification                     X                       X                    X    X]          X    X X                                                                                        X
    Flood Control                         X                          X                       X       j           X    X                             X                                                      X

    Water Supply                           X             X              X              X    X        |        X  X           X                                                                             X

    Water OQuality                            X         X      X       X         X    X    X    X                     IX   X        X                          X                 XX

    Oil Spills                               X          X      XX                          X                                                  X

    Oily Waste                               X       X X       X X                                                                            X

    Liquid Chemical Waste                    X       XX        XX             X

    Other Hazardous Substances               X       XX        XX                          X                   X      |                      X                      X
    Sanitary Waste                           X       X X        X      X                   X X

    Solid Waste                              X       XX        XX                          X                                                 X
    Harbor Debris Cleanup             X                X            X X  X  X    X         X

    Air Pollution                            X                   X                                             X

    Stack .Emissions                         X       X           X          X                                  X

    Thermal Pollution;                                         X         X X    X

    Coastal Zone Management   X                      X         X                                          X              X X

    Shoreline Erosion                 I                   X X X X                      X X   X          X
     Estuarine Sanctuaries                              X       X                           X                                                 X

    Marine Sanctuaries                                 X       X                           X                           XXX   .  :            X

    Wetlands                     X                     X          X                     X X   X

    Wild-& Scenic Rivers                               I X     X                           X X X
     Marine Ecology                           X         X       X X                         X

     Fish& Wildlife                   X.                X X X X                          X X X X

     Aesthetics                             X                                X          X X    X

     Historic Values                        X        X                    X            X  X

     Climatology                                           X X                                     X          X

    ACOHP  ---      - - ---....---.Advisory  Council  on  Historic  EPA __ -_---____-_______ Environmental Protection         NPS           . - _--- ---_------- National Park Service (INTE-
                             Preservation                                                 Agency                                                       RIOR)
    AEC .-        --_-___--__ ------ Atomic Energy Commission    FAA _-_____.---___.Federal Aviation Administration   NWS --.---.._______. National,  Weather  Service
    APHIS -------.._---- Animal. and Plant Health In-                                       (DOT)                                                        (NOAA-COMMERCE)
                             spection Service (USDA)           FCC          .      ....---- --------- Federal  Communications  Com-  OCZM  -- ----Office of Coastal Zone Mgnage-
    ARMY -         -        ---------------Department of the Army                          mission                                                       ment (NOAA-COMM RCE)
    BIA          � �~________�____ .__ Bureau of Indian -Affairs (IN-  FDA   -.- --..__________._ Federal  Drug  Administration  OMA ..-................Office  of   Maritime   Affairs
                             TIA  ----------------- (HEW)                                                                                               (STATE)
                                    TERIOR)                 -OMB -- O--........--.Office of Management & Budget
    BLM -H_------      ---------_.Bureau of Land Management PEA ------------------_Federal Energy Administration                                         (EXEC. OFC. OF PRESI-
                             (INTERIOR)                        FHWA _        ..---. ..........Federal Highway Administration                           DENT)
    BOC G---_______________ Bureau  of Customs  (TREAS-                                     (DOT)                             OC-G - _-----------------Office of Oil & Gas (INTERIOR)
                             URY)                              FMC_ -------------------Federal Maritime Commission           OPLS --_---...------..Office of Pipeline Safety (DOT)
    BOR -.-___.----------__Bureau of Outdoor Recreation   FPC -.                ------._---------Federal Power Commssion      OSHA           . .---------------Occupational Safety & Health
                             (INTERIOR)                        HEW .-----________ -___  Department of Health, Educa-                                   Administration  (LABOR)
    BR _-         - -_-.- -------...._Bureau of Reclamation (INTE-                         tion & Welfare                     PCC .-......----........Panama Canal Company
                             RIOR)                             HUD _-          --_.............Department of Housing & Ur-   PHS _ _-------------- Public Health Service (HEW)
    BRTA .---------------- Bureau of Resources & Trade As-                                 ban Development                    SLSDC .----.--..- ------St. Lawrence Seaway Develop-
                             sistance (COMMERCE)               IBC ------------------- Internation Boundary Commis-                                    ment Corporation (DOT)
    BSFW --.-                ------------_Bureau of Sports, Fisheries &                    sion (US-CAN & US-MEX)             STATE --   ____________Department of State
                             Wildlife (INTERIOR)'              IJC _-_ -..____________ _ International Joint Commission      TRANSPORTATION    Department of Transportation
    CEQ .------------------Council on Environmental Qual-                                   (US-CAN)                          TREASURYDepartment  of  the  Treasury
                             ity (EXEC. OFC. OF PRESI-         INTERIOR .-      -    --------- Department of the Interior                              (CUSTOMS)
                                                                                                                       TVA -------------------.Tennessee Valley Authority
                             DENT)                             LABOR -.         --............Department of Labor            UHTA---------Urban Mass Transportation Ad-
    COE --------.--.--.----Corps of Engineers (ARMY)             MA __-________________ Maritime Administration (COM-                                   ministration (DOT)
    COMMERCE .-            ---------Department of Commerce                                 MERCE)                             USCG_---______________U.S. Coast Guard (DOT)
    CPAD .----------------.Community Planning & Develop-         NMFS __-._____________National Marine Fisheries Serv-        USDA -----------------U.S. Department of Agriculture
                             ment (HUD)                                                   ice (NOAA-COMMERCE)                USGS ------._.__ ---___ .U.S. Geological Survey (INTE-
    EDA ---.-.-------......Economic Development Admin-   NOS .----------------- National Ocean Survey (NOAA-                                             RIOR)
                             istration (COMMERCE)                                         COMMERCE)                          WRC --.--.........Water Resources Council

    536                                          ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

         presently (1974) exceed $150 million per year and can        conducted a survey among its members to determine
          be expected to increase sharply, reflecting at least in
         part, the cost of attempting to reduce the potential for    environmental port problems. Thrty-sx U.S. cor-
         pollution of the environment.                                porate members responded. Dredging and disposal
             * T*                   * es* o*                          of spoils proved to be the major problem of 16 of
           The Corps presently maintains over 19,000 miles of
         waterways and 1,000 harbor projects. In the past, the    the reporting ports.
         Corps'  decisions concerning  open-water disposal of            In 1974, AAPA  Committee III  (Ship Channels
         dredged materials have been based primarily on eco-    and Harbors) conducted a National Seaport Federal
         nomic considerations. Plans for future dredging and
         disposal activities must now reflect proper considerations   Waterway Funding Suirvey. Of the 54 responses, 24
         of costs and enivironmental constraints.                     cited serious disposal problems  causing increased

           Due to the fact that dredging and the disposal of    costs and delays for channel construction and main-
         dredge materials occur in such highly variable environ-    tenance. "Spoils disposal problems  are evidently
         mental situations, it has been generally accepted that a     affecting many port regions," the report indicated.
         universally applicable methodology cannot be satis-
         factorily developed. Consequently, it was concluded
         that a broad based program of research was required to       FEDERAL  PERMITS
         provide definitive information on the environmental
         impact of dredging and  dredged material disposal               The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
         operations.' The Federa Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
             $*         *           if         *        2 *  .       ments of 1972 established a new system of permits
           The overall bbjective of the Dredged IiVaterial Re-
           search Progverallm (DMRP) is to provide suficient deci-    for discharge into the nation's waters, replacing the
         sion-making tools to those agencies with dredging and        1899 Refuse Act Permit Program. The federal agen-
         disposal responsibilities to enable them to choose the       cies given responsibility for protecting our oceans
         most  environmentally  compatible, technically satis-
         factory, and economically feasible disposal alternatives.4    and waterways wth their perm              g authority may
         See Figure S.                                                be found in the matrix (Figure 7).
                                                                       The Army  Corps of Engineers retains authority
       In 1973, Committee XV  (Environmental Affairs)                  to issue permits for the disposal of dredge fill material
    of the American  Association of Port  Authorities                 in specific disposal sites, subject to EPA  veto of

                           RESEARCH AREA           i                           :             RESEARCH TASK

    Environmental Impact and Aspects of Open Water Disposal           A. Evaluation of Disposal Sites (1)"
                                                                   B. Fate of Dredged Materials (1)
                                                                   C. Effects of Dredging and Disposal on Water Quality (1)
                                                                   D. Effects of'Dredging and Disposal on Aquatic Organisms (1)
                                                                   E. Pollution Evaluation (1).
    Environmental Impacts and Aspects of Land Disposal                A. Environinental Impact Studies (i)
                                         -  - '                     B; Marsh, Disposal Research (1)
                                                                   C. Containment Area Operation Research (1)
    New Disposal Concept-                                '            A. Open Water Disposal Research (2)
                                                                   B. Inland'Disposal Research (3)
                                                                   C. Coastal Erosion Control Studies (3)

    Productive Uses of Dredged Material      '                        A. Artificial Habitat Creation Research (1)
                                                                   B. Habitat Enhancement Research (2)
                                                                   C. Land Imlrovement Research (3)
                                                                   D. Pioducts Research (2)
    Disposal Areas Reuse and Multiple Utilization                     A. Dredged Material Drainage/Quality Improvement Research (2)
                                                                   B. Wildlife Habitat Program Studies (1)
                                                                   C. Disposal Area Reuse Research (1)
                                                                   D. Disposal Area Subsequent Use Research (2)
                                                                   E. Disposal Area Enhancement (2)
    Dredged Material Treatment Techniques and Equipment               A. Dredged Material Dewatering and Related Research (2)
                                                                   B. Pollutant Constituent Removal Research (1)
                                                                   C. Turbidity Control Research (1)
    Dredging/Disposal Equipment and Techniques                        A. Dredge Plant Related Studies (3)
                                                                   B. Accessory Equipment Research (2)
                                                                   C. Dredged Material Transport Concept Research (4)

       * Numbers in parenthesis indicate the beginning year of the research task.    -

                                     FIGURE 8.-Outline of dredged material research.program.

                                                     PORTS  :"                                            537

    disposal sites. However, in the new Corps permitting    tion, Environmental Protection Agency, American
    system, no time schedule for processing permits has    Institute of Merchant Shipping, American Petro-
    been developed. When objections are raised at the    leum Institute, U.S. Coast Guard, and the American
    district level, an extensive time lapse develops while    Association of Port Authorities.
    a decision is considered at a higher level.              As a result of this Committee's recommendation,
      There is no indication that the requirement to    a contract was awarded to conduct a study to:6
    obtain permits for port projects is opposed by the
    port industry. However, it is important that there        a. Determine the volumes of oil waste which would
    be no long delays in granting permits which might    arrive at U.S.  ports under various restrictions or
    result in added costs to port projects, with possible    permissible discharge.
    adverse effect on the water quality in estuarine         b. Define systems for collecting and processing
    areas.                                                 these volumes.
                                                             The study identifies the types of oily wastes
    ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENTS                        brought into nine selected ports by commercial ship-
                                                          ping and estimates 1970 quantities based on "no
      The EIS is now a responsibility under the National    discharge" criteria, the "1969 Amendments," and
    Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969--Sec-    the "no sheen" criteria. Quantities for 1975 and
    tion 102 (2) (c). The program is administered by    1980 are also' estimated, with the report concluding
    the Council on Environmental Quality  (CEQ),    that 16.5 billion gallons of oily waste would be
    established under Section 202 of the NEPA.             collected at U.S. ocean and inland ports in 1975,
      An EIS must be filed for all projects-which signifi-   rising to almost 17.0 billion by 1980. If reception
    cantly affect the quality of the human environment    facilities are not available, there is no way to deter-
    and for which a major federal action, such as funding    mine if, in fact, any of these wastes would reach
    or licensing, is involved. The EIS must take into    estuarine areas. Ships today are prohibited from
    consideration the economic values of a project as    pumping bilge and ballast water in U.S. ports. If,
    well as the environmental impact. A healthy balance    however, the IMCO Convention specifics are not
    must be retained for the welfare of the' ports and    in force by 1980, ships will still be able to pump
    the country.                                           these wastes at sea.
      The Army Corps of Engineers has 900 environ-           Conceptual designs for collecting, treating, and
    mental impact statements to write on maintenance    disposing of the oily wastes, with no additional en-
    projects alone. At the present rate, the Corps can    vironmental degradation, range from the use of oil-
    only handle about 60 EIS a year, although, as of   water gravity separators in small volume ports, to
    January 1, 1976, every Corps project will require an    large storage tanks adjacent to separator and/or
    EIS.5 Several ports have indicated problems result-   refining capabilities in larger ports.
    ing from the requirement to provide an EIS. It is         The suggested role of government is limited to
    difficult to quantify and document each problem;    assisting business in expanding existing capabilities
    however, general comments express concern over    through grants, loans, and research. When govern-
    agency guidelines being changed during preparation    ment-owned facilities are available, the study recom-
    of the project and where more than one agency is   mends leasing to entrepreneurs.
    involved, the conflicting guidelines used by different    The problem has not at this time been defined
    agencies in judging the project.                       regarding costs versus income to an entrepreneur, a
                                                          port authority, or private terminal operator who
                                                          must provide the necessary facilities. These would
    DISPOSAL OF  OILY WASTE
    AND BALLAST WATER
                                                            a. Reception capabilities
      Based on the President's message of May 20,            b. Storage capabilities
    1970, directing the attention of the port industry        c. Separation and treatment capabilities
    to the problem of "Facilities for the Reception of        d. Obtaining necessary permits to discharge sepa-
    Ships' Oily Waste and Ballast Water.," the Maritime    rated water back into surface waters
    Administration (Division of Ports and Terminals)          e. Service charge to ship operator with possible re-
    and the American Association of Port Authorities    suiting increased cost to consumer
    established an ad hoc committee to review, study,         f. Disposing of reclaimed oil, or disposing of
    and propose action. The committee consisted of    waste oil
    representatives from the U.S. Maritime Admiistra-         g. Possible delays to vessel with resulting costs

    � 538                               ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      The role of the entrepreneur is not clearly defined.    DISPOSAL OF SANITARY WASTES
    Refinement of regulations and policies is necessary     It is increasingly Apparent vessels will be pre-
    before any large investments are made by the busi-   vented from discharging untreated sewage in U.S.
    nessman.                                              territorial waters. EPA  has established a "no-
      Industry has entered into several programs to    discharge" standard for all vessels.
    alleviate the problem of disposal of oily waste gen-    The Coast Guard proposed regulations to imple-
    erated aboard ship, without direct discharge into    ment EPA's standards for marine sanitation devices
    the seas and waterways:                               were published in the Federal Register on March 1,
                                                         1974. The proposed regulations govern the design,
      a. Load on top method                               construction, testing, certification, and manufacture
      b. Holding tanks                                    of marine sanitation devices. Public hearings were
      c. Improved tank cleaning                           conducted inviting comments and suggestions. The
      d. Oil water separator                              Coast Guard is presently redrafting the regulations
      e. Segregated ballast tanker                        based on the input.'
                                                           More than half of the comments received were
      Research by the Coast Guard and the American    directed in whole or in part to the EPA standard.
    Institute of Merchant Shipping have not as yet    The gist of these comments was objection to the
    established numbers or costs on these methods or   federal no-discharge requirement. In view of this
    total effectiveness of these programs. At this time    general discontent with the standards, the Coast
    it appears that no statistics are available. Very few    Guard has broached with EPA the question of the
    American flag vessels are capable of the above.    efficacy and appropriateness of the existing stand-
    Coast Guard is making an effort to learn the impact,    ards. Discussions between the agencies is currently
    effectiveness, and costs of these innovative programs.    underway
      The study revealed that only two ports in the         The Coast Guard and Navy are studying and
    country (Burns Waterway Harbor, Ind., and Seattle,   experimenting extensively with equipment and meth-
    Wash.) were capable of receiving and processing    ods of operation within their own vessels to meet
    bilge and tank cleaning water.            ocessing    EPA and state requirements and standards.
      The   and              ta nk   clen          ing      The Maritime Administration also has an exten-
      The Maritime Administration is                               s currently in-
    volved in a project to accept, treat, and dispose of   sive research and development program on the dis-
    ship-generated oily waste at their recently acquired   posal problem of sanitary wastes. Using Liberty
    Cheatham Annex Complex in York County, Va. To    ships to accept sanitary wastes from vessels and
    date, no product has moved through the facility   municipalities was explored but proved too costly
    so no numbers are available.
      The Maritime Administration also awarded a~ con-   inThe recreational fleet, which is a significant factor
    tract to determine the feasibility of "Floatable Oily   in the water quality of any prt must also meet
    Waste Treatment Systems." This study determined    standards and criteria. Marinas to service this type
                                                         thar d bedof vessel have intro reception
    that it would be too expensive to use old Liberty                         duced pump-out and reception
    ship hulls, placed in U.S. harbors for this project.   facilities ashore, but no inventory has been taken
    There is also a limited supply of Liberty ships avail-   to date and the impact is not known.
    able. No further action is planned.7                    Major commercial ports in the United States have
      The Maritime Administration has also commis-    done little to provide for the reception of liquid
    sioned studies to determine the functional capabili-   sanitary wastes from commercial vessels of all types
    ties and costs for volume acceptance of oil waste    and sizes. The only ports with significant waste
    separation units aboard ship. If a unit can be    reception facilities are Burns Harbor, Ind., Toledo,
    developed to function properly aboard ship, it would    Ohio; Miami, and Jacksonville, Fla." It would ap-
    help to eliminate the port problem of providing    pear that port areas will need guidance as to required
    reception facilities. To date it appears no feasible   hookups to receive sanitary waste at pier facilities
                                                         and proper lead time to install them.
    shipboard unit will function properly under all con-    While attention is being given to the reception of
    ditions to handle the problem.                        sanitary wastes from vessel operation, it is impor-
      Ports must have an oily waste implementation    tant to note that port and harbor waters will not
    program operational within 12 months after 15 na-   improve in quality until such time as all municipal
    tions have signed the IMCO  Agreement, or by    wastes now emptying into the harbors are diverted
    January f 1977.8                                      to municipal treatment plants.

                                                     PORTS                                                539

    DILAPIDATED PIERS-FLOATING DEBRIS                      members to determine if they were experiencing any
                                                          problems because of environmental legislation in
      A problem having great significance on the im-    acquiring the necessary land for expansion of exist-
    mediate port environment has been the deterioration    ing port facilities. Nine ports reported problems in
    of dilapidated port structures resulting, in part, in         ing      or expansion and nine others reported
        *varyingdegrees of floating debris. In the past, a acquiring land for expansion and nine others reported
    varying degrees of floating debris. In the past, a    problems in obtaining land within their existing
    cooperative, yet not specifically defined program of   port facilities. The survey also asked if U.S. ports
                                                           port facilities. The survey also asked if U.S. ports
    federal and local effort functioned to remove dilapi-   were experiencing problems in obtaining permits
    dated wharves and to collect and remove drift from
                                                           to develop the land. The survey indicated permit-
    navigable waterways.                                    ting problems existed at the local, state, and federal
      To add additional confusion to an already mis-    level
    understood and fragmented program, involving the          The Port of Oakland, Calif. reported as follows:
    U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Coast Guard,
    the Federal Office of 'Management and Budget
    (OMB) in early 1973, announced its opposition to            With regard to the portion of your questionnaire and
                                                               survey dealing with land acquisition, we face problems
    any federal subsidy for removal of drift and dilapi-        of securing necessary approvals from as many as 31
    dated piers. This decision was based on costs and           different agencies in a typical port project. I hope in
                                                               MB  opinion that this is a local port problemthe coming year, AAPA through its various committees,
    OMB                                   opinion that this is a local port problem.  will develop firm and strong recommendations as to
      Dilapidated structures and floating debris involve        how these problems can be met and what solution
    three major port environmental problems:                    should be sought.l1

      a. Visual pollution                            .     COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT
      b. Floating debris hindering the collection and dis-   ACT OF 1972
    posal of spilled oil
      c. Large floating logs, a danger to small boats
                                                             Response to the above survey indicates that the
      The Department of Transportation, through the    35 responding ports are aware of this Act. However,
    U.S. Coast Guard, sponsored an exhaustive debris    only 23 of the responding ports reported they were
    study. The types and quantities of waterborne debris    involved    the plannng and implementation of the
    found in coastal, harbor, and estuarine areas are    Act in their state, and only 23 had assigned personnel
    described in the report. Regional variations of the    to be involved i the planning and implementation.
    types and quantities of debris, its sources, and the    Twenty-nne ports felt port authorities should be
    natural effects on concentration and quantity are    ivolved.
    described. Debris handling practices are discussed        Thirty ports reported they had growth plans re-
    and equipment is identified and evaluated."2            quiring expansion involving over 15,000 acres be-
      Many recommendations are made including the    tween now and 2000. It was disturbing to note,
    suggestion that the Coast Guard initiate or become    however, that only 17 ports had brought their growth
    involved in joint debris oriented programs with the    plans to the attention of the coastal zone manage-
    Environmental Protection Agency, the Corps of   ment authorities in their state
    Engineers, and the Navy. It is claimed in the 460-        A factor that will be of considerable importance
    page study that this will help to eliminate over-    to this program and the future of U.S. ports, is the
    lapping efforts by these organizations.                 Maritime Administration (MarAd) NOAA Memo-
      Inconsistencies in the debris programs find the    randum of Understanding which was consummated
    Army Corps of Engineers financing some port debris    November 20, 1973, regarding MarAd assistance in
    pickup programs, while physically participating in    port and navigation facilities development in the
    others. Among the ports who finance their own    coastal zone. In view of the integral role which
    debris pickup and patrol programs are Baltimore    coastal zone management plays in MarAd programs
    and Miami.                                              and activities, MarAd will receive from NOAA indi-
                                                           vidual state and territory coastal zone management
                                                           programs for review and return a written evaluation
    LAND ACQUISITION                                        and commentary. Under this agreement, MarAd
                                                           will be in a position to exercise some influential
      In January 1975 the Environmental Affairs Com-    comment on pollution and pollution control at the
    mittee of the American Association of Port Authori-    port level. To date, MarAd has received no coastal
    ties, conducted a survey among its 80 U.S. corporate    zone management plans for review.

    540                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    OIL SPILLS IN OUR                                         More than 100 ports in the world are capable of
    PORTS AND HARBORS                                       handling the large supertankers, and there are over
                                                           300 tankers of 200,000 DWT, or more, This is clear
      This is an ever-increasing problem and one that    evidence that consideration must be given to facili-
    requires considerable attention from government and    ties to handle this size vessel serving our energy
    industry at all levels. Oil spills from vessel and ter-   needs. The Port Facilities Act of 1974 was designed
    minal operations are mostly unintentional, the cause    to give attention to this subject.
    of a miscue by manpower, or malfunction of equip-
    ment. In some instances oil is spilled intentionally
    by poor judgment through pumping of ballast or    ATTITUDES IN
    bilges. Regardless of the type of incident, oil :is    ENVIRONMENTAL AFFAIRS
    deposited in our waterways, costing millions of dol-
    lars in cleanup and ecology damages. Research and          The American Association of Port Authorities,
    development projects through EPA, MarAd, Coast    comprised of over 80 U.S. ports, recognizes the port
    Guard, Navy and industry have resulted in improv-    industry's responsibility to the environment.  In
    ing the still primitive state of the art to attack an    1970, AAPA authorized the formation of Committee
    oil spill by controlling, removing, and disposing of    XV  (Environmental Affairs), with specific duties
    it. But much remains to be done.                        and responsibilities.
      There is a newly formed national trade association      In 1972, AAPA Directors authorized competition
    representing the interests and serving the needs of    among U.S. ports for the "Recognition of Outstand-
    the oil spill and hazardous substances control indus-    ing Environmental Programs" award to encourage
    try. Membership is open to all interested parties;    additional attention to environmental responsibili-
    however, members are primarily (1) third party    ties by port authorities. In 1973, 14 U.S. ports
    contractors; (2) manufacturers or suppliers of equip-    entered the competition and in 1974, 11 entered.
    ment; (3) individuals in private or governmental    Extensive briefs were presented to the judges, who
    capacities involved with oil and hazardous sub-    represented EPA, Coast Guard and MarAd.
    stances spill cleanup and containment operations.l4
      Objectives of the new organization are: (1) com-           Progr   included iprovementugh planting of grass, trees, and
    munication of the industry's practices, trends and           shrubs; painting structures; providing barrier screens;
    achievements; (2) establishing liaison with govern-          installing sewage systems; eliminating open burning;
                                                                removing deteriorated piers; oil spill contingency plans;
    mental agencies; (3) developing industry standardiz-         port personnel participating in community environ-
    ing programs; (4) assisting the industry, wherever           mental programs; construction of park with lighted
    appropriate, regarding insurance; and (5) obtaining          walkways; fountain, picnic tables, etc.; directives to
                                                                reduce air pollution; encouraging businessmen in the
    radio frequency allocations for oil spill operations.        port to improve their environmental habits; program to
      EPA has published regulations involving shore-            prevent salt water intrusion into viable estuaries; dust
    side facilities, and the Coast Guard has published           control program; dredging and spoil disposal programs;
                 ,regulations on shipboard operations, both designedtraffic control systems to prevent accidents; providing
    regulations on shipboard operations, both designed           equipment to control pickup and dispose of spilt oil
    to control oil spillage. So far, both programs are           in the harbor; debris removal; establishing performance
                                                                standards; 100 acre public park with bicycle park and
    lagging.l6                                                   trails; recycling program for port generated paper;
      EPA estimates there are more than 14,000 oil              bond issues to finance pollution control equipment;
    spills in U.S. harbors and waterways a year. EPA             regulations on noise abatement; and landscape design.
    reports nearly 3 million gallons of oil were spilled in
    83 cases investigated by EPA in the first quarter          Several ports are now employing personnel with
    of 1974. EPA  has introduced a new 2.6 million    full time assignments on environmental affairs. The
    gallon test tank at Leonardo, N.J., in an effort to    California Association of Port Authorities has an-
    find better ways of handling the nation's "intolerable    nounced the appointment of a planning and envi-
    number of oil spills."'6                                ronmental consultants

    ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS                            INSURANCE DEMANDS ON U.S. PORTS
    FOR DEEP WATER PORTS
                                                              Indications at this time are that ports are not
       The Administration has recognized the need for    experiencing any major financial hardships imposed
    establishing offshore deepwater port facilities and    by additional costs for insurance because of environ-
    the need for new comprehensive legislation to govern    mental constraints. However, a prominent Wash-
    their establishment and operation.                      ington attorney with experience and expertise on

                                                  '     PORTS                                                   541

    pollution control laws and their impact on the               The following table prepared  by the U.S.  Navy
    Marine Industry, concluded his paper before a re-    shows the crash stop capabilities of tankers under
    cent conference in Washington with this statement:    full astern conditions:

        The foregoing pages outline a body of law that is corn-  17,000 ton vessel ------_ 5 minutes    1/5 of a mile
        prehensive, complex and constantly changing. It isn't   200,000 ton vessel ------_ 21 minutes    2.5 miles
        surprising, therefore, that the traditional response of    400,000 ton vessel _----- - 30 minutes    4.5 miles
        many marine industry executives has been 'Let the
        insurance carriers worry about the law. I need to tend
        to my business'. While this approach may have worked    The stopping ability of the giant ocean carriers can
        in the past, rapid growth of regulatory requirements    be a 'serious problem both in open and congested
        affecting the design and operation of vessels and shore-
        side facilities gives rise to the inescapable conclusion    waters.
        that effectively accommodating to the regulatory en-
        vironment is a substantial part of the ."business" which
        needs tending to and can, in fact, mean the difference    TRENDS AND  RECOMMENDATIONS
        between profit and loss. When pollution abatement
        requirements can add nearly 25 percent to the cost of a
        vessel, it is clearly essential to make certain that such    Three basic trends are apparent. These are indicative
        requirements do not discriminatorily affect your opera-    Of the approach, attitudes, involvement,  frustra-
        tions vis-a-vis those of your (domestic or foreign)
        competitors.,, tions, and concern for the future of U.S. ports and
                                                             the water quality in our harbors, waterways, and
                                                             -estuarine areas.
    VESSEL TRAFFIC SAFETY SYSTEMS                              estuarine areas.
      Coast Guard continues to expand its activities               a. Federal, state and local legislation, guide-
    and responsibilities to improve maritime safety in              lines, regulations, and directives will continue
    harbors and waterways as it accelerates implemen-               and wil have their impact on port operations
    tation 'of the Ports and Waterways Safety Act of
    1972. Traffic safety can be the number one 'deterrent
    to vessel casualities, thereby reducing the spillage                    port indstry is making adjustments in
    of oil in the waterways. The U.S. Coast Guard seems             policy and administration to participate in en-
    to have an effective program underway. Systems in               vronmental programs.
    San Francisco and Puget Sound are 1presently in                 c. Facilities, equipment and personnel required
    operation and regulations have been drafted to re-              to respond to these environmental constraints
    quire their mandatory use. Systems for other selected
                                                                  will present a financial burden to the port
    ports are in the planning or construction stage.                industry.
      Ports and waterways have been ranked according
    to their need for vessel traffic systems. The list is
    based on an analysis of casualty statistics utilizing    Basic recommendations:
    an algorithm  developed through the VTS  Issue
    Study.. (March 1973.):   .                     -n bridge to   ~  a. Recommend that immediate  responsibility
      The Coast Guard programs on bridge to bridge                 be given to a Special Advisory Board to evalu-
    radio-telephone  communications  will  contribute
    greatly to traffic safety, and reduction of casualties.         lapping responsibilities from federal, state and
                                                                  lapping responsibilities from federal, state and
      The need for attention to the orderly control of             local legislation, guidelines,  regulations,  and
    shipping in and out of our waterways is apparent                directives and their resulting environmental
    with the increased size, carrying capacity, and vol-            impact  on ports. It is further recommended
    ume of traffic existing today and projected for the             that this board include members of the port
    future. The following chart depicts the growth and              industry
    size of petroleum carrying vessels from  1956 to
    present date:                                                   b. Recommend that immediate attention be
                                                                  given to determine the financial burdens placed
                                                    Nam  Tonap   Lance  on  U.S.  ports, through environmental  con-
    Sinclair Petrolore - -    --- 56,089  350,000   1956           straints and how this might affect the fuiture
    Universe Leader -   --_  85,550       550,000   1957
    Universe Apollo    -      104,520     800,000   1959            of U.S. ports and U.S. markets in world trade.
    Manhattan ..   -       --- - 108,590  900,000   1962
    Nissh Maru-. 130,250                  950,000  �1962            It is recommended that attention and support
    Tokyo Maru --_'__'   .    130,250     950,000   1966
    Idemitsu Maru --------    206,000   1,700,000   1966           be given to H.R. 1084, a bill "To amend the
    Universe Ireland ---     --..    326,000   2,500,000   1968    Merchant Marine Act of 1920, to establish a

    542                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

        grant program to enable public ports to comply    RECOMMENDATION: (Oily waste and ballast water-
        with certain federal 'standards, to direct the    sanitary)
        Secretary of Commerce to undertake a compre-
        hensive study of the present and future needs        1. Entire problem needs review and refinement.
        of public ports in the United States, and for    Coast Guard, EPA, MarAd and AAPA must try
        other purposes."                                   to resolve this. Legislation calls for definite action
                                                         by 1980. The industry does not appear prepared to
        Federal legislation on security measures, safety    meet that deadline. Further research and develop-
        regulations (OSHA),  and environmental con-   ment on shipboard equipment to process the wastes
        straints is bound to have a serious financial    are necessary.
        effect on U.S. ports. These issues require care-
        ful evaluation as to their effectiveness versus    recommendation  worthy  of consideration:   We
                                                         recommendation  worthy  of consideration:  "We
        costs.
                                                         strongly favor federal regulation and authority to
                                                         pre-empt state regulations insofar as discharges
    Review  procedures that result in conflicts and    from vessels in navigable waters are concerned. We
    communication gaps between local, district, and    also urge development of standards and standard
    Washington headquarters of federal agencies                        for the removal of shipboard wastes to
    volved in these projects.                               shoreside facilities."

    The cost to purchase and develop new land for
    relocation of facilities and obtaining permits for    TRENDS: (Shipping and port industry) The following
    dredging and spoils disposal for these projects needs    trends are apparent and require attention:
    to be reviewed.
                                                            Increase in cargo movements-increased volume
                                                          of ship movements-increased size of vessels-new
    RECOMMENDATION: (Federal permits)                      terminal design-port to port service-requirement
                                                          for new land for port development-deepwater
      1. Reduce number of federal agencies required to    ports-reduction in use of traditional port facilities-
    judge an environmental project. Immediate and    changes in handling bulk, liquid and general cargo
    careful attention should be given to the matrix    (large container ships)-overcrowded waterways-
    (Figure 7), to determine its accuracy and to make    increased costs for dredging and disposal of spoils-
    recommendations that result in less confusion with    regional ports-the increased use of LNG vessels
    resulting delays.                                      --and demand for fast turn-around of ships.

    RECOMMENDATION: (Environmental impact                  RECOMMENDATION: (Shipping and ports)
    statements)
                                                            1. An overview is needed to establish basic policy
      1. Clarify conflicting guidelines from federal agen-    changes in funding dredging projects at existing
    cies for content of material for acceptance of envi-   ports versus deepwater ports. The future of tradi-
    ronmental impact statements. Particular attention    tional ports versus regional ports must be examined.
    should be focused on requirements of Department    The effect of a large number of smaller vessels versus
    of Interior (Fish and Wildlife) versus Department    the supership in relation to vessel safety and avoid-
    of the Army (Corps of Engineers).                      ance of accidents requires attention.

      2. There also appears to be an unnecessary dupli-      2. Additional attention is required on the carriage
    cation of effort in preparing an EIS. An applicant    of LNG and the location of port facilities to-receive
    must prepare an EIS on a project, and the federal    this cargo. Safety precautions must be examined,
    agencies with responsibility to this project must also    and further attention is required on how a port and
    prepare an EIS on the same project. This results in    a port community must respond to a major collision
    serious time delays.                                   of an LNG ship with a tanker or general cargo ship
                                                          in a restricted ship channel or while tied up at berth.
      3. Investigate background of projects requiring
    an EIS from the Corps. They are behind schedule.          3. Concern should be continued on the inspection of
    Recommend more manpower.                               equipment and licensing of personnel in the carriage

                                                     PORTS                                                543

    of petroleum products in tank barges (of all sizes)    training program for Coast Guard officer assuming
    engaged in traffic along the coast.                    on scene command at oil spills. Suggest specialized
                                                          designated officer classification.
    RECOMMENDATION: (Dredging and spoil disposal)             2. Expansion of Coast Guard and private "oil
                                                          spill" training schools. Examine current program
      1. Review criteria published by EPA  on con-    at Texas A  &  M.  Enlarge through government
    straints to dispose of spoils for a more realistic   financing if necessary.
    approach.
                                                            3. More attention is needed at the federal level
      2. Attention should be given to assure adequate    through the office of EPA  (and possibly Coast
    congressional funding of the Corps dredging responsi-    Guard) in providing local communities with criteria,
    bilities. The amount of money funded by FY 1976    guidelines, and assistance in locating disposal sites
    will not meet the needs for new project and mainten-    for both liquid and solid wastes collected from oil
    ance work.                                             spills. This is a very critical issue, and attention to
                                                          this problem is essential.
      3. Determine cost to government and ports caused
    by delays, confusion, and misunderstanding due to
    conflicting guidelines and demands of state and local    RECOMMENDATION: (Deepwater ports)
    environmental agencies versus federal agencies.
                                                            1. Before implementation of guidelines and poli-
                                                          cies, clarification is needed regarding jurisdiction,
    RECOMMENDATION: (Dilapidated piers-floating            including issuing of licenses, permits, policing, regu-
    debris)                                                lations, construction, underwater lands, safety, pipe-
                                                          lines, oil spill control and removal, and so forth.
      1. Careful review of present study being conducted
    by the Corps. Particular attention is necessary to        2. Additional study is required on the effectiveness
    damage, with resulting costs, to bridges washed out    of a single point mooring in open deepwater ports.
    during storms from floating debris.
                                                            3. If the deepwater (offshore) port issue is broad-
                                                          ened beyond the reception of petroleum products,
    RECOMMENDATION: (Land acquisition-Coastal              such as the reception and transfer of dry bulk cargos,
    Zone Management Act)                                   considerable additional attention is required, par-
             1.; Idividual ports should review their states' ticularly as it relates to existing land oriented port
      1. Individual ports should review their states' areas
    Coastal Zone Planning Program under the Coastal
    Zone Management Act to determine how it might
    affect land acquisition for port development.

      2. Attention is also required as to why no Coastal      1. An evaluation of this issue requires additional
    Zone Planning Program has been presented to    attention. Ports do not seem immediately affected
    MarAd under the 1973 memorandum agreement    at this time, but it is apparent that vessel insurance
    between MarAd and NOAA.                                in handling petroleum products will have some effect
                                                          on product cost.
      3. Ports should become  acquainted with the
    Coastal States Organization, which was formed in    RECOMMENDATION: (Vessel traffic control)
    1969 to provide a vehicle for the interested states
    to make their views known on marine and coastal           1. The Coast Guard has an excellent program.
    programs and policies.l9                               Funds should be continued so as not to impair its
                                                          operation.
                                                            2. Avoidance of accidents is the basic deterrent
                                                          to oil spills.
      1. More R & D on prevention, cleanup equipment
    and expertise to respond to a spill. Provide adequate    CONCLUSION
    depths in channels and waterways traveled by oil
    barges serving port areas to prevent 'groundings          There are many unsolved problems that need at-
    with resulting oil spills. Improved and expanded    tention. The federal government is concerned; the

    544                                        ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL                                   :

    port industry is concerned. Both hope to solve the                8. Statement of Ernest Bauer, chief, Division of Ports and
                                                                      Terminals, MarAd, at the American Association of Port
    problems that still exist in order to improve the envi-              Authorities  Convention at San Juan,  Puerto  Rico,
    ronmental  health  and  welfare  of our  ports and                   October 1974.
    estuarine areas.
                                                                    9. From a report dated July 2, 1974 from the desk of J. H.
                                                                      Costich, Comdr. U.S. Coast Guard, chief, Environmental
                                                                      Coordination Branch, by direction of the Commandant to
    REFERENCES                                                          Committee XV  of the American Association of Port
                                                                      Authorities.
     1. An analysis of the markets for domestic waterborne ship-    10 Conducted by Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction
        ping by A. T. Kearney, Inc., of Chicago for MarAd.              Co. of Seattle, Wash. entitled, "The Feasibility of Using
        (Published Feb. 1974 at cost of $600,000.)                      Surplus Ship Hulls for Floatable Harbor and River Waste
                                                                      Treatment Systems" (Published in 1973).
        Oceanborne Shipping: Demand and Technology Forecast.
        (Litton Systems for U.S. Dept. of Commerce. June, 1948)     11. According to a survey made by Marine Engineering Log
                                                                      of 70 major U.S. ports and published in the June 7, 1973
     2. The U.S. Maritime Administration has endorsed the in-           issue.
        tention to establish Regional Ports through the office of
        Marvin Pitkin.                                              12. Department of Transportation Study conducted by the
                                                                      Battelle Columbus Laboratories. Published March 1974,
                                                                      entitled "Waterborne Debris in Marine Pollution
     3. Excerpts from paper given before 1974 Pollution Control         Incidents."
        in the Marine Industries, sponsored by the International
        Assoc. for Pollution Control in Washington, D.C., of
        May 14, 15 and 16 by A. J. Green, Jr., Research Sanitary     13. Ben E. Nutter, executive director, Port of Oakland,
        Engineer, Office for Environmental Studies, U.S. Army           Oakland, Calif. (February 6, 1975).
        Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, CE, Vicksburg,
        Miss.  and F. H. Griffis, Major, U.S. Army Corps of    14. Oil Spill Control Assoc. of America, 20245 West Twelve
        Engineers. Program Manager, Dredged Material Re-                Mile Road, Suite 205, Southfield, Mich. General Counsel,
        search Program, U.S. Army Engineers Waterways Ex-               Marc K. Shaye.
        periment Station, CE, Vicksburg, Miss.
                                                                   15. EPA published regulations involving shoreside facilities;
     4. Section 123 (i) of Public Law 61-911 directs the Army           Coast.Guard published regulations on shipboard opera-
        Corps of Engineers (with EPA assistance) to undertake           tions2designed to control oil spillage. (Both programs are
        "A Comprehensive Program of Research, Study and                 lagging, according to statements of both EPA and Coast
        Experimentation  Relating  to Dredge  Spoil,"  which            Guard).
        "shall include but not be limited to, investigations on the
        characteristics of dredged spoil and alternative methods     16. EPA introduced a new 2.6 million gallon test tank at
        of its disposal." The Corps has begun the $30,000,000           Leonardo, N.J.-better ways of handling--(Comments
        5-year study under the direction of the chairman of the         of John R. Quayles, Jr., deputy administrator of EPA,
        eight-man advisory committee, BG, Allen Clark, Jr.,             Oct. 2, 1974 at Leonardo, N.J.).
        USA (ret.).
                                                                   17.' Appointment- of James L. Lammie, former district engi-
     5. Statement of Major General John Morris, of the Arny             peer at San Francisco.
        Corps of Engineers at a convention of the Gulf Intra-
        coastal Canal Association in February 1974.                  18. Statement of J. Gordon Arbuckle, attorney with Patton,
                                                                       Boggs & Blow, Washington, D.C., before the Pollution
                                                                       Control in the Marine Industries Conference, sponsored
     6. Disposal of Oily Waste and Ballast Water from Vessel            by  the  International  Assoc.  for Pollution  Control,
        Operation Study contract was awarded to Frederic R.             Washington, D.C., May 14, 15, 16, 1974.
        Harris Inc., in the amount of $654,000.
                                                                   19. Coastal States Organization was formed under the aus-
     7. "Floatable Oily Waste Treatment Systems" Study was              pices of the National Governors' Conference. Chairman:
        awarded to Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction               A. R. Schwartz, Texas Coastal and Marine Council,
        Company; contract amount: $399,040.                             Austin, Tex.

    FACTORS BEARING ON-
    POLLUTION CONTROL IN
    WEST ,COAST. ESTUARINE; PORTS

    FRANK BOERGER
    ,San Francisco Dredging Committee
    San Francisco, California

                 ABSTRACT'
                 !The value of west coast estuarine ports is established; port operational problems attributable
                 to pollution control are defined and analyzed. Major problem areas, including regulations and
                 procedures, are explained with examples. It is concluded that water pollution control regulations
                 cause the most problems and that they are characterized by unjustifiable delay, risk, uncertainty,
                 and confusion. Remedial recommendations are given.

     INTRODUCTION                                             where goods arriving by truck are consolidated into
                                                           containers and vice-versa.. New port rail yards have
       West coast ports are major transportation inter-    been developed which handle a variety of cargos,
    faces in a worldwide commodity flow system. Wheth-    including, for example, containers on trpck trailers,
     er publicly or privately owned, single or multi-    for distribution throughout the U.S.
    purpose, these ports contribute significantly to the        Since the passage of the various clean air and
    nation as well as the regions in which they are lo-    water acts and the National Environmental Policy
     cated in terms of the availability of goods, balance of    Act, west coast ports, especially those located in
    trade, and regional employment and development.    estuarine environments, have had' to face many
     In 1973, west coast ports handled 95 million tons of    new problems. The regulations and regulatory pro-
     cargo valuedin excess of $17 billion.' Figures on    cedures associated with these laws have added seri-
     community impact of a west coast port are included    ous technical and financial burdens, often allowing
    in Exhibit 1 of Appendix 1.                              some  ports a competitive advantage over others.
       West coast ports have generally done an exemplary    Frequently, the real benefits of pollution control
     job in keeping abreast of the demands of shippers    programs, as developed by the regulatory authorities
     and consumers. Recent changes in cargo handling    pursuant' to legislative mandate, are in question;
     concepts (containers, lighter aboard ship, roll on-roll    problems ensue over the use of funds on pollution
     off) .have neqessitated many waterfront improve-    control programs without adequate justification.
     ments as well as the development of new'facilities and      Embarking on any pollution control 'program
     the purchase of new equipment. Most World War    requires time, justification, technical capability,
     IT ships have been phased out and the new genera-    money, effort, and specific direction. Whenever a
     tion of ships requires wider and deeper channels,    major expenditure is required to achieve pollution
     berths, and maneuvering  areas. According to a    control requirements, 'it impacts all social and eco-
     Maritime Administration survey,2 west coast ports    nomic sectors dependent on the port activity. De-
     invested over $308 million in new and renovated fa-    cisions to develop or improve related facilities may
     cilities during the period 1966 to 1972; federal in-    be postponed, new equipment orders are often can-
     vestments to facilitate port operations have been    celled, and lease negotiations may be tabled. In the
     many times this amount. Many ports have entered    case of west coast ports, the major problem areas
     into long-term lease arrangements to amortize the    appear to involve water pollution control programs,
     heavy  indebtedness  incurred  by  the  need  to    primarily due to a lack of funds, technical capability,
     modernize.                                               or definitive requirements. While some air and noise
       Other transportation sectors have also under-    quality control problems have been reported, these
     taken rapid modernization of their port-related    are apparently isolated and relatively minor com-
     facilities to accommodate efficient and economical    pared to water pollution control problems.
     intermodal transportation  of ocean-going  cargo.           Federal water pollution control programs which
     Many ports now have large container freight stations    are creating difficulties for west coast ports include

                                                                                                         545

    546                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    those mandated by the Federal Water Pollution                 and costs associated with applicable pollu-
    Control Act Amendments of 1972 and the Ocean                  tion control programs.
    Dumping Act. Additional authority given to regula-         4. Testing and monitoring requirements.
    tory agencies by the Fish and Wildlife Act of 1958
    (and the subsequent Army/Interior Memorandum    EVALUATION AND DISCUSSION
    of 1967) and the National Environmental Policy    OF FACTORS
    Act are responsible for related problems.
      The implementation and administration of these
    Acts have significantly contributed to pollution
    control problems facing west coast ports. The first
                    major pollutio cntl progrm 1. Discharge of sewage from ships in port directly
    major pollution control program which affectede    b
                                         wet c s         in. to the surrounding waters is prohibited by a
    west coast ports involved dredging. Experience    number of agencies. Most ship sanitary facilities
    with the regulation of this program can be character-   are fitted to discharge directly overboar  y few
                                                         are fitted to discharge directly overboard; very few
    ized by the following features:
                                                         have holding tanks, treatment plants, or collecting
      A. Uncertainty--over whether or not dredging    manifolds that would allow sanitary wastes to be
    will be permitted, future requirements, and regula-   pumped to shoreside treatment plants while in port.
    tory agency activities.                               One solution is to disallow the use of shipboard facil-
      B. Delays-time required to deal with and coordi-   ities and use only shoreside toilets; another is to
    nate actions of all regulatory agencies involved.     use portable self-contained units placed on board
      C. Multiplicity of agencies involved-many single   while a ship is in port. Neither solution is fully ac-
      purpose  agencies, often each with authority over    ceptable to either ship operators or ports since they
                 purpose agencies, ofe ah aboth involve extra expense and inconvenience.
    permitting dredging and frequently called upon to
          review a prject more than once, must approve    Impact on shipping not otherwise normally suscepti-
    dredging projects.                                    ble to U.S. regulations (e.g. foreign operators) must
                                                         be considered in determining the degree and accepta-
      It is of serious concern to west coast ports that the    biliy of such requirements. Adverse effects on ocean
    above features may also affect other programs dis-   shipping services-en toto largely provided by other
    cussed under the following major problem areas.       than U.S. carriers-must be viewed in terms of
                                                         World trade, balance-of-payments, and competitive-
                                                         ness.
    MAJOR PROBLEM AREAS                                     Many local pollution control agendies, such as
                                                         California's Regional Water Quality Control Boards,
      Pollution control problems for west coast ports   in order to comply with Environmental Protection
    can be categorized in three main areas: ship opera-   Agency requirements, adopted blanket policies of
    tions, port operations, and port maintenance  and    prohibiting discharges from ships2 apparently with-
    improvement.                                          out adequately investigating available alternatives,
      A. Ship operations                                  the maghitude of the ship discharge problem, or the
         1. Sewage discharge from ships while in port.   costs involved. Further, in several areas, ports are
         2. Ballast or oily waste discharge from ships   required to police such prohibitions and can be held
            while in port.                                responsible for deliberate or accidental discharges.
         3. Accidental oil or other spills from vessels    In implementing this policy, the California board
            while in port.                                has a commitment to install dockside sewers before
      B. Port operations                                  approving any' application to the Corps of Engineers
         1. Waste treatment plants                       for a permit involving the construction or hain-
         2. Area runoff                                  tenance of a wharf or pier facility.
      C. Port maintenance and development.  (This           2. Ballast and oily wastes must frequently be dis-
         area involves both the improvement and re-   charged from ships before taking on new cargo and
         placement of landside facilities and the new    for trimming purposes. Such discharges, like the
         and maintenance dredging of navigation chan-    discharge of sewage, are prohibited in port. Some
         nels and berths.)                               ships clean at sea while others make special trips to
         1. Status of applicable regulations and pro-    cleaning facilities. With regard to trim ballast, vessels
            cedures.                                      must often depart from port in unstable condition
         2. Multiple agency involvement and delays   until they are far enough at sea to discharge excess
            associated with permit processing.            ballast or wastes.
         3. Technical feasibility of, justification for,    Most municipal sewage treatment systems can-

                                                      PORTS                                                547

    not handle the materials and volumes involved    plant prior to discharge in port waters. Understand-
    even if their lines are connected to port areas. The    ably, many west coast port officials are concerned
    only generally available landside solution is to pump    over the costs involved with constructing and operat-
    ballast and oily wastes into tank trucks or rail cars    ing such a system.
    for transport to special treatment or refining facili-
    ties. This solution is very expensive, time consuming,
       ,.d infrequently .  ........                         C. Port Maintenance and Development
    and infrequently available.
       3. Accidental spills of oil or other deleterious sub-
    stances into port waters are always a possibility. The    take advantage of new       tech nology and chang
    U.S. Coast Guard has developed stringent regula-    take advantage of  new technology and changin
    tions covering the transfer of such materials; these    trpetitive.  The wffitent  ervice and to rema
    have significantly reduced the probability of spills.
    The only reasonably reliable, available method of   usually harsh and port maintenance must be  per-
    preventing spills from causing damage in port ap-    formed on a continuing basis. Unlike most industries,
    pears to be through the use of floating curtains to    however, the costs associated with port moderniza-
    control and facilitate spill cleanup. These curtains    tion and maintenance are very high compared to
    are deployed around the vessel on docking and float   either port facility investment or return.
                                                             Investments from which accrued benefits are of a
    above and below the water level while transfer op-
    erations occur. The question has arisen in many    common, longrange and often  tangiblenature and
    ports over who should purchase and operate these    which promote general prosperity but are beyond the
    curtains.                                              capability of private enterprise are frequently under-
                                                           taken by the government. In the case of ports, such
                                                           benefits, in the form of marine commerce and in-
    B. Port Operations                                     ternational trade, are recognized, and the govern-
                                                           ment invests large sums in port modernization and
       1. Ship wastes, if pumped ashore, must be treated    maintenance. This is common for ports worldwide.5
    before they are returned to port waters. In most    Since many pollution control measures would fall
    cases, pipelines, pumping stations and pre-treatment    into the above category, it would appear reasonable
    facilities would have to be installed to convey the    to assume that the government should participate in
    wastes to municipal plants if they could accept them.    underwriting expenditures associated with port pol-
    Many municipal sewage treatment districts in which    lution control.
    ports are located cannot accept the volumes and           Having the government as a partner is absolutely
    types of wastes which ships must discharge.             essential to west coast estuarine port maintenance
      The most likely solution will probably involve    and development; however, the partnership has
    construction of dual pipeline collection systems from    many disadvantages. Federal funding programs to
    each berth to separate sanitary and industrial treat-    deepen and widen navigation channels, for instance,
    ment plants. Final distribution could be either    take an average of 17 years to accomplish. During
    -through existing municipal systems, if they can    such long time spans, technology, pollution control
    accept the wastes, or through new pipeline outfall    programs, and regulations change, and consequently
    networks.                                               the costs and usefulness of such projects.
      2. Storm water overland runoff is believed to be a      The following specific problem areas indicate
    major contributor to water pollution.4 Port areas    factors limiting and controlling west coast port de-
    generate large amounts of direct runoff due to the    velopment and maintenance from the standpoint of
    magnitude of their land coverage. Port runoff prob-    pollution control:
    lems are aggravated by their'proximity to navigable
    waters and the fact that they are necessarily low         1. The status and applicability of pollution con-
    lying areas often subject to overflow from upland    trol regulations is often confusing. Most industrial
    tributary runoff.                                       point source discharges have been covered by stand-
      Surface runoff from ports may traverse areas of    ards issued by the Environmental Protection Agency
    many port-related activities including railyards and    under the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
    truck depots, scrap salvage operations, open storage,    of 1972, P.L, 92-500. Compliance with the National
    and ship repair facilities. Pollution control agencies    Pollution Discharges Elimination System (NPDES)
    are increasingly alert to controlling non-point source    permit program of P.L. 92-500, while expensive, has
    discharges. If it becomes necessary to treat port area    at least clarified many point source issues and fo-
    runoff, all storm sewers as well as surface runoff will   cused attention on others. Ports are the terminus for
    have to be intercepted and conveyed to a treatment    many pipelines of which the origins and contents are

    548                                  ESTUARINE POILUTION CONTROL

    often unknown; yet, under the NPDES program,    ports than any other permit. All too frequently; a
    ports are required to apply for and procure permits    port spends months going through this process to get
    or curtail discharges from'all .'but storm' drain    permits to accomplish annual maintenance'dredging;'
    pipelines.                 '                           often contracts must be held -up or -delayed because
      Pollution control regulations, while often pro-    the status of or an impending decision regarding'a
    mulgated and 'enforced by federal agencies, are    permit is unknown. Many development'proj ects have
    frequently interpreted and enforced in more stringent    been deferred or cancelled during the permitting
    forms by state and local agencies. In the case of   process because of uncertainties, delays, and esalat-
    dredged material disposal regulations, the overlap-   ing costs. A participant in a recent dredging; con-
    piig' jurisdictions of both regiulatory agencies and    ference described'the situation: "It'seems like we are
    federal laws combined with failure of EPA to develop    on a merry-go-round-improper guidelines, rigidly
    guidelinies required by Section 403 -(c) has caused    applied, 'result in virtually impossible  project
    great confusion. This situation was described by a    requirements."7
    member of the California" State Water Resources          3. The technical feasibility of' complying- with
    Control Board as "'A deplorable lack of coordination    many-pollution control regulations, their justification
    betweei' agencies which' often results in long delays    in terms of environmental benefits, and the costs of
    which are unfair to applicants (for dredging permits)    compliance in economic and social terms are very
    and work a hardship on the agencies involved."6        important i'ssues to west 'coast ports. The most
      The greatest concern expressed by west coast ports    serious of these issues - surrounds dredging, - which'
    regarding pollution control involves dredging. The    provides the "lifelines" of ship navigation channels
    status of dredging-related regulations is especially    to ports.                  -
    confufsing since they' are mandated' by both the         There have been many  commentaries ohn the
    Ocean Dutnping'Act,' P.L. 92-532, and by P.L.    adequacy, 'impact, and effectiveness of pollution
    92-500. Dredge disposal criteria for ocean disposal    control-regulations involving dredging. With respect
    have 'been promulgated pursuant to P.L. 92-532,    to the basis for the regulations, a board of consul-
    but not for inland water disposal as required by    tants to the U.S. Army Corps of Efigineers ;stated
    P.L.''92-500. This situation has left estuarine ports    that "A 'correctional campaign based on inadequate
    without any clear-cut regulations. In response to'this    evidence may be self defeating."8- There are many
    dilemma, Region IX EPA issued'it's interpretation    arguments which indicate this may characterize. the
    of the P.L. 92-532 ocean disposal'criteria, modified to    pollution control program for dredging.
    meet local requirements, and, as an interim measure,     First, the impact of dredging activity on water
    has extended these criteria (with some 'additional    quality relative to natural resubpension of sediments
    modifications) to' cover inland water disposal. To    appears to be small. For example, Dr. Ray Krone, a
    further complicate the situation,' only 'one of the    sediment expert from the University of California, has
    seven Califbrnia State Regional Water Quality Con-    shown that in San Francisco; Bay, the 'amount of
    trol Boards adopted these criteria, with modifications    material resuspended into the water column by'
    of their oWii; the other six boards reportedly 'use    es'tuarine wind and waves is many times greaterthan
    various criteria. This Situation frequently results in    that due to dredging.' With regard to toxic metals, on
    more stringent requirements for some ports and con-    which major pollution control efforts are expended,'
    sequently' iii higher dredging costs for those; ports.   it is believed' that the major cause of their presence
    Region IX EPA stated that final dredging criteria   in the water column is urban runoff."0 Given the
    would be issued over a year ago. Many projedts and    urban and industrial activity common to estuaries
    agencies have awaited these criteria, promised on'a   along the west coast, it is highly probable that the
    monthly basis; a draft was released in late October    impact of dredging on water quality is relatively
     1974.           '  '   '              '               very minor. As an overview on this'matter, Dr. Krone
       2. Prior to undertaking port development or    observes that "The . . . (EPA) ..  appears to feel
    maintenance projects, 'ports must procure permits    compelled- to establish guidelines for' dredged spoil
    from many regulatory agencies; most of which ad-    disposal even in the absence of information showing
    minister pollution control programs. Primarily be-   that publishing such guidelines will lead to improve-
     cause 'many pollOtion control regulations appear    ment of water quality. In view of the large sumrnsof
    relatively nebulous and because most pollution 'con-   money that observation of the proposed guidelines
    tr'ol agencies 'are under-staffed to efficiently handle    will require, and that otherwise could be spent in
     permits, bbtaining permits is usually arduous.         preventing the admission of waste discharges into,
       Again,' dredging causes the majority of problems.    the waters to prevent accumulation of toxic materials
     Both for maintenance and development purposes,    on all sediments, such guidelines should be prepared
     dredging permits are sought more frequently by more    with sound knowledge of the effects' of disposal on

                                                     PORTS -                                              549

    the estuary or stream. As the proposed guidelines    Decisions of the Bureau will not be swayed by eco-
    show  repeatedly,  even  cursory  knowledge  is   nomic considerations."'2 The Bureau has pointed out
    lacking.""                                             that it is their obligation to review dredging projects
      Second, no studies have conclusively shown signif-   and to try and serve as advocates for sound biological
    icant deleterious impacts on water quality caused by    planning.
    routine maintenance or well planned new dredging.        It is not apparent that pollution control regulatory
    Dredging, which approximates natural resuspension    agencies are able to adequately identify any signifi-
    of sediments, does not add materials to the water    cant deleterious impacts which begin to compare
    column. While no significant changes have occurred    with the lost benefits of foregone dredging projects
    in dredging practices in San Francisco Bay in the last   or the added costs associated with compliance with
    50 years (except that the amounts have increased),    the regulations. The agencies have been queried
    the local Water Quality Control Board reports that    regarding the impacts of the regulations on numerous
    bay water quality is improving.                        occasions with unsatisfactory results. To one query
      Third, the costs associated with compliance with    from a Congressman, for example, who asked the
    dredging related pollution control regulations are    EPA  "What  specific beneficial effects will be
    high. In the San Francisco Bay, for example, the    achieved as a result of implementing the (dredging)
    normal practice for dredging within the central bay    guidelines?"  EPA  responded:  "We  believe  the
    is to dispose of the material at a deep aquatic site    (guidelines) will provide a better tool to evaluate
    just off Alcatraz Island; the regulations prescribe    dredged spoil disposal in San Francisco Bay waters
    disposal for "polluted" material at some 30 miles    than was formerly available through the use of
    offshore in the ocean or on land. The cost for dis-   national  (EPA)  guidelines. Accordingly, the re-
    posing in the prescribed ocean site is approximately    suiting evaluations should adequately protect the
    three times that of disposing at the Alcatraz site.   environment while avoiding the imposition of un-
    Without adequate justification, ports are very re-   reasonable burdens on navigation interests."'"  With
    luctant to commit such large additional expenditures.    regard to this particular response there is significant
    An estimate of additional costs due to dredging    disagreement over whether or. not the regulations
    regulations-as applied in San Francisco Bay has been    have been shown to adequately protect the environ-
    developed  and  is included in Appendix  I, as    ment and whether or not they impose unreasonable
    Exhibit 2.                                             burdens.on navigation interests.
      Since ports are often bound by lease agreements,       4. Testing and monitoring programs are required
    additional expenses for disposing of dredged mate-    as conditions of dredging permits issued by govern-
    rials are usually unbudgeted or unknown amounts    ment regulatory agencies. The costs of these pro-
    which must come from other accounts if available    grams is high, averaging from approximately 7 per-
    at all. In one instance, funds which had been made    cent to 20 percent of the cost of the dredging. Much
    available for public fishing piers and parks had to be    data has been produced from these mandatory pro-
    used instead to cover the added costs of compliance.    grams but its usefulness in protecting the environ-
    While the recreational benefits of the public fishing    ment is highly questionable. Three questions re-
    facilities are known, no one can identify significant    garding program usefulness have never been satis-
    benefits of complying with the dredging regulations.    factorily answered:  (a) what is the relationship
      Another factor aggravating the added cost situa-    between constituents tested and water quality: (b)
    tion is that many single purpose agencies with pol-   what is the relationship between the limits placed on
    lution control authority can and do exercise a de    the constituents (which define whether or not dredg-
    facto veto power over the conduct of dredging    ing is allowed) and water quality: (c) do the pre-
    projects. A recent statement by a representative of   scribed methods of analysis yield results which are
    the U.S. Bureau of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife    indicative of actual deleterious impacts on water
    illustrates the limited perspective that results in   quality?
    controls on ports; with regard to the necessity and      After reviewing the pollution control regulations
    merits of port dredging projects, the representative    and testing and monitoring procedures which are
    stated that "Although the proposed EPA criteria   prescribed for dredging, Dr. Ray Krone observed
    state that the selection of disposal sites will be based    that "The levels (limits) of constituents are arbi-
    tton considerations of the need for disposal, economic    trarily set without justification or support of any
    on considerations of the need for disposal, economic    kind. The real difficulty, from the standpoint of their
    costs involved, available alternatives, and the extent    use for management of dredged spoil disposal, how-
    of environmental'impact, the Bureau will continue    ever, arises because of the analytical (testing) meth-
    to evaluate dredging projects only from the stand-    ods required,.. The methods of analysis described
    point of the impact on fish and wildlife resources.    appear to determine gross constituents or indexes of

    550                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    possible pollutants, rather than actual deleterious    CONCLUSIONS
    materials released to the environment."14
                                                              In order for west coast estuarine ports to participate
                                                            as fully as possible in pollution control programs, un-
    APPARENT NEEDS                                           certainty, delays, and confusion now associated with
                                                            such programs must be minimized. The perplexing
                                                            problems which characterize the pollution control
      The factors discussed above limit and control    program for dredging hopefully can be reduced or
    west coast estuarine port operation, often to a seri-   eliminated from future programs involving other
    ous extent. Ports can and do play a vital role in    fields of port activity. A mechanism for the sharing
    pollution control efforts. The following points express    of costs associated with port pollution control pro-
    needed reforms in the pollution control efforts as    grams should be developed and implemented. In
    applied to west coast ports:                             addition, a streamlined decisionmaking process for
                                                            the issuance of port maintenance and development
      1. Pollution control regulations and testing proce-    permits should be instituted, allowing full and rapid
    dures must be adequately based and justifiable with    consideration of the value of port activity.
    regard to results. Their entire impact, including that
    on the environment as well as on the economy and    APPENDIX I
    ports in particular must be evaluated prior to im-
    plementation. Also, before any regulations are im-    (Referenced to Text Superscripts)
    plemented, agencies administering them should be
    plemiented, agencies administering them should be         1. From U.S. Department of Commerce figures compiled by
    fully aware of costs and of feasible alternatives            the Maritime Administratis compiled by
    available to meet regulation requirements. To this
    end, agencies proposing regulations or testing proce-     2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Maritime Administra-
    dures should be required to develop both environ-            tion, North American Port Development Expenditure
                                                                Survey, March 1974.
    mental and economic impact statements and to hold
    public hearings prior to promulgation of the regula-      3. California Regional Water Quality Control Board, San
    tions. This view has been endorsed by both the board         Francisco Bay Region, Interim Water Quality Manage-
    of directors and the general membership of the Cali-         Plan, April 1971.
    fornia Marine Affairs and Navigation Conference."5        4. San Francisco Bay Regional Water Quality Control
    Sound, complete, reasonable, and workable pollution          Board, Memorandum from Executive Director on pro-
    control regulations can only be developed after social,      posed shellfish policy, August 1974.
    economic, and environmental impacts and priorities        5. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Institute for Water Re-
    are established, evaluated, and their relationships          sources, Foreign Deep  Water  Port Developments,
    thoroughly understood.                                       December 1971.
      2. Pollution control regulations must be applied        6. California Marine Affairs and Navigation Conference,
    uniformly; specific directions for their use must be         Summary Proceedings: Ecology, Economics and Dredg-
    supplied to all agencies at federal, state, and local        ing-A Balancing Point for Navigation, October 1973.
    levels which might use them.                              7. Same as #6.
      3. Pollution control regulatory agencies must be
                 adequately funded  and  staffed to develop  fair,    8. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment
                                                        adequately  Station, Disposal of Dredged Spoil (Technical Report
    efficient and economical permit and review proce-           H-72-8) November 1972.
    dures for the administration of pollution control
                                                             9. Dr. Ray B. Krone, Paper to San Francisco Bay Regional
    programs.                                                    Water Quality Control Board, March 20, 1974.
      4. When pollution control measures are judged to
    be in the general interest, funds should be made    10. Same as #4.
    available by the government to implement such    11. Dr. Ray B. Krone, Paper Evaluating EPA Draft Dredge
    measures.  West  coast ports, already financially            Disposal Criteria, November 8, 1972.
    burdened  through  many  recent  modernization
                                                             12. Same as #6.
    efforts, provide many major contributions to the
    general interest. Some funding is apparently author-    13. Letter from Paul DeFalco, Jr., Regional Administrator,
                              ed in the amount of 15 million to remove in-place  EPA Region IX, to Congressman Robert L. Leggett,
    ized in the amount of $15 million to rvember 30, 1973.
    toxicants from navigable waterways according to
    Section 115 of P.L. 92-500; to date, however, west    14. Same as #9.
    coast EPA representatives do not know how these    15. Resolution adopted by the California Marine Affairs
    funds can be made available.                                and Navigation Conference, October 1973.

                                                                                         PORTS                                                                                      551

    Exhibit 1                                                                       :      d      Exhibit 2

                           Economic Impact of Port of Seattle*                                    Estimated Additional Costs for San Francisco Bay Dredging Projects as a Result
                                                                                                                  of Application of E.P.A. Dredge Disposal Criteria*
                                                   Number  Gross Annual  Sales and (or                                     January 1, 1972 to October 1, 1973
                                                    of Jobs     Payroll        Revenues
                                                                                                                               Project                                        Estimated
    Transportation and Transportation Services                                                         Dredging ApplicaRequested                                 Approved          os
                                                                                                                               (Cubic        Requested          Approved         Cost
                                                                                                                               Yards)
    Water Transportation:                                                                                                      Yards)

      Steamship companies-personnel afloat___          618  $  8,401,000  $130,000,000              1. Humble Oil -    -        ------. 10,000  Carquinez'Strait    Alcatraz   $    9,600
      Tug & barge companies-personnel afloat..  1,047            9,785,000     48,000,000          2. USN Hunters Point...  170,000  Hunters Point             Deep Ocean          77,000
      Pilotage and berthing services  ..-       .       .... 35    457,000    900,000              3. WPRR Oakland -- --- 6,000 Alcatraz                      Deep Ocean           18,000
      Ship chandlers and other vessel suppliers...    254       2,101,000        5,692,000         4. Bethlehem Shipyard..  125,000  Hunters Point            Deep Ocean          220,000
      Commercial fishing   ...-.                       ............. 675   6,525,000  15,000,000         (one project) -- -- 25,000 Hunters Point    Alcatraz .                     9,000
      Repair  and  construction  of commercial                                                     5. Port of Oakland ....    95,000  Alcatraz                Deep Ocean          113,000
          vessels -............................  1,527  12,988,000  24,027,000                     6. Exxon Benicia .- .0 80,000 Carquinez Strait  Alcatraz                        76,800
                                                                                                   7. Schnitzer Oakland ..   36,000  Alcatraz                 Deep Ocean           68,400
             Subtotal: Water Transportation ..-..    4,216  $ 40,557,000  $223,619,000             8. Corps Oak IHC ..-    .  900,000  Alcatraz                Deep Ocean       1,440,000
                                                                                                   9. Dumbarton Br .-.... 121,000  South Bay                  Alcatraz            138,000
                                                                                                  10. PG & E Oleum ..-   .     . . 12,000  Carquinez Strait    Alcatraz            12,000
      Rail ----------------------- 967 $ 9,008,000 $18,437,000   11. Port of Richmond ....  10,000 Alcatraz                                                   Land                 ?
      Truck .-           . ............... 457  4,993,000  13,137,000   12. San Leandro Mrna...  350,000 Hunters Point   Land                                                      7
      Air --------------------- 10  100,000  500,000
                                                                                                                                                                              $2,181.800
             Subtotal:SurfaceTransportation ... .    1,434  $14,101,000  $ 32,074,000
    Transportation Services                                                                          * From Newsletter S6, California Marine Affairs and Navigation Conference, Oct.
                                                                                                  30, 1973.
      Marine construction -            ------------------- 189 $ 1,563,000 $ 4,747,000
      Physical handling of maritime cargoes
           (longshore and stevedoring, crating,
          stuffing & unstuffing of containers, local
           drayage, and warehousing) - .            .........  2,585  24,486,000  45,763,000
      Administrative activities-private (person-
           nel ashore of steamship and tug &
           barge' companies, freight forwarders,
           customs house brokers, foreign trade
           departments of banks, insurance com-
           panies, and trade associations) -_..... 1,704    14,445,000           8,233,000
      Administrative activities-public (Port of
           Seattle Commission, federal, state, S
           local agencies, foreign consulates and
           trade missions) .--------------                                      - 2,111  20,512,000  47,120,000
      Other waterfront related activities (marine
           surveyors, admiralty lawyers, corisul-
           tants, maritime labor unions, and news
           media) .-.......................... 242  3,808,000  4,393,000

             Subtotal: Transportation Services...-  6,831  $ 64,814,000  $110,256,000

         Total: Transportation and Transportation
             Services .-            ....................... 12,481 $119,472,000 $365,949,000

    Manufacturing

       Food/kindred products -           -           .........--._.  1,400  $ 10,629,000  $ 78,279,000
      Wood/paper products -            -            ----------------- 1,689  11,848,000  42,040,000
       Metal products -               ------------------------ 464  3,748,000  13,072,000
       Machinery & equipment -           .           ............... 2,921  24,715,000  82,483,000
       Other manufacturing .-....                    ........ 2,125  16,865,000  77,546,000

         Total: Manufacturing -         -            --------------- 8,599  $ 67,805,000  $293,420,000

    Wholesale Trades       :            _._  4,320  $ 40,324,000  $ 95,154,000

    Grand Total Direct Impact -         -          --------------- 25,400 $227,601,000 $754,523,000

      * From Seattle Maritime Commerce and its Impact on the Economy of King County,
    Seattle Port Commission, 1971.

        THE
    PUBLIC'S
       ROLE

    SEA GRANT
    ESTUARINE STUDIES

    LEATHA F. MILOY
    Texas A & M University
    College Station, Texas

                 ABSTRACT
                 Approximately 20 percent of funds dispensed under the National Sea Grant College and Program
                 Act of 1966 (PL 89-688) has been directly related to estuarine studies. Since 1971 $13 million in
                 federal funds, matched by $8 million in non-federal support, has been directed to this area. In the
                 same period 533 projects in support of ecosystems research, coastal zone management, pollution
                 studies, environmental modeling, and applied oceanography were conducted under the Sea Grant
                 Program.
                 Brief case histories of estuarine related studies in Narragansett Bay, Long Island Sound, the
                 Neuse and Albemarle River Basins, Apalachicola and Escambia Bays, Barataria Bay, Matagorda
                 Bay, and Puget Sound are presented as examples of Sea Grant work.
                 The applied nature of Sea Grant studies is emphasized by examples of the utilization of Sea Grant
                 estuarine-related research. Particular attention is given to how these studies have been used by
                 local, state, and federal decisionmaking bodies.
                 A partial bibliography citing 58 Sea Grant reports on estuarine research is presented.

    INTRODUCTION                                            sities, the Sea Grant Program, administered by the
                                                           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
      Incubators for much of life in the sea, estuaries are    (NOAA),  U.S.  Department  of Commerce,  has
    fragile environments, taking sustenance from land    directed more than $21 million in federal funds
    and sea in an unending cycle.                           toward marine environmental research since 1971.
      Influenced by both land and sea, the nation's    In 1974, 165 projects were underway along all U.S.
    estuaries are vital resources of the coastal margins.    coasts and the Great Lakes.
    And the delicate balance of these nursery grounds is
    further complicated by man's increasing pressure on
    the coastal zones of this country.                      Sea Grant: How It Works
       An intricate network of natural phenomena and
    manmade intrusions converge in America's coastal          When the Congress created the Sea Grant Pro-
    zones. Each of these has a direct bearing on the    gram in 1966 (PL 89-688), it was envisioned as a
    estuarine environment. Research to learn more about    marine resource effort which would be patterned,
    estuaries encompasses a much broader scope than    in part, after the successful land grant program
    the estuary itself. One must understand the nature    fostered by the Morrill Act of 1862. Whereas the
    of adjacent bays, the islands which bar the sea    land grant program  concerned itself with food
    from the land, shipping lanes which criss-cross the    production from the land, Sea Grant is concerned
    nearshore environment, freshwater inflows which    not only with food production from the ocean but
    feed the sea, the biological mysteries underlying the    also with the development and use of other re-
    ocean's food chain, the effects of man's use of the    sources-minerals, recreation, transportation, and
    nearby land and ocean, and the physical, chemical,    others-which relate to the sea. To accomplish its
    and biological parameters of the nearby ocean.          mission, by law Sea Grant must carry on work in
       Created to "achieve gainful use of marine re-    applied research, education, and advisory services.
    sources" through the establishment of sea grant           Administered by the National Science Foundation
     colleges, the National Sea  Grant  Program  has    from 1966 until the creation of NOAA in 1970, the
    focused a significant effort toward understanding the    program is a matching fund arrangement. As much
     forces which influence the nation's estuaries. Through    as two-thirds of the funds for Sea Grant programs in
     a partnership  arrangement between the federal    universities and  colleges come  from the federal
     government and the nation's colleges and univer-    government with at least one-third coming from

                                                                                                            555

    556                                    ESTUARINE POILLUTION CONTROL

                                     Table 1.-Sea Grant Progtam Support by Category of Effort FY71-74

                                            1971           1972            1973            1974           Total
                  Category                  SG $            SG $            SG$             SG$            SG$
                                            (MF$)          (MF$)           (MF $)          (MF )           (MF $) .

    EDUCATION/TRAINING  .......- .-........_ 1,860,350        1,957,700       1,483,194       1,217,128       6,518,372
                                              (1,937,878)    (1,,469,975)    (2,125,273)     (1,869,726)     (7,402,952)
    ADVISORY SERVICES- .... .----------..      1,096,359      2,184,135       2,658,562       3,568,695       9,507,751
                                               (591,344)     (1,158,523)     (1,389,705)    (1,791,681)      (4,931,253)
    RESEARCH
     * Marine Technology Research & Development.... 1,820,889  3,159,949     3,037,103       2,941,518       10,959,459
                                               (925,890)     (1,794,834)    (1,626,595)      (1,851,898)     (6,199,217)
     *�Marine Environmental Research  ..- ...... 2,652,990    3,135,814      4,030,467       3,384,116       13,203,387
                                              (1,708,638)    (1,707,906)     (2,411,610)     (2,344,411)     (8,172,565)
     �Socio-Economics & Legal Research .. ...........  524,531  845,176       1,115,015        909,659       3,394,381
                                               (228,905)      (440,173)       (533,816)       (624,113)     (1,827,007)
     �Marine Resources Development .-. ...........-. 3,685,288  3,665,132    4,532,119       5,018,347      16,900,886
                                              (2,322i5293    (2,144,644)     (2,813,753)     (3,046,353)    (10,327,279)
    PROGRAM MGM'T .-------- . .----. 904,843                  1,390,273       i,619,758       1,721,477       5,636,351
                                               (753,463)     (1,010,114)    (1,052,076)     (1,358,018)     (4,173,671)
    TOTALS SG $              .-.......... . ........ 12,545,250  16,338,179  18,476,218*      18,760,940'*   66,120,587
          (MF $) .-------- ........ . .... (8,468,647)       (9,726,169)    (11,952,828)    (12,886,200)    (43,033,844)

    *Does not include $857,900 awarded aS amendments to grants originating in FY72.
    **Does not include $293,000 for 7 awards not requiring matching funds.

    institutional sources. This matching requirement has    The Partnership
    created a partnership between government and
    institutions which is the cornerstone of the Sea             Since the program is operated to serve state and
    Grant concept.                                            regional needs, the mechanisms for bringing univer-
      Since 1971, 'the program has granted $66 millioh    sity resources to bear upon these area problems and
    to universities and others. An additional $43 million    needs  necessarily  include  local involvement.  A
    has been matched by grantees as shown in Table 1.    typical university Sea Grant program, for instance,
      Support to institutions from the National Sea    will have several advisory councils or committees
    Grant Program takes several forms: project support    helping define the most important problems for
    for a single activity; coherent area support for several    study.
    projects  centered  around  one primary  problem;            Through marine advisory service field agents who
    institutional support for programs undertaking work    live and work in the communities bordering the
    in several research areas and in education  and    coast,  local problems  are identified. These  field
    advisory service areas; special designation as Sea    agents work closely with fishermen, businessmen,
    Grant  College  for universities  exhibiting: excel-    port directors, and others who are dependent upon
    lence and commitment while receiving institutional    the sea for a living. Through field agents, problems
    support.                                                  are brought back to the institution. Often informa-
      Sea Grant's intent is to bring many types of    tion already exists which can help. In other instances,
    expertise into marine-related work. Grantees include
    scientists, engineers, teachers, lawyers, economists,            Table 2.-Individuals involved in Sea Grant Projects FY 1974
    businessmen, and industrialists. In FY1974 3,796
    individuals were involved in Sea Grant supported                   Type         Research  Advisory  Education   Total
                                                                                             Services
    projects-2,334 full-time equivalents as shown in
    Table 2.1
                                                              Faculty/Professional -.. ....... 1,140  325  297   1,752
      In  1975  eight Sea  Grant  Colleges had  been    Graduate Students .--          ---- 562  26      105       696
    namIed-Oregon  State University  (1971), Texas    Undergraduate Students .---    274         30      101       442
                                                              Technicians ---- 307              25       49       355
    A&M   University  (1971),  University  of Rhode    Clerical          -232                    80       50       374
                                                              Cleri-al.----.---------- ....  232  80     50       374
    Island (1971), University of Washington  (1971),    Other- .            ------- ...... 99    119      30       177
    University  of Wisconsin  (1972) , University  of   Total   -                      2,614     605     632    3,796
    Hawaii  (1972), University of California  (1973),
    State University of New York/Cornell (1975).

                                              THE P-UBLCr'S ROLE    .                                     557

    research efforts must be mounted to acquire informa-          Table 3.-Numbers of projects by eategorles FY1971-1974
    tion needed to make decisions. As information is                                 Numbers of Projects(Total)
    generated it is fed back to the local areas through          Categoryojects(Total)
                                                                  ...   .    a,  *1971    1972    1973    1974
    meetings, workshops, publications, films, or one-to-
    one teaching sessions.                                 RESEARCH AND STUDIES IN
      Problems may range from the demand for trained   DIRECT SUPPORT OF
    personnel to the need for organized workshops on    COASTAL MGM'T DECISIONS    (21)    (38)    (58)    (67)
                                                             �CZM Social Sciences . . ... 13        22      32
    new state or federal regulations. But all are evaluated  *CZM Natural Sciences. .... 25         36      35
    by local groups and university personnel to arrive
                                                           ECOSYSTEMS RESEARCH  .  (13)    (11)    (28)    (25)
    at decisions about how solutions may be generated.       Ecosystems Research   . .... 11        28      25
      Where research, education, or advisory services
                                                           POLLUTION STUDIES    . ...... (17)    (46)    (45)    (40)
    projects are called for, proposals are written,' and    .Oil Spills       -- -- ------ 5         3       3
    evaluated for scientific and technical quality by        Pesticides  -.-.- -    -       8        6       5
    experienced professionals from the universities, state   hema and Radioactive_          11       5       6
                                                             Metals           -      --------------- 9  5    4
    or federal agencies, private laboratories or industry.  .Other  .------------------ i3          26      22
    Even before the institution submits its comprehen-    ENYIRONMENTAL MODELS     (15)    (20)    (23)    (25)
    sive proposal for federal support, the project has      -Physical Processes  -- ------ 9        10      12
    been subjected to many kinds of reviews and judged  -Biological Processes .              6       6       8
    on its relevance to local problems.                      Other
      Once the NOAA Office of Sea Grants is asked to   APPLIED OCEANOGRAPHY.       (16)    (9)     (9)      (8)
                                                             �Chemical.                      2       1       1
    support a project, other technical reviews are made,     Chemi7cal                       2..... 8        7
    plus a further review is made to determine its ap-
    propriateness to the Sea Grant mission. A National    TOTAL                     82     123     163     165
    Sea Grant advisory panel, composed of knowledge-
    Sea Grant advisory panel, composed of knowledge-        *Project information for FY1971 is available only by major areas of emphasis.
    able individuals from industry and universities,
    participates in this review process and decides on
    grants to be made. This panel, with personnel from       Although there is' no specific research category
    the Office of Sea Grants, must take into considera-   labelled "Estuarine Studies," Sea Grant recognizes
    tion not only the technical quality of the proposal    the importance of support to all aspects of the near-
    but also the total funding available to the National    shore marine environment. Because of the many
    Sea Grant Program.                                     forces -which impact upon the nation's estuaries,
      Through this process of review and evaluation,    studies in several categories are considered vital to
    projects eventually undertaken as part of the Sea    understanding the complex estuarine environment.
    Grant Program are assured of having high technical       Work in support of marine environmental quality
    and scientific quality and relevance to the needs of   is carried out in five major areas of emphasis under
    the local community or state.                          Sea' Grant: Research in Support of Coastal Zone
                                                           Management Decisions; Ecosystems Research; Pol-
    MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY                           lution Studies; Environmental Models; and Applied
                                                            Oceanography.'
      Concern for environmental quality and estuarine        These niajbr topics are further broken down into
    research is a manifestation of how the Sea Grant    sub-topics as indicated in Table 3. Work in the
    partnership works. Sea Grant's chief concern is   coastal zone is clearly the most important area of
    people, people who work in the sea, live near its   investigation with 67 projects underway in the 1974
    shore, or benefit from its bountiful resources, and    fiscal year. Pollution studies including oil spills,
    one of the important concerns of people is the quality    pesticides, thermal, radioactive, and metal pollution,
    of the environment. Sea Grant advisory field agents,    rank second.
    working closely with local groups, help identify         Fbr the period FY1971-1974, $13 million in
    problems which affect the quality of the coastal and    federal funds and $8 million in matching funds have
    nearshore environment. Local support for Sea Grant    been devoted to marine  environmental  quality
    projects often shows up as matching dollars for the    studies. This area of research has received signifi-
    project. As evidence of the local acceptance of the    cantly more non-federal support than matching
    program, the mandatory matching requirement has    funds required by law. Characteristic of the entire
    exceeded the demand. Forty-one percent of the total
    Sea Grant funding for the current fiscal year is        ' Under the Sea Grant legislation, the Great Lakes are considered
                                                           ,"salty" and studies undertaken in these important waters are included
    from matching money.                                  in the tables presented here.

    558                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                Table 4.-Sea Grant Supported Marine Environmental Research FY1971-1974

                                         '1971   ,      1972           1973          1974           Total
               Major Emphasis            S$             So $           SG            SG $           SG $
                                         (MF $)        (MF $)  (MF $)                (MF$)          (MF $)

    Research in support ofcoastal management decisions-.  944,947  964,963  1,410,543   1,204,180      4,524,633
                                             (742,149)     (503,835)     (1,037,797)    (1,075,194)   (3,358,975)
    Ecosystems Research .-.. ..----------..  599,500        379,984        812,677        563,479      2,355,640
                                             (431,230)     (275,329)      (447,061)      (344,819)    (1,498,439)
    Pollution Studies .-------. 420,184                   1,059,569        810,215        686,184      2,976,152
                                             (211,910)     (634,723)      (573,172)      (426,644)    (1,846,449)
    Environmental Models_ - ... ..    ---. 348,697          533,748        587,683        686,826      2,156,954
                                             (178,677)     (248,250)      (200,742)      (382,208)    (1,009,877)
    Applied Oceanography .-... .............. 339,662       197,550        409,349        243,447      1,190,008
                                             (144,672)      (45,769)      (152,838)      (115,546)      (458,825)
    TOTAL SG$ -..                   . ................................  2,652,990  3,135,814  4,030,467  3,384,116  13,203,387
         (MF $)-..-............................. (1,708,638)  (1,707,906)  (2,411,610)  (2,344,411)   (8,172,565)
    % of all Sea Grants -          .. 21.1                    19.0           21.8          18.0

    Sea Grant program, this overmatch is evidence of          . Marine biologists are devising a model that will
    the importance of working closely with local groups    characterize such features as animal and plant
    to identify problems.                                  populations.
      In addition to the research volume as indicated        Together, the studies will lead to a coordinated
    in Table 4, much of the work of marine field agents    model to show the interaction among the physical,
    is directed toward environmental quality. In the    biological, and economic aspects of man's use of
    period FY1971-FY1974, a total of $14.4 million has    the bay.
    been used to build a national network of marine          The physical model of the bay is based on laws of
    agents. Of this amount, $4.9 million has come from    fluid motion and takes into account the effects of
    non-federal sources. The strength of this network    tides, storms, and the earth's rotation. It can predict
    lies in its ability to work at the local level, to tap    water movement in the entire bay or at any one
    the expertise of Sea Grant institutions, and to relate   of 320 separate points.
    research to the coastal and marine problems of the       It has been used to compute temperature profiles
    nation.                                               -for the heated water discharge of a proposed nuclear
      Although 165 projects in support of estuarine    power plant. The profiles indicate to what extent
    quality were conducted in FY1974, only a few    bay water would be affected by the effluent and
    examples are cited in this report. They are included    provide clues to its potential effect on marine life.
    as indicators of the kinds of local-federal arrange-     Again using the physical model, Sea Grant scien-
    ments which Sea Grant endorses and supports.           tists have been able to predict the dispersion of past
                                                           oil spills, knowing only their size and location, with
                                                           significant accuracy.  Such predictioriS can help
    ESTUARINE RELATED STUDIES                              officials anticipate where a spill might spread and
                                                           can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of oil
    New England                                            spill contingency' plans.
                                                             The resource' economists' model of the bay can
      Narragansett Bay.-Sea Grant researchers at the    be used to predict increased pollution from new
    University of Rhode Island are using computers to    economic activity. The calculations consider wastes
    simulate various processes in Narragansett Bay.        which result directly from increased production as
       � Ocean engineers have completed 'a physical    well as those generated by supporting industries.
    model of tides and currents that has been used to        In addition to research that examines the bay 'as
    predict water quality in the upper bay after a storm    a whole, other URI Sea Grant work on' the en-
    sewer overload and the movement of oil slicks from    vironmental impact of marinas in small inlets has
    spills in the lower bay.                               led to recommendations that new marinas'be located
       . Resource economists have developed an eco-   where tides or currents flush the area frequently.
    nomic-ecological model that can be used to predict       In the first major study' of a INew England salt
    the effect of economic growth on water pollution.      marsh in about a decade, Sea Grant scientists have

    completed an intensive ecological study of a small   estuaries. These maps also show changes in the
    salt marsh embayment on the west side of Narragan-    estuaries over time.
    sett Bay.                                               The research has provided evidence that oxygen
      Measurements of major populations, their metabo-    concentrations often drop in the summer, as algae
    lism, and seasonal patterns of the total salt marsh    blooms thrive and salt water settles to the bottom.
    metabolism were made- to ascertain energy flow    Fish begin to migrate out of large areas where oxygen
    within the embayment. The scientists simulated   is low, leading scientists to believe more nutrients
    additions of sewage and heated effluent water to the   in the estuaries could lead to longer periods of low
    salt marsh inlet. They concluded that sewage from    oxygen. Such periods could be harmful to fish and
    a housing development around the marsh would    organisms that cannot leave the waters.
    lead to total depletion of dissolved oxygen in the      State agencies that must monitor and control
    marsh waters and that the introduction of heated    water quality are using the information derived from
    water, such as power plant effluent, would cause    these studies to gauge the impact of upstream
    small, but measurable lowerings of dissolved oxygen.    sources of sewage and nutrients on the estuaries.
                                                         Already Sea Grant researchers have recommended
      Long Island Sound-Using a mathematical model    maximum temperature standards for industrial ef-
    in New York, researchers with the State University    fluents to officials formulating water quality policy.
    of New York (at Stony Brook) are testing manage-        University of North Carolina teams also are
    ment schemes for improving water quality in Long    undertaking work to learn more about the soils in
    Island Sound. One idea being evaluated could lead   the estuarine environs and the processes which
    to better flushing of the western end of the sound and    shape the state's shoreline. The state's barrier
    New York Harbor. It calls for building gates, or   islands and the rest of its coastline are threatened
    locks, across the upper East River, a major source   by erosive forces of ocean waves and currents.
    of pollutants in the once-productive sound.             Meanwhile, another research team is using Hat-
      At ebb tide in the East River, the gates would be    teras Beachgrass, a variety developed by NCSU
    open to allow unhindered flow of clean sound water   soil scientists several years ago, to stabilize dutes.
    through the river, down into New York Harbor,    Advantages of the: Hatteras grass include its hardi-
    and out into the New York Bight. Six hours later,   ness. Where only five percent of American beach-
    at slack water, the locks would be closed, blocking    grass test plantings survived the first year, the
    the flow of polluted harbor and river waters back    survival rate for Hatteras jumped to 70 percent.
    into the sound. After another six hours, the gates      In a related activity, the soil scientists joined with
    would be reopened to repeat the cycle.                the Corps of Engineers in a project to stabilize the
      Tests of the tidal flushing scheme with the model    soil which is dredged from rivers and channels. They
    indicate that sewage concentrations would drop 78    have found that it is possible to build productive
    percent in the western end of the sound and 50    marshlands from the dredging spoils in some areas.
    percent in New York Harbor. The predictions assume      In field studies and with the computer, University
    that half the East River sewage now enters the   of North Carolina Sea Grant scientists have traced
    sound.                                                water flow through the state's tidal inlets and
                                                         sounds. Field research focused on water circulation
    South Atlantic                                        in the Oregon Inlet and Croatan-Roanoke Sound
                                                         areas and in the Neuse River estuary. Using the
      Neuse and Albermarle River Estuaries.-Sprawling    computer, NCSU  civil engineers modeled water
    between North Carolina's mainland and its Outer    quality, surface-elevation, and water movements in
    Banks are 2.6 million acres of sounds and estuaries,    Pamlico Sound under various conditions including
    an area which ranks near the top of the state's list   hurricane winds. A  water quality model of the
    of most valuable resources. The North Carolina Sea    Neuse River estuary has been verified with field
    Grant program conducts research aimed at con-    data. Information gained in both the field and com-
    tributing to the state's ability to make sound policies   puter studies is useful in predicting water flow and
    concerning the estuarine environment.                 water quality and can provide valuable information
      Scientists at the University of North Carolina are   for resource management decisions.
    tracing nutrients-nitrogen and phosphorus as they
    travel into and through the estuaries to determine    Gulf Coast
    the effects these nutrients have on the resource.
    Computers are used to map changes in the estuarine      Apalachicola and Escambia Bays.-Apalachicola
    waters throughout the Neuse and Albermale River    Bay and its drainage system are important concerns

    560                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    to nearby coastal counties. Franklin County, for    Commission personnel describe the area as the
    example, is economically dependent upon the finfish    most biologically productive estuary in a region
    and shellfish resources of the bay, which produces    acknowledged  as the major nursery ground for
    over 80 percent of Florida's oyster crop. Researchers    commercial fisheries in the northern Gulf of Mexico.
    from  the State  University System  of Florida,         Initial studies were made at widely dispersed
    studying the possible effects of the agricultural   locations to assess factors that varied spatially, such
    chemical Mirex, provided data from their Sea Grant    as salinity and vegetative types, as well as those
    work to the state's Department of Natural Re-    that changed with tidal stage and season. The
    sources Endangered Land Task Force, to the EPA,    investigation has since been extended to the littoral
    and to'the Florida House of Representatives.          zone from the Mississippi River mouth to the off-
      The team was asked to expand the scope of the    shore area of the Barataria Bay system and to
    project on Mirex, a chemical'used' to control fire   various marsh  types and  swamps.  The  results
    ants, to include the productivity and water quality    showed that the marshes and swamps play the key
    in the bay's drainage system. Funding came from    role in organic production necessary for nutrient
    the Franklin County Board of Commissioners and    generation in situ and in sediments in Barataria
    the Florida Department of Pollution Control.          Bay system. Nutrients to the Barataria from the
      Based on data from the Sea Grant research   Mississippi River are limited to high flooding stage
    project in Apalachicola'Bay, the State of Florida is   of the river in early spring, but the river flooding
    purchasing 17,000 acres of land at a price of $4.2   inundates the entire nearshore zone of the Louisiana
    million.                                              coast with vast amounts of organic matter and
      Data collected in Apalachicola Bay will be corm-   inorganic nutrients annually from winter to late
    pared with information derived from another study    spring. Under investigation is the influence of the
    in Escambia Bay which has gained national atten-   Mississippi flooding on the chemical parameters of
    tion in recent years due to a series of devastating   water and sediment in the major oyster producing
    fishkills symptomatic of deteriorated water quality.    area east of the river, in relation to oyster growth,
      As part of an interagency task force established    quality, and condition for parasite infection.
    by an EPA conference in 1972, Sea Grant is involved     Perspectives gained from the first several field
    in efforts to reverse the bay's deterioration and guide    seasons led investigators to formulate a detailed
    the recovery process. Data from the project has    plan for study, synthesis, and operational research
    already been used in planning for -a projected 30    of the total estuarine ecosystem. They have already
    percent population increase for the Pensacola metro-    characterized estuarine productivity by means of a
    politan area over the next 15 years.                  detailed model and energy flow data.
      The importance of studying interrelationships         This synthesis of nutritive processes will provide
    between and among bays has been documented in    a scheme by which the relative importance of every
    the project. Under certain conditions, for instance,    consumer species in the marsh, as well as the marsh
    Pensacola Bay bottom water moves into the East    plants themselves, can be assessed in terms of
    and Escambia Bays. Knowledge of this movement is   utilization of commercially important shrimp and
    important in predicting movement of sludge out of   fish. Further, through estimates of plant material
    Escambia Bay and in determining sites for waste   flushed into open waters, the contribution from
    outfalls. The 'study has already provided data to   coastal marshes to offshore food chains can be
    state officials in the development of a wastewater    examined. From this information, economic ques-
    management plan for the drainage'basin.               tions conderned with alternate uses of the estuarine
      The data has also been used in evaluating an oil-   marsh and its living resources can be examined
    drilling permit request and by real estate interests   rationally.
    in coastal development.                                 Knowledge gained from the project has already
                                                         been used to evaluate the impact of man's activi-
                                                         ties-primarily oil production related-and  will
     -Barataria -Bay.--Initiation  of Lonisiana's Sea   1    .
      Barataria Bay.-Initiation  of Louisianas Sea  .later lead to recommendations for management
    Grant program in 1968 gave Louisiana State Univer-    practices in Louisiana's coastal region.
    sity scientists their first opportunity to mount a
    major multidisciplinary study of the state's fragile
    and fertile coastal marshes-seven million. acres of     Matagorda Bay.-An example of the comprehen-
    estuaries and wetlands.                               sive approach Sea Grant researchers take toward
      In early 1969 field activities began on the Barataria    estuarine studies is Texas A&M University's four-
    Bay Project, named-for a major bay-marsh complex    part resource evaluation of the Matagorda Bay area.
    in southeastern Lousiana. Wild Life and Fisheries       The study was undertaken to complement work

                                             THE PUrBLIC'S ROLE                                           561

    done for the General Land Office of Texas by the    more than $4 million. The Seattle metropolitan area
    Texas Bureau of Economic Geology. It is part of a    (Metro-Seattle) has committed $1.1 million in local
    continuing quest for information upon which to base    funds for studies on waste disposal. Baseline studies
    coastal policy decisions.                              will be funded by the state.
      Texas A&M's study, supported by the General
    Land Office and industry, involved an interdisci-    TRENDS AND IMPLICATIONS
    plinary team of geologists, biologists, oceanographers,
    and econorrmists.
      and economists.                                        Since local and  state governments  hold  key
      The team focused on water circulation pattegovernments   hold  key
                                                 atterns    managerial roles in the nation's coastal zones, in-
    and their effect on coastline change and pollution
                                                         eluding responsibilities for estuarine areas, the tie
    dispersal; on chlorinated hydrocarbon levels in baye
                                                         to these governmental units is the Sea Grant
    sediments; on the validity of interpreting environ-
                                                         Program's greatest strength.
    mental factors from the presence of skeletal remains
                                                           As indicated in Tables 3 and 4 of this report,
    of certain marine organisms; and on the economic    research               and studies in direct sup port
    structure of the bay area and the probable economic
                                effects on changes in population,  esouces and    management decisions have grown steadily since
    effectr ansportation.                                   1971. With the passage of the Coastal Zone Manage-
                                                         ment Act of 1972, state agencies and Sea Grant
                                                         institutions have devoted even greater time and
    Pacific Northwest                                      effort toward these important land and water areas.
                                                         Not only has the federal Sea Grant support for
      Puget Sound.-In Washington, Sea Grant has    coastal management decisions increased in the past
    supported several projects to provide impartial data    two fiscal years (Table 4), but matching funds have
    for policy makers who must make coastal zone    amounted to approximately 43 percent of the total
    management decisions while beset by intense pres-   spent, making a cumulative expenditure of $7.8
    sures from competing interests.                        million since 1971.
      One effort by an interdisciplinary team of Univer-     Pollution control and ecosystems research, on the
    sity of Washington  economists, oceanographers,    other hand, has declined during the same period.
    political scientists, and public affairs specialists, is   Sea Grant Program directors at several universities
    a series of case studies of public controversies over    see this as a continuing trend. They reason that
    potential uses of Puget Sound shorelines. The result    pollution studies for example, have been designated
    is a major reference work on management of a large    as part of the EPA mission and with federal appro-
    estuarine-inland waterway system.                      priations for Sea Grant programs growing slowly,
      Concern over discharge of sewage sludge from    the funds available must be directed to problem
    Seattle into Puget Sound led Sea Grant scientists    areas where other federal agencies have not been
    to construct a mathematical model that describes    given responsibilities for granting and contracting.
    the effects of environmental factors upon phyto-          With the creation of guidelines for state support
    plankton growth in the sound. With support from    under the Office of Coastal Zone Management,
    EPA, a quantitative description of the main features    NOAA, states are beginning to plan ways to im-
    of mid-channel circulation in the central basin of    plement the coastal management law. With federal
    the sound was developed. The results were used to    guidelines clearly asking for state management
    calculate algal population dynamics and to identify    programs, the Sea Grant funded work which has
    and describe environmental factors which control    already been done in many of the coastal states is
    algal growth.                                          proving invaluable, cementing the university-state-
     .; The Washington Sea Grant Program has. a major    federal partnership.
    publishing venture underway to present, in readily        In Rhode Island, for example, one of the first
    accessible and useable formats, data on the marine    states to pass comprehensive coastal management
    environment of Puget Sound collected over the    legislation,;the University of Rhode Island's Coastal
    past 40 years. Produced with support from the    Resources  Center has  been  designated  as the
    Washington Department of Ecology, the materials    research arm of the Coastal Resources Management
    are believed to be of great value to regional resource    Council.. The.;first fact-finding mission of the Center
    planners.-  -  resulted in recommendations for the use of the state's
     'State and local management agencies are respond-    barrier beaches. Based on research supported by Sea
    ing to recent EPA requirements for water quality in    Grant, the Center made recommendations on con-
    Puget  Sound. r 'Estimates  by  some  Washington    struction and vehicle traffie which provided the basis
    groups place the cost of basic data. accumulation at    for state beach regulations.

    562                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      In other states, too, Sea Grant programs have    reveals many examples of the results of such rela-
    developed supporting data upon which state agencies   tionships:
    can begin to develop management plans. At the
    University of Michigan, a valuable review of state       . In New York, findings of seven Sea Grant
    coastal management programs was prepared early   projects assessing the state's power plant siting
    in 1972, even before the federal coastal zone act   practices have been presented to the State Depart-
    was passed. Summaries of state coastal management    ment of Environmental Conservation, the Public
    programs were examined; including estuarine and    Service Commission, the Governor's Office and the
    wetlands preservation measures. The comprehensive    Legislature. The information is being used in testi-
    examination of selected state programs became a    mony at both state and federal hearings.
    valuable information source for states seeking coastal     In a report for the California Coastal Zone
    zone legislation.                                     Commission entitled " Governing California's Coast,"
      In 1970, the Oregon State University Sea Grant    the University of California Sea Grant Program has
    Program prepared and distributed thousands of   analyzed alternative mechanisms for carrying out
    copies of a report entitled "Crisis in Oregon Estu-    the state's coastal zone management plan. The
    aries" which reviewed the value and vulnerability    Commission's policy on water quality and pesticides
    of these natural resources. Fourteen major estuaries   is based on work by Sea Grant researchers at the
    were discussed with special emphasis given to their   University of Southern California.
    present and potential contributions to the state's         In Florida, Sea Grant supported work in the
    economy and the threats posed to the economy by    University of Miami's Ocean and Coastal Law
    misuse and poor management practices. The State    Program has contributed to passage of legislation
    of Oregon shortly passed coastal zone legislation   designating Biscayne Bay as the state's first marine
    encompassing all areas west of the coastal mountain    preserve area and to the Florida Coastal Mapping
    range. Sea Grant also helped prepare the impact    Act, the first of its kind in the nation.
    statement which led to the designation of the South      * The Louisiana Coastal Zone Statute, pending
    Slough of Coos Bay as the nation's first (and only,   before the state's legislature, was drafted for the
    at this writing) National Estuarine Sanctuary.        Louisiana Advisory Commission on Coastal and
                                                        Marine Resources with Sea Grant support.
                                                             The Senate Report "Papers on National Land
    Stimulus for Public Decisions                         Use Policy Issues," incorporated information devel-
                                                         oped by the MIT Sea Grant Program.
      Proper management of natural resources involves       . University of Rhode Island Sea Grant re-
    understanding all the ramifications of any given    searchers have been involved in formulation of state
    move-as in a game of chess. And the University    marine sand and gravel regulations, a barrier beach
    of Michigan Sea Grant Program tackles resource   plan, and in the preparation of other information
    management problems exactly that way. In fact   needed by legislators.
    they developed a game so stimulating that it is          . In Texas, for instance, a series of small work-
    used by regional planning commissions and other    shops in 1970 eventually led to the state's first
    state and local officials to help them see the con-   major conference on marine and coastal resources-
    sequences of decisions they make in coastal and    one called by the governor of the state. Out of the
    water resource planning.                              meeting came recommendations for state action
      Called WALRUS  (Water and Land Resource    which have since led to the creation of a Coastal and
    Utilization Simulation), the game was developed    Marine Council and several legislative committees.
    to provide a means of communication and interac-   Later, Texas A&M Sea Grant work on deepwater
    tion among the Sea Grant scientists and the public    terminals had a direct influence on the creation of
    that they seek to serve. Played with four or five    a state Offshore Terminal Commission. Work now
    teams of about five members each, the players   underway on the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway has
    represent different economic and geographical in-   been instrumental in developing public hearings on
    terests. As the game progresses they learn that no    the use of the waterway.
    matter what decisions they make, the environment
    is going to reflect them-for good or for bad.           In a number of states Sea Grantees serve on
      All along the Sea Grant network, scientists and    commissions or councils responsible for policy mak-
    research managers are seeking closer interaction   ing in marine and estuarine matters. States having
    with state agencies and public officials. The purpose!    such arrangements include Texas, Oregon, Mas-
    to bring well-developed information into the deci-   saehusetts, Louisiana, Rhode Island, Washington,
    sion making arena. A survey of Sea Grant programs    and Hawaii. In other instances Sea Grantees hold

                                              THE  PUBLIC'S ROLE                                           563

    appointments on national marine councils and are    programs is technically feasible and locally ac-
    active in committees of the National Academy of    ceptable. This continuing review process assures
    Sciences and Engineering.                               that universities are meeting the needs of the state
      Sea Grant's presence is also felt in local communi-    without duplicating efforts of other agencies.
    ties through a number of other channels-workshops
    for teachers, 4-H meetings, civic club lectures, tele-
    vision and radio programs, films, bulletins, news-    CONCLUSION
    letters and special publications, atlases, maps,
    meetings and conferences. Through its research,
    education, and advisory service components in more         Careful study of Sea Grant work in support of
                 education, and advisory service components    more    estuarine quality leads to several observations about
    than 50 colleges, universities, and other institutions,    future work and about the Sea Grant concept in
    Sea Grant hopes to bring about a greater public
    awareness of the importance of marine and estuarine    general.
                  ~~~~~~~resources.  ~As American universities struggle through their
                                                          current identity crisis, many new thrusts are likely
                                                          to emerge. The university of the future, for example,
                                                          may assume several roles-an ivory tower of knowl-
                                                          edge, a processor of trained professionals and skilled
                                                          craftsmen, a generator of new knowledge through
      Interaction with other federal agencies is achieved    basic research. In all of these roles, however, the
    through strenuous review process for all Sea Grant    university will become more of an agent for social
    supported research. Written reviews are required    change, a medium  for transmitting information
    for all projects and representatives of federal agencies    designed to improve the quality of life. In this
    involved in marine-related activities are present at    regard, the university will assume greater responsi-
    annual reviews conducted on university campuses.    bility for applied research, blending together old
    These site visit teams conduct an indepth evaluation    and new knowledge and delivering better alterna-
    of work underway as well as the work proposed for    tives for future decisions. This trend is already
    the coming year. Typically, site visits have rep-    emerging, particularly in state-supported institu-
    resentation from one or more of the following agen'-   tions; and through partnerships such as Sea Grant,
    cies: National Marine Fisheries Service, EPA, U.S.    the pace is accelerated.
    Army  Corps of Engineers. Written reviews are             This trend has been brought about, in some degree,
    solicited from these agencies as well as the Office    by the recognition of state and federal agencies of
    of Education,  HEW,  and the National Science    the manpower and knowledge resource which univer-
    Foundation.                                             sities represent. Tapping these' resources is a logical
      Interaction with the Research Applied to the    mechanism for tackling many state and national
    Needs of the Nation (RANN)  program of NSF    problems. With each new generation of students
    has resulted in routine exchanges of proposals.         adding to the knowledge base, universities remain
      Within NOAA, the Office of Coastal Zone Manage-    at the forefront of knowledge. As students, profes-
    ment and the Office of Sea Grants coordinate grant-    sional teachers, and researchers extend themselves
    ing and contracting arrangements. The closeness of   into applied and decision-oriented research fields,
    these two programs makes frequent interaction    the total university resource can be brought to bear
    imperative.                                             on identified needs.
      At the state level, program and project reviews are     The preceding ex-iamples of Sea Grant work in
    solicited for some research projects. At most univer-    environmental quality are evidence of the future of
    sity site visits, local representation is arranged.    university-based  programs  which  draw  together
    Among the groups asked to review the research    teams  of professional  scientists, engineers,  and
    programs are representatives from state departments    social scientists to focus on broad resource issues.
    of natural resources, fish and game commissions,
    state planning offices, marine councils, navigation
    districts, port authorities, county commissions, and    potential when partnerships exist between federal
    regional councils of government. Sea Grant institu-    and state interests,
    tions also seek participation of these groups, along      Although much has been accomplished under the
    with industrial and academic representation,  on    Sea Grant banner, its greatest contribution lies in
    their own advisory councils.                            the innovativeness of its approach and the spirit
      As a result of the careful scrutiny given to research    of service which it has sparked in American colleges
    proposals, the work  undertaken  by  Sea  Grant    and universities.

    564                                       ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    REFERENES                              NDalrymple, Robert A. and Robert G. Dean. 1972. "The
                                                                  Spiral Wavemaker for Littoral Driftl Studies," Proceedings
    The citations listed here are representatives of the estuarine  13th Annual Coastal Engineering Conference. University
    related publications resulting from Sea Grant supported work.   of Florida, Sea Grant Program.
    The list does not include all publications which support
    estuarine studies; it is intended as a sampling with particular    D'Amato, Richard. August, 1973. The- Movement of Effluent
    emphasis on the studies cited in the preceding report.          from the City of Miami Sewage Ocean Outfall. University
                                                                   of Miami, Sea Grant Program, (Tech. Bulletin #27).
    Ahr, Wayne, M. et al. September, 1973. Resource Evaluation
      Studies on the Matagorda Bay Area, Texas. Texas A&M         Day, John W., Jr., et al. May, 1973. Community Structure
      University,  Sea  Grant  College  Program,  (TAMU-            and Carbon Budget of a Salt Water Marsh and Shallow
      SG-74-204).                                                   Bay Estuarine System in Louisiana. Center for Wetland
                                                                   Resources, Baton Rouge, La. (LSU-SG-7204).
    Amein, Michael. July, 1973. Computation of Flow Through
      Masonboro Inlet, N.C. North Carolina State University,    Doret, Stephen C., Donald R. F. Harleman, et al. June, 1973.
      Sea Grant Program (UNC-SG-73-15).                             Characteristics of Condenser Water Discharge on the Sea
                                                                   Surface (Correlation of Field Observations with Theory).
    Armstrong, John M. 1972. The Structure of Management            Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sea Grant Pro-
      and Planning for the Coastal Zone. University of Michigan     gram (MITSG-73-12).
      Sea Grant Program.
                                                                 Ducsik, Dennis W. (editor). June, 1971. Power, Pollution
    Arnal, Robert E. February, 1972. Environmental Studies of        and Public Policy. The Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
      Monterey Bay and the Central California Coastal Zone.         nology, (MIT Report No. 24).
      Moss Landing Marine Laboratories of the California State
      University and Colleges, Sea Grant Project.                 Farrington, J. W. and J. G. Quinn. 1973. "Petroleum Hydro-
                                                                   carbons and Fatty Acids in Wastewater," Journal of the
    Bassi, D. E. and D. R. Basco. January, 1974. Field Study of      Water Pollution Control Federation, Vol. 45, No. 4.
      an Unconfined Spoil Disposal Area of the Gulf Intracoastal
      Waterway in Galveston Bay, Tex. Texas A&M University,    Farrington, John W. and James G. Quinn. 1973. "Petroleum
      Sea Grant College Program (TAMU-SG-74-208).                   Hydrocarbons in Narragansett Bay," Estuarine and Coastal
                                                                   Marine Science, Graduate School of Oceanography, Uni-
    Blake, Carl T. and W. W. Woodhouse, Jr. Februaty, 1972.         versity of Rhode Island, Vol. 1, pp. 71-79.
      Vegetative Dune Stabilization in North Carolina. Uni-
      versity of North Carolina (Sea Grant Reprint # 17).         Feldt, Allan G., et al. May, 1972. W.A.L.;R.U.S. I:' Water
                                                                    and Land Resource Utilization Simulation. University of
    Bopp, Frederick and Robert B. Briggs. December, 1972.            Michigan,   Environmental   Simulation   Laboratory,
       Trace Metal Environments Near Shell Banks in Delaware         (MICHUSG-72-208).
       Bay.  University  of Delaware,  Sea  Grant  Program
       (DEL-SG-9-72).                                              Frankel, Shiela L. and Bryan  . Pearce. November, 1973.
                                                                    Determination of Water Quality in the Massachusetts
     Bowerman, Frank R. and Kenneth Y. Chen. December 1971.          Bay (1970-1973). Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
       Marine Del Rey: A Study of Environmental Variables in         Sea Grant Program, (MITSG-74-8).
       a Semi-Enclosed Coastal Water. University of Southern                        -
       California, Sea Grant Program (USC-SG-4-71).                Friebertshauser, Mark A. and Alyn C. Duxbury. -March,
                                                                    1972. "A Water Budget Study of Puget Sound and its
     Broome, Stephen W., William W. WoodhouSe and Ernest D.          Subregions," Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 17, Nb. 2.
       Seneca. July, 1973. An Investigation of Propagation and
       the Mineral Nutrition of Spartina Alterniflora, North    Grace, Jean McKean and Lois S. Nishimdto. 1974. Marine
       Carolina State University, Sea Grant Program (UNC-            Atlas of Hawaii: Bays and Harbors.  (Honolulu: The
       SG-73-14).                                                    University Press of Hawaii).
     Brown, G: A., V. C. Rose, et al. 1974. Power Plant Site
       Considerations at Charlestown, R.I. University of Rhode    Grant, Malcolm J. January, 1973. Appoaches to State
       Island, Sea Grant College Program (Marine Technology          Coastal Management. University of Rhode Island, Marine
       Report No. 23).                                               Advisory Service, (Marine Bulletin No. 13).

     Christodoulou, Georgios C., William F. Leimkuhler and    Grant, Malcolm J. 1973. Rhode Island's Ocean Sands:
       Arthur T. Ippen. January, 1974. Mathematical Models of        Management Guidelines of Sand and Gravel Extraction in
       the Massachusetts Bay Part III. A Mathematical Model          State Waters. University of Rhode Island, Marine Advisory
       for the Dispersion of Suspended Sediments in Coastal          Service, (Technical Report No. 10).
       Waters. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Sea Grant
       Program (MITSG-74-14).                                      Hann, Roy W., Jr. 1969; Management� of Industrial Waste
                                                                    Discharges in Complex Estuarine Systems. Texas A&M
     Connor, Jerome J., John D. Want, Douglas A. Briggs, Ole         University, Sea Grant College Program, (Technical Report
       S. Madeen. October, 1973. Part I: Finite Element Modeling     No. 15).
       of Two-Dimensional Hydrodynamic Circulation. Part II:
      .Analytical Models for One- and Two-Layer Systems in
       Rectangular Basins. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,    Hann, Roy W., Jr. 1969. Neches Estuary Water Quality
       Sea Grant Program (MITSG-74-4).                               Study. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant College Program,
                                                                    (Technical Report No. 14).
     Dailey, James E. and Donald R. F. Harleman. October, 1972.
       Numnerical Model for the Prediction of Transient Water    Ho, C. L. and J. Lane. 1973. "Interstitial Water Composi-
       Quality in Estuary Networks. Massachusetts Institute of       tion in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, Sediment," Estuarine
       Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG-72-15).                 'and Coastal Marine Science, 1:125-135.

                                              i    THE- PUrBL6'S ROLE                                                  '565

    Ho, Clara L., et al. February, 1970. "Chemistry of Watei and     Management Problem and an Evaluation of Options;
      Sediments in Barataria Bay," Coastal Studies Bulletin         Volume II, Reports and Recommendations at the Cornm-
      (No. 5).                                                   *munity. Level. University of Rhode Island, Coastal Re-
                                                                   sources.Center, (Marine Technical Report No. 4).
    Hood, D. W., W. E. Shiels and E. J. Kelley. July, 1973.
      Environmental Studies of Port Valdez; University of    Oregon State University. 1970. Crisis in Oregon Estuaries: A
      Alaska, Sea Grant Program (SG Report #73-1).                  Summary  of Environmental  Factors Affecting Oregon
                                                                   Estuaries. Sea Grant Marine Advisory Program.
    James, Wesley P., Roy W. Hann, et al. December, 1972.
      Environmental Aspects of a Supertanker Port on the Texas    Ortolano, Leonard. April, 1970. Quality Standards for the
      Gulf Coast. Texas A&M  University, Sea Grant College          Coastal Waters'of Long Island, New York. State University
      Program, (TAMU-SG-73-201).                                    of New York, Sea Grant Program, (CEM-4047-408).

    Klemas, V., F. C. Daiber, et al. June, 1973. Coastal Vegeta-    Ortolano, Leonard and Philip S. Brown, Jr. July, 1970. The
      tion of Delaware, the Mapping of Delaware's Coastal           Movement and Quality of Coastal Waters: A Review of
      Marshes. University of Delaware, Sea Grant Program            Models Relevant to Long Island, N.Y. State University
      (DEL-SG-15-73).                                               of New York, Sea Grant Program, (CEM-4047-411).

    Kuenzler, Edward J., Alphonse F. Chestnut'and Charles M.    'Overland, James E. September, 1973. A Model of Salt Intru-
      Weiss. March, 1973. Structure and Functioning of Estuarine    sion in a Partially Mixed Estuary. New York Institute of
      Waterways Exposed to Treated 'Sewage Wastes, III. Uni-        Ocean Resources, (Technical Report 73-1).
      versity of North Carolina, Sea Grant Program (UNC-
      SG-73-10).                                                  Prather, S. H. and R. 'M. Sorensen. September, 1972. A Field
                                                                   'Investigation of Rollover Fish Pass, Bolivar Peninsula,
    Lee, Thomas N. and Claes Rooth. January, 1972, Exchange          Tex. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant College Program,
      Processes in Shallow Estuaries. University of Miami, Sea       (TAMU-SG-72-202).
      Grant Program (SG Special Bulletin' #4).
                                                                 Seneca, Ernest D. and Stephen W. Broome. September, 1972.
    Manochar-Maharaj, V. and R. C. Beardsley (Part I); J.            'Seedling Response to Photoperiod and Temperature by
      Karpen (Part II). November, 1973. Part I: Spring Run-Off      SmoothCordgrass, Spartina Alterniflora, from  Oregon
      into Massachusetts Bay, 1973; Part II: Dissolved Nutrient-    Inlet      , N.C.," Chespeake Science, Vol. 13, No. 3, pp.
      Seawater Density Correlations and the Circulation in          22-235,
      Boston Harbor and Vicinity. Massachusetts Institute of
      Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG-74-9).
                                                                 Schenck, 'Hilbert, Jr. and Albert Davis. "A Turbidity Survey
    Mather, John R., Frank J. Swayne and Bruce J. Hartmann.         of Narragansett Bay," Ocean Engineering, Vol. 2, pp.
      January,  1973. The Influence of the Climatic Water           169-178.
      Balance on Conditions in the Estuarine Environment.
      University  of Delaware,  Sea  Grant  Program  (DEL-   'Schmeltz, E. J. and R. M. Sorenson. A Review of the Charac-
      SG-5-73).                                                     teristics, Behavior and Design Requirements of'Texas Gulf
                                                                   Coast Tidal Inlets. Texas A&M University, Sea Grant
    McGuinness, W. V. February, 1972. State of the Art for          College Program (TAMU-SG-73-202).
      Selected Marine Resources Problems on Long Island. State
      University of New York, Sea Grant Program (CEM-    Schwartz, Frank J. and A. F. Chestnut. June, 1973. Hydro-
      4103-456).                                                    graphic Atlas' of North Carolina Estuarine and Sound
                                                                   Waters, 1972. University of North Carolina, Sea Grant
    Meredith, Dennis L. June, 1972. Nuclear Power Plant Siting:     Program (UNC-SG-73-12).
      A Handbook for the Layman. University of Rhode Island,
      Sea Grant College Program (Marine Bulletin #6).             Sensabaugh, William M.  and James A. Purpura. 1974.
                                                                   Coastal Construction Setback Line. University of Florida,
    New  York State Sea Grant Program., February,  1973.            Sea Grant Program (SUSF-SG-74-002).
      "Managing Our Coastal Zone," Proceedings of a Conference
      on Coastal Zone Management.                                 Spaulding, M. L., G. A. Brown and F. M. White. 1974.
                                                                   Applying a Water Quality Model to Pollution Management.
    Nixon, Scott W., et al. 1973. Ecology of Small Boat Marinas.    University of Rhode 'Island, Sea Grant College Program
      University of Rhode  Island, Marine Advisory Service,         (Marine Technical Report #26).
      (Marine Technical Report Series No. 5).
                    (Marine Technial Report Series ' No. 5).      Thatcher, M. Llewellyn and Donald R. F. Harleman. Febru-
    Nixon, S. W. and C. A. Oviatt. Autumn, 1974: "Ecology of a      ary, 1972. A Mathematical Model for the Prediction of
      New England Salt Marsh," Ecological Monographs; Col.          Unsteady Salinity Intrusion in Estuaries. Massachusetts
      43, No. 4. pp. 463-498.                                       Institute of Technology, Sea Grant Program (MITSG-
                                                                   72-7).
    O'Connor, Michael P., et al. 1972. Recent Estuarine-Sediment
      History of the Roanoke Island Area, North Carolina.    Vagners, Juris and Paul Mar. 1972. Oil on Puget Sound, An
      University of North Carolina Sea Grant Program, (Reprint      Interdisciplinary Study in Systems Engineering. Seattle:
      No. 33).                                                      University of Washington Press.
    Office of Sea Grants. May, 1972. The National Sea Grant    Wick, William Q. 1973. "Estuaries Under Attack" Water
      Program: Program Description and Suggestions for Pre-         Spectrum. 5 (3) :12-18. Oregon State University Sea Grant
      paring Proposals.  National  Oceanic and  Atmospheric         College Program Reprint, ORESU-R-73-028.
      Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville,
      Md.                                                         Woodhouse, W. W., Jr., E. D. Seneca and S. W. Broome. July
                                                                   1972. Marsh Building With Dredge Spoil in North Carolina.
    Olsen, Stephen B. and Malcolm J. Grant. January, 1973.           North Carolina State University 'Sea Grant Program
      Rhode Island's Barrier Beaches: Volume I, A Report on a       (AES Bulletin 445).

    ESCAROSA: THE ANATOMY OF
    PANHANDLE CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT
    IN ESTUARINE PRESERVATION

    THOMAS S. HOPKINS
    The University of West Florida
    Pensacola, Florida

                 ABSTRACT
                 Florida's gulf coastline measures over 700 statute miles, and has the most diverse estuarine flora
                 and fauna of any state. Because of its growing population and its readily accessible coastline
                 probably no other estuarine system has received pressures comparable to those exerted on Florida's
                 gulf coast ecosystem from 1950 to the present. This paper revolves around the "Florida Panhandle"
                 in general and Pensacola in particular.
                 Citizen involvement begins through information services provided by newspaper, radio, and TV.
                 In Pensacola, the newspaper media had the greatest impact and long-term effect.
                 There are a variety of vehicles and mechanisms for citizen involvement and many were brought
                 into play in the panhandle. One of the most effective approaches is through sportsmens' organi-
                 zations. Homeowners' associations also can be effective vehicles, but they may be self serving and
                 are more subject to varying levels of bureaucracy. Regional planning organizations are a proper
                 vehicle but they are even more dependent upon and subject to government bureaucracy. Govern-
                 mental advisory groups can be effective if they can maintain good relations with the board tha+
                 appoints them and if they can understand that governments cannot correct overnight the damag,'s
                 done by poor planning through decades. Regional, state, and federal hearings are an excellent
                 outlet for citizen pressures.
                 It is concluded that the Regional Planning Council should be the lead agency in coordinating
                 citizen efforts in estuarine preservation.

    INTRODUCTION                                                Because of Florida's growing population and con-
                                                            sequent development along its readily accessible
      Florida's gulf coastline measures over 700 statute    coastline, there is probably no estuarine system in
    miles and has the most diverse estuarine flora and    the nation that has received the pressures suffered
    fauna of any state in the United States. The reasons    by Florida's gulf coast ecosystem from 1950 to the
    for this diversity are the extraordinary environ-    present.'-6 The locality for this scenario detailing
    ments and climates found over the 700-mile span.    citizen response to estuarine degradation shall be
    The southern tip of Florida is a drowned lacustrine    limited to the area entitled "the Florida Panhandle"
    plain characterized by mangrove swamps and la-    and centers primarily around Pensacola and Escam-
    goons with lush marine-grass meadows. The mean    bia Bay. This area was the site of five federal-state
    air temperature is 700F. in January and 83"F. in    enforcement conferences between 1970 and 1972.236
    July.                                                       The plight of Escambia Bay has received nation-
      Stretching northward from Cape Romano,  the    wide publicity with newspaper stories and pictures
    coastline changes to barrier islands, sand beaches,    appearing from Los Angeles and San Francisco in
    and low dunes. Mangroves, tidal marshes, and sub-    the west to Trenton, N.J., in the east.?'9 In addition,
    marine meadows are major features in the area    Sports Illustrated classified the Escambia River as
    which also encompasses two major bay systems:    one of the nation's 10 dirtiest rivers; Skin Diver
    Charlotte Harbor and Tampa Bay. The area north-    magazine's environmental editor, Bill Barada, fea-
    ward from Anclote Key (Tarpon Springs) is pri-    tured an article on the Escambia story called "Death
    marily tidal marsh and submarine meadows. The    Trap."'0 Yet all of this publicity is anticlimatic to
    fourth area, and the setting of this particular dis-    the roles played by citizens in the area, aroused
    cussion, is the panhandle of Florida, characterized by    citizens who  already had been  doing something
    barrier islands, high energy beaches, tidal marshes,    about their dying estuarine ecosystems.
    and numerous bays. The mean air temperature of              The purpose of this paper, then, is to discuss the
    this fourth area is 53�F. in January and 82�F. in    efforts and achievements of individuals and citizen
    July.'                                                    groups in their struggle for estuarine preservation

                                                                                                             567

    568                                    ESTUARINE POLLUTioN CONTROL

    -and the improvement of water quality in northwest                 Monster   in  Our   Midst
    Florida. My attempt is to show that citizen~involve-
    menrt has been effective even when it was isolated,
    unpopular, or smothered by red tape; that citizen
    action has resulted in positive action which makes
    the outlook for effective preservation much brighter
    today than six years ago. I treat the various efforts
    or groups one-by-one not only for convenience but                   K         d
    also for the fact that very little integration of effort
    or interaction initially took place. I conclude the
    paper with a recommendation for a means to achieve
    coordinated, effective, continuous estuarine preserva-
    tion in the area emphasized.

    THE ROLE OF MASS MEDIA
    IN CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT

      Whereas nationwide publicity cited above aroused                                    a
    interest and anger in far-flung corners of the United
    States, major credit for local citizen awareness
    should go to the staff of the Pensacola News-
    Journal. A review of newspaper listings from 1962
    through early 1970 tells a very complete story of a
    responsible press coverage: in 1962, one article; in
    1963, seven pertinent articles; in 1964, 13 pertinent
    articles; in 1967, more. than 20 articles detailing
    growing population problems; in 1968, more than
    60 articles and thought-provoking  editorials, in
    1969, more than 200 continuing stories and edi-
    torials detailing the day-to-day castastrophies of                           .,l.,e-
    Escambia Bay.12
      Pensacola newspaper reporting by Mike Albertson           X-.*
    and Tom Bell together with thoughtful editorials
    and editorial cartoons directed by Earle Bowden
    brought awareness' and education to the citizenry                            ILLf-TR-ON 1
    of the two-county area known as Escarosa. These
    three men are, in the author's opinion, primarily
    responsible for providing the major impetus for    discussions on the pollution question simulcast with
    environmental  awareness  and  continued  citizen    "Pensacola Speaks."
    involvement.
      By 1970, the electronic media, both radio ahd    VEHICLES AND  MECHANISMS
    television, began to focus on the problem and open    FOR CITIZEN INVOLVEMENT
    the door to citizen involvement. Of particular note
    and value was the coverage of station WEAR-TV,             The following discussion will highlight failures and
    an ABC affiliate; not only were viewers exposed to    successes of efforts to prevent or correct what might
    the fish kills in the area waters but also to the    be called the Escambia catastrophe. In addition, it
    subsequent federal-state hearings on their causes     will briefly mention various vehicles and patterns
    and on water pollution in general. That citizen re-    for citizen involvement.
    sponse began to increase' culd be measured by a
    radio program, "Pensacola Speaks," carried by sta-    Sportsmen Organizations
    tion WCOA.  Listener after listener; night after
    night, lamented the pollution:problem and asked             In 1968, .a group of interested saltwater fishermen
    what might be done. In addition, educational tele-    organized the Northwest Florida Sports-fishing As-
    vision station WSRE  (Channel 23) carried panel    sociation. The membership swelled to considerable

                                          -   TiE     - PUBLIC'S ROLE                                     569

                                                         its purpose; at any rate, citizen involvement began
                                                         with it in 1968.
                                                            Whereas the Northwest Florida Sports-fishing As-
                                                         sociation began in 1968 and died in 1969, another
                                                         group of sportsmen were growing concerned about
                                                          estuarine preservation. The Bream Fishermen Asso-
                                                          ciation (hereafter referred to as BFA) was a small,
                                                         close-knit group of outdoorsmen dedicated to good
                                                         practices of wilderness protection, preservation, and
                                                         conservation. These were not men who would be
                                                         content to be a pressure group only; they were
                                                         citizens with definite plans of action. They launched
                                                         their first efforts on behalf of the national seashore
                                                         in 1969 and received their baptism of political fire
                                                         from members of the Santa Rosa Island Authority
                                                         who objected to their attempts to get petitions
                                                         signed by the citizenry visiting the beach. Their
                                                         next major effort was in early 1970. They felt that
     � ;.~:                           Ah                         .> A;there was too much talk and not enough action
                                              61  A           .-concerning actual biological conditions in the once
                                                          fertile interface between Escambia River and Es-
                                    |1' �""~'S*"t""'  .. cambia Bay. During April, May, and June, 1970,
                                                          the BFA spent over a thousand man hours conduct-
                                       ~ ~ '.'~  . -'j    ing a voluntary creel census to document fishing
                                                          and its results on the Escambia River-a task long
                               .n 4            Ah  c>^^_ neglected by any state agency. The results  and
                                                          conclusions of this census were far-reaching and the
                                                          enthusiasm of the association recruited new citizen-
                                                          scientists to its cause. The results were made public
                                                          in 1971.3 In a nutshell, analysis of 1,234 different
                                                          fishing trips involving 2,558 fishermen showed that
                                      As04q..   t A   , ~ the average fisherman would catch one fish for two
                                                          hours' effort and its average weight would be less
             <Mk E r�,nER ~ ~                             than a quarter pound. This creel census was only a
                                                          starter, however, for the BFA also set about to
                                                          correct matters in an amazingly effective program
                                                          for 1970.
                                                           Convinced that the conditions in the lower portion
                     _: "                .... seof Escambia River could be improved by several
                                 - it   -  __ set s>>Z -   ofmeans, the BFA (1) started a night pollution con-
                      ILLUSTRATION 2                      trol program, (2) bioassay stations, and (3) a fish
                                                          feeding program.4.
                                                            The night polluti6n program was not just a mili-
                                                          rant conservation group's idea of harassing industry.
    size and a major thrust was to bring about solutions    tant conservation group's idea f harassing industry
                 size and          aaotrswstbigabuoThe BFA knew full well that the state agency re-
    to estuarine degradation in the area. Its principal                     f                  s
    purpose was to be a pressure group and to a limited    sponsbe for monitoring pollution simply did not
    end it was successful. However, the association was    have enoughmanpoer to be everywhere at onke-
                 unsuccessful in raising sufficient funds to get an especially at night. A keynote of BFA's success was
    unbiased study of bay and estuarine pollution. It is   early detection of a break in a flyash holding pond
    difficult to pinpoint the disintegration or demise of at a local, coal-burning electric power plant in
    the organization, but it coincides with the interven- December, 1970. Along the same lines, bioassay
    tion of federal investigators in the pollution of   stations were established and maintained in and
    Perdido and Escambia Bays and the formation of   near industrial outfalls. In both cases, recorded
    the West Florida Natural Resources Council. Per-    data was turned over to the responsible parties in-
    haps this sports fishing association felt it had served    volved. The fish-feeding program stemmed from the

    570                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    fact that water quality was so poor that fish either    Team by providing manpower for transplanting
    would not spawn or, equally bad, their fry would    marine grasses in the upper estuary. On another
    not have sufficient food. BFA members bought over    cooperative front BFA members aided the Depart-
    2,000 pounds of commercial fish food and distributed    ment of Pollution Control by collecting sorely needed
    it on the spawning beds.                               data on Perdido River and Bay.
      In appreciative response, local merchants ap-          On the lobbying front, the organization has been
    plauded BFA's courageous efforts and donated a    very effective on several issues: (1) diking Yellow
    new fiberglass boat, an outboard motor, gasoline,    River flood plains; (2) continuing opposition to ex-
    oil, and boat landing services. BFA and its citizen    pansion of Pensacola's northeast, treatment plant
    army was on the move.                                  on Escambia Bay; (3) writing formal objections to
      In the spring and summer of 1971, the "night    the Corps of Engineers on matters of estuarine re-
    patrol" turned into the "dawn patrol" as BFA    source preservation; and (4) filing a court injunction
    monitored the tidal marsh headwaters of Escambia    resulting in a favorable ruling against the introduc-
    Bay, collecting data on dissolved oxygen temperature    tion of "Asian Grass Carp" into Deer Point Lake
    and fish kill conditions. Not only were actual fish   on the grounds that this species could easily escape
    kills located in the bay, but also an early warning    from that system and enter northwest Florida's
    system was devised. This monitoring program was    estuaries.l9,20
    maintained through 1973 and resulted in valuable          In summary, the Bream Fishermen Association's
    data concerning tidal flushing (stagnation) by upper    efforts prove that sportsmen organizations can be
    bay waters which infiltrate the tidal marshes."6       successful in activities involving estuarine preserva-
      During 1972, BFA made a major effort over a    tion. The key ingredients in these activities are
    one-year period to document species diversity in the    leadership, initiative, and energy. As demonstrated
    river immediately below the Jay Oil Field adjacent    above, the BFA, a citizens' organization, has taken
    to the Escambia River in north-central Santa Rosa    an exemplary leadership role in working in the field
    County. With the help of a grant from Humble Oil    with local, state, and federal agencies; in keeping
    to the University of West Florida, the association   citizens aware  of threats to northwest  Florida
    developed a complete faunal inventory of the poten-    through its "Conservation Newsletter" and displays
    tial impact area. Such information is not yet gener-    at the county fair; and in political lobbying.
    ally available but will be of considerable value in
    assessing the impact of an oil spill on the upper
    estuarine area. In this project, 40 BFA members    Homeowners' Associations
    worked a total of 3,489 hours in the field!?'"8
      BFA activities continued to mount in 1973. Mem-        Although it may be argued that homeowners'
    bers discovered that yellow bullheads in the Yellow    associations, like industries, have a vested interest
    River system are subject to an important melanoma    in estuaries, homeowners on estuarine bayous, bay-
    cancer, a fact that proved of interest to both the    fronts, and waterways seem to be positively moti-
    Environmental Protection Agency and the Smith-    vated toward good water quality. In the panhandle
    sonian Institution. During the Oil Field Study,    area we can document some interesting cases of
    BFA took coliform samples in the river to establish    homeowner involvement with estuarine preservation.
    coliform levels and origins prior to bay entry. Mem-
    bers acted as environmental lobbyists to prevent
    Getty Oil Company from exploratory drilling in               Mulatto  Bayo-Av alon Beac    h homeowner.-The
    East Bay, and the association alertly filed protests    mouth  of   ulatto Bayou,  a bayou historically
    with the EPA in Atlanta concerning proposed ex-   important as a nursery area on the east side of
    pansion of Pensacola's northeast treatment plant    Escambia Bay, was severely altered in the construc-
    which was  already discharging into an overly-    tion of Interstate 10 bridge across Escambia Bay.20
    enriched Escambia Bay. This timely protest resulted    After completion of the project, a new access to the
    in the decision that the northeast plant cannot be    bayou was provided Homeowners in the area how
    expanded without concurrence and approval of EPA    ever, used various means of political pressure and
                                                         lobbying to get the State of Florida to correct silt-
                                                         ing in the bayou proper.2l They argued, incorrectly
    being prepared for the two-county area through the    I believe, that the construction activities had caused
    Regional Planning Council.l8                           the main portion of the bayou to become silted in.
      The year 1974 brought even greater BFA activity    I met with the homeowners and showed them reason-
    in estuarine preservation. BFA members gave ma-    able proof that the origin of their problem was not
    terial assistance to the EPA Escambia Bay Recovery    road construction, but improper dredging activities

                                             THE  PUBLIC'S ROLE                                         571

    by a real estate developer. After a great deal of   dated sewer lines and a malfunctioning lift station
    discussion, the homeowners became aware that the    caused the homeowners around the bayou to begin
    desired dredging could create even more damage to   lobbying city government for environmental relief.
    the system which they wanted so desperately to    In addition, they approached the University of West
    correct.22 But their awareness and understanding    Florida for guidance and scientific advice26 and pro-
    came too late. The State Department of Transpor-    vided funds for small-scale research. With the Bayou
    tation had already let bids and issued a contract to    Texar Association research funds behind him, and
    an out-of-state dredging company.23 Last minute    the association endorsing him,  Dr.  Gerald A.
    letters to state agencies involved were fruitless.24   Moshiri of the university succeeded in capturing
    Although a hearing was held at the request of the    the interest of the Office of Water Resources Re-
    Federal Water Pollution Control Administration    search (OWRR) on the causes of nutrification.2729
    because the dredging would be in violation of con-   But even after basic research was funded by OWRR,
    ferees' rulings, the Corps of Engineers did not cancel    the association members did not rest their case.
    its permit and the Mulatto Bayou area was dredged,    They have donated time, space, and facilities for
    with disastrous results.25                            the completion of the research. Further, they have
      In this example, the homeowning citizens had the    maintained their pressure on both the city and the
    best of intentions; their efforts, however, resulted    county to correct the problems in the drainage basin
    in a death blow to a system struggling to survive.    and around the bayou. In addition, they have
                                                         secured a special engineering study designed to pro-
                                                         vide some approaches to the restoration of a severely
    Perdido Bay homeowners.-Perdido Bay receives a    damaged estuarine area.
    large amount of effluent from a kraft pulp plant
    located at the head of the bay. Perdido Bay also
    has received large amounts of poorly treated sewage    Woodland Lake homeowners.-The Gulf Breeze pe-
    through Bayou Marcus Creek. The bay is divided    ninsula is a large finger of land projecting westward
    by the state line of Florida and Alabama. Although    into Pensacola Bay. At its westward extremity are
    the kraft mill waste and sewage originate in Florida,    three bayou ecosystems: Hoffman's, Gilmore's, and
    Alabama residents headed by Mrs. JoAnn Allen    Woodland Lake Bayou. As eutrophication levels in
    strongly have contended and demonstrated that    Escambia Bay and Pensacola Bay reached peaks,
    these pollutants reach their shores. Mrs. Allen has    their nutrient-rich waters began to permeate and
    courageously maintained pressure not only on offi-   stagnate in these estuarine bayous. Following the
    cials in Florida and Alabama but on federal officials   lead of the Bayou Texar Association, the Woodland
    in Atlanta, Ga., as well. Her efforts were at least    Lake homeowners approached the university in 1971
    partly responsible for Alabama's request for a full-   via Dr. Sneed B. Collard of the biology faculty."0
    scale investigation in 1969 and continued hearings    Through Dr. Collard, a scientific approach to restor-
    into the present. Although some of the problems    ing the bayou was designed. With methodical care,
    are not fully corrected, the water quality of Perdido    the Woodland Lake Association began the necessary
    Bay is markedly improved as a result of the con-   lobbying process through local, state, and federal
    tinuous vigilance and relentless lobbying of this   officials. Records indicate that the Corps of Engi-
    untiring Alabama resident.2'4                         neers generally investigated the restoration project
                                                         but could not fund it.3' The state Department of
                                                         Pollution Control endorsed it as a "model project"
    Bayou  Tezar Association of homeowners.-Bayou    and commended it to the Environmental Protection
    Texar is an estuarine subsystem of Pensacola Bay.    Agency.32.33 The regional office of EPA seems to
    It is within the Pensacola city limits and receives    have liked the proposal and forwarded it to the
    its primary sources of freshwater from Carpenter's    Washington office.34 After over a year of revising,
    Creek whose headwaters are outside the city lim-   endorsing, revising, and resubmitting, all came to
    its. To begin with, Carpenter's Creek has been    nought when the Washington office of EPA notified
    severely abused by channelization and suburban    the city of Gulf Breeze that "the model project"
    development. In addition, it is a major recipient of   endorsed by so many "does not directly fulfill our
    septic tank seepage, lift station overflow, storm    high priority research needs" and that they could
    sewer drainage, and ordinary runoff from streets,   not support the project.35 This was the culmination
    yards, and parking lots. As a result, it has in the    of almost two years of citizen effort. A less dedicated
    past 10 or 15 years carried an immense load of silt,   group of citizens might have given up, but not these.
    organics, and elemental nutrients into the bayou        The city of Gulf Breeze still backs the bayou
    proper. A worsening situation compounded by out-   restoration and the citizens themselves are putting

    572                                  ESTUaIN4E POLLUTION CONTROL

    their dollars and their hands to the task of clearing    Crosby moved quickly to establish council com-
    the choked opening to the bayou that has developed.    mittees and to organize task forces (a table of
    After natural flushing is restored, the members must    organization appears in Figure 1). It should be
    face the benthic sludge problem and the long, slow    stressed that this organization was considerably
    process of removing it. Their optimism is over-    more than a hastily organized group of scientists,
    whelming--they will restore Woodland Lake Bayou    politicians, and community leaders gathering to-
    in spite of the odds and the bureaucratic heart-   gether for a common cause: estuarine preservation
    breaks over the months. They optimistically look    and coastal zone management.3
    for the day when the shrimp and fish return to their     Council meetings were open not only to the public
    restored estuarine ecosystem.                          but also to agency officials who attended and partici-
                                                          pated in meetings. Congressman R. L. F. Sikes ex-
                                                          pressed his support and in fact acted on the council's
    Regional Planning Organizations
                                                          behalf in Washington, D.G."
    West Florida Natural Resources Council.-Formed           By August 15, 1969, the West Florida Natural
    in June, 1969, by executive order of Governor Claude    Resources Council was ready to approve budgets
    Kirk, Jr., the West Florida Natural Resources    totalig over $700,000 for the various task force
    Council (WFNRC) was an ambitiously precocious    operations  as follows
    attempt to establish coastal zone management in
    the Florida panhandle. It probably grew out of (a)    Escambia-Santa Rosa Pollution $'_-         -.....$150,000
    the obvious conflicts in coastal zone use; (b) the    Choctawhatchee Bay ----------- 203,306
    very thought-provoking editorials of the Pensacola  Dog Fly Control ---------------------- 356,670
    News-Journal which called upon the University of
    West Florida for leadership in environmental'inves-      Local citizens, however, were critical of the pro-
    tigation;36 (c) the interests of an estuarine-oriented    posed allocations. It appeared to them that dog fly
    biology faculty; and (d) the farsightedness of Dr.    control and tourism were more important than
    Harold B. Crosby, its first chairman. In a presiden-    "clean water." Although this reaction reflected ac-
    tial memo dated July 8, 1969, Dr. Crosby, former    curately some local attitudes, the council was simply
    president of the University of West Florida, ex-   hearing and acknowledging proposed first-year costs.
    plained to the faculty, "Many factors combined to    The question of where the money would come from
    make it necessary and desirable to establish such a    was still to be examined.
    council. Amongst them is increasing concern of the       The first task force to make a report of progress
    people of West Florida over water pollution and    to the council was the Escambia-Santa Rosa Water
    the apparent changes in physical and biological   Pollution Task Force which on October 8, 1969, re-
    quality of the coastal and estuarine environment."    ported to the eager citizenry that Escambia River
    The charges to the council were specifically as    and Bay were grossly polluted and that the major
    follows:                                               polluters were three local manufacturing industries
                                                          and the local power generating plant?4 This report
        1. To establish in the West Florida region at the earliest   was delivered to a standing-room-only council meet-
          practical time, under the control and supervision of   ing and it was what the area citizens were anxious
          the council, task forces to recommend and implement
          plans:                                          yet fearful to hear. Relatively clear answers to
           (1) for the study and abatement of the water pollu-   questions that the Pensacola News-Journal had
              tion problems of Escambia and Santa Rosa    asked previously and with increasing tempo were
              counties;                                   provided to the citizens that day. The report gave
          (2) for the study and abatement of the dog fly;  them a sringboard for involvement.
          (3) for the study of Choctawhatchee Bay and related   them a spr
              waters.                                        At the same time that the council was establish-
                                                          ing its credibility and achieving local praise for its
        2. To establish a data bank at The University of West    efforts, unforeseen and intangible difficulties were
          Florida relating to water pollution, dog fly, and
          estuarine studies and provide for information dis-   beginning to take a form that would bring about the
          semination program.                             ultimate demise of this laudable attempt to estab-
        3. To develop a unified interagency (local, state, and   lish approaches to coastal zone management. These
          federal) and interstate effort to investigate and solve   forces are not unrelated:
          the above listed problems in a systematic fashion.
                                                            1) Lack of fiscal support. Although the West
      The first meeting of the council was held June    Florida Natural Resources Council had been in op-
    1969, with Governor Kirk in attendance. Chairman    eration over four months, it did not have a meaning-

                                                                WEST FLORIDA NATURAL RESOURCES COUNCIL

          EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE                           PROGRAM COMMITTEE
     Dr. Harold Bryan Crosby, Chairman           The Honorable Pat Dodson, Chairman
     Representative Tom Tobiassen                Dr. W. Thomas Duke                                                                                 OFFICERS
     Mr. Vincent D. Patton                       Mr. Joe Graham
     .The Honorable Pat Dodson                   Mr. eNat Reed                                                                    Governor Claude R. Kirk, Jr., Ex-Officio Chairman
     The Honorable Pat Dodson.                                                                                                                 Crosby, Chairman
                                                                                                                               Representative Tom Tobiassen, Vice-Chairman
                                   FINANCE  OMMITTEE                                                                             Mr. Calvin A. Winter, Coordinator
                                                                                                                               Mr. Peter M. Perceval, Coordinator and Secretary
                             Captain Warfield Bennett, Chairman
                             Mr. Sam Fleming
                             The Honorable Randolph Hodges
                                                                          THE UNIVERSITY OF WEST FLORIDA
                                                                        Coordinating Agency and Data Depository'

                                                            Advisors to Program Committee    Advisors to Dog Fly Task Force
                                                                  Mr. James A. Servies              Dr. John R. Baylis
                                                                  Mr. Fred Simmons                  Mr. Hilton Meadows                                                                  w

    ESCAMBIA-SANTA ROSA WATER POLLUTION                                                        DOG FLY TASK FORCE  CHOCTAWHATCHE  ESTUARINE STUDIES
                 TASK FORCE                                                                                                    TASK FORCE                   FO

     Mr. Vincent D. Patton, Chairman                                                  Representative Tom Tobiassen, Chairman               The Honorable Jerry Melvin, ChairmanE
     Dr. O. E. Frye, Jr.                                                              Dr. Donald E. Weidhaas                               The Honorable Randolph Hodges
     The Honorable Charles H. Overman, Jr.                                            Dr.William G. Eden                                   Dr. A. B. Chaet
     Mr. Harmon Shields                                                                Mr. James N. Luttrell                               Colonel Thornton Peck
     Mr. S. A. Berkowitz                                                              Mr. John R. Cox                                      Dr. Norman Vick
     Dr. Thomas S. Hopkins                                                            Dr. A. J. Rogers                                     Mr. George B. Austin
     Dr. John Thoman '                                                                Dr. Roger D. Reid                                    Mr. Roy J. Forrest
     Representative of Alabama (to be named)                                           Representative of Alabama (to be named)             Representative of Alabama (to be named)

                   i
       Task Force Advisory Group   J

                                  FIGIURE 1.--Organizational diagram for the West Florida Natural Resources Council (now defunct).

                                                                                                                                                                                    co

    574                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    ful "bankroll" to support any of its task forces. In    steadily as other state agencies increased their activi-
    addition, its own administrative costs were growing.    ties and manpower resources in the panhandle region.
      2) Governmental reorganization. The State of Flor-
    ida consolidated several agencies and clarified certain
    roles in environmental protection, which probably    West Florida Regional Planning Council.-The'West
    destroyed the previous vacuum in coastal zone    Florida Regional Planning Council (WFRPC) was
    responsibility.                                         created in 1964 under the authority of chapter 160
                                                          of the Florida Statutes. Starting as a one-city one!
      The fiscal woes of the council increased as the    county agency, the planning council now serves
    new state agencies jockeyed for larger budgets and    three counties and many municipalities.47
    operating room. It became clear that the WFNRC            In the area of estuarine preservation, the state
    and its concepts so strongly endorsed in June were    has designated the WFRPC as the planning agency
    taking a back seat by December 1969.                    for "Development of Regional Impact in Escambia,
      President Crosby provided new life for the council    Santa Rosa, and Okaloosa Counties." At the federal
    in May 1970, by appointing Dr. Joe A. Edmisten    level it has similar designations, particularly in
    as director of the council and coordinator of Coastal    the area of water quality management where this
    Zone Studies.41 Fiscal problems continued to plague    policy interfaces with the Environmental Protection
    the council and by July 1970, only about $43,000 of   Agency in comprehensive planning. Although the
    the needed $700,000 had been found and allocated.    WFRPC has a professional staff its operations are
    For the Escambia-Santa Rosa Water Pollution Task    governed by a citizen board representing the cities
    Force, $18,000 was provided by the Department of    and counties under the WFRPC umbrella.47
    Pollution Control; $25,000 was provided for the           One of the major achievements of the regional
    Dog Fly project from other state funds. But in spite    planning council was the development of water
    of this limited funding, citizen involvement con-    quality management for Escambia and Santa Rosa
    tinued and it was during this period that the Bream    counties. This plan was funded under Section 3c
    Fishermen Association  (BFA)  joined the "clean    of the Federal Water Quality Act of 1965. The grant
    water" task force. At this time, the WFNRC was    application was filed in 1972 and work began. The
    optimistic that more funds would be found.             plan is oriented toward estuarine preservation and
      The council met in August to hear a proposal for   is cost effective. Its goal is to significantly reduce
    a "coastal zone inventory" and urged the Depart-    the amounts and richness of surface discharge into
    ment of Natural Resources to adopt a uniform    estuarine areas.48.49
    inventory plan.42 This resulted in Dr. Edmisten           In addition to the plan cited above, the regional
    urging Governor Kirk to declare the Escambia Bay    planning council acted as a coordinating agency to
    a natural disaster area, "To become eligible for    develop a plan for the restoration of Bayou Texar,
    federal aid in the form of grants and loans designed    cited earlier. The council also works with projects
    to help fishermen and shrimpers of the area stay in   in the three-county area involving prospective de-
    business... until we are able to restore Escambia    velopment-e.g., what impact a large multi-service
    Bay to its original healthy state."44 The council's    shopping mall and its collective runoff will have on
    executive committee explored this possibility in    the estuarine receiving waters.
    September 1970, with many citizen groups being            In summary, the WFRPC is a citizen board with
    represented. After considerable debate, it concluded    responsibility for regional planning in a geographi-
    that the area was not eligible for federal funds.45   cally complex estuarine area. Its professional staff
    The council met again in October 1970, and learned    and citizen board are called upon to make far-
    that the newly formed Coastal Coordinating Council    reaching decisions.
    (CCC) operating out of the Department of Natural
    Resources was implementing a plan for a statewide    Governmental Advisory Groups
    uniform inventory of natural resources. The CCC
    would start its plan using Escambia and Santa Rosa County Commissioners' Pollution Advisory Commit-
    Counties as    a           pilot ar                   ea called "Escaros." This  County Commissioners' Pollution Advisory Commit-
    Counties as a pilot area called "Escaros." This    tee.-In the fall of 1970, after another year of
    appears to have been the last real meeting of the    disastrous fish kills, citizen outrage, and editorial
                                                          comment, the county commissioners of Escambia
      In summary, the West Florida Natural Resources    County  followed a recommendation  offered by
    Council was born in a time of need and undoubtedly    Wayne E. Tisdale, regional engineer for health and
    realized some major achievements in citizen involve-    rehabilitation services, and created an advisory com-
    ment and estuarine preservation. It died slowly but    mittee.50 The citizen select committee was chosen

                                              THE PUBLIC'S ROLF"                                           575

    to represent business and commerce,  sport and    lishment of nutrients and thermal discharge limits.
    commercial fishing, industry, agriculture, the legal    This procedure allowed industry representatives to
    profession, and education. Acting Commission Chair-    present their views with citizens in attendance.53
    man Sam Armour, "charged the committee with its           Although the advisory committee was frustrated
    responsibility to seek solutions to the pollution    in attempts to establish regulations for local indus-
    problems in Escambia County and to advise the    try, it was very successful in negotiating safe practice
    Board of County Commissioners accordingly. ..5"   regulations for the Humble Oil and Refining Com-
    The  committee, hereafter referred to as ACOP,    pany which was requesting permission to install
    began to meet weekly and many citizen manhours    pipelines in the delta region of Escambia and Perdido
    were invested. It heard presentations by regional    Bays. Indeed, the attentiveness and cooperation
    engineers from two state agencies, the county envi-   given by the Humble Oil Company in meeting with
    ronmental health director, and several concerned    citizen committees might serve as a model for other
    citizens who reviewed the environmental problems    agencies seeking permission to carry out potentially
    from their viewpoints. In addition, the committee    deleterious projects in the estuarine area.4
    mailed out three questions to selected citizens in        The advisory committee pursued its regulatory
    the community for written responses. These ques-    interests in 1971, working closely with the Depart-
    tions were as follows:                                  ment of Pollution Control and developed a model
                                                          local program which was unfortunately tabled.5556
        (1) "How to Stop the Present Pollution of Our Environ-    On the plus side, however, was the opportunity for
        ment"-Please outline any constructive solutions you    citizens to interact with state officials in a construc-
        may have relative to the air and water pollution of
        Escambia County. Of particular value will be specific   tive way to bring about estuarine preservation.
        technical/legal recommendations that can be imple-   In 1972 the Escambia County Commission was
        mented immediately by Escarmbia    * County.       reorganized, and the new chairman created a new
        (2) "How to Prevent the Pollution of Our Environment    citizens organization called VOICE (Voices of Inter-
        in the Future"-Please outline any constructive solu-   ested Citizens of Escambia). Although the Advisory
        tions you may have relative to preventing pollution in    Committee on Pollution (ACOP) was allowed to
        the future. Recommendations relative to air and water
        quality standards for new industries, expansion of   continue, it became apparent that it would be akin
        County and City sanitation facilities, etc., will be of   to a forgotten stepchild. Nevertheless, the committee
        value.                                             has continued to meet and act on matters referred
        (3) "How to Restore the Damage Done by Past Pollu-   to it by the commissioners. Ironically, the county
        tion Practices"-Past and present pollution practices    commissioners reorganized again in 1974, and the
        have seriously damaged many of our areas. These    new chairman has indicated that the services of
        areas must be restored to some reasonable resemblance
        of their. original quality. Recommendations for their    VOICE will be discontinued. The fate of ACOP
        restoration (clearing the bottom, restoring fish and    has not been announced.
        aquatic life, etc.) are requested. In addition, your ideas  In summary, the Citizen's Advisory Committee
        on how to fairly distribute the cost of such restoration
        would be appreciated.                              on Pollution matters in Escambia County was cre-
                                                           ated in response to citizen concern over rampant
      The committee's purpose was to get as compre-    environmental degradation in the county. The com-
      hensive a response as possible so that meaningful    mittee was very active in its initial year of operation,
    recommendations could be made to the county come  but as is so often the case, a citizens' committee is
    missioners. In addition, the committee established    quite capable of recommending solutions which are
    several citizen subcommittees. For example, a "Solid    beyond financial, legal, or political grasp of the local,
    Waste Disposal" subcommittee was set the task of   state, or federal government agency to which it
    studying how the county landfill was contributing    reports
    to the pollution of Perdido Bay.
      The Pollution Advisory Committee was very forth-    Technical Advisory Committee,  West Florida Re-
    right and set to its task with considerable zeal. For    gional Planning Council, Water Quality Management
    example, in its first 30 days, it developed a series of
    thoughtful, action-oriented recommendations deal-
    ing with the estuarine environment." Although rec-   this activity, it should be noted that the Water
    lommendations were rarely adopted by the county    Quality Management Plan cited earlier was devel-
    commission, the thrust of the committee created    oped through the guidance and approval of a com-
    beneficial side effects and interest on the part of   mittee containing not only local, state, and federal
    the commissioners themselves. For example, the    professionals but lay citizens as well. Serving on this
    commissioners held hearings concerning'the estab-    committee were citizen advisors Clyde Richbourg of

    ;576                                ESTUARINE ROLLVTION CONTROL

    the American Seafood Company, and Tony Raibl,    ber and the third"ession on January 24-26, 1972,
    representing the Bream Fishermen Association.         showed Y-further decline in audience participation.
                                                          This decline in attendance is regrettable, for such
                                                         hearings'are' vital'to estuarine preservation. Federal
                                                          agencies should be .encouraged to report in open
      Earlier, I referred briefly to hearings at the county    hearings what they -are doing about their agency-
    level resulting from efforts of the County Commis-    stated goal  ad citizens need an opportunity to
                                                          tell federal and state officials 'what concerns them.
    sioner's Advisory Group. State and federal agencies    Even thoagh some citizen concerns mhem.
    have held hearings also, and these hearings are       eral on th  one hand, and state and federal action
                                                          eral on the one hand, and' state and federal action
    meaningful outlet for citizen concern and education.
                 Enumeration of three such hearigs folow  or processes slow on the other, constant and better
                                                          communication is imperative. In this regard, it is
                                                         unfortunate that the Escambia-Perdido Bay con-
    Regional Planning, Council Hearings.-The West    ferences have iiot been reconvened each year and
    Florida Regional Planning Council held a series of   that many citizens believe that such enforcement
    public hearings concerning the Water Quality,. Man-    conferences have been unsuccessful in bringing about
    agement Plan. Although these hearings were adver-    any real change in pollutants and water quality.
    tised in the newspaper and on TV, they were rather
    poorly attended. The final hearing- in May 1974,                  '
    attracted only 54 people, including' participants49
    This number is less than. 0.1 percent -:of the city of
    Pensacola's population,; much less of the ty          Escambia Bay, there pwas a great  dealn concern overga-
    area represented. It would appear .tha1t with pres-    scambia Bay, there was a great deal of
    sures of the economic=re'cession we are in, citizens   nizational iterest fron  the standpoint of group
    are turning their backn interests and concerns-of Lbeducatipn. Additionally, many of these groups or
                       .returning their bk ..iees ..  . : . 'organizations actually mobilized in force to attend
    four years ago. This probably-,will be evident inobiied in force to attend
    federal hearing attendance data as well.              hearings, workshops, or 'write letters. Not wishing
                                                  i .    to ignorelobr play' down the role of any citizens'
                                                         group, I want to acknowledge the contributions of
    State Agency Hearings.' STe scenario for hearings  I those organizations that I can recall which were
    concerning Escambia Bay begins earlier than' 1969.   interested an'd active .';
    However, the first:nmajrhearing which drew a size-
    able citizen turnout vwas on May  !,1 1969. At this       Sierra Club of:Pensacola
    time, the Florida Air and Wateri Pollution Control        National Wildlife Federation, local chapter
    Commission with Governor Claude:' Kirk,. Jr., in          Frances M. Weston Chapter, Audubon Society
    attendance held a hearing entitled "Investigation of      Save-Our-Beach Odmmittee
    Water Quality in Escambia River, Escambia Bay,            Florida Federation 'of Garden Clubs
    Pensacola Bay, and Perdido." Presentations were           League of Women Voters
    made by four state agencies, the city of Pensacola,       Pensacola Womens Club
    and the state of Alabama. Several per6dns asked to        Junior League of, Pensacola
    be heard and were. granted appearances; These in-         Pensacola Junior Chaiifber of Commerce
    eluded the chairman of the Pensacola'Ati-Pollution       Rotary of Pensacola
    League and a representative of the Florida- Wiidlife      Kiwanis of Pensacola
    Federation. The hearing, well-attenided for the time,     Greater Pensacola Chamber of Commerce
    drew 150 persons.676             -  .-..                  Choctawhatchee  League..' for Environmental
                                                              ActiodnNow (CLEAN)
                                                              Gamefish Protection A'ssciation  (Okaloosa-
    Federal Agency Hearings.-Beginning in January             Walton County)
    1970, the Federal Water Pollution Control Admin-
    istration, which held hearings on Escambia Bay on       All of these organizations and perhaps others as
    January 21 and 22, began a series of enforcement    well were cofinerned enough to invite me, enforce-
    conference hearings concerning water quality in   ment officials from state agencies, or industry spokes-
    Escambia Bay and Perdido Bays.2.1 Although the    men to mieet with their groups so that they could
    1970 hearing on Escambia Bay attracted over 290    become acquainted with estuarine problems. Of the
    participants, the second session on February 23,    above groups, the Sierra Club of Pensacola is cur-
    24, 1971, attracted less than half the previous num-    rently the most active in preservation.

                                   nTerrustees o
                                        Fund                                                                                                        MIs
                                                                           1                                                           -       ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Media
                                           *   4   dj~~~~~~~~~~~ ~Coastal Coordinating

                                    Deapartment of                                        Council
                                 -j Pollution Control                                                                                            I County Commissions
                                                                                                I I                                         ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Escambia, Santa Rosa
                                                                                                 l W                                           ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Okaloosa Counties
    Environmenial                       Department of      ..      ~West Florida Regional
     Protection                      NaualRsure                                          Planning Council
      Agency.CtG=

                                                                                                                                                   M-emblers

                    L u l l                                                     J  En~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~rvironmental Matters t

                                                                                  Subcommittee,

                                  Drd i     ll                                                                                     Environmental,
                                   CoregetalI                                                          Estuarine,                   Awareness
                                     Coastrl         u          i T         _   W                     echio  & Lan
                                           ~~~uctiq~~j       Waste              Qual,22ity      I        use                     Comuncaf o           .

                    FiGuItE 2.-Flow diagrami showing how the West Florida Regional Planning Council could consolidate citizen involvement.

    578                                       ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    SUMMARY,  CONCLUSIONS,  AND                                       Its Tributaries-Florida and Alabama. Second Session,
                                                                    February 25-26, 1971, Pensacola, Fla. Environmental
    RECOMMENDATIONS                                                    rotee
                                                                    Protection Agency.

      A. This paper has discussed the background and               6. Escambia 1972 Proceedings-Conference in the Matier of
    context of citizen awareness and involvement in                   Pollution of the Interstate Waters of the Escambia, River
                                           .st n  Ao iFlorida. .  -   Basin (Alabama-Florida) and the Interstate Portions of
    estuarine preservation in northwest Florida.                      the Escambia Basin Within the State of Florida. Third
      B. Vehicles and mechanisms for citizen involve-                Session, January 24-26, 1972, Gulf Breeze, Fla. Environ-
    ment  are through  (a)  sportsmens' organizations,                mental Protection Agency.
    (b) homeowners' organizations, (c) planning coun-              7. Los Angeles Times, Part I, Page 1, September 4, 1970;
    cils, (d) local, state, or federal advisory groups, and           Section B, Page 6, October 18, 1970.
    (e) attendance at local, state, and federal hearings.
    Other routes of involvement include civic clubs,               8. San Francisco Chronicle, Part I, Page 8, September 13,
                                                                    1970.
    conservation groups, and semi-professional societies.
      C. In all cases; there are certain pragmatic, legal,        9. Sunday Times Advertiser, Part 2, Page 1, November 28,
    fiscal, or economic issues that influence the success             1971.
    of the concerned individual or organization.
    of the conerned individual or organiati on.                   10. Sports Illustrated. 1970, February 23, 1970. p. 14.
      D. Considering these realities, it is proposed that
    the best avenue for estuarine preservation in the    11. Barada, Bill, 1972. Skin Diver Magazine, February,
    geographic locale of northwest Florida would be                   pp. 21-23.
    through the West Florida Regional Planning Cbun-
                                                                 12. Compilation by library staff of Johfi C. Pace Library,
    cil (Figure 2 shows schematically how the Regional                University of West Florida, 1962 to May 1970 19 pp.
    Planning  Council concept would be applied).  It                  Xerox copy.
    should be noted that if the WFRPC assumed this
    added responsibility, additional staffing would be a          13. Hixson, W. Cr     I. Nisen, and T. S. Hopkins? 1971.
                                                                    Results of a Creel Census of the Lower Escambia River
    necessity. On the other hand, use of this existing                Sports Fishery.
    agency would seem to be the most cost effective
    and would be consistent with its legislatively inan-    14. Bream Fisherman Association Newsletter, June 1971.
    dated role. Furthermore, it is the agency most
    dated  role. Furthermore,  it is the agency most   Coordi15. Letter from BFA to TSH dated August 9, 1971 with data.
    closely in tune with the Coastal Coordinating Coun-
    cil which would be responsible for the implementa-    16. Letter from BFA to TSH and state agency representatives
    tion of Coastal Zone Management in Florida.                       of DPC, DNR, along with EPA engineer, Larry Olinger.
                                                                     No data 1973 with data from 22 July to October 20, 1973.

    REFERENCES                                                    17. BFA Newsletter Spring 1972.
                                                                 18. BFA Conservatioti Newsletter Vol. 3--No. 1.
     1. MeNutty, J. K., W. N. Lindall, Jr. and J. E. Sykes, 197.    18. BFA Conserv
        Cooperative Gulf of Mexico Estuarine Inventory and
        Study,  Florida; Phase I, Area Description.  NOAA         19. BFA Conservation Newsletter Vol. 4-No. 1.
        Tech. Rpt. NMFS CIRC-368.
                                                                 20. Pensacola News-Jburnal, Page 1A, 7A.
     2. Escambia Proceedings-Coniference in the Matter of
        Pollution of the Interstate Waters of the Escambia River    21. Pensacola Journal, p. 7B, September 14, 1968.
        Basin (Alabama-Florida) and the Interstate Portions of
        the Escambia Basin within the State of Florida. (January
        21-22, 1970 Gulf Breeze, Florida) 2 Volumes. U.S. De-    22. Summarized in letter from TSH  to Vincent Patton,
        partment of the Interior-Federal Water Pollution Con-         Executive Director, Department of Air and Water Pollu-
        trol Administration.                                          tion Control dtd. December 1, 1969.

     3. Perdido 1970 Proceedings-Conference in the Matter of    23. State Road Project No. t8002-3413, Contract No. 8516
        Pollution of the Interstate Waters of Perdido Bay and its     to Jahncke Service Incorporated dtd. May 5, 1969.
        Tributaries Florida and Alabama. January 23-24, 1970
        Gulf Breeze, Fla. U.S. Department of the Interior-
        Federal Water Pollution Control Administration.
        Federal Water Pollution Control Administration.           24. Letter from J. W. Apthorp, Executive Director, State of
                                                                     Florida Board of Trustees of the Internal Improvement
                                                                     Trust Fund to Mrs. F. A. Meloy dated March 23, 1970.
     4. Escambia 1971 Proceedings-Conference in the Matter of
        Pollution of the Interstate Waters of the Escambia River
        Basin (Alabama-Florida) and the Interstate Portions of    25. Livingston, R. J., T. S. Hopkins, J. K. Adams, M. D.
        the Escambia Basin within the State of Florida. Second        Schmitt and L. M. Walsh, 1972. The Effects of Dredging
        Session, February 23-24, 1971, Pensacola, Fla. Environ-       and Eutrophidation of Mulatto Bayou. Fund Report of
        mental Protection Agency.                                     Florida Department of Transportation.

     5. Perdido 1971 Proceedings-Conference in the Matter of    26. Letter from W. H. F. Wiltshire to TSH dated September
        Pollution of the Interstate Waters of Perdido Bay and         3, 1970.

                                                   THE PUBLIC'S ROLE                                                   579

    27. OWRR Moshiri, G. A. 1971a. Phytoplankton Produc-              mittee and Program Committee Minutes.  Pensacola,
       tivity and the Role of Nutrient Enrichment Factors in         Fla., August 19, 1970.
       Bayou Texar, Pensacola, Escambia County, Fla. NSF
       Institutional Grant $770 and Bayou Texar Association    43. Meeting of the Escambia-Santa-Rosa Task Force of the
       Grhnt, $500.                                                  West  Florida Natural  Resources  Council.  Minutes.
                                                                     September 2, 1970.
       Moshiri, G. A. 1971b. Determination of a Nitrogen-
       Phosphorous Budget of Bayou Texar, Pensacola, Es-    44. Letter from J. A. Edmisten to Gov. Claude Kirk, Jr.,
       cambia County, Fla. OWRR Grant, $3,707.                       dated September 4, 1970.

    28. OWRR, Moshiri, G. A. 1972. Determination of Nitrogen-    45. West Florida Natural Resources Council Executive Com-
       Phosphorous Inputs, and Prediction of the Effects of          mittee Meeting. Minutes, September 16, 1970.
       Such Inputs on the Eutrophication Time-table of Bayou-
       Texar, Pensracola, Escambia County, Fla. OWlRR Grant    46. West Florida Natural Resources Council, Executive Com-
       8$8,345 and $11,608.                                          imittee Meeting. Minutes, October 2, 1970.
    29. OWRR Moshiri, G. A. 1973. Intei-relationships between
       Certain Microorganisms and Some Aspects of Sediment-                                                      Handbook.
       Water Nutrient Exchange in Two  Bayou Estuaries,                 meo.
       Pensacola, Escambia County, Fla. OWRR Grant $30,215.
                                                                 48. Draft-Presentation of Alternatives for Water Quality
    30. Letter from L. A. Hufisley to S. B. Collard dated April 29,   Management Plan-Escambia          Santa Rosa Counties.
       1971                                                          Prepared for EscambiaSanta Rosa Regional Planning
                                                                     *  Council by Henningson, Durham, Richardson, and Hart.
                                                                   , Pensacola, Fla. Novnember, 1973.
    31. Letter from H. A. Griffith, District Engineer to L. A.
       Hunsley dated September 2, 1971.
                                                                 49. Minutes-West Florida Regional Planning Council Water
                                                                     Quality Management Plan for Escambia and Santa Rosa
    32. Letter from C. G. Mauriello (FAWPC) to J. E. Ravyon,          Counties, Fla. Final Public Hearing in Conjunction with
       Regional Administrator, EPA, dated November 2, 1971;          Florida Department of Pollution Control. Thursday,
       letter from E. P. Lomasney, EPA Region IV to L. A,            May 23, 1974.
       Hunsley dated December 14, 1971.
                                                                 50. Letter from W. E. Tisdale to County Commissioners
    33. Letter from V. D. Patton (DPC) to J. E. Ravon, Regional       dated July 22, 1970.
       Administrator EPA, Region IV, dated September 21,
       1972.  '     :  R                                         51. Minutes-Meeting of August 6, 1970; Escambia County
                                                                     Pollution Advisory Committee in County Commission
    34. Letter from J. E. Ravyon (EPA, Atlanta) to V. D. Patton       Chambers, Escambia County Courthouse.
        (DPC) dated October 4, 1972.
                                                                 52. Letter Progress Report from C. A. Lowery to Chairman,
    35. Letter from W. A, Rosenkrenz, EPA, Washington, to             Board of County Commissioners, dated September 5,
       L. A. Hunsley, dated February 9, 1973.                        1970.

    36. News Journal Editorials of December 29, 1968, March    53. Minutes of Meeting of the Board of County Commis-
       30, 1969, April 13, 1969, and June 22, 1969.                  sioners held Friday, December 4, 1970 with enclosures.

    37. Minutes-West Florida Natural Resources Council-           54. Letter from T. S. Hopkins to County Commissioners
       Organizational Meeting, Pensacola, Fla. June 27, 1969.        dated December 16, 1970.

    38. West Florida NaturalResources Council, Executive Com-    55. Letter from C. G. Mauriello, FDAWPC to Chairman
       mittee Minutes, Pensacola, Fla. July 30, 1969.                Lane dated April 28, 1971.

    39. Minutes-West  Florida Natural  Resources  Council,    56. ACOP Recommendations 13, 14, 15 dated May 27, 1971.
       Pensacola, Fla. August 15, 1969.
                                                                 57. Report of Investigations into Pollution of Pensacola
    40. Minutes-Escambia-Santa 'Rosa Water Pollution Task             Area Waters. Florida State Board of Health Bureau of
       Force of the West Florida Natural Resources Council,          Sanitary  Engineering,  Northwest  Florida  Regional
       October 8, 1969.                                              Office Pensacola, May 19, 1969.

    41. UWF News Release dated May 20, 1970-data taken    58. Memorandum to FWPCA  Files from Howard Zeller,
       from draft approved by Gamma College Provost, A. B.           Water Quality Standards Coordinator, Southeast Region,
       Chaet who was Professor Edmisten's Provost.                   dated May 23, 1969.

    42. West Florida Natural Resources Council Executive Com-    59. News Journal, Page iC, December 1, 1974.

    THE ROLE OF THE PUBLIC
    IN TEXAS ESTUARY PROTECTION

    VERNON SMYLIE
    Public Relations Consultant
    Corpus Christi, Texas

                ABSTRACT
                The projected superport inside the South Texas bay system at Harbor Island, near Corpus
                Christi, stirred public indignation to a high level. Here is the way the people of South Texas
                reacted-and the methods they used to make their voices heard.

    INTRODUCTION                                         one-fourth (26.5 percent) of all crude oil refining in
                                                         the United States is in Texas. Texas refines more
      The Texas coast is, historically, the most unap-    crude oil than the total amount refined in California
    preciated part of Texas.                              and Louisiana, the second and third ranking states.
      Texas is land, lots of land-267,339 square miles    More than 35 percent of the proved natural gas
    which form a highly individualistic link between the   reserves in the United States are in Texas. Both agri-
    Old South and the Rockies and between the Great    culture and ranching are multi-billion-dollar annual
    Plains of the Midwest and the subtropics of the   businesses. Texas usually leads all states in producing
    U.S.-Mexico border. It is more than 800 straight-line   cattle, sheep, lambs, goats, cotton, and grain sor-
    miles from the northwest corner of the Texas pan-   ghums. It competes with Louisiana for first position
    handle to the southernmost curl of the Rio Grande    in rice growing.
    below Brownsville. The east-west distance from the      Today, the mythical concept of Texas and Texans
    broadest bend of the Sabine River to the pointed tip   remains rooted to the wide open spaces despite the
    above El Paso is almost as great.                    fact that Texas has become one of the most urbanized
      If all states were as big as Texas, there would be    of all states, powered not by rugged individualism
    only 13 states. There is room enough in Texas for   but by big-dollar economics and a prosperity-nur-
    220 states the size of Rhode Island or six states the   tured growth mania. In 1940-barely a generation
    size of New York. The largest of Texas' 254 counties    ago-Texas had a population of 6,414,824 and was
    is almost as big as New Jersey. If a state were    predominantly rural. By 1970, the population had
    molded to the same size and shape as Texas and    grown to 11,749,100, and four of every five Texans
    placed directly east of Texas, it would reach 35 miles    (79.7 percent) lived in urban areas. There are 24
    into the Atlantic Ocean beyond St. Augustine, Fla.   standard metropolitan areas in Texas-approximate-
    A state cut from the Texas pattern and located   ly 10 percent of the United States' total. There are
    directly west of Texas would extend 160 miles into   two Texas metropolitan areas among the top 20 in
    the Pacific Ocean beyond San Diego, Calif. Texas   the United States and 10 Texas cities have popula-
    above itself would come within 50 miles of the Cana-   tions of 100,000 or more. Six metropolitan areas are
    dian border. Beaumont, some 25 miles west of the   on the Texas coastal plain, including three cities
    Louisiana border, is nearer to Sarasota, Fla., than    with 100,000-plus population.
    it is to El Paso. And El Paso is nearer to Los Angeles,  In the 1920s, Houston advertised itself as the
    Calif., than it is to Beaumont. Dalhart, at the top of   place "where 17 railways meet the sea." The slogan
    the Texas panhandle, is closer to Pocatello, Idaho,    was right on target. Galveston, with its island loca-
    and Billings, Mont., than to Brownsville.            tion and natural harbor, had dominated shipping and
      Texas is crops and cattle and mineral wealth-and    commerce on the upper Texas coast for decades. In
    all the economic, manufacturing, industrial, and    1914, Houston was handed its chance to emerge
    metropolitan muscle such broad-based elements of   commercially when a ship channel was dredged from
    prosperity can be expected to produce. For 38 con-   the Gulf of Mexico inward across Galveston Bay
    secutive years Texas has been No. 1 among the    and up Buffalo Bayou. Galveston had the better
    states in mineral output. It is first in petroleum   location but Houston had the better connections
    production and first in petroleum refining. More than    with inland points. The ship channel, it turned out,

                                                                                                       581

    582                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    compounded the Houston growth impact by provid-    quadrupled its population since 1940. The deepwater
    ing a settling strip for industries with a need for deep-    urge so possessed Brownsville that a channel was
    water dockage and plant space.                        fashioned across a tidal prairie for a distance of
      The ecological atrocities, both along coastlines   nearly 20 miles, creating the illusion that ships,
    and across inland expanses, can be traced historically    somehow, were crossing unbroken grazing land.
    to the frontier concept that mankind and the en-    Point Comfort, in Calhoun County, likewise became
    vironment are natural adversaries. The concept was    a deepwater port, and Galveston County, without
    an implied part of the manifest destiny credo that    space for industrial expansion on Galveston Island,
    the land was there to be conquered and used and not    settled for industrialization, with deepwater access,
    necessarily understood. The shaky status of civiliza-    on the nearby mainland at Texas City.
    tion on the front fringe of the advance across the      The Texas coastline, by its dimensions and con-
    North American continent gave impetus to this   struction, accommodates economic and urban ex-
    fundamental concept. If the inlands or the shoreline   ploitation. It is a long coastline--a great arc reaching
    were respected, the degree of respect was measured    367 miles from the Sabine River on the Louisiana
    by the degree of hazard imposed by the environment    border to the United States-Mexico boundary at the
    and not by the environment's intrinsic worth. It was    mouth of the Rio Grande. The coastline meanders
    only when mankind achieved a stranglehold on the    mightily, following the contours of countless bays
    environment and began converting conquest to ex-   sealed from the splash of the Gulf of Mexico by a
    cesses that the need to live in harmony with environ-    chain of narrow islands and peninsulas. If the Texas
    mental resources came into focus.                     coast is measured by every twist and turn of the
      Texas, rich in land and rich in both surface and    shoreline, its length is 624 miles.
    subsurface resources, has grown by the frontier ethic   The Mississippi River and its tributaries form a
    of environmental conquest and has prospered hand-    gigantic funnel which drains the entire national
    somely. Houston has raised itself from its humble    heartland, diminishes the rivers of the Deep South,
    beginning as a shaky real estate promotion with a    and furnishes a flow that dominates and shapes the
    political hue to become one of the great cities of the    Louisiana coast. Texas, for the most part, is outside
    world. Currently, Houston is the sixth largest city   the Mississippi basin and beyond its influence. In-
    in the United States. By the start of the 21st cen-   stead of being beholden to a single river system, the
    tury, just 25 years away, it easily could rank second    Texas coast is fed primarily by eight river systems,
    only to New York. Already its position as one of the   most of which empty into bay systems of some
    nation's four great anchor cities-New York in the    complexity. The bay systems are, in one fashion or
    east, Los Angeles on the west coast, Chicago in the    another, connected to the gulf by inlets between
    north-center position, and Houston in the south-   islands and peninsulas.
    center-is assured. Nearly 400 corporations now          The Texas coastal islands and peninsulas actually
    make their headquarters in Houston and Buffalo    are barrier bars-the work of waves which break on
    Bayou is as busy as Main Street as ocean-going    the continental shelf. The shelf reaches miles offshore
    tankers and cargo vessels move to and from the    and follows the contour of the mainland in a rather
    docks of industrial installations crowded along its   irregular fashion. Because the water above the shelf
    banks all the way to open water. Channel dockage    is relatively shallow, the waves scrape bottom, break,
    space is so much in demand that branch channels are    and cast their load of sand particles forward. The
    being shaped into the mainland to meet the require-   sand deposits build into bars which eventually grow
    ments of still greater industrial development.        into islands. Tidal inlets form where water breaks
      Houston is not the sum of it all, but the Houston    across the barrier bars in times of storm. Accumula-
    growth saga has been an inspiring certification of   tions of marsh grass and silt between the bars and
    the conquest concept for other communities along    the mainland, where bays and lagoons run thin,
    the Texas coast. Deepwater channels invariably    turn some islands to peninsulas. There is evidence
    attract industry and, at least during the free-wheeling    that some mainland ridges were prehistoric barrier
    fifties, engendered dreams of million-plus popula-   islands which established total links with the existing
    tions. Corpus Christi, reached by  a deepwater    land mass.
    channel in the late 1920s, bounced from 16th to 6th     The estuarine settings of the Texas coast-where
    place among Texas cities between 1940 and 1950.   river flow and the wash of the gulf have achieved a
    Jefferson County, with upstream deepwater at Port    delicate balance-have proved attractive to settle-
    Arthur and Beaumont, rose into the top half-dozen    ment and, as already indicated, handy for industrial
    Texas counties in population by 1960. Brazoria    and urban exploitation. The inlets from the gulf are
    County, with deepwater at Freeport, has more than    easily pierced to create deepwater channels. The

                                              THE PUBLIC'S ROLE                                           583

    rivers offer sources of freshwater attractively con-    pronounced the bayou's flow to be 80 percent sewage.
    trolled by dam construction. Every stream is a po-    In 1967, Dr. Joseph L. Melnick of the Baylor Uni-
    tential channel and every river mouth has possibili-   versity Medical School examined the bayou's water
    ties as 'a turning' basin. From the vast surface re-   in downtown Houston-long before it reached the
    sources  of Texas  come  fodder  for  ocean-going    ship channel area-and found what he calculated to
    freighters. Mineral resources provide the crude oil   be enough viruses to infect 77 million persons per
    which makes possible coastal refining complexes,    hour. "It's just plain sewer water," Dr. Melnick, a
    and natural gas provides power for plants which    virology expert, said. "You shouldn't bathe in this
    broaden the industrial productive base.                 water. You shouldn't even get it on your skin. You
      Not every community along the Texas coast can    shouldn't have anything to do with it." Four years
    have deep water. There just are not enough inlets   later--in June 1971-two of Houston's sewage plants
    from the gulf to turn the deepwater dream into    were discharging 103 million gallons of unchlori-
    every town's reality. For those who must settle for    nated waste into Buffalo Bayou each day.
    less, there is the Intracoastal Canal, which cuts         Galveston Bay, of course, is paying the price of
    across protected waters and marshlands of the land-    such wanton pollution. A large part of the estuary
    locked bays and lagoons all the way up the Texas    has been closed to shellfish harvesting because of the
    coast. The Intracoastal Canal continues across the    bacterial pollution from raw and unchlorinated
    southern swamps of Louisiana to the Mississippi    sewage. Fish kills attributable to both urban and
    River and coastal points to the east. Harlingen and    industrial pollution are common. Fish deformities
    Victoria, both on the coastal plain but a few miles    are becoming more apparent. And the bay-the
    removed from coastal bays, have settled for barge    prime recreation center for Houstonians for many
    canals. Raymondville, likewise removed, has built    years-now is shunned as unfit for swimming, fishing,
    Port Mansfield on the shore of Texas' southernmost    and other water pleasures. The bayshore, once lined
    lagoon and has engineered a barge channel through    with piers and boat stalls, has little more than a
    the center of Padre Island to the gulf. Even Dallas,    scattering of battered posts sticking from its dis-
    some 200 miles removed from the gulf, dreams of a    colored waters as reminders of happier days.
    coastal connection by turning the Trinity River into     'The prospects of bringing Galveston Bay back to
    an elongated barge canal.                              a healthy condition are, at best, poor. The Trinity
     The Texas shrimp and fish business is a multi-    River canal project still hangs around, threatening
    million-dollar enterprise, but so great is the industrial    the bay's most significant source of freshwater and
    overshadow that commercial fishing hardly isvisible.    hazarding, by inundation, prime estuarine marsh-
    Tourism is a late arrival, primarily because the    lands. Thermal pollution-the tampering with water
    economy already had plenty to go on. Yet despite    temperature in the bay-is being posed by electric
    industrial overkill, municipal malfeasance, official   generating plants. A proposed dyke-and-levee sys-
    neglect, and public indifference, Texas' estuarine    tern threatens tidal flow from the gulf. But while the
    resources still are sufficiently substantial to fight    prospects of making Galveston Bay a recoverable
    for-and people by the thousands are becoming a-    resource fade, there is grassroots reaction in Hous-
    ware of that fact.                                     ton, at Wallisville, and, especially significantly, at
                                                          Corpus Christi.
                                                            Before it reaches sewage stations and the long
    THE PUBLIC STEPS IN                                     chain of industrial waste outlets, Buffalo Bayou
                                                          meanders through ritzy River Oaks, a residential
      Houston, as a city, is a shining example of urban    area ranking with the finest anywhere in the United
    success. The way Houston has treated its access    States.
    to the Texas coast is less than exemplary. It is          The benign little bayou forms part of the setting-
    frightening.            i                              and its value in its natural state is recognized by
      Buffalo Bayou originates west of Houston, passes    wealthy  homeowners  as well as public-interest
    through the city, widens into a turning basin and    conservationists. In 1971, a plan was developed to
    channel, then winds its way eastward to the northern    straighten the bayou channel in the name of flood
    niche of Galveston Bay. The bay is one of the largest   control.' Thus was born The Bayou Preservation
    estuarine areas along the Texas coast, gathering, in    Association, an alliance of property owners and
    addition, the waters of the San Jacinto and Trinity    environmentalists who  mounted a full-scale op-
    rivers.                                                position program and went public. The flood control
      Buffalo Bayou must be the filthiest stream in the    project was stopped, and, perhaps most significant of
    world. Years ago an investigator for Harris County  -all, the Association gathered the support of the Harris

    584                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    County Soil and Water Conservation District, the        The gulf waters surging along the south side of
    Flood and Drainage Committee of the Houston    Harbor Island move into Corpus Christi Bay, then
    Chamber of Commerce, and the Houston Builders    into Nueces Bay, Laguna Madre, and Baffin Bay.
    Association in seeking an officially acceptable corn-   The Nueces River system and a variety of smaller
    prehensive plan for flood-plain management in the    streams match the flow from the mainland. The sea-
    Houston area.                                         water flow through Harbor Island nourishes Redfish
      The achievement, in itself, was modest, and, for   Bay. Along Harbor Island's north side, the Lydia
    many of those involved, it was self-serving. But it   Ann Channel carries water from the gulf to Aransas,
    was a forward step in coping with the Buffalo Bayou    Copano, Port, St. Charles, San Antonio, and Hynes
    problem-a foot-in-the-door move toward bigger    bays. The estuarine balance in the latter bays is
    things in the somewhat belated effort to attach value    maintained by the flow of the  Guadalupe-San
    to the quality of a clean stream and a healthy estu-   Antonio river system and the lesser Aransas and
    ary.                                                  Mission rivers.
      An attempt to stop construction and operation of      There already is a deepwater channel from the
    the Wallisville Dam on the lower reaches of the    gulf through the San Jose-Mustang inlet. It courses
    Trinity River still hangs in legal limbo, but the mere    south of Harbor Island across Corpus Christi Bay
    fact that such a step was taken and was treated    to the Corpus Christi metropolitan area. A fork of the
    with credence in the courts is noteworthy.            channel-also deep enough to accommodate ocean-
      The Wallisville project, which would dam the    going vessels-attaches itself to the industrialized
    Trinity at a point where the river flows into that    north shore of Corpus Christi Bay for a short dis-
    part of Galveston Bay known as Trinity Bay, Would    tance.
    create a shallow lake over nearly 13,000 acres of       The  Harbor  Island superport would provide
    marine nursery grounds. While it would stop the    dockage for medium-sized VLCCs-the so-called
    movement of salt water up the Trinity channel, it   supertankers designed to carry million-barrel crude
    also would adversely affect the flow of freshwater   oil cargoes from distant ports. The superport plan
    into the bay.                                         is sponsored by the Nueces  County Navigation
      'The suit was brought by two individuals joined'by    District No. 1 and enjoys the support of most of the
    various environmental groups, including the Houston    community's  powerful  industrial  interests  and
    Sportsmen's Club, the Texas Shrimp Association,    certain vocal segments of the Corpus Christi business
    the Environmental Protection Fund, the Houston    establishment. To construct such a facility would
    Audubon Society, and both the national organization    necessitate substantial widening of the San Jose-
    and the Houston Chapter of the Sierra Club. The    Mustang inlet, fashioning of a super turning basin
    suit is based on the premise that the Wallisville    where inflow waters make their three-way separation
    project isrelated, in its implications, to the channeli-   into the various bays, cutting of berthing space into
    zation of the Trinity to Dallas-and that the en-   Harbor Island, relocating of the shallow channel
    vironmental implications of such wholesale tamper-    through Harbor Island to Redfish Bay, and dredging
    ing with one of Texas' more significant streams have    of the inlet, turning basin area, and berthing area to
    not been fully assessed. Win or lose, the Wallisville    a water depth of more than 72 feet.
    Dam foes are sure to give heart to others who would     The proposed superport provoked what The Cor-
    undertake other fights to halt assaults on Texas    pus Christi Caller described as "The Battle of Harbor
    estuaries. They already have-as is evidenced in the    Island, 1973 Style." The Coastal Bend Conservation
    pitched battle to stop the construction of a superport    Association assumed the lead role, supported by the
    lat Harbor Island, a marshy triangle of land inside    San Antonio-based Committee to Save Our Texas
    the Texas island chain near Corpus Christi.           Beaches and Bays. The opposition began forming in
                                                         mid-August, 1973, The showdown dates were Sep-
                                                         tember 19-20-the appointed time for a public
    THE HARBOR ISLAND BATTLE
                                                         hearing before the U.S. Engineers in Corpus Christi.
      Harbor Isand is located just inside San Jose and      The results of the hearing were not conclusive, of
    Mustang islands. The waters which move through    course. But the month-long effort by conservation-
    Aransas Pass, the inlet from the gulf between San    ists to muster and consolidate public support added
    Jose and Mustang, break against the eastern point    a blueprint for future action by environmentalists.
    of Harbor Island and surge along its sides and through  The superport opponents began with a sound basis
    a shallow channel in its center into a system of 11   for opposition. There was a plausible alternative:
    bays that form the shoreline of the southern half of   the monobuoy. A monobuoy system would provide
    the Texas coast.                                      for the unloading of the big tankers far out in the

                                                 TiE PrUBLIC'S ROL,                                               585

    gulf, through the use of hoses attached at the water    Austin, Tex., and contained this comment: "Estab-
    surface to floating buoys and at the gulf floor to    lishment of a major oil depot with very large tankers
    underground pipelines leading to shore. Monobuoys          coming into the Aransas Pass area will increase the
    would, eliminate the need for an onshore port-and    oil pollution because some leakage, spillage, and
    they could be expected to be more than theoretically    escape is unavoidable . . ."
    effective. More than 100 monobuoy systems are in              One of the strongest statements was found in
    use around the world. Some have been in use since    "Offshore Terminal Systems Concepts," prepared
    1959.                                                      by Soros Associates, Inc., of New York for the U.S.
      Furthermore, it turned out, the monobuoy system    Department of Commerce Maritime Administration.
    had strong support and the dredging approach had    The statement read:
    outspoken critics in official circles. No less an author-
    ity than the U.S. Corps of Engineers-the agency                 The traditional coastal port consists of entrance chan-
    holding the hearing-had expressed itself this way               nels, anchorage areas, turning basins, and shoreside
                                                                  terminal  berths... Many  existing port  structures
    in a June 1973, report entitled "Report on Gulf                 would be undermined by further dredging. As bulk
    Coast Deepwater Port Facilities in Texas, Louisiana,            carrier depth requirements reach 60 to 100 feet, the
    Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida': Of the three                practical limitations of the traditional port will have
                                                                  long been exceeded for practically all the existing
    facility  systems  investigated-dredged  channels,              primary bulk cargo ports, particularly on the Atlantic
    artificial islands, and monobuoys-the monobuoy                  and Gulf coasts. The problems of turning and handling
                                                                  these large vessels within the traditional port confines
    system is the most economically and environmentally             will become dangerous even if dredged channels and
    feasible."                                                      basins could otherwise handle the deep drafts. Dredging
      Speaking specifically of the Texas Coastal Bend-              beyond 50 feet in depth would be very difficult to justify
                                                                  both economically and environmentally.
    the area centered around Harbor Island-the Corps
    added: "This zone supports active commercial and
    sport fisheries and represents a significant recrea-          The office of the Governor of Texas provided two
    tional region whose utility could be diminished by a    general comments  in  "Texas  Coastal Resources
    deep port development in the area .. ."                    Management Program," a comprehensive report to
      A  report entitled "Environmental Aspects of a    Interagency Council on Natural Resources and the
    Supertanker Port on the Texas Gulf Coast," pub-    Environment. The comments:
    lished in December.1972, by Texas A & M Univer-
    sity, contained this statement                  i               Bays and estuarine areas are irreplaceable resources
                                                                  essential to more than 70 percent of all marine organ-
                                                                  isms...
        In addition to the first cost aspects of channel deepening,
        other considerations which, when taken in toto, appear     ... it is recommended that the State of Texas and its
        to rule out this approach as an alternative to the offshore  citizens ...  prohibit the sale or lease of State-owned
        port, include such things as annual maintenance costs       wetlands for development except where essential to
        and environmental impacts other than those associated      fulfill some definite human need and where no feasible
        with disposal of-dredge spoil ...                           alternative exists.

                                                                Thus armed with significant opinion, the Harbor
      The  U.S. Army  Engineer  Institute for Wathaner A sIsland superport opponents put their position to a
    Resources had retained Robert R. Nathan Associ-
                      tesncs hd WeasineRonr   . Ntoar roc    public test. On Labor Day weekend, circulars en-
       ates, In., of Washington D.C., to prepare a report    titled "Save Our Beaches, Save Our Bays" were
    entitled "U.S. Deepwater Port Study" in August
    1972 entitled "U.S. Deepwater Port Study" in August    passed out to motorists pulled to a stop on Harbor
                                                             .Island to await ferry movement to the Mustang
                                                              Island community of Port Aransas. The circulars
         Dredging and spoil disposal for deepwater ports, if re-    explained that a plan was afoot to build a superport
        sorted to on a massive and extensive scale, could create
        environmental problems almost equal to those of pe-    on Harbor Island, then added:
        troleum spills ... However, for the most part, offshore
        facilities requiring limited or no dredging offer an eco-
        nomic, and environmentally less-destructive alternative    A suprport on Harbor Island would require a channel
                                                                  almost three times as wide and nearly twice as deep as
        for crude 7?etroleum imports . . .       :   :the present inlet from the Gulf of Mexico.

      The  Texas  Environmental  Coalition  focused                 The cost would be enormous. The flood danger from
                                                                  tidal surges, particularly during hurricanes, would
    directly on the proposed Harbor Island, project with            constitute a tremendous risk to lives and property. Un-
    "A Statement Concerning Deepwater Port Location                 controlled oil spills could blacken a half-dozen bays,
    in the Corpus Christi, Texas, Area." The statement              ruin our island marine ie d ds immeasurable damage to
                                                                  bird and marine life, and  destroy a  multi-million-dollar
    was drawn by Espey, Huston, and Associates of                   tourist and recreation area.

    586                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

        Don't let anybody fool you-there is no way to control   only  medium-sized  supertankers.  Ships  almost
        a tidal wave and no fool-proof way to stop the spread   twice that large already are under construction and
                                                          still larger vessels are being planned.
        And don't let anybody tell you that a superport inside  2. The Harbor Island Superport Limits Our.:Econ-
        the Texas island chain is necessary to support the Texas  c Benefits
        economy or to provide jobs. It isn't necessary. The U.S.
        Engineers have made analyses which show that an    they can't unload. If they can't unload, we lose
        offshore terminal in the Gulf of Mexico would cost less   economically. An offshore monobuoy system would
        and accomplish the same purpose.                   make possible the discharging of crude oil from
                                                          supertankers of all sizes.
      The message urged anyone interested in stopping        3. The Harbor Island Superport Has an Unsigned
    the Harbor Island superport project to sign a coupon    Price Tag. If a 72-foot channel can be dredged, will
    on the bottom of each circular. The response was    we then be asked to dig it deeper for bigger ships?
    tremendous. By the end of the 3-day holiday period,    How will the channel be maintained? What will be
    some 4,000 persons had read, signed, and returned    the final cost? Who'll pay the bill? Why haven't these
    the circulars. More than 1,500 other signatures were    questions been answered?
    gathered, mainly in Corpus Christi, prior to the          4.HarborIslandWillPutUsBehindintheSuper-
    September 19-20 hearing.                               port Race. The construction of an inland superport
      A  major newspaper advertising campaign was    is a mammoth, slow process. The Caller-Times of
    mounted. A dramatic three-color, two-page display    August 26, 1973 stated that officials have estimated
    featuring a map showing the proposed Harbor Island    results of the Harbor Island feasibility study "may
    superport location and projecting the possible con-    not be available for up to three years." Construction
    sequences of a major oil spill in the port area was the    then could require an even longer period of time,
    starter. The advertisement was captioned: "'Are    pushing the completion date to 1979 or later. If the
    You Willing to Pay This Price for a Superport on    Seadock monobuoy is put into operation up the
    Harbor Island?" The price, of course, was the pos-    Texas coast at Freeport in 1976, we could find our
    sible saturation of the bay and estuary areas with    area three or more years behind in superport develop-
    crude oil.                                             ment
      The authoritative quotations cited above were put      5. Harbor Island Is a Throwback to Isolated Port
    together in a full-page blockbuster with this caption:    Planning. The energy crisis is a national concern.
    "Before You Let Anybody Talk You Into Believing    So is the docking of supertankers. That's why coast-
    the Harbor Island Superport Would Be Good for   wide port systems have been studied so carefully.
    Corpus Christi and the Texas Coastal Bend, Read    The attempt to force isolated consideration of Har-
    These Findings." The advertisement, like the cir-   bor Island as a superport site is a step backward in
    culars, contained a coupon for opposition signatures.    port planning.
      The next advertisement made it clear that there        6. Harbor Island Endangers Our Entire Bay
    was an alternative to the Harbor Island superport.    System. The inlet between St. Joseph and Mustang
    The heading stated:                                    islands is the prime source of fresh seawater for our
                                                           entire Coastal Bend bay system. The system in-
         Can Corpus Christi Have                            eludes San Antonio, Copano, St. Charles, Aransas,
        The Benefits of a Superport                        Redfish, Nueces, Corpus Christi, and a dozen smaller
        Without Jeopardizing Our                           bays, plus the Laguna Madre. A superport directly
        Beaches and Bays?                                  inside the inlet would be a pollution nightmare. It's
         It Certainly Can--If                               hard to imagine a more damaging superport site.
         The Port Is Built in the Gulf                        7. Imagine the Effects of a Harbor Island Oil
         Instead of on Harbor Island.                       Spill! An uncontrolled crude oil spill at a superport
                                                           on Harbor Island could blacken our beaches and
                                                           bays, endanger bird and marine life, and destroy a
      The pro-monobuoy statements by the U.S. Engi-    multi-million-dollar  tourist and  recreation area.
      neers thwere prominently displayed, 10 reasons wh  the    Let no one fool you-there is no foolproof way to
      As the hearing date neared, 10 reasons why the
                                                           control a big oil spill.
    Harbor Island superport should be opposed were                                             Multi-Danger
    offered:                                                  8. The Harbor Island Superport Is a Multi-Danger
                                                           Plan. The danger of ship collisions and groundings
       1. The Harbor Island Superport Plan Already Is   hangs over any plan to build an inland superport.
    Obsolete. A  superport inside our bay system at    An explosion could turn a supership loaded with
    Harbor Island, as proposed, would accommodate    crude oil or liquified gas into a gigantic floating

                                         THE PuBLIC'S ROLF,                              587

    AreYou illing tolPay This Pice         ,               un   ~~oim

    For the Harbor Island Superport?    /II    UE

                       Before You bet flnvbody
                       Talk You Into Believing                  BtWNWhimU nbw" -,S.~
                       The Harbor Island Superport        I    joh~.
                       Would Be Good for Corpus Chrsti        0 -.f1
                       find thMexas Coastal Bend              OwT, Ifowli -u.uk.1
                       Read These Findings:                 &.

                                                                                  Lw.Out, %gs.
                                                             -~~~~~o' I M A          UEPR

                                   ~~  AN    - -. - - - --_             IGN ERE -

                                                  !!AMME~~~~~~~~~T ADOM70  'w :    VA ,",
                       INSITT  M. AERRSURCES 9T

                                     ~~~----.IILLTUSTRATION                     2

    58E'8                                ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                                          page newspaper advertisement with these instruc-
        leE sHearFomelheYoul]PeopIe.                      tions:
                                                              Here's What You Can Do To Stop the Harbor
        We'llI Awad $100 to theeStdent                        Island Superport--
        WhoWpites the Best 250-WoPd bJettep                   Go to the U.S. Engineers' hearing at 6:30 p.m.
        �elIIW1RaOV OUiM P GoastaI Beaches                    Thursday at Roy Miller High School Audi-
                                                              torium ..,
        Alnd Baps should Be SavedP                            to     ..
        'he Ravraes of a -Speppopt                            Speak out at the hearing to save our beaches
                                                              and bays by keeping the superport outside our
        On Hapbop Island.                                     Coastal Bend bay system.

                                                            An advertisement-also displayed on a full-page
                                                          scale-urged: "Let's Hear From the Young People."
                                                          It offered, in the name of the Coastal Bend Con-
                                                          servation Association, a prize of $100 to the student
       SIX PRIZES                                         writing the best 250-word letter "telling why our
                                                          coastal beaches andbays should be saved from the
                                                          ravages of a superport on Harbor Island." There
                                                          was a second-place prize of $50 and four other prizes
                                                          of $25 each. The contest was open to any student at
                                                          any level-elementary, junior high, high school, or
                                                          college-at any school or educational institution in
                                                          the Corpus Christi area.
                                                            Each letter had to begin with the words: "I op-
                                                          pose a superport on Harbor Island because..."
                                                          There were more than 100 responses.
                                                            As the hearing approached, The Corpus Christi
      SacweOur' actqChe5sl ~SceOuraB~Cqs ~                Caller summarized the situation in a lengthy article
      T eOEM' e  S ..... C. -T. EN ... .As..              published September 16. The article listed the pros
                                                          and cons of the Harbor Island superport as follows:
                      ILLUSTRATION 4
                                                              PROS:
    bomb. There also is a real danger to life and property     Economic bost.
    from tidal surges caused by channel widening and
    deepening to accommodate supertankers.                     Decrease shi numbers (not tonnage)ry.
                                                              Decrease ship numbers (not tonnage).
      9. Harbor Island Will Blight Our Existing Econ-          Channel will stabilize bay system
    omy. A superport inside our coastal islands will de-
    face landforms with dredged spoil and pollute bay          Help ease fuel crisis.
    waters. It is bound to strike a solid blow to sport
    fishing, commercial fishing, bird life, tourism, and       CONS:
    our own enjoyment of our environment. The cost in
    dollars will run into millions: The cost that can't be     Destroy fish, shrimp and crab nursery grounds.
    measured in dollars will be staggering.                    Dredging and spoil disposal harm.
      10. All Major Studies Favor Offshore Superport           Oil spill danger.
    Plans. The only thing new about superport planning         Increased flood threat from hurricanes.
    is the high-pressure attempt to force the building of      Expense of channel maintenance.
    a superport on Harbor Island. Major studies con-           Demand  on land, water, air resources from
    ducted by and for federal and state agencies con-          secondary development.
    cerned with superport development favor offshore
    ports far out in the gulf.                               Port officials, the article stated, claim "the eco-
                                                          nomical advantages of a landlocked inshore port
      The 10-point broadside was contained in a full-   situated inside the Aransas Pass Bar far offset any

                                             THE PUBLIC'S ROLE                                            589

    possible ecological or environmental damage that   fish. The Aransas Pass Channel is a bottleneck for
    might occur to the Corpus Christi Bay area."            migrations in and out of the bays, he said, and thus
      But, the article added, "environmentalists main-    the most sensitive area in the coastal system. "Little
    tain that construction of the port in estuarine areas    shrimp use certain clues to enter the estuaries from
    will destroy valuable marine nursery grounds which    the gulf. Tidal and salinity changes resulting from
    are important for the preservation of gulf fisheries.    a deeper channel would affect the migration pattern,'
    They also argue that port development will inevita-    he warned.
    bly lead to further industrialization that, would         Dr. Charles Holmes of the Office of Marine Ge-
    decrease the quality of the area's environment."        ology, U.S. Geological Survey, said: "The feeling
      The article, in its own right, pointed out that    among geologists is that the channel will fill in, but
    "more than 3,000 acres of land are estimated to be    at a rate not known. The question should be in-
    needed for facility construction. Much of thisrland is   vestigated."
    shallow and vegetated, functioning as nursery and         The hearing before the U.S. Corps of Engineers
    feeding grounds for marine organisms and birds.    opened before a full house. The Miller High School
    Ninety-five percent of commercial fish species are    Auditorium was packed-both the main level and
    said to be dependent on estuarine areas." It also   the balcony. In the lobby, environmentalists passed
    cited the fact that Ernest Simmons, coastal fisheries    out "Save Our Beaches, Save Our Bays" bumper
    supervisor for the Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart-    stickers.  Outside,  a  king-sized billboard trailer
    ment, pointed out that construction of the deepwater    attached to an automobile carried an easily under-
    port would immediately destroy many  acres of    stood message. It stated: "Stop the Superport."
    prime spawning and nursery grounds for sea trout,         Edward C. Fritz of Dallas, chairman of the Texas
    redfish, flounder, blue crabs, and shrimp. "The    Committee on'Natural Resources and a leader in the
    deepwater port would thus affect adversely a multi-    Wallisville battle, testified: '"The development plan
    million dollar fishing industry. We would also lose   for a multi-purpose deep draft inshore port near
    feeding grounds for waterfowl and other birds,"    Port Aransas as presented by the Nueces County
    Simmons was quoted as saying.                           Navigation District is environmentally unsound. To
      Rudy Martinez, a biologist with Parks and Wild-    construct the necessary deep draft access channels
    life, and John G. Degani, field supervisor with the    alone could seriously alter the balance of nature in
    Division of River Basin Studies in the U.S. Bureau    the area. Any ecological modifications necessary to
    of Sports Fisheries and Wildlife, concurred with    build and maintain a superport complex would have
    Simmons in print. Martinez was quoted as saying:    a serious and far reaching impact on the biosphere of
    "We are slowly losing our nursery grounds in this bay    an area. This particular plan threatens to wreak
    system as industry is coming in and people are build-   total havoc on the especially delicate and complex
    ing. The Harbor Island development would cut down    natural interrelationships in the-Port Aransas region.
    on the amount of nursery grounds available for    Thus serious consideration should be given to the
    organisms." Most marine life spends some part of   denial of a permit for this scheme. Indeed, serious
    its life cycle in these areas, Martinez added.          consideration needs to be given to the question of
       Dr. Henry Hildebrand, of the Department of   whether or not any superport ought to be constructed
    Biology  at  Texas  A & I  University-Kingsville,    at all in the Corpus area. One for Texas should be
    claimed publicly that the tremendous' amount of   sufficient, and there are other areas with greater ad-
    spoil created by the dredging activities would keep    vantages to Texas and the nation."
    the water turbid for months. "The fine clay sedi-         Jake Powers, a petroleum consultant, told the
    ments would create a turbidity off Port Aransas    gathering: "The Nueces County area is indeed for-
    which would have serious impact on sports fishery.    tunate in having a majority of its income derived
    The fisherman will have, to go much farther out to    from the petroleum industry ... In fact many of us
    find the fish," the biologist said, Hildebrand said    depend on petroleum in one facet or another as our
    that besides the initial turbidity caused by the    basic income, We look forward to additional oil and
    dredging, runoff from spoil disposal areas would have    the income it might bring. We do, however, feel like a
    adverse consequences. "Draining from disposal areas    superport would not benefit this area as well as an
    of the colloidal clay .sediments "which would be    offshore terminal or monobuoy plan."
    dredged up could adversely affect the organisms in   - Yancey White-an attorney who is a graduate of
     Redfish Bay and possibly cover up the grass-flats,"    the United States Merchant Marine Academy, a
    he stated.         -                      - '   '      veteran of the United States Navy, and a former
       Hildebrand also commented that the 72-foot chan-    ship's  officer  in  the  United  States  Merchant
    nel would profoundly affect the bay production of    Marine-pointed out that the secondary purpose of

    590                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    the proposed Harbor Island superport was to load            The  unnecessary  dredging of a deep-draft
    bulk carriers with grain for foreign shipment. "The         superport on Harbor Island for the unloading
    hard evidence does not support the proposition that         of crude oil from supertankers will deface the
                                                              island itself, pollute our bays, endan ger our
    a bulk loading facility for grain at Harbor Island          island itself, pollute our bays,    anger our
                                              to the Port of   commercial and sports fishing, and destroy
    would be of any substantial benefit to the Port of          our recreational and tourist attractions.
    Corpus Christi," White testified. "The reasons are
    simple and capable of factual support. The principal        The public hearing held last week before the
    reason is that many of the countries purchasing our         U.S. Corps of Engineers in Corpus Christi
    grain have severe draft limitations which restrict the      made it abundantly clear that the people of the
    size of the vessel that can enter the harbor for along-     Coastal Bend and those who share our concern
    side discharge. To be specific, India, one of the pri-      about the well-being of the Texas shoreline
    mary purchasers of American grain, has severe draft         want supertankers kept and unloaded where
    limitations and cannot accept today vessels with 40-        supertankers belong-in the deep waters of
    foot drafts which Corpus Christi is capable of load-        the gulf.
    ing. The maximum draft for which a vessel can               As one speaker pointed out, there is no last-
    enter a harbor in Venezuela is 34 feet. The maximum         gasp need for an inland superport on Harbor
    draft for alongside discharging in Mexico is approxi-       Island. To suggest that an inland superport is
    mately 30. .. Stated in simple terms, it is futile to       the only answer is to ignore the economy and
    load a bulk carrier with grain to a 70-foot draft when      efficiency of the offshore monobuoy unloading
    the port of discharge can only accommodate a vessel         system.
    of 30 feet. This is true because many, if not the ma-
    jority, of the grain importing countries are under-         Yes, the people spoke-not simply from the
    developed nations and thus do not have adequate             podium but by their presence. More than 700
    port facilities to receive large bulk carriers."            persons attended the hearing. Nearly 6,000
                                                               others-enough to fill the Miller High School
      The chairman of the Corpus Christi Chamber of             others-enough to fill t         he Miller  High School
    Commerce's Superport Committee was Edward H.                pressions in opposition to the superport in
    Harte, publisher of The Corpus Christi Caller-Times.        writing.
    Later, in an editorial column, Harte gave his ap-
    praisal of what happened at the hearing at Miller           Harbor Island is a great natural resource-
    High School. The Harbor Island superport project,           but it is even more.
    Harte wrote, took a "terrible drubbing."
      After the hearing, the environmentalists had the          It is the key to maintaining and improving the
    final words. In another double-page, three-color            quality of life in the Coastal Bend.
    newspaper advertisement, they offered the public a
    sketch of a serene Harbor Island setting with this          It must not be sacrificed.
    text:
                                                               And it won't be.
         Harbor Island ... it's one of the Coastal Bend's
         great natural resources.
                                                             The Harbor Island superport proposal has had
         Around it flow the fresh seawaters which enter    rough seas ever since the September 1973, public
         our island chain to feed our entire bay system    hearing. In March 1974, Bechtel, Inc., a consulting
         from the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge at    engineering firm, put a $260 million price tag on the
         Austwell to the lower reaches of Laguna Madre.    project. That is far more than the original estimates
         Its wetlands nurture our very existence, pro-    of less than $100 million. The $260 million cost,
         viding spawning beds for marine life and a    Bechtel pointed out, is based on a start of construc-
         nesting ground and natural habitat for countless    tion within 13 months. A start, as of this writing, is
         species of birds. Along its sub-sea-level fringe    not in sight.
         is Texas' only mangrove swamp. Its delicate          Perhaps the most significant factor for environ-
                                                           mentalists is Bechtel's open reference to the project
         There are some natural resources which must    as Phase 1. What are the other phases? Where does
         be sacrificed to that human on-rush known as    the superport project lead? What is the full scope of
         progress.                                          potential estuarine destruction?  In view  of the
                                                           Wallisville Dam litigation, these questions become
         This one must not be.                              especially relevant.

                                                  THE PUBLIC'S ROLE                                                591

      Untimely oil spills in the South Texas bay system    REFERENCES
    related to the Mustang-San Jose inlet also have    McComb, David G. 1969. Houston: The Bayou City, Uni-
    drawn attention to the hazards posed by the project.          versity of Texas Press, Austin, Tex.
    An oil spill closed the Port of Corpus Christi for
                  An oil spill closed the Port of Corpus Christi for    ABC Television News Special. May 29, 1972. Oceans: The
    two days. Almost a week was required to clear the             Silent Crisis.
    channel of the 6,000-barrel spill. A smaller spill in
    San Antonio Bay, near the nesting grounds of the    Smith, James Noel. 1972. The Decline of Galveston Bay, The
    nearly-extinct whooping cranes, also attracted pub-           Conservation Foundation, Washington D.C.
    lic attention.                                              Smylie, Vernon and Eric. 1972. Texas in Fact, Texas News
      Exxon, one of the industrial giants advocating the         Syndicate Press, Corpus Christi, Tex.
    Harbor Island superport, came across its own tracks    The Dallas Morning News. 1972-73 and 1974-75. The Texas
    with a national magazine advertisement headed:                Almanac, Dallas, Tex.
    "Offshore Oil Terminals. A safer, more economical    Record of Public Meeting on Application of Nueces County
    way to get millions of barrels of oil from ship to shore      Navigation District No. 1 for a Department of the Army
    to YOU."                                                      Permit to Begin Development of a Multi-Purpose Deep-
     to you."                                                     Draft Inshore Port Near Port Aransas (Corpus Christi
      An awareness of the value of Texas estuaries is            Bay), Tex., U.S. Army Engineer District, Galveston, Tex.,
    growing. The importance of the role of the public in          Volumes I and II, December, 1973.
    Texas estuary protection is undeniable. The blue-    Various news articles and advertisements published in The
    prints have been drawn. The battle has been joined.           Corpus Christi Caller-Times, Corpus Christi, Tex., 1972-74.
    And, for the first time, a genuine appreciation of the    Published materials of the Coastal Bend Conservation Asso-
    Texas coast seems near.                                       ciation, Corpus Christi, Tex.

                                                               ::.~ . ;~~ ~~ :i:::-. ~_.   -:-.

    THE 'ROLE OF CITIZEN
    ACTION GROUPS IN
    PROTECTING AND RESTORING
    WETLANDS IN CALIFORNIA

    FRED S. FARR
    Horan, Lloyd, Dennis & Farr
    Carmel, California

                ABSTRACT
                The shoclking destruction by man of California's wetland and coastal resources has occurred for
                more than a century, by competing uses for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational
                purposes. More than 80 percent of California's 21 million people live within one-half hour's drive
                of the coast. Pressures on resources in coastal areas is unbearable. This paper tells what citizen
                 action groups have done in attempting to reverse these trends.

    INTRODUCTION                                             in that the amount of money needed is difficult to
                                                           raise during the time available before the destructive
      Citizen action efforts in wetland and coastline    action occurs, and should the purchase be successful
    protection in California, although of recent origin,    who is to administer the wetland?
    are illustrative of some of the most dramatic and          The saving of the Carmel River Beach, lagoon,
    most productive results in the nation.                   and wildlife refuge from high density development
      For more than a century following California's    was done by separate but interdependent citizen
    admission to the Union in 1850, it was common and    action groups-one concerned itself primarily with
    accepted practice to misuse the coastline and to    public education and fund raising, while the other
    destroy the wetlands. Since 1900, 90 percent of the    carried on the political action.
    fertile and productive marshes, lagoons and sloughs        Shortly after World War II the Carmel River
    in southern California have been diked, drained,    Beach, with its unsurpassed view of Point Lobos,
    polluted, filled, or dredged to make way for free-    was up for grabs. Adjacent to the beach was a
    ways, shopping centers, subdivisions, industries,    beautiful 27-acre lagoon, providing habitat for the
    condominiums, and marinas. Of the 381,000 acres    brown pelican, blue heron, and many other species,
    of coastal wetlands existing in all of California 75    some rare and endangered. Constant filling to make
    years ago, only 125,000 acres remain today.              room for new homes in a nearby subdivision threat-
      Citizen action groups, tired of witnessing the    ened the lagoon's very existence.
    slow but certain destruction of coastal shoreline          Determined to save this beach and wetland from
    waters and wetland habitat, decided to call a halt    development, Carmel citizens turned in 19.50 to
    to such activities. Effective efforts of citizen groups    their Point Lobos League, a non-profit organization,
    in California have sometimes been on the local level    whose purpose was to preserve natural, scenic and
    and other times statewide. The methods used varied    recreational areas for use and enjoyment by all of
    considerably.                                            the people. Margaret Owings of the league solicited
      Hopefully, the California illustrations cited will    the aid of her friend, Newton B. Drury, chief of
    be beneficial to other citizen groups in the nation-    California's State Division of Beaches and Parks,
    wide effort to save decreasing coastal wetlands from    who said of this effort, "No scenic and recreational
    further destruction.                                     resource in the United States is more sorely in need
                                                           of preservation."' However, Drury, former director
                                                           of National Park Service, was helpless under Cali-
    CARMEL RIVER BEACH                                       fornia law to purchase the Carmel River Beach and
                                                           AND  UPLAND  ARTICHOKE FIELDS  lagoon without local matching funds. With Drury's
                                                           support, Francis Whitaker, the Point Lobos League's
      Saving threatened wetlands from destruction by
    fund raising for public purchase presents problems         1 The Living Wilderness-Sumer, 1960, p. 17

                                                                                                          593

    594                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    president  (who was also Carmel's blacksmith),    known as the Carmel Area Coalition, together with
    gathered artists, lawyers, doctors, journalists, retired    other conservation groups, carried on the necessary
    military, and conservationists to his Forge in the    political activity before the county planning com-
    Forest, where a campaign for vigorous fund raising   mission and board of supervisors. The other organi-
    was launched and a goal of $25,000 set. The league's    zation, OLAF (Odello Land Acquisition Fund) was
    efforts resulted in local artists donating 125 excel-   an IRS tax approved nonprofit corporation which
    lent paintings. Auctions and other money raisers   confined its activities to fund raising. The land-
    produced $15,000 in donations to save the beach    owners and developers were pushing for rapid ap-
    and lagoon. Of this effort, a well known journalist    proval of the plan and rezoning of the property. The
    wrote,                                                 coalition was strongly resisting this effort, thus
                                                         hoping to buy time while OLAF was pursuing the
        Contributions have been in the best conservation tradi-   herculean task of raising the money to purchase
        tion, from small donors. These are the people from all
        over the United States-as well as little Carmel-who
        have known the sweeping curve of the .beach with its   then unknown price. Once the land was rezoned,
        yellow-white sand against the blue-green lagoon at the   the new inflated value caused by rezoning would
        Carmel River mouth under the wild Santa Lucia Moun-
        tains!2                                           put the price out of reach for public acquisition.
                                                           From February 1971 until the late spring of
      Following the league's successful fund raising, the    1974 the battle to save the land continued. Pruden-
    first breakthrough came when the state was able to   tial Life Insurance Company policy holders on the
    acquire the 27-acre lagoon for a wildlife refuge.    Monterey Peninsula and elsewhere were disturbed
    Pushed by the Point Lobos League, Monterey    that their company was the financial backer of the
    County made available to the state $25,000 in   plan. In May 1971 the company withdrew financial
    funds which it had earmarked for parks and beaches    support and immediately thereafter the landowners
    elsewhere in the county. The people of Carmel    indicated an interest in selling the westerly half of
    having done their part, the state then proceeded in   their property to OLAF, but only after rezoning
    1954 to acquire an adjacent 80-acre beach and bluff,    was approved.
    thus creating the Carmel River Beach and Wildlife        By June 1971 OLAF, backed by a $50,000 pledge
    Preserve.                                              from the city of Carmel, had raised $200,000 in cash
      To the east of the beach and wildlife refuge lies   and pledges and was trying to interest the State of
    the 292-acre Odello artichoke fields that straddle    California in acquiring the western half of the land
    Highway 1. For 47 years the Odello family had    to protect the state river beach and wildlife refuge.
    farmed these lands, but in 1971 they felt that the    In July 1972 the planning commission, at a packed
    time had come to sell. Proposed was a $60 million    meeting, voted 6-2 to approve the development and
    development including 944 dwelling units, a 600-   in October, with growing support for public acquisi-
    room hotel and a 300-acre spa to be located next    tion, the Monterey County Board of Supervisors
    to the wildlife refuge. Rezoning by the county would    reversed the planning commission in a 3-2 vote but
    be required to make the project possible.              without prejudice, meaning that the developers were
      Worried about population increases, in that the    free to re-apply.
    proposed development would house more people             The efforts of the coalition and conservation orga-
    than lived in Carmel, citizens again organized to    nizations were gaining increased support locally and
    save their environment. Traffic congestion, smog,    throughout the state, and OLAF's  fund raising
    tax burdens, damage to the state beach and wildlife   efforts were truly amazing. Contributions flowed
    refuge, and flooding of the Carmel River were all of   in from as far away as Hong Kong, Venezuela, and
    great concern to the people. At first the controversy    Washington, D.C. One social security recipient do-
    was fought solely on the political front. From the    nated, and urged others who could afford it to
    beginning there was widespread community feeling   contribute the small increase allowed in social secur-
    that the Odello family should be allowed to develop    ity benefits! An 11-year-old boy on a street corner
    their lands as had others before them. Also, strong    collected $105 in three hours time for OLAF. A
    was support for purchase of the land for public open    wealthy woman gave a $30,000 Pebble Beach lot,
    space preservation. To meet the developer's chal-    and a druggist offered $.05 per bottle for the return
    lenge, two organizations were formed. Each acted    of used pill bottles, receiving 4,080 pill bottles and
    separately but of necessity depended upon one an-    sending a check for $108. The city of Carmel's
    other if the land were to be saved. One organization    pledge for $50,000 was later increased to $100,000.
                                                           High school students made door-to-door cam-
     2 Robert E. Brunn, Carmel takes steps to save famed river beach. The
    Christian Seience Monitor, June 13,1950.               paigns, and an ecumenical church service on the

                                             THE PUBLIC'S ROLE                                          595

    banks of the Carmel River gained more support;    endangered birds as well as important varieties of
    soon the national and east coast media with NBC,    fish and plant life.
    CBS, New York Times, National Observer, The             The saving of this important land and water from
    Washington Post, and Halifax Nova Scotia Herald,    certain destruction of its natural resources is a lesson
    as well as the National Geographic Magazine, all   in community mobilization, effective public educa-
    became interested in Carmel's trying to save its   tion, successful litigation, and determined citizen
    open space.                                           followthrough.
      The State of California appraised the westerly        Prior to 1901 all tidelands in the Newport Bay
    155 acres of the land at $1,750,000, and the Odellos    area were held in trust by the State of California.
    agreed to accept this amount, but the state was    In 1901 the state sold 273 acres of tidelands to
    only willing to provide one-half the cost.            James Irvine, the predecessor of the Irvine Com-
      Responding to the efforts of the coalition and    pany which is today the largest landowner in south-
    OLAF, the county board of supervisors under the    ern California. In 1919 the state granted to Orange
    leadership of Willard Branson, its chairman, tried    County, in trust, other tidal and submerged lands
    to form itself into a redevelopment agency to help   for the development of a harbor in the Upper Bay.
    obtain the matching funds, using tax increment          As the result of litigation in 1926 between Orange
    bonds. Complicated political and legal problems    County and the Irvine Company, Irvine was ad-
    caused the redevelopment idea to be abandoned.    judged to be the owner of the lands above mean
    Then local assemblyman Bob Wood won legislative   high tide, including three small islands whose owner-
    approval authorizing the purchase of the artichoke   ship by Irvine blocked effective use of the bay for
    fields as an adjunct to the Carmel River State    Orange County's proposed harbor development. In
    Beach. With the $100,000 pledge from the city of   addition, precipitous bluffs owned by Irvine sur-
    Carmel and the $250,000 raised by OLAF, and    rounded much of the bay, thus making access to
    reduction by $100,000 in the landowners' selling   the water difficult. Irvine wanted to develop its
    price, the state furnished the balance and the sale   upland properties and obtain access to the bay, and
    was completed.                                        Orange County desired to develop the harbor under
      Thus, the westerly 155 acres of this land adjoin-   its tidelands' grant. Consequently, a plan was
    ing the wildlife refuge were forever preserved as a    evolved under which a land exchange would be
    part of California's Carmel River Beach State Park    made. It would permit Orange County to develop
    and Wildlife Refuge, and efforts are still continuing    the harbor, a marine stadium, and certain parks
    to-save the easterly one-half of the Odello land for   in return for Irvine's owning and developing the
    open space.                                           contiguous lands for low and medium density hous-
      Happily, the state leased the lands back to the   ing and for aquatic commercial uses. The proposed
    Odellos, and green artichokes, interspersed with    land swap was approved by the 1957 legislature
    yellow mustard, still dominate the flatland next to   subject to approval of the State Lands Commission.
    the Carmel River Beach, lagoon and wildlife refuge    In 1966 the State Lands Commission withheld its
    across the bay from Point Lobos.                      approval on the grounds that the project would
                                                         create commercial areas completely privately con-
                                                         trolled and add to the preponderant private domina-
    UPPER NEWPORT BAY                                     tion of the bay. The following year, however, under
                                                         a new administration in Sacramento the Lands Com-
                                                         mission reversed itself and approved the exchange.
      A 55-year struggle to preserve one of the last
    remaining wetlands in southern California culmi-        Following                 a group known as the
                                                         Friends of Upper Newport Bay was organized. It
    nated in a victory for conservationists when it was    Fri e    n    ds of Upper Newport Bay was organized It
                                                         feared the exchange would result in both loss of
    announced in mid-November of 1974 that the State
                 announced in mid-November of 1974 tshoreline to the public as well as loss of important
    Department of Fish and Game would supervise in   wildlie  to th     e pubic as well as loss of imtat.
    Upper Newport Bay, Orange County, a 741-acre   wildlife habitat
    peological p     reserve, the larges t in the state.    The Friends faced an uphill struggle in that the
      U pp er N    ewpo rt Bay is located 26 miles south of .   harbor district, the board of supervisors, the State
      Upper Newport Bay is located 26 miles south of
    Los Angeles and more than 80 million people, or    Lands Commission and the state legislature had all
    one-half of the population of California, live within    given the necessary approval. All that appeared to
    its 80-mile radius. The 3Y4 mile long Upper Bay,    remain for final clearance was court sanction of the
    with its 1,000 acres of relatively undisturbed wet-   land exchange and a dredging and filling agreement.
    lands, provides a most important habitat for no less   This would be accomplished by a so-called "friendly
    than five state and federally recognized species of   lawsuit" filed in 1969 in the Orange County Superior

                                        ESTUA'INE PjO;LJUTION CONTROL

    Court. What was to be' a noncontrove isial-'matter    time, talent, and money. Not'only did they" carry
    became a hotly contested adversary proceeding cul-   on an extensive campaign in' educating public' offi-
    minating'in a significant appellate court decision of   cials at the local, county, state 'and federal levels,
    major importance in tideland litigation, and a splen-    but they also conducted public tours of Upper New-
    'did victory for Friends of Upper Newport Bay.'       port Bay for some 15,000- people -in addition 'to
      Joining the Friends of Upper Newport ''Bay in   special tours for approximately ;10,000' students.
    1969 was an organization known as Orange County    Working with-the Orange County Foundation: for
    Foundation for' Preservatiori  of Public Property.    Preservation of Public Property, the Friends were
    The foundation assisted in the appeal of the trial   able to raise $80,000 for legal expenses to 'assist iin
    court's judgment approving the-land exchange. D'ue   the appeal: In �addition, the Sierra Club and the
    to the vehement opposition of the Friends of Upper    citizen intervenors in the lawsuit played- important
    Newport Bay, several most important 'events' took    roles in helping save Upper Newport Bay.
    place between the filing of the action and the trial    While' the 'Upper Bay's major'hurdle, that of
    court's decision. The Orafige-County Grand Jury    public -ownership, is resolved, there are still- prob-
    had' passed a resolution questioning the advisability    lems in achieving full utilization and restoration of
    of the exchange and the board of supervisors under-    the bay for wildlife preservation and for public en-
    went a change of membership. The new board ex-   joyment. The waters of the Upper 'Bay are'threat-
    pressed a' desire to rescind the exchange agreement    ened: by' storm drainage runoff from the massive
    as not being in 'the -public interest 'and filed an    adjacent urban population. Federal: assistance 'to
    appeal of the'decision approving the exchange. Six   'California 'and the Orange County  communities
     citizens intervened in the county's appeal, contend-    encompassing the bay would help immeasurably to
     ing that the exchange would result in Irvine's owning    prevent such drainage 'pollution. It� is also essential
     almost seven miles of prime Waterfront along 'newly   -to protect the bluff land surrounding the Upper
     created harbor lines while providing only three miles    Bay -from destructive development.  To complete
     or less of marginal waterfront property for." the    the task of protecting Upper 'Newport Bay, the
     public. They were assisted' by attorney Phillip S.   citizen groups will continue: to work until their' goal
     Berry; former Sierra Club president, and Herman F.   is finally accomplished.
     Selvin, former president of the state bar, represented .           i .
     Orange County in the appeal.               - --- . ..                       .
       In February 1973 the court of appeal reversed
     the trial court's approval of the exchange after care-
                                                            'O'ne of th~e largest, most important wetlands, re-
     fully reviewing California's tidelands trust. The court  One of the largest, most important wetlands re-
     included in its grounds for reversal the fact that   maiing in California was saved from a major 'oil
      M-OrangeCountypresentlyowned andcontrolled    refinery being located near its shores-not on the
     the entire shoreline of the bay area and that as a   issue of saving the wetlands but rather by citizen
    'result of the exchange, it would be relinquishing    action groups interested i    an air
     two-thirds of that shoreline- to be conveyed into
     private ownership."3  '                               County, the second largest salt marsh in'California,
                                                           lies about 100 miles south of San Francisco on the
       This decision was the turning point in the deter-
     mined struggle to save Upper Newport Bay. Irvine    edge of the Monterey Bay  During the bird
     as a result of the decision agreed to negotiate the   tion in the fall and early spring, its 7-mile slough
     sale of, its wetlands long sought by' conservation
                                                           species of birds, some rare and endangered, in addi-
     groups for a wildlife refuge. Backed by Friends of
                   Upper Newport Bay and many other Orange ounty   tion to a variety of fish, clams, oysters and barnacles.
     Upper Newport, Bay and many other Orange County
     citizens, the State Department of Fish and Game         The biggest threat to Elkhorn Slqugh came  n
     negotiated the sale of 527 potentially highly develop-    1965 when Humble Oil, then the nation's largest
     able acres from Irvine to thestate for $3.48 million.
                                                           to construct a $70 million refinery at Moss Landing.
     Two hundred seventeen acres of tidelands held by        Humble Oil, backed by the Salinas Chamber of
     Orange County were then added to complete the    Comberce, t                Landi   Harbor District, anid
     744-acre wetlands preserve.       ; .   ; , ~   - ~ ~ 1, Commerce, the Moss Landing Harbor District, aid
        744-acre wetlands for   preserve.ing  what is today Californias    the Salinas Californian, one of the two daily news-
        Credit for preserving what is today California's
     largest wetland ecological reserve; goes primarily. to   papers in the cunty, prclaied that Monter
     the 100 dedicated citizen membbrs of the; Friends    County needed Humble'Oil's 'refinery to provide, a
      of Upper Newport Bay who gave directly of their   permanent labor force of 250-300 employees, !plus
                                                            1,500 to 2,000 construction jobs and $1,300,000 in
       3 Orange Cout v. )He  o C.A.ad 69i4 atp  ! . 695 .     new tax revenues for the county. The proposed

                                              THE PUBLIdS RoILE                                          597

    450-acre refinery site was already zoned for heavy    that we can attract." A water expert from Humble
    industry, with both Kaiser's Dolomite Processing    added that there would be no oil spills from either
    Plant and P.G.&E.'s power plant operating in the    crude oil or refined products being transported by
    area. All that was needed by Humble was a use   tankers and barges or being unloaded through sub-
    permit from the county planning commission.           merged marine pipelines. This was before Torrey
      While early in 1965 the county's air pollution    Canyon.
    control advisory committee recommended the grant-        On July 28, 1965, after a 4-hour hearing ended at
    ing of the permit contingent upon meeting all air   midnight, the Monterey County Planning Commis-
    pollution standards imposed by the county, some    sion by a 5-4 vote recommended against granting
    30 miles across the bay downwind from the Humble    the use permit to Humble Oil. The swing vote was
    site, residents of the Monterey Peninsula doubted    cast by Peter Cailloto, a local hardware merchant,
    that a clean, odorless, non-smog producing plant    whose business could be jeopardized by his decision,
    could be built. Prevailing afternoon winds blow from    because of the strong support in Salinas for the
    the ocean in the summer months down the long,   plant. He nevertheless stated he was worried about
    green Salinas Valley, and there were those who    air pollution and its damage to agriculture. "One
    feared that such winds would carry damaging smog    fact is obvious," he said, "you can smell odors from
    into fertile agricultural lands.                      a refinery."
      To meet the Humble challenge, there was formed        The planning commission's decision was an upset
    on the Monterey Peninsula the Committee on Clean    victory for the refinery's opponents; the final deci-
    Air. Its president, Charles Kramer of Pebble Beach,    sion, however, would be on the appeal to the board
    a retired business executive, met with the board    of supervisors. As the controversy progressed, Hum-
    chairman of Humble Oil, who insisted that there   ble inserted large advertisements in the newspapers,
    was no air inversion in Monterey County and no    urging people to ask their county supervisor to sup-
    danger of smog. Finding talks with Humble Oil   port the refinery.
    officials to be fruitless, Kramer's committee encour-   To counteract Humble's campaign, Dr. Philip A.
    aged the formation of a multi-county air pollution    Leighton of-Stanford University, one of the top air
    control district, and between March and July of   pollution experts in the country, pointed out in a
    1965, 13,000 residents signed a petition against the    series of articles in The Monterey Peninsula Herald
    proposed refinery. Public opinion was mounting on    how air pollution in other parts of California com-
    the Monterey Peninsula against the refinery and    menced with reduction of air visibility, followed by
    other petrochemical industries that might follow.   plant damage and then by eye irritation. In Monte-
    The Monterey Peninsula Herald and its owner,    rey County he found that pollution was already at
    Col. Allan Griffin, were strongly against Humble.    the plant damage threshold and he was particularly
    This effort was joined by the Sierra Club, Audubon    concerned with the location of the proposed refinery
    Society, the growers, American Association of Uni-    adjacent to the largest steam generating plant. in
    versity Women,  League of Women  Voters, and    the nation. When the P.G.&E. plant's expansion
    Salinas doctors' wives. Equally strong public opinion    was completed, it would produce 2.1 million kilo-
    and support for Humble's plant were developing    watts, whose capacity would almost equal the 2.2
    among business, labor, and Chamber of Commerce    million kilowatts of all power plants in Los Angeles
    groups in Salinas, the county seat of Monterey    County which, when burning both crude oil and
    County.                                               natural gas, emitted an average of 150 tons of nitro-
      The nine member county planning commission's    gen oxides daily. The availability of inexpensive
    first meeting on the use permit was held early in   crude oil at the refinery for the steam plant also
    1965 and then continued until May. The chief ques-    concerned these experts who summarized their posi-
    tions it faced were:                                  tion with these words: "The question of preserving
                                                         -the pricelessheritage of clean air versus the broad-
      1. Could a clean smog-proof refinery be built, and    ened tax base and jobs provided by industrialization
      2. Would there be an influx of associated petro-   has been faced by many other communities and
    chemical industries once the refinery was approved?    resolved in favor of industrialization. These com-
                                                          munities are now paying the price in terms of smog."4
                                                            The county-supervisors before making their deci-
    While air pollution consultants urged that an air
                                                          sion visited Anacortes, Wash., to witness first hand
    pollution control district be immediately formed to    the operation of two refineries i th at area.
    enforce a strong clearn air ordinance, Humble's attor-
    -ney advised the planning commission that ani oil
    .ney advised the planning conmmission that arf oil A    The Monterey Peninsula Herald, August 25, 1965, Air Pollution Expert
    refinery was "one of the most desirable industries   tells of Refinery Peril, Dr. Philip A. Leighton.

    598                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      Finally, on September 3, 1965, D-Day arrived at    since Humble's departure is a highly successful
    the county board of supervisors where the hearing    mariculture plant whose activities are compatible
    was conducted under the able leadership of its chair-   with the preservation of the wetland. Upland de-
    man, Tom Hudson, who, while personally against    velopment and the possibility of new heavy indus-
    the project, was fair to all who spoke. After 13 hours    tries continue to be a threat to Elkhorn Slough;
    of hearing and debates (the hardest fought in the    however, Nature Conservancy has acquired some
    history of the county), the 3-2 decision was finally    500 acres within the salt marsh, and Moss Landing
    reached at 3 a.m. to overrule the planning commis-    ranks among the 10 top priority wetlands for public
    sion and grant the permit for the refinery.            acquisition in the report entitled, "Acquisition Pri-
      While a broadened tax base and new jobs won    orities for the Coastal Wetland of California."5
    out over clean air, the residents of the Montery
    Peninsula would not give up; they were fighting
    mad at the supervisors' decision and they immedi-    SAN FRANCISCO BAY
    ately circulated a referendum petition to place the
    questions on the ballot, and within 21 days, 12,572       The saving of San Francisco Bay, the most im-
    signatures were gathered. The referendum petition    portant natural harbor on the Pacific Coast, is an
    presented to the board of supervisors was rejected    outstanding example of effective citizen education
    by the county counsel stating that the vote was an    and adroit political action which resulted in legisla-
    administrative rather than a legislative act and thus    tion creating a permanent effective regional agency
    not subject to a referendum. To add a further road-    that preserves, protects, and provides for limited
    block, the county clerk would not proceed to verify    but wise development of the bay in the public
    the signatures on the petitions until instructed to    interest.
    do so by the county counsel. The matter went to           When California was admitted to the Union in
    court and a judge had to be brought in to hear the    1850, the bay's water surface consisted of 680 square
    case after all Monterey County judges disqualified    miles. 100 years later, 200 square miles of this water
    themselves.                                            surface was lost by man's activities in diking, filling,
       On  February 8, 1966, almost one year after   reclaiming, and polluting the bay. In addition, 17
    Humble had announced its original plans to build    square miles of tidal and submerged land had been
    the refinery, the court sustained the county counsel's    filled along the waterfronts of bay area cities.
    decision. Still undaunted, a new avenue of approach       In 1850, 5,000 sea otter pelts were taken in San
    was started to prevent construction of the refinery.    Francisco Bay. Today, no sea otters are found in
    The new tack was to obtain proxies and to carry    the bay. While in 1900, the bay oyster harvest was
    the issue to the stockholders' meeting of Standard    10 to 15 million pounds, there is no oyster harvest
    Oil of New Jersey, parent company of Humble Oil.    today. The once prominent San Francisco Bay
       Humble Oil and Standard Oil of New Jersey re-    shrimp industry is practically non-existent and there
    ceived numerous letters with credit cards enclosed    has been a loss of 1.8 million winter nesting water
    reminding the oil companies that the card holders    fowl. The various cities around the bay, by 1950,
    did not want to patronize those who would inflict    were slowly but surely looking to the San Francisco
    an oil refinery on Monterey Bay.                        Bay as a thing to fill for expanded residential, com-
       At last, sensing the severity of purpose, the unity    mercial, and industrial development.
    and determination of Monterey County's clean air          Particularly alarmed about this situation in 1959
    proponents, Humble began to quietly look elsewhere.    was Mrs. Clark Kerr whose husband was then
     On June 11, 1966 it announced receiving a favorable    president of the University of California. She was
    rezoning permit to enable it to locate its refinery    accustomed to meeting at the San Francisco Airport
     near Rodeo on Suisun Bay. On May  17, 1966,    distinguished visitors whom she would drive across
     Humble Oil finally announced abandonment of its   the bay to the University of California at Berkeley.
    proposed plant at Moss Landing on Elkhorn Slough    Frequently, they commented about the beauty and
    in favor of a site at Benecia on Suisun Bay near    marvel of the bay, and Mrs. Kerr, while appreciat-
     other established Northern California oil refineries.    ing her visitors' remarks, was also aware not only
     Thus ended the historic battle to save clean air   of the plans of her own city of Berkeley to fill 2,000
     which started on February 15, 1965 and ended on    acres of the bay, but the plans of other cities to
     May 17, 1966, and resulted in saving one of the    expand into the bay. Mrs. Kerr, disturbed about
     great salt marshes from almost certain death. Hum-    this damage to a great resource, called a meeting of
     ble's clean air problems followed it to Benecia.  -       Cooperative Report, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife--California
       The only new industry located on Elkhorn Slough    Department of Fish and Game, April 1974.

                                             THE PUBLIC'S ROLE                                          599

    university women, a retired Harvard economics pro-    the legislature. Senator McAteer wisely chose to
    fessor, and a few conservationists concerned about    make the agency's goal single purpose, confined
    the future of the bay. This was the start in 1959 of   only to the bay itself, and he skirted the question
    the save the San Francisco Bay effort.                of a moratorium on all filling in the bay by provid-
      The save-the-bay people's first success was dis-   ing power to regulate filling through a permit system.
    suading the Berkeley City Council from filling in   His 1965 legislation was carefully drafted so that it
    its wetlands. They then turned their eyes on the    could not be hamstrung by opposing lobbyists.
    rest of the bay. At Mrs. Kerr's urging, the Univer-     The save-the-bay group working very hard to
    sity of California's Institute of GovernmentalAffairs    muster support in Sacramento was assisted by a
    studied and published, under the able leadership of   popular San Francisco disc jockey who plugged
    Mell Scott, "The Future of the San Francisco Bay,"6   "Save the Bay" daily on his 6 to 9 a.m. show, even
    a comprehensive report showing how the bay's great    calling the governor out of bed to give his comments
    resources were being destroyed.                       on the bay! Small sackfuls of sand arrived in legisla-
      How to stop the filling was a difficult regional   tors' offices with the message, "You'll wonder where
    problem in that the bay's shoreline involved the    the water went if you fill the bay with sediment."
    jurisdiction of nine counties and 32 cities, many    Bus loads of people attended all of the committee
    having plans to extend their cities beyond their   hearings and, after an extremely hard fought battle,
    waterfronts. Also included in plans for bay filling   the bill known as the McAteer-Petris Act was
    were some of the most formidable financial giants    passed and became law in June 1965, providing for
    of the west. One plan in San Mateo County alone    developing a long range plan for the San Francisco
    called for an investment of $3 billion, which encom-    Bay to be prepared by the new bay conservation
    passed bulldozing down of the San Bruno Moun-    and development commission. Its members were
    tains near the San Francisco Airport to create more    both elected and appointed, many of them being
    fiatland for bay development.                         representatives of governmental agencies-federal,
      There being no existing effective regional body    state, county, and city. During the planning stage,
    to deal with the problem of bay fill, the save-the-    anyone wishing to fill or remove materials from
    bay group looked to their legislators at the state   the bay was required to obtain a permit from the
    capitol for aid. Failing to obtain legislative assistance   commission.
    in 1963, they tried again in 1964, this time enlisting  In January 1969 the plan, consisting of a set of
    the support of Senator Eugene McAteer of San    policies for the future of the bay, was finished and
    Francisco, a shrewd, tough, and able legislator.   submitted to the legislature. Once again, a major
    McAteer, knowing that he did not yet have suffi-   battle ensued, but this time without the leadership
    cient support to control filling of the bay, was never-   of Senator McAteer, who had died. The developers
    theless able to get enacted temporary legislation    and owners of bay lands regarded the 1969 session
    creating a nine man  study commission with a    of the legislature the last and final chance to fore-
    $75,000 appropriation whose purpose was to "define   stall regulations that would prevent them from
    the public interest in the San Francisco Bay-to    carrying out their development plans for the bay.
    determine the effects of further filling upon naviga-    Likewise, the backers of the bill were most cognizant
    tion, fish, wildlife, and water pollution," and to   that its passage would be the final legislative step
    report and to recommend legislation in 1965 to pro-    in providing the guidelines and governmental orga-
    tect the public interest in the bay. To the 1965    nization necessary to save the bay. Consequently,
    legislature the study commission recommended that    both sides worked long and hard in the legislative
    a San Francisco Bay conservation and development    halls of Sacramento.
    commission be established whose duty would be to        After a fierce legislative struggle, followed by a
    formulate a comprehensive and enforceable plan to    change of leadership in the state senate, people be-
    preserve the bay and protect it from piecemeal filling   came aroused and a petition three miles long con-
    while the plan was being completed.                   taining over 250,000 signatures was presented to
      Coordinated planning for the future preserva-    the governor demanding that the bay be saved.
    tion, growth, and development of the entire bay    Finally, legislation was approved making the com-
    area was important in 1965 and there was a need    mission a permanent body. The law, when signed
    to impose a moratorium on further filling of the    by Governor Reagan established the San Francisco
    bay. Each of these issues would present formidable    Bay Conservation and Development Commission
    and perhaps insurmountable political opposition in    (BCDC) giving it regulatory powers over all filling

      Published by Universityi of California Institute of Gov e  and dredging in the bay, limited jurisdiction over
    Studies, October 1963.                                substantial development within a 100-foot strip

    600                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    inland from the bay, and limited jurisdiction over        Proposition 20 did not provide a permanent solu-
    proposed filling of salt ponds and managed wetlands.    tion to the coast's problems. What it did do was
      (The Bay Conservation and Development Com-    establish temporary commissions to plan for the
    mission's activities, experience, and personnel laid    future and to temporarily control development by
    the foundation for Proposition 20, the Coastal Zone    requiring that Coastal Commissions:
    Conservation Act of 1972.)
      Of the gallant struggle started by the University       1. Prepare a plan for the future of the California
    woman in Berkeley in 1959, Russell Train, chairman    coast to be submitted to the legislature before Janu-
    of the Council on Environmental Quality stated:         ary 1, 1976.
                                                              2. Control all development within the state's
        Concerned citizens demonstrated a vigor of purpose and    coastal waters and on land within 1,000 yards of
        a tenacity that outlasted setbacks, and persisted year
        after year and session after session until the legislature   the coast to insure that unwise development does
        responded. It is as though, having come to the end of a    not make the coastal plan useless before it can be
        long Westward journey of conquering the land, Cali-   completed.
        fornia contemplated the bay and decided to let it live.T

                                                              Proposition 20 created one state and six regional
    PROPOSITION 20                                          commissions which cease to function after Decem-
                                                            ber 31, 1976 unless continued by the legislature.
      The November 1972 election in California marked         The state commission's able chairman is Melvin B.
    the passage of Proposition 20, California's Coastline    Lane, who served with distinction as chairman of
    Protection Initiative. For more than a century there    BCDC. Lane brought with him from BCDC  its
    have been increasing demands and competing pres-    articulate and experienced executive director, Joseph
    sures for commercial,  industrial, residential and    Bodovitz, who serves as an executive director of the
    recreational uses of the natural resources along Cali-    state commission. Also BCDC's former chief planner,
    fornia's 1,072-mile shoreline. Committees of the    Jack Shoup, heads up the planning effort of the
    legislature as well as numerous coastal study com-    state coastal commission.
    missions for 25 years had repeatedly pointed out           Public input and citizen participation are most
    the inability of local government to respond to the    noticeable in both the planning and permit proce-
    regional and statewide needs to protect California's    dures of the coastal commissions.
    magnificent and divergent coastal resources.               In developing each of the elements of the prelim-
      Conservation groups having been unable in 1970    inary plan extensive public hearings were held by
    and 1971 to obtain coastline protection in Sacra-    each regional commission as well as by the state
    mento made a herculean effort in 1972 but could    commission.
    not overcome the strength of major lobbying forces         Nine elements of the coastal plan are:
    in Sacramento. Not to be outdone, California's
    Coastal Alliance, whose membership induced over              Marine environment
    100 civic, conservation, sports, business, and some          Coastalland environment
    labor organizations, used California's direct initi-         Geology of the coastal zone
    ative and obtained 500,000 signatures to qualify             Appearance and design
    the Coastal Protection measure for the November              Recreation -
    ballot. The Alliance under the able leadership of its        Energy
    president, Janet Adams of San Mateo, was able to
    get the initiative passed by a 55 percent statewide          Transportation
                                                                Intensity of Development
    vote. The people of California through Proposition           Government organization, powers and funding
                                                                necessary to carry out the coastal plan.
        The permanent protection of the remaining natural and
        scenic resources of the coastal zone is a paramount con-  Of particular interest to protectors of estuaries is
        cern to present and future residents of the state and    that section of the plan dealing with coastal waters,
        nation; and,                                        estuaries, and wetlands under the marine element:
        It is the policy of the state to preserve, protect, and    "All remaining coastal estuaries, wetlands and other
        where possible, to restore the resources of the coastal   buffer areas necessary to protect wetlands and their
        goenefrtohe enjoyment of the current and succeeding    wildlife and bird habitat values shall be preserved,
                                                            enhanced, and, when possible, restored."9
     7 The Saving of the San Francisco Bay, by Rice Odell, published by
    Conservation Foundation--Foreword by Russell Train, p. VIII.  9 Preliminary Coastal Plan, p. 39 (Hearing California Coastal Zone
     B Section 27001 California Public Resources Code      Conservation Commissions). ,

                                             THE PUBLIC'S ROL:E                                          601

      To carry out this objective, the plan proposes that    ticipated fully in the growing pains of the coastal
    before any alteration of wetlands is' permitted an    commission will unite to give California the kind of
    overall plan of the wetland must be prepared and    legislation needed. Failure to enact meaningful
    approved by the state commission. New develop-    coastal legislation will result in a return to the
    ments in wetlands would be only permitted after   wasteful, piecemeal, sprawling development that
    there is demonstrated a statewide need and no    has overrun many parts of the California coast,
    feasible alternative. The plan also calls for control    congesting coastal streets, walling off coastal vistas,
    of development in upland areas adjacent to estuaries   filling bays and estuaries, and denying public access
    so as to prevent adverse impact on estuarine values.    to the coastline.
      The preliminary coastal plan has been widely           The decision of the California legislature will be
    distributed throughout the state. In the history of   anxiously awaited by users of coastal resources
    California, no other plan proposed to be submitted    throughout our nation.
    to the legislature for consideration and approval
    has had as much public input and review as the
    preliminary coastal plan. Public hearings conducted    WETLANDS AND THE COURTS
    throughout the state encourage citizen participation
    and input. Many of the meetings have been held at        The judiciary in California, as elsewhere in the
    night to enable working people to participate. Indi-    nation, has played a most significant role in inter-
    viduals and organizations have provided a vast    preting and enforcing environmental legislation.
    amount of letters, statements, and position papers    Citizen groups have contributed much in bringing
    regarding the plan. As a result of such public input,    the issues to the attention of the courts and in
    the preliminary plan will be revised and improved    helping to finance environmental litigation.
    before presentation to the legislature.                  The tidelands and wetlands of California have
      Hearings on permit applications for developments    for years been subject to considerable litigation.
    have also provided much opportunity for individ-   Title to the tidelands was acquired by the state
    uals and organizations to participate and present    upon its admission to the Union in 1850. By legisla-
    their views to the regional commissions and to the    tive enactment in 1868 and subsequent amendments
    state commission on the appeals, and at each meet-    the state's tidelands were impressed with a public
    ing of the state as well as the regional commissions    trust for navigation, commerce, and fisheries. Tide-
    15 minutes time is set aside to permit any citizen   lands emnbraced in the California statutes have been
    or organization to address the coastal commission    interpreted by the courts to: ". . . extend from the
    on any matter other than specific matters that may    Oregon line to Mexico and include the shores of
    be pending before that commission.                     bays and navigable streams as far up as tide water
      The public input at the preliminary coastal plan    goes and until it meets the lands made swampy by
    hearings proved to be enlightening for the individ-   the overflow of freshwater streams."'0
    uals and groups who appeared as well as for the    'Among the significant opinions concerning tide-
    commissioners listening to the public comment.    lands in which citizen groups played a vital role
    Commissioners were berated as being "socialists,"    was the case of Marks v. Whitney" decided by the
    "communists," and "dictators", as well as saviors    California Supreme Court in 1971. This was an
    of the coasts, estuaries, plankton, coastal bluffs, and    action to quiet title by the plaintiff Marks who
    the ocean. The public learned that the coastal plan    owned lands on Tomales Bay, lying between the
    was a sincere and reasonable effort to save the coast    mean low and mean high tide, a portion of which
    and not, as some critics commented, "a land grab    were in front of defendant Whitney's  property
    by a starry-eyed group of self-perpetuating bureau-    facing the bay. Marks sought a declaration from
    crats." The commissions learned that the plan as   the court that he had a right to fill and develop
    presented was perhaps too bulky, was not fully   the tidelands.
    understood by many citizens, and was not likely          The lower court held that defendant Whitney did
    in its preliminary form to be understood or appreci-    not have standing to raise the issue that such tide-
    ated by the legislature.                              lands were subject to the public trust. The court
      The revised plan was to be presented to the legis-   found that Whitney had an easement to use a wharf
    lature before January 1, 1976. With more than 80    across the tidelands property of Marks' subject to
    percent of California's population living within a    Marks' right to fill and develop the tidelands.
    30-minute drive, the coast needs legal protection.    ' Actively participating in the appeal of the trial
    Hopefully, an intelligent support group of informed      ' '
                                                           .0 People v. California Fish Co. 166 Cal. 576 at p. 591
    citizens of California, having lived through and par-   1 6 C3d. 251

    602                                   ESTUARINE POLLUJTION CONTROL

    court's decision was the Sierra Club on behalf of   lease, or other entitlement for use if such activities
    its 60,000 members, who asked the court to declare    may have a significant effect on the environment.
    the tidelands of Marks' to be subject to the public    Proposed developments in wetlands having a signifi-
    trust and to find that Whitney had standing to    cant effect on the environment are governed by
    raise the issue. The Sierra Club also asked the court    CEQA. Developments on the San Francisco Bay,
    to determine the extent and scope of public ease-    however, are subject to BCDC  (The San Francisco
    ments in navigable waters over tidelands.               Bay Conservation and Development Commission)
      The appellate court took judicial notice that    and the Coastal Zone Conservation Act'6 governs
    Whitney's lands lying between the lines of mean    developments lying within 3,000 feet inland from
    high and low tide were tidelands and were, there-    the mean high tide.
    fore, impressed with the public trust. This court         In Lane v. City of Redondo Beach"7 aggrieved
    pointed out that the public trust in tidelands for   citizens established that a court may grant declara-
    navigation, commerce and fisheries has been held    tory relief to protect the public's right of access to
    to include the right to fish, bathe, hunt, swim, and    tidelands and navigable waters.
    use for boating and general recreational purposes. Of     The city of Redondo Beach had passed an ordi-
    particular interest to protectors of wetland is this    nance permitting the closing off of certain city
    language:                                               streets. The redevelopment agency under its re-
                                                           development plan had sold off the land on which
        There is a growing public recognition that one of the    the streets were located and structures on the land
        most important public uses of the tidelands-a use    had been completed. The plaintiffs contended that
        encompassed within the tideland trust-is the preserva-
        tion of those lands in their natural state, so they may
        serve as ecological units for scientific study, as open space   lower income citizens, children, and senior citizens
        and as environments which provide food and habitat   in violation of their right under the California con-
        for birds and marine life, and which favorably affect the
        scenery and climate of the area.'2                 stitutioni8 and the government code"9 guaranteeing
                                                           free and unobstructed access to navigable waters
                                                           from public streets and highways of a city.
      It also found that Whitney did have standing to    frohepucic sueets andthighityt
                                                             The city countered that it had the right to pass
    sue in that the relief sought by Marks in filling and
                                                           the ordinance closing the streets and unless there
    developing the tidelands would take away Whitney's   was abuse of discretion, fraud, or an ultra vires act
    rights, to which he was entitled as a member of the    th e plaintiffs could not attack the city's  action.
                                                           the plaintiffs could not attack the city's action.
    general public.                                         Not so, said the appellate court, adding that a
      A bombshell in environmental law in California
                                                           municipality may close off a public street but it
    is the now famous Friends of Mamouth v. Board    muncipalty may close off   public street but i
                                                           does not have the right to close off public access to
    of Supervisors"3 involving the construction of a ski    tidelands or navigable waters
    lodge in Mono County. The statewide impact of the
    California Supreme Court's decision is of major              The basic purpose of entrusting tidelands to municipali-
    concern to wetland protectors as well as to all              ties in trust, is to insure the right of free public access
    environmentalists.                                           to tidelands or navigable waters. (Calif. Const. Art. XV,
      Here the developer had obtained a conditional             Sec. 2 & 3) The object of the trust is destroyed if a
                                                                municipality... can deprive the public of its right of
    use permit for the construction of two multi-storied         access to tidelands or navigable waters.20
    condominiums without there having been issued an
    environmental impact report under California's 1970       Three young men from San Francisco's Lowell
    Environmental Quality Act (CEQA).114 The Friends    High School, disturbed about a development over-
    of Mamouth, a citizen action group, contended that
    CEQA applied to private as well as public proj-   lookg Lake Merced south of Golden Gate Park
    CEA  applied to private as well as public prot-    decided to try and stop the project which they felt
    ects. The National Environmental Protection Act
                  E   1uponwhih the Ca At ws would cause damage to the lake. Without finances
    (NEPA)"5 upon which the California Act was
    modeled applies to public, not private projects.        or experience they nevertheless won a $100,000
      The California Supreme Court held that state and    settlement which was put ito a trust fund for
                                                           coastal environmental protection.
    local governmental agencies must file an environ-         In 1971, for an Eagle Scout proect      7-year-old
    mental impact report for all projects both public    boy, Allan Riley, produced a             and report on
                                                           boy, Allan Riley, produced a filmz and report on
    and private which require a governmental permit,
                                                             1' Sec. 2700-27650-California Public Resources Code
      12 Marks v. Whitney, 6 Cal. 3d 251 at p. 259            17 Court of Appeal, Second Appellate District 2nd Civ. No. 45249.
      13 8 Cal. 3d 247                                       Is California Constitution, Article XV, Section 2.
      4 Seec. 2100-21165-California Public Resources Code    19 California Government Code, Sec. 39933.
      " 42 USC 4321                                           20 Lane v. City of Redondo Beach, ibid.

                                             THE PUBLIC'S ROLE                                          603

    Lake Merced. He wanted to .clean up and preserve    quate sewage disposal, damage to bird habitat in
    the lake and was concerned about a large condo-   the lake, traffic density, and earthquake hazard.
    minium development under construction on the            The state commission, by a vote of 11-1, denied
    lake's edge. While Allan was checking various agen-   their appeal in 1973, but the youths would not give
    cies and being brushed off as some kind of "an    up. They interested a San Francisco attorney,
    ecology nut," Proposition 20, California's Coastal    Margaret Halloran, in their cause. Struck by their
    Protection Act, became law. He found that the    enthusiasm, she represented them in suing both the
    Act provided that if a body of water, not subject to    developer and the coastal commission, challenging
    tidal action lies within 3,000 feet inland from the   the commission's procedures in granting the permit.
    coastline, (i.e., within the coastal zone permit area),    San Francisco Superior Court Judge Ira Brown
    the body of water together with a strip 1,000 feet   issued an injunction stopping the project on Octo-
    around it shall also be included. He contended that    ber 1, 1973, and then took the matter under sub-
    a coastal commission permit was required for such    mission for 8 months. On June 5, 1974, he informed
    development and one had not been obtained, so he    the parties that he was intending to invalidate the
    went to court and won a preliminary injunction    permit and order the case back to the commission.
    forcing the developer to seek a permit. For one and    The delay was costing the developers vast sums of
    a half years Allan carried on the fight alone until   money in interest rates alone, so the developer
    he went off to college; then he enlisted two of his   settled in cash for $100,000 with no strings attached.
    former Lowell High School friends, Jonathan Holt    The youths could have kept the money but they
    and George Duesdieker, to carry on. These young    preferred to see it go into a trust fund to help en-
    men worked very hard, and for a month never went    vironmental causes. Attorney Halloran stated that,
    to bed before 3 a.m. in their diligent efforts to    without the tremendous research and the fact-
    gather all essential facts in preparation for the hear-   gathering by the youths, the case would not have
    ing before the regional coastal commission.           been won. These Lowell High School students proved
      Disappointed that the regional commission granted    how effective youth can be in pursuing their legal
    the permit to the developer, they nevertheless pur-   remedies to a conclusion. They paved the way for
    sued the matter, taking an appeal to the state   others by setting aside their winnings in an environ-
    coastal commission, basing their appeal on inade-   mental trust fund.

      LEGAL
    ASPECTS

    LAND USE CONTROLS
    AND WATER QUALITY
    IN THE ESTUARINE ZONE

    MARC J. HERSHMAN
    U n iversity of Washington
    Seattle, Washington

                ABSTRACT

                A complex institutional problem has arisen in the management of estuarine resources due to
                overlapping and contradictory regulatory programs at the federal, state, and local levels. A
                contributing factor to this problem is the split between regional and community-focused resource
                management involving state and local land use planning, and specific resource management
                programs involving federal controls over air and water, and federal review of major construction
                projects affecting the environment. Noting that state and local government initiatives in control
                of lands adjacent to estuaries are increasing, and that the federal Coastal Zone Management Act
                of 1972 was designed to bridge the fields of regional and community-focused management and
                federal resource management both technically and institutionally, the paper concludes
                 that state-level coastal zone management efforts should be upgraded. Further, coordination
                 requirements included in many federal laws should be given more study and financial support
                to make them effective.

    INTRODUCTION                                             considered separately from community-focused re-
                                                            source planning and management.
      Most water quality issues have a land use com-
    ponent to them. Site selection for an industrial plant,     There are three types of land-water interaction in
    modification of the land-water interface (the angle    the estuarine zone, each of which has different sets
    and shape of the land being "washed" by the water),    of institutions for resolving disputes. The first relates
    and the land use activities affecting water runoff and    to water drainage, water capture, or rights to water
    drainage all affect the quality of the receiving water.    use. Private law has developed to accommodate
    The impact of land use on water quality is reviewed    rights of adjoining neighbors in the exercise of these
    by an array of institutions developed in the United    water-related interests. Further, local planning and
    States over many years. This paper argues that our    districting laws frequently aid in accommodating
    key problem in dealing with estuarine resources is an    problems between landowners seeking to use the
    institutional rather than a technical one. The technical    same resource. These water use problems are nor-
    issues of environmental impact assessment, judicial    mally controlled by adjudicating private rights in
    clarity of private property rights, and others are    court, and by actions of local planning and zoning
    important, but the primary question is: Who's in    agencies or special districts.
    charge? This institutional problem arises from num-        A second area of land-water interaction is called
    erous conflicting federal and state laws, a federalism    "foreshore," bank, or tidelands where there is a
    system where power is split between states and the    mixture of state and private ownership. Occasionally,
    federal government, and the current changing role of    rights are totally in one party or another. Sometimes
    state and local governments in resource management    a "public trust" is established and private rights
    activities.                                              may  only be exercised subject to an overriding
      For the estuarine zone, the institutional problem    public interest. Of late, the foreshore area is managed
    arises because of two different factors:                 primarily at the state level with federal review where
                                                            navigable waters are involved.
      1)  Legally apportioned responsibilities  among          A third area where land and water interact in the
    levels of government are based on geographic land-    estuarine zone involves waters and waterbottoms in
    water interactions; and                                  streams, lakes, bays, and other coastal waters where
      2) Specific resource management (air and water    state ownership of waterbottoms and natural re-
    quality, physical facility development) tends to be    sources coexists with the federal navigational servi-

                                                                                                            607

    608                                  ESTUA2INE POLLUTION CONTROL

    tude. Thus, state law normally controls the resources    (EPA-water quality; U.S. Fish and Wildlife. Ser-
    of the area (fish, minerals, and water consumption)    vice-fish-habitat improvement;  Corps  of Engi-
    but the federal servitude requires review of most    neers-navigation improvement)  and community-
    actions to determine impact upon federal navigation    focused planning considerations such as the need for
    and environmental interests.                            higher employment, protection of a scenic stream,
      It is seen that each area of land-water interac-    or housing demands. Local governments responsible
    tion-water use by the landowner, the foreshore,    for community planning have hundreds of federal
    and waterbottoms-has its own primary mixture of   regulations and inducement programs to deal with,
    institutions regulating and managing the resources.    many of which are competing or contradictory. The
    Estuaries, and their associated wetlands and uplands,    difficult struggle in the area of land use controls is to
    can, and usually do, involve all three areas thus mag-    determine when  a consideration of community-
    nifying the institutional problem.                      focused needs should, or could, override specific
      Critical institutional problems arise because air   resource quality standards. Or, to put the case the
    and water quality issues and physical facility de-    other way, when should a federal standard, for ex-
    velopment proposals are managed separately from    ample, the requirement that structures be elevated
    community-focused resource planning issues. Federal    above predicted flood stages within a flood plain,
    jurisdiction is primarily concerned with the former    control the flexibility of local government to re-
    method of management whereas state and local   spond to a local community  need?  The  laws,
    governments are primarily concerned with the latter.    institutions, and administration of specific federal
      The term "community-focused resource planning"    resource management programs and local commu-
    refers to a number of factors for which it is difficult   nity-focused resource planning programs reflect this
    to find one all-inclusive term. It applies, funda-    struggle daily.
    mentally, to human needs in an urban or urban-    / This paper analyzes this struggle in the context
    fringe context, where the needs are reflected in types    bf coastal and estuarine land use problems. For
    of land use planning and controls. It refers to pro-    practical and constitutional reasons, a major over-
    cedures to meet housing needs for a diverse popula-    haul of the current system of managing land-water
    tion and to meet police, fire, and health standards.    interaction problems is not recommended. However,
    It can reflect community attitudes about growth,    it is suggested that there are three ways in which the
    limits to growth, and quality of construction or    structure can be improved. First, it is recognized
    aesthetic principles. It can reflect concepts of "key    that the state level of government could play a
    area" or "areas of critical environmental concern."   and perhaps act as a mediator where
    It can consider employment, education, economic
                 It can cosider employment, eduAtion, econlocal community needs and federal resource programs
    and other social needs as a function of land use con-
    siderations.                                            differ. Second, it is recognized that coordination
      Community-focused  resource  planning  stands    between different agencies having specific manage-
    apart from specific resource management such as air    ment functions needs to be upgraded. Third, there
    and water quality controls, water resource develop-    is a need to compile descriptions of experience
    ment, fish and wildlife impact evaluations, and spe-    throughout the world in certain technical matters
    cific transportation/facility project developments.    which can aid in decisionmaking where land-water
    Specific resource management programs strive for   interaction problems are involved.
    technical precision through alleged objective criteria    To show why these particular institutional prob-
    based on applied research, pilot projects, models,    lems need attention and to describe ways in which
    and so forth. They are normally implemented
                 and  so forth.  They are normally implemented    the problems currently arise, four types of manage-
    through federal laws and regulations with decisions
                                                          ment processes used in the estuarine zone are dis-
    made by technically trained federal, state, or local
    officals. On the other hand, community-focused re-   cussed, with emphasis on developments over the
    source planning is controlled almost exclusively by    last five years. First, the paper discusses federal
    the political process. Implementation of precise tech-    controls over activities affecting wetlands. Second,
    nical standards will almost always yield to a hard-    major project review at the federal level is discussed.
    ship case, strong public (or political) sentiments    Third, recent developments and initiatives at the
    forcing a decision one way or the other, or an    local and state level are outlined. Finally, the Coastal
    emergency situation.                                    Zone Management Act of '1972, potentially'an im-
      Control of land uses which affect estuarine water    portant tool in the future, is discussed. The recom-
    quality is caught in a crossfire between the specific    mendations stated briefly above are discussed in
    resource management functions of federal agencies    more detail in the conclusion.

                                                LEGAL ASPECTS'                                            609

    -* FEDERAL CONTROLS OVER                         '      compromises; or the imposition of mitigative features
    -ACTIVITIES AFFECTING WETLANDS  as permit conditions and other arrangements be-
      M'lost marshes and estuarine areas are near or    tween the applicant and the Corps of Engineers. Tie
    associated with bodies of water that are considered    past decade has seen significant growth in the fish
                                                          and wildlife review procedure. In August 1974, the
    navigable. Tidal waters are considered navigable as
                                                          U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service published a set of
    .are streams capable of conveying any kind of com-
    merce. Where there are navigable waters the United    guidelines'0l� developed in the past 10 years to assist
                                                          field personnel review applications for Corps permits.
    the commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution.' In         In recent years other events have occurred requir-
                                 recognition of this authority to regulate commerce    ing that interests beyond navigation be considered
    recognition      ted significnt this authority  to  execu-   by the Corps of Engineers prior to approval of a
                                                          permit. In 1970, Zabel v. Tabb," decided by the U.S.
    tive agencies to deal with specific resource manage-    Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals, hel d that   the Corps
    ment activities, For example, the U.S. Army Corps of
    Engineers regulates activities affecting navigable    of Engineers may deny a permit for activities in
    -waters and navigation.' The Environmental  Pro-   -navigable waters on ecological grounds alone. It
    tection Agency looks at water quality' and air   recognized that the Corps must consider the con-
                                                          gressional intent in the Fish and Wildlife Coordina-
    quality,4 among other things. The U.S. Fish and    gressional intent in the Fish and Wildlife Coordina-
    Wildlife Service and the National Marine Fisheries    tion Act and the National Environmental Policy
    Service are concerned with fish and wildlife resources'    Act in its decisionmaking process.
    of the nation. Each of these agencies, given certain      In 12, three acts were passed, all of which will
                                                          affect aspects of Corps procedures: the Ocean Dump-
    specific authorities and responsibilities by Congress,    affect aspects of Corps procedures: the Ocea
                                                          ing Act,)2 the Federal Water Pollution Control Act,"3
    analyzes the effect proposed activities may have    and   the Coastal Zone Managemen           t Ac t.4 The Ocean
    upon these resources by balancing the need for the    Dumping  Act requires the Corps of Engineers to
    particular activity with the impact on the resource.
       In the last five years Congress, the courts, and    apply Environmental Protection Agency standards
    administrators have attempted valiantly to upgrade    and critera i approving ocean sposal of dredge
    the federal review procedure and make it a workable    spoil materials where the transport for dumping
                                                          -passes         through
    one. Many of the laws and procedures are still new    passes through U.S. ter         l  aters.l  Similarly,
                                                          under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of
    and many details of this review process have not been
                  ~~~~~fully~worked out.      ~1972, the Corps must apply EPA criteria: in allowing
       With respect to most activities affecting wetlands    disposal of dredge spoils in navigable waters's
    primary jurisdiction is in the Army Corps of Engi-   Under the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972,
    neers under the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899.6   Congress has given states the primary responsibility
    When bridges or causeways are involved, the Coast    for determining land and water uses affecting the
                                                           coastal zone." (The potential effect of this new law
    Guard has primary jurisdiction.' Any local govern-    coastal zone.  (The potential effect
    ment or private entity wishing to perform work    is discussed in more detaillater.) The precise impact
     (water diversions, piers, bulkheads and jetties, drain-    of these three new laws passed in 1972 is still beihg
    age, dredging, and others) must apply to the Corps of    debated by  the Corps of Engineers and other
    Engineers for a permit before that work may begin.    agencies.
    Originally, the Corps evaluated projects from the         In response to these many changes, the Corps of
    standpoint of navigational interests alone. In the    Engieers began modifying its procedures, first, by
    last 20 years, however, changes have occurred in    expanding the definition of the word "navigable wa-
    this procedure which have substantially expanded    ters" to align with the case law developed by U.S.
    it. These will be briefly described.                    courts in defining the term. By regulation,s all waters
       The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act' was    up to the mean high tide line, including wetlands
    originally~ passed in 1934 and has been amended    wholly or partially covered at high tide are included,
    numerous times since then. It requires that the di-   whether privately or publicly owned. Further, waters
    rector of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service,    which are "navigable-in-fact," and capable of sup-
    the National M arine Fisheries Service,' and the    porting commerce or which in the past, or potentially
    chief official of the state,resource agency concerned    in the future can become "navigable-in-fact" are
    with fish and wildlife resources provide comment to    included. Most recently the Corps of Engineers
    the Corps of Engineers on the effect of the proposed    issued new guidelines expanding its scope of review
    project on fish and wildlife resources. These com-    over activities affecting navigable waters'" which
    ments are attached to the report of'the district engi-    provide a higher standard of review, when wetlands
    neer and frequently form the basis for denials,    or marshes are involved.s0

    610                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      Currently, wetlands control at the federal level        The second matter needing attention in the next
    involves the Corps of Engineers (or Coast Guard)    few years is the role of the Environmental Protec-
    as the primary agency with comments, or input corn-    tion Agency. In addition to reviewing dredge spoil
    ing from many other interests. At the federal level    disposal practices discussed above, EPA reviews all
    input is received from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife    dredging permits to determine impact on water
    Service, the National Marine Fisheries Service, the    quality.22 This agency also influences land use de-
    Environmental Protection Agency, and, where the    cisions greatly through required planning programs.23
    nature of the application requires, other agencies of    These powers have yet to be implemented for the
    the federal government having an interest. Further,    most part. For example, the New Orleans District of
    the Corps receives input from state and local agencies    the Corps of Engineers does not get direct input
    having an interest in the project application, the    from EPA, but EPA provides information to the
    number of agencies varying with the state. Beyond    Fish and Wildlife Service which combines the in-
    the review exercised by government agencies, the    formation with its review. At the Washington level,
    Corps becomes the focal point for pressure from the    there is debate over how extensive EPA and Corps
    applicant to have his project approved, and pressure    control over dredge spoil disposal should be. Despite
    from public interest, environmental, or other groups    these uncertainties, EPA's recent statements regard-
    who oppose the change in the wetlands environment.    ing protection of the nation's wetlands24 and land
      If a proposed project is large and potentially    use implications of EPA  programs25 indicate that
    damaging to the environment in a "significant" way,    this agency's review of wetlands decisions will in-
    or if there is a great deal of public controversy    crease in the future.
    surrounding a proposed project, the Corps may de-         A third aspect of the federal wetlands control
    cide that an environmental impact statement must    program which may change dramatically in the
    be prepared under the National Environmental    next few years is the role of state and local govern-
    Policy Act of 1969.21 The decision to prepare such a    ments. Though some states make very specific rec-
    statement is discretionary with the federal agency    ommendations to the Corps of Engineers on these
    depending on its interpretation of whether a permit    matters, other states have not yet developed specific
    allowing construction is a "major Federal action    programs. Most states are upgrading current efforts.
    significantly affecting the quality of the human    or developing new ones to more effectively manage
    environment." If an environmental impact state-    wetland resources. Some assistance may come as the
    ment is prepared the same agencies review the draft    Coastal Zone Management Act (to be discussed
    statement, or provide input to the Corps as in the    later) is implemented. A key question is whether
    case of general permits for activities in navigable wa-    state authority will increase and replace aspects of
    ters. The agency and public comments tend to relate   federal government review, thus shifting the focus of
    to the adequacy of the environmental impact state-   attention from federal agencies to state agencies. It
    ment  as well as the substantive environmental    is possible that states will be given greater considera-
    issues. Further, the procedures followed are more    tion and perhaps be the determinative voice in the
    specific, resulting, usually, in a more detailed and    federal review process. Further, they may be able to
    thorough review. (Review of major public works    better address  regional and  community-focused
    projects is discussed in the next section.)             considerations.
      Three key matters involving the Corps review
    process just described will have to be addressed in the
    coming few years. First, the review process may be    MAJOR FEDERAL
    too narrow to allow for sound decisions. It is project    PROJECT REVIEW
    oriented-the responses relate to a specific action at
    a particular time. Also, the review is single-resource    Operating parallel to the review of individual
    oriented, i.e., the focus of attention is the single    permit applications for activities affecting navigable
    purpose the project is to serve or the effect the    waters is the planning and implementation of major
    project has upon a single resource such as a wildlife   public works projects, normally dealing with utility
    habitat affecting one species. Often, impacts on the    or transportation development, which affect coastal
    ecosystem as a whole are not evaluated. Further, the    zone and estuarine resources. Most of these involve
    procedure seems deficient in that regional considera-    significant modification of the land-water interface
    tions and  community-focused  resource planning    with resulting changes in water movement and cir-
    dimensions of review are missing. Receiving input on    culation and with notable effects on geology, water
    a specific project proposal from varieties of agencies    chemistry, and biology. Projects in this category in-
    may not provide the overview necessary for sound    elude river channel improvement; new roads and
    management and decisionmaking.                         highways crossing estuarine areas; large fill projects

                                                LEGAL ASPECTS                                             611

    for airports or port improvements; dams and res-   view and analysis on environmental grounds and
    ervoirs for irrigation and flood protection; major    meet requirements under law to proceed with the
    shore protection works to offset erosion, accretion,    project.
    -and sedimentation; stream channelization for drain-      Second, the procedure of major federal project
    age; and other kinds of activities.                     review is fundamentally a free-for-all. There is no
      The Corps of Engineers and other major federal    executive guidance to agencies. Major federal agen-
    agencies are normally responsible for these kinds of   cies which oppose one another on specific projects-
    activities. They do not apply for a permit as dis-   e.g., the Corps of Engineers which is sponsoring a
    cussed in the previous section. For the most part    major dredging project and the U.S. Fish and Wild-
    Congress determines the rules to be used in deciding   life Service which opposes it-have no arbiter to
    when, where, and how a major public works project    which to take their claim. The issue frequently
    using federal funds is to be developed. For example,    becomes political or ehds up in litigation. Occasion-
    the Department of Transportation administers the    ally through negotiation, interagency agreements on
    Federal-Aid Highway Act26 which contains numer-    projects are arranged but this is often an exercise in
    ous requirements for consideration of environmental    finding a middleground the agencies can live with
    values in planning and  constructing highways.    which may or may not represent the best public
    Similarly, the Federal Aviation Administration in   interests.
    airport site selection, the Federal Power Commission      Third, and perhaps the fundamental problem with
    in power plant site decisions, and other such agency    the procedure for reviewing major federal projects
    determinations follow congressional guidelines and    is its "project, orientation." The federal agency
    procedures. (In the case of the Corps of Engineers,    sponsoring the project must comply with a law
    Soil Conservation Service, and others, where Con-    designed to promote the project. Congress has passed
    gress has not established specific guidelines in an    numerous flood control acts, highway development
    organic law, the U.S. Water Resources Council has    acts, navigation improvement bills, and many others.
    promulgated "Principles and Standards for Planning    The agencies implementing the laws are engineering-
    Water  and  Related Land  Resources"27 to help    oriented agencies with specialized functions. Hence,
    establish if a proposed project is in the public inter-    authority for resource development projects is spread
    est.) How  are federal decisions on major public    among special-function agencies. This impedes de-
    works projects reviewed for impact on wetlands and    velopment of a broader approach to determining
    estuarine water quality?                               proj ect need and the consideration of values beyond
       The key review of major federal projects is done    those immediately  associated  with  the project.
    pursuant to the National Environmental Policy Act    What may be missing is a more meaningful role for
     (NEPA) 28 Under that act, all federal projects which    state and local government in looking at regional
    significantly affect the quality of the human environ-    considerations and community-focused needs.
    ment must be preceded by an environmental assess-
    ment and the preparation of an environmental
    impact statement. Hundreds of law suits have been    LOCAL AND STATE INITIATIVES
     filed by environmental protection organizations in    IN PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
     recent years using NEPA and the impact. statement
     requirements as their basis.29 The Council on En-         Theoretically,  considerations of community-fo-
     vironmental Quality which administers the impact    cused needs and regional concerns are provided by
     statement procedure, has codified much of the case    local 'and state agencies through. planning and land
     law under this process in their recent guidelines.30    use control laws (zoning, subdivision control, emin-
     Further, federal regulations coming from numerous    ent domain) .2 Planning and zoning controls arose to
     construction  agencies over the past year have    serve the need of making land uses in an urban
     stressed procedures within that agency for making    environment compatible. Today, planning and zon-
     NEPA reviews.31                                        ing concepts are being applied to new areas of con-
       NEPA review can be criticized from three stand-    cern arising primarily outside of urban areas.
     points. First, the federal agency promoti'g and           In the last five years these controls have been
     developing the project is' responsible for preparing    signifidantly expanded to cover coastal zone, wet-
     the impact statement. They are responsible for   lands, and estuarine areas. The following are repre-
     conducting an impartial reevaluation of the merits    sentative examples. Wisconsin passed a Shorelands
     of the project long after the inital decision to pro-    Zoning Act34 creating standards for local govern-
     ceed with the project has been made. Hence, federal    mental units to control disturbance of wetlands and
     agencies are frequently in the awkward position of   shorelines. Delaware recently took action to protect
     trying to respond to the pressures for project re-   its beach dunes35 along the Atlantic Ocean. The

    612                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    State of Washington has passed a Shorelands Manage-    resource or project development under federal stand-
    ment Act36 which controls all development activities    ards and criteria. The perspectives of the respective '
    from the line of vegetation to 200 feet inland along    agencies are quite different. From a legal and in-
    the shores bf the ocean, bays, and lakes of the state.    stitutional standpoint,  clarification is needed to:;
    California has passed recently the California Coastal    distinguish between regional or community-focused'
    Zone Conservation Act37 which, in a zone extending    decisions made at the state and local level and the
    from the 3-mile territorial limit to 1,000 meters    resource and project management decisions exer-
    inland requires permits for all development activi-    cised at the federal level. It is uncertain whether the
    ties. The State of Florida passed the Environmental    courts must choose between the two or allow the'
    Land and Water Management Act38 in 1972 which    two decision processes to exist side-by-side.45 Con-
    delineates areas of critical state concern and develop-    gress may, as a matter of policy, begin to restrict
    ments of regional impact for application of state and    and reduce federal management roles in an effort -to
    regional policies. Maine has passed a Site Location    upgrade the role of state and local government. With
    Law39 controlling major facility development. Ha-    strengthened state and local programs emerging and
    waii40 and Vermont4' have established' commissions    demanding an effective voice in decisionmaking, a
    which review all major land use activities in these    shift in power may evolve over a period of years.
    states.                                                 This would constitute a reversal of a trend started
      In most of the examples there is a mixture of con-    in the early part of this century whereby Congress
    trol activity between state and substate units of    used its powers under the interstate commerce clause
    government. Traditionally, state law provides gen-   to exercise many resource management functions at
    eral guidance and limits of authority while imple-    the federal level.'
    mentation is at a lower level of government. The
    courts have upheld these laws as valid exercises of
                                                           FEDERAL COASTAL ZONE
    governmental power42 but occasionally courts re-    MANAGEMENT ACT
    strict the exercise of that power to protect the
    property rights of the individual affected.43 Thus,
    states and local governments are experimenting ith        If the state and local initiatives described are to
    new laws and ordinances in controlling key areas and    succeed as the mode for regional and community
    resources normally found outside of the urban en-       focused management   they  must be legally and
               vironent. This trend w ill probably continu en.   technically prepared for the job. One law specifically
      State  and local initiatives to plan and manage    designed to encourage and upgrade state and local
    coastal regions, critical areas, or resources in a key    initiative in this area is the Coastal Zone Manage-
    area, must deal with specific resource or project    ment Act of 1972,46 a quietly passed  almost un
    management under federal laws whenever navigable    noticed, bill. The 30 coastal and Great Lakes states
    waters or federally assisted programs are involved.    (territories and possessions as well) can apply for
    For example, in California's coastal area, many    assistance i  the development and implementation
    activities mianaged by the California Coastal Zone    of coastal management programs. The key purposes
                                                           of the law are -to balance environmental protection
    Conservation Commission are also reviewed by fed-    of the law are to balane environmental protection
    eral agencies having resource or project functions    and economc   evelopment obectives in the land
    within that region. Potentially, state and  local    and water use decisions in the coastal zone, and to
                                    management  of regional or   ommunity-f  upgrade the state's decisionmaking process. States
                    management  of egina orcomudo not have to participate under the Coastal Zone
    resources can conflict with resource and project
    management exercised by federal agencies. This has
    occurred in California where 'Interior Department's       Initially, states receive planning funds to develop
                                                           a "coastal management program": which consists of
    plans for Outer Continental Shelf oil development
    an  Clfonisplans for cOutr Continental Shelf oil dethree key elements. The first is to establish the
    and California's plans for coastal Zone              management
    are bound to conflict.44 This becomes a struggle    boundaries of the coastal zone. This is a difficult
    between the state's exrcise of its police power and    task because the coastal zone is defined as the area irn
                                  the federal governments powers to reglate  co which shoreland uses have a direct and significant
    thmercederamongovtherstates     poexs to regulate  om-    impact on coastal waters. Hence, to establish the
                                      merce amog th s .    .  boundaries of the coastal zone is-to establish the
      This state-federal struggle gives rise to techrical,
                                                          uses to be managed. The second element is to develop
    legal and institutional problems. At the technical    analytical tools for deciding between alternative uses
    level, frequently incompatible results airise from an    of land or water in the coastal zone. This consists of5
    evaluation of the goals and needs of a particular area    developing resource inventories and environmental
    (done by the state or local unit) and the analysis of    assessment techniques, identifying areas of particular

                                                LEGAL AS'ECTS                                             613

    concern, and determining priority uses for particular    next five or 10 years to meet this institutional prob-'
    areas in the coastal zone. The third, and perhaps the    lem.
    most important element, is to improve the decision-       There are three primary ways to upgrade the
    making processes within the states in two ways:    current system to meet aspects of the institutional
    raising the level of government at which decisions    problem: greater support for state coastal manage-
    are made and requiring full cooperation between    ment efforts; required coordination'between federal
    levels of government' and, outlining the decision-    programs and between federal and state agencies
    making process between various decisionmakers    making similar reviews; and further research and
    and,determining criteria and standards they are to    information on technical matters relating to land
    use.                                                    use controls.
      Once states have developed a coastal managements       State coastal managemeint initiatives should be given
    program they apply to have it approved by the ad-    greater support as they are potentially the most
    ministering office (NOAA in the U.S. Department    important component in the review system. It was
    of Commerce). Once approved, the federal consist-    developed earlier that at the federal level the U.S.
    ency provisions of �307 of the Coastal Zone Manage-'  Corps of 'Engineers, with input from numerous other
    ment Act come into effect. Under these provisions,    federal agencies, is the key agency deciding uses of
    all federal projects, federal funding, assistance, and    wetlands and estuaries, and that under NEPA,
    permit activities, must be consistent with the state's    federal agencies involved in major' projects must
    coastal management program subject'to certain    prepare' environmental impact statements. At the
    qualifications'47 The �307 federal consistency provi-    other end of the scale, private interests and local gov-
    sions may ultimately be the handle on which state    ernments either promote and actively seek, or oppose
    and local management programs, exercised under    proposed projects and changes in their areas. Hence,
    the state's police power, can operate at -a par with,    much of the dialogue on reconciling resource manage-
    or perhaps have key influence over, federal resource    ment and project proposals with community-focused
    and project management programs in a particular    resource needs is between local and federal interests.
    state's coastal zone.                                  Missing in this dialogue, and potentially most useful
      The coastal management program is very new and    in- resolving problems and seeing a broader per-
    many questions remain unanswered. Most states    spective, is the state level of government. '
    received initial planning grants in June 1974, and the    It has been described how states have begun to
    next few years should see considerable planning    take initiatives in the last few years to develop
    activity. However, the Act is not adequately funded    programs where key areas, or regions, are managed at
    and even with states upgrading programs rather than    state level or by local governments subject to state
    starting new ones, progress may come slowly. CZM       standards 'and review. Since'the coastal management
    must gain acceptance within a state as well. Pro-    program is specifically designed to upgrade the
    grams in local planning and zoning, fisheries manage-    state's role in the management effort, it should be
    ment, mineral production, and water development    given greater attention. A number of reasons support
    must be used in the program and coordination be-    this view. 1)' Most federal officials and resource
    tween CZM and these traditional resource manage-    users feel that land and water use decisions should be
    ment programs must be complete.                        made at the lowest level of government possible.
                                                           They argue that local units tend to 'be controlled
                                                           by political interests and thus argue that the state
     CONCLUSION                                             level should be involved as well. Congress specifically
                                                           expressed this in the Coastar Zone' Management Act
      Previous sections of this paper have reviewed four    by asserting that states in cooperation with local
                                                           goverfnents should be the focal point for coastal
     major fields of regulation and control over land uses    goverments should be the focal point for coastal
     which affect estuarine water quality: federal controls    management active  Also, the current treid in
                                                           federal administrative matters seems to be in the
     over activities affecting wetlands and navigable    directionbfprovidia   more   sthonmtyoand bsponsi-
     waters, major federal project review, local and 'state    direction of proding more authority and    oni-
     initiatives in planning' and management, and the    blty at the state and lcal evel.
     ifederal Coastal Zone Management Act. As men-            2) Although the land use bill in Congress failed,
     federal Coastal Zone Management Act. As men-
     tioned in the introduction, this paper does not sug-    and many interpret this as an anti-land use control
     gest a major overhaul of the system since for con-   sentiment in Congress, most people believe that the
     stitutional and political reasons this would be nearly    coastal zone is a different, unique, and highly stressed
     impossible. The main problem is an institutional    area. Land use controls are normally accepted at the
     one, and the concern is how to spend funds over the`   local and municipal level for urban problems. People

    614                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    seem ready, indeed, to accept land use controls at a'  of the Coastal Zone Management Act and the Fed-,
    higher level of government where urban fringe and    eral Water Pollution Control Act. The Coastal Zone,
    non-urban areas are in the coastal and estuarine zone.    Management Act stresses that states should be given
      3) The Coastal Zone Management Act is con-    maximum flexibility under very general guidelines
    ceived and designed to meet the key coastal and estu-   issued at the federal level; these guidelines relate to
    arine problems. It combines technical and institu-    the process, not the substance of decisionmaking.
    tional upgrading as its primary goal, requiring states    The Federal Water Pollution Control Act mandates
    to address both the question of the manager and the    that federal standards be developed for all emissions
    criteria the manager uses for making decisions. The    and effluents and that states implement these stand-
    coastal management program is not conceived in   ards. The coastal management approach seems sound
    isolation from ongoing programs but specifically   in the long run. Where guidelines provide for flexi-
    requires coordination- and resolution of differences   bility and innovation at the state and local level,
    between state, local, regional, and federal agencies.    commitment to the program by state and local offi-
    Further, the policies of the Coastal Management    cials becomes greater. They are more likely to sup-
    Act seem most suited to resolving tough coastal    port its implementation after participating in the
    zone controversies. It is not a mission oriented pro-    formulation of the program.
    gram but is specifically designed to balance environ-     Further, states differ geographically, socially, and
    mental  and  economic  development  objectives   politically. If programs are developed which rec-
    through  analytical  techniques  and  procedures.    ognize differences and peculiarities of a state or local
    Finally, it has no vested interest to assert although    area, officials may be more motivated to influence
    some have accused it of being a special interest pro-    their own people to accept the program than they
    gram in its assertion of the importance of the coastal    would be if the program were designed at the federal
    zones over noncoastal areas.                           level. Two states come to mind as examples of these
      4) Finally, the coastal management program is   points. California is a leader in the nation in the
    designed to look at both land and water uses and    development of controls over coastal development,
    the interaction between the land and water. It is not    perhaps because they have the greatest problems to
    limited from a geographical standpoint as is the    solve and a highly educated and active citizenry.
    Environmental Protection Agency ("waters of the    They will probably progress at a greater speed
    United States"), the Corps of Engineers ("navigable    implementing their own program than would a
    waters") or the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service    federal agency implementing a national coastal
    ("navigable waters"). It can include adjacent up-    program in California. On the other hand, Louisiana
    lands as well as water bodies in the definition of the   is a conservative southern state, predominantly rural
    coastal zone. This may facilitate providing a nexus    (with the exception of New Orleans) and with prob-
    between the community-focused resource planning    lems of educational, economic, and cultural lag. A
    typical of the local government unit, and the specific   great deal of pushing at the federal level will not
    resource or project management functions of federal    make a significant difference in Louisiana. Yet, when
    agencies. It also affords an opportunity to consider    a local project or program is conceived and executed
    regional problems from both the community need    within the state, the local politicians put a great deal
    perspective and the resource/project perspective.       of weight behind it and see that it is developed.
      In a recent publication a suggestion was put for-      The second maj or area where the current system of
    ward that a program of wetlands control is needed    land use controls affecting estuarine water quality
    similar to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act    can be upgraded is in the required coordination be-
    of 1972 wherein federal authority would be para-    tween certain federal programs and related federal and
    mount and specific standards would be promulgated    state agencies granting permits and licenses. This
    for implementation at the state and local level.49 This    coordination needs more  structuring and  funds
    would be an unwise approach. First, it would sep-    should be provided for the coordination function.
    arate wetlands from associated upland areas thus    A few examples will illustrate the need and perhaps
    inhibiting the ability to control the major source of    suggest some remedies. Under the National Pollutant
    the impacts on wetlands and estuaries. Second, such    Discharge  Elimination  System  administered  by
    a wetlands control program would be aimed at    EPA,5O a certification must be made to the Corps of
    enhancement of fish and wildlife resources dependent    Engineers that a proposed activity in navigable wa-
    upon the wetlands resource which, as mentioned    ters will not adversely affect water quality. Since
    before, may not give sufficient consideration to com-    EPA's primary responsibility is to issue permits to
    munity-focused needs and regional concerns.             numerous point source emitters, this coordinating
      There is a difference in philosophy in the approach    mechanism on Corps wetlands permits has been put

                                                       LEGAL ASPECTS                                                  615

    at the bottom of the list of priorities; yet, this might    FOOTNOTES
    be one of the most significant inputs to the Corps of
    Engineers on wetlands permits. Specific funds should
    be established to facilitate this review, and the             2 33 U.s.c. �403
    factors to be analyzed should be articulated and
    described in a manual or workbook.                             33 U.s.C. �1251 et. seq.
      Another area where better coordination is needed            ,42 U.S.C. 1s857 et. seq.
    is between state and local wetlands review programs
    and the Corps of Engineers' permit program. Most              416 U.S.C. 5661 et. seq.
    states are not equipped or staffed to make adequate            6 33 UAC. �403
    input to the Corps on these activities. Federal per-
    sonnel could be detailed to state offices to assist in         49 U.S.. �1165g(6)(A). When "Corps" is referred to throughout this
    providing this input where the primary permit activ-    paper, "Coast Guard" could be inserted if the project proposed is a bridge
    ity is a federal one. Training programs involving
    state and federal officials are needed to sensitize             16 U.S.C. 5661 et. seq.
    officials to attitudes and perceptions at the other           9 The NMFS was originally part of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
    level of government.                                         at the time the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act was enacted.
      A third area where coordination is badly needed             1 "Guidelines for Revew of Fish and Wildlife Aspects of Proposals in
    is between state and local efforts at managing coastal    or Affecting Navigable Waters," 39 Fed. Reg. 29552 (1974).
    resources and other U.S. proprietary functions,
    especially those 'associated with offshore oil and gas        11430 F. 2d 199 (1970)
    leasing, coast guard and military bases, and other             1 Marine Protection. Research and Sanctuaries Act, 33 U.S.C. �1401
    federal land management functions. There have been    et. seq.
    frequent instances of differences of management                 33 U.S.C. �1251et. seq
    philosophies and management techniques between
    adjacent federal and state lands in the coastal zone.          14 16 U.s.c. �1451 et. seq.
      Lastly, certain technical matters need greater at-
    tention if the proper procedures and tools for de-             1133 U.S.C. �1413
    termining land use and water quality interaction are           1s 33 u.s.c. �1344
    to be developed. First, the concept of an impact
    beyond local significance needs to be made opera-             1716 U.S.C. �1452
    tional so it can be used in decisionmaking with some           1s 33 C.F.R. �209.260
    degree of consistency. In the areas of ecology, eco-
    nomics, transportation, and others, tools and tech-           " 33 C.F.R. 209.120
    niques are needed for measuring or assessing the              2 33 C.F.R. �209.120 (g)(3)
    extent of impact or significance of a local decision.
    Second, the cumulative effect of many small, in-              2142 U.S.C. �4321 at. seq.
    dividual decisions affecting coastal land and water            22 33 U.S.C. 1341
    use must' be determined. Techniques and tools are
    needed to measure cumulative effects. Third, land            ,1 33 U.S.C. �1288 and �1318
    use controls have traditionally included government
    restrictions imposed on private land use in specific
    districts. Recently, ideas have been discussed called  I2 Environmental Protection Agency, "Land Use Implications and Re-
    "positive land use controls" involving tax incentives,    quirements of EPA Programs" (undated draft), 13 p. See also F. Bosselman,
                                                                  D. Fuerer and D. Callies, EPA Authority Affecting Land Use (undated
    land'trades, transfer of development rights, and nd so    manuscript prepared for Environmental ProtectionAgency).
    forth.5' These are designed to offset the inequities
    resulting fromi imposition of certain land use controls.      28 23 U.s.C. 5101, at. seq.
    Also, they provide greater flexibility in forging new
    land use control strategies. These three technical            "38Fed. Reg.24778,ept. 10, 1973.
    matters are not readily "solved," nor are there easy          28 42 U.s.. 4321, et. seq.
    "answers." A better approach in providing assistance
    to agencies dealing with these matters is to compile          21 F. Anderson, NEPA in the Courts, Resources for the Future (Balti-
    dnd describe experience in this country and abroad,    more: 1973). Legaband non-legal literature has dealt with NEPA at length
                                                                  in recent years.
    and present that experience in compilations in which
    the materials are well indexed and abstracted.                30 40 C.F.R. �1500

    616                                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL'

      91 See, e.g., "Housing and Urban Development, Environmental Review          Coast Regional Commission v. See the Sea, Ltd., 109 Cal. Rptr. 377
    Procedures" 24 C.F.R. �58 (39 Fed. Reg. 86554, Oct. 10, 1974); "Depart-        (1973), limiting the application of the California Coastal Zone Conserva--
    ment  of Transportation  Procedures for Considering  Environmental            tion Act, Pub. Resources Code, �27000 et. seq.
    Impacts" 39 Fed. Reg. 35234 (Sept. 30, 1974); "USDA Forest Service,
    Environmental Statement-Guidelines  for Preparation" 39 Fed. Reg.               44 Hearings beforeNational Ocean PolicyStudy, U.S. Senate Committee
    38244 (Oct. 30, 1974).                                                        on Commerce, Santa Monica, Calif., Sept. 27, 28, 1974.

      a2 The authority for these controls arises out of the state's police powers.  45 See, Askew v. American Waterway Operators, Inc. 93 S. Ct. 1590
    In most cases, state legislatures have delegated the exercise of the power .            A         A '    ' n, ,.                             . a l
    to local units of government. Courts have been the prime agency deter-         (1978); Hershman and Folkenroth, "Coastal Zone Management and Inter-
    mining whether controls exceed constitutional limits by denying the land       governmental Coordnation,"  4 Ore. L. Rev. 13-33 (1975).
    owner the due process requirement that just compensation be paid for a
    "taking" of land. See F. Bosselman, D. Callies and J. Banta, The Taking          46 16 U.S.C. �1451. Federal assistance in land use planning activities in
    Issue, Council on Environmental Quality (1973).                               the past has been limited primarily to comprehensive planning under the
                                                                                  HUD 701 program. An attempt to pass a land use planning bill (H.R.
      8a See, generally, F. Bosselman and D. Callies, The Quiet Revolution in     10294) was recently defeated by the U.S. House of Representatives on
    Land Use Control, Council on Environmental Quality (1971).                     June 11, 1974. It may be considerable time before it is again addressed by
                                                                                  Congress. This leaves the Coastal Zone Management Act as the only
                                                                                  federally approved land use program at this time. Land uses under the
      4 Wis. Stat. Ann. �59.971 (Supp.'1973).                                     law are limited, however, to those having a direct and significant impact
                                                                                  on coastal waters.
      sc 7 Del. C. �6801 et. seq.
                                                                                    47 They are to be consistent "to the maximum extent practicable" in
      8s Wash. Rev. Code Ann. �90.58.010                                          some cases, in other cases certifications of consistency must be filed, and
                                                                                  in some cases disputed matters are to be resolved by the Secretary of Com-
      By 3 Pub. Res. Code 27000 et. seq. (Dec. 1973).                             merce in consultation with the Executive Office of the President. The
                                                                                  reader is referred to the text of �307.
      88 26 Fla. Stat. Ann. ��380.012-380.10
                                                                                    4s "The Wetlands: How Well Are They Protected?" Conservation
      89 38 M.R.S.A. �481-488.                                                    Foundation Letter, Sept. 1974.

      40 Land Use Law, Raw. Rev. Stat. Ch. 205.                                    9B Id., at p. 8. The idea is attributed to "some environmentalists" by the
                                                                                  publication's editor.
      41 Environmental Control Law, 10 Vt. S.A. ��6001-6091 (Supp. 1970).
                                                                                    50 33 U.S.C. �1251 et. seq.
     '4 See Just v. Marinette County, 56 Wis. 2d 7 (1972) upholding the
    Wjwconsin Shorelands Management Act; and, In the Matter of Spring                   See, e.g., "Inros   Toward Positive Land Use Management," State
    Valley Development by Lakesites, Inc., 300 A 2d 736 (Me. 1973) upholding      of Oregon (Executive Departent) 1974; I. Heyman, "Innovative Land
    the Maine Site Location Lawt, 3e88 M.R.S.A. �481 et.     1973) upholding      Regulation and Comprehensive Planning," Santa Clara Law., 13:185-235,
                                                                                  (Winter 1972); D. Listokin, ed., Land Use Controls: Present Problems
      43 See State v. Johnson, 265 A 2d 711 (Me. 1970) construing the Maine       and Future Reform, Center for Urban Policy Research (Rutgers Univ.
    Wetlands Act, Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. 12, �4701 et. seq., and San Diego            1974).

                               I   -
                                                         , ,  .'                                        - :    .   '

    STRUCTURING THE LEGAL
    REGULATION OF ESTUARIES

    ANGUS MACBETH
    Natural Resources Defense Council
    New York, New York

                ABSTRACT  ....
                 Estuaries'are large scale, highly productive:physical systems, Regulation and management of
                 estuarine resources is divided among a multitude of agencies at all levels of government. Federal
                 regulation has op/rated through' expanding the mandate of federal agencies to include review
                 of most estuarine resources and consultation with agencies responsible for them. The weakness
                 of this system lies in (1) the unwillingness of the agencies to accept the expanded mandate; (2) the
                 lack of agency expertise to comply with the expanded mandate; (3) the failure to fully staff and
                 fund the consultation' mechanism;; (4) unequal distribution of resources between the public,
                 private, and' goveinmehtal bodies. This can be remedied by (a) funding public groups which
                 contribute to agency proceedings; (b) establishing national estuarine laboratories with mixed
                 research and regulatory responsibilities; (c) full funding and staffing of the consultation mech-
                 anism.

    INTRODUCTION                                             interaction of legal authorities affecting the estu-
                                                           ary's ability to meet its potential for biological pro-
      Estuaries are large scale physical systems of high duction. The emphasis will be on the Hudson estuary
                                                           duction. The emphasis -will be on the Hudson estuary
    biological productivity and great complexity de- and its fishery since legal controversy there has
                                                           and its fishery since legal controversy there has
    pendent on land, freshwater and saltwater com            helped to illuminate the practial operation of regu-
    pnents for their natural operation. The, estuarine
                                                           latory authority; the aim is not to deal directly with
    environments support both resident ;and highly mi        environmental problems on the Hudson but to put
    gratory biota, both fish and fowl. The protection
                                                           the operation of legal institutions into a concrete
    of the biota is now a national goal under the Federal    context. The paper focuses on the distance between
    Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.1    the role theoretically and actually performed by the
    The physical position of estuaries at the confluence    regulatory agencies and the clash of interests which
    of rivers with the ocean has also made them natural    influences their operation. It suggests methods of
    foci for the development of commerce and the in          structuring the agency-private interest relationship
    dustrial and urban centers which feed commerce.          to assure more effective resolution of competing
      The legal mechanisms which control the develop-    demands on estuarine resources.
    ment and use of the estuarine zones are enormously
    varied and serve a wide variety of policies: the land
    use regulations governing shorelands and wetlands    SCHEMES OF LEGAL REGULATION
    which traditionally have been developed and en-
    forced by local government; the technological water        There are at least four models for establishing
    pollution control programs affecting particular dis-    legal safeguards for the productive capacity of an
    charges to the waters; water quality standards gov-    estuary. First, would be a single agency with regula-
    erning the water itself; structural schemes of water    tory authority to license and control the entire
    diversion or of damming, in all of which there is    array of human activity affecting the life support
    typically a shared federal and state responsibility;    system and capacity of the estuary. Logically, the
    and  the direct regulation of biota exploitation    agency would have to have regulatory authority
    through fishing and hunting laws developed by the    over most use and development of the estuary, its
    state. Typically, these authorities are divided be-    adjacent shoreline, its upstream freshwater sources
    tween different levels of government-federal, state    and the exploitation of its biota both inside and
    and local-with a number of agencies within each    outside the estuarine zone. Second, there is the
    affecting the various elements  of the estuarine    model of an advisory commission establishing a gen-
    system.                                                  eral plan for protecting the biota. This plan would
      This paper will focus on the biological production    be considered by each regulatory agency deciding
    of an estuarine system in order to analyze a typical    land or water uses, but which would not itself have

                                                                                                            617

    618                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    direct jurisdiction over the estuarine zone. Third, a    ductivity of estuaries. Most of these statutes as well
    requirement could be made of each agency that it   as others already on the books require resource
    must consider and assess the impact of any proposed    planning or protection which, if followed through
    action on the productive capacity of the estuary    in action, will have long-term impacts on the estu-
    and take necessary steps to protect or minimize the    arine productivity.
    damage to the resources. Fourth, a single agency        These new statutory initiatives take their place
    could be responsible for protecting the productive    in a context where some agencies with focused re-
    capacity of the estuary. The authority of such an    source responsibilities are also required to consult
    agency could be either advisory or include the power    with state or federal agencies which directly engage
    to reject the proposals of other agencies. Under each   in, or license private parties to engage in, the altera-
    model, of course, the objective can be altered to   tion of environmental conditions. These referral and
    assure the biological productivity of the estuary    consultation requirements are established to protect
    either greater or less weight in the decisionmaking    the resource. In the context of protecting estuarine
    process.                                              biota, the most important of these statutes is the
      Examples of the first two models can be found in   Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act" which requires
    the Delaware River Basin Commission2 and the    consultation on wildlife preservation with the Fish
    New England River Basin Commission,3 but they   and Wildlife Service of the Department of the
    have not been the primary force in recent years    Interior and National Oceanic and Atmospheric
    affecting the regulation of the estuaries. For in-   Administration of the Department of Commerce.
    stance, the proposal for a Chesapeake Bay Con-    Obviously, NEPA has the same type of consultation
    mission in Maryland to control the use and de-   requirement.
    velopment of Maryland's side of the bay failed of       These legal regulations work as a composite of
    enactment.4                                           the third and fourth models set out above. Many
      In recent years, legislation has moved in two dis-   state and federal agencies have been given expanded
    tinctive directions. First, the mandates of federal   mandates both in land and water resource planning,
    and, in some cases, state agencies have been widened    and in controlling sources of pollution or other factors
    beyond their primary missions by requirements to    affecting estuarine productivity. These agencies are
    consider and weigh the environmental impacts of   required to consult particular agencies assigned to
    the agency's activities. The National Environmental    protect certain values in estuarine development.
    Policy Act (NEPA) is the most obvious example           This legal structure and management model are
    of such a mandate-widening statute which requires   likely to be the basic pattern for some time to come.
    a fresh look and a new balance from agencies with    It is therefore worthwhile to identify the salient
    traditionally narrow mandates.' Other examples may    aspects of the model which are essential for its
    be readily found. The courts have reasserted the   proper operation and analyze whether thay have
    broad mandate of the Federal Power Commission,    operated effectively and, if not, suggest how they
    so that that agency must look at a broad spectrum    can be improved. This is done in the context of the
    of concerns in licensing hydroelectric projects.6 The    Hudson and its fishery in order to give the general
    land use planning sections of the 1974 Housing and    point concrete focus. The operating records of the
    Community Development Act have been expanded    Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments
    to require recipients of planning grants from the    of 1972 and the Coastal Zone Management Act are
    Department of Housing and Urban Development to   too brief to allow review of their effectiveness in
    consider environmental issues.7                       addressing the issue in this context. NEPA and the
      Second, a number of statutes have been enacted    state wetlands statutes now have longer histories
    which look at particular environmental media or   which make them useful for analysis. The emphasis
    physical areas and require a new, environmentally-    here will be largely on NEPA for a number of re-
    protective analysis in the decision process which    sons: it is a federal statute and thus more relevant
    governs their use and development. The Federal   to Congress's concerns; it is central to an analysis
    Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972,8   of both the expanded mandate and referral and con-
    state wetland protective statutes,9 and the Coastal    sultation mechanisms; the principal restraints on
    Zone Management Act"'  are examples of this ap-   state wetland legislation stem from the constitutional
    proach. These legal structures do not directly focus    requirements of the Fifth Amendment that private
    on the estuarine zone, but they operate within it to   property not be taken for public use without just
    produce an overlay of review and analysis which    compensation-thus these restraints cannot be di-
    takes into account, to at least some extent, the pro-   rectly remedied by legislation.

                                               LEGAL ASPECTS  ~                                        619

    THE CYCLE OF                                          fish make longer migrations into more open waters.
    THE HUDSON  FISHERY                                   There is no question that the Hudson makes a major
                                                         contribution to the coastal stock of striped bass in
      The Hudson is a tidal estuary from New York    the waters of the New York Bight and Long Island
    City to Troy, north of Albany. The line of the salt   Sound and perhaps is a major source for the fish
    front varies with the freshwater discharge but is   along the entire south shore of Long Island and in
    generally 40-65 miles upstream from the Battery.    New England waters.'6
    Gross pollution problems have been concentrated         It is obviously possible to affect the estuary's
    at New York City and Albany and the central reach    production of striped bass or other biota, both in
    of the estuary has historically supported a highly    the short and the long run, by altering the conditions
    productive fishery.                                   which foster continuing high production and control
      Henry Hudson reported the river teeming with    survival during each phase of the fish's life cycle.
    "the finest fish among which was the shad and many    In the Hudson many such intrusions have taken
    kinds scarcely less delicious... there were plenty of   place. Historically, there has been intrusion on the
    sturgeon which the Christians do not make use of,   adult population through the fishery catch, so that
    but the Indians eat them greedily... herring were    by the mid-1930's, when a 16-inch size limit was
    in myriads."'2 In the early 19th century, the sturgeon    imposed, the stock was at much lower levels than
    were so abundant that they were known as "Albany   it is presently." There has been intrusion on the
    beef" and there was a flourishing caviar industry.s   migratory, returning spawners through catching in
    Today, the striped bass and the shad are the most    nets set in the Hudson for the taking of shad, which
    important sport and commercial fish. There is a    also take striped bass.s Recently, there has been
    wide diversity in the array of migratory and resident   intrusion on the early life stages of eggs and larvae
    fishes in the river, alewife, blueback herring, white    by entrainment of the fish through the cooling sys-
    perch, bay anchovy, and tomcod, among others.'4       tems of power plants on the Hudson, and there has
      The life cycle of the anadromous,  estuarine-   been intrusion on the juvenile stage through im-
    dependent fish is significant to understanding the   pingement of those fish on the screens of power
    variety of places at which uses and development    plant intakes on the river."
    can affect the capacity of the river's productive       Obviously, other equally serious intrusions are
    resources. The striped bass may be taken as an    possible. For instance, the striped bass population
    example of the life cycle of the anadromous fish for   of the Delaware River has been virtually decimated
    these purposes. In the spring, the adult stripers   due to gross pollution, mainly oxygen reduction, in
    come upstream from the sea and the over-wintering    the crucial reach around Philadelphia.20 The central
    areas in the Hudson Estuary into the estuary's    Hudson from the Tappan Zee to Coxsackie is the
    freshwater section. The extent of the upstream mi-    crucial area for the spawning and nursery habitat
    gration depends on the water temperature and on    and has been relatively clean, but if industrial and
    the location of the salt front. In most years, the   municipal pollution on the scale present at New
    bulk of the eggs are spawned between 50 and 100    York City or in the Albany pool were to occur here,
    miles upstream from the Battery during May and    the Hudson-supported striped bass population could
    early June.                                           be severely reduced. On the Sacramento-San Joaquin
      The striped bass eggs are released free into the    system, the population of striped bass has been
    water and drift with the flow of the currents. During    halved, apparently by the effect of water withdrawal
    the first six to eight weeks of life, the striped bass    for irrigation purposes which also withdraws the
    pass through egg, yolk-sac larval, and larval stages    eggs and larvae from the river.2' Were the proposal
    and enter the early juvenile stage. During this   to withdraw freshwater for municipal use from the
    period, the organisms gain mobility but their gross    Hudson at Hyde Park to come to fruition, a similar
    movements are determined by the hydrology of the   effect would become a real possibility on the Hud-
    tides, currents, and saltwedge. At the end of the   son.22 If dams were to be constructed on the river,
    planktonic stage, the young bass begin to move    as has happened on the Susquehanna, there would
    into shallow water, either along the shore or on    be a major disruption of the spawning run and a
    shoals. These shallow areas are the nursery habitat    consequent effect on the juvenile and adult fish
    of the fish during the first year of life.'           population. Extensive filling of the remaining shal-
      The young striped bass spend their first winter    low areas of the Hudson, particularly in the Tappan
    in the Hudson and then start to move into the    Zee and Haverstraw Bay, would deprive the fish of
    sheltered coastal waters. With increasing age, the   its juvenile habitat.

    620                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      This catalogue indicates the broad range of activi-    One of the issues singled out for consideration by
    ties that have to come within legal control if the    the FPC on remand was the entire fishery issue;
    basic productivity of an estuary is to be protected    particularly the effect of Storm King's operatin
    and preserved and even if development and ex-    on the striped bass and the shad. Thus, because' of
    ploitation of the resource are to be properly analyzed    the 1965 decision in Scenic Hudson, there began';to
    and managed.                                           function in the Hudson estuary a NEPA type' of
                                                         expanded review, five years before that statute was
    THE EXPANDED MANDATE SCHEME                             passed.
    AND THE HUDSON EXPERIENCE                                 The FPC delegated the fishery investigation re-
                                                         sponsibility to the Hudson River Policy Committee,
      Over the last 10 years, there has been continuing    a group formed for the purpose and made up of
    controversy in the Hudson estuary over the effects   representatives of the U.S. Bureau of Sports Fish-
    of proposed developments, particularly power plants,   eries and Wildlife, the old Bureau of Commercial
    on the fishery of the river. This controversy illumi-now the National Marine Fisheries Serv-
    nates development under statutes providing for the    ice), and the Fish and Game Departments of New
    weighing of competing interests by administrative    York and New Jersey, with an observer from Con-
    agencies under expanded mandates which include    necticut.27 Most members of the policy committee
    consideration of estuarine productivity. It also al-   were not professional experts on the Hudson fishery
    lows analysis of the operation of the referral and    and so they in turn oversaw the work of hired
    consultation mechanisms.                               consultants.28 The results of a 3-year research pro-
      The fishery issue was first raised on the Hudson    gram were published as the Hudson River Fisheries
    in the early 1960's in connection with Consolidated    Investigation 1965-1968 (HRFI).
    Edison Company's application to the Federal Power         The analysis undertaken in HRFI focused pri-
    Commission (FPC) for a license to build and operate     arily on the striped bass population of the Hudson.
    the Storm King pumped storage project at Cornwall    The final report concluded that the project would
    about 56 miles upstream from the Battery. Storm    not have a significant effect on the striped bass
    aKing would pump water from the Hudson to a    fishery, since it would take at most 4 percent of the
    reservoir from which it would be released to produce    striped bass eggs and larvae from the river.29 The
    hydroelectric power.23 The water withdrawals re-   investigation was completed and the report pub-
    quired to run the plant would be of great magni-    lished after the remanded hearings before the FPC
    tude--averaging  15-18,000 cubic ft/sec over an    were concluded, so that the Power Commission took
                                                         official notice of and relied upon the HRFI conclu-
    8-hour pumping period each day.24 After a cursory    oncial notice of and relied upon the HRFI con
    review, the FPC granted Con Edison the license.        sions but never exposed them to critical examination
                                                         in a hearing. The necessity of looking at the Storm
      The license was challenged by a citizens' group
    and in Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v.    King withdrawals in the context of withdrawals by
    FPC,25 the Second Circuit Court of Appeals ordered    other plants on the Hudson is mentioned in the
    the FPC to reconsider the issuance of the license.    HRFI conclusions, but no analysis of total with-
    The court decision required the FPC to allow citi-   drawals on the river was undertaken. This would,
    zens' groups to present their evidence and arguments    of course, appropriately come within the ambit of
    to the Commission and laid on the Commission the    the FPC's responsibility to see that the project was
    affirmative duty of building a full factual record on    in keeping with a comprehensive plan for develop-
    which to base a reascrned decision. The extent Of   ment of the waterway
    the record was determined by the broad mandate            The HRFI report provided an essential data base
    of the Federal Power Act, which required the FPC    on the Hudson fishery, particularly the striped bass.
    to determine that the project "will be best adapted
    to a comprehensive plan for improving a waterway    life cycle of the fish. HRFI provides a thorough
    ... for the use or benefit of interstate or foreign    examination of the distribution and abundance of
    commerce, for the improvement and- utilizatiorn of   the eggs, larvae, and juvenile stripers in 1966 and
    waterpower development, and for other beneficial    1967 throughout the Hudson with a more detailed
    public uses, including recreational purposes."26       study around the plant site in 1968. There is no
      The court's interpretation of the statute made it   discussion or analysis of the relation of the Hudson-
    the functional equivalent of NEPA's expanded man-    spawned fish to the coastal stock, nor is there any
    date requiring that the analysis by the FPC look    attempt to judge the productive capacity of the
    at the broad range of public interests affected by    estuary against its actual production.  In other
    the project and also consider possible alternatives.    words, it does not address the general management

                                               LEGAL ASPECTS                                           621

    of the fishery. Most importantly, while the collec-   would be reflected in a similar decline in the size of
    tion and presentation of data in the report was    that year class when they became adults.3l The
    generally considered to be of high quality, later   Hudson River Fishermen's Association (HRFA), a
    analyses showed that the calculations which related    group of sport and commercial fishermen and con-
    the plant's operation to the withdrawal of organisms    servationists, participated in the hearing as inter-
    from the river were seriously flawed. The analysis    venors, providing a non-computer model analysis
    underlying these calculations was not consistent; a    which reached essentially the same conclusions as
    dynamic analysis relating the rate of withdrawal to    the Oak Ridge staff.
    the river flow past the plant compared the plant's      Con Edison Opposed this interpretation of the
    withdrawal rate to the tidal flow and not to the net    data, putting forward its own analysis of the HRFI
    downstream flow; in the static analysis a daily with-   material in a different analytical model. The pre-
    drawal rate of absolute numbers of organisms was    dicted effect on the Hudson striped bass production
    presented but the withdrawals were not cumulated    was small, in the 2-6 percent range. A sensitivity
    over the season.                                      analysis of the model's operation showed that the
      It was some years before these facts became clearly   major factor in the differing results was the inclusion
    known to the interested public. They were not appar-   by Con Edison's experts of a compensating mecha-
    ent at the time when the court of appeals reviewed    nism in the model which was density dependent and
    the construction and operating license which the    thus increased the survival of the remaining popula-
    FPC issued to the company in 1970. That license   tion as the plants reduced the population. The com-
    was approved in the second Scenic Hudson case.80   pany further denied the major contribution to the
    The analysis of the failings of the HRFI report did   coastal stock of New York and New England which
    not come in an FPC proceeding but rather in 'a   was put forward by the Oak Ridge staff.. More im-
    NEPA proceeding before the Atomic Energy Corn-    portantly, on the grounds that there was not enough
    mission (AEC).                                        -data to analyze the impact of the plant, the company
      When NEPA became law in 1970, serious plans    launched a major research program to determine,
    or construction were going forward at four power    by a study to be conducted before and after opera-
    plants in the central reach of the Hudson which    tion began, what the effect of the plant's operation
    would affect the estuary's fishery-the Indian Point    on thefishery would be.
    2 and 3 nuclear units were in construction, and the     At the close of the proceeding in 1974, the AEC,
    Bowline and Roseton fossil fuel units were about to   while not accepting all the analysis of the Oak Ridge
    begin construction. Starting in 1972; hearings were    staff- and HRFA, agreed with their ultimate conclu-
    held under the NEPA mandate before an Atomic    sion and required Con Edison to install a closed-
    Energy Commission licensing board on the Indian    cycle cooling system at the Indian Point plant but
    Point 2 plant, which is 13 miles downstream from    also gave the company a chance to ask for an amend-
    Storm King and designed to withdraw less water    ment of the license terms.if the research program
    from the estuary-800,000 gallons per minute. Here,    led it to believe that such a change was justified.2 -
    from the beginning, the major environmental issue       During the same period, the Army Corps of Engi-
    was the effect of plant operation on the biota and    neers approved construction permits for the two
    the biological productivity of the estuary, particu-   fossil fuel plants on the Hudson. In March 1970,
    larly through the entrainment of eggs and larvae    the Corps approved the construction permit for the
    through the plant.                                    1200 megawatt Roseton plant owned jointly by
      The analysis of the Indian Point plant, conducted   'Central Hudson Gas and Electric, Con Edison, and
    by AEC experts from the Oak Ridge National'Lab-    Niagara  Mohawk.  The  plant  would  withdraw
    oratory, built on the foundations of the HRFI re-   650,000 gals/min from the river at approximately
    port, and thus essentially limited its analysis to the   river mile 65. The Corps did not. undertake any
    striped bass. It included a hydrological computer   NEPA -impact study on the plant. In 1971, the
    model to power the organisms' through the estuary    Corps allowed work. to go forward on the construc-
    under -Various freshwater flows and added an analysis   tion of the Bowline plant, -another 1200 megawatt
    of the relation of the Hudson spawning grounds 'to   plant ,withdrawing 750,000 gals/min from the Hud-
    the coastal stock of striped bass and at least a basic    son and set back from the river on Bowline Pond at
    analysis relating the Hudson's productive capacity    approximately river mile 37, without the completion
    to its actual production. On this basis, the Oak Ridge    of a NEPA impact statement. That plant is owned
    staff concluded that the' Indiad Point 1 and 2 plants   jointly by Orange and 'Rockland Utilities and Con
    would take between 30 and 50 percent of the annual   Edison. Both plants are within the central reach of
    production of striped bass in the Hudson which    the Hudson, and it is self-evident that they present

    622                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    the same fishery issues as does Storm King or   is to be expected. It is likely that EPA will have to
    Indian Point. The Corps circulated a draft impact    work through the data in response to requests for
    statement on Bowline in 1971, but its analysis    variances from the closed-cycle cooling require-
    of the impact on the fishery was so limited and    ments now imposed at Indian Point, Bowline, and
    cursory that one was hard put to realize that the    Roseton. Further hearings on Indian Point 2 and 3
    plant was to operate on the same river with Indian    before the AEC's successor agency,- the Nuclear
    Point and Storm King. In December 1972, two    Regulatory Commission, are likely to be requested
    suits were filed against the Corps of Engineers by    by the company on the basis of new evidence.
    HRFA over the Corps' failure to carry out a NEPA
    analysis on either of these plants before construction
    began.33 Settlement agreements have been reached    EXPANDED MANDATE AND THE
    in both cases; the Corps has agreed to undertake a    CONSULTATION AND REFERRAL SCHEME
    NEPA impact study at Bowline and to analyze the
    Roseton plant in conjunction with the Bowline    Agency Unwillingness
    statement.34 At the same time, the Corps has stated    To Accept the Expanded Mandate
    in the consent decree that it does not have the man-
    power and expertise to analyze the fishery issues at      None of the three agencies involved in the ex-
    stake and therefore the utilities, as part of the settle-   panded mandate reviews under the Federal Power
    ment, have provided the Corps with $75,000 to hire    Act or NEPA willingly undertook to effectively ful-
    an outside consultant.35                                fill its expanded mandate on the issue of the estuarine
      Just as the analysis conducted for Storm King    fishery. The Court of Appeals has twice sent the
    laid the foundation for the expanded analysis at    Storm King case back to the FPC  for full and
    Indian Point, so the work done at Indian Point indi-    proper investigation of the fishery. The AEC under-
    cated the flaws of the Storm King analysis and led    took the analysis of the fishery at Indian Point
    to a request for further consideration of the fishery    only after it was ordered to do so by the Court of
    issue in relation to Storm King. On the basis of both    Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit in
    direct analysis of the HRFI  calculations and an    Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee v. AEC.3
    estimate of the withdrawal of striped bass eggs and    The Corps of Engineers undertook the review of
    larvae by Storm King made with the model devel-    Roseton and Bowline only in settlement of suits
    oped to analyze Indian Point, estimates were made    brought by IHRFA.
    by Oak Ridge and Brookhaven National Laboratory           It may be argued that this is only the difficulty
    personnel and HRFA's expert that 30-40 percent of   of initial compliance with broad mandates. I believe
    the eggs and larvae in the river would be withdrawn    the trouble lies deeper. The FPC had had its man-
    annually by the Storm King plant. These analyses    date for many years before the 1965 decision. Even
    were presented to the FPC in early 1973 with a    EPA which should be most willing to take a broad
    petition for further hearings on the impact of the    look at environmental issues has shown itself un-
    plant on the fishery. The FPC refused to hold hear-    willing to comply with the Act in areas such as
    ings on the data and analysis, and an appeal was    granting funds for waste treatment facility construc-
    taken to the Second Circuit Court of Appeals which    tion.38 Numerous federal agencies have attempted
    in May 1974 remanded the fishery issue back to the    to delegate their NEPA responsibilities to others,
    power commission for immediate hearings.3"              frequently those in state government.3s
      The remanded hearings are now underway, but            The recipients of federal grants or licenses have
    have quickly passed beyond the analytical failings   little interest in pressing the government to comply
    of the HRFI report. The new research effort that    fully with the terms of the expanded mandate. This
    Con Edison launched in response to the Indian    has meant that the only effective force for assuring
    Point proceedings in 1972, and as a further pre-   full compliance has been public groups who would
    operation study of Storm King, is now producing    be protected by operation of the mandate and who
    data, and this material is now being reviewed before    are willing to exert pressure on the agency. I see no
    the FPC in the Storm King proceeding. Thus, the    reason to think that this will not continue to be true.
    major issues addressed at Indian Point are being
    worked over again, but with a major added round    The Lack of Agency Expertise
    of factual data as well as further refinements of the    To Comply With Expanded Mandate
    computer models.
      Further data collection is underway from the           None of the three agencies reviewed here, the
    utilities and further agency review of the material    FPC, the AEC, or the Corps of Engineers, had

                                                LEGAL ASPECTS                                             623

    within its line staff the expertise to analyze properly    should be able to retain high quality personnel by
    the estuarine biological system. This may be less   offering a mix of research opportunities with ana-
    frequently true for small projects, say the filling of   lytic and semi-regulatory responsibilities. Only this
    an acre of wetland for which a Corps permit is neces-    mechanism will provide the agencies with exper-
    sary, but is likely to be the normal circumstance    tise necessary for the effective discharge of their
    for many large projects producing significant and    responsibilities.
    widespread effects across complex estuarine systems.
      In each of the cases reviewed, the agency turned    Failure of the Consultation
    to groups outside its own line staff to analyze    and Referral Mechanism
    the problem presented to it. The FPC turned to the
    tudson River Policy Committee, which was drawn
    rHudson Rivter Policy Committeae,    s which was drawn   In the licensing proceedings reviewed, both NEPA
    from the federal and state agencies with responsi-    and the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act required
    bility for fishery matters. The Corps of Engineers    the agency granting the license to consult with other
    turned to an outside private consultant to review    agencies and groups with relevant expertise and
    the impact of the two fossil fuel plants, and further    jurisdiction. NEPA  requires consultation with a
    built consultation with the Interior Department    wide spectrum of groups and interests. The Fish
    into the license terms for the two plants, stating    and Wildlife Coordination Act requires consultation
    that the Secretary of the .Army would rely on the    with the Fish and Wildlife Service in the Depart-
    Secretary of the Interior to recommend measures    ment of the Interior, the National Oceanic and
    which should be taken to protect the fish and wild-    Atmospheric Administration in the Department of
    life of the Hudson River.40 The AEC turned to the    Commerce, and state agencies concerned with wild-
    Oak Ridge National Laboratory for its analysis of   life protection. The review here will focus on these
    the plant's impact on the river. Oak Ridge was,    federal and state agencies with fish and wildlife
    of course, part of the AEC, but not under the same    responsibilities.
    regime as the regulatory staff, so that the regulatory    Before the FPC's 1970 .icensing of Storm King,
    branch of the Commission had to apply to the    all these agencies played an important role through
    research arm for this NEPA work.4'                     their participation on the Hudson River Policy
      It is evident that-there is no internal repository    Committee, but in the remanded hearings in 1974,
    of analytic strength or developed policy to which    that position has shifted. The Interior Department
    most agencies with an expanded mandate can turn.   is participating in the hearings and there is a task
    This is made clear by the fact that each agency    group of Interior and Commerce experts working
    turned to different sources to obtain expertise. From    on an analysis of the plant's possible impact. But
    the product produced in each case, it is equally    the successor to the Hudson River Policy Commit-
    evident that there are highly variable levels of   tee, the Hudson River Fish and Wildlife Manage-
    ability among the experts to whom the agencies    ment Cooperative, has publicly declined to take a
    turned.                                                significant part in the hearings.42 This is so despite
      This situation makes the results of operation under    the fact that the cooperative is made up of repre-
    the expanded mandate very uneven. Another result   sentatives of the Division of Fish and Wildlife and
    is that when opposing private groups such as Con    the Division of Marine and Coastal Resources in the
    Edison and HRFA have litigated the same essential    New York Department of Environmental Conserva-
    issues more than once, they tend to be more in-   tion, the New Jersey Division of Fish, Game and
    formed than the experts to whom the government    Shellfisheries, the U.S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
    agency turns, so that the "experts" are being edu-    and Wildlife  and the National Marine Fisheries
    cated by the partisans. To a certain extent, such    Service, and has as its stated objectives to:
    education is good and proper, but the agency should
    have within its own organization or easily accessible       1. Coordinate evaluation of environmental impacts on
    to it impartial sources of expertise to which it can          fish and wildlife resources of the estuary and formulate
    turn for aid.                                                 appropriate, response.
      Realistically, no agency is likely to have the full       2. Develop a comprehensive fish and wildlife manage-
    range of expertise inhouse that is needed for full            ment plan for species of interstate significance.
    and effective estuarine review. It is therefore essen-
                                                               3. Encourage implementation of the comprehensive
    tial that institutions modeled on the national lab-           plan by the agencies with primary responsibility.43
    oratories be established with a special estuarine
    mandate to provide to relevant agencies the exper-   Thus the group which on paper should provide
    tise needed for these analyses. Such institutions    major guidance on fishery issues has chosen not to

    624:                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    do so iii the context of proceedings' whose outcome    cycle or population dynamics of the striped bass
    may affect the fishery.                                or most of the rest of the estuarine' fishery.: This
      In the AEC and' Corps of Engineers proceeding,    may be in part the product of history, since in'NevW
    the Interior Department submitted letters com-    York in the past, the emphasis has been on the cold'
    menting on both impact statements.44 The Corps'    water fishery and the marine commercial fishery
    initial draft impact' statement on Bowline in 1971    with little attention focused on the estuarine zone62
    gave no indication that the plant could have serious'   The- het result is that the' DEC has taken a' back
    impact on the fishery; Interior's letter did not dis-   seat in determining the course of development'
    agree with that position.45 The AEC's draft state:-    which 'can affect the fishery. The ;department was
    ment oln Indian Point indicated the possibility of'   represented on the Hudson River Policy Committee
    substantial damage to the fishery, though' not the    in the 1970 licensing of the Storm King plant, but
    level of 'impact predicted in the: final statement.    as part of the -Iudson River Management Coopera-
    Interior wrote the AEC a 'strenuoius letter advocate:  tive, it has declined to take part in the analysis of
    ing the use of a closed-cycle cooling system.4 The'   fishery issues in" the present remand; 'Before 'the
    Department of Cdmrnerce did not submit'anything    AEC, the DEC 'was represented through the New
    substantial in response to either impact statement-.   York 'State Atomic Energy Council, but' neither
      Left to themselves, Interior 'and Corhmerce have    presented evidence nor took a position on the fishery
    largely reacted to what the other agencies have put    issues before the licensing board. Its role before th6
    before them. Where the work of the' referring agericy    Army Corps of Engineers has been equally passive.58
    has been thorough and competent, the response            Unfortunately, New York's record of fishery man-
    under the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act has    agement is reasonably typical of the performance of
    been pointed and helpful. Where the referring    other states54 and perhaps the fishery management
    agency's work has been second rate, the Coordina-    profession generally.55 It would not be a wise policy
    tion Act response is little better except in those    for the Congress to rely on the states to develop
    cases which are the focus of public attention; then,    sound policies for the protection' of estuarine pro-
    as in the 1974 Storm King hearings, a special effort   ductivity. These circumstarices underscore the im-
    is made by the departments.:                           portance of full staffing and funding of Iiterior and
      Thisis not an impressive record, but it is only fair    Cominerce's fish and, wildlife agencies and the pro-
    to point out that the agencies are now staffed and    vision -of expert assistance to the agencies with the
    funded to about one-half of what they and General    expanded mandates.
    Accounting Office believe is necessary for the effec-
    tive operation of the Coordination Act.4 This ap-                 Distribution
    pears to be the 'fault of the executive branch in not    Unequal Distribution
    requesting sufficient funds from Congress.49 We will   of Resources
    not really know whether this system- can, work
    not really knw whether this adequatel y staffed-anwork funded.  At least in the case of large projects, the resources
    properly unless it is adequately staffed' and. funded. brought to bear in licensing proceedings are very
                                                           brought to bear in licensing proceedings are very
      In addition to sufficient funding, Interior" and    unequally distribted. The industrial or develop-
    Commerce will need an organizational format with    mental intrts' are willingand'able todevote
    an ongoing comprehensive view of estuarine sys-   .   .  l
                  an ongoing comprehensive view of estuarine sys- hundreds of thousands, even millions, of dollars to
    tems and their. wildlife. I can see no basic reason
                                                           procuring a license or permit to exploit'estuarine
    why this obvious organizational method of dealing    r    I        iens   o
    with the Coordination Act responsibilities should    resources. Citizens groups have budgets which.'at
               not  be achieved, but it has not yet been done.  best run in the tens of thousands and are dependent
    not be achieved, but it' has not yet been done.05      on pro bono or reduckd fek help from lawjiers and
      The State of New York has primary. responsibility
                                                           scientists. The governmental agencies expend sums
    for the Hudson fishery, but it has: rnot demonstrated        .          e
                                                           which lie somewhere between industry and the pri-
    the ability to develop its ownr articulated position
                                                           vate groupis, but all too often closer to the private
    on the fishery or to critique fully the positions put
                                                           groups.
    forward .by others.iOA The Department of Environapproximately
                                                             Con Edison is now spending'approximately $3
    mental Conservation (DEC) has primary respon-5-year period on biol
    sibility 'for fishery management, but it has not             .                       .        ' .
    csi edailitysfor fishery management,  but it has not    research alone on the Hudson?.o Other utilities are
    produced a basic fishery management policy for the    contributing their  hare, and thse sums do not
                                                           contributing  their share, and these sums do not
    estuary. The state has'the typical array of limitations   include attorneys' fees or the other costs of applying
    on catch sizes, nets,- meshs, and open seasons;5' but    for and 'obtaining 'a' license. Congressional docu-
    these regulations are not drawn together into a    ments 'sh6w that utilities now bidget $500,000' to'
    policy which reflects any clear opinion on the life   $1,000,000 for major nuclear licensings.57

                                               LEGAL ASPECTS                                             625

     -Next to these massive sums, government expendi-    to fulfill their expanded mandate and frequently
    tures appear puny indeed. The present Fish and    do so only under pressure from the public; (2) the
    Wildlife Service budget for all Coordination Act    agencies frequently do not possess the expertise to
    programs for the entire country is $7.5 million.58   fulfill the mandate and rarely have an effective and
    The Corps of Engineers was willing to pay consul-    impartial government source to which to turn for
    tants only $75,000 for a NEPA impact analysis to   aid; (3) the federal referral agencies are under-
    cover two fossil fuel plants on the Hudson.59 Since    staffed and underfunded and thus are incapable of
    applicants for permits take on most of the primary    effectively dispatching their responsibilities, and the
    research, some greater expenditure on their part is   state agencies have a poor record of performance
    to be expected. But these figures indicate utterly    which does not hold much promise for future im-
    disproportionate spending.                             provement; and (4) the resources brought to the
      The resources of citizen? groups representing pub-    decisionmaking process are overwhelming favorable
    lic interests are even more scanty. The average inter-   to the private industrial and developmental interests
    vention in an AEC proceeding costs $50-60,000.60    and thus they tend to dominate both the govern-
    Few groups can raise sums of this magnitude. On    mental and public interest input to the process.
    the Hudson, groups like HRFA and Scenic Hudson           To make the system work effectively, there must be
    have existed on tiny annual budgets with the help    an evening of resources, so that the major interests-
    of pro bono legal and scientific assistance.           governmental, industrial, and public-are properly
      Congress has increasingly encouraged citizen par-    balanced. This should be achieved by taking three
    ticipation in environmental enforcement, by, for in-   measures:
    stance, providing citizen suit provisions and allowing
    the payment of reasonable attorney, and expert            1. Within the discretion of the agency, groups
    witness fees in such suits under the Clean Air Act    representing public interests should be able to obtain
    and  the Federal Water  Pollution  Control Act    reasonable attorney and expert witness fees in
    Amendments of 1972.61 To be effective, this policy    agency proceedings where they have contributed
    should extend more widely to proceedings before    to the development and resolution of the issues
    administrative agencies as well. It is there that facts   before the agency. A model for such a provision
    on environmental issues are increasingly tried out    exists-in Title   the           version of t   nergy
    and- thus where the major expenses of litigation    Research and  Development  Act  of 197462 and
    occur as well as where the terms of discretionary    should be adopted for all federal acts dealing with
    decisions are hammered out. It has generally been    estuarine development and regulation. This will
    conceded that if our system of justice is to operate    answer, in part, problems 1 and 4 set out above.
    effectively, there must be a rough- equality of re-       2. Congress should establish three or four National
    sources on both sides of an argument. We must move    Estuarine  Laboratories.  Effective  research  and
    closer to seeing that such equality is the fact as well    analytical support must be made available to the
    as the ideal.          -              -                regulatory agencies on a continuing basis from in-
                                                         stitutions which develop expertise on entire estuarite
    DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS                         systems and are required to present positions on
                                                         proposed projects. The regulatory agencies cannot
      The legal regulation of estuaries operates pri-    be entirely dependent on the presentation and
    marily through administrative agencies which have    analysis of facts by -outside parties and what they
    direct jurisdiction over part but not all of the    need from within the government is much more than
    estuarine system' or its resources.  The  federal    ad hoc consultation on particular projects under-
    agencies typically operatethrough an expanded man-    pressure for quick analysis. There must be a form
    date requiting them to consider all the resources of   of advocacy laboratory which engages in broad
    the estuary and the effects of their actions on the    analysis and research 'so that it is readily familiar
    entire system. Coupled to this expanded mandate is   with major estuarine systems and  produces  an
    a system of consultation and referral putting partic-   articulated: program for protecting the estuary's
    ular emphasis on expert advice and recommenda-    productive capacity. Such a program would be able
    tionsfrom agencies withexpertise-and responsibilities    to put the individual and cumulative impacts of
    which are focused on particular resources in the    development in context from the viewpoint of the
    estuarine system such as fish and wildlife.            entire estuarine system and thus overcome some of
      The  record of effective regulation under this    the disadvantage  of dispersed governmental  au-
    system has not' been good' for four primary in-   thority. This would, in part, answer problems 1, 2,
    stitutional reasons. (1) the agencies are reluctant    and 4 set out above.

    626                                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

       3.  The  federal  referral  agencies  under  the  con-                       5483-A (Supp. 1971); Mass. Gen. Stat. Ch.' 130, �27a (SulJp. 1971); RI.
                                                                                Gen. Laws Ann. �11-46-1.1 (supp. 1971); Conn. Gen. Stat. ��22a-28 to
    sulation   mechanism   must   be   fully  funded   and                          22a-34; N.Y. ECL. ��25-0101 et seq. (McKinney 1973); N.J. Stat. Ann.
                                                                                �13:9A-1 to -10 (Supp. 1971); 7 Del. Code Ann. Ch. 70, ��7001 et seq.;
    staffed, and organized so that they maintain ongoing                            Md. Ann. Code Art. 66C, �718-31 (Supp. 1970); Va. Code Ann. �� 62.1-
    knowledge and expertise on entire estuarine systems.                            13,1 to 13.20 (Supp. 1972); N.C. Gen. Stat. �113.229 et seq., (Supp.
                                                                                1971); S.C. Code Ann. ��70-13 to -42 (Supp. 1973); Ga. Code Ann. ��45-
    The  General Accounting Office has already reported                             136-147 (Supp. 1972); Fla. Stat. Ann. ��253.122-123 (Supp. 1972).
    this need to Congress in the case of the Fish and
    Wildlife  Coordination  Act,  and  it is recognized  as                           1 16 U.S.C. �1451 et seq.
    essential by  the  agencies  affected.  Action  must  be                          11 16 U.S.C. �661 et seq.
    taken to put it into effect. This is the only course
    of action by  which we  will be  able to test whether   1                          2 Hunt, A Historical Sketch of the Town of Clermont, Hudson (1928).
    this system is or is not effective in providing protec-                           16 State of New York Conservation Department, "A Biological Survey
    tion  to  estuarine  resources  and  productivity.  This                        of the Lower Hudson Watershed," 15 (1937).
    would, in part, answer problems 3 and 4 set out
                        wouldnpartanswerprobovems  3'ad4 sou Id.; Hudson River Policy Committee, "Hudson River Fisheries In-
    above.                                                                         vestigation 1965-1968" (undated) (hereafter BRlFI).

                                                                                   16 U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Directorate of Licensing, Final
    FOOTNOTES                                                                      Environmental Statement, Indian Point Nuclear Generating Plant Unit
                                                                                No. 2, Sept. 1972 at V-40 (hereafter "IP2 FES"); Clark, "Effects of
       133 U.S.C. �1251(a).                                                        Indian Point Units 1 and 2 on Hudson River Aquatic Life," October 30,
                                                                                 1972 in transcript of In re Consolidated Edison Company of New York,
                                                                                Inc. (Indian Point 2) AEC Docket 50-247, following Tr. 6276, at 5-6
      2 Delaware River Basin Compact, N.Y. Environmental Conservation              (hereafter "IPS Tr. at-").
    Law �21-0701, et. seq. See Ackerman & Sawyer, "Uncertain Search for
    Environmental Policy: Scientific Factfinding and Decisionmaking along            1s 1 IP2 FES XII-29 to XII-35; Raney, "The Striped Bass, Morone
    the Delaware River," 120 U. Pa. L. Rev. 419 (1972).                             saxatilis, of the Atlantic Coast of the United States with Particular Refer-
                                                                                 ence to the Population Found in the Hudson River," October 30, 1972,
      '42 U.S.C. �1962(b), Executive Order No. 1137, 32 Fed. Reg. 12903            IP2 Tr. following 6254.
      (1967) as amended.
                                                                                   17  IP2 FES V-56.
      4 Power, "Chesapeake Bay in Legal Perspective," U.S. Department of
    the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, Estuarine
    Pollution Study Series--  (1970); personal communication with author.    is   Testimony of C. Phillip Goodyear, IP2Tr. at 9068-9071.
      c 42 U.S.C. �4321 et. seq. The terms of the National Environmental              19 In re: Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. (Indian
       42 U.S.C. �4321 it. seq. The terms of the National Environmental
    Policy Act are so well known that extensive description seems unnecessary,      Point 2) RAI-73-9 751 (1973).
    but a brief outline of the expanded mandate aspect may be useful. The Act
    requires that each federal agency in considering any project which would          20 Chittenden, "Status of the Striped Bass, Morone sazatilis, in the
    significantly affect the quality of the human environment and which the         Delaware River," 12 Ches. Sci 131-36 (1971); Goodyear, "Origin of the
    agency itself would undertake or which it can license or permit a private       Striped Bass Stock of the Middle Atlantic Coast," March 1, 1973, IP2 Tr.
    party to undertake must prepare a full statement on the impact of the           following 9858.
    project on the environment. 42 U.S.C. �4332. The Act instructs federal
    agencies, inter alia, to:                                                         21 Turner & Chadwick, "Distribution and Abundance of young-of-the-
                                                                                 year striped bass, Morone saxatilie, in relation to river flow in the Sacra-
        preserve important historic, cultural, and natural aspects of our          mento-San Joaquin Estuary," 101 Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 442-452 (1972);
        natural heritage, and maintain, wherever possible, an environment          Clark, "Effects of Indian Point" at 54, IP2 Tr. following 6276.
        which supports diversity and variety of individual choice; [and]
        achieve a balance between population and resource use which will             22 Temporary State Commission on the Water Supply Needs of South-
        permit high standards of living and a wide sharing of life's amenities.    eastern New York, "Water for Tomorrow," (1973). See N.Y. Times, March
        42 U.S.C. �4321(h).                                -15, 1975 at 29, col. 8.

    This is to be achieved "consistent with other essential considerations of          3 F.P.C. Opinion No. 584 (August 19, 1970).
    national policy." Id.
                                                                                   S4 HRFI at 40; Affidavit of John P. Lawler, FPC Proj. No. 2338 (Jan;
      While making environmental protection a part of the mandate of each           16,         t 40; Afdavit of                         Pro. No. 2338 (J).
    agency, the Act provides for a system of careful analysis rather than a
    particularized policy of protection:
                                                                                   25 354 F.2d 608 (2d Cir. 1965), cert. denied, 384 U.S. 941 (1966).
         Thus the general substantive policy of the Act is a flexible one. It
         leaves room for a responsible exercise of discretion and may not re-         26 16 U.S.C. �803(a).
         quire particular results in particular 'problematic instances.
         ... NEPA mandates a rather finely tuned and 'systematic' balancing           27 HRFI at 4.
         analysis in each instance. Calvert Cliffs' Coordinating Committee v.
         AEC, 449 F.2d 1109, 1113 (D.C. Cir. 1971).
                                                                                   2s Id. at 4-5.
       6 Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission,
    354 F.2d 608 (2d Cir. 1965), cert. denied, 384 U.S. 941 (1966).        29 Id. at 45.

       7 40 U.S.C. �461 as amended by the Housing and Community Develop-   C           0 Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. FPC, 453 F.2d 463 (2d
    ment Act of 1974, Sec. 401(b), (k), 88 Stat. 687-689.                           Cir. 1971), cert. denied, 407 U.S. 926 (1972).

       8 33 U.S.C. �1251 et seq.                                                      31 IP2 FES.

       9 12 Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. tit. 12 ��4701-4709 (Rev. 1964, Supp. 1972);          32 In re Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc. (Indian
     38 Me. Rev. Stat. Ann. ��481-488 (Supp. 1972); N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann.             Point 2), RAI-74-4 323.

                                                                  LEGAL ASPECTS                                                                     627

      83 Hudson River Fishermen's Association v. Orange & Rockland Utili-         which clearly would encompass the estuarine dependent fishery (16 U.S.C.
    ties, 72 Civ. 5460 (S.D.N.Y. 1972); Hudson River Fishermen's Associa-         �367a), but the Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission established
    tion v. Central Hudson Gas & Electric Co., 72 Civ. 5459 (S.D.N.Y. 1972).      under the compact has not provided the technical analysis which would
                                                                               relate the production of estuaries to the coastal stock and thus the Commis-
      *4 Id.                                                                      sion has been unable to provide aid in determining the effect on the coastal
                                                                               fishery of development in the estuaries. Nor has the Department of the
                                                                               Interior used its statutory authority for Atlantic coast fishery studies to
        as Id.                                                                    meet this need in relation to the Hudson. 16 U.S.C. �760a.

      e8 Hudson River Fishermen's Association v. FPC, 498 F.2d 827 (2d              5oA McHugh, "Marine Fisheries of New York State," 70FisheryBulletin
    Cir. 1974).                                                                   585 (1972); Ginter, "Marine Fisheries Conservation in New York State:
                                                                               Policy and Practice of Marine Fisheries Management," NYS Sea Grant
      n 449 F.2d 1109 (D.C. Cir. 1971).                                           Program, 1974 (NYSSGP-SS-74-012).

      as See Urban Systems Research and Engineering, Inc., "Interceptor               6 N.Y.C.R.R. Part 36; N.Y. Environmental Conservation  Law
    Sewers and Suburban Sprawl; The Impact of Construction Grants on              �11-1511.
    Residential Land Use" (prepared for Council on Environmental Quality,
    1974).                                                                          52 Personal communication, James L. Biggane, formerly Commissioner,
                                                                               N.Y. Department of Environmental Conservation.
      a3 E.g., Greene County Planning Board v. FPC, 455 F.2d 412 (2d Cir.
    1972); Conservation Society of Southern Vermont v. Secretary, -F.2d-,           58 In recent years, the New York Attorney General's office has moved to
    7 ERC 1236 (2d Cir. 1974).                                                    fill the vacuum and develop a state fishery policy through presentations
                                                                               before agencies and courts. Before the AEC, the attorney general took an
      40 E.g., Letter of James W. Barnett, District Engineer to Central Hudson    active role generally supporting the position of the Oak Ridge staff,
    Gas & Electric Corp., 20 Dec. 1971, pare. (W).                                though no witnesses were presented. In the latest round of hearings before
                                                                               the FPC, the attorney general has been active and apparently plans to
                        41lunder Congress's new divisin of  hpresent witnesses as well as cross-examine those of other parties. The
        41 Under Congress's   w division of the AEC, national labs and the        office also commented on the impact statement circulated by the Corps
    regulatory staff will be separated, the labs going into the Energy Research   on the Bowline plant. In addition, the attorney general has brought
    and Development Administration and the Regulatory Staff into the              a public nuisance suit against Consolidated Edison for fish destruction
    Nuclear Regulatory Commission.                                                at the Indian Point plant. See Hudson River Fishermen's Association
                                                                               v. Consolidated Edison, N.Y. Law. Jour., June 6, 1971 at 2. This route
      42 Letter of Herbert E. Doig to Kenneth F. Plumb, August 16, 1974           for pursuing a fishery policy faces two important restraints. First,
    (Ex. 83A in 1974 hearings on FPC Proj. No. 2338).                             there are limited technical resources directly available to the attorney
                                                                               general, and it is unlikely that his office can develop the staff of fishery
                                                                                biologists, hydrologists, and computer experts needed for continuing
      43 The Hudson River Fish and Wildlife Management Cooperative, Nov.          analysis of the river. Second, the mandate of the attorney general does not
    1973.                                                                         extend to operating a management program for the estuarine fishery, so
                                                                                that a fully articulated program is unlikely to emerge from this effort.
      44 2 IP2 FES 45; Letter of Richard E. Griffith to Mark Abelson, April
    28, 1971.                                                                       e4 Remarks of J. L. McHugh at EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution
                                                                                Control, Feb. 11-13, 1975.
      46 Id.
                                                                                  55 Larkin, "A Confidential Memorandum on Fisheries Science," World
      46 2 IP2 FES 45.                                                            Fisheries Policy: A Multidisciplinary View (Rothschild ed. 1972) 189.

      47 2 IP2 FES 11.                                                               b6 Consolidated Edison Company of New York, Inc., "Summary of
                                                                                Hudson River Research Programs, Approximate Cost of Ecological
      " "Improved Federal Efforts Needed to Equally Consider Wildlife             Studies" (Nov. 19,1974).
    Conservation With Other Features of Water Resource Developments,"
    GAO Report B-118370; Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Fish and               5 120 Cong. Rec. S18724 (Oct. 10, 1974).
    Wildlife Conservation and the Environment of the Committee on Merchant
    Marine and Fisheries (93rd Gong., 2d'Sess.) on GAO Report B-118370 and    E s Coordination Act Hearings at 591.
    H.R. 42, H.R. 2288, H.R. 2288, H. R. 2291, H.R. 2292, H.R. 10651, and
    H.R. 14527 (Serial No. 93-33) ("Coordination Act Hearings") at 591,
    600-605. .59 Note 35, supra.

      49 Id. at 121-601.                                                            60 120 Cong. Rec. S18725 (Oct. 10, 1974).

      50 Two other federally established programs which might give backup          06 42 U.S.C. �1857h-2; 33 U.S.C. �1365.
    support have also failed to provide technical assistance or a clear policy
    guidance. Congress gave its consent in 1940 to an interstate compact of
    the Atlantic coastal states for the joint regulation of the coastal fishery      '1 120 Cong. Rec. S18724 et seq.

    ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT-
    THE INTERGOVERNMENTAL DIMENSION

    JOHN J. BOSLEY
    Attorney-at-law
    Washington, D.C.

                ABSTRACT
                This paper provides a synoptic overview of the principal existing and pending federal laws and
                policies affecting the management of the nation's estuaries and estuarine zones. Specific attention
                is given to the influence these laws and policies have on the active management of such resources
                at the state, regional, and local levels. Using this analysis, the adequacy of extant federal policies
                to achieve established national goals and objectives on the preservation and conservation of
                estuarine resources is assessed. Finally, from this analysis current issues are identified, and
                proposed recommendations are made for federal policies to more adequately provide an in-
                stitutional and management framework to protect these vital resources.

    THE CURRENT SITUATION                                   actions there was a national focus on oceanography.
                                                           The Stratton Commission between 1967 and 1968
      The national government's concern and interest    through its publication of "Our Nation And The
    in protecting estuarine resources is relatively new.    Sea" 6 developed a greater federal and state aware-
    But the recognition that estuarine zones are pro-    ness of the problems and opportunities in managing
    ductive and indispensable natural resources evolved    our coastal and ocean resources. The Stratton Re-
    only after many estuarine areas were lost to develop-    port engendered a significant congressional interest
    ment and others imperiled.                              in the vulnerability of the nation's coastal zone. The
      During the decade of the 1960's dramatic growth    manifest congressional concern in estuarine resources
    and development experienced in the coastal states    was largely caused by this study, and culminated in
    resulted in significant reduction of wetlands and the    the enactment of the so-called Estuary Protection
    deterioration of some of our most valuable estuarine    Act of 1968 (P.L. 90-454). The Act provided for a
    resources. The threat to these productive natural    study of the nation's estuaries, especially to deter-
    resources provoked legislative action in many coastal    mine if a "national system of estuaries" should be
    states and in Congress.                                 established. It also called for as national policy the
      The first successful attempt to exercise a state's    protection,  conservation,  and  restoration  of the
    police power to protect estuarine resource systems    nation's estuaries, but in a manner that would
    came in Massachusetts with the enactment of that    maintain a balance between national needs for pro-
    state's wetland legislation in 1963.' This statute    tection and conservation and the development of
    requires a state permit as a condition to any signifi-   these estuaries to further growth and development.
    cant alteration of coastal wetlands. It recognizes    Moreover, the Act also asserts that the states have
    that these wetland areas are a natural resource held    the basic responsibility for protecting the nation's
    in trust for the people of the state, and usually a    estuarine resources.
    permit will not be issued if the proposed alteration       In accordance with the mandate of the Act, the
    would significantly damage estuarine and marine    Department of the Interior issued a report in 1970
    fisheries. The legitimacy of state regulation in these    entitled "The National Estuary Study." This study,
    privately held areas was upheld by the Massachu-    accomplished largely through outside consultants'
    setts courts.2 The success of the Massachusetts law    contracts, examined the scientific, economic, govern-
    fostered enactment of similar statutes in many other    mental, and legal issues on the protection and man-
    coastal states. These state wetland laws were fol-   agement of estuarine resources. No specific legislative
    lowed in a few states with a more comprehensive    proposal emanated from the study, however.
    approach to coastal and estuarine management.              Even without additional congressional policy on
    Delaware,3 Maine,4 and California5 are among the    the protection of estuarine resources, other legislative
    states that passed coastal zone management or    and administrative actions began to influence the
    conservation law.                                       decisions involving development within these zones.
      Concurrent with many of these incipient state    The late 1960's brought an evolving environmental

                                                                                                          629

    630                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    ethic within the federal establishment. The admin-        Two such efforts culminated in 1972. The Senate
    istration of the permit programs under the River    and House Public Works Committees developed a
    and Harbors Act of 1899 (33 U.S.C. 403) by the    major new water quality program in the Federal
    Department of Army is a case study on this point.      Water  Pollution  Central  Amendment  of  1972
      Section 10 of this old statute prohibits the un-    (P.L. 92-500). This legislation protects estuarine
    authorized obstruction or alteration of any navigable    resources in several ways. It requires the states to
    water of the United States. The Corps of Engineers    establish, under  federal criteria, ambient water
    had traditionally issued permits under the Act unless    quality standards and effluent limitations. Com-
    the proposal would interfere with navigation. How-    pliance with these standards is obtained through a
    ever, the need to administer this legislation in ac-    permit program encompassing all discharges into
    cordance with contemporary environmental values    navigable waters. Areas having substantial water
    caused a departure from this myopic approach. The    quality problems are required to develop continuous
    vindication of this new federal environmental con-    water quality management planning and program-
    cern came in 1970 in the case of Zabel v. Tabb.7    ming processes under Section 208 of the Act. Such
    This litigation was brought after the District Engi-    management planning must consider land use, cur-
    neer denied a Section 10 permit to fill 11 acres of   tailment of non-point sources, and, where appro-
    tidelands in Boca Ciega Bay, Fla., on the grounds    priate, methods to control saltwater intrusion caused
    that the fill would be harmful to fish and wildlife.    by curtailment of freshwater flow. Probably, the
    The 5th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals held that the    most important aspect of the statute on estuarine
    Corps of Engineers had properly taken conservation    resources is the law's water quality goals for 1983.
    and environmental factors into account as well as    By that date, the nation's waters should provide for
    navigational considerations. This holding was based    the protection and propagation of fish, shellfish and
    on the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1959    wildlife, and recreation in and on the water. Con-
    (FWCA) and the National Environmental Policy    sequently, the Act establishes one absolute param-
    Act of 1969 (NEPA). These statutes require con-    eter for protecting and managing the estuarine zones.
    sideration by  federal agencies of environmental          On the other hand, the Coastal Zone Management
    considerations other than missions assigned to them    Act of 1972 has a comprehensive rather than single
    by their respective laws. The Supreme Court de-   purpose environmental orientation. It originated in
    dined to review the case thereby letting the court of   the Senate Commerce and House Merchant Marine
    appeals' decision stand.                               and Fisheries Committees. This law authorized the
      However, the general environmental impact an-    Secretary of Commerce to make grants to coastal
    alysis approach required under NEPA and FWCA    states in planning for and administering sound
    were not considered adequate substitutes for sub-    management programs for the coastal zone. Its basic
    stantive environmental policy. Congress recognized    approach is that decisionmaking on the use of the
    that impact assessments would not be adequate in    coastal zone, which by definition encompasses the
    areas requiring active resource planning and manage-    estuarine zone, is basically a state prerogative sub-
    ment.                                                  ject to the overriding national interest in such areas
                                                          as water quality standards, navigation, deepwater
                                                          ports, and the production of energy. To achieve this
    O       ther Federal Legislation Management            objective of state primacy, the legislation encouraged
                                                          the establishment of a management process including
      The Senate and House Interior Committees did    an intergovernmental system to achieve wise use of
    not follow up the "National Estuary Study" with    land and water resources of the coastal zone. One of
    proposed new legislation on protecting estuarine    the principal inducements for the state to develop
    areas. But 'this was probably not associated with the    an unified management program for the areas is that,
    merits of the study. Rather, the more likely reason    when approved, the state management process will
    for the absence of new estuarine legislation was the    subject the federal government's actions to stringent
    nature of the complex and overlapping committee    consistency checks against adopted state policies.
    structures in Congress. Several congressional corm-    Under Section 307, application for a federal grant,
    mittees exercise jurisdiction over legislation dealing    license or permit to conduct activities affecting land
    with coastal and marine affairs. Quite independent    water uses in the state's coastal zone must be con-
    of the activities in the Interior committees, these    sistent with the state's approved coastal manage-
    other committees were developing other legislative    ment program. Normally, direct federal government
    thrusts which happened to also directly affect the    activities must also be consistent with the state
    nation's estuarine zones.                              program.

                                                 LEGAL ASPECTS                                             631

    : The Act also recognizes the particular value of        While NEPA does not establish absolute environ-
    preserving estuarine resources. Under Section 312,    mental standards, it provides the integrative force
    the Secretary is authorized to make grants up to 50    to focus all appropriate environmental policies and
    percent of the cost of acquiring and operating estu-    values on major federal programs and regulatory
    arine sanctuaries for the purpose of creating natural    systems.
    field laboratories to study the natural and human
    processes within estuaries.
      In 1972, Congress also enacted the Marine Pro-
    tection, Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972             The national energy crisis is becoming an im-
    (P.L. 92-532). The Act mainly affects ocean re-   portant new factor in protecting estuarine resources.
    sources. But it also will assist in the protection of    To  become mor e self-sufficient,  additional energy
    the waters within estuarine zones. This results from
                                                           sources are being sought. One of the prime areas for
    two programs provided for in the legislation. Section    new oil exploration is in the Outer Continental Shelf.
    103 requires the Secretary of the Army to issue per-   But exploration for new energy sources is not the
    mits for the transportation of dredged material for    only approach contemplated to meet the problem.
                                                           only approach contemplated to meet the problem.
    the purpose of dumping it in ocean waters. No such
    mth     m be  pse ,of dumping it in ocean waters. No such    For example, coastal and estuarine areas are attrac-
    permit may be issued, however, if the Administrator     tive locations for new power plants, especially nu-
    of EPA finds that the dumping of such material willons for new power plants, especially u-
    result in an unacceptable adverse impact on shellfish     In response to those needs, the Department of
                                                             In response to those needs, the Department of
    beds, fisheries, wildlife, or recreational areas. More-    Interior has indicated that areas in the Baltimore
    over, the protection of estuarine areas will be assisted    Canyon area of the Continental Shelf adjacent to the
    also under the authority in Section 302 of the Act.    states of New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, and
    This provision vests the power in the Secretary of   Virginia will be opened to oil exploration in 1975.
    Commerce, after consultation with other federal    Existing production areas will be subject to more
    agencies and with approval of the President, to    intense exploration activities. As a result, the Ad-
    designate as marine sanctuaries those areas of ocean    ministration has requested and Congress has appro-
    or coastal waters which he deterrmines necessary to    priated supplemental funds for FY 1975 to accelerate
    preserve or restore such areas for their conservation,    the coastal state planning efforts to prepare for the
    recreational, ecological, or aesthetic values. Once    impact of these energy-inspired activities in the
    designated, the Secretary must issue regulations to    offshore areas. These monies will be available to the
    control any activities within such areas, and federal
    activities can only be undertaken in these sanctuaries
    if the Secretary certifies that they are consistent with    Act of 1972.
                                                              Congress has also evinced interest and concern
    the management of the area as a marine sanctuary.       over  the  potential evironmental consequences of
                                                           over the potential environmental consequences of
      Finally, a summary of the existing environmental    new energy development activities. For example,
    policies affecting the protection of estuaries, or any    the Senate has established the National Ocean Policy
    other important natural resource, would not be    Study Group in the Commerce  Committee.8 In
    complete without including the National Environ-    April 1974, the Committee received testimony on
    mental Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190). This far-   the potential impact of Outer Continental Shelf oil
    reaching statute declares it the national policy to    and gas development along the Atlantic, Pacific,
    encourage a productive and enjoyable harmony    and Gulf of Alaska. Much of the testimony rec-
    between man and his environment. To assure that    ognized that the nearshore areas of the coastal zone
    this policy is incorporated into all the programs and    would absorb a major part of the environmental
    actions of the federal government, Section 102 of the    impact. One federal official cited the impact of off-
    Act directs that to the greatest extent possible the    shore drilling in the Gulf of Mexicoas evidencing
    policies, regulations, and public laws of the United    that these activities would cause loss of wetlands and
    States shall be interpreted and administered to    affect circulation conditions of nearshore areas.8
    reflect the purposes of the Act. This section also        These and other congressional hearings have gen-
    mandates all federal agencies to prepare detailed    erated a plethora of bills dealing with the environ-
    environmental impact statements on major federal    mental consequences of development in the con-
    actions significantly affecting the quality of the hu-    tinental shelf area."' One of these measures was
    man environment. Such statements are to insure    enacted in the last days of the 93rd Congress-Deep-
    that environmental amentities and values will be    water Port Act of 1974 (P.L. 93-627). In the main,
    given appropriate consideration in federal decision-    the Act authorized the Secretary of Transportation
    making processes.                             -        upon application to issue, transfer, and renew 20-

    632                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    year licenses for the ownership, construction, and    agement program, and to resolve conflicts of com-
    operation of deepwater ports in waters beyond the    peting uses, each participating state must have a
    territorial limits of the United States. This legislation    technique to control land and water uses in the
    is simply a recognition by the executive branch and    coastal zone. Although several options are available,
    Congress that new domestic energy sources are not    most states will probably establish standards and
    the immediate answer to our problem. Rather, oil   criteria for implementation by local governments.
    imports will continue and the United States must    Many states also intend to use regional planning
    have adequate facilities to accommodate the ever-    agencies to assist in implementing the program.
    increasing fleet of supertankers. Again, as in the        As pointed out above, 'the program is not manda-
    case of new offshore exploration, any such legislation   tory. States are encouraged to participate and re-
    will inevitably have significant impact 'on estuarine    ceive two-thirds of the cost of developing a coastal
    areas, albeit of a more localized nature.              management program. Such development grants can
                                                          be made annually for three years. After that period
                                                          a state may only receive annual grants toward the
    Impact onf F    eder al Law and gement Acost of administering its program if the Secretary of
    PoliStatcy and Substuarine Manageme nt Act             Commerce approves the program. A principal in-
                                                          ducement for securing program' approval is that
      Most of the federal legislation discussed above    subsequently the federal government must generally
    affecting estuarine areas have a single thrust; they    conduct its programs and activities in accordance
    encourage states to develop balanced management    with the approved state management program
    processes for such areas. The Estuary Protection Act      Already the coastal management program is hav-
    and the Coastal Zone Management Act represent    ing significant impact on state, regional, and local
    this policy. In the former case the legislation has had    governments. If most coastal states remain in the
    little impact in generating state management policies   program, state and local government will be making
    for wetland and estuarine areas. Its most important    explicit planning and policy-based decisions on the
    contribution has been. to perpetuate continuing    future use of estuarine resources. Most importantly,
    congressional interest in estuarine problems and, to    however, such decisions will be made within the
    some extent, cause federal agencies to consider state    framework of a coastal management process which
    policies relative to the management of these re-   will weigh environmental as well as economic and
    sources. A good example of the latter is the Corps of   social values It must be reiterated that the import-
    Engineers' use of the Act as the basis for considering    ance given estuarine resources in this process is es-
    state policy and the administration of its permit    sentially a state value judgment. Unless there is a
    programs concerning activities in navigable ocean    preemptive national policy, as in the case of the
    waters" jr                                 -Federal Water Pollution legislation, the state's per-
      On the other hand, the Coastal Zone Management    eeption of estuarine management must prevail.
                                                          ception of estuarine management must prevail.
      On the had widespread impact one managem               The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972
    Act has had widespread impact on estuarine manage-    had the most immediate impact on the management
    ment. It appears that all coastal and Great Lake    had the most immediate impact on the management
    states will ppears tiipate inallthe program. This will-have    of estuarine resources at the state and local levels.
    states will participate in the program. This will have
    direct implications on estuarine management. The    Prior to this Act, federal policies dealing with water
    Act and its implementing regulations require each    quality impacts on estuarine waters and coastal
    participating state to evolve over a period not to    wetlands were diffuse and ambiguous. But the Act
    exc`ed three years a unified coastal zone mana~ge-    provided definitive standards and goals which en-
    ment program, together with a coordinated'admin-    compassed all of the nation's navigable waters.
    istrative system for its implementation. Thus the    Currently, EPA and the Corps of Engineers' regula-
               Act supports a substantial icrease in statelaw and    tions involving the various permit programs under
    Act supports a substantial increase in state 'law      the Water Act and the Refuse Act extend federal
    authority in the estuarine zone." The program must    the Water Act and the Refuse Act extend federal
    identify important coastal resource areas such as    water quality standards into wetland areas. There-
             estuarine ones. It must insure that sch resources    fore, federal or state permits for any alteration in
    tarie encompassed'e i  the states defined coastal zone.    wetland areas must now be evaluated in the terms of
    Further, discreet policies must be adopted for their
    protection, 'conservation, and  development.  The    water quality standards in these areas by EPA has
    defined coastal zone also must include upland areas    been upheld by the United States District Court in
    necessary to control iuses of land which have a direct   Florida."l
    and significant impact on coastal waters.                 The NEPA has also fostered the consideration of
      To insure adequate implementation of the man-    related federal environmental policies in these per-

                                                 LEGAL ASPECTS                                              633

    nut programs. As indicated above, for example, the    develop' comprehensive 'resource management pro-
    Corps of Engineers' regulations on permits for activ-   grams. Of course, the Coastal Zone Management
    ities in navigable waters or ocean waters under the    Act is the most relevant to estuarine management in
    Refuse Act and the Marine Protection Act require   this regard.
    consideration of the proposed activity on wetlands        As indicated above, these disparate policies reflect
    and the estuarine zone.l4 In the former case, the    the structure of Congress and the federal executive
    federal policy on wetlands has been administratively    branch. There is no single locus in the system which
    derived, and in the latter the implications on estu-    has the exclusive responsibility for natural resource
    arine management reflect the general policies in the    management. Consequently, the various executive
    Estuary Protection Act. But there is little doubt    agencies  sharing  responsibility  coordinate  their
    that the integration of these related environmental    efforts through informal or ad hoc interagency
    policies was brought about largely through the man-    mechanisms. This can be a positive exercise, but too
    date in NEPA.                                           often agency mission and interest make it difficult
                                                           for such peer groups to arrive at balanced or com-
                                                           prehensive decisions. As a result, there is no central
    ESTUARINE MANAGEMENT-                                   or uniform federal executive policy on the protection
    THE FEDERAL POLICY ISSUES                               of the nation's estuarine resources. Moreover, the
                                                           National Environmental Policy Act does not ad-
      No single federal policy focuses on developing new      uately fill
    initiatives to protect the nation's estuarine areas.    and  regulatory  decisionmakers  to  consider  the
    This lack of central responsibility does not indicate    totality of federal environmental policy when arriv-
    absence of congressional or federal executive con-    ing at decisions affecting estuarine resources. In this
    cern, however. Indeed, there is no paucity of federaly  congressionally-mandated  environ-
    law and administrative regulations pertaining to    mental standards, e.g., water and air quality stand-
    these resources. On this point some would suggest    ards, are absolute, however. All other environmental
    the federal presence in these areas is already too    factors are subjectively weighed  by the federal
    large. Congress apparently does not share this view.    agency entrusted with the final decisionmaking
    If they did, the continuing requirement to study    authority. In such a coordinative management proc-
    these areas such as that contained in Section 104(n)    ess policies of state and local government on estu-
    of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act would    arne management are often critical. Both the Estu-
    not be necessary. Rather, it can be argued that the    ary Protection and the Coastal Zone Management
    central national concern is the need to evaluate the    Act require federal agencies in making decisions
    adequacy of existing estuarine policy, and to do so    affecting estuarine resources to comply with state
    as a part of a critical examination to determine the    policies if they are not in conflict with the national
    appropriate federal role. The ancillary issues emanat-    interest
    ing from this proposition are discussed below.            Based on theabove survey of current federal
                                                             Based on the above survey of current federal
      For the purpose of analysis, current federal policy
                                                           policies on protecting estuarine resources, the follow-
    affecting estuarine resources can be fitted into three    ing major issues have been identified:
    basic categories.
      The first may be described in terms of actual'fed-    . Will the federal incentives to encourage states to
    eral acquisition of estuarine resources. Under congres-    develop coastal zone management programs result in
    sional authorization, the Department of Interior has    adequate state and local government programs for the
    acquired areas of particular national interest. Typi-    protection or prudent use of estuarine resources?
    cally, they are wilderness areas or areas suitable for    The initial response by the state is salutary. The
    recreational use. Many estuarine areas are contained    real test will come, however, when they propose
    in this national parks system. But they represent a    coastal management programs for approval by the
    small segment' of our total estuarine resources.        Secretary of Commerce. At that time a determina-
      The second category of this federal policy involves    tion must be made from a national perspective on
    regulatory and coordinative efforts. With the excep-    whether the several states have identified estuarine
    tion of the Estuary Protection Act and administra-    areas as areas of particular concern, with appropriate
    tively established policies on wetlands, these pro-    managerial constraints placed on their use, including
    grams only have incidental application to estuarine    related land uses.
    zones. Their main purpose is to protect some other       . Are there adequate federal policies to insure that
    natural resource value, e.g., Fish and Wildlife Co-    development encroaching on estuarine areas will be
    ordination Act.                                         adequately managed by state and local governments to
      The last category involves encouraging states to    protect the estuarine resources?

    634                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      The Coastal Zone Management Act goes a long    RECOMMENDATIONS
    way toward achieving this result. It has certain geo-
    graphical constraints, however. A state's coastal zone     In responding to the aforementioned issues the
    may only include inland areas necessary to control    following recommendations are offered:
    uses which have a direct and significant impact on
    coastal waters. This boundary may be adequate in         � A federal interdepartmental estuarine task force
    most dases to protect estuarine areas. However, in    should be established, probably as an adjunct to the
    densely populated metropolitan regions the pressures    federal coordination responsibilities of the Depart-
    of development in the areas immediately adjacent to    ment of Commerce in the administration of the
    the coastal zone may exert pressures which ulti-    CoastalZoneManagement Act. Thisgroup would be
    mately result in development in the zone itself. This    charged with: 1) identifying existing federal laws and
    void could have been filled if national land use    policies affecting estuarine management and syn-
    legislation had been enacted. In its absence, other ap-    thesizing them into unified federal policy for uniform
    proaches must be sought. This will necessitate close    application throughout the federal establishment;
    coordination among federal agencies having com-    2) developing objective evaluation criteria to de-
    plementary programs affecting state and local gov-    termine the adequacy of state programs and regula-
    erinent land use policies. The comprehe                 tory policies on the  protection and use of estuarine
    ning grant assistance programi administered by the    resources, including related land uses; and 3) ex-
    Department of Housing and Urban Development    amining the current administratively established
    and EPA's area-wide water quality management    federal wetland policies, and preparing and recom-
    planning program"6 will influence land use decisions    mending to Congress a legislative program for wet-
    in the areas adjacent to the coastal zone.              land protection to be applicable to all federal grant-
     , Is the administratively established policy on wetlands    in-aids and regulatory programs, as well as direct
    adequate to protect estuarine resources?                federal management and development activities.
      Presently, federal policies on wetlands have been     .Develop legislation to provide federal impact aid
    derived without an explicit congressional mandate.    funds to coastal states. These federal funds should be
    And they have become important considerations in    available to minimize adverse environmental effects
    making federal regulatory and development de-    and control associated social impacts caused by the
    cisions within these areas, especially in those states    development of energy resources in the coastal zone
    which do not presently have adequate wetland pro-    and Outer Continental Shelf. Such grants should be
    tection policies. However, as administrative policy    conditioned on advance planning and programming
    they do not have the same standing as legislation.    for these impacts under the Coastal Zone Manage-
    This makes the application of these policies particu-    ment Act. The acquisition of lands, construction of
    larly vulnerable in cases where the only potential    public facilities, and the provision of public services
    constraint on a proposed activity is the federal wet-    within the impact coastal areas should be eligible
    land policy itself.                                     activities under this program.
     � Are current federal policies for the protection of
    estuarine areas adequate to ameliorate impending de-
    velopment pressures caused by the impact of oil and gas    FOOTNOTES
    exploration in the Outer Continental shelf to meet the
    energy crisis?                      I                      Chapter 130-Section 27A as amended, Massachusetts General Laws.
      This is probably the most serious national chal-
    lenge to the preservation of our estuarine areas.         I Commissioner of Natural Resources v. S. Volpe & Co., 349 Mass. 104,
    Since the federal government has exclusive control   206 N.E. 2d 666 (1965).
    in the development of OCS resources, the states are       a Delaware Coastal Zone Act of 1971, 7 Del. Code Ch. 70, 7001, et seq.
    vulnerable to the impact of such activities. Advanced
    and joint federal-state planning for the onshore          4 Maine Site Location Act, 38 M.R.S.A. 481-488 (1970).
    impacts is vital. The proposed federal planning grant
    funds for this purpose will assist in minimizing poten-   5 California Coastal Zone Conservation Act of 1972, Public Resources
    tial adverse effects on coastal and estuarine re-   Code, 27000 et seq.
    sources. If adverse environmental impact from such        6 Julius A. Stratton, Chairman, Commission on Marine Science, Engi-
    explorationf and other energy development activities   neering and Resources established by P.L. 89-454. The Commission pub-
    is to be rminimized, however, additional federal im-    lished as its final report Our Nation and the Sea, and three panel reports.
    pact assistance to coastal States will be required.       7 Zabel v. Tabb, 430 F.2d 199 (5th Cir. 1970).

                                                                 LEGAL ASPECTS                                                                635

      8 Senate Resolution 222established in the Senate Commerce Committee       i2 Specific indications of the growth in state law and authority can be
    the National Ocean Policy Study Group.                                    found in the Office of Coastal Zone Management's State Coastal Zone
                                                                              Management Activities-1974, and Bradley and Armstrong, A Description
       9 Robert M. White, Administrator, National Oceanic and Atmospheric    and Analysis of Coastal Zone and Shoreland Management Programs in the
    Administration, Department of Commerce, in a prepared statement before    Unted States, March 1972.
    the National Ocean Policy Study Group, Senate Commerce Committee,
    April 23, 1974.                                                             13 United States v. Holland, 4 ELR 20710 (M.D. Fla., Mar. 27, 1974).

      l0 e.g., S. 3221, Energy Supply Act of 1974; S. 2858 Outer Continental    14 Supra, Note II.
    Shelf Safety Act of 1974; S. 2672, Marine Resources and Conservation
    Act of 1974; S. 5, Deepwater Port Act of 1974, all introduced in the 93rd
    Congress.                                                                   Is Section 701, Housing Act of 1954, as amended.

      11 Disposal of Dredged Material in Navigable and Ocean Waters, 33         16 Section 208, Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendment of 1972
    C.F.R. 209, 145.                                                          (P.L. 92-500).

    BASIC FACTORS OF
    POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
    AFFECTING DEMAND
    FOR WATER RESOURCES

    JOHN C. BELCHER
    University of Georgia
    Athens, Georgia

                ABSTRACT
                The number of people is not the critical factor in water pollution, but the way the population
                is distributed and the life patterns that are followed. This report describes the changing distribu-
                tion of the population of the estuarine counties of the eastern seaboard including the development
                of new urban structures such as the megalopolis and the creation of new lifestyles brought about
                by increased leisure time, retirement, second homes, commuting, female participation in the
                labor force, and changing residential arrangements.

    INTRODUCTION                                             spared much of the southern coastal areas from
                                                          these problems.
      Evidence is accumulating that water will be the          Acknowledging that problems of pollution are
    focus of a great world environmental crisis of the    manmade, it is appropriate to analyze the changing
    future. The  pressures of very rapid population    distribution of the population along the eastern sea-
    growth, industrialization, and improvements in the    board and to ascertain some of the trends in Ameri-
    levels of living will be followed by a steadily increas-    can life that affect the water resources.
    ing consumption of water. A result will be pressures       The basic theme of this report is that the mere
    for a more complete utilization of existing water    number of people is not the critical factor in the
    resources everywhere.                                    water pollution of a given area, but rather, the way
      Widely publicized food shortages have resulted    in which the human population is distributed. Above
    from a serious drought in many countries since 1972.    all, the life patterns of mankind determine the
    Some climatic experts insist that the world may be    impact he has upon his environment. Thus, there
    entering into a new cycle of drought that may last    are two major sections to this analysis: First, a
    for a number of years. The reaction to predicted    description of the changes that are taking place in
    lack of precipitation will be development of wells    the distribution of the population, especially along
    and dams that permit irrigation of large tracts of    the east coast; and second, some of the changes in
    land; such a step could have serious ramifications    the life patterns of the American population, espe-
    for both the quantity and even more importantly,    cially demographic trends, which have relevance to
    the quality of water.                                    the relationship of the human population to the
      In the United States these pressures will most    natural environment.
    likely result in an acceleration in the use of water       The logic of this approach to understanding water
    in the estuaries of the eastern seaboard; a subse-    pollution is demonstrated by the following definition
    quent deterioration of these water resources is quite    agreed to at a Geneva conference in 1961, "a water
    likely unless preventive action is taken in the im-    is considered polluted when its composition or state
    mediate future. The possible deterioration of water    is directly or indirectly modified by human activity
    resources is related to the changing life patterns of    to the extent that it is less suited for purposes it
    the human population, patterns that can bring im-    could have served in its natural state" (Furon,
    mense changes in the environment.                        1967:105).
      Already the almost solid configuration of cities         Although technically the definition may be inade-
    and industry along most of the northern portion of    quate, one has but to glance at a few of the myriad
    the eastern seaboard has resulted in widespread pol-    products of human behavior which do pollute the
    lution of the estuaries. The limited concentrations    water of the world-pesticides, fertilizers, industrial
    of population and industrial developments have    effluents,  raw  sewage,  synthetic detergents,  and

                                                                                                          637

    638                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    household refuse--to realize that the problem is   sided in urban areas, that is, population centers
    widespread and serious (Furon, 1967:106-108).         with over 2,500 inhabitants.
                                                            Accelerating since the 1940's was a second urban
                                                         revolution-the rapid decentralization of cities. The
    POPULATION DISTRIBUTION                               metropolitan region became the focus of human
                                                          existence. Practically all of the hundreds of modernr
      At the time of the first census of the United States    shopping centers that dot the American landscape
    in 1790, the population of the country was 3,929,214,    on the periphery of the major cities have been con-
    largely restricted to a narrow band along the east   structed since World War II. A concomitant of this
    coast. The rate of growth per decade ran over 30    decentralization has been the loss of function by the
    percent from 1790 until 1880 with the exception of   central business district; the decay of these inner
    the 10-year period from 1860 to 1870. In this era   cities was widely publicized during the 1960's. Never-
    of the Civil War the growth rate remained high,   theless, the urban population, including the suburbs
    amounting to 22.6 percent. Although after 1880 the    adjacent to the major urban centers, continued to
    decennial rate of growth started declining, it was    grow. In 1970, nearly three out of four American
    still 25.5 percent between 1880 and 1890.             citizens (73.5 percent) were classified as urban.
      The 100 years between 1790 and 1890 witnessed         A third revolution in the growth of cities, an urban
    the westward movement of the population until   sprawl, seems underway  (Gottman and Harper,
    settlement was virtually complete from the east to    1967). The largest urban areas of the United States
    the west coast. The population of the nation in-   are now starting to lose population. Between 1960
    creased manyfold after 1790 and stood at 62,979,766    and 1970, 15 of the 21 cities in the United States
    when the census was taken in 1890.                    with populations above 500,000 in 1960 actually lost
      This westward movement, the Civil War, and    population. More recent estimates indicate that this
    changing agriculture brought the abandonment .of   trend is accelerating and that a very large percentage
    many farms and plantations along the eastern sea-   of the major cities of the nation will lose population
    board. Rice production completely disappeared from    during the decade of the seventies, at the same time
    Georgia and South Carolina. The chain of islands   the urbanized portion of metropolitan areas tends
    along the coastal areas of the south at one time had    to spread over the countryside.
    large cotton plantations when water was the prin-       At the same time, it needs to be emphasized that
    cipal medium of transportation. The fields were    the population of the nation continues to grow
    permitted to become fallow and forests were soon    rapidly, reaching 213,000,000 during the fall of 1975.
    soon established as the population shifted to the    Ours remains essentially an urban population with
    mainland,                                             people living on the fringes of the larger cities in
      At the beginning of the 19th century, the United    an ever-widening radius. This fringe development
    States was basically a nation of agriculturists. Only    has been a major phenomenon of recent years and
    5 percent of the country's population resided in   is likely to continue. On the other hand, the prob-
    cities when the census was taken in 1790. Around a    ability that the central cities will experience rebirth
    decade later the growth of cities became an all   and renewed population'growth is remote.
    pervasive phenomenon,  not only in the United           The cities of the United States have grown largely
    States, but the rest of the world as well. In 1850,   through young people abandoning the farms for
    15.3 percent of the population of the nation lived   life in the cities. This rural to urban migration was
    in cities, but by 1900, the figure had increased to    a major factor in the redistribution of the population
    39.6 percent. Some theorists have associated the    overthelast 150years. Thismigrationwasenhanced
    growth of the cities with the development of the    by the immigration of thousands upon thousands
    railroad as a major means of transportation. By    of foreign born during the late 19th and early 20th
    1920, 51.2 percent of the inhabitants of the United    centuries. There were several years in which over a
    States lived in cities. These cities were largely con-   million immigrants came to the United States,
    structed about the intersection of railroads or where    settling generally in the central core of the larger
    they terminated at ocean ports.                       cities. Currently, the effect of immigration on the
      With the advent of the automobile, the stage was    growth of central cities has declined because immi-
    set for a modification in the urbanization process. In-   gration proceeds at a slower rate than previously,
    creasingly, people could reside farther and farther    and because the modern immigrant tends to join
    into the suburbs and still work in the central business   relatives who may be scattered throughout the
    district. The growth of cities continued until in   nation, rather than in the urban ghettos.
    1940, 56.5 percent of the nation's population re-       Even more important for the growth of cities is

                                                LEGAL ASPECTS                                            639

    that the rural-farm population base is so small.    creased 15.6 percent compared with an increase of
    Only 5.2 percent of the nation's inhabitants lived    13.5 percent in the total population of the United
    on farms in 1970. The birth rates of the rural farm    States. The latest estimates show that between 1970
    residents are declining to a level comparable to those    and 1973 these estuarine counties increased 3.8 per-
    of the rest of the nation's citizens. Cities simply    cent while the nation's population increased 3.0
    cannot depend upon a continuation of the in-   percent.
    migration of a surplus rural population as a source      Many people have become aware recently that
    of growth. Urban growth must come from a natural    the nation's birth rates have fallen to the lowest
    increase.                                              point in history. A real possibility exists that popu-
      In spite of the fact that the population of the    lation increase in the nation may fall below the
    nation is increasing rapidly, it is obvious that all   replacement level within the next very few years,
    sections are not equally sharing this growth. Of    especially if economic conditions worsen. At the
    the 3,124 counties and county equivalents in the    present time the crude birth rate is about 14.8 per
    United States, about one-half actually lost popula-    thousand and the death rate is 9.2 per thousand.
    tion between 1960 and 1970, a decade in which the    As the average age of the population increases, it is
    total population increased by nearly 24,000,000.    inevitable that the death rate will rise. If the birth
    Less than one-third of these counties grew through    rate continues the decline that started in 1957 and
    immigration.                                           rapidly accelerated about 1965, there will be a
      The greatly reduced birth rates of the seventies    balance between births and deaths within, perhaps,
    means that rapid growth for an area must be sus-    the next 15 years.
    tained by internal migration. The redistribution of      A reduction in the rate of growth or even a period
    the population draws an increasing portion of the    in which the population of the nation reaches sta-
    population away from the vast midlands of the con-   bility does not mean that the number of residents
    tinent to the coastal areas (See Figure 1) (Ullman,    in the coastal counties will reach an equilibrium.
    1954), although the coastal counties of the southern    In fact, trends point to further rapid population
    United States have not experienced rapid growth    growth in the estuarine areas almost independent of
    through internal migration in recent years.            what occurs to the total population of the nation.
      "The only areas of the country in which more
    than half the total population increase was due to    NEW URBAN STRUCTURES
    net immigration were Florida, the coastal portions
    of the Pacific Northwest, and California. Collec-        The growth of cities covers a much wider range
    tively, these three areas had a net inflow of more
    than 4 million persons in the 1960's, whereas the    people in the United States have a stereotyped
    remainder of the country had a net 'migration loss    imege of the it      ed on the concentric zone model
    of nearly 1 million" (U.S. Bureau of the Census,    in which the central business district is surrounded
      1974:129).   ,.,      ,.. .by low income housing and industrial activities. As
      These trends in the redistribution of the popula-    one moves out from this center toward the suburbs
    tion are especially important for those concerned    the quality and spaciousness of the homes improves.
    with changes along the seaboard of this nation. The    Growth is thought of as occurring in concentric rings
                                                         Growth is thought of as occurring in concentric rings
    population, for example, in the coastal counties of   as the population continues to move out from the
    the eastern seaboard contained 16.7 percent of the    center in all directions.
    total population of the nation in 1950. This per-        Actually the city has taken many forms in human
    centage has slowly but steadily increased to 17.1    history. What we tend to think of as a city in the
    percent in 1960, 17.4 percent in 1970, and the latest    United States is basically a product of the 19th
    population estimates as of July 1, 1973 show that    century when the urban structure was based upon
    17.5 percent of the nation's population lives in these
                                                         aggregations of industry at a major railway center.
    counties. (See Table 1). The total. population of    By contrast, the cities of antiquity did not have the
    these coastal and estuarine counties has increased    central business districts characteristic of this coun-
    from 25,283,811 in 1950, to 36,921,600 in 1973. An-    try. The nucleus of the city does not always have a
    other way to look at the tendency of the population    commercial function. The center of the city may be
    to live in coastal areas is that this band of seaboard    either a religious shrine, a political center, or a
    counties experienced a 21.8 percent increase between    university.
    1950 and 1960. At the same time the population of        We may anticipate that the American city of the
    the nation as a whole was increasing 18.6 percent.    future will have a much different structure than is
    During the next decade these coastal counties in-    common at present. One indicator of this change

                                                                                                "a"~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0

                                                                                                 1 3-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

                                                                                                                                     UNITED STATES        i C

                                                                                           13.3OR OVER   EZI]-OR OVER.
                                                                               7   ~~~1 UNDER 13.3          ZJUNDER IC)

    U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE                                                           SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STATISTICS ADMINfSTRATION  BUREAU OF THE CENSUS

                                                FIGuRB I.-Percent of change in total population by counties: 1960 to 1970.

                                                                                  -LEGAL ASPEcTS,                                                                                             641

                                             Taibie  :L-Total population  of estuariiie  co6nties  of'the  Eastern  Seaboard, 1950-1973.

                                 1950             1960             1970              1973                                              1950             1960              1970             1973

    MAINE                                                                                                 NEW JERSEY

      Cumberland. ...... 169,201                     182,751          192,528            197,200            Atlantic -        - -------- 132,399           160,880           175,043           185,100
      Hancock -          -. ------. 32,105    32,293    34,590                            37,000            Bergen ----- 539,139    780,255    897,148                                         897,900
      Knox .-          -- -------. 28,121             28,575           29,019             31,100           Burlington .-        ----. 135,910               2         24,499    323,132        323,500
      Lincoln .-         -           -----       - 18,004  18,497      20,537             21,600            Camden -... .                 . 3b0,743       .392,035          456,291            474,200
      Sagadahac .- ----. 20,911    22,793    23,452                                       24,900    Cape May- ----37,131    48,555    59,554                                                    65,900
      Waldo                     - -------          . 21,687  22,632    23,328             25,500            Cumberland .        .    ..... 88,597          106,850          121,374            130,900
      Washington          - ------ 35,187             32,908            29,859            31,200            Essex---        ---          905,949           923,545          932,526            936,900
      York .-           -            --------- 93,541  ' 99,402    111,576               117,600            Gloucester .-.       ...... 91,727    134,840    172,681                           181,300
                                                                                                        Hudson ..........            647,437           610,734          607,839            617,700
      TOTAL -           -          ---------- 418,757    439,851w   464,883              486,100
                                                                                 .18,75  439Mercer --------- 229,781                                    266,392          304,116            316,100
                                                                                                        Middlesex      ..           ..... 264,872      433,856          583,813            597,100
    NEW HAMPSHIRE                                                                                            MonmOuth .-        ------- 225,327    334,401    461,849                           477,600
                                                                                                         Ocean -           -            -----.-. 56,622    108,241    208,470               250,000
      Rockingham   - ----- 70,059                     99,029          138,951            153,700            Salem-            -           49,508            58,711            60,346            62,300

      TOTAL ------------ 70;059                       99,029          138,951            153,700
                               TOTAL - 70,059        99,029           138,951           153700            ~~~Unino    -           -     .......398,138.   504,255           543,116           546,300
                                                                                                        TOTAL-.           - ------ 4,103,280        5,088,049         5,907,298          6,062,800
    MASSACHUSETTS
                              Sarmtable~~~~~~~~...~~~~. i ~~VIRGINIA':
      Barnstable                    ----- 46,805     .70,286           96,656.           109,000         VIRGINIA
      Bristol -        - ----------- 381,569         398,488          444,301            461,300            Accomack.         .. . 33,~32                   30,635            29,004            29,200
      Dukes ----5,633                                  5,829  . ,117                       6,900    Arlington - -------. 1351449   163,401   174,284    163,800
      Essex -         - ---------- 522,384           568,831          637,887            647,400            Caroline           � ......... 12,471           12,725'          13,925             14,400
      Nantucket           -     - ------ 3,484         3,559            3,774              4,.00           Charles Cjty .        -     ---- 4,676            5,492            6,158              6,600
       Norfolk -------- 392,308                       510,256          604,854            614,300            Chesterfield ...             ... 40,400         71,197           77,045             90,400
      Plymouth ...-.... -189,468    248,449    333,314    364,700    Dinwiddie-- ---18,839    22,183    25,046                                                                                  22,00
      Suffolk .-.        --.. .... 896,615    791,329    735,190                         734,700            Essexs. ...    6,530                              6,690            7,099             7,!00
                                                                                                         Fairfax ------------ 98,557 -                   275,002         455,032            514,000
             TOTAL--------2,438,266 :2,597,027  2,862,093    2942,500                                       Fai-9,5                                        25,92                ,32,00
                                                                                                         Franklin          -          ....24,560         25,925           28,163             29,600
                                                                                                       .Gloucester          - - ---- 10,343              11,919           14,059            115,600
    RHODE ISLAND                                                                                             Hanover -..        .---- 21,985    27,550  -37,479                                  43,300
                                                                                                                Henrico.   -.....57,340                117,339          154,364            165,300
       Bristol -----.-..29,079                         37,146           45,937             46,100            Isle of Wight    ------ 14,906                  17,164           18,285             18,700
       Kent ----------- 77,763    112,619                              142,382     148,700                  James City    - ----. 6,317                      11,539           17,853             19,100
       Newport .-        .. ... 61,539                 81,891           94,228             99,700            King and Queen....- 6,299                        5,889            5,491              5,400.
       Providence .-        -       ---- 574,973      568,778          581,470            586,300            King George          - ----- 6,710               7,243             8,039             8,500;
      Washington -------             48,542           59,054            85,706            92,200            King William         - --  7,5$9$                7,563             7,497              7,500
                                                                                                         Lancaster ..-        ...... 8,640                 9,174            9,126             9,200
      TOTAL --------- 791,896    859,488    949,723                                      973,000            Ldo -21147                                      24,549            37,150            41,700
                                                                                                         Loudoun._ ---------- 21,147 2 4549                               37,1.5      0      41,700.
                                                                                                         Mathews .-          ------- 7,148                7,121             7,168              7,800
    CONNECTICUT                                                                                          :  Middlesex .           .     ...... 6,715          6,319            6,295              6,500
                                                                                                         Nansemond           .        .. 25,238          31,366           35,166 ------
       Fairfield ------ 504,342                       654,589          792,814            787,800            New Kent .-. ---- 3,995                          4,504             5,300             6,300
       Middlesex -        - ------ 67,332              88,865          115,018            121,000            Norfolk ..-   --  99,937                        51,612 -------------
       New Haven .-        ---- 545,784              660,315           744,948            756,800            Northampto ....-  .   17,300                    16,966            14,442             15,300
       New  London         -    ---- 144,821          185,745          230,654            239,800            Northumberlaind...             10,012           10,185             9,239              9,100
                                                                                        4 1950 0          Prince George        -     ---- 19,679          20,270           29,092             19,800
      TOTAL .-.        - -------- 1,262,279   1,588,514   1,883,434    1,905,40                             Princess Anne                  42,277           76,12400--------
                                                                                                         Prince William       .. . 22,612                50,164          111.102            129,100
    NEW YORK                                               -                                                Richmond ..          .      ....- 6,189           6,375           .,504               6,300,
                                                                                                         Southampton          .    .... 26,522           27,195            18,582            18,200
       Albany ---------- 239,386                      272,926 .    286,742                288,700            Spotsylvania         ------ 11,920              13,819            16,424'            19,200
       Bronx ---------- 1,451,277   1,424,815   1,471,701    1,449,200                                       Stafford_ - . .                ..... 11,902      16,876           24,587 ,          27,900
       Columhia .-... .... 43,182    47,322 ,  51,519                                      55,900    Surry .-                   .            ...-.. 6,220     6,220             5;882              6,200
       Dutchess -        - ------- 136,781 .:  176;008                 222,295          .229,700             Westmoreland _..             .. 10,148          11,042            12,142             12,900
       Greene ------- 28,745    31,372    33,136   .3,,200    York ------ 11,750    21,583    33,203                                                                                             36,800
       Kings -      -........... 2,738,175    2,627,319   2,602,012    2,507,100
       Nassau .-        - -------- 672,765    1,300,171   1,428,080    1,427,400                             Independent Cities:
       New York .-       ...... 1,960,101   1,698,281   1,539,233    1,463,800
       Orange  -.      .           . ....... 152,255  183,734        221,657              233,600            Alexandriaf----.--             61,787           91,023           110,927           105,000
       Putnam .- -------- 20,307  31,722  56,696   63,500   Chesapeake-                                                                     --89,50   93,90
       Queens .-           ...... 1,550,849    1,809,578    1,987,174                  1,984,600             Colonial Heights._.             6,077            9,587            15,097             16,900
       Rensselear ........ 132,607   142,585   152,510   155,700    Fairfax---22,009    21,600
                                                                                                         Fail hrfach--_.......: ....... 7...... 2200 i- 107210,300
       Richmond       .-..         . .. 191,555       221,991          295,443            312,000              l   C rch                     7,535           10,192              ,772             10,300
       Rockland    --------- 89,276   136,803   229,903    240,100    Franklino----- ------- ---------6,880                                                                                        6,700
       Suffolk -.        - -------- 276,129           666,784    1,127,'030            1,197,200             Fredricksburg__..-             12458            13,639            14,450             15,400
       Ulster -         - ---------. -92,621    118,804   141,241    151,600    Hampton-                                        -----5,966    89,258    120,779    127,300
       Westchester .-         --- 625,816    808,891    894,406                           891,Io             Hopewell-          ----10,219                   17,895            23,471             23,800.
                                                                                                         Newport News  -.       .         . 42,358      113,662          138,177            137,500
       TOTAL .        -     -- - - 10,401,827     11,699,106       12,740,778         12,673,400             Norfolk                            ---- ------- ----- -307,951                      283,100

    642                                        ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                            Table 1.-Total population of estuarlne counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1950-1973.-(Contlnued)

                       1950       1960      1970       1973                           1950       1960       1970 *     1i13

    VIRGINIA-(Cont.)                                                NORTH CAROLINA--
                                                                   (Cosit.)
     Petersburg .-... . 35,054    36,750      36,103     43,600
     Portsmouth    -   ------ 80,039    114,773    110,963  109,100  Martin             27,938    27,139     24,730      24,000
     Richmond .- -     ---- 230,310    219,958    249,431  230,400  New Hanover ..     ... 63,272  71,742    82,996      92,100
     South Norfolk .....  10,434 .,--           --......   -        --------- Onslow .- - ------- 42,047  86,208  103,126   94,200
     Suffolk .- ..      .... 12,339  12,609   45,024     47,400     Pamlico -    -      -------- 9,993  9,850  9,467      9,400
     Virginia Beach-- ......... 8,091    172,106         192,900    Pasquotank _  - -___    24,347  25,630   26,824      27,100
     Williamsburg    .  ..... 6,735  6,832    9,069      10,200     Pender              18,423     18,508    18,149     .18,800
                                                                     Perquimans. .      ..... 9,602  9,178    8,351       8,300
     TOTAL --               - 1,397,165   1,975,189   2,942,965    3,008,700  Pitt      63,789    69,942     73,900      73;500
                                                                     Tyrrell ----- 5,048            4,520      3,806  -    3,700
    MARYLAND                                                         Washington  ..    .. 13180    13,488     14,038      13,600
     Anne Arundel      117,392    206,634    298,042    321,700     TOTAL              499,188    570,658    608,087    620,300
      Baltimore ...- ..   270,273    492,428    620,409  637,500
      Baltimore City -..    949,708    939,024    905,789  871,300    SOUTH CAROLINA
      Calvert ------12,100          15,826    20,682      23,700
      Cecil ------- 33,356          48,408    53,291      55,300     Beaufort -  -      ------. 26,993  44,187  51,136    54,900
      Charles ----- 23,415          32,572     47,678     54,600     Berkeley-..-       ----. 30,251  38,196  56,199      58,200
      Dorchester .- .    ..... 27,815  29,666  29,405     28,800     Charleston ..- .   .... 164,856    216,382    247,650  256,200
      Harford ----                 - 51,782  76,722    115,378  129,100  Colleton.__ --- ---. 28,242  27,816  27,622      28,300
      Kent .-.  .       ......... 13,677  15,481  16,146  16,500     Georgetown    .    ...... 31,762  34,798  33,500     35,400
      Prince Georges- -_ 194,182    357,395    661,087   695,000     Horry -    -       ---------. 59,820  68,247  69,992  79,000
      Queen Annes ..    ... 14,579  16,569    18,422      19,000     Jasper              10,995    12,237    '11,885      12,000
      Saint Marys-------  29,111    38,915     47,388   ,49,000
      Somerset-   _      ------ 20,745  19,623  18,924    18,600     TOTAL -    -      --------- 352,919    441,863    497,984  524,000
      Talbot ----- 19,428           21,578    23,682      24,800
      Wicomico ..-. . ... 39,641   49,050  -   54,236     56,900    GEORGIA
      Worcester..        23,148     23,733    24,442      25,500
                                                                     Bryan ...-........   5,965     6,226     6,539       7,300
      TOTAL  1,840,352   2,383,624   2,954,994    3,027,300          Camden .-    -      -- 7,322   9,975     11,334      12,000
                                                                     Chariton    -      -...--  4,821  5,313  5,680       6,200
                     ~~~~~~~~DELAWARE    ~Chatham .-                             ....... 151,481    188,299    187,816   179,700
                                                                     GDlynAn .-- ----. 29,046      41,954    50,528      50,900
                         Kent - 37,870  65-,651   !81,892  89,900    Liberty -           8,444     14,487     17,569      17,700
      New Castle        218,879    307 446    385,856    400000      McIntosh-           6,008      6,364      7,371       8,200
      Sussex ....s- - ....  61,336  73,195    80,356;     85,800                        213,087    272,618    286,837    282,000
      TOTAL -------                  - 318,085    446,292    548,104  575,700
                                         -  , *  i                  FLORIDA
    NORTH CAROLINA                                                   Brevard ....       23,653    111,435    230i006     228,400
                                                                      ,Broward ---- 83,933    333,946    620,100         738,600
      Beaufort_--.....   37,134    36,014     35,980      36,100     Dade -    -       ---------- 495,084    935,047   1,267,792    1,367,100
      Bertie    - ------26,439     24,350     20,528      20,300     Duval -   -       ---------. 304,029    455,411    528,865  547,800
      Brunswick - -     -----. 19,238  20,278  24,223     29,800     Flagler             3,367      4,566      4,454       5,460
      Camden -   -       ---------5,223  5,598  5,453     55,600     Indian River ...   .. 11,872  25,309     35,992      40,800
      Carteret .- -     ---- 23;059  27,438    31,603     33,600     Martin               7,807    16,932     28,035      36,800
      Chowan .-  .      ....... 12;540  11,729  10,764    10,600     Nassau              12,811    17,189     20,626      24;400
      Craven -   -      --------- 48,823  58,773  62,554  67,000     Palm Beach .- -   ... 114,688    228,106    348,993  403 000
      Currituck   -~~~~_~~. - 6,201  6,601     6,976       8,500     St. Johns   -      -------- 24,998  30,034  31,035   34,700
      Dare      - --------5,405      5,935     6,995       7,800     St. Lucie .- -     ------ 20,180  39,294  50,836     57,700
      Gates      - ---9,555          9,254     8,524       8,200     Volusia            74,229    125,319    169,487     191,200
      Hertford .-..      .... 21,453  22,718  23,529      22,500
      Hyde ...- ...  .... 6,479     5,765      5,571       5,600     TOTAL            1,176,651   2,322,588   3,336,221    3,675,900

    is that the central business district is rapidly declin-          Two types of urban structures are evolving: One
    ing in importance. Population, commercial activities,          has as the main street the perimeter highway that
    and industry have been decentralizing for several    connects a series of the major shopping  centers.
    decades. The modern shopping centers which are so              Over the last few years, large numbers of apartment
    prevalent today did not come into existence until    complexes have come into existence near these pe-
    after the termination of World War II. Manufactur-             rimeter highways. The  other new main street of
    ing has largely moved from the central city to new             America is the interstate or other multi-lane express-
    locations in the outskirts of metropolitan centers or    way  that  stretches  for hundreds  of miles with
    even in isolated rural areas.                                  attached nodes of residential development, manu-

                                                 LEGAL ASPECTS                                              643

    facturing establishments, shopping centers, major    pattern of land use has changed rapidly" (Gott-
    recreational facilities, medical complexes, transpor-    mann, 1961:217).
    tation centers, and the like, forming a strip city.        More recently, another major megalopolis has
      The most spectacular of this latter type is the    come into existence along the east Florida coast that
    megalopolis of the eastern seaboard that joins cities   promises to incorporate the entire Florida peninsula.
    from New Hampshire to Virginia into an amazing    Today, a narrow band of urban development extends
    urban complex. The scholar, Jean Gottmann, who    the length of the state from Miami to Jacksonville.
    popularized the concept Megalopolis in his book by         As yet largely unaffected by this trend have been
    this name stated that this new urban region brought    the coastal areas of Georgia, South Carolina, and
    rural and urban together into an integrated whole,    North Carolina. Projections of past trends in popu-
    "In this gradual symbiosis two seemingly conflicting    lation growth do not indicate the urbanization of
    trends have worked together: urban people and ac-    this section of the Atlantic coast. (See Figure 2).
    tivities have taken on more rural aspects and tradi-    Yet, trends other than past population growth would
    tionally rural pursuits have a9quired urban charac-    indicate that the megalopolis of the northeast and
    teristics. Some sectors of an urbanized region have    that of Florida will eventually merge into a gigantic
    come to look the way rural countryside used to    urban complex extending nearly 2,000 miles.
    while districts specializing in agricultural production    The availability of land, water, and a mild climate
    have begun to resemble built-up suburbs. The whole    provide the basis for such a development. The final

           213}s     \ I jM       !                                      r2 i     2F2

                                   23

          1. Metropolitan Belt                        9. Twin Cities Region          17. Blue Grass
            1.a. Atlantic Seaboard                   10. Colorado Piedmont           18. Southern Coastal Plain
            1.b. Lower Great Lakes                   11. Saint Louis                 19. Salt Lake Valley
          2. California Region                       12. Metropolitan Arizona        20. Central Illinois
          3. Florida Peninsula                       13. Willamette Valley           21. Nashville Region
          4. Gulf Coast                              14. Central Oklahoma-           22. East Tennessee
         5' East Central Texas-Red River               Arkansas Valley              23. Oahu Island
         6. Southern Piedmont -                     15. Mi'ssouri-Kaw Valley        24. Memphis
         7. North Georgia-South East Tennessee      16. North Alabama               25. El Paso-Ciudad Juarez
         8. Puget Sound
                                                                                 Based on 2-child family projection

                              FIGURE 2.-Urban regions: year 2000. Source: Pickard, 1972: 143.

    644                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    catalyst may be the interstates and other express-   ties among state, county, cities, and other minor.
    ways which' fuse Florida and the northeast into a    political subdivisions gave a system that rather
    major'main street of the United States.                 effectively provided needed functions.
     "The 'emergence of this new entity comes into           The unplanned, urban sprawl that has accompa-
    sharper focus when one reflects that early in the    nied the development of megalopolis and other urban
    present century before the appearance of -the auto-    regions has resulted in one problem with which
    mobile, people fulfilled their needs for goods and    existing civil divisions were not prepared to cope:
    services within walking distance of their homes.    maintenance of a pure water source. The water
    Homes were located near the place of employment    supply depends upon cooperation across many polit-y
    in order that the journey to work could be minimal.    ical boundaries. Public health demands services that:
    Neighborhood schools, grocery stores, churches, plus    are increasingly difficult for political units based
    the local physician made it possible for all to live a-  upon an old -urban hierarchical structure to furnish.
    rather complete life without leaving the small com-    New collective solutions are needed in many areas
    munity. The locality was a functioning social system    but in none more important than the protection
    to which individuals had a strong identity.             and utilization of water resources (Gottmann, 1961:
      The pattern today is much different. Most resi-   376-377).
    dential areas have few, at times none, of the services    An examination of the changing practices in the
    demanded. People go to one locality for medical    disposal of solid and liquid wastes reflects the need-
    services, another to schools, still another for grocer-    as urbanization progresses for political units that
    ies, and perhaps a more distant location to purchase    can provide collective means of household sanitation
    clothes, furniture, or an automobile. The automobile    as a substitute for traditional, individualistic ones.
    has become a necessary ingredient of daily_ life in    Even today along the more sparsely populated sec-
    the United States. An increasing percentage of the    tions of the South Atlantic States, it is 'necessary for
    population has two, or more automobiles that are    individuals to fulfill sanitation needs on an individ-
    continuously in use. The location of goods and serv-   ualistic basis. In the modern city a modern sewerage
    ices brings patterns of life in which each person    system safely disposes of large quantities of liquid
    tends to travel within an increasingly larger area.    and organic wastes. The periodic roundscof the gar-
    Outlook and use- of space tends to be more regional    bage collector gives an easy way for individuals to
    than tied to a specific locality.   .                   discard waste papers, magazines, and a large variety
      There are no strong loyalties to a given establish-    of containers.
    ment and a-new shopping center can'rapidly disrupt        Historically, the situation was much different for
    existing patterns. Existing trade and service- pat-    the person living in isolation. Food wastes were fed
    terns are altered with the construction of modern    to chickens, hogs, and other animals. Papers and
    highways. The interstate system is new and some    other inflammable materials were burned. Tin cans,
    portions are not complete in the South Atlantic    bottles, and other such materials were thrown into
    coastal area. With the passage of time, factories,    a family trash heap away from the house. Period-
    new stores, ;and services will locate along express-   ically, these latter materials were hauled away and
    ways. These establishments will' inevitably provide    dumped into streams, gullies, or flatlands draining
    so much competition that some more isolated busi-    into the estuaries. Human wastes were deposited in
    nesses will be abandoned.  The trend is for more    the old-fashioned privy or pit toilet. This system of
    people to spend more time on the highways in satis-   sanitation was based on individual efforts. Even
    fying their daily needs.                                today, sewage lines, garbage collection routes, and
                                                -�  f  -   the like are not economically feasible in a sparsely
                                                          settled rural political subdivision with a small tax
    CHANGING PROBLEMS OF
                                                          base.
    WASTE DISPOSAL IN MEGALOPOLIS
                                                            The expansion of existing metropolitan' areas and
      The emerging megalopolis has made dysfunctional    the growth of smaller population centers into cities
                                                          forces collective solutions to sanitation problems.
    the political subdivisions that were largely created
                                                          In the interim between individualistic and collec-
    iduring the 19th centeury.l aregionwith itys loune    tive solutions, there is a period in which the risks
    sidered the center of a region with its business
    nucleus as the "heart." A hierarchical web of rela-   of water pollution are very great. Isolated vacation
    tionships bound the metropolis, its suburbs, satellite   homes along the beaches and estuaries create special
    towns, and rural hinterland into a functioning whole.,  problems. These clusters of homes have no collective-
    Each part tended to have its own political'identity    solutions to sanitation -problems. Often raw sewage
    (Gottmann, 1961:736). The division of responsibili-   is dumped directly into streams. Household trash is

                                              . LEGAL ASPECTS   X                                         645.

    dumpjed into the edge of a stream to be carried off   are used. New lifestyles are coming into existence
    by the next tide. These practices' are often continued    that affect man's relationship to the environment.
    in some sizeable towns and villages in spite of health    A high protein diet, for example, based upon the
    regulations prohibiting such practices. A lone county    consumption of beef results in much more land being
    sanitarian may not have sufficient political clout to    used to provide food than was true in the past. The
    stop such practices. Those reared in a rural milieu    direct consumption of potatoes, wheat products, and
    are accustomed to these traditional practices and do    other starches has steadily declined. Through the
    not view them as a threat to health and the environ-    years automotive transportation has replaced pedes-
    ment. Also, many communities are inhabited by    trian travel and public transportation.
    people with low incomes who do not have the finan-        Affluency has become so much a characteristic of
    cial resources to pay taxes sufficiently -large to de-    Amnerican life that it has lost its status value. People
    velop sanitary sewage or garbage collection systems.    today with much more leisure time than existed
    Consequently, these people are often content to    previously are adopting new lifestyles that have
    continue with the present system.                       many of the attributes of an old agrarian society.
      Answers to questions about other solutions show    These new lifestyles result in demands -for beaches,
    that a large portion of these people living in isolation    vacation' homes, extensive travel, backpacking, and
    believe it would be an infringement on their freedom    other forms of outdoor recreation. Dining out and
    to have a collective system of waste disposal forced    the search for other forms of recreation keeps large
    upon them, especially if such a system" meant an    numbers of people on the highways.
    increase in taxes or a charge for the service.            A focus for many of these activities is along the
      Collective: solutions to many problems may be    estuaries of the eastern United States. Residents of
    essential and can only be furnished by new political    the large metropolises throng to the more popular
    entities. Yet, individuals will resist the changes. For    public recreational centers along the rivers, bays,
    them, traditional solutions are deemed preferable.    and beaches. Extensive camping and other outdoor
    Others do nbt want to see civil subdivisions give up    activities may destroy the ground cover. Campfires
    present function and responsibilities. Especially-re-    and the haphazard disposal of the debris by the
    luctant-to see changes are those with a vested interest    participants of outdoor recreation litter the country-
    in the status quo.       '                         '    sides. Roads and trails for the increasingly popular
      The human value system does not necessarily    four-wheeled vehicles, trail bikes, and dune buggies
    welcome changes that are both needed and inevita-    scar the -land. ,
    ble. The response applies to individuals, -corpora-       American society today seems possessed by a de-
    tions; and industries.                                  sire to escape from affluency and return increasingly
                                                          to nature. The call to nature has resulted, at times,
    NEW LIFE STYLES              0                         in the destruction of forests and protective dunes.
    AND WATER  PO LLIUTION                                  The channelization of streams, the construction of
                                                           roads and other recreational and vacation facilities
      The changing urban structure is accompanied by    have drastically altered the environment in many
    many changes in lifestyles that can have a great    areas. Population growth is but one factor in the
    impact upon the estuaries of the nation. In our    utiliation of these natural resources. New lifestyles
    affluent society there has been  the widespread diffu-    are placing new demands upon the natural resources.
    sion of many of the material conveniences of human    Obviously, any change in the environment of the
    life as the process of urbanization has developed.    drainage areas is going to have an impact upon the
    This affluency has been made possible by' the indus-    water in the estuaries (See Ronald G. Ridker, 1972:
    trialization of the United States and of many other    17-33).
    countries. Full employment and economic prosperity                     :
    have made it possible for automobiles, air condition-    DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS
    ing, television, refrigerators, and many' other appli-    AND NEW LIFE STYLES
    ances and manufactured products to be possessed
    by a very large Percentage of the United States'          Not everybody in the United States follows the
    population including those who are classed as living    same lifestyle. Great differences exist between iso-
    in poverty. Most live in houses with modern plumb-    lated rural areas, the ghettos of the large cities,
    ing and fully-eqUipped kitchens that protect the    retirement villages in Florida, and the suburbs of
    family from the rigors of the elements.                 Connecticut., Even within a given community there
      Much more important than the simple possession    may be several principal lifestyles followed by vari-
    of these material things is the way in which they    ous segments of the population. Style of life may be

    646                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    considered as the way in which material possessions    productive ages much more leisure time. The first
    are used. These patterns of consumption vary among    of these is that most employers now make provision
    status groups in a community. For example, an    for vacations. The paid vacation is a relatively recent
    automobile may be the source of livelihood for one    phenomenon. "As late as the 1920's only a small
    group of the population, a means of transportation    number of wage earners had paid vacations. Among
    to work for another, and a vehicle for recreational   salaried workers the paid vacation was more com-
    purposes only for still another. These patterns of   mon" (De Grazia, 1964:59-60). Today, vacations,
    behavior tend to form configurations which are fol-   holidays, and sick leaves for the average worker are
    lowed by all within a given group of the population.    a fringe benefit that reduces the number of hours the
      During the 1950's there was the stereotype of the    average person works per year by at least 15 days.
    suburban family, a couple with four or five children,   Even more spectacular has been the decline in the
    with its station wagon, residing in a split-level house.    number of hours that people work. De Grazia esti-
    The lifestyle of this group would have been much    mates that in 1859 the average agricultural worker
    different from that of the factory worker with a    put in 72 hours a week and those in non-agriculture
    pleasure automobile, who took the bus to work while   industries 65.7 hours every week. After this date
    his wife stayed home in a crowded tenement dwelling,    there have been steady declines in the number of
      A number of trends can be discerned from demo-    hours that people work. By 1940 it was estimated
    graphic and other data that are having a great    that those in non-agriculture put in 54.6 hours. By
    impact upon the lifestyles in the United States.    1960 these figures on the length of the average work
    Some of these trends are developing more rapidly   week had dropped to 38.0 hours in non-agriculture
    in the coastal areas than in other sections of the    and 44 in agriculture, an average of 38.5 for all
    nation.                                               workers (1962:420). The declines since this date
                                                           have been more modest. It has been estimated that
                                                          the average workweek had dropped to 37 in 1970.
                  ~~~~~~Leisure Time  ~He projects it will further decline to 35 hours by
                                                           1980 (De Grazia, 1968:114).
      One of the more important of these developments    1980 (De Grazia, 1968:114).
                                                             These estimates are for the nation as a whole.
    for the estuarine areas has been the shorter work-   The ata           e  o  hos woe
                                                           The actual number of hours worked might differ
    week for those in the labor force, resulting in more                The a lm our     ed m gt d
    time for leisure. For more than a century man has    somewhat in the eastern United States, but the
                                                           trend is unmistakeable. People today have a greater
    increasingly had more of his da   y freed from eonomic    percentage of their life outside the labor force and
    pursuits which increases his opportunity to engage   while employed work on the average much less than
    in recreational and other activities. The classic work       emo       or  o          ag      h e  tn
                                                           a generation or so ago. This shorter workweek pro-
    describing this transition was published by Sebastian   vides a basis for new lifestyles that would not have
    de Grazia in 1962 under the title, "Of Time, Work,    been possible in the past when the average employee
    and Leisure." De Grazia points out several changes    had little time for anything other than meals and
    that have reduced the time man spends in economic    sleeping in addition to his work. Free time for recrea-
    pursuits.                           .         .       tion was almost unknown. The activities of the
      The first of these is that people in the United    entire family are influenced by this new work sched-
    States enter the labor force at a later age than they    ule which permits all members of the family to spend
                                                           ule which permits all members of the family to spend
    previously did. In the past, adolescents of 12 or 14    time outside the home
    often were full-time workers. Various labor laws
    and increasing years of education have resulted in
    people entering the labor force at an older age.      Retirement
      Second, changing customs and laws have resulted
    in people retiring at the age of perhaps 60 or 65.      The lifestyles of retired people are much different
    Retirement was almost unknown in the past. Today    from those of young adults. Generally, older people
    almost all workers may expect voluntary or involun-    are more sedentary and consume less than those in
    tary retirement in their 60's. Further, increasing    the prime of life. Increasing life expectancy has re-
    life expectancy in the United States has resulted in   sulted in a tremendous increase in the number of
    a much larger percentage of all people born even-   people above the age of 65 in the United States. In
    tually reaching the retirement age and having several    1950 there were 12,397,000 people above the age of
    years of life outside the labor force.                65 representing 8.1 percent of the total population.
       In addition to the delayed entry into the labor    This number increased dramatically to 19,972,000
    force and the withdrawal from it two other develop-   in 1970 and to 21,815,000 as of July 1, 1974. Today
    ments have occurred that give those in the active    10.3 percent of the nation's inhabitants are above

                                                 LEGAL ASPECTS                                            647

    the age of 65 compared with 9.8 percent in 1970   Table 2.-Population 65 years old and over in the estuarine counties of the
                                                                           Eastern Seaboard, 1950-1970
    and 9.2 percent in 1960.
      Social security and other retirement plans provide                1950         1960         1970
    a constant source of income for an increasing per-                  Number   %   Number   %   Number   %
    centage of the elderly. Many of these individuals   Maine            47,163  11.2  53,695  12.2  57,849  12.4
    are migrating to coastal sections of the country    New Hampshire .... 7,931  11.3  9,676  9.8  12,148   8.7
    considered to have a pleasant climate. The vicinity   Massachusetts- 279,477  11.5  299,850  11.5  334,058  11.7
    of St. Petersburg, Fla., is widely known as a retire-   Rhode Island -..... 70,418  8.9  89,540  10.4  103,932  10.9
                     of St. Petersburg, Fla.,  wely nown as a retire-   Connecticut -- ----. 112,775  8.9  154,045  9.7  181,267   9.6
    ment haven. Approximately 30 percent of the popu-    New York ..-. ..... 823,932  7.9 1,162,666  9.9 1,388,261  11.4
    lation of several counties in the vicinity of St. 'New Jersey-       323,957  7.9  461,088  9.0  572,136   9.7
                                                           Virginia -.. ........ 101,397  7.3  143,663  7.3  190,597   6.5
    Petersburg is above the age of 65 years. Even more    Maryland .-.  .......  140,950  7.6  171,749  7.2  128,183  4.3
    striking however, is that 48.8 percent of the Miami    Delaware   - --.-.  26,320  8.3  35,745  8.0  43,833   8.0
    Beach population is above the age of 65. Other    North Carolina .-.29,002  5.8  37,151  6.5  46,581   7.7
                                                           South Carolinas------16,745  4.7  22,297  5.9  29,132   5.8
    coastal cities of Florida also are the homes of many    Georgia      12,353  5.8  17,278  6.3  22,329   7.8
    retired persons.                                      Florida-90,043  7.7  234,382  10.0  459,082  13.8
      A special tabulation of the changing number of   TOTAL  ...- .....2,082,463  8.2 2,892,824  9.4 3,569,388  10.0
    people above the age of 65 years residing in the
    estuarine counties, starting with Broward County,
    immediately north of Dade in which Miami is lo-   southern estuarine counties may be expected. This
    cated, and extending to the Canadian border, shows    migration will probably be more directed to larger
    a great increase in the number of elderly in recent    communities with relatively complete medical and
    years.                                                service facilities.
      These coastal counties in 1950 had 2,082,463 resi-
    dents above the age of 65, but by 1970 this number    Second Homes
    had increased to 3,569,388, a growth of 71.4 percent.
    By contrast, the increase in the number of elderly      A preoccupation with the growth of population
    in the country as a whole was significantly less for   has tended to detract attention from a number of
    the period, 61.1 percent.                             extremely important demographic trends. One of
      Table 2 presents statistics on the changes in the    these developments is the proclivity of Americans
    number of old people in the eastern seaboard coun-   over the last few years to acquire a second home.
    ties, by states. It may be noted that the rate of   These dwellings are generally in the more isolated
    increase in the population above the age of 65 was    rural areas where one can enjoy the beauties of
    below the national average in the coastal counties    nature. The construction of these houses often has
    of Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode    very serious ramifications not just for the environ-
    Island, and Connecticut to the north, but only    ment but the economic stability of an area. Often
    North Carolina among the more southern group of   those constructing vacation homes are not restricted
    states. Most spectacular is the increase of over 400    by any construction codes or by regulations for dis-
    percent in the selected Florida counties during this   posal of human wastes. Also, many are located in
    20-year period.                                       the submarginal areas that should be zoned for
       The percentage of the total population of all the    forestry or recreation with no residential construc-
    eastern seaboard counties above the age of 65 tends    tion permitted.
    to be less than the national average. This finding is   One of the most desirable locations for vacation
    a consequence of a high influx of young people in a    homes in the minds of many people is along the
    growing population and will change as those in the   beaches and the estuaries of the eastern seaboard.
    productive ages enter retirement, unless the total    Of course, other individuals express a preference for
    population continues to increase rapidly through    the mountains. Regardless of the relative attraction
    the immigration of young workers.                     of the mountains or the beaches, a large percentage
       The trend seems unmistakable for those with    of the population wants to escape at least period-
    financial means to move to warmer coastal areas   ically, from city life. Beach property has tended to
    upon retirement. The small family pattern that has    advance manyfold in price during recent years. The
     emerged in recent decades coupled with mobility of   increase in the cost of beach property is in itself an
    young people means that the family ties are not as   indication of growing demands for such sites for a
    likely to hold a person to the community in which    second home.
     he spent his productive years. Further, substantial     A special report of the census reveals that 2.9
     growth in the number of people retiring to the    percent of families in the United States had a second

    648                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                        Table 3.-Second homes and seasonal housing units, estuarine counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1970

                                          Occupied Housing Units                  Seasonal-Housing Units
                                  Total      Number with  Percent with    Total      Percent of all  State Total Units
                                  Number     Second Home    Second Home   Number     Housing Units-  Held'Occasional Use

    Maine     . ..-------- .. 146,635              15,672         10.7        35,431        17.6          6,486
    New Hampshire ---          -------------------. 41,677  3,153  7.6         8,274         15.6         3,037
    Massachusetts .--.. .   - ---------. 901,766   56,960         6.3         43,218         4.3         11,611
    Rhode Island        -- ...       291,965       13,337         4.6          9,884         3.1         1-,687
    Connecticut --.577,936                         26,146         4.5          7,886         1.3          6,615
    New York --........................... 4,232,501  189,763     4.5         51,846         1.2          58,186
    New Jersey        .....- 1,836,689             85,240         4.6         70,506         3.6          21,490
    Virginia           ------- - --                         - 864,091  33,885  3.9  4,832    :0.5         19,032
    Maryland.. ---0- 883,615                       28,169         3.2         12,494         1.3          7,974
    Delaware.: ------ 164,804                       9,517         5.8          5,222         2.9          1,2i3
    North Carolina --171,543                        6,988         4.1          8,052         5.0          13,372
    South Carolina ----------------------...  134,430  616,695    5.0          6,938         3.4          8,695
    Georgia-- .............................86,189   3,764         4.4           509          0.5          12,154
    Florida          ....... I ---_--------- ..... 1,123,478  63,794  5.7     19,389         1.5 '        46,561
       TOTAL ------.               n 11,457,319   543,083          4.7       284,481         6.2         218,173

    home in 1967. This number increased dramatically    eral land developments have brought about such
    during the next three years and the 1970 Census of   increases the last few years.
    Population reported that 2,890,000 families, or 4.6      The percentage of the population of the estuarine
    percent of the total, had a second home in 1970.    counties with a second home is presented in Table 3.
    The construction of these second homes proceeded    The proportion of the population owning a second
    at a very rapid pace until about 1973 when the rate    home in these counties does not differ greatly from
    of construction declined. Many of these new second    the national average, and is most pronounced in the
    homes are a part of large developments in mountain    most northern coastal states of Maine, New Hamp-
    and resort areas, but especially, in some of the more    shire, and Vermont. 'Florida and Delaware are also
    -attractive beach areas. No accurate statistics are    above the national average, but to a lesser extent.
    readily available on the extent of these recent          Although the county statistics are not available
    developments.                                          on the number of dwellings held for occasional use,
      One indication of the location of these second    they are for the states as a whole. An unknown por-
    homes may be obtained from the Census of Housing.    tion of these housing units are along the estuaries.
    These reports show the number of homes in each    It may be noted in Table 3 that, relative to the total
    county classed as seasonal. These figures under-    population of the states, these houses are more
    estimate the number of vacation homes inasmuch    characteristic of the southern states. It would appear
    as the census has a separate category for the dwell-   that the second homes in New England tend to be
    ings held of occasional use. The number in this latter    held for use during the summer months but for
    category is not presented by counties. The number    year-round use in the South.
    of seasonal homes in the estuarine counties (see         Nationally, this upsurge in the number of vacation
    Table 3) is therefore, the best index available of the    homes indicates a trend that may be predicted to
    location of second homes. Although admittedly in-   continue if economic conditions permit. The develop-
    complete, these statistics reflect the areas in which    ment of second homes will have a great impact upon
    such dwellings are concentrated.                       the areas in which they are located.
      Two notable concentrations of such houses are in
    two counties of New Jersey. Cape May had' 24,817
    such structures and Ocean County had ?9,851:"Most    Commuting
    of these dwellings are used by individuals residing
    outside the counties because only 1,254 of the fami-     The  vast majority of the population  of the
    lies in Cape May reported owning a second home in    United States lives in the metropolitan areas of the
    1970 and the figure for Ocean County was but 3,245.   nation. In these areas almost inevitably the home and
    Another- concentration is in Barnstable County,    work are separated. This journey to work is certainly
    Mass., (Cape Cod) which reported 21,524 seasonal    a factor in daily existence of many people, but"the
    homes. Relatively few were reported for the coastal    phenomenon of commuting is much  more complex
    areas of Georgia, Virginia, North Carolina, and    than often is realized. For one thing, there are large
    South Carolina. Nevertheless, it is known that sev-    numbers of households in which both the husband

                                                LEGAL ASPECTS                                             649

    and wife are employed outside the home. As a con-    thanr whites. Maize and Rawlings suggest that a
    sequence, both are engaged in this journey to work.    reason for this is that many blacks were reared in
    The pattern is not all that crucial at the present    rural areas where life was not kind to them and only
    time in estuarine counties that are non-metropolitan,    in the cities have they found a more pleasant life
    but indications are that it will become more im-    than the rural setting of their childhood. A move
    portant in the future.                                  back to the rural areas might be viewed as a step
      Several studies have been made in recent years of    backward. (1972:607).
    the residential preferences in the United States. A       If these generalizations are valid for the southern
    Gallup poll in 1966 reported that 49 percent of    coastal areas, they would explain why these areas
    respondents would rather live in a small town or    have not been experiencing as rapid population
    rural area than a larger community. Two years later    growth as other coastal sections of the nation. Large
    this figure had increased to 56 percent (Zuiches and    numbers of southern blacks have moved to the cities
    Fuguitt, 1972: 622).                                   of the nation, especially to northern ones during the
      A survey in 1971 for the Commission on Popula-    past half century. This out migration has brought a
    tion Growth and the American Future indicated    sizeable decline in the population of some of the
    that 64 percent of the U.S. population preferred to    more rural coastal counties. In the near future,
    live in small towns and rural areas (1972:34). In-    these counties will probably be able to experience
    vestigations in Wisconsin add another dimension to    rapid growth only through the immigration of whites
    these findings. Wisconsin residents also prefer to    who are searching a small rural milieu.
    live in small towns and rural places, but most of         Certainly, the basic attitudinal dispositions exist
    these individuals want to be within commuting    that can bring a shift of residence toward the smaller
    distance of maj or metropolitan centers (Zuiches and    towns and rural' areas. Relatively few economic
    Fuguitt, 1972:626). Apparently, the person living    opportunities exist in sparsely settled areas. Thus,
    within 30 miles of a large city can enjoy the quiet    the incidence of commuting to work may be expected
    and tranquility of the countryside, but for the    to grow.
    satisfaction of his needs, he is able to get to the large  One index of the extent of commuting is the
    city in a short period of time. In other words, the    proportion of workers whose place of employment is
    individual residing within the commuting area of a    outside the county of residence. The Census of
    major metropolis sees the opportunity for enjoying    Population reports that in 1970, 17.8 percent of all
    the advantages of both the rural and the urban    workers traveled outside the county where they lived
    environments.                                          to work. This rate of commuting is lower in the
      The survey by Zuiches and Fuguitt also presented    western than the eastern states, no doubt in part
    statistics that most people do prefer life in a residen-    because western counties tend to be larger. Never-
    tial area about the same size in which they were    theless, it is significant that the highest commuting
    reared. This finding is especially true for those reared    rates were in the states along the eastern seaboard.
    on the farm. As the size of a center in which a person    Iii Virginia, for example, 39.9 percent of all workers
    was reared increases, however, a definite tendency is   leave the county of residence to work. Next highest
    noted to be less satisfied with the urban areas and    is Maryland with 36.7 percent, followed by New
    for people to express a desire for a more rural setting    Jersey and New York with 32.7 and 31.8 respectively.
    (1972:627).                                            Large metropolitan centers such as Washington,
      Of course, a related question will' be whether or    D.C., and New York City are the places of employ-
    not people move in terms of these'preferences. A    ment, but not of residence, of large numbers of
    public opinion survey indicates that a relatively   people.
    large percentage of the population believes that they     The data in Table 4 show that the percent of the
    will actually change their place of residence according    population working outside the county of residence
    to these preferences or that they reside in a desired    in the estuarine counties of the eastern seaboard
    location.  Maize  and  Rawlings  report  that  80    was 50 percent in 1970, a substantial increase from
    percent of the respondents in a survey were either    the 37.8'percent in 1960. No tabulations were made
    living in the preferred location or expected to    on the extent of inward commuting, which is sub-
    eventually move to such a place (1972:608). Such a    stantial n some areas.
    tendency is much more pronounced as the size of the       Further, it may be noted that there has been a
    center increases. Rather interestingly, whites are    great increase in the number'of people working out-
    much more likely to move in terms of these aspira-   side the home county, from 29.7 in 1960 to 36.4 in
    tions than are blacks. In fact, urban blacks tend to    1970 (see Table 4). The general pattern has been
    be much more satisfied with their residential area    for in-county employment to increase -much less

    650                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                 Table 4.-Commuting In the estuarine counties of the Eastern Seaboard, 1960-1970

                                           Workers Residing in Area 1960  Workers Residing in Area 1970  Percent Change in Number of Workers
                                                                                                      1960-1970
                                             Number    Percent Working    Number    Percent Working    In-County    Out-of-County
                                                        Outside County          Outside County

    Maine -------- - -----                                              --------     ---------------------- 144,321  11.8  164,286  13.7  11.5  31.6
    New Hampshire ------- - ------------                                             ---- -      ----------- 36,366  34.4  49,753  43.9  16.9  74.8
    Massachusetts .-------- - -----                                   ---------------------- 954,803  23.8 1,051,978  29.5  2.0  36.6
    Rhode Island -....... . ................ 314,117        21.1        362,305      23.6         11.6         29.3
    Connecticut -------- - -----                                        --------     ------------------ 591,889  11.3  700,545  14.7  13. a  54.1
    New York b---------- - -----                                      ------------------------ 4,360,154  39.3  4,461,025  44.5  6.4  15.7
    New Jersey ---------- - -----                                     ----------     -------------- 1,838,624  30.0  2,129,583  34.7  8.0  34.1
    Virginia -------- - -----                                          ----------    ------------------- 725,562  42.8  1,129,096  46.8  44.6  70.3
    Maryland -------- - -----                                         ----------     --------- -              -------- 833,353  31.6  1,588,326  59.1  14.1  256.1
    Delaware -------- - ----                                            --------     --------------------- 156,030  7.9  194,922  11.7  19.7  85.9
    North Carolina -------- - -----                                     --------     -------- ------- 189,133  10.6  223,783  18.3  8.1  105.1
    South Carolina -------- - ----                                      ------------------------ 140,030  7.1  171,931  11.6  16.8 109.8
    Georgia ------- - ----                                              ------------------------------- 93,243  3.7  95,531  5.6  0.5  53.1
    Florida -------- - ----                                           ----------      --------------------- 802,332  5.0  1,150,296  6.6  40.9  90.8
       TOTAL ----------- - ---------- - ------------------ 11,179,957  29.7  13,473,360  36.4     12.8         47.7

    rapidly than out-of-county employment. If present    tabulated for the eastern seaboard counties. The
    trends continue. commuting will involve a greater    same patterns are developing in this area as else-
    number  of people than employment  within the    where. The total number of females in the labor
    county of residence.                                     force for these estuarine counties increased from
                                                                4,298,003 in 1960 to 5,546,198 in 1970, an increase
    Women in Labor Force                                     of 29 percent. During the same 10-year period, the
                                                                number of males in the labor force grew from
      One factor in the increase in commuting has been    8,367,066 to 8,951,665, an increase of but 9 percent.
    a trend for more and more women to enter the labor         Undoubtedly the employment of women outside
    force. Large numbers of married women are now    the home is a major factor in the changing lifestyles
    working outside the home. When both husband and    of the coastal areas. Inasmuch as birth rates are
    wife are employed,  it is unlikely that they will    declining, it may be anticipated that an increasing
    share the same journey to work. At times their    percentage of women would continue to look outside
    hours differ, but more often, they go in different    the home for fulfillment. This trend will, of course,
    directions. If they are employed in locations miles    be determined by the availability of employment.
    apart, then one, if not both, must resort to com-
    muting. The home cannot be near both places of    Land Use Changes
    employment.
       Furthermore, if both husband and wife work, their        Nationally, the number of acres in farms has
    income will be more adequate to maintain a suburban    steadily declined since the soil bank program of the
    lifestyle. With increases in income, people tend to    1950's. At the same time, the number of farms
    move out from the central city.                          continued to decline from the peaks reached early
       Patterns of life for a married couple change when    in the century. Meanwhile, the average size of farms
    both are employed. The increased participation of    has increased. The family farm is giving way to the
    married women in work outside the home may be    commercialized enterprise.
    demonstrated by a few statistics. In 1950, only            The number of farms in the estuarine counties of
    23.8 percent  of married  women  with husbands    the eastern seaboard has dropped from 194,448 in
    present were in the labor force. This figure reached    1950 to 72,049 in 1970, a decline of 62.9 percent in
    30.5 percent in 1960, but accelerated after that date    only 20 years. (Table 5).
    to 40.8 percent in 1970 and 41.5 percent in 1972.          The  widely publicized  world  food  crisis will
    The figures for the total adult female population    probably result in the expansion of large scale
    show the same trend. In 1950, 31.4 percent of    agricultural enterprises along the eastern seaboard.
    females above the age of 14 were in the labor force.    Much of this area, especially along the South Atlantic
    This figure was reported as 43.6 percent in 1972.        coast, was at one time abandoned for agricultural
       Rates of participation in the labor force were not    purposes with the westward movement of settle-

                                                 LEGAL AsPECTS,  651

    Table 5.-Number of farms in estuarine counties on the'Eastern Seaboard,   best opportunities for large corporations to develop
                          1950-1970                       factories in the field in the shortest possible time.
                                         Percent Change   The availability of water and the natural fertility
                    1950  1960  1970  1950  1960- 1970    of soil that has remained fallow for many years
                                                           provide the potential for tremendous agricultural
    Maine .- .     ............. 12,075  6,778  2,664 -56.1 -39.0  -21.9   yields.
    New Hampshire -. .....  2,206  1,076   427 -48.7 -39.7  -19.4  Obviously, the draining of swamps and the de-
    Massachusetts-- ---- 27,899  3,947  2,132 -50.0 -54.0  -27.0   struction of ground cover would drastically alter the
    RhadeIsland - -------. 2,598  1,395   700 -53.7  -50.1  -27.0
    Connecticut ....- ... 6,981  3,464  1,801 -49.6 -52.0  -25.8   ecology of the area within a short time. The impact of
    New York- -    -------- 17,346 19,503  6,030 -12.4 -30.9  -35.0   the runoff on the estuaries would be quite dramatic.
    New Jersey - - --------- 17,274 10,790  5,481 -62.5 -50.8  -32.0
    Virginia - -   ------------ 36,134 19,781 12,255 -54.8 -62.0  -34.0  Only part of the land taken out of agriculture
    Maryland .- -  ---------- 21,426 14,746 10,229 -68.8 -69.4  -48.0   has been converted to highways, urban residential
    Delaware -------------- 7,448  5,208  3,710 -70.0  -71.2  -49.8
    North Carolina----- 34899 24,731 15,218 -70.8 -61.5  -43.    areas, industrial development, and the like. Such
    South Carolina .-- ----- 18,900 11,645  6,072 -61.6 -52.1  -32.1   diverse uses receive much attention in the press.
    Georgia- -      ----------- 2,301  1,158   582 -50.3 -50.3  -25.3   But a significant portion of the lands that were in
    Florida- -      ---      - 6,961  6,097  4,768 -87.6 -78.2  -68.5   cropland are not used for forestry and grazing.
    TOTAL .-...   ........ 194,448 130,319 f2,049 -67.0 -55.3  -37.0   Forest lands in the United States have increased
                                                           substantially over recent decades. No tabulations
                                                           were made of the acreage in the estuarine counties
                                                           that has returned to forests during recent years.
    ment. Rice plantations in the lowlands of the    that has returned to forests during recent years.
    Carolinas and Georgia were abandoned long ago.    Woodland not in farms increased from  127,358
    Timber companies presently own very large tracts    thousand acres in 1959 to 146,733 thousand acres in
    of land. Other areas such as the Golden Isles off the    1969 for the states along the eastern seaboard. Of
    coast of Georgia became hunting, preserves and    these coastal states, only Florida failed to register
    vacation retreats for wealthy citizens.                an increase in its forested area during the period.
      Under the demands for increased agricultural           At the other extreme, there are developments
    production, it is very probable that pressures will   which significantly change the use of the land. New
    be exerted to convert present timberlands back to    highways, shopping centers, and the like are known
    food production. Large capital investment require-   to all. However, one change has been largely ignored,
    ments often result in large scale operations, some-    and accurate statistics of the phenomenon do not
    times referred to as "factories in the field." Indicative    exist. The average residential lot has steadily in-
    of this type of operation is the development by the    creased i  size with suburban growth. The single
    McLean Corporation of most of Tyrrell County,    family urban  dwelling of two  generations  ago
    N.C., into a tremendously large corporation farm of   occupied a relatively small space. Lot size was
    375,000 acres. With heavy equipment, it is possible    adapted to the pedestrian. Today, a new single
    to convert this tremendously large acreage into huge    family dwelling in the suburbs requires a much larger
    agricultural enterprises over a very short period of   space. One reason for this change is that zoning
    time. Named First Colony Farms, this operation    regulations often specify that the new residential lot
    will have 225.,000 acres under cultivation. Most of   be much larger than was true in the past (Gottman
    this land was in timber in 1972. Now it is becoming    and Harper, 1967:87).
    a factory that will produce corn and soybeans to be      Along the eastern seaboard the future will prob-
    fed to cattle and 50,000 hogs.    .ably bring an increase in the amount of land under
       The concentration of land ownership simplifies the    cultivation, a decline in the forested area, and an
     creation of this kind of enterprise. The plea that    increase in the urban type usages of the land that
     people throughout the world are starving to death    result in great ecological changes.Such changes wil
     and that the citizens of the United. States are    undoubtedly have a significant impact on the water
                                                            in the estuaries.
     threatened with  imminent  starvation makes  it
     extremely difficult to halt or control these develop-
     ments. Low agricultural yield in 1974 for the Mid-    New Living Arrangements
     west has been interpreted as a harbinger of world-
     wide shortages in the future. Continued pressure to      The number of dwelling units in the United States
     open new areas of the United States to agricultural    has been increasing much more rapidly than the
     production is a likely consequence.                    population. The number of residential units in the
       The Southern Atlantic States provide one of the    counties of the eastern seaboard, for example, grew

    652                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    from 6,193,753 in 1950 to 12,078,450 in 1970, an    THE QUEST FOR
    increase of 98.8 percent. The residential unit tends to    QUALITY OF LIFE
    be a more important entity than the individual in
    terms of utilization of resources. Each house requires     For the last four or five years, everyone seems to
    plumbing, roads, utilities, lot space, and a variety    have been seeking some elusive goal now designated
    of services. Obviously, there has been a decline in    as quality of life. The phrase was not a part of the
    the average number of people per dwelling unit.    vernacular a very few years ago. Now suddenly it is
    Several factors are involved in this change:            very widely used. Many scholars are now writing
                                                          on the topic. Most of these essays are non-scientific
      1. During the depression years and earlier, families    and describe the kind of situation that the individual
    tended to often share the same residence. Married    feels is ideal without any attempt to really specify
    children were,  especially,  inclined to live with    the content of the quality of life. At one time,
    parents until financial security was reached. Full    quality of life represented the goal of attaining
    employment and prosperity have permitted most    trappings of affluence: automobiles, refrigerators,
    couples to have separate dwellings.                     television sets, and other material things.
      2. Another important factor is the increase in           There is considerable evidence today that people
    one-person households. In the past, the individual    are no longer as oriented toward material things.
    living alone was generally an elderly widow. A shift    New lifestyles are evolving, that is, the manner in
    has taken place in recent years. Young employed    which material things are utilized. For example, an
    adults, both male and female, seek a separate    automobile may be used simply as a means of
    dwelling unit until marriage. Even among the college    transportation to and from work, or it can be a
    students, there has been a rapid transition to the    source of livelihood, a status symbol, or even a
    apartment and away from the dormitory. The de-    major item of recreation. Today in our affluent
    mand is for housing for individuals, not families.      society all tend to possess a vast array of material
      3. Much residential construction during the last   goods. The non-material life patterns, consequently,
    decade has been of apartment complexes. These    are becoming increasingly important.
    units cater to the individual desiring to establish a      The quality of life that is being sought has great
    one-person household. In 1960, 237,000 structures    ramifications for water pollution. The desire to visit
    were built with three or more housing units. By 1970,    the wide-open spaces, to go fishing, backpacking,
    this figure had increased to 606,000. Only two years    camping, and the like are bringing great numbers of
    later in 1972, 646,000 housing structures with three    people into the areas that were uninhabited just
    units or more were started. Apartment construction    a few years ago. As a consequence, there is really
    has multiplied rapidly, but each unit tends to have    very little land in the United States that is not used
    a small number of occupants on the average. Some    for some purposes, whereas in the past, even around
    apartment-style construction has been outside the    urban concentrations, there were still large tracts of
    cities in former open country areas, and has created    lands that no one visited.
    environmental problems.                                    Indicative of the attempt to find a new style of
      4. Yet another dramatic change in living arrange-    life is the number of people who fish and hunt. The
    ments has been the growing popularity of the mobile    total number of fishing licenses issued nationally in
    home. The shipment of mobile homes increased from    1950 was 15,338,000. By 1971, this figure had in-
    216,000 in 1965 to 576,000 in 1972. The mobile    creased to 32,384,000. The  number  of hunting
    home has become especially popular in rural areas    licenses sold jumped from 12,638,000 to 22,912,000
    of the South. Financing has been easy to secure for    during the same 11-year period.
    those owning land. Few consider them as a per-             The number of outboard motors in use increased
    manent solution to housing needs. However, in a    from 2,811,000 in 1950 to 7,400,000 in 1972. Outdoor
    short time a person can have one installed and move    recreation is a part of the desired quality of life of
    into it, often without satisfactory provision for    growing percentages of the population. It is a part
    disposing of household effluent. Many mobile home    of the general desire to live closer to nature.
    parks have been established along the estuaries of         Not to be ignored in this process of seeking a new
    the southern United States with raw sewage draining    quality of life are the amenities provided exclusively
    directly into the streams.                              by urban living in the past. Early in the present
      In addition to the mobile homes that serve as a    century, only in the city could a person find modern
    regular residence, there are smaller units used by    bathrooms, running water in the kitchen, and elec-
    vacationers to camp in great numbers in trailer   tricity which made it possible to have refrigerators,
    parks throughout the nation.                            electric lights, radios, and many of the other con-

                                                IEGAkL' ASPECTS  :                                      653

    veniences of life. These were undoubtedly one 'df   relatively ample supply of water'. Evidence is ac-
    the features of urban life that brought many to the    cumulating that water will be the natural resource
    city who could have stayed in the rural areas    that limits human development more than any other
    practicing a subsistence agriculture or living during   throughout the world. Adequate water supply does
    the retirement years. Through the-spread of elec-   not mean there will be no problems in regards to
    tricity into even the remote sections of the United    this valuable resource. Just as important in many
    States, the rural resident can have all of these ad-   ways as the quantity of water available is -its
    vantages of urban life. As a consequence; migration    quality.
    to a rural area does not involve a loss of these modern  Industrialization, urbanization, and rapid growth
    conveniences. In the affluent society, they provide a    of the population have often been associated with
    base of material comfort that is universally available   increased water pollution. The theme of this report
    in the United States. Increase in the quiality of life   has been that the changing life patterns of mankind
    is almost always followed by an -even greater in-   have more influence upon the quality 'of the water
    crease in the use of water and volume of waste    in the estuaries than the mere numbers of people.
    materials.                 i                            Several trends have been enumerated which re-
      Other amenities in the new style of liviig 'are   fleet changing lifestyles in the United States and
    coming into existence. One of the most important   -which must inevitably have some impact upon the
    of these is climate. Ullman noted almost a generation    estuaries:
    ago that "for the first time in the world's history,
    pleasant living conditions-amenities-instead' of        1i The population of the United States is rapidly
    more narrowly defined economic advantages are   shifting to the coastal areas of the nation, while
    becoming  the  sparks  that  generate' significant   other sections are being depopulated; especially are
    population increase, particularly in the United    people leaving the interior sections of the nation.
    States" (1954:1 19). Ullman insists that the suburban    Approximiately one-half of the over 3,000 counties
    movement reflects this'search for a more pleasant    in the United States lose population each decade.
    life. Between 1940 and 1950, the suburban popula-    At the same time, a new urban structure is evolving.
    tion of the nation increased 35 percent as compared    The 'megalopolis of the northeast, extending from
    with 13 percent inside the city limits and only' 6   'Massachusetts to Virginia, represents an attempt
    percent elsewhere. At the same time, other 'areas,   by man to combine elements of rural and urban
    largely coastal, with pleasant climate experienced a    living. Another megalopolis has been established
    tremendous upsurge in their population.  In the    along the east coast of Florida' that promises to
    decade of the 40's the population of California in-   eventually encompass the entire peninsula of Florida.
    creased 53 percent, Arizona 50 percent, and Florida    Population growth has been slower in the coastal
    46 percent. Two  other coastal states: that also   areas of the south Atlahtic coast. Indications are
    experienced this rather rapid rate of growth were    that' a megalopolis is developing that will extend
    Oregon and Washington,  whose populations in-   along the entire eastern seaboard. In the absence of
    creased 39 and 37 percent respectively. Ullman con-   careful planning, the water pollution problems of
    sidered climate a major factor and beiieved that most    the northern coastal area may be expected to be
    people would prefer to live in an area where the    duplicated in the'South.
    temperature averaged 70 degrees the year round.         2. The trends toward a shorter workweek, paid
     This "Mediterranean" type climate exists in Florida   vacations, late entry, and early exit from the labor
     and California.                                       'force result in people today having much more time
       Even industry that is freed by modern transporta-   for leisure pursuits than was true for past genera-
     tion and communications from the inner 'city 'has   tions. Much of this additional time is devoted to
     viewed the climate as 'a maj or element in building   0outdoor recreation, travel, and a demand for services
     new industrial establishments. Climate -shows 'no    on the part of the entire spectrum of social groups in
     signs of declining in importance. We may anticipate    the United States rather than a small leisure class.
     a continued movement of the population toward the       3. A third trend in modern society has been the
     coastal areas. The only large, undeveloped coastal    withdrawal of' people from' the labor force upon
     area remaining in the United States is that of the   ' etirement in the 60's. Increased life expectancy has
     southeast states.                    -                resulted in a much larger percentage of the popula-
                            RCONLUSONS AN   RECOMMENDATIONS  'tion achieving advanced ages and enjoying several
     CONCLUSIONS AND REcoMMENDATIONS years outside the labor force. These retirees in-
       In contrast to the situation in western portions of   creasingly 'have a'stable income from social security
     the United States, the eastern seaboard has a    and various pension plans. Large numbers of retirees

    654                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    are moving from the location where they spent their   tion Growth and the American Future summarized
    economically productive years to complete their   the trends in the redistribution of the population as
    lives in the coastal areas of the nation, especially    follows:
    those sections where the climate is mild.
      4. Before the advent of automotive transportation,        1. People are vacating extensive portions of the nation's
    workers lived at a location where the journey to             tenitory-particularly the middle of the continent-
                                                                    and concentrating along the coasts.
    work could be minimized. Today, an ever-increasing           2. The United States becomes more and more urban with
    percentage of the population is commuting daily              each passing year; most Americans now reside in metro-
                                                                    politan centers of at least 100,000 inhabitants.
    from homes in the suburbs to employment a con-               3. The structure of these urban settlements is under-
    siderable distance away. As the journey to work              going a gradual metamorphosis; metropolitan areas and
    becomes ever greater, dependence on public trans-            their hinterlands are merging into larger constellations
                                                                    to form urban regions.
    portation has declined, and the automobile has be-           4. Important internal differentiations are taking place
    come the focus of new lifestyles.                            within the jurisdictions of metropolises; inside, their
      5. The small family pattern, modern household             population is leveling off or shrinking and changing to
                                                                    nonwhite; in the suburban rings, it is expanding and
    appliances, plus smaller homes have  eliminated              remaining largely white.
    much of the drudgery of housework. Women, as a               These changes have given rise to national problems con-
                                                                    cerning the environment, the aesthetic quality of urban
    consequence, have increasingly sought employment             and rural life, and racial separation-issues of coping
    outside the home. Their additional incomes make it           individually and collectively with the process of urbani-
    possible for families to enjoy a higher level of living      zation. Curtailing national population growth, while
                                                                    helpful in the long run, cannot resolve these problems in
    than before, which is often manifest in establishing         the near term (Morrison', 1972:23-24).
    residences away from the central city. Because
    husband and wife work in different locations, com-        The Commission on Population Growth and the
                                                                 The Commission on Population Growth and the
    muting must become a part of their lifestyles.          American Future strongly recommended that the
                                                               American Future strongly recommended that the
      6. Land use has dramatically shifted along the
                    6. Land use has dramatically shifted along the    policies of this nation be built about the concept of
    eastern seaboard over the last 100 years. The number    population stability rather than growth. The Co-
                                                               population stability rather than growth. The Corn-
    of farms has declined rapidly for decades. Initially,    mission insisted in the long run there must be a
                                                               mission insisted in the long run there must be a
    this decline resulted in lands being abandoned for    population stability because even an infinitesimal
    agricultural purposes and becoming reforested. The    population  t             can  ninine
                                                               rate of population growth cannot continue indef-
    growth of cities and the construction of highways         te o         tio       th       t  o     u       -
                                                               initely (1972:75-79). It is recognized that popula-
    and other facilities will probably bring a decline in   in gotmaveywconie f                           opa
                                                               tion growth may very well continue for some decades,
    forest acreage. Pressures to produce food for a hungry                         insisted that thinking and
    world may result in much land in the South Atlantic    planning must be based on population stability.
                                                              ' planning must be based on population stability.
    area being converted to large "factories in the field."
                                                                 M~iany people fnd it difficult to adjust; to this
    Huge corporation farms would drastically alter the            n ep   f    it          u   o a           bs
                                                               concept of stability. Our economy has been based
    ecology of an area. Demands also exist to transform      on       o    ili a       e          as bn  ad
    lands into public recreational facilities or to retain    on some inflation as well as population and city
                                                               growth. Bigger has long been considered better.
    them as unchanged natural areas.
                  them as unchanged natural areas.          Rapid  population growth  accompanied with in-
      7. One of the most striking trends in the United
                                                               fiation and industrial expansion has been sufficient
    States has been the increase in number of dwelling    to  compensatefor  poor  planning.  Population
    units. One-person households and the disappearance
                                                               stability will result in new homes which are needed
    of the doubling-up of families have resulted in af   rel                     t      hos      i   anded
                                                               only for replacement of those being abandoned.
    steady decline in the number of people per residentialon f                   reapoft  n  anded
                                                               Inflation which assures a profit on manufactured
    unit. The housing unit tends to be the entity that        ous   aot             onnufte
                                                               products cannot be continued indefinitely. The
    disrupts the ecology of an area, rather than the
                  ~number of people per se.                 pessimistic volume, "The Limits to Growth," written
    number of people per se.
                    . A dominant theme in American society today    by a group of experts from Massachusetts Institute
      8. A dominant theme in American society today
                                                               of Technology (Meadows,. et al., 1972) projects
    is the quest for a new quality of life. The term has    global collapse coming as a result of population
    not been adequately defined, but there is an un- grwhIe                s               rea h      population
    mistakable desire on the part of many people to    growth. If equilibrium is not reached in population
    follow some of the life patterns that existed when growth, perhaps through increased pollution, in-
                                                               dustralization, urbanization, and the destruction of
    life was much simpler in the rural areas. These new    nonrenewable resources, the calamity these authors
    lifestyles are associated with a desire for more con-    forecast would come about.
    tact with nature, not only as a place of residence,       Still, not all present trends will continue. One way
    but also as a place to spend leisure time.              to assure a reversal in the direction of change will
      One of the reports for the Commission on Popula-    be the adoption of policies that enforce population

                                                   LEGAL ASPECTS                                                 655

    stability plus restrict other forms of development. A       grated with interdisciplinary studies in cooperation
    situation of population equilibrium will almost un-    with natural scientists in order to better understand
    doubtedly result in more careful planning of the    the ecological problems of the eastern seaboard.
    location of schools, highways,  residential areas,            4. That regional zoning be accomplished which
    industrial plants, and even agricultural operations.    will restrict the use of the land for recommended
      This planning almost certainly will result in more    purposes. Such a zoning plan must necessarily ignore
    consideration being given to the natural environ-    existing political boundaries.
    ment, especially in those areas where unhampered              5. That growth along the eastern seaboard be
    development can lead to greater water pollution.            controlled through the construction of a transit
      With this background, three recommendations of    system the entire length of the Atlantic seaboard in
    the Commission of Population Growth need to be    accordance with plans for the ideal utilization of
    adopted if the estuaries of the nation are to be    various zones. Land use and development is a func-
    protected:                                                  tion of the system of transportation.
                                                                6. That special studies be made  of the South
         1. Recognizing that our population cannot grow in-    Atlantic coastal area and contrasted with develop-
         definitely, and appreciating the advantagest. Such studies
         toward the stabilization of population, the Commission
         recommends that the nation welcome and plan for a    are essential if problems that had been generated in
         stabilized population (1972:143).                      the Northeast are not to be duplicated in the South.
         2. The Commission recommends that: The federal
         government develop a set of national population dis-     7. That regional plans be made for the provision
         tribution guidelines to serve as a framework for regional,    of utilities and, especially, public health facilities
         Reial s   tate, planand lopotan-wide govelornmental    for the entire coastal area. Regional building and
         Regional, state, and metropolitan-wide governmental
         authorities take the initiative, in cooperation with local    sanitary codes are needed that cannot be ignored by
         governments, to conduct needed comprehensive plan-    smaller political divisions.
         ning and action programs to achieve a higher quality     8. As this is being written, problems of energy,
         of urban development;
         The process of population movement be eased and guided    inflation, and unemployment add to the urgency for
         in order to improve access or opportunities now restricted    planning. However, these plans must be based on a
         by physical remoteness, immobility, and inadequate
         skills, information and experience;
         skills, iformation and experience    ,                 sound understanding of the relationship of the im-
         Action be taken to increase freedom in choice of resi-    mediate situation to both past and long range future
         dential location through the elimination of current    developmnts
         patterns of racial and economic segregation and- their
         attendant injustices (1972:144),
         3. To anticipate and guide future urban growth, the    REFERENCES
         Commission recommends comprehensive land-use and
         public-facility planning on an overall metropolitan and
                          reg ~iona~~l se~~a .De Grazia, S. 1964. Of Time, Work, and Leisure. Doubleday
         The Commission recommends that governments exercise      and Company, Anchor Books Edition, Garden City, N.Y.
         greater control over land-use planning and development
         (1972:144).greater control over land-use planning and development De Grazia, S. 1968. The problems and promise of leisure. In:
                                                                W. Ewald, Jr., Environment and Policy. Indiana Uni-
                                                                versity Press, Bloomington, Ind.
       Although relevant to the process of water pollu-    Environmental Protection Agency. The Quality of Life Con-
    tion in the estuaries of the eastern seaboard, these          cept: A Potential New Tool for Decision Makers. Office of
    recommendations of the population commission are              Research and Monitoring, Environmental Studies Division,
    general and apply to the nation as a whole. There             Washington, D.C.
    are other recommendations that need to be made    Furon, R. 1967. The Problem of Water. American Elsevier
    which are more  unique to problems  existing in               Publishing Company, Inc., New York.
    counties along the estuaries of the Atlantic coast.    Gottman, J. 1961. Megalopolis: The Urbanization of the
    These specific recommendations are as follows:                Northeastern Seaboard of the United States. The Twentieth
                                                                Century Fund, New York.
       1. That  new  legal entities be  created whose    Gottman, J. and R. A. Harper. 1967. Metropolis on the
    jurisdiction will be independent of existing political        Move: Geographers Look at Urban Sprawl. John Wiley
    subdivisions. Problems of planning code enforcement           and Sons, Inc., New York.
    must encompass the whole region rather than dis-    Hunt, C. A., and R. M. Garrels. 1972. Water: The Web of
    creet, competing parts thereof.                               Life. W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., New York.
       2. That intensive demographic and sociological    Morrison, P. A. 1972. Dimensions of the population problem
     studies be undertaken that will equate changing               in the United States. In: S. M. Mazie (ed), Population
    lifestyles with the new emerging urban structure,             Distribution and Policy. The Commission of Population
                                                                Growth and the American Future. Vol. V of Commission
     the eastern seaboard megalopolis.                             Research Reports. Government Printing Office, Washing-
       3. That these studies by social scientists be inte-        ton, D.C.: 3-30.

    656                                       ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    Meadows, D  H  et al 1972 The Limits to Growth New            Ullman, E L 1954 Amenimtles as a factor m regional growth
      American Library, New York                                    The Geographical Renew XLIV  119-132

    Pickard, J P  1972 U S metropohlitan growth and expan-    U S  Bureau of the Census  Current Populatlon Reports,
      sion, 1970-2000, with populatlon projections In  S  M         Series P-23, N  49 1974 Population of the United States,
      Mazle (ed), Population Distribution and Policy The Corn-      Trends and Prospects 1950-1990 U S Government Prmint-
      mlsslon on Population Growth and the American Future         ming Office, Washington, D C
      Vol V of Commlsslon Research Reports Government
      Printing Office, Washington, D C  127-182                   U S Bureau of the Census 1973 Statistlcal Abstract of the
                                                                  Umnted States 1973 (94th Editlon) Washington, D C
    Rldker, R G (ed) 1972 Population, Resources and the En-
      vironment  The Commlsslon on Population Growth and    Zuiches,J J andG V Fugutt 1972 Residentialpreferences
      the American Future  Vol III of Commisslon Research           Imphlicatlons for population redistribution min nonmetropolih-
      Reports Government Printing Office, Washington, D C           tan areas In S M  Mazle (ed), Population Distributlon
                                                                  and Policy The Commisslon on Population Growth and
    The Cotmlssion oii Population Growth and the American           the American Future  Vol  V of Commission Research
      Future 1972 Populatioil and thlie American Future U S         Reports Government Printing Office, Washington, D C.
      Government Printing Office, Washington, D C                   617-630

           I I I
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               , u PC

             ECONOMICS

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               I

    ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
    IN THE EVALUATION
    AND MANAGEMENT
    OF ESTUARIES

    JOHN H. CUMBERLAND
    University of Maryland
    College Park, Maryland

                 ABSTRACT
                 This paper describes an economic-environmental systems model for analyzing estuaries which
                 has been used in Maryland to forecast the quantities and types of waste and residuals which will
                 be generated through the year 1985 for the Chesapeake Bay and each of its major tributaries.
                 The model indicates that the amount of residuals will be a function of the rate and composition
                 of economic development. Consequently, economic development and growth in the region can
                 be expected to generate water quality problems of increasing magnitude for all estuaries in the
                 U.S. Various corrective policy measures are evaluated for dealing with the environmental threat
                 to the quality of estuarine waters. One of the most serious environmental impacts is aesthetic
                 damage and methods are suggested for applying charges for vatrious levels of aesthetic damage
                 in order to encourage improved qualities of economic development.
                 A national policy on estuarine management would recognize both the economic realities of com-
                 mon property resources and the federal structure which has evolved in U.S. political history.
                 Consequently, a national policy on estuarine management would establish minimum national
                 standards for quality, leaving local authorities to establish higher standards if so desired. How-
                 ever, no economic or political justification o*n be discovered for permitting local areas to relax
                 environmental standards below those set' by federal government. The establishment of higher
                 local standards than those stipulated by federal policy would provide financial and other in-
                 centives to improve technology and encourage generators of pollution to internalize external costs.
                 Finally, specific recommendations are made for establishing a national policy for better manage-
                 ment of estuaries, which are among our most important natural and environmental resources.

    INTRODUCTION                                                 materials balance and entropy concepts derived from
                                                              the physical sciences. Some of these large-scale com-
      Estuaries are the vital interface between land and    puter models are now  capable of estimating the
    water, between oceans and rivers, between ecology    generation of many individual wastes, residuals, and
    and technology, and between the conflicting demands          pollutants over time throughout different parts of the
    for environmental quality and economic develop-    estuary. For example, Table 1, taken from one such
    ment. Estuaries are the bodies of water over which    study, estimates the gross generation of residual
    will be fought the emerging battles for energy pro-    nitrogen generated in each of the 16 major river ba-
    duction versus conservation and economic growth    sins of the Chesapeake Bay by 5-year intervals from
    versus the reduced growth movement. The problem               1970 through 1985 (Cumberland and Herzog, forth-
    of analyzing and resolving these conflicts will require    coming). This study estimates an average annual
    a more complete understanding of the relationships    growth rate for nitrogen releases of 5.7 percent, but
    between man and his environment and the relation-    with significant variance between  the individual
    ships between the social, physical, biological, and    political subdivisions and river basins involved. This
    earth sciences than has been available in the past.          annual growth rate, if continued, implies a doubling
       The accumulation of economic and other rein-    of the pollution load approximately every 14 years.'
    forcing institutional factors which encourage overuse    These projected pollution growth rates underline the
    and mismanagement of estuaries is a growing threat    urgent need to develop more effective control mea-
    to water quality and biological, ecological balance in    sures if society is to enjoy benefits of these resources
    the nation's waterways. Environmental economists    in future generations.
    are attempting to measure, forecast, and analyze    I  Similar estimates are available in the study for growth of other pol-
    these phenomena by developing new types of models    lutants, as well as for the accompanying economic development in each of
                                                              the major river basins which make up the Chesapeake Bay Regional
    based upon tested economic tools combined with    System.

                                                                                                                 659

    660                                  ESTUARINE .POLLUTION CONTROL

      It is the major point of this paper that current            Table l.-Gross Residual Projection for Nitrogen for the
                                                                             Chesapeake Bay Region (tons)
    mismanagement of our estuaries results from omis-
    sions and inadequacies in the conceptual models and                                     -           Average
                                                                                         Years -, .....    Annual
    management theories which have been applied to the                                Years             Anwth
    governance (or more generally, the non-governance)                     1970   1975   1980   1985  1i97eg85
    of estuaries. Among the more serious gaps in our
    models for managing estuaries are: failure to include   District of Columbia
    the lessons of environmental economics; failure to      Potomac     .  4,032.7  4,252.4  4,746.8  5,214.8  1.7
    include new interdisciplinary knowledge and con-   Maryland
    cepts such as materials balance and energy-entropy      Blacwater--------   487.2   525.0   542.5   5516  .8
    models; failure to use models based upon a total        Choptanek r-.. 10,721.2  11,868.7 12,336.91  6,876.6  2.6
    systems approach; and failure to use models which       Gunpowder  -. 4,462.4  5,029.4  5,400.6  5,560.9   . 1.5
    reveal comprehensive sets of alternative manage-        Nanticoke-3,088.9  3,340.6  3,495.8  3,617.2    1.1
                                                               Patapsco .- -------- 6,309.8  6,309.8  7,139.6  7,212.5  .9
    ment policies, and their consequences. This paper       Patuxent -.-------- 12,641.5 13,802.7 14,078.7 14,421.6  .9
    will attempt to address these problems by sketching     Pocomoke .-.. ..... 6,802.5  7,291.6  7,521.9  7,772.2  .9
    a comprehensive systems analysis which can be    PWiomc           _   47,979.5 50,861.9 52343.6 52,482.8  .6
                                                              Wicomice~-_   5~ 8,067.9  8,624.9  8,875.6  9,145.6  .8
    applied to estuaries, by indicating some of the im-     Elk    .-    3,898.1  4,460.8  5,069.7  5,575.7  2,4
    plications of the systems approach, and by examin-      Ches. Bay and ocean. 30,092.2 32,602.6 34,425.1 35,634.6  1.1
                                                                Total ------------ 139,247.4  150,504.0  158,045.9  162,291.4  1.0
    ing briefly some of the management policies and
    possible improvements in- management techniques   Virginia
                                                               James - --.-  -------- 29,956.5 48,850.0 79,234.1 122,084.0  9.8
    which are suggested by the analysis.                    Potomac --    -------. 15,088.8 23,024.4 '35,782.5 53;028.2  8.7
                                                               Rappahannock    12,799.8 22,386.9 38,444.0 62,038,6    11.1
                                                               York -  -----------... 10,840.1 17,875.6 29,481.1 46,196.8    10.1
    SOME SOURCES OF                                         Ches. Bayandocen. 12,592.4 16,292.5 21,398.4 27,888.4  5:4
    ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE                                     Total .-. .. 81,277.6 128;429.4 204,340.0 311,235.8  9;4
    TO ESTUARIES                                           Chesapeake Bay Re-
                                                                gi0n total ---- 224,557.7 283,185.8 367,132.7 478,74210  5.7
       The major threat facing our estuaries is cumula-
    tive  and  potentially irreversible  environmental    Source: Cumberland and Herog, forthcoming.
     damage resulting from excessively rapid economic                                                ' ..
     development and intervention in natural processes.    biological 'resources in estuaries makes it possible
     Although numerous factors have contributed to this    and profitable (at least in the short run) to bveruse
     problem, a major set of components has emerged    these resources and to shift costs from particular
     from economic forces.                                  individuals, 'groups, and comrnnunities,' toe others.
       The principal economic problem ini the manage-    This phenomenon is most clearly observed'in the
     ment of estuaries is the fact that they are generally    release of' wastes into the air and water of estuaries.
     treated as :common property resources with no single    Firms attempting to maximize profits, individuals
     ownership or management. Consequently, property    attempting:to maximize personal' utility, and' com-
     rights are not vested and the result is that estuaries    munities attempting to minimize costs and 'shift
     and their resources tend to be overused and abused    their environmental loads elsewhere,' face positive
     since users do not normally bear the full costs 'of   incentives to discharge their wastes' into: estuaries;
     their use. Under these circumstances, market failures   thus imposing damages, costs, 'and injuries upon
     result since the private costs of using the 'resources   other groups, other reaches of the'estuary, and upon
     of the estuary do not equal the social costs and the    the biological resources of the estuary itself with6ut
     individual users attempt to appropriate as much of   paying compensation.
     the resources as possible before they can be appro-      Other types of' market failure also combine to
     priated by others who also have free rights to them.    encourage misismanagement of estuaries. For example,
     With no single entity holding property rights or full   many of the recreational,' aesthetic, and environ-
     management responsibilities, there are no incentives    mental values of estuaries can be regarded as public
     to invest in increasing or protecting the productivity    goods 'which are normally provided in the public sec-
     of the estuary, and its resources tend to be overused    tor. Although- the benefits' resulting from the pro-
     and depleted.   I                  I                   vision of these public goods usually exceed their
       Another problem which is related to the common    costs, up to a certain level, the public sector normally
     property phenomenon in estuarine management is   provides insufficient investment in the management
     the imposition of detrimental externalities on others.    and protection of estuarine services, for a number of
     The apparently free availability of water, 'air, and    reasons. Taxpayers may be reluctant to reveal their

                                           'EStuARI3 :E'6NO1MIC0S                                          661

    preference for'added expdiiurin the -pliic sector    Cicchetti, '1972).' Ahother phenomenon connected
    fearing that their taxes will be 'raised and hoping   'with' technology' is the growing tendency towards
    that other groups and other regions will pay for the    introduction of high-technology, high-pollution' de-
    improved management. The joint difficulty of either    vices in recreation. For example; 'the growing use of
    collecting fees for' cleaner waters  or of excluding    high-powered 'eigines for' water  skiing, boating,
    anyone from enjoying the free benefits therefrom -is   helicopters, and other aircraft is converting many
    a serious deterrent to public programs needed to    recreational activities into high-noise, high-pollution
    protect estuarine quality. Also, organized pressure    activities.
    groups with well-defined financial objectives are         Other problems related to time in the 'theoretical
    usually more successful in influencing public ex-    analysis of estuarine management deal 'with the
    penditures in their-direction than is the general    neglect in most' resource management theories'of the
    public which benefits from the diffuse, long-term    irreversible nature of some activities. For example,
    services ofa well-managedestuary.  some types of' estuarine 'abuse such as 'excessive
      Another problem in the management of estuaries    sedimentation and'filling 'in of the estuary, or mas-
    is the failure to -utilize models which permit 'experi-   sive oil spills, 'or the releases of radioactive isotopes
    mentation with a wide range of alternative develop-    with very long half-lives may have an effect on the
    ment plans. Too often in the past, preoccupation    estuary that is irreversible. Reversibility can be
    with growth and quantitative increase of gross    defined in terms of the amount of cost involved in
    product has tended to distract attention from other    correcting an adverse effect. Under this definition,
    alternatives such as non-development, low-density    certain-types  f"'maiiagement decisions may be ir-
    development, recreational development, and pro-    versible, or they may be reversible' only at extremely
    tection of common property resources for the future.    high costs. Among these would be the decision to
    Flexible models are needed which can trace the    construct a highly capital intensive activity suchjas
    economic and environmental implications of all of    an industrial plant,; a power plant, an industrial
    these policy alternatives.                             port, or even a high density recreational or residehtial
      Two major sets of problems in estuarine manage-    area. The phenomenon of irreversibility as it affects
    ment are caused by the inability of current economic    estuaries therefore requires that sequential life-cycle
    management models to allow full';consideration of   analysis be included in models of estuarine manage-
    interregional, interspatial, and intertemporal phe-    ment under which the economic and environmental
    nomena. With respect to intertemporal phenomen.a,    effects of the project should be evaluated over all
    decisionmaking for estuaries is typically based upon    phases of its life. This would include exploration,
    market rates of discount and profit considerations    planning, construction, operation, and the eventual
    which. attach low yalues to the rights. of future gen-    removal of the proj ect and rehabilitation of the site.2
    erations. The result is often to encourage irreversible    The inclusion of intertemporal, sequential phenomena
    actions which may generate. current benefits at the   is urgently needed if models of environmental estu-
    cost of foreclosing future alternatives. More adequate    arine management, are to be improved  (Fisher,
    consideration of the values of future generations is   Krutilla, and Cicchetti, 1972; Fisher and Krutilla,
    required.                                               1974; Arrow and Fisher, 1974).
      The failure to consider future generations and the    'Besides including intertemporal phenomena, im-
    use of high discount rates also tend tO ignore. im-    proved models should explicitly contain interregional,
    portant time changes in economic variables. For ex-   interspatial variables. A major tendency in regional
    ample, there appears to be growing evidence that    waste  management problems- is to -shift emissions
    with affluence, there is a high income- elasticity of    of wastes to other regions, using common property
    demand for outdoor recreation; yet, adequate pro-    resources such as air or water to transport waste
    tection of estuaries, for recreational purposes has    burdens from  one region to another. Much tradi-
    been systematically undervplued as compared ,to    tional analysis of urban'problems fails to take into
    industrial and commercial development.. A second                   i .       n  rom
                                     - d po   r t  f   ,   account the total environmental space of an urban
    and  related phenomenon  results from changing
                                                           region, which properly includes its entire watershed
    technology. For example, the rush to use the cooling
    capacity of estuaries for installing fossil fuel and    and its entire waste disposal space, covering perhaps
    nuclear electric steam power stations: overlooks    hundreds or thousands of square miles. Consequently,
    probable future technological developments which             . in  ,
    probable future technological developments- which    estuarine models should explicitly contain the full
    will make-more use of solar, geothermal, -and other    environmental space of the region as well as an
    forms of energy less' damaging to the 'eivironmint              '. "
                                                               The closer thei costs of removal and rehabilitation approach: infinit,'
    than present steam electric statibns-' (Krutillt and    the more nearly the project would be truly irreversible.

    662                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    explicit interspatial network of all of the separate    APPLICATION OF SYSTEMS
    governments involved.                                 ANALYSIS TO ESTUARIES
      Closely linked to the regional economic factor is
    the regional political management problem and the       Estuaries are complex systems of natural phe-
    need for appropriate management units for estuaries    nomena, of human activities and of the interrelation-
    which include the relevant physical and environ-    ships between society and nature. The realities of
    mental units. Related to this is the fact that responsi-   these large systems are too complex to be repre-
    bility for estuarine environmental decisionmaking is   sented by simple models. However, as in the case of
    often entrusted to transient personnel who may have    any management problem, an effort can be made to
    at best a short-term or bureaucratic interest only,   identify the most critical subcomponents of the
    rather than a long-term commitment to the health   estuarine system and the interrelationships between
    and protection of the estuary. Another institutional   them. Figure 1 represents an effort to model the
    management problem is the failure of environmental    major components of an estuarine system and its
    planning units to include representatives of all of the   interrelationships.4 It contains eight components
    necessary disciplines involved. Too  often these    which, being separate and distinct, can be solved
    regulatory commissions have a commitment  to   individually, but which can also be linked together
    economic development rather than environmental    with measurable interrelationships in a way which
    protection. Political factors obviously reinforce this   provides feedback from one system to another,
    issue.                                                generating a closed general equilibrium system.
      The net result of all of these economic and related    Part A is a regional, or more generally an inter-
    problems in estuarine management is usually to   regional interindustry or input-output model which
    encourage excessively rapid development, overuse,    has been widely used by economists (Cumberland,
    and abuse of common property environmental re-   1966). There are several important characteristics
    sources so that private costs are lower than the    of theseinterindustry models. One distinctive feature
    social costs. The private gains resulting from damage    is the emphasis on disaggregation of economic sys-
    to the public interest offer incentives to individual    tems by type of economic activities. For example,
    developers to overuse the resources of the estuary.    Figure 1 specifically identifies energy sales across the
    The resource management problem then turns out    energy row and energy purchases down the energy
    to be in large part one of avoiding the major abuses    column, because of the importance of energy policy
    of market failure through simulation of optimal    problems at the present time and because of their
    decisionmaking which in theory results from single   significance for estuarine management. However,
    management and ownership of an environmental    because energy activities purchase inputs from many
    resource.3 The estuarine management task then is to   different activities as shown in the energy column
    maximize public welfare and utility by balancing    and because energy producers sell outputs to almost
    the gains of economic development against the   all other economic activities, as demonstrated across
    claims of responsible environmental management in   the energy row, it is impossible to measure and
    order to maximize total net social benefits to the    evaluate energy activities in isolation from the rest
    society. It is the hypothesis of this paper that   of the economy. Therefore, separate analysis of
    failures to do this in the past have resulted from 1)    energy isolated from the rest of the economy can
    inadequate theoretical understanding of estuaries;   lead to erroneous, misleading, and inefficient de-
    2) failure to include interdisciplinary knowledge that    cision processes. Energy factors should be incor-
    is emerging from ecological analysis of estuaries; 3)    porated explicitly in a general equilibrium model of
    failure to base estuarine management models on    theregion.
    knowledge of environmental economics; 4) failure        A second major advantage of the interindustry
    to design models which show all of the full range    module is that separate identification of each eco-
    management options; 5) failure to include long-run    nomic activity in the model permits the comprehen-
    phenomena; 6) and failure to design adequate in-   sive measurement of indirect, as well as direct, effects
    stitutions which can implement the knowledge re-   of each of the economic activities. This is important
    suiting from better management models,                because indirect effects if comprehensively accounted
      In the next section, an effort will be made to   for can add up to significant magnitudes. Another
    sketch some of the details of a comprehensive estu-   advantage of the disaggregation of the interindustry
    arine environmental systems management model.          4 Although the economic environmental systems model displayed in
                                                           Figure 1 is used for application in this study to estuaries, it has been de-
                                                           veloped by the author and his colleagues for general application to economic
      Optimal decisionmaking also requires the free availability of knowledge,   environmeontal management problems of regions, urban areas, and other
    low transactions costs, and other conditions usually associated with pure   systems. Sea for example (Cumberland and Stram, 1974; Cumberland and
    competition.                                          Korbach, 1973).

                                          ESTUARINE ECONOMICS                                            663

    A                   �                      B                                 C
     Production       Filal Dmd.                  Gross Generation                  Technical Treatment
                      C I G E                      of Residuals                         Processes
                                              Gas  ILiquid ISolid                   Treated Waste
              El                                                                       Treated Waste       m

          E N ER G Y                         3
                                                                                 Marginal Treatment
                                                                             G  ,   Cost Function    0
              Y                                                                    04-'    (MTCF)
     V Personal Income
     A Tax Revenue                                                                     - Discharge

      H                                      F                                   D
     Public Administration,                                                      I Environmental Treatment
     Policies, Taxes, Standards,                                                 I       Processes
      Institutions, Education,
      Values, Life Styles                               PHYSICAL                      Environmental
                                                                               - Transformation
                                                                             .o   Function TF)
                                                  G  ENVIRONMENT                           Discharges --_
            Benefit Cost Analysis
        'X. 45�        \ TCF      MDF                                     /
                                                                            E
                                                                              Impacts, Damaqes, Effects

                                                                                Marginal Damage
                             $  I "; ". sFunction (MDF)
                   'I /  o   I0Concen--'-
                             Itration                         *
     MlITCF

                   -    -.... ..- '  <--  Environmental Quality
                                                                                 Concentration
                          Discharges
          JOHN H. CUMBERLAND                                                           NOVEMBER 15, 1974

                               FIGURE 1.-An economic environmental systems model.

    model by economic activity according to function is    onomic policies and activities needed to achieve
    that it records the important distinction between    these regional objectives. Trade-offs between en-
    the final demand sectors and intermediate processing    vironmental quality and economic objectives such
    sectors. This distinction permits recognition of the    as income, employment, and tax revenue can also be
    fact that economic growth is not mechanical or    measured.
    inevitable, but is a function of the goals and priori-     While  economists  have  achieved  considerable
    ties of the region. The decisionmaking sectors are    proficiency in developing the economic models of the
    separately identified as consumers or investors or    type shown in Part A, they have learned recently
    government for whose total final demand satisfac-    from  the growing  magnitude  of environmental
    tion the intermediate processing sectors are acti-    problems that economic models have omitted some
    vated. This formulation has the important additional    of the most important interrelationships from their
    advantage of making it possible to enter alternative    market-oriented models. Since interindustry models
    growth strategies or policy programs into the model    normally measure only those goods priced and ex-
    (so long as they can be specified in terms of purchases    changed in markets, they have omitted the flows of
    from the sectors in the model) in order to measure    wastes and residuals which are a counterpart of all
    the impact of these alternatives on income, employ-    production and consumption activities. Although
    ment, output, and environmental quality. In an    the materials and energy balance concepts have
    alternative linear programming formulation,  the    been dealt v. ith by physicists for many years, they
    model can also be used for indicating, given the    have only recently been introduced into the analysis
    goals and objectives of the estuarine region and    of economists (Ayres and Kneese, 1969; Georgescu-
    its environmental structure, the optimal set of ec-    Roegen, 1971). Pr'fit-maximizing firms have ec-

    '664                                 ESTUARINE 'POLLUTION CONTROL

    onomic incentives for discharging their wastes at low    transportation, recycling, changing the timing and
    or zero costs into the common property resources of   place of the emissions; improving efficiency, choosing
    the estuary, causing overuse of the limited as-   cleaner inputs, and so on-these treatment processes
    sinilative capacity of estuaries and reductions in    cannot eliminate or reduce residuals once they have
    total welfare. The abuse of the common- property    been generated, because of the principles of con-
    estuarine resources is not limited to profit-max-    servation of mass and energy. Most treatment proc-
    imizing firms, but is also a factor in the economic    esses can only change the form or timing or location
    incentives of consumers and recreationists to dis-   of the wastes discharged, and indeed add to the total
    charge their wastes into estuarine waters, and to    mass of wastes released because of the necessity of
    overuse the common property amenities provided by    adding energy  and  materials to  the treatment
    estuaries.                                             process. The general exceptions to this principle are
      Thus, difficulties associated with allocating and    processes' which use cleaner inputs, and processes
    enforcing property rights to estuarine resources, and    which through technological efficiency use less ma-
    the historical common property status of the estuary    terials and energy for the production process.
    which provides positive financial incentives to both   - The other important factor to be noted about
    producers and consumers to overuse these resources    Component C dealing with technical waste treatment
    and discharge wastes into them, account largely for   processes: is the nature of marginal treatment cost
    the environmental problem and the growing pollu-   functions which should be conceived of as being de-
    tion of estuaries. An attempt is now being made to   rived- for each type of residual at each location over
    measure the flow of these wastes and residuals    time. In general, these treatment cost functions rise
    through the environment in new types of develop-    asymptotically from the lower right-hand part of the
    ment models which measure and forecast both the    diagram to the upper left-hand part of the diagram
    types and the amounts of wastes that accompany    as increasing levels of treatment are invoked in order
    each type of production and consumption activity   to achieve higher levels of treatment. The general
    (Cumberland and Korbach, 1973). This type of   shape and location of this curve suggests that large
    model measures the flow of wastes' and residuals    amounts of waste can be treated inexpensively5, but
    coming from each type of economic activity in the    that as higher levels of treatment are attempted,
    Gross Residuals Component B of Figure 1. The    efforts to extract the last few percentage points of
    model' is disaggregated not only with respect to    the residual-and to achieve further increments of
    every production and consumption activity, but    environmental quality, raise the costs of treatment
    with respect to each major type of pollutant dis-   per unit sharply.   �
    charged into water, air, and onto 'the land. The         The materials balance concept behind Compone'nt
    importance of disaggregating waste by type, source    C for Technical Waste Treatment Processes is based
    and destination can be suggested by considering the    upon the principal that wastes and residuals once
    different environmental qualities and characteristics    created, cannot entirely be eliminated, and thatthe
    of different estuaries. Estuaries having cold water    amount of residuals generated is a function of the
    and great depths, such as Puget Sound, may be    level of economic activity, even if treatment proc-
    less damaged by some types of residuals (i.e., thermal)    esses are widely employed. Society is already en-
    than would other estuaries, such as the Chesapeake    countering the problem of wastes which come out of
    Bay, which is characterized by shallow depth and    waste treatment processes. Problems of dealing with
    warm waters.: This type of miodel measuring- the    the sludge from advanced waste treatment processes,
    gross generation of residuals is a logical extension    and problems of the potential emissions from auto-
    of economic :interindustry models and now is being    mobile pollution control devices are examples. The
    implemented by numerous research groups.               growing evidence of heavy metals and viruses to
      The growing importance and necessity of treating    be found in residuals from sewage treatment proc-
    wastes and residuals makes it important to develop    esses provides another potentially significant example
    models of the alternative procedures and the costs   of this problem. Thus,' the problem of contamination
    involved' in treating wastes and making them less   of the output of waste treatment processes by wastes
    harmful. This type of information'is included in The    from other processes may impair the capability of
    Technical Waste Treatment Component, C, of the    society -for recycling wastes back into the economic
    systems model, which includes the many technologi-   system.
    cal options for 'treating each type of waste in each     As shown in the Environmental Treatment Process
    location. A 'critical point to be. noted abQut tech-
    nological treatment of wastes is that while residuals   , For some treatment processes, economies of scale may cause high initial
                                                           treatment costs, which then decline before ultimately, rising. More empirical
    can be treated in many - ways-through dilution,   investigation of this problem is required (Grigalunas, 1972).

                                             ESTUARINE ECONOMICS                                         665

    Component, D, of Figure 1, one of the major reasons   tion is to provide management authorities with
    for mismanagement and overuse of estuaries is the    information on how to anticipate the amount of
    limit to the absorptive capacity and waste treatment    discharges and how the amount of discharges will
    capability provided by natural systems in estuaries.   affect pollutant concentration and environmental
    This phenomenon accounts in part for the power-    quality. This information on ambient environmental
    fully attractive force which estuaries exert upon the    quality and concentration can then be translated
    location of industrial development, urban growth,    into marginal damage functions and marginal treat-
    power plants, and industrial harbor complexes.    ment cost functions which indicate in the upper
    Water and other environmental resources of estuaries   right-hand quadrant of Part G, the optimal level of
    can receive, transport, transform, and treat large   concentration, or, from the lower left-hand quadrant,
    amounts of wastes which are discharged from natural    the optimal amount of discharge into the estuary.
    processes and indeed from other waste treatment    On the other hand, it may be possible to use even
    processes. However, as shown in Component D, as   limited information about the benefits and costs to
    discharges become large with respect to the absorp-    improve management efficiency (Fisher, Krutilla,
    tive capacity of the environment, waste concentra-    and Chicchetti, op. cit.) Alternatively, these optimal
    tions begin to build up and quality of the environ-    amounts of discharges or concentrations can be
    ment is changed. The increasing concentration of   translated in the upper left-hand component into
    wastes in the water, air, and other environmental    an optimal emissions charge, or pollution penalty
    resources results in lowering the ambient environ-   which would have the effect of providing emitters
    mental quality of the estuary. The relationship    with financial incentives to limit their discharges to
    between discharges, concentration, and ambient    an optimal level. As shown in Part G, for any emitter
    environmental quality can be shown by an environ-   emitting more than an optimal amount of emissions
    mental transformation function (ETF) as demon-    into the estuary, this policy would require his paying
    strated in Component D of Figure 1. The next im-    an emissions charge that was higher than the cost
    portant analytic step is to translate changes in   that he would incur by treating the waste. Con-
    environmental quality into some estimate of the   versely, the emitter would not be required to cut
    quantitative impact of reduced environmental qual-    back his emissions below the optimal point because
    ity on human beings and other species which de-   the cost of treatment would be greater to society
    pend upon or utilize estuarine resources. This anal-   than  the amount  of damages  that would  be
    ysis is shown in Component E.                         prevented.7
      Component E attempts to relate the concentration      In summary, benefit-cost analysis lies at the heart
    of pollutants or the ambient environmental quality   of the environmental systems model since it pulls
    shown in Part D into costs to and effects upon the   together all of the relevant information in order to
    species dependent upon the estuary. An example is   provide managers with (1) specific information on
    the effect of the reductions in dissolved oxygen upon    setting of standards for environmental quality; and
    the survival of the species in the estuary. Another    (2) information on potential policy instruments for
    example is the impact of increased water temperature    achieving optimal environmental quality. Since the
    during the spawning season on the survival of vari-   logic of benefit-cost analysis simply asserts that
    ous species in the estuary. Relationships of this   efforts to improve environmental quality should be
    kind are measured in Part E of Figure 1, as damage    pursued up to the point at which benefits equal costs,
    functions.                                            it should be acceptable to both environmentalists
      If all the information as discussed up to this point    and economic developers. These two groups, how-
    is available, then this information can be utilized   ever, typically disagree strongly on the scope and
    in a benefit-cost analysis which generates manage-    position of the benefit and cost functions, thus dif-
    ment-relevant information indicating how manage-    fering upon the optimal level of environmental
    ment of estuaries can be improved in the general    quality and upon appropriate levels for emission
    public interest. In Component G of the model, infor-   charges.
    mation from all of the other modules is combined        Even if all the vast amount of information and
    in order to derive standards for socially efficient   analysis required for the benefit-cost analysis and for
    (cost-rrminimizing) management of the estuary.6
    This diagram also suggests other management strat-     7 An important technical point to be emphasized is that the optimal
                                                           amount of discharge and hence the optimal emissions charge will vary
    egies. The purpose of combining all of this informa-   between estuaries and indeed, over different tributaries and reaches of
                                                           the estuary, depending upon varying assimilative capacity as measured
                                                           by the transformation function in Component A. Therefore, full inter-
                                                           spatial and inter-temporal implementation of the model would require
      6 For additional detail on Component G, see Freeman, ttaveman, and   time series forecasting of each type of economic activity and its associated
    Kneese, 1973, who use a similar formulation,         residuals for each location (Cumberland and Herzog, forthcoming).

    666                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    the rest of the economic environmental systems    depend upon the creation of the management m-
    model were available and known, there is no as-   stitutions appropriate to the task.
    surance that this information and analysis would be       The second major conclusion concerning improved
    used to improve management of the estuary unless    estuarmine management is that the prmncpal manage-
    certain other institutions and conditions existed. It    ment priority is to offset the market failures winch
    is first of all essential that appropriate information    result from the common property aspects of the
    and educational channels are available for trans-   estuary by establishing an appropriate set of controls
    nmttmg and clearly commumcatmg the information    which bring the private costs of using the estuary's
    from the model to the general public and to the de-   resources into line with the social costs, thus pre-
    cisionmakers Secondly, there must be institutions    venting the abuse and overstress of the estuary.
    capable of utilizing the scientific management m-         The third major implication of the model is that a
    formation. It is also necessary that people under-    large amount of data, research, and analysis will be
    stand the effects of their personal lifestyles and    necessary to achieve these objectives However, If
    values as expressed by their consumption patterns,    appropriate environmental quality standards can be
    on the quality and future status of the estuary It   established, there are fortunately a number of differ-
    is also essential that management institutions have    ent management policies and techmques alone or m
    available not only the legal authority, but also ade-    combination, which can be used to achieve them.
    quate financing and the range of management pro-    One of the most Important sets of management
    cedures needed to implement management aims.           techniques is simply the establishment of environ-
      Any total systems management model must there-    mental standards by law, by zoning, or by other
    fore reflect the important role that the public,    regulations and ordinances. Another potentially very
    mstitutlons,  and  management  agencies play in   attractive set of management pohlicies is the use of
    decisions on investment, consumption, government    emissions charges It can be demonstrated m Part G
    programs, laws, and policies As indicated in Com-    of the model that establishing an appropriate level
    ponent H of Figure 1, these private and public man-    of emisslons charge is a potentially efficient device for
    agement institutions then feed back changes in    lirmtmg the discharge of residuals into the estuary to
    information and priorities into the economic sectors    the level representing an effective social balance be-
    of the model which again affect changes m output,    tween the demands of economic development and
    altering its composition and sliz, and therefore, the    environmental responsibilty
    generation of wastes and residuals 8 Thus the cycle       One of the most important potential attractions of
    is completed and the model is closed in a total genera]    using an emissions charge is that the proceeds from
    equilibrium system                                     such a charge could be used to achieve some other
                                                          objectives of environmental management  Often it
                                                          will be necessary to establish new commissions for
    RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR IMPROVED                          estuarine management, particularly when the prob-
                                                          Ilem is interstate, mter-county,  or interregional.
                                                          Management mstitutions need to be financed, and
      The mterrelatlonships between the various com-    to have an adequate research and  formation base.
    ponents of the economic environmental estuary    to have an adequate research and information base.
    ponents of the economic  environmental estuary    The proceeds of a properly designed set of emissions
    system proposed here suggest a number of directions    charges m  an estuary could be used to finance a
       . whch improved environmental management may ,management commission and to support the research
    be pursued Some obvious points are that the man-    needed, part              the  terdscplnary research
    agement mstitutlon and its geography should be    required to determine transformation  functions,
    coternmnous with the total environmental space of
    cotermenous with the total environmental space of   damage functions, and optimal environmental stand-
    the estuary, embracming all of its tnrbutares and
                                                          ards These funds could also be used for momtonng
    inputs, as well as its areas of discharge, the total at-   the release of emissions and enforcing the standards
    mospheric environment, aid all of the land mass    (Cumberland, 1972) Soe possible regulations and
    from which waste and discharges are emitted into the
    estuary. This is a very large order which must be    policies that an estuarne management commission
         interpreted reasonably, but in general,  effective    might apply to improve management and to increase
    mterpreted reasonably, but m  general, effective   publc welfare will be examined below. However,
    estuaruiemanagement will depend upon close control
    over the environmentsal emisslons into the total   there are some potential dangers which should be
    system, End successful estuarie management nwll    considered in the use of emisslons charges to support
                                                           an estuarmine management commission
      * The maJor conclusion of this paper is that the appropriate mstitutlonal  One is the hazard of becoming financially depend-
    component for estuarine management is an miterregional commission
    partially 1upported by ermsslons charges               ent upon these funds, and thus developing a vested

                                             ESTUARINE  ECONOMICS                                          667

    interest in perpetuating pollution. Another problem    fits from applying charges to them all would be both
    pointed out by public finance theorists is that to the    to reduce the emissions and to provide financial in-
    extent that the charges were successful in reducing    centives to the emitter to find improved technologies
    pollution, they would earn very little revenue, and to    for reducing future emissions, thus sharing between
    the extent that they were successful in generating    both polluters and the society the benefits of reduced
    revenue, their effectiveness in pollution abatement    pollution. Establishing the principal of full responsi-
    could be debated. The example of accumulation of   bility of the emitter to pay for any accidental or
    economic and political power associated with the    other damage created by his activities such as oil
    Highway Trust Fund provides a warning against the    spills, chemical spills, explosions, sedimentation
    potential abuses of automatically  setting aside    damage to water tables, damage to aquifers, and so
    revenues for a specific purpose. However, it must be    on, provides a strong incentive to prevention of
    recognized that economic factors associated with the    damage (Cumberland and Fisher, 1974).
    public  goods  problem  systematically encourage          However, in addition to emissions charges and
    underinvestment in environmental protection, unless    penalties, estuarine managers will also need other
    special programs are developed. These problems    instruments such as the powers of planning and
    suggest that emission charges might be combined    zoning to protect the wetlands upon which the health
    with other environmental control measures as an    of the estuaries depends and to manage inland de-
    important but not sole instrument for pollution    velopment which ultimately determines the amount
    control.                                                of waste that is discharged into the estuary. In fact,
      We have seen that the major task of managing    the power of zoning should be extended from land to
    estuaries is to achieve an appropriate balance be-    water resources. For example, increasing numbers of
    tween economic growth and development and the    recreationists appear to be adopting high-technology,
    environmental quality of the estuary. Because of the    noise-intensive types of recreation such as water
    common property nature of the estuary and the    skiing and the use of high-speed water craft, dune
    economic incentives of industry to discharge its waste    buggies, trail bikes, aircraft and helicopters. Because
    at lowest costs, the primary management task for   they impose very great dangers, damages, disameni-
    estuarine management will be to reduce the amount    ties, and discomfort on other users of the estuary,
    of residuals and externalities imposed upon one set    these activities should be heavily taxed, limited to
    of users by others, and to take a long-run view of the    restricted areas, and permitted in other areas only as
    estuary as an ecological unit which must serve the    contributors to public welfare (emergency vehicles).
    needs of future generations, as well as those of the    An appropriate balance between these competing
    present.                                                demands can be achieved not only by establishing
      The achievement of these objectives will call for    charges upon speed, noise, and horsepower, but also
    judicious use of a wide range of management policies    by zoning certain limited portions of the estuary for
    and  techniques.  These  could probably best  be    industrial, commercial, high-noise, high-speed activi-
    achieved by management commissions set up as   ties, provided appropriate emissions charges were
    described and given responsibility over the total    paid and by excluding these activities altogether
    environmental space of the estuary with appropriate    from other parts of the estuary, regardless of emis-
    powers of planning, establishing standards, taxing,    sions charges. In effect, the charges could be varied
    monitoring,  and enforcement.  There  are many    by zone, with an infinite charge for the use of some
    policies and sets of procedures that such an institu-    zones.
    tion might use. Among the most promising would be         One of the most important sources of environ-
    a comprehensive set of emissions charges on all types    mental externalities and estuarine damages is the
    of emissions and externalities. These charges, of   military sector, and one of the most important
    course, should be related to both the assimilative    opportunities for improving welfare through alterna-
    capacity of the estuary and the damages that would    tive uses of estuaries is to return some of the vast
    be created by the discharges. It is important to note    military holdings of tidewater areas to civilian use.
    that these emissions and discharges are not limited    The contribution of military security to society is
    to liquid, solid, and gas alone, but that they also in-   widely recognized as is the need for certain amounts
    elude releases of energy in the form of.heat, noise,    of secrecy and security in this area, but it should be
    and radioactivity. Some of the most urgent needs for    equally recognized that the environmental costs of
    effective improved management  of estuaries are    military activities are often excessive and unneces-
    sharp reductions in the amount of thermnal waste,    sary. For example, currently, military activities have
    radionuclides,  and noise emission.  Stiff charges    the power to override the planning and zoning au-
    could be applied to all of these pollutants. The bene-   thority of local governments, as well as potential

    668                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    estuarine management commissions. The magnitude    SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
    and intensity of military activities result in their    This paper has also emphasized improvement in
    being a major source of congestion, accidents, noise,    estuarine management  through  the creationof
    explosions, thermal release, radiation, and sonic   estuarine management commissions which are geo-
    booms, from the operation both of very large types ofnn
                                                           graphically coextensive with the estuary and its
    conventional vehicles and advanced weapon systems.    total environmental space. This problem is not only
    Judging by the dollar value alone of military activity,
                                                           economic, but also political in nature and the com-
    and not allowing for any increased environmental
                                                           position of such management commissions is critical.
    intensity of military operations and experimental
                                                           Once again, recognizing  that bias in estuarine
    weapons systems, it is unquestionably one of the                                          in
                                                      .. I management tends to be heavily in favor of exces-
    major generators of environmental externalities inid economic development and short-run
                                                           sively rapid econonmic development and short-run
    estuarine regions.'                                   revenue producing activities, the usual economic and:
      In view of the difficulty of local governments and    political representation of such commissions should
    management  commissions in regulating military    also be balanced with participation of citizens' and
    activities, a national policy is necessary in order to
    minimize their environmental impact and to achieve
              minimize their environmental impact and to achieve    least a hearing. Providing clear channels for citizen
    national efficiencies in geographically locating them
                                                           participation in environmental management is an
    in those'regions where environmental impact can be
                                                            essential corrective to the usual problem of con-
    minimal. In the long-run it would be desirable toal p
    return to civilian use all military properties located    centrated economic and poitic      al pow er used to
                                                           distribute heavy pollution burdens widely over large
    in estuaries where civilian activities are widespread.
                   A  national policy of returning estuarine based    populations which then face heavy costs in organiz-
    A national policy of returning estuarine based
                                                            ing to protect their welfare.
    military activities to civilian use and removing
                                              .,aremoving .The national policy on estuarine management
    military operations to unsettled regions could iam-
                           military operations to unsettled regions could  should recognize the principle that the federal gov-
    prove total national welfare through increasing the    rnment establish minimum environmental stand-
    supply of public goods for recreation. However, an       s   u   t
                                                            ards, but that local areas, including estuarine
    essential element of such a policy should be to offset
                                                            management  commissions be permitted to veto
    local economic adjustment problems through cormn-
                            local.  ec..o  an pm .         local developments and to establish higher environ-
    pensatory policies, and through careful regulation of              ment          sta
                                                            mental quality standards than the federal minimum.
    the public use of released military bases to exclude    The justification for this point of view is not oly
                                                            The justification for this point of view is not only
    pollution-intensive forms of recreation. For example,    re
    very little justification in economic theory can be     cogzing local preferences and seeng  mprove
                                                     ... .ments through permitting local choice, but also
    found for providing military recreation centers whiching                                        b
                                                            encouraging improved technology by establishing
    favor privileged classes of individuals such as
                   fvor  plegd  classo of te ddals spublc, ,.    very high performance standards at the local level so
    military people to the exclusion of the general public.
      Subsmilitary people    tassistance xcanalusio n    ofeene.   that would-be polluters have positive incentives to
                                                            seek cleaner technologies. Such local citizen activity
    courage creation of public goods which are not   has already
                                                            has already resulted in the refinement of nuclear
    sufficiently generated by market processes. Among    te
                                                           technology and other energy systems. Since market
    the activities which are particularly in need of
    subsidy are recreation, especially for wilderness   processes  usually  combie  with  economic  and
                                                            political power to generate excessively rapid de-
    areas, hiking and biking paths, ecological research
                                                            velopment and intensive overuse 'of estuarine re-
    areas, protection of critical marshlands, and preven-
                                                            sources, recent proposals to permit the federal
    tion of shore erosion. Other types of activities for
    which subsidies might be provided are actual re-   government to override local preferences for non
                                                            development, or to require states to set aside energy
    moval of offensive activities, such as pollution-   de
                                                            development areas regardless of local wishes seem
    intensive power plants and military bases, as dis-   . .    .             r         o
    cussed above. Another type of public good iworthay   inefficient economically, and politically indefensible
    cussed above. Another type of public good worthy
    of subsidies is historic restoration, such as Williams-    in a fee   s
                                                              A most important part of life cycle planning is
    burg in the tidewater area of Virginia and St. Mary's
                  City in the tidewa     area ofMaryland.Sb .    recognition of the fact that all residuals should be
    City in the tidewater area of Maryland. Subsidies.        .
                                                            specified which would be generated by any proposedr
    should also be considered for those types of activities    seied which  ould be generated by any proposed
                   shoul als be consi d fr                development through every phase, including ex-
    which are environmentally beneficial or neutral,
       which are  winvmilonmentslal , enefargy devics. -l  ploration, construction, operation, and eventually
    such as windmills and solar energy devices.
                                                           rehabilitation of the site. Complete life cycle planning
      D In the Chesapeake Bay region, military activities dominate major   based on materials balance concepts would require
    segments of prime air, land, and water resources, creating extensive planned,
    and often accidental explosions under water, on land, and in the air.  that the producer specify exactly what inputs would

                                               ESTUARINE ECONOMICS                                             669

    enter into the process, and exactly what ultimate    them will not be an easy task. However, the lesson
    disposition would be made of all of these inputs.    to be learned in improving our management of these
    Component C of the systems analysis should warn    vital resources will be a crucial step in mankind's
    that even treatment is not enough, for treatment    belated efforts to recognize his responsibilities for
    processes involve wastes whose ultimate disposition    long-run protection of his total environment on
    has to be specified and paid for, preferably by the    earth. The systems analysis presented in this paper
    emitter.                                                  suggests that establishment of interregional, inter-
      Another reason for restraining market-oriented ir-   disciplinary  management  commissions,  financed
    reversible development is the need for keeping open    partially through emissions charges, and with broad
    options for the future. As Krutilla and Cicchetti    powers to levy these charges; conduct research,
    have emphasized, changing technology plus changing    monitor environmental quality, and control land
    income  elasticity of demand  for recreation will    and water use is a promising institutional approach
    probably increase the future value of unspoiled rec-    to the protection and management of estuaries.
    reational resources and reduce the present value of
    technology-intensive activities (Krutilla and Cic-    REFERENCES
    chetti, 1972).
      Aesthetic damage to shorelines, skylines, and other    Arrow, Kenneth J. and A. C. Fisher, "Environmental Preser-
    estuarine resources is a costly type of environmental       vation, Uncertainty, and Irreversibility, Quarterly Journal
    pollution. Although the cost may be spread out over         of Economics, Volume LXXXVIII, May, 1974, pp. 312-319.
    a large number of people over a very long period,    Ayres, Robert U. and A. V. Kneese, "Production, Consump-
    realistic measurement would indicate a serious de-          tion, and Externalities," American Economic Review,
    crease in social welfare. For this reason, all of the       Volume 59, Number 3, June, 1969, pp. 282-297.
    policy measures discussed above such as charges,
          policy measures discussed above such as charges,     Chesapeake Research Consortium Annual Report, June 1,
    controls, and subsidies should be used to discourage        1971-May 31, 1972, Johns Hopkins University, University
    large physical intrusions of any kind and to subsidize      of Maryland, Smithsonian Institution, Virginia Institute
    protection of natural landscapes. Examples of visual        of Marine Science, Baltimore, Md.
    pollution are bridges and power lines which appear to    Cumberland, John H., "A Regional Interindustry Model
    diminish the magnitude and majesty of a body of             for the Analysis of Development Objectives," Regional
    water or a distant skyline. Where such facilities are       Science Association Papers, Volume XVI, 1966, pp. 65-94.
    regarded as essential, the alternative of using tunnels
    rather than bridges and of undergrounding power-    Cumberland,  John H., "Establishment of International
                                                               Environmental Standards-Some Economic and Related
    lines and pipelines rather than permitting them             Aspects," Problems in Transfrontier Pollution, Organiza-
    aboveground should be encouraged by economic and            tion for Economic Cooperation and Development, Paris,
                                                               1972, pp. 213-299.
    other incentives.
      Finally, an important feature of estuarine manage-    Cumberland, John H. and R. J. Korbach, "A Regional
    ment commissions would be their research capability.        Interindustry Environmental Model," Regional Science
    These institutions could advance the art of environ-        Association Papers, Volume XXX, 1973, pp. 61-75.
    mental management through continual research on
    damage functions as indicated in the systems model    Cumberland, John H. and B. N. Stam, "Effects of Economic
                                                               Development Upon Water Resources," Water Resources
    and  by  giving  the  regional  commissions  the            Research Center, Technical Bulletin Number 18, 1974,
    capability of forming independent estimates of the          University of Maryland, College Park.
    impact from proposed activities. One  promising
    format  for the research arm  of such estuarine    Cumberland, John H. and H. W. Herzog, Jr., "Economic-
                                                               Environmental Planning for Water Quality Control in
    management commissions is the Chesapeake Re-                the Chesapeake Bay Region," forthcoming.
    search Consortium in the Chesapeake Bay region
    (1971-1972). Another opportunity to finance and    Fisher, Anthony C., J. V. Krutilla and C. J. Cicchetti, "The
    encourage environmental research and public goods           Economics of Environmental Preservation-A Theoretical
                                                               and Empirical Analysis," The American Economic Review,
    activities is through the sea grant program, under          Volume LXII, Number 4, September, 1972, pp. 605-619.
    which local institutions can be encouraged to develop
    the multidisciplinary research capabilities called for    Fisher, Anthony C. and J. V. Krutilla, "Valuing Long-Run
                                                research, and  Ecological Consequences and Irreversibilities," Journal of
    in Figure 1 for estuarine management,            research, and Environmental Economics and Management, Volume 1,
    policy formation.                                           1974, pp. 96-108.
      Because of the vulnerability of our estuaries, de-
    veloping the knowledge,  skills, and  institutions    Freeman, A. Myrick, III, R. H. Haveman and A. V. Kneese,
                                                               The Economics of Environmental Policy, New York, John
    needed to reverse the damage now being done to              Wiley and Sons, 1973.

    670                                      ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    Georgescu-Roegen, Nicholas, The Entropy Law and The    Herzog, Henry W, Jr, "The Economices of Regional Water
      Economic Process, Cambridge, Harvard Umniverslty Press,       Quahlity Management-A Case Study of Water Quahlity
      1971.                                                        In the Chesapeake Bay Region," Unpubhlished PhD
                                                                Dissertatlon, Umverslty of Maryland, College Park, May
                                                                1974.
    Grigalunas, Thomas Allen, "Waste Generation, Waste
      Management and Natural Resource Use  An Economic    Krutflla, John V  and C J Cicchetti, "Evaluating Benefits
      Analysis of the Primary Copper Industry," Unpubhlished       of Envlronmental Resources With Special Apphlications to
      Ph D  Dissertatlon, Umverslty of Maryland, College Park,     the Hell's Canyon," Natural Resources Journal, Volume
      1972                                                         12, Number 1, January 1972, pp 1-24

    ESTABLISHING THE ECONOMIC
    .-VALUE OF ESTUARIES TO
    U.S. COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

    DENNIS P. TIHANSKY
    ,NORMAN  F. MEADE
    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
    Washington, D.C.

                 ABSTRACT

                 The economic importance of estuaries is assessed in their supportive role of the U.S. commercial
                 fishing industry. Economic welfare concepts are related to major phases of the fishing industry,
                 and empirical estimates of these values are surveyed in the literature. The exvessel price of
                 landed species is cited to be a conservative estimate of net benefits realized by all phases. The
                 literature survey reveals that most economic studies of fishery benefits are conducted without
                 any apparent knowledge of valid welfare concepts. This gap between empirical and theoretical
                 constructs must be eliminated if economic values are to be plausible and meaningful.

    INTRODUCTION                                              uses will continue to be the primary factors consid-
                                                            ered in estuarine development cost/benefit analyses.
       The estuaries of the United States have tradi-    It is therefore to the net benefit of society that guide-
    tionally nurtured a significant portion of the total    lines be established to achieve a full consideration of
    commercial fish catch. Records dating back to the    the values of fisheries. Without the development and
    early colonization of America reveal a close link    wide application of such guidelines to coastal zone
    between economic development and estuarine re-    decisionmaking, the Nation will continue to lose
    sources. For New England pilgrims facing cold win-    segments of its estuaries to residential and industrial
    ters, clams and mussels were the major diet during    development, with corresponding declines in fisheries
    the periods of food storage. Some communities along    stocks (Roberts, 1974).
    the Atlantic coast depended almost entirely on the          This paper surveys methods to quantify the ec-
    fishing industry and  related activities, such  as    onomic benefits of commercial  fishing and then
    shipbuilding and the construction of marinas. Identi-    relates them to empirical studies of specific estuaries.
    fled as the most naturally fertile environment in the    The following section reviews current statistics of
    world (Odum, 1961), estuaries provide a haven for    U.S. commercial landings and the relative importance
    fish and shellfish at various stages of their life cycle.    of estuaries. The next section outlines the theoretical
    It is estimated (Stroud, 1971) that, depending upon    basis of welfare economics, and then applies these
    the geographic region, 65 to 90 percent of domestic    concepts to benefit estimation at the fish catching,
    fish landings are comprised of estuarine-dependent    processing, and marketing phases. Distinctions are
    species. Furthermore, there is the enormous potential    recognized between direct benefits of the fishing in-
    of increasing usable catches from estuaries by mari-    dustry and indirect benefits to the regional economy.
    culture, improvement  of fishing efficiency, and            Following this is a summary of published values of
                                                              Following this is a summary of published values of
    increased harvest of underutilized species.
       Despite the recognized importance of estuaries to    estuaries throughout the nation and an economic
    the economy and welfare of society, these areas are    assessment of fishery losses from marine pollution.
    often exploited for dredging and landfill operations    In the next section the various problems of benefit
    that permanently imperil fishery resources. These    assessment are discussed as they affect the accuracy
    damaging activities are usually justified in monetary    or credibility of empirical values. To conclude the
    terms  for industrial,  residential,  or  commercial    paper, specific recommendations are made for a
    development purposes.                                     comprehensive  benefit  evaluation  of  estuarine-
       The conservation of fish habitat, on the other    dependent fisheries and for management policies
    hand, is more difficult to evaluate in economic values.    that fully recognize these values in coastal zoning
    Yet without such an evaluation, competing water    decisions.

                                                                                                             671

    672                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    ESTUARINE-DEPENDENCE                                    industry (Gates, 1971). (In certain Asian and Eiro-
    OF FISHERIES                                            pean countries, on the other hand, the rearing of
                                                           finfish and certain types of shellfish is well estab-
      In 1973 the total value of reported commercial    lished) Efforts to raise salmon m  estuaries of the
    fish landings m  the United States was more than    Pacific Northwest are hampered by high costs, while
    $900 million (National Marine Fisheries Service,    research attempts to raise shrimip along the gulf
    1974)  At least two-thirds of that amount is derived    coast are in the preliminary stage but do look promis-
    from estuarine-dependent species (McHugh, 1966) 1   mg for the future Should these efforts meet with
    While much  essential biological information re-   success, however marginal, they will add yet another
    mains to be acquired on habitat dependencies, there    dimenslon to the value of the'estuary In cases where
    is a  general consensus  among  fisheries experts    conflicts arse between malculturists and natural
    (Stroud, 1971) that the following commercially    fish harvesters, detailed management strategies will
    important species spend at least part of their hfe   be needed to accommodate bdth interests at some
    in the estuarine zone- black sea bass, bluefish, clams,    socially optimum combination
    (all soft clams and some hard clam species), crabs
    (except king and tanner crab), croaker, black drum,    THE CONEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
    red drum, American eel, flounder, lobster, menhaden,
    mullet, oysters, porgie, puffer, salmon  (chinook,                        beneft of a resoure s the gan n
                                         ..ho),  .e ,  .h ,  .pt  sThe economic benefit of a resource is the gain m
    coho), seatrout, shrimunp, spot, steelhead, striped
     bass, sturgeon, tarpon, tautog, and weakfish           real income or consumer satisfaction realized by the
      Published statistics on the exvessel value of par-    use or consumption of that resource. However  many
      Ptiular species give strong testimony on the slefir-   benefit estimates are made without a valid economic
    cance of estuaries to the commercial fishing industry    retionale The assumptions and techniques used m
    and the American economy as a whole (National    estimating benefits need to be checked against
    Marne Fisheres Services, 1974)  aOf the 10 most    sound, economic theory to determine their validity
    valuable species landed in 1973, eight are directly        The concept of benefits, as proposed in this study,
                          on the estuary and represent over $660    conforms to basic ideas of welfare economics  By
    dependent on the estuary and represent over $660        defion, the gros benefit of estuaes  terms of
    million in dockside revenue. This figure does not         fition, the gross benefit of estuarie     terms of
    include the value added (i.e., revenue less raw ma-    commercial fish is the maximum amount that society
    terial costs) from the processing, wholesale, and    would pay for the actual or potential yield of fish
    retail sectors.                                         In a socially optimum allocation of resources, this
      While the literature on most commercially ir-    amount will at least equal the value of all goods that
    portant estuarne-dependent species has identified    society has foregone in order to obtain the output
    the unique life-supportmg role of estuaries, there'is   from the fishing sector According to economic ter-
    little quantitative information on total standing    mnology, this oregone value is called the opportun-
    crops of particular species (Clark, 1974)  As a re-   lty cost of fishing and should be subtracted from
    sult, fisheries scientists are unable to predict with    gross benefits to estimate the net benefits Net bene-
    confidence just how  much  estuarine acreage is   fit is the willingness-to-pay value after total produc-
    necessary to maintain existing fisheries at any level    tlon costs are subtracted
    of catch effort. This situation greatly complicates        The fishing industry is comprised of vertically
    cost accounting of commercial fishery stocks which    integrated phases that include the catching of fish,
    are threatened by estuarine degradation.                the processing and distribution of fishery products,
                                                           and retail marketing to the final consumers (Bureau
                                                           of Governmental Research and Service, 1969).
    Mariculture                                             Each of these activities contributes to the net bene-
                                                           fits of commercial fishing The net benefit of each
      The farming of marine animals in the U.S. estu-   sector, i.e, the value of the output of the sector after
    arine zone is not as yet practiced to any appreciable    subtracting total production costs, is also known as
    extent (other than perhaps the Atlantic coast oyster    the value added by that sector The following re-
    industry)  After more than a decade of intensive    marks pertain to the most valid guidelines of assess-
    public and private research on this topic, there still   ing the net benefits at each phase
    are major economit, legal, and technological barriers
    in this country to establishing a viable aquaculture
                                                           The Catch Phase
      While a two-thirds ratio is the most commonly quoted figure, several
    estimates range as high as 75-90 percent, with the upper figure cited for  Fishermen constitute the most fundamental link
    catches along the gulf coast (Newsletter, 1974, Atlantic States Marine
    lisherles Commission, 1968, Stroud, 1971)               in the chain Most benefit estimates m the literature

                                             ESTUARINE ECONOMICGS  673

    narrowly focus on fishing revenues. It is commonly    run, these resources will eventually flow into more
    assumed that net benefits are calculated as the dif-   profitable uses. As old vessels are retired,'the mater-
    ference between dockside catch value and fishing   ials and labor necessary to replace them will be
    costs of capital, labor, and other input factors.   used in other industries. Fishermen are less likely to
    Unlimited entry into the fishery grounds entices too    find new employment, although this is not a univer-
    .much capital and labor input in the industry. As a    sally accepted opinion.2
    result, net benefit calculations, the difference be-     In a meeting  (McQuigg,  1971)  of Canadian
    tween value of catch and fishing costs, are often zero   scientists, it' was concluded that landing price may
    or negative in the long run. The invalid implication    significantly underestimate net benefits aggregated
    of this logic is that commercial estuarine fishing    over all'phases of the fishing sector. Direct benefits
    does not enhance social welfare.                       include current net rent to fishing, processing, and
      An  alternate  approach  has  been  suggested    marketing profits. Indirect benefits include the addi-
    (Crutchfield, 1962) to overcome this dilemma. The    tional income and employment generated, if any,
    rent or value of the resource should be calculated    in coastal communities in other industry and service
    under the ideal situation wherein only the most effi-   sectors as a result of the commercial industry and
    cient fishermen have access to fishing grounds. Net    fishing. Another analysis (Bell, 1974), of interna-
    benefit is then determined at the economic optimum    tional fishery values, claims that the exvessel price
    level of output given the least cost strategy of pro-   is an adequate proxy for net benefits to the consumer.
    duction. This implies a reduction in the size of the    Unlike the Canadians' emphasis on producer benefits,
    fishing fleet and manpower requirements, which in   this conclusion pertains exclusively to welfare im-
    turn would allow the "excess investment" to be    pacts from the retail market as discussed later.
    utilized in more beneficial sectors of the economy.
     'VWhile this approach can provide a reasonable
    empirical value, it neglects certain welfare impacts    The Processing andse
    by not quantifying all of the benefits and should be
    modified accordingly. For example, the excess in-
    vestments due to free entry may be indicativ;e of
    vestments due to free entry-'may be indicative of        Intermediate activities of the fishingsector begin
    society's preference for a larger fishing fleet and its   with the wholesalers who purchase the catch at
    protection of one of America's oldest labor markets.    dockside and then extend to include processor, dis-
    Any attempt to dislodge these excess investments    tributors, and the retail markets.  Net benefits
    could induce drastic changes' in the prosperity of   attributable to this phase are usually ignored in the
    fishing ports, the displacement of fishermen and    literature because of the lack of readily -accessible
    their families, and a reduction of scenic amenities    data. To date, few estimates of such values have
    provided' by picturesque 'fleets and colorful old    been attempted. It assumes that the total value
    fishermen tending to their daily chores.               added by processing and wholesaling sectors reflects
      On the other hand, it'could be contended that    net welfare (Carley, 1968),. Whether value added
    excess investments in fishing are not preferred; rather    represents a good approximation to net benefits
    they are forced upon society as a result of an histori-   remains to be  proven   According  to economic
    cal misallocation of resources. This resource immobil-    theory, monetary benefits are determined by the
    ity accounts for a portion of the potential rent, and,    excess profits or producer surplus earned by this
    if at all possible, should be deducted in the estimate    phase of the industry. The magnitude of this benefit
    of net benefits.          '                            depends upon the profit-making potential of the
      Some resource analysts (Gosselink, 1973; Hite,    industry.
    1973) claim that 'the entire landing value of fish       The number of processor-wholesaler firms has
    should be imputed to the net rent of estuarine areas,    declined in recent years and those remaining have
    as an indication of "the dependency of jobs and    broadened their sphere of influence and increased
    commercial fisheries on the existence of these free   their profit-making potential by handling more
    resources." This assumes that capital and labor    fishery products and adding restaurants or retailing
    commitments to the fishery cannot be shifted to   facilities to their investments. Profit-making po-
    other uses. In the' short run, this assumption seems    tential is also obtained by controlling a large enough
    valid for some  fisheries where the commercial    share of the market to influence prices. Interferences
    fishermen are quite old and entrenched in their jobs    2 For example, a recent study (Strang, 1974) on charter boat fishing in
    despite relatively low incomes, and where the con-   the Great Lakes found the age distribution of fishermen to be bimodal,
                                                           with a significant portion over 50 years old and another concentration in
    version of boats and fishery equipment into other   their twenties. The latter group is particularly mobile, and could thus find
                                                           employment elsewhere, in view of current opportunities in this country
    uses is technologically impractical. Yet over the long   for non-professionals in skilled and unskilled jobs.

    674                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    with the price mechanism have been cited (Hlte,           Besides consumers' surplus which pertains to
    1973) for the tuna canning sector, where ult landing    current demands, there is also "option value" asso-
    prices are set prior to the catch by a cooperative of    elated with the desire for consumption at some time
    vessel owners and fishermen Such activities could    m the future This benefit is the price an individual
    introduce excess profits, which nevertheless, should    is willng to pay now to preserve his option of con-
    be included as a component of net benefits              sumrng a product in the future
                                                              Because option value is not included m current
                                                           market prices, Its contribution to fishery values is
                                                            Retail Sales Peither disminussed or neglected by many declsion-
                                                            makers While it may indeed be difficult to derive the
      The value of fishery resources depends on two sets   values, some attempt should be made to  clude them
                                                            values, some attempt should be made to include them
    of complex market forces The above discussion
    b       r oadly recognizes the supply side includi ng the    in a benefit assessment The omission of option value
    broadly recos t of harvesting, processing, and distribution of  te    results in an underestimate of the value of a fishery
    cost of harvestmg, processmg, and dmstnbutlon of                   ,          s   .
    fish products There Is also the demand side which    or estuary, which could seriously umperl attempts to
    takes into account the consumers' preference for fish   preserve fish habtat fo r future (Abel, 1974), other
    and shellfish  The intensity of this preference is
    reflected in the prices that individuals are willing to    types of benefits have also been identified, although
    reflected m the prices oithat mlvluals aren tllmg IO    their empirical valuation remains to be investigated.
    pay for various commodities, given current or fore-    One such measure Is "existence value," which Is an
    seen consumption alternatives in the market Con-    indvldual's wlllngness to pay for society's use or
    ceptually, net benefit to consumers is the difference
    between whaua t bthey pay for fish and fish products    conservation of a resource, even if he does not intend
    between what they pay for fish and fish products
    and its value to them This concept is referred to as      A related type of benefit follows from an md-
              consumers'surphs ,A related type of benefit follows from an mdi-
      The demand fconsumherys' surpluctdepes upon vidual's desire to make the resource available to
      The demand for any fishery product depends upon    future generations rather than to   mself  Ts
    individual tastes, level of income, and prices of that    "bequest value," as it I appropriately called, is
    product as well as the price of related goods. The    similar to the  llng of estates and large fortunes by
    U S  per capita consumption of fish and shellfish   parents to their cwl ldren  These benefit concepts
                                                            parents to their children  These benefit concepts
                  has remained virtually constant       ts century    should affect future mincome streams from estuarine
    indcating that tastes have remained relatively con-
    stant In the past, the quantity of fishery products    resoures     been nether emonstrated  nor even current
    purchases responded greatly to price changes. How-    values has been neither demonstrated nor even con-
    ever, recently the change in amount purchased in   jectured
    response to a change m price has been relatively
    small On the other hand, the quantity of fishery    Local and Regional Impacts
    products purchased has responded more to changes m
    income than it ever has before  Of course, these          There are several approaches to assessing the
    observations vary according to the species (Wong,    economic impacts of commercial fisheries The above
     1970)                                                   discussion of measured and non-measured benefits
       Consumer benefits from the demand for mdustrial    pertains to the direct gains of personal welfare at-
    fish are more difficult to quantify, smce there are    trlbutable to the production and (actual or optional)
    essentially two levels of retail purchases In the in-   consumption of fish resources  Another economic
     dustrial market, such rawfish as menhaden and    impact is the indirect or secondary effect on the
     anchovies-both marketed almost exclusively as    economy of a local area or region These impacts
    medible-are sold directly to feed-fish processors    result when additlonal income and employment are
     Fish meal, which then becomes part of the feed for    generated by the fishing industry m other economic
    poultry and livestock, is eventually converted into    sectors such as service industries and retail stores
     final consumer products ranging from pet food to          Policymakers are rightly concerned about second-
     glues How to apportion these final product benefits    ary benefits, since one of their common goals is to
     among such constituent inputs as fish meal is an    protect and encourage economic growth within their
     unresolved issue                                        pohtical jurisdiction  Employment can potentially
       A  related problem involves apportioning total    be stimulated and tax revenues increased withmn
     consumer benefits from all fishery products among    regions that have an expanding fishming industry
     specific species or specific estuaries  If economic       The magnitude of the secondary benefits depends
     values are to be assigned to indlvidual estuaries,    upon the size of the region as well as the structure of
     the fraction of the total supply must be determined     the economy and whether underemployed resources

                                             ESTUARINE ECONOMICS                                         675

    are available there. In general, the smaller the    along the Massachusetts shoreline are based on
    geographic area, the less likely it is for a region to be    mean high water levels, but would be 20-100 percent
    self-sufficient in many products. Hence, expenditures    larger if calculated for low water conditions due to
    will take place outside the region and the benefits   the change in total estuarine surface acreage. More-
    will be correspondingly reduced. From the regional   over, they reflect catch value divided by the total
    perspective, it follows that sales or purchases provid-    area of surface water. In a highly productive sub-
    ing additional income to one area may represent a    area of the San Francisco Bay estuary (Howard,
    loss to another. For the nation as a whole, however,    1973), the yearly revenue for oysters exceeds $500
    the local and regional impacts should be excluded    per acre (in 1973 dollars). It is also interesting to
    from net benefit calculations as they will, by defini-   compare values for the same estuary, as reported in
    tion, cancel each other. To local and regional de-   different references. Along the Alabama coast, for
    cisionmakers, however, this information is essential   instance, two estimates differ because of the year in
    in weighing alternative plans to determine priorities   which revenues were observed and the specific fishing
    for economic development.                             grounds under consideration. In Delaware Bay, unit
      Some economists (Prest, 1965) argue that second-    values differ by type of species. Other factors affect-
    ary benefits should not be counted as a gain to   ing the magnitude of estuarine values are discussed
    society. They contend that in a competitive econ-   later.
    omy, these benefits are reflected by the price of       The predominance of estimates along the Massa-
    the original good. That is, as the secondary effect of   chusetts and gulf coast shorelines substantiates the
    the good increases, its price should rise in correspond-    fact that fisheries here are largely estuarine-depend-
    ing fashion. This assumes perfect factor mobility,    ent. In California, however, more than two-thirds of
    wherein gross expenditures for fish resources can    past coastal marshland has been replaced by land
    be easily shifted to other resource demands. In a    developments. In 1899 the catch of oysters in San
    full-employment economy there are many opportuni-    Francisco Bay  exceeded $2,000,000  (in current
    ties for long-term resource shifting. For'the fishing   money) but gradually declined to barely 0.3 percent
    industry, this assumption may not be completely    of this amount by 1973. Western fisheries have thus
    valid in cases where fishermen are immobile or cannot    moved into deeper waters, so that estuaries are
    find jobs elsewhere.                                  seldom valued. In the Pacific Northwest, anadro-
                                                           mous fish species contribute to estuarine values,
                                                           but they spend most of their lives in ocean waters or
    EMPIRICAL RESULTS                                     spawning streams.
                                                              A description of the catch in these estuaries indi-
       Published estimates of the economic value of   cates the relative importance of the different species.
    estuaries date back into the 1950's, although most    While shellfish provide the major source of income,
    values have appeared within the past several years.    there are also instances where eels, bait worms, and
    Recently the work of Odum and fellow researchers   finfish are economically quite valuable. A comparison
     (Gosselink, 1973; Odum, 1968; Odum, 1960) received    of the estimates in the Merrimack River Estuary,
    widespread attention because of the large magnitude    Mass., shows that clams rank first in value by far,
    of estimates3 for estuaries along the south Atlantic    although potential sales of bait worms are unex-
    and gulf coasts. But the most extensive evaluations    pectedly high at more than $250 per capitalized
    have been conducted by Massachusetts' Division of   acre. Even marsh grass has an economic value since
     Marine Fisheries (Chesmore, 1972; Chesmore, 1972;   it supports the growth of an oyster community
     Chesmore, 1973; Jerome, 1969; Jerome, 1973; Je-   although no attempt was made in this report to
    rome, 1968; Jerome, 1966; Jerome, 1965), one of   impute a value for it.
    whose charters is "to establish more precisely the      These annual values conceal the long-term con-
     values and relative importance to the fisheries of   tribution of estuarine resources to social welfare.
     particular areas."                                    For renewable resources such as commercial fish,
       In Table 1 the economic values of various estuarine    economic returns should be comprehended over a
     areas are compared, and are adjusted to base year   sufficiently long time horizon. To compare them with
     1973 by an exvessel fish and shellfish price index    nonrenewable resource values over a single (current)
     (National Marine Fisheries Service, 1974). Values    year biases the results in favor of current returns.
      sAccording to these authors, natural tidal marshes along the gulf   Consequently, a capitalized value of each estimate
     coast typically have annual returns of $3,000 or more per acre. But only   i also calculated in Tabl 1
     $100 of this amount is related to fisheries, the bulk due to waste treatment
     costs avoided because of the natural assimilative capacity of the estuarine  Capitalized value represents the amount of capital,
     mixing zone. But intensive aquaculture could increase the contribution of
     fisheries to as much as $1,000. in real dollar terms, whch must be invested at a

    676                                                             EsTUARINI POLLUTION CONTROL

                                                            Table 1 -Economic values of estuahies to commercial fishing

                          Estuary                          Annual Per Acre          Year                  Description of Catch               Per Acre Capitalized     Estiary Area in
                                                                Value                                                                      Value in 1973 Prices           Acres

    Essex Bay MA (Chesmore, 1973) ---------------..                    $256 00   1969   Lobsters and Soft-Shell Clams                                   $4,104 00                    1,261
    Entire GA Estuary System (Gosselink, 1973) ....                       9 00       1965      All Commercially Valuable Species Landed                    218 00                 393,000
                                                                                                in Georgia

    BE Bay Estuary (Shuster, 1971) ----------------- 170 00  1956  Oysters                                                                               3,990 00                   8,000a
                                                                                                                                                                  (actually fished)

    DE Bay Estuary (Shuster, 1971) ------------------ 118  1956  Oysters                                                                                    11 80              2,560,000a
    San Francisco Bay Estuary (Howard, 1973)                            563 00      1971       Oysters                                                   5,630 00                   4,000b
                                                                                                                                                                  (actually fished)

    San Francisco Bay Estuary (Howard, 1973).             .            ......  12 00  1971     Oysters                                                      80 00                300,000b
    San Francisco Bay (Skinner, 1962) ....             ....... 15 00                1956       Mixed Finfish                                               396 00                 300,000
    Entire LA Estuarine System (Gosselink, 1973) .          ....         27 00      1970       All Commercially Valuable Species Landed                    473 00               2,200,000
                                                                                                In Louislana

    Entire FL Estuarine System (Gosselink, 1973)            .          .... 41 00    1970      All Commercially Valuable Species Landed                    718 00               1,050,000
                                                                                                in Flonrida

     Beverly-Salem Harbor Estuary, MA(Jerome, 1973)..                     37 00      1965       Clams, Lobsters, Bait Worms, Finfish                        894 00                   8,541
     Mobile Delta, AL (Beshears, 1959)  ...          ....                  2 00      1959       Mixed Finfish, Bait Worms, Shellfish                         51 00                  50,000

     Mobile Bay AL (Beshears, 1959) ...-............. 13 00   1958   Shrimp and Oysters                                                                     286 00                 275,000

     Corpus Christi Bays, TX (Anderson, 1960) ........                    15 00      1958       Mixed Finfish and Shellfish                                 370 60                 228,541
     Merrimack River Estuary, MA (Jerome, 1965)             -           ---- 45 00   1964       Mixed Finfish and Shellfish                                 977 00                   3,050

     Dorchester Bay Estuary, MA (Chesmore, 1972)              -          --- 62 00   1967       Lobsters and Soft-Shell Clams                             1,240 00                    5,293
     Galveston-Trinity-East Bay Estuary, TX (Stroud,
       1970) ------------------------ - 58 00  1967  Mixed Fimfish and Shellfish                                                                         1,317 00                  333,000
     Parker River-Plum  Island Estuary, MA  (Jerome,                                    ]
       1968)-  ..                 ....--------..                          92 00  1965  Crabs, Clam Worms, Clams, Lobsters                                2,158 00                    3,581
     Annesquam   Rlver-Gloucester   Harbor   Estuary
       (Jerome, 1969) ------------- '   116 00  1965  Mixed Finfish and Shellfish                                                                         2,817 00                   2,237

     Hmngham Bay Estuary (Iwanowicz, 1973)                .........       26 00      1970       Lobsters and Clams                                          455 00                   7,272
     Entire VA Estuarine System (Wass, 1969)  .            ......         77 00      1968       Mixed Finfish and Shellfish                               1,545 00                 177,073
     Coastal Estuaries Hampton-Seabrook, NH (Fogg
       1964)                              ---------------------------- 33 00   1963   Clams, Crabs, Lobsters, and Sea Worms                                 816 00                   3,200
     Quincy Bay Estuary, MA (Jerome, 1966) .....9... . 995                           1968       Clams, Lobsters and Crabs                                   100 00                   7,313
     Waquolt Bay-Eel Pond Estuary, MA (Curley, 1971)..                   106 00       1968      Quahogs, Bay Scallopsand Soft-Shell Clams                   100 00                    7,313
     Lynn-Saugus Harbor Estuary, MA (Chesmore, 1972).                     28 00      1968       Lobsters, Soft-Shell Clams, Sea Worms                       562 00                   6,317
     Tampa Bay Estuary, FL (Taylor, 1968)                ...........      64 00       1965      Mixed Fiofish and Shellfish                               1,547 00                   3,500
     Apalachicola Bay Estuary, FL (Federal Water Pollu-
       tion Control Administration, 1969)               ............. 33 50          1967       Mixed Finfish and Shellfish                                 810 00                  64,000
     Great South Bay Estuary, NY (Federal Water Pollu-
       tion Control Administration, 1969)                                 50 00      1965       Clams                                                     1,113 00                   4,500

     Atlantic Coast Estuaries (Stroud, 1970)   .          ........ 71 00              1965      Mixed Finfish and Shellfish                               2,716 00               2,328,423
      Narragansett Bay Estuary, RI (Federal Water Pollu- I
        tion Control Administration, 1969)                                 31 00      1965       Mixed Finfish and Shellfish                                 749 00                 108,800
      Penobscot Bay Estuary, ME (Federal Water Pollu-
        tion Cbntrol Administration, 1969)    _ -...   ....               113 00      1965       Soft-Shell Clams                                         2,512 00                    6,645

       S Estuaries (1973) ---------------                                                                      - 21 000  1967  Mixed Finfish and Shellfish   477 00              29,300,000

        a The per acre value of $3,990 represents the capitalized worth of only the oyster-producing grounds of the estuary, which in 1956 totaled only 8,000 acres Taking the entire
      2,560,000 acre area of the estuary into account and averaging the total oyster catch value across the entire acreage results in the smaller per acre value of $11 80
        b The per acre value of $6,630 represents the capitalized worth of only the oyster-producing grounds of the estuary, which in 1971 totaled 4,000 acres Taking the entire 300,000
      acre area of the estuary into account and averaging the total oyster catch value across the entire acreage results in the smaller per acre value of $80
        o The miit value is derived by the authors as the rati of total US dockside revenue (National Marine Fisheres Service, 1974) adjusted for estuarine-dependency, to the total area
      of U S estuaries (Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, 1969)
      Note All values reflect dependency factor of 2/3 of total catch

                                             .. ESTUARINE ECONOMICS                                        677

    given market interest rate in order to return a              Table 2.-Estuarine fish losses from water pollution, 1970
    perpetual dividend equal to a fixed annual net profit.           Area             Damage        Species
    For example, if a particular estuary provides $100 in                             ($1,000)     Affected
    net social benefits per year from its fishery resources,
    then its capitalized value at a market interest rate of   Boston Harbor, Mass .-...    $5,000 Clam'
    10 percent is $1,000.4 Capitalized values in Table 1    Chesapeake Bay -...-.'.-.-. .  . 8,000 Menhaden
    assume an interest rate of 10 percent as the fair                                      1,860 Other Finfish
                                                                                                1,0o9   Shelffish
    market.value of current capital investments. The
    authors believe this accurately reflects the opportu-   Columbia River Mouth            865 Salmon
    nity cost of capital investment with respect to cur-   Galveston Bay ..-................... 1,930 Finfish'
    rent market conditions in the private sector. It is not                                  15 Oyster
    our intention to debate which interest rate may be    Long Island Sound .-.       ............... 1,000 Oyster
    the more accurate but rather to present the concepts                                     225 Clam
    of benefit estimation and some examples of empirical   Maine Coast            .         5,000 'Clam
    studies of the worth of an estuary as a natural   Narragansett Bay...                   1,000 Oyster
    resource.
      Once the capitalized landed revenue of the fisher-   Portsmouth N.H  -               2,600 Clam
                                                                                                 125 Oyster
    ies resource has been calculated, one further step is
    necessary to derive the net economic rent of the    PugetSound                          1,200 Oyster
    resource. Net economic rent is defined as the differ-, Raritan Bay, N.J......................  '8,500 Shellfish
    ence between the costs of the factors of production
    (capital equipmrent, labor, and the returns to man-    San Francisco Bay----           2,600 Shrimp
    agement) and the landing revenue. Since the (capi-                                       170 Clam
    talized) values in Table 1 reflect not onily the net                                    6,750 Bass, Shad, Salmon2
    economic rent of the resource but also the teturns to
    the factors of production, they overestimate the
    actual value. Therefore, the share of the landed  I  Potential loss from oil spills.
    revenue accruing to the cost factors should be sub-     2 Potential loss from inland drainage.
    tracted from the total landed value to arrive 'at the
    net worth of the actual fisheries resources. From
    previously cited remarks, however, some economists   on the other hand, are seldom published. The in-
                   prefer to use the total capitalied value as a con-    herent difficulty of assigning welfare values to these
    prefer to use the total capitalized value as a con-
    servative estimate of consumer surplus, which they   losses, aside from the more basic problem of esti-
    consider as the most valid indicator of social benefits.    mating natural productivity declines, accounts for
      Statistics on the costs incurred by commercial    large uncertainty in the estimates
                                                      Staic oMost values of commercial fishery losses from
    fisheries are rarely published, and therefore must be   Most values of commercial fishery losse  from
       estimated in an appropriate manner. A discussiopn   pollution focus on localized problems, although there
    of the methodology and of the difficulty of cost   are at least three national estimates. Practically all
    calculations is included in the text whereby given the   values pertain to foregone landing revenues rather
         necessary data and cost factors a more'ccurate   than net welfare impacts. Table 2 depicts the dollar
    necessary data and cost factors a more 'accurate
                 estimate of the net resource value could be under-    value and geographic area of these losses (Tihansky,
    estimate of the net resource value could be under-
    taken. It is hoped that the issues raised in this paper    1973). Fish kills are evaluated by asuming that
    will eventually result in just such an investigation    each counted fish is worth $0.10, which is generally
    in the future.                                        a very conservative value for mature commercial
                                                             fish. Retail losses in Puget Sound are converted into
                                                             landing price equivalents by assuming a 3:1 ratio
    DAMAGES FROM  POLLUTION                               of their relative magnitudes. The "Red Tide" scare
                                                             in New England not, only reduced lobster and fish
                                                             sales by several million dollars but also caused un-
    made waste discharges is well documented and is   employment of fishermen, who would have earned
    reviewed elsewhere in this report. Economic losses,   $91,000-in 1972. Other estimates in the Table
                                                             $91,000- in 1972. Other estimates in the Table
     4 This calculation can be easily derived from the capitalized value   illustrate the wide variation of effects of waste dis-
    formula,  = V/i, whee C is equal'to the capitalized value; V, annual   charges on anumber of estuarine-dependent species,
    profit, and i, the interest rate. Thus by holding V constant, C will vary
    inversely with the size of the interest rate. An unrealistically low interest   ranging from clams to salmon. In Galveston, Bay,
    late, that is, one not reflecting the real rate of return on capital in the   Tex  the loss of oyster sales translates into $60 per
    market place, would produce a relatively higher capitalized value and
    overestimate the real worth of the resource.          acre (in 1971).             -

    678                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      An estimate not included in the-table was the loss   estuaries are restricted to the outflow of rivers in a
    of oysters from shellfish area closures in New Haven    tidal sea, but more recent definitions include non-
    Harbor, Conn. The foregone cost of small, seed   tidal areas so long as the river water noticeably
    oysters amounted to $578,000 in 1967, but upon    dilutes sea water (Idyll, 1967; McHugh, 1967). The
    maturity they would yield a large potential income    extreme description extends beyond these concepts
    of $6,688,000. Annual revenue losses provide an in-   to include all waters immediately bordering the ocean
    complete perspective of total damages. Over the   coastline. But most studies reject the extreme notion
    past 65 years, environmental changes along the    in favor of one of the other viewpoints.
    Connecticut coast' have caused declines in shellfish
    production totalling more than $1 billion (Wong,    Location of Catch
    1970) . Furthermore, the initial effects on decreased
    fishermen's wages are multiplied throughout the         Relatively few fish or shellfish species appear to
    state economy by factors typically between 5 and 10.   remain in estuaries during their entire life span.
      National estimates are based on the proportion of   But at least two-thirds of the total catch near the
    shellfishing areas closed by pollution. One study    U.S. shoreline spend at least part of their lives here.
    (Bale, 1971) estimates total annual losses of $12    In some cases, the estuarine habitat serves as a
    million. This assumes that only clams and oysters    spawning ground, but more frequently it is a nursery
    are affected since they are immobile and harvested    ground, densely populated with juveniles and young
    primarily  within  bays  and  estuaries.  Another    adults. Estuaries can also provide nutritional value
    analysis (Council on Environmental Quality, 1970),   and food sustenance for temporary residents, and
    however, assumes that all shellfish including lobsters,   they act as the intermediate area though which
    shrimp, and crabs are affected by contamination.    anadromous  (and catadromous)  species journey
    Its estimate is $63 million based on current closures   between ocean and freshwater spawning grounds.
    of one-fifth of the nation's shellfish beds and a cor-  Estuaries also have an indirect value of supporting
    responding loss of potential revenue. These values   species in offshore water. Rich nutrient loads from
    assume, contrary to economic theory, that prices   the marshes are transported out to sea by tidal flow
    remain constant despite large shifts in resource    and ocean current. In addition, estuarine-nursed
    availability. A more recent approach' (Tihansky,   shrimp and other life forms low in the food chain
    1973) measures damages as the consumer surplus    are an important source of protein and food for a
    foregone by the above shellfish supply losses due to   great many predators, including fish. Unfortunately,
    contaminated waters. The national estimate ranges   this valuable function of translating the richness of
    from $24 million for clams and oysters to $38 million   estuaries into directly consumable resources cannot
    if finfish are added to this list of affected species.  be  quantified without  an  almost  prohibitively
                                                          expensive research, program tracing the flow of
    FACTORS AFFECTING                                     energy in a huge ecosystem. In the literature there
    THE ESTIMATES                                         is a general consensus that all estuarine-dependent
                                                          species should be included in the value of estuaries,
      Any monetary estimate of estuarine (or fishery)    but at least one reference (McHugh, 1967) suggests
    values should be explained with respect to its   a downward adjustment of this total to reflect only
    empirical assumptions. The magnitude of values is a    the biomass added by the inshore region. In no
    function of a number of determinants, ranging from    instance is the indirect food-supportive role of
    the extent of fishing grounds to the time span over    estuaries evaluated in any benefit study.
    which the economic impact is calculated. The follow-
    ing factors contribute significantly to these estimates.
                                                          Temporal Aspects of Catch

    Definition of Estuary                                   To obtain a reliable estimate of the abundance of
                                                          estuarine-dependent fish is most challenging. Species
      The geographic extent of an estuary determines    composition and population densities vary by degrees
    the expected magnitude of catch within its bound-   of salinity, temperature, and other physical aspects
    aries. While most definitions of an estuary are    of the estuary as well as by season or even by a
    easily interpreted, there is a lack of unanimity on    multi-year period. Catch volumes are likely to be
    the most logical choice. Classical opinion holds that   higher when species are relatively abundant, but
                                                          this is not always true. The type of fishing gear
     5 This estimate is derived as the sum of lost revenues over a 60-year used, the ability of fishermen to locate potential
    period beginning in 1900. On an annual basis, therefore, the average loss
    is approximately $15 million.                         catches, the degree of fishing effect from the sport

                                            ESTUARINE ECONOMICS                                         679

    fisheries, and political restrictions on the avail-    Price-Income Effects
    ability of fishing grounds are important parameters
    in the production function. Occasionally, mass          Economic benefits of fishery resources exist only
    mortalities and dramatic fish kills unpredictably   if there is a demand for their consumption or preser-
    alter catch statistics as well.                       vation. Because fisheries must deal with a relatively
      The problem therefore is to ascertain the "typical"    fixed (but renewable) resource, it is especially urgent
    catch rate or other suitable measure of the abundance    in light of population growth that the economic
    of commercial species. Most yield estimates in the   impact of demand pressures bepredicted. Practically
    literature are based on current conditions. But this   all demand analyses reveal the basic importance of
    time frame could lead to biased answers, if the   price and income. Since consumer surplus is derived
    catch was abnormally low during this period or, at   from demand curves, these determinants have a
    the other end of the spectrum, was higher than the   major effect on benefit values over time.
    mean. In regions where wide variations in catch         Historically, the consumer has been sensitive to
    have been recorded, benefits should be estimated    the price of fish products, but with rising incomes
    for low and high volumes in addition to the mean    this reaction has become far less pronounced. Luxury
    or most likely level. The assumptions underlying    foods, such as shrimp and salmon, now appear fre-
    this range of estimates should be clearly stated.     quently in many households. These responses imply
                                                          a generally low price elasticity but a high income
                                                          effect on demand. In benefit calculations over future
    Unreported Landings                                   time streams, therefore, it is important that these
                                                          responses be considered. If there is reason to suspect,
      Catch statistics by themselves may not indicate   for example, that projected inflation rates will lower
    the total volume of fish caught for commercial    real income, demand  curves should be adjusted
    purposes. Frequently, unwanted fish are discarded    accordingly so that consumer benefits (surplus)
    back into the fishing ground, while other species or    can be predicted more accurately.
    aquatic specimens unfit for direct human consump-
    tion may be' sold as bait or as a protein supplement
    processed in various food products. Reported land-    Level of Optimal Catch
    ings represent a minimum for still another reason.
    Private fishermen fail to report an unknown quantity    The biological role of estuaries in perpetuating
    of catch, which serves as food in their homes or   fishery resources is as important to benefit calcula-
    possibly is sold by them locally. In some estuaries   tions as the impact of consumer preferences. For
    this contribution could be very significant. Further,    some finfish and shellfish species, supply shortages
    the contribution of U.S. estuaries to foreign catches is   are curtailing potentially larger demands for these
    uncertain. Assessing the net worth of these landings    products by continually pushing up their market
    poses an additional problem because of the different   prices. On the other hand, there are many under-
    markets and varying conditions under which they    utilized species that could provide additional sources
    are sold. It is conjectured in Louisiana, for instance,    of nutrition to consumer diets.
    that at least 50 percent of the annual shellfish is so  There are several measures of the supply variable,
    destined (Murray, 1974). The relative share of un-    each of which uniquely affects the magnitude of
    reported landings is believed to be large in other   net benefits. Biologists usually seek to estimate the
    states as well, although fisheries experts are generally   level of fishing associated with the maximum sustain-
    unwilling to estimate this magnitude.                 able yield (MSY), such that the annual gain in
      In view of the likely importance of private catch,    species population from recruitment and growth is
    a confidence interval of benefits should be evaluated    just offset by natural mortality and fishing catches
    for any estuary. The lower bound estimate should    at a population level that maximizes catch. But
    reflect reported statistics, while the upper one shoulc    economists (Fry, 1962) usually argue that since
    include a "guestimate" of catch aggregated over all   commercial fishing is motivated by profits rather
    unreported but commercially-related  sources. Of    than physical catch, the more appropriate objective
    course, the market price of reported landings may    is the maximum economic return to the fisheries
    be quite different from the economic value of private    and the regional economy. In actual situations,
    catch (which need not be processed and distributed,    neither of these goals is pursued. Instead, the free
    if the fish are consumed directly at the fishermen's    entry nature of fishing encourages inefficient use of
    residence). Unit benefit values (per fish caught)    input factors and through overcapitalization and
    should thus be sensitive to these market alter-   overfishing, has frequently reduced profits (resource
    natives.                                              rent) to zero.

    680                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      All of these yields are likely to fall short of    distinguished from natural values unless they evolve
    maximizing overall welfare impacts of fishery re-    from a more intensive use of the current nutritional
    sources. The MSY and free entry solutions obviously    content of estuaries. In Galveston Bay, Tex., for
    are not oriented toward such an objective. But even    example, it is believed (Stroud, 1970) that additional
    the economic rent-motivated approach may be mis-    shellfishing effort could increase current landings by
    leading, as it ignores various social values of the    50 percent, without exceeding the MSY constraint
    fishing sector (since they elude simple quantifica-    on natural productivity. From an economic view-
    tion). More importantly, it represents a partial    point, however, this increase is justifiable only if
    equilibrium solution by neglecting optimal benefits    marginal costs of fishing are less than added revenues.
    in the processing and distribution sectors. Some           Potential returns from aquaculture are partic-
    analysts (McHugh, 1970) conjecture that maximal    ularly striking and can increase fourfold as the
    catch rates might confer advantages on the latter    intensiveness of the operation increases. Despite
    sectors by increasing economies of scale in produc-    these favorable projections, marine aquaculture in
    tion. Whether this hypothesis is valid remains to be    this country is oriented mainly toward develop-
    tested empirically. Until then, net benefits should    mental and pilot studies, whereas inland freshwater
    be calculated twice, bounded above by the MSY           "fish farms" are more popular and in many cases
    solution and below by the optimal net social return.    are highly productive. It is projected (Commission
      Several case studies can be cited on the economic    on Marine Science, 1969) that such fisheries will
    returns expected at various levels of fishing effort.    control a significant share of the consumer market
    A detailed analysis (Gates, 1973) of the New Eng-    in 20 to 30 years.
    land yellowtail flounder fisheries concluded that the      Some notable examples of successful mariculture
    current free entry situation nullifies the total net    efforts using scientific management schemes have
    rent to domestic industry (although net earnings    been conducted in the State of Maine (Dow, 1966).
    differ by vessel class). However, limited entry and    Yields approaching $150,000 capitalized value per
    more efficient operations (e.g., fewer vessels) at    acre (in 1973 prices) have been recorded for clam
    the MSY point would yield an 18 percent profit    beds. While this value is extraordinarily high, it does
    rate. From the economically efficient viewpoint, this    indicate that certain highly productive'subareas of
    rate is even higher at 70 percent of total earnings    the estuary can yield several times their normal out-
    while total catch falls almost 13 percent from the    put of fishery products.
    MSY level.                                                Another means of augmenting current supplies is
                                                          to market  underutilized  species  or byproducts
    Augmented Production                                    thereof. The potential harvest adjacent to the U.S.
                                                          coastal zone is enormous and could easily exceed
      Complicating the supply level is the likelihood of    present production by a factor of 10 (Commission
    future aquaculture enterprises and the uncertainty    on Marine Science, 1969). Whether these can be
    of future markets for underutilized species. With         onomically harvested and processed willdepend
    the former alternative, high yields-perhaps several    on individualspecies. The natural supply of these
    hundred times natural levels-of estuarine species    species should be valued as an optional resou
    can result by concentrating organic matter as a    benefitforfuture consumption.
    can result by concentrating organic             matter as a Unfortunately, supply predictions in the future
    food source into a small water area. However, such        Unfortunately, spply predictions in the future
    yields depend not only on the quantity of organic    are beset by a number of uncertain economic and
    matter, but also on the ability of the fish or shellfish   political factors To include the above supply aug-
    to strain food from the water. Some methods of    mentationschemes   theanalysiscouldthusinvolve
    aquaculture are known to have an adverse impact    so many il-founded assumptions as to erase any
    on the estuarine environment, however, and may    credibility in the estimates. But certainly these
    reduce the natural productivity there. This factor    options need to be recognized in the analysis, and
    must carefully be weighed when calculating the net    their likely impacts on potential value should be
    benefits from such activity.                            compared.
      In addition, the cost of fertilization or artificial
    feeding may be prohibitive, as a result of the need    Competing Activities
    for large quantities of nitrogen and other essential
    nutrients. The inclusion of mariculture yields as a       Another factor influencing the supply function
    benefit of estuarine resources overlooks the issue    for commercial fisheries is interference from other
    of manmade versus natural impacts. Since these    activities that depend either directly or indirectly
    benefits could be potentially large, they should be    on estuarine resources. The above survey of pollution

                                          ..- ESTUAINE ECONOMICS                                           681

    damages, for example;, shows how industries and    Regional Impacts
    municipalities have reduced natural stocks of fish or
    shellfish. Throughout the United States, commercial       Arising from direct benefits and costs in the com-
    and residential land developments have been re-   mercial fishing industry are secondary income flows
    sponsible for an acute loss of estuarine habitat for    throughout the economy-both on a local and a
    fish and wildlife. Further, it can be expected that    national basis. Tracing these flows requires a de-
    future aquaculture activities in the estuary will have    tailed and generally complex input-output analysis
    some detrimental effects on the populations of sur-    of household expenditures  and  economic  sector
    rounding wild species of fish and wildlife.' -          dependencies within local boundaries, and an ac-
      A more visible challenge to 'commercial fishing    count of interregional trade volume and government
    arises from sport fishing interests. In many regions,    transactions.
    the high level of expenditures for recreation, and        Several references from the literature provide in-
    particularly fishing, indicate social benefits derived    sights on these impacts. In the southern New
    from these activities. As a result, commercial fisher-    England region (Rorholm, 1967), the commercial
    men in some cases may be faced with dwindling    fishing industry was partitioned into these compo-
    catches and restricted fishing grounds. The corre-   nents: fish catching, fresh and frozen fish processing,
    sponding rise in marginal costs could force commer-    and fish wholesaling and jobbing. Sales and local
    cial fleets to move to more productive areas, to    value added were estimated for each component, as
    change the species mix of catches, or to curtail    were general income multipliers ranging from 2.96
    production and perhaps eventually go out of busi-    for catching to 3.74 for frozen fish processing. In
    ness. Fishery benefits thus cannot be calculated in    Clatsop County, Ore., (Collin, 1973), the local in-
    isolation of other estuarine values. Implicit in each    come multiplier for fish catching equals 1.23, whereas
    estimate, therefore, is an assumption on the extent   it is 1.81 for fish processing. These values are rela-
    of competing land and water uses.                       tively small because of the county's strong depend-
                                                          ence on non-local business. For the Texas marine
                                                          area (Milroy, 1970), the multiplier for the fishery
    Distribution of Catch                                  sector is assumed to be 1.75. It is obvious from
                                                          these few studies that local impacts vary consider-
      In many estuaries the annual harvested value of    ably and depend on the size and industrial composi-
    commercial fish is recorded on a unit acreage basis.   tion of the economy, and the extent of marine
    Averaging total catch in this manner fails to disclose   activities in the region.
    subareas of greater productivity. Because the harvest
    is unequally distributed, average values thus give
    insufficient data on setting priorities for the most    CONCLUSION
    valuable portions of the estuary.
      Variations of landing revenu'e by estuarine area        Some of the most valuable fish resources are
    can be very significant. In Gloucester Harbor, Mass.,    dependent on estuarine habitats, with approximately
    (Jerome, 1969), for example, the annual income from    two-thirds of the total dockside revenue of U.S.
    shellfish is almost $100 per acre averaged over tl:e   commercial fisheries identified in one way or another
    entire estuary. Yet if this record were restricted to    with these marine waters. Yet despite this impor-
    soft-shell clam habitats, the unit value would in-   tant life-support function, estuaries have lost more
    crease to $240. An even more striking example is   than 7 percent of their fish and wildlife habitat to
    provided by the intensiveness of shellfishing in the    commercial and housing development over the past
    mouth  of the Delaware River  (Shuster,  1971).    two decades (Commission on Marine Science, 1969).
    While the harvest value over the entire water sur-    In many coastal areas these developments proceeded
    face area was $13 per acre, production was actually    without any comparison of the socio-economic wel-
    restricted to about one-fourth of this area, yielding    fare impacts realized by competing uses of the
    a unit revenue of $51. But even this estimate of   estuarine area. To preserve remaining habitats from
    habitat area may be overstated as commercial har-    land use encroachments, it is thus important that
    vesting taker place on a small portion of this region.    comprehensive values of natural resources be re-
    Adjusting for actual fishing grounds raises the unit    organized and assessed to the fullest extent possible.
    value to $170. It is further argued that harvest          The object of this paper was to summarize the
    rates may be less than 10 percent of the actual    state-of-the-art on the estimation of commercial
    production in this estuary. Hence, catch and popu-    fishing benefits associated with U.S. estuaries. Until
    lation may differ considerably, which further com-   now, there has been no' attempt to critique or even
    plicates the projection offishery valueslin future years.    compile empirical studies on a regional basis. This

    682                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    survey reveals that a large number of estimates             * Derive all benefits in a capitalized value con-
    have been pubhshed (see Table 1), contrary to the    text, in additlon to their magnitude over the cur-
    widely held opinimon that few exist Most of these    rent year
    estimates pertam  to recorded landings along the            * Obtain regional estimates and supportive data
    New England and the gulf shorelines although sev-    on the potential of increasing natural productivity
    eral, primarily off the south Atlantic coast, evaluate    in estuaries whether by improved fishing efficiency
    the potential impacts of increased yield through    or other means
    mariculture techniques                                      * In each estuary, perform a zone-oriented analy-
      Despite their large number, practically all of these    sis whereby the most productive areas are identified.
    estimates are conceptually invalid since they meas-    Economic values of these areas versus the mean value
    ure private rather than social welfare gains. In at    over the entire estuary should also be compared.
    least one instance (Tuttle, 1974), however, private
    revenue (based on the exvessel price of fish) was           Information associated with these recommenda-
    used as a conservative estimate of the net benefits    tions could assist coastal zone managers In planning
    realihzed at major phases of the fishing mdustry But    economically optimal uses of estuaries Without such
    using this surrogate value, to avoid inherent diffi-   information, the rationale underlying their decisions
    cultles of estlmatmg welfare impacts, not only leaves    will remain madequate  By considering benefits m
    the degree of underestimation unanswered, but also    as comprehensive a manner as possible, the policy-
    could be an mcorrect assumption for other regions        maker would proceed with a more balanced per-
    It is therefore mlsleading and, furthermore, unjusti-    spectlve of the impacts of estuarine uses on societal
    fled from the perspective of economic theory, to    welfare Only in this manner can there be a reason-
    value estuarine resources solely m terms of market    able assurance of optimizing the benefits of resource
    prices                                                   allocation
      An additional area of economic evaluation is the
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    CONCLUDING
      REMARKS

    ORGANIZATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
    FOR MANAGEMENT OF
    ATLANTIC COAST
    ESTUARINE ENVIRONMENTS

    MAURICE P. LYNCH
    Virginia Institute of Marine Science
    Gloucester Point, Virginia

                ABSTRACT
                Smce 1969, the general trend m management of Atlantic coast estuarine environments has been
                to strengthen state and regional capabilities princpally through new federal funding programs
                 Interstate management entitles, with lunted exceptions, are not playing an extensive or significant
                role
                Many approaches are used for estuarne management by the various states Critical manage-
                ment decisions typically involve specific site-related permit decisions In many states, these
                mdlvldual decisions are made within a framework of overall state guidelnes, policy, or legislative
                mandate All states have adopted water quality standards and all but one have wetlands manage-
                ment programs A few states have adopted strict Coastal Zone Management programs No
                 states have separate estuarine management agencies, relying instead, on several related agencies
                 or centralized environmental "super agencies"
                 Coordination is the most necessary element of effective estuanne management The Coastal
                 Zone Management Act has provided states with the mltlative (and funds) to effect a better co-
                 ordination within their own agencies and with other states on a regional basis
                 Estuarmine management has improved m the period 1969-1974 as a direct result of increased
                federal funding supported by a growing awareness of the importance of a quality environment
                 among the general population The prmncpal factor in estuarine management in the next five
                 to 10 years will probably be local acceptance and support of developing Coastal Zone Manage-
                ment programs

    INTRODUCTION                                                The 1969 role of federal activity in estuarmine man-
                                                           agement was described as one of support and tech-
    Status of Arrangements in 1969                            nical assistance to the states, regulatory activities
                                                           withun current law at that time, and direct provl-
      In 1969, the Federal Water Pollution Control    sion of normal federal services, such as navigation
    Administration, Department of Interior, in its "Na-    aids, channel and harbor maintenance, protective
    tlonal Estuarine Pollution Study" summarized the    works, and environmental prediction of tides, cur-
    status of estuarine management  in the nation's    rents, and weather "The National Estuarine Pollu-
    estuaries  In respect to federal activities, seven    tion Study" urged augmentation of existing federal
    Departments (Interior, Commerce, Transportation,    programs  including  techmcal,  research,  and  en-
    Agriculture, Health, Education and Welfare, Hous-    forcement programs  In addition, development  of
    mg and Urban Development, and Defense (U S                a national policy, a stronger means of coordinating
    Army Corps of Engineers)) were identified as having    federal programs, and a system of planning grants
    the prime impact on management of the nation's    to the states were encouraged
    estuaries  Table I briefly summarizes the major             As with federal management efforts, the tone of
    activltles of these departments pertinent to most    "The National Estuarine Pollution Study" was gen-
    of the nation's estuaries Activitles of other agencies    erally critical of states' role in estuarine manage-
    n these departments and other departments,  of    ment  Although a few states were considered to
    course, had at that time (and still do) impacts on    have made slgmficant progress in the area of estu-
    the nation's estuaries, but these impacts were usually    arnne management (Massachusetts was singled out
    of a more indirect nature or related to site-specific    as the most advanced state), most were considered
    activitles, such as the Atomic Energy Commission    to have made little or no progress. The major
    or the Federal Power Commission licensing of spe-    criticisms leveled at the states m  this report were
    cilfic power plants                                       lack  of  a  central  organizatlonal/coordinational

                                                                                                           687

    688                                               ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                          Table 1.-Summarization of Federal activities In estuarine areas in 1969.

              Department                         Major Agencies                                           Routine Activities

    Interior ..-   ... . ....... Bureau of Commercial Fisheries,               Permit review in conjunction with Corps of Engineers permit activities; Land and
                                  Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife 2        Water Conservation Fund Program; Sewage ad- Construction Grants; Recreation;
                                  Bureau of Outdoor Recreation                  various planning and management and resource preservation and development
                                  Federal Water Pollution Control Administration a  granting programs; waterflow data and resource compilation and research activity;
                                  Geological Survey                             participation in River Basin Commission studies.
                                  National Park Service
                                  Office of Wafer Resources Research:
                                  Office of Saline Waters
    Commerce ...-.......       .  Maritime Administration                      Port development; mapping and charting; environmental prediction (tides and
                                 Environmental Science Services Administration '  currents); research.
    Transportation ..- ...        .........   Coast Guar'd                      Law enforcement; aids to navigation; rescue; boating safety; port security; control
                                                                               of shipping.                         ;
    Defense  ...- .         .... Corps of Engineers                            Maintenance of navigable waters; permit control of dredge and fill operations; permit
                                                                               control of effluent discharge in navigable waters; harbor construction; shoreline
                                                                               protection.                              ::
    Agriculture. ..... �.�........  Soil and Conservation Service              Soil and water conservation projects; sewer and water planning and construction
                                  Forest Service                                grants; watershed protection; flood control.
                                  Water Resources Council
    Health, Education & Welfare -. . ....  Food and Drug Administration         Marine health; pesticide monitoring; radionuclide' mofitoring ,public:waterisupply;
                                  Bureau of Water Hygiene                       food and drug purity from marine sources; solid waste disposal; shellfish sanita-
                                 Bureau of Radiological Health  :              tion program; dumping.
                                  Bureau of Solid Waste Management
    Hdausingand UrbanDevdlbpmentL... '...' Planning and assistance in water use; area wide and local planning; water and
                                                                               sewerfacilities grants; open space land grants; National Flood Insurance Programs.

    Source: "National Estuarine Pollution Study," 1969, pp. V-5 through V-39.
       Transferred to National Oceanic and-Atmosphericd Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce by Reorganization Plan 4 of 1970.
       Now U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of Interior. .
     . Transferred to Environmental Protection Agency by Reorganization Plan 3 of 1970.

    focal  point  and  lack  of  statewide  comprehensive                     such as legislation, public ownership, public educa-
    estuarine management plans.                                               tion,  permits,  zoning,  planning,  and  financial  in-
       The study expressed the viewpoints of states with                      ducements  (tax incentives),  was  noted.  Although
    regard to estuarine management as falling into three                      critical. of the  local role  at that  time,  the  study
    categories:               -                                               stressed the crucial role that local governments will
                                                                  E  - -   have to play in effective estuarine management.
       1. State ownTership/management  of estuarine re-                          The  overall  assessment  of  the  effectiveness  of
    sources with federal assistance;                -                         estuarine management at all levels of government-
       2.  Federal-state-local  partnership  for, estuarine                   federal, state, and local-was disappointing. Several
    management; and                                                           recommendations were made of ways of improving
      3. Autonomous state management.                                        estuarine management at all levels. Coordination,
                                                         ,  .    .       - ;  planning, and cooperation were stressed as. necessary
    The great majority (91 percent)- of the states' view-                     parts of a successful estuarine management program.
    points fell into the first category. The preferred role
    of the federal government in estuarine management
    was in the areas of financial, technical, and research'''   Legislative Federal Developments
    assistance.  Recommendations   of  the  study  with;
    regard  to the state role called for increased  state,                       The  major  thrust  of  federal  initiatives  in  the
    authority in this area with development  of proper                        period since the completion of "The National Estu-
    organizational  arrangements  within  the' states  to                     arine  Pollution  Study"  (1969-1973) -has  been  to
    exercise this authority.                        - i        - ,   - -      strengthen state and regional capabilities in the area
      Strong criticism was  also expressed  of the local                     of estuarine management,  and to make  the federal
    government level of estuarine management. Lack of                         bureaucracy responsive to environmental issues. The
    adequate  staff  and  funding  capabilities  to  plan,                    National  Environmental  Policy  Act   (NEPA)   of
    decide, and implement  regulations was highlighte'd;                      1969   (Public  Law  91'290)  which  established 'the
    The  presence  of  underutilized  management  tools                       Council on Environmental Quality required for -the

                                                     CONCLUDING REMARKS                                                     689

                  Table 2 -Components and functions transferred to the Environmental Protection Agency by Reorganization Plan No 3 of 1970

                           Componenf/Function                                                 Source

    Federal Water Quality Administration .------- -- -_.-   Department of Interior
    Pesticide studies -                                          Department of Interior
    National Air Pollution Control Administration .-.     .......... .--. ........ Department of Health, Education and Welfare
    Bureau of Solid Waste Management - .. . ... Department of Health, Education and Welfare
    Bureau of Water Hygiene -Department of Health, Education and Welfare
    Portions of Bureau of Radiological Health- ..-_-................ .'. - Environmental Control Administration of Department of Hloalth, Education and Welfare
    Pesticide functions carried out by Food and Drug Administration .- . .. ... Department of Health, Education and Welfare
    Authority to perform studies related to ecological systems .-. ....................... Council on Environmental Quality
    Certain radiation criteria and standards functions -.- -.. .... .-   Atomic Energy Commission and Federal Radiation Council
    Pesticide registration and related activities  ............................. Agricultural Research Service, Department of Agriculture

    first time m  the nation's history the inclusion of               3  The Corps of Engmeern  retained their peimit
    environmental  considerations  in federal declslon-    authority an navigable waters
    making, and the issuing of a detailed statement on
    the environmental Impact of the delslon.                          The  Department of Interior retrmed  a strong
    the environmental impact of the decision.
      Reorganzatlon Plans 3 and 4 of 1970 which estab-    advisory role m  estuarne management through  its
    lished, respectively, the Environmental Protection    authority to comment on Corps of Engineer permit
    Agency  (EPA)  and the National Oceanic and At-                 apphlicatlons, spelled out m a memorandum of under-
    mosphenrc Adnmnstration (NOAA)  awlthm the De-                  standing, dated July 13, 1967. between the Secretary
    partment of Commerce,  provided focal points for    of Interor  and the Secretary of the Army   The
    much of the federal estuarine management efforts                Department of Transportatlon retained its strong
    In this reorganzatlon, EPA  received the compo-                enforcement role and a major role mn oil pollution
    nents and functions listed m  Table 2, and NOAA                 contiol (primarily m the area of contingency action)
    received the components  and  functions listed in    through the Coast Guard
    Table 3  These reorgamizatlon plans resulted inm pri-            ~Major federal legislation relating to estuarme pol-
    marily three federal agencies or departments having            lutlon control and management during this period
    preeminent responslblhtles m estuarine management              icluded the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
                                                    I,              Amendments of 1972 (P L. 92-500)  The Act pre-
       1 EPA became primarly responsible for pollution              sents national goals and guidelihnes to which  the
    monitoring and control;                    I                   states' programs must adhere, and is considered by
       2  NOAA  became primarily responsible for pro-    many commentators (McMahan, 1972, Rasmussen,
    vidmg technical and scientific assistance m the area            1973, Kuchenbecker  and  Long,  1973)  to be the
    of living resources and environmental prediction, and          most  effective anti-pollution  legislation  regarding

            Table 3.-Components and functions transferred to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admmnistration by Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1970.

                            Component/Function                                                 Source

    Environmental Sclence Services Administration  a-' . ._  - ----------- -...    Department of Commerce
    Elements of Bureau of Commercial Fisheries .-.. .    -       -------------- Department of Interior
    Marine sport fish program of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife -D.............. Department of Interior
    Marine Minerals Technology Center  ..----------.. . .. ...   Bureau of Mines, Department of Interior
    Office of Sea grant Programs _--..,_....     ,. I       --_-_..-..... _ . National Science Foundation
    Elements of U S Lake Survey --..-- _       .        . ...................... Department of Army
    National Oceanographic Data Center --...-------_ Department of Navy
    National Ocelnographic Instiumentation Center ..--..--.......... Department of Navy
    National Data Buoy Project _, --....L        -             - .- -.L._ -._._._ ..  Department of Transportation

    690                                 ESTUARIN]E POLLUTION CONTROL

    waterways Also included is the Coastal Zone Man-    Table 4 -Atlantic estuarine states (grouped Into Federal Regional Districts).
    agement Act of 1972 (P L 92-583), which for the             Estuarlne States      Federal Regional Headquarters
    first time in the nation's history stimulates compre-
    hensive estuarine planning and management by the   Maine                       I Boston, Mass
    states, providing federal support                    New Hampshire
      Other acts such as the Ports and Waterways    Massachusetts
    Safety Act of 1972 (P L 92-430), the Federal En-   Connecticut
    vlronmental Pesticide Control Act of 1972 (P.L    New York                    II New York, N y'
    92-516), and the NMAarine Protection, Research, and    New Jersey
    Sanctuary Act of 1972 (P.L 92-532) provide vehl-   Pennsylvania               III Philadelphia, Pa
    cles for protection of the nation's estuaries against   Delaware
    pollution by marltmle traffic, pesticides, and ocean   Maryland
    dumping, respectively, and serve to complement the   Virginia
    provisions of P L 92-500 and 92-583                  North Carolina            IV Atlanta, Ga 4
      The funding or contemplation of funding provided   soGeh Carolina
    by federal sources has assisted the states in strength-   Florida
    emnng their estuarine management programs par-
    ticularly with regard to planning for pollution        I Also includes Vermont
    abatement  Unfortunately, state advances in the        Also includes West  Vrgin Islands
    area of pollution control have been hampered by        4Also includes Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia
    the executive branch withholding (impounding) $3
    billion of the $7 billion authorized in the 1q72 water    amounted to $1 4 mllion (NERBC Annual Re-
    pollution control law The effect of this Impound-    ports 1971, 1972, 1973)  NERBC has completed
    ment is difficult to ascertain precisely Efforts to
                                                          several studies of estuarme areas, the most notlce-
    have the money released appear to have been suc-   able beg the Long Island Sound Regional Study
    cessful, so other than loss of purchasing power due    (NERBC, 1971), wL ch has produced a       study plan
    to galloping inflation, the eventual effect may be    and interi m     reports on water qualtv, ecological
    only a delay in attaining desired levels of control.  factors, and erosion and sedimentation, and a seres
                                                          of reports on Boston Harbor's progress towards
    PRESENT (1974) ARRANGEMENTS                          achieving water quality goals (NERBC, 1970) and
    OF ATLANTIC COASTAL STATES                           its combined sewer overflows (NERBC, 1971)
                                                            Another group, the Coastal Plains Regional Coun-
      Fifteen states contain estuarine waters that open   cil (CPRC) in the southeastern states has contrib-
    to the Atlantic Ocean These are grouped into four   uted to estuanne management through support of
    federal regional districts (Table 4)                 member state research activities and a technical
      Regional planning and coordination is conducted    assistance program earned out through the Coastal
    among several groups of states along the Atlantic   Plains Center for Marine Development Services
    coast The most widely acclaimed regional group    Neither the NERBC nor CPRC has management
    is the New  England River Basin Commisslon    responsibilities
    (NERBC)  The NERBC has taken an aggressive             Interstate management groups impacting on estu-
    role m research for regional planning, particularly   aries include the Interstate Sanitation Commisslon,
    with respect to estuarinne and coastal pollution prob-   the Delaware River Basin Commlssion, the Potomac
    lems  This group coordinates actlvltles, supports    River Fisherles Commission, and the Delaware-
    research and education Fmancial support for the    New Jersey Flsherles Commission  The Interstate
    NERBC  comes from two primary sources  The    Samtation Commission and the two fisheries com-
    operating budget is provided on a 50-50 basis by    missions, as their names imply, are primarily con-
    the federal government and the seven member    cerned with pollution and fisheries, respectively,
    states The states' share is apportioned by a state   and their regulatory powers are lurted to these
    developed and approved formula Federal funds are   areas The Delaware River Basin Commission has
    provided through an appropriation to the Water    broad powers on matters related to water conserva-
    Resources Council  Participation m  major studies   tion, control, use, and management in the Delaware
    is supported entirely by federal appropriations    watershed The commission has authority to plan,
    Operating budgets for FY  1971-1974 have been    allocate water resources, set standards, and approve
    $309,000, $341,000, $376,000, and $417,000 respec-   all projects which affect water resources No project
    tlvely  Major  study funds  for FY  1971-1973    which will have a substantial effect on water re-

                                               CONCLUDING: REMARKS                                          691

    sources of the Delaware Basin may be undertaken    Table 5.-Interstate groupings of Atlantic Coastal States related to estuarine
    without commission approval. The commission is                              management
    made up of the governors of Delaware, New Jersey,               Group              Members         Powers
    Pennsylvania, and New York, and the U.S. Secre-
    tary of the Interior.                                  Interstate Sanitation Commission  Connecticut  Regulatory;
       The impact of interstate management entities on                             New Jersey        coordination
    estuarine management has not changed significantly                            New York
    since the assessment made in "The National Estu-   Interstate Commission onthe    Maryland     Research:
                                                              Potomac River Basin  Pennsylvania       coordination;
    arine Pollution Study" (U.S. Department of In-               Virginia                            planning;
    terior, 1969) that these entities had not played an                          District of Columbia  educational
    extensive or significant role in overall management                           West Virginia*
    of the nation's estuaries. The fisheries commissions,    New England Interstate Water   Six New England states  Planning;
    for example, deal with only a portion of the estuarine  Pollution Control Commission    and New York  advisory
    resources although attempts are made to influence   Delaware River Basin Commission  Delaware  Coordination;
    management in other areas such as water pollution                             New Jersey         planning;
    control to improve fisheries. The Governor's Task                             Pennsylvania
    Force on IVIarine and Coastal Affairs (Delaware,   Atlantic States Marine Fisheries  All 15 Atlantic states    Coordination;
    1972) in fact recommended that the Delaware-New         Commission                              advisory
    Jersey Fisheries Commission be nullified because
                                                            Potomac River Fisheries Commission Maryland  Regulatory
    of its inability to cope with changing conditions of                          Virginia
    the resource because of cumbersome provisions for   Susquehanna River Basin Compact  New York
    changing regulations. This same task force also                              Maryland           coordination
    pointed out that major problems in the Delaware                               Pennsylvania
    estuary such as the extreme water pollution between   'Interstate Environment Compact  50 states and 2 territories Coordination
    Wilmington and Philadelphia and adverse effects of
    alterations to the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal        *Not an estuarine state.
    were still unsolved despite the regional approa~ci
    taken by the Delaware River Basin Commission    eries Commission is a two-state management agency
    (Delaware, 1972).                                     that functions as smoothly as single state fishery
      Other interstate groupings among the Atlantic    management agencies. It would appear that since
    states (Table 5) are of an advisory, coordinative,    the two states are the same as would be involved
    and/or educational nature and influence manage-    in a joint Chesapeake Bay management agency that
    ment of estuaries only through persuasion.             little impediment to such an arrangement would
      Traditionally, it has been difficult to obtain con-   exist. Actually, although both states bound Chesa-
    sent from state legislatures to yield their authority    peake Bay and the Potomac estuary, there is a
    to another body less under their influence such as   distinct difference. The sharing of the main stem
    an interstate compact. It is less difficult for a state   of the bay is sequential rather than contemporaneous
    legislature to agree to support an interstate plan-    as in the case of the Potomac estuary. Each state
    ning, advisory, or educational group. The question    can relatively easily patrol and control access to
    of a compact for the Chesapeake Bay region is   the bay waters while this is extremely difficult to do
    raised periodically. The latest proposal along these    in the Potomac estuary.
    lines was made by Senator Mc. C. Mathias of Mary-        With the few exceptions noted above, however,
    land who suggested the states of Maryland and    estuarine management is a single state function.
    Virginia consider a Title II Commission for the area    Within the different states, many  different ap-
    (U.S. Congress, 1974). One of the difficulties facing    proaches are used for estuarine management. The
    acceptance of this proposal is the degree to which    various components that make up estuarine man-
    such a commission will appreciably assist in solving    agement are generally not formally coordinated
    the problems in the region. Title II Commissions are    within a state. Coastal Zone Management Act plan-
    only advisory and do interject a third party, the    ning and implementation will continue to play a
    federal government, into the picture. Consideration    crucial role in effecting formal coordination of
    of the problem of interstate planning and manage-    estuarine management as part of overall coastal
    ment has become part of overall coastal zone man-    zone management due to the requirement:
    agement planning efforts of Maryland and Virginia.
      The Chesapeake Bay does present an interesting           Section 306... (c) Prior to granting approval of a
                                                                management program submitted by a coastal state. the
    case study on this matter. The Potomac River Fish-         secretary (of Commerce) shall find that:... (2) The

    692                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

        state has ... (B) established an effective mechanism for   Table 6.-Initial Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 Planning (Section 305)
        continuing consultation and coordinatioh between the               Grants to Atlantic Coastal States
        management agency designated pursuant to paragraph
        (5) of this subsection and with local governments,       State      Federal Funding  State FUnding  Total
        interstate agencies, regional agencies, and areawide agen-
        cies' within the 'coastal zone to assure the full participa-
        tion of such local governments and agencies in carrying   Connecticut-...  $194,285  $130,339      $324,624
        out the purposes of this title. P.L. 92-583         Delaware .-  .        .......... 194,285  83,334  277,619
                                                            Florida :-  -        ------- 450,000  236,000  686,000
                                                            Georgia.             188,000      115,400    - 303,400
      During the.period of May through November    Maine -230,000                             115,000      '345,060
    1974, all of the Atlantic cdastal states received initial   Maryl280,000                   185,765      465,765
                                                            Massachusetts  -----. 210,000     105,000      315,000
    planning (Section 305) grants under the Coastal    New Hampshire ____..        78,000       39,000    .  117,000
    Zone Management Act of 1972 (Table 6). It is too   -New Jersey        -      ... -275,000  137,00a      412,000
    early to expect concrete results in estuarine manage-    New York-   -         550,000     200 oo       825000
                                                            North Carolina. ........ 300,000  200;000      500,000
    ment as a direct result of these funds. Several states,   Pennsylvania.--__-._  150,000     75,000 oo   225,000
    however, anticipated support under' the Coastal   'Rhode Island ...          ...... 154,415  77,208     231,623
                                                            South Carolina .--------  198,485  100,015     28,500
    Zone Management Act and began coastalzone plan-   Soth Carolina               1- 251,044   125,522      376,566
    ning with state funds. Florida, for example, pub-
    lished a state coastal zone atlas (Florida, 1972)'in
    December 1972, which provides in map form a de-    DELAWARE
    lineation of all coastal areas into preservation (no
    further modification), conservation (controlled mod-       Estuarine management in- Delaware is primarily
    ificatidn), and development (few, if any, state con-    focused in the Department of -Natural Resources
    trols) areas.'   -                         - :'          and: Environmental Control. Four divisions within
      It 'must be remembered, however, that some ele-   the department: Environmental Contrbol;Fish' and
    ments of'what has come to be considered' coastal    Wildlife; Parks, Recreation and Forestry; and' Soil
    zone management have' been functioning in mIost    and Water Conservation, are the primary estuarine
    states for varying periods. A major task of 'coastal    management agencies.
    zone planning and management efforts is the identi-        Delaware is unique among the Atlantic states in
    fication and coordination of these elements in sup-    that it has passed a Coastal Zone Act (58 Del. Laws,
    port of a recognized, stated goal.               C. 175) which bans all heavy industry and port or
                                                            dock facilities within two nriles of. the shoreline not
                                                            in existence at the time of the Act's passage in 1971.
    Atlantic Coastal States
    Organizational  Arrangements 1                          A  permit system administered by Coastal Zone
    Organizational Arrangements L
                                                            Industrial Control Board operating within the State
    CONNECTICUT                                             Planning Office of the executive department regu-
                                                            lates all other manufacturing uses or expansion of
                                                            existing heavy industrial uses.-
      Estuarine management in Connecticut is primarily         sting heavy i
    the responsibility of the Department of Environ-
    mental Protection. Within the department, parks    FLORIDA
    and recreation, fish and wildlife, forestry, and water
    and related resources are the responsibility of the        Florida's administrative structure is unique among
    Division of Preservation and Conservation; while    the 50 states in that administrative powers are
    air and water compliance, solid waste management,    shared by the Governor and a six member inde-
    and pesticides and radiation control are the responsi-    pendently elected cabinet. Agencies dealing with
    bility of the Division of Environmental Quality. As    estuarine management report to the Governor and
    in most states, many other departments have direct    the cabinet, sitting as a body. Coastal zone planning
    or indirect inputs into estuarine management. Table    is the responsibility of the Coastal Coordinating
    7 indicates some of the various agency responsibili-    Council within the Department of Natural Re-
    ties for estuarine management in Connecticut. Estu-    sources. The council consists of the executive di-
    arine management is not separated organizationally    rectors of the Department of Natural Resources3
    from the management of other areas in Connecticut.    trustees of the Internal Improvement Trust Fund,
    Connecticut has wetlands protective legislation.        the Department of Pollution Control, and the Secre-
                                                            tary of 'Administration. The' Coastal Coordinating
     z Information for this state-by-state summary was obtained primarily   Council' fuictions. as an 'advisory body to the
    from Ponder, 1974; U.S. Department of Commerce, 1973, 1974; Lynch,    Governor and cabinet in the area of coastal zone
    Patton and Smolen, 1974; and the individuat Atlantic state applications
    for Coastal Zone Management planning (Section 305) grants.  management. 5

                                               CO(NCLUDING REMARKS                                             693

                             Table 7.-Some organizatlonal responslbilities forestuarine management in Connecticut.

                                                                            Department            - .
                   Responsibilities
                                               Environmental   Health      Transportation  Community    Commerce
                                                Protection                                 Affairs

    :Industrial Development ..- .. . . -------- *           R R R R, F                                * F, P
    Water Quality, .-.............                         ........ . ... * R, F, Rev, P  * R, Rev  P
    Erosion .-......................... .. * R, F, Rev, P     �*P
    Coastal Recreation -----                          -    -- ....,,...._... *FP '-  * R  Rev, P  p  p
    Wetlands & Critical Area Preservation  - ------- ..- -----. -  R,  *   R                          * P
    Subaqueous Mineral Extraction -.-.---,, . . .---. * R, P              P                           P
    Energy  ,,-------- ------ ,---------R. F, Rev          Rev            F, Rev, P                   P

     * Agency directly addresses issue.                    Rev, Review authority.
     R, Regulatory authority.                               P, Planning and promotional authority.
     F, Funding authority.

      Florida maintains permit and/or base control    grant, lease, license, and permit recprds; and moni-
    over most estuarine water or margin uses admin-    toring shellfish waters. The Department of Conserva-
    istered by the Department of Natural Resources    tion maintains navigational marking and clearances;
    or the board of trustees of the Internal Develop-    administers the "Keep Maine Scenic" Law; manages
    ment Trust Fund.                                          submerged lands; maintains ,the Coastal Island Reg-
                                                             istry; and is responsible for watercraft registration
    GEORGIA                                   -               and  safety.  The  Department  of Transportation
                                                             houses the Main Port Authority. Monitoring safety
                                                             of coastal waters for water contact sports and licens-
      Estuarine  management in Georgia is primarily
    the responsibility of the Department  of Natural    ing of individual home sewage disposal facilities are
    Resources. Within this department, the Game and    the responsibility of the Department of Health and
    Fish Division is responsible for coastal marshland    Welfare.
    protection and coastal fisheries management while
    the Environmental Protection'Division is responsible                            Governor
    for the water quality standards, water use classifica-
    tion, and the shellfish sanitation programs.                                        I
      Estuarine  planning  is the responsibility' of a                   Coastal Zone Management Policyttee
    Coastal  Zone  Management  Policy Development
    Committee which reports to the Governor. The
    organization for coastal zone management planning                           CZM Coordination
                                                              CZM Technical   Governor's Office of    Federal Agency
    in Georgia is shown in Figure 1.                            Committee*     Planning and udget        Council

    MAINE                                                      Research      Coastal Zone Management i
                                                              Reference        Community Forum .
                                                              Council
      Five departments share significant responsibility
    for estuarine management in Maine. Pollution con-
    trol is primarily focused in the -Department of' En-
    vironmaental Protection which is responsible for  The'CZM Technical Committee consists of:
                                                                   Department of Community Development
    licensing of waste discharges and structures in tidal          Forestry Commissionment
                                                                   Department of Human- Resources
    waters or subtidal lands; administration of Maine's            Office of Planning and Budget
    Coastal Conveyance of Petroleum Act (including                 Georgia Ports Authority
                                                                   Board of Regents, University System of Georgia
    licensing of oil terminals); and enforcement of laws           Soil and' Water Conservation Commission
                                                                   Department of Transportation
    relating to water discharge licenses, air emissions,           Coastal Area Planning and Development Commission
    waste dumping, and water quality laws. The De-
    partment of 'Marine Resources is responsible for    FIaURE 1.-Coastal Zone Management  (CZM) Planning
    fishery law, regulation, and research; maintaining                        Organization in Georgia.

    694                                 ESTUARINE ROLLUTION CONTROL

    MARYLAND                               ;                Overall responsibility for] coastal zone manage-
                                                        ment in Massachusetts is housed in the Executive
      Estuarine management in Maryland is focused in   Office of Environmental Affairs.
    the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) and
    the Department of Health and Mental Hygiene
    (H&MH). Other departments such as Transporta-    NEW HAMPSHIRE
    tion (port administration), State Planning (land use
    planning and state development plan), Agriculture       New Hampshire's estuarine management programs
    (soil conservation and pesticide control), and Eco-    are not focused in any particular agency or depart-
    nomic and Community Development (waterfront    ment. Major water supply and water quality pro-
    renewal) also contribute to estuarine management.     grams are administered by the Water Supply and
      Estuarine pollution management is exercised by    Pollution Control Commission. Coastal zone plan-
    three agencies: the Maryland Environmental Service   ning has been assigned to the office of Comprehen-
    and the Water Resources Administration in DNR    sive Planning.
    and the Environmental Health Administration in
    Ht&MH. The Environmental Health Administration    NEw JERSEY
    is responsible for water quality and shellfish stand-
    ards, sewage treatment plant operations, and the        All environmental protection in New Jersey is ad-
    statewide health policy. The Water Resources Ad-    ministered by the Department of Environmental
    ministration administers the discharge permit system    Protection (DEP). The Division of Marine Services
    for point sources and is responsible for water quality   within the DEP  is responsible for coastal zone
    standards for ground and surface waters. The Mary-    management, wetlands and shore protection. New
    land Environmental Service is responsible for pro-   Jersey has a Coastal Area Facility Review Act
    viding regional and river basin plans for waste    passed in 1973 which divides the coastal areas into
    water, solid waste, and water supply management.      various sections, with each section designated for
      Most other major estuarine management facets   particular purposes. Management divisions affecting
    such as wetlands management, shore erosion con-   estuaries within these designated areas must be
    trol, oil terminal licensing, power plant siting, water-   compatible with these purposes.
    way improvement programs, marine policy, fish and
    wildlife administration, recreation; and coastal zone
    management are the responsibility of DNR.             NEW YORK
      A major feature of Maryland's estuarine manage-
    ment program is the Power Plant Siting Act (Anno.       New York has recently consolidated its environ-
    Code of Md. Article 96A, Section 23-25) admin-    mentally related legislation into one act, the environ-
    istered by DNR which levees a surtax on electric   mental Conservation Law. A marine coastal district
    energy generation in the state to be used for pur-    has been established which includes all tidal estu-
    poses related to power plant operations, particularly    arine waters as far up the Hudson as the Tappan
    ecological baseline studies, monitoring existing op-    Zee Bridge.
    erations, long range planning, and acquisition of       The Department of Environmental Conservation
    sites for future power plants.                        is responsible for environmentally oriented estuarine
                                                        management programs, including coordination of
                                                        regional and local plans.
    MASSACHUSETTS

      Massachusetts,  which was cited by the 1969    NORTH CAROLINA
    "National Estuarine Pollution Study" as having the
    most advanced estuarine management program, has         North Carolina estuarine management and plan-
    had a major reorganization of state government.    ning agencies are primarily within the Department
    An Office of Environmental Affairs has brought to-   of Administration and the Department of Natural
    gether a number of related agencies. Of particular   and Economic Resources.
    concern to estuarine management is the Department       An Office of Marine Affairs in the Department of
    of Natural Resources (DNR) which has the major    Administration established in 1973 has the responsi-
    responsibility for estuarine management. The re-   bility of coordination and serving as a communica-
    sponsibilities of Massachusetts agencies with regard    tion link with various� marine-related programs in
    to several estuarine management activities are shown    North Carolina. A Coastal Resources Commission
    in Figure 2.                                          was legislatively created in 1974 to establish policy,

                                                CONCLUDING REMARKS                                                695

                           NAVIGATION-    FISH &0 WILDLIFE PROTECTION       POLLUTION CONTROL        ELECTRIC POWER
                                           WATER-RELATED RECREATION                                     GENERATION
                                         a
                                                                                z P4

                                H P    40          .-c a ,oa    0   -=-                  a,- 44     0-    ;
                                                  3  o                                                c u  a
                                       N                                 - 4N  w3  0 0   W XN 11  a          N u5  :   I o
                            an Z Z 0Q o                                       W 0 z cH X;" 0                  .2 0-

                                .. 4J. -h         �   .. ...... �  .                 W               G        ...  o
                                     O ,   a .                           0 �   �             ' a                N a a

                              oc)  > In             w  '   .0                     h 9 . 0          3 E  Z
                              C) J4   "0                      m 0044          a, P   0  N  E4  NO   P   NC)  0   P   C

                            N          -HCOd U .d F .a  -, - H  H  0   0  O    0     H    0O H      0 a) H  - Ha)    0)
                              003. a           P I a    U-CaNI 0a  a  CO-a0 0 Na a       a, a           la  0 ao  a N a

    Planning               *          *        *            * * *   * 0                       �
     WiSettings                                                        . S tand ars 0          � 0
                        ~~~~~~~~0                                                    00Regulations   03   N - -0.

          ~M ~ ~ ~~            -H   0     onitoring                        C                       H 0       -

     Field Studies            a               �  �   �

      Assistance                                                           0       0 *

      Dissemination                             0                                  0   00                    N N

     Manpower Training                                                                    C C * .  N *
     Project Management                      .0        0              0 0  �- C ,            0 N -
     Intergovernmental
       Coordination         *     *   * -   -.*                               * 0    N C   -
    Planning               4                   �            �4  *     �             �        � .           �

     Project ReviewSt                  � �      � �  ,  �                            �      �  �   �  � �

    bkGURE 2.-Estuarine management responsibilities of Massachusetts state agencies (adapted from the Commonwealth of Massa-
                    chusetts' Coastal Zone Management Planning grant to the U.S. Department of Commerce).

    develop  regulations, and adjudicate coastal area    is composed of the directors of the Department of
    peregt application s.                                      Health along wih representatives of the state legis-
      The Division   of Health Services in the Depart-    lature and  the general public. The Division of
    ment of Human  Resources administers the state    Coastal Resources of the Department of Natural
    shellfish sanitation program.                               Resources   provdes administrative support to the
                                                                council. The State Department of Health �estab-
      PNSLANIAishes water                                                        quality standards.

      Pennsylvania's only estuarine area connected to
    the Atlan tic Ocean is a short section  of the Schuylkill
    River below Philadelphia. The Department of En-               The Wildlife and Marine Resources Department
    vironmental Resourcesis responsible for the develop-    and the Department of Health and Environmental
    ment of the state water plan, management         of the    Contr ol share the major management  role with
     Project management    r    o          * *.                 a a a   a                 th

    state's land and water programs, and all aspects of    regard to South Carolina's estuaries. The Depart-
     IntCrgovernmental

                   chusetts' Coastal Znvirone Management Planning gralnt to the U.S. Department of Control is re-

                                                                sponsible for managem ent o f  water pollution, sewage
    permitHODE ISLicatD disposal , shellfish sanitation, wa                                             ter supply, and solid
                                                                waste disposal. The   Wildlife and  Marine Resources
      In Rhode Island, management  of estuaries is cen-                                      Department is responsible for fisheries resources,
    tered in a          proastal                                Resources Management Council    dredge  and fill operations, and coastal wetlands.
    which         report cesis diretsponsibley for the develop-    and the    r  states, many other agencies
    which reports directly to the Governor. This council    As with many other states, many other agencies

                                        ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                          Economic       Resource  .  ,.                                Natural       Environmen
                          Development   Utilization    Intrastructure     Pollution'  Environment      tal Hazard
                         43                                                          a
                          a                             0          0      -
                         o         E                  a                 U               U
                         o _v -P  H4 4U o- 41H -sa 4o                       --- 4.  I n             U      (o  4'
                             HHODI t r04    H       D e4s                         rl c     0           0   0 1
                         0 0  c      s o    0   0   0       H                          n   O    cO F           O
                               >   i 4 .,      i " A a     I Id 0 o 4 'a          1    1  o a   o            9 o "" <
                         a) 54R I 'H 1-1  0)4U   a 54 V -e 4J o 1 '-H  0 4 .  O.H5  4) 0 H -4y  4J -   '0   I1 a
                         4J'  O  dJ  4J                  a Z 0 '0HH  a-H oa- H o- o1) 0         a)o  0  0 4054 O
                          cocX    ar c O   o OH 0     (A         ro 0   c -H   a41   5 no              O         0 4C0

    Division of
    Administration           P                            P P           P          P
    State Development                '              -
    Board                 P PT         T            T P      T      P              D
    State Hightgay                                     PM
    Department                                                              D   0  D     D
    Land Resources                     P  P        PM PM                   PM                           P
    Conservation Comm.                 T T         R      R                               T             T
    Wildlife & Marine                       PM  P                       pM      T TR  PM PT PMD PM              P
    Resources Dept.             T            T T  TR    R                       RT
                                           TR-   TR

    Commission                                                                         R
    Parks, Recreation,          PM              PM
    and Tourism                 DT              R
    Commission of
    Forestry                             RT
    Dept. of Health &                                                    PM
    Environmental Control    R  R  R         R            R R 4R   R  TR               PR R                    PR
    State Ports Authority PM                          PM
                         DR                          DR
    Public Service                                                PMPM
    Commission                      R                  R R R   R   R

    FIGURE 3.-South Carolina: state involvement in estuarine management. P, planning; T, technical assistance; M, management;
                                     -   D, direct development; R, regulation.

    contribute      e to estuarine management. Figure 3 indi-    sanitation and through its Bureau of Shellfish Sani-
    cates the contribution of South Carolina agencies    tation  administers the  state shellfish sanitation
    to estuarine management.                       :          program.
                                                             Virginia's wetland management laws (Title 62.1,
                                                           Ch. 13, Code of Va.) are strongly oriented towards
    VIRNIA    -,local management. If localities choose (and most
                               . have so chosen), initial permit approval of permitted
      Thirty-seven entities have been identified which    activities is the responsibility of a local wetlands
    play a role in state or regional level estuarine man-    board. The Marine Resources Commission serves as
    agement (Laird, 1974). Some have only minor roles,    an administrative board of appeals for challenges to
    and some occur within the same department under    local decisions.
    a unified administrative head. These entities have          The Marine Resources Commission and the State
    been broken down into six categor           ies as shown in    Watier Control Board ars     made bodies made up primarily
    Table 8              .                         ..         of informed, knowledgeable citizens not otherwise
      Principal management responsibility rests at pres-    connected to state government. A commissioner of
    ent with the Virginia Marine Resources Commission    marine resources is appointed to serve at the pleasure
    which manages the state's marine and estuarine    of the Governor and serves as chairman of the Marine
    fisheries. The commission has review authority over    Resources Commission and its chief executive officer.
    wetlands permits, and initial 'authority over sub-    The other members of the Marine Resources Corn-
    aqueous permits or leasing for activities affecting    mission are appointed by the Governor for fixed
    estuarine bottoms, including oyster leases, dredging,    terms. The State Water Control Board is admin-
    and subaqueous mining. The State Water Control    istered by an executive director. Permit disposition
    Board is responsible for water quality and water    authority rests in these boards, and all decisions
    quality management. The Department of Health    related to permit activities must be made in meetings
    also has permit authority in the field of marina    open to the public.

                                                       . CONCLUDING REMARIKS                                                       697

    Table 8.-Entities of state government with planning, management, or scientific and engineering responsibilities in estuarine management in Virginia (after Laird
                                                                    1974)

     1. Departments with Overview Responsibility                     IV. State Agencies Which Have Responsibilities in the Coastal Zone Which Indirectly
                                                                           Affect Estuarine Management
       Office of the Governor
         Council on the Environment                                      Department of Conservation and Economic Development
       Office of the Attorney General                                     Division of Forestry
                                                                           -Division of Mineral Resources
    II. State Agencies Concerned Primarily with Estuarine and Coastal Areas and Adjacent  Division of Mined Land Reclamation
         Marine Areas                                                     'Virginia State Travel Service
                                         : .                              Historic Landmarks Commission
       Marine Resources Commission                                      Virginia Outdoors Foundation
       Virginia Institute of Marine Science                              State Air Pollution Control Board
       Department of Health.
         Bureau.of Shellfish Sanitation                       ;       V. Intrastate Agencies Authorized by the Code of Virginia but Which Are Supported by
       Virginia Port Authority                                             Local Funds and Have an Impact on Estuarine Management

    III. State Agencies Which Have Responsibilities in the Coastal Zone Which Directly Affect   Hampton Roads Sanitation District Commission
         Estuarine Management                             -              Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority
                                                                          Virginia Beach Erosion Commission
       State Water Control. Board
       Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries                       VI. Interstate Agencies Relevant to Estuarine Management to Which Virginia is a Party
       Department of Conservation and Economic Development
        'Division of Parks                                               Potomac River Fisheries Commission
       Commission of Outdoor Recreation                                  Atlantic States Marine Fisheries Commission
       Division of Industrial Development                                Interstate Commission on the Potomac River Basin
       Virginia Soil and Water Conservation Commission
       Division of State Planning and Community Affairs
       Virginia Department of Highways
       Department of Agriculture and Commerce
       Department-of Health
         Division of Engineering
           Bureau'ofSanitary Engineering
           Bureau of Solid Waste and Vector Control
           Bureau of Industrial Hygiene
         Division of Local Health Services
       State Corporation Commission

       Virginia -is unique  among  the  Atlantic  coastal                Game and Inland Fisheries, and the Department of
    states for having an estuarine and marine state re-                 Conservation  and  Economic  Development.  State
    search laboratory, the Virginia Institute of Marine                 level coordination between state agencies is being
    Science, which is a separate state agency  coequal                  focused in a developing secretariat which reports
    with  the  management  agencies  within  the  state                 directly to the  Governor. At present, each  state
    apparatus.  In most  states, the estuarine research                 agency reports to a secretary. The majority of agen-
    programs are usually subordinate arms of the man-                   cies which have a major role in estuarine manage-
    agement agencies or conducted through formal or                     ment  report to the  Secretary  of Commerce  and
    informal  arrangements  with  the  state university                 Resources.
    system. -The Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
    however, is independently chartered by the Code of                  SUMMARY
    Virginia (Title 28.1, Chapter 9). With an independ-
    ent charter and separate legislative mandate, the                     As can be seen by this brief review of state pro-
    Virginia Institute of Marine Science is able to influ-    grams,  many  approaches  are  used  for  estuarine
    ence estuarine management  practices independent                    management among the various states. The critical
    of direct pressures from management agencies.                       management  decisions which impact the estuarine
       Coastal zone coordination in the Commonwealth                    areas usually involve specific site-related permit de-
    of Virginia is the responsibility of the Coastal ZLone              cisions. In many  states, these individual decisions
    Advisory Committee, co-chaired by the Department                    are made  within  the framework  of overall state
    of State Planning and Community Affairs and the                     guidelines, policy, or legislative mandate.
    Institute of Marine Science. Other agencies making                  ; All but one of the Atlantic states (South Carolina)
    up the advisory committee are the Division of In-                   have  adopted  specific wetland  management  pro-
    dustrial Development, the Commission'of Outdoor                     grams; all have adopted water quality standards;
    Recreation, the Marine Resources Commission, the                    and some (Delaware and New Jersey, in particular)
    State  Water  Control  Board,  the  Commission  �of                 have adopted strict coastal area zoning programs.

    698                                    ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                  Table 9.-Summary of estuarine related State Land Acquisition Authority

            State                      Agency                               Purpose                    Authority

    Connecticut ..-..... Dept. of Environmental Protection   Wetland Acquisition                  C.G.S.A. 26-17a
                                                              General Purposes                    C.G.S.A. 22a-25
    Delaware .......�... . Dept. of Natural Resources & Environmental Control   Parks              D;C. 7-5802
    Florida -. . ................... Water Management Districts  Wetland & Water Management        F.S. 373-139
    Georgia .- .._-.. ... State Forestry Commission           Forests                             G.S. 43-207
    Maine  ...-.�.._�  . Board of Environmental Protection   Wetlands Acquisition                  M.R.S.A. 12-4701
                         Commission of Sea and Shore Fisheries  Flats & Waters for Scientific Purposes  M.R.S.A. 12-3701
    Maryland ......- ..... Dept. of Natural Resources         General Purposes                     M.C.A. 66C-186
    Massachusetts ..-D........... Dept. of Natural Resources  Coastal Wetlands                    M.G.L;A. 130-105
                                                              Wildlife Sainctuaies                 M.G.L:A. 131-7
                                                              State Parks & loqrests               M.G.L.A. 132A-2A
    New Hampshire - -   ------------ Dept Of Fish & Game      Coastal Wetlands                    N.H.R.S. 483-A:1
    New Jersey .-..   . Commissioner of Conservation & Economic Development Wetland Acquisition   N.J.S. 13:8A:4 &
                                                                                                    N.J.S. 13:8A-24
                         Hackensack Meadowland Development Commission   Wildlife Habitats         N.J.S. 13:1B-15-5
                                                              Wetland Development                 N.J.S. 13:17-6(g)
    New York -.. .---. Dept. of Environmental Conservation   qWetlands & Forest Preservation      L.N.Y. ECL �260
                                                              Fish & Wildlife Management          LN.Y. ECL �10501
    North Carolina -.-.......... Dept. of Conservation and Development  Natural & Scenic River Areas and Estuarine Areas    S.N.C. 113A-34
    Rhode Island  ..- .......... Dept. of Natural Resqurces   Wetlands Acquisition                 R.I.G.LA. �2-1-15
    South Carolina .-...... No Programs
    Virginia - ..  .............. Cities, Counties, Towns     Federal Water Resource Development Projects  Va. Code 62.1-150
                         Various State Agencies              Open Space Lands                     Va. Code 10-152
                         Virginia Outdoors Foundation        Open Space Lands                     Va. Code 10-163
                         Commission of Outdoor Recreation    Scenic Rivers Areas                  Va. Code 10-175

      No states have organized separate estuarine man-    All Atlantic coastal states have some type of land
    agement agencies which exercise all management    acquisition authority relevant to estuarine manage-
    functions. Within most states, estuarine manage-    ment. These are listed in Table 9.
    ment is the function of agencies which exercise re-         It is apparent from the multiplicity of agencies
    lated management functions on a statewide basis.    with managerial responsibilities that coordination
    Some states have centralized environmental man-    is a necessary element to effective estuarine man-
    agement into a single "super" department. In these    agement. Coordination of environmental regulatory
    departments,  there  are often  separate  divisions    activities has been achieved in several states by
    which deal with marine resources, but estuarine    centralization of agencies into a super agency. This
    water quality management functions are usually the    still, however, leaves the problem of activities which
    responsibility of a division or agency with statewide    have a measurable impact on estuaries but which
    authority.                                                are not directly regulated by environmentally ori-
      At the opposite end of the spectrum from the    ented agencies.
    "super" department exercise of estuarine manage-            The Coastal Zone Management Act has provided
    ment is the private "citizen board" concept of    the initiative to states to effect better coordination
    management decisionmaking used in Virginia at    of those activities important to sound estuarine
    both state and local levels.                              management. Although not devoted solely to estu-
      State overview in Rhode Island is by a board    arine management, coastal zone management en-
    made up of ex officio agency heads, state legislative    compasses all aspects of estuarine management.
    representatives, and private citizens, while in Florida    Improvement in this coordination should be appar-
    this authority is held jointly by seven elected offi-    ent in the very near future.
    cials, the Governor and the independently elected           As mentioned earlier, all Atlantic coastal states
    cabinet. In addition to permit systems, another tool    are participating in the planning phase of the Coastal
    available to estuarine managers is land acquisition.    Zone Management Act. All states received planning

                                            CONCLUDITN  REMARKS                                           699

    grants during 1974. Because of the recency of these    difficulties in reconciling federal, state, and local
    planning grants, there has been insufficient time to    goals, responsibility, and authority. These difficul-
    produce specific accomplishments.                       ties, with application of the emery powder of federal
      State preparations anticipating funding of the    funding, will be smoothed sufficiently so that more
    CZMA  have, however, resulted in formation of    effective management of estuarine systems will be
    either legislatively or executively mandated inter-   developed.
    agency committees, commissions, councils, or task         Estuarine management has improved in the period
    forces in most states. The CZMA guidelines strongly    1969-1974. Much of this improvement is the direct
    encourage management at the lowest possible level   result of increased federal funding supported by the
    of management, primarily localities, within, how-    general awareness of the importance of a quality
    ever, state and federally agreed upon principles. The    environment in the average citizen. Care must be
    great advantage to the states in developing and    exercised, however, that "ecological fervor," un-
    adopting an approved CZM program is that once    accompanied by a sound educational program, does
    approved by the Secretary of Commerce, the state    not create an environmental backlash. The reverse
    plan also becomes the guideline for and is binding   is also true, however, that care must be exercised
    upon federal programs operating in state coastal    to ensure that temporary crises (of long or short
    areas.                                                 duration) such as the energy squeeze of the early
      The success of estuarine management programs    and mid-1970's, are not used as an excuse to dis-
    in future years probably depends upon the success    mantle the sorely needed apparatus for environ-
    of developing the state-local coordination and co-    mental concern that has been and is being con-
    operation necessary to implement developing coastal    structed. It has become apparent to taxpayers that
    zone management plans.                                 a quality environment is expensive. Without well-
      Experience in various states differs as to the effec-    documented,  understandable  evidence that sug-
    tiveness of local control over environmental matters.    gested pollution control methods  are necessary,
    In Virginia, local management of wetlands is con-    public support will not be available and environ-
    sidered to be successful to date (the Virginia Wet-    mental quality will not be maintained or improved.
    lands Law became effective July 1, 1972), and is          The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 recog-
    being studied as a possible model for coastal zone    nizes many of these problems and the regulations
    management within the state.                           implementing the program emphasize the need for
      Estuarine management, particularly as exercised    developing  citizen awareness,  participation,  and
    through permit programs, receives much criticism    support.
    from both environmentalists and developers. The           A critical factor in future estuarine management
    major criticism of both sides is the multiplicity of   will be the roles of federal, state, and local manage-
    permits required for a single authorization to proceed    ment agencies. Unfortunately, there is little data
    with a proposed project. Frequently advocated by    available from which to deduce the exact mix of
    both groups are "one stop" permit systems, each    responsibilities which will ensure success. The gen-
    side of course assuming "one stop" systems will   eral approach of the Coastal Zone Management
    favor its position. Until a different system is devised    Act-that  of a state program  developed under
    which will adequately assess an activity's impact    federal guidelines which, when federally approved,
    on the various facets of estuarine management,    provides the criteria for federal actions in the
    however, a "one stop" system will probably not    region-is readily acceptable at the state level.
    serve the best interest of the citizens of a state taken    Still to be determined is the acceptance of possible
    as a whole and divorced from particular advocacy    state constraints on certain federal agencies and
    roles in a given controversy.                           even more important, the acceptance by localities
      It is unlikely that agencies will be created within    of the state plan.
    the states' organizational frameworks which will          The principal factor in estuarine management
    function solely or primarily as the manager of a    improvement in the next five to 10 years will be local
    state's estuarine areas. What can be expected is an    acceptance and support of coastal zone management.
    increasing awareness of the need for closer coordina-
    tion and cooperation between agencies serving plan-
                                                          REFERENCES
    ning, management, and advisory roles in estuarine
    areas. This need has already been recognized by    Commerce Clearing House, Inc. 1974. Topical Law Reports.
    most states and several have begun to effect this         Washington, D.C.
    coordination. The next several years will see marked    Delaware Governor's Task Force on Marine and Coastal
    improvement in this area, although there will be          Affairs. 1972. The Coastal Zone of Delaware. Final Report of

    700                                       ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      the Governor's Task Force on Marine and Coastal Affairs,    New England River Basin Commission. 1970. Fiscal Year
      College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, Newark.     1970 Annual Report of the New England River Basin
                                                                   Commission. Boston, Mass.
    Florida Coastal Coordinating Council. 1972. Florida Coastal
      Zone Management Atlas. Coastal Coordinating Council,    New England River Basin Commission. 1971. Annual Report,
      Tallahassee.                                                  Fiscal Year 1971. Boston, Mass.
                                                                 New England River Basin Commission. 1972. New England
    Iuckenbecker, D. J. and E. L. Long. 1973. Will municipal         River Basin Commission 1972 Annual Report. Boston,
      sewage continue to threaten primary watercontact recrea-      Mass.
      tion: an appraisal of the 1972 Water Pollution Control
      Act. Rutgers Camden Law J. 4:260.                           Ponder, Hal. 1974. Survey of State Coastal Management
                                                                   Laws. School of Law University of Maryland, Chesapeake
    Laird, Beverly L. 1974. Virginia State Agencies Concerned        Research Consortium Publication.
      with Coastal Zone Planning, Management, or Scientific
      and Engineering Activities, 1974-1975 Edition. SRAMSOE      Rasmussen, F. 1973. The Federal Water Pollution Control
      No. 67, Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Gloucester       Act Amendments of 1972. Wis. L. Rev. 1973: 893.
      Point.
                                                                 U.S. Department of Commerce. 1973. Status of State Coastal
    Lynch, Maurice P., Martha A. Patton, and Theodore F.             Zone Management Efforts. Coastal Zone Management
      Smolen. 1974. A policy study of marine and estuarine sanc-    Task Force, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
      tuaries: background information. Pages 3-56 in M. P.          tration, Washington, D.C.
      Lynch, B. L. Laird, and T. F. Smolen, eds. Marine and
      Estuarine Sanctuaries, Proceedings of the National Work-    U.S. Department of Commerce. 1974. State Coastal Zone
      shop on Sanctuaries. SSR No. 70, Virginia Institute of        Management  Activities 1974. Office of Coastal Zone
      Marine Science, Gloucester Point.                             Management, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminis-
                                                                   tration, Washington, D.C.
    McMahon, M. J., Jr. 1973. The Federal Water Pollution    U.S. Department of Interior. 1969. National Estuarine
      Control Act Amendments of 1972. Boston College- Ind. &        Pollution Study. Federal Water Pollution Control Adminis-
      Commercial Law Rev. 14:672.                                   tration, Washington, D.C. 3 vol.

                       -                                                     -,                                     - ,   t-  .   .   -  0   .  I

    EVALUATION OF
    WATER QUALITY
    IN ESTUARIES AND COASTAL WATERS

    WILLIAM J. HARGIS, JR.
    Virginia Institute of Marine Science
    Gloucester Point, Virginia

                 ABSTRACT
                 Estuaries and coastal waters, comprising less than 5 percent of earth's surface, are under ever-
                 increasing pressures from growing populations and demands. Yet these complex and dynamic
                waters are the key to preserving the viability and productivity of the oceans. Maintenance of
                 their quality is vital to man and his future, causing much concern, especially in the United States.
                 Consequently, considerable research, legislation, and other efforts oriented at improving manage-
                ment of estuarine and coastal waters have gone forward in the last 10 to 15 years. These are
                 discussed in this chapter.
                 Despite all these efforts, the condition of estuarine environments and resources continues to
                 decline. Several factors appear to be causal. The "state of the art" for control of quality in
                 estuarine and coastal waters must be rapidly improved to reverse the downward trend. Recom-
                 mendations are made.
                 As these improvements are accomplished, we will slow and eventually stop, even reverse, the
                 degradation of these vital waters. While making control procedures more accurate and precise,
                 we must also reduce the economic and social costs of controls without lessening their effectiveness.

    INTRODUCTION                                               and the vast oceans, themselves, been attended. The
                                                            sights and smells of pollution, long apparent in
    Historical                                                natural inland waters, appeared in most estuarine
                                                            and oceanic waters very late. Awareness that the
      Humans and human activities have long been    oceans and seas of earth are not as remote or in-
    concentrated on the shores of the seas, or along the    violate as formerly believed has been slow in coming
    tributaries which empty into those seas. Given this    compared with man's ability to use, to exploit, and to
    shoreward distribution of a rapidly multiplying    pollute.
    people and their burgeoning societal activities, it          It is now clear that control of the condition of
    is small wonder that we are now greatly disturbed    oceanic waters will depend primarily upon achieving
    over the worsening condition of the coastal waters    reasonable control over estuaries and other coastal
    and tidal tributaries fringing the oceans of earth.    waters. Additionally, control of coastal waters is
      Concern with quality of the environment focused    necessary in and of itself because it is these waters
    early on its decline in natural waters. Recognition of    which most affect man and it is important to main-
    atmospheric problems such as contamination of air    tain an adequate environment for human society.
    by heat or chemicals and the possibility of uninten-         Belated though awareness of estuarine and coastal
    tional weather modification, developed later. Prob-    waters may have been, much attention has been
    ably because they are more easily damaged and more    given them since the 1960's when the strong concern
    readily observed, upland brooks, small rivers (run-    manifesting itself today surfaced and the Water
    ning waters), and ponds and confined lakes (still    Quality Act of 1965 (PL 89-234), the Clean Water
    waters) called for and received attention first. Later,    Restoration Act of 1965 (PL 89-753), and the Na-
    the larger upland rivers and the Great Lakes began    tional Environmental Protection Act of 1969 (PL
    to show regular fish kills and other signs of degrada-    91-190) came into being.
    tion. Thus, much of the early effort at pollution            Legislation aside, concern has also been apparent
    abatement by science and technology, government    in the growing number of publications relating to
    and industry was devoted to these essentially upland    environment, its relation to man, and to the worsen-
    waters. Only in recent decades have the great tidal    ing status of many  environments  and resources.
    tributaries,  with their massive fresh and  saline    Many governmental groups have been commissioned
    reaches, and the coastal waters of the world's seas    to consider these problems at all levels-local, re-

                                                                                                            701

    702                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    gional, state, interstate, federal, and even interna-     The first responsibility was given to the National
    tional. Reports have been written, new legislation    Council on Marine Resource and Engineering Devel-
    passed, and organizations established and modified.    opment (NCMRED-also known as The Marine
    Unfortunately, reorganization has occurred so many    Science Council), a federal body consisting of the
    times as to make some agencies unstable and render    several departmental Secretaries, the Director of the
    it difficult for them to accomplish their objectives.    National Science Foundation, the Chairman of the
    For example, because of its changing and confusing    Atomic Energy Commission and chaired by the
    organizational milieu, progress and improvement of   Vice President. Dr. Edward Wenk, Jr. was its first
    the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has    executive secretary. A series of annual reports was
    been slowed.                                            issued by the Council under the general title, "Ma-
      A large number of major studies of the nation's    rine Science Affairs," with appropriate dates and
    estuarine systems and of individual estuaries have    subtitles (cf. References). One of its four interagency
    been conducted since 1960 along with a host of    committees, the Committee on Multiple Use of the
    lesser, but useful smaller works. See, for example,    Coastal Zone, helped focus attention on the fragile
    (Lauff,  1967),  (USDI,  1969),  (USDI,  1970),    area called the coastal zone in various publications
    (Stroud, 1971), (Chabreck, 1973), (Clark, 1974),    and reports and in doing so, joined others in con-
    (Odum et al., 1974) and many others.                   tributing to that developing national program.
                                                            The task of conducting a comprehensive nation-
                                                         wide review of all ocean-oriented matters (the last
    by Legislative Action                                  charge mentioned above) fell to the civilian-com-
                                                         posed Commission on Marine Science and Engineer-
                                                         ing Resources  (COMSER-sometimes called the
      Among the landmark federal enactments which
                                                         Stratton Commission after Dr. Julius A. Stratton,
    have resulted from this growing awareness and con-
    havcern from t      his growing awareness and con-   its chairman). This commission expired at the end of
                                                         a fruitful 3-year life that resulted in a series of com-
      1. The Water Quality Act of 1965 (PL 89-234)    prehensive reports. The summary volume of the
    which among other things, initiated the National    four volume set entitled, "Our Nation and the Sea,"
    Wathoer Quality Standards Program [Sec. 10 (c)].       is an effective distillation of the entire national
    Water   Quality Standards Program F~ec. 10 (c) I marine effort to that point.
      2. The Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966 (PL    marine effort to that point.
    89-753), which focused on problems of maintaining         The commission found great need for considerable
    and restoring quality and uses of the Nation's sur-    attention to the pressured and deteriorating coastal
    face waters. Additionally, in that act the Secretary     one and its recommendations for correction form
    of the Interior was directed [Section 5 (g)] to study    one of the strongest foundations for the current
    nationwide problems of estuarine pollution. The    lnphasis on the margins of the sea. With those
    resultant 3-year effort yielded a very interesting    groups mentioned above, the commission contrib-
    report submitted to Congress in November 1969.          ated significantly to the Coastal Zone Management
      This three volume report was entitled, "The    Act.
    National Estuarine Pollution Study" (USDI, 1969).         4. The Estuary Protection Act (PL90-954) reiter-
    Noteworthy among its recommendations was de-    ated Congress' awareness of the critical nature of
    velopment of a comprehensive national coastal zone    coastal waters and directed the Secretary of the
    management system. (This recommendation, sec-   Interior "to conduct an inventory and study of the
                                                          Nation's estuaries and their natural resources" in
    upon partially by enactment of PL 92-583, The    cooperation with the states.
    National Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972).            This study, authorized in August 1968, and funded
      3. The Marine Resources, Engineering and Devel-   initially in July 1969 was completed and resulted in
    opment Act of 1966 (PL 89-454), which focused    a report entitled, "National Estuary Study." Its
    attention on marine waters and their resources,    seven volumes were transmitted to Congress in
    environments, and uses by society. It also directed:    January 1970 (USDI, 1970). They, too, concluded
    a) evaluation of and improvement in the federal    that the estuarine zone of the United States is a
                                                         critical environmental and resource area and recom-
    efforts in ocean affairs, and b) a comprehensive
    review of all ocean-oriented matters. This review    mended stronger efforts to manage it wisely, focusing
    was designed to lead to development of a compre-    the management responsibility and capability in the
    hensive national effort to better control, utilize,   states.
    and preserve the resources and environments of ma-        5. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
    rine waters.                                           ments of 1972 provided for establishment, publica-

                                            CONCLUDING REMARKS                                          703

    tion, and, where necessary, revision of comprehensive    ards from these criteria, will be interesting to see.
    water  quality criteria, among  other provisions.    It is too early to tell. As will be shown below, EPA
    Accomplishments and offshoots of this legislation   has responded by utilizing a large number of these
    are discussed in greater detail below.                criteria directly in developing their own proposed
                                                         criteria (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
    Special Studies and Reports                           1973).
      While these legislative efforts came into being and    Other Activities
    the activities they called for were pursued to fruition,
    the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration      There have been a number of other significant
    (FWPCA-now EPA)  of the Department of the    activities relating to problems of coastal and estu-
    Interior has established the National Technical    arine environments which impinge upon assessment
                 Advisory Committee on Water Quality Criteria   of the status of those waters and of the seas and
    Advisory Committee on Water Quality Criteria oceans into which they empty. Among them have
    (NTAC). The body, which was advisory to the    oceans ito which they empty. Among them have
    Secretary of the Interior, was developed in response    been the various pollution-related research efforts of
    to Paragraph 3, Section 10 of the Federal Water    the National Science Foundation through its pro-
    Pollution Control Act ajects administered by the International Decade of
    Quality Act of 1965. The Committee, named in    Ocean Exploration Program. Several useful publica-
    early 1967, worked vigorously throughout the year    tions have resulted. See, for example, Goldberg
    and submitted its report to the Secretary in April    (1972b), and Duce, Parker, and Giam (1974). Too,
    1968.                                                 NSF's Research-Applied to National Needs Program
      The work dealt extensively with problems of    (RANN) has contributed significantly by supporting
    maintaining the maximum utility and quality of   water quality-related activities in various estuarine
    estuarine and coastal waters and presented a large    and coastal areas. RANN has also sponsored several
    number of water quality criteria recommended for   review activities such as workshops and symposiums
    use in the management of those waters. These cri-   devoted to problems of coastal waters and lands. As
    teria were supposed to form the basis for new water    examples see: "The Water's Edge: Critical Problems
    quality control standards, and they did! Both the    of the Coastal Zone," (B. H. Ketchum, ed., 1972)
    criteria and standards have been in widespread use    and "The Chesapeake Bay: Report of a Research
    since.                                                Planning Study," (Beers, et al, 1971).
      In 1971 the Environmental Protection Agency,          The massive report in four volumes prepared for
    anticipating the Amendments of 1972 to the Federal    FWPCA as part of the National Estuarine Pollution
    Water Pollution Control Act, commissioned another    Study of 1968 and 1969 and published by the Con-
    examination of the status of knowledge of surface   servation  Foundation  under  the  general  title,
    and ground waters and the elements related to qual-    "Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States"
    ity. Under a contract to the National Academy of    (Odum, Copeland and McMahan, eds., 1974), is
    Sciences-National Academy of Engineering (NAS-    worthy of special note here as are the 1971 reports of
    NAE), several subcommittees comprising the overall   the NAS-NRC Ocean Affairs Board, "Marine En-
    Committee on Water Quality Criteria of the En-    vironmental Quality," aid NAS-NAE Committees
    vironmental Studies Board of the National Research    on Oceanography and Ocean Engineering (NASCO
    Council (NRC) were established to review and, if   and NAECOE) "Waste Management Concepts for
    necessary, revise the water quality criteria previously   the Coastal Zone," (NAS-NRC, 1970).
    developed. Its report entitled "Water Quality Cri-      All of these activities have served to focus attention
                                                         on the nation's coastal and estuarine waters and on
    teria 1972" was completed in 1972 but not made    on the nation's coastal and estuarine waters and on
    widely available until recently, (NAS-NAE, 1973)1.   the need to understand and manage these waters
      As indicated above, the NAS-NAE effort was    effectively so that they will be of maximum utility to
    undertaken as a contractual obligation to EPA.    society and will be available in undiminished quality
    Whether the different status of the NAS-NAE    and quantity to posterity. They have also served to
    appointment group, as contrasted with the old   establish a stronger basis for developing management
    NTAC, which was an official advisory committee    efforts and to indicate where current knowledge and
    reporting to the Secretary of Interior, will have an    managerial ability are weak.
    effect on the ultimate development of revised stand-
                                                         Purposes
      'Though the title indicates that the report was completed in 1972
    internal evidence in the "Blue Book" indicates that it was not actually  Some aspects of the legislative and technical
    printed for circulation until early 1973. It was not widely available until
    then.                                                 history of the effort to manage the quality of estu-

    704                                  ESTUA4IINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    aries and coastal waters have been presented above.    Pritchard (1967), Clark (1974); and Odum, Cope-
    Important as it is to understand these historical   land, and McMahan (1974). Many of the systems
    aspects, the overall purpose of this chapter is a    presented in those works are quite significant scien-
    general evaluation of water quality in the nation's   tifically. While all of them are interesting and
    estuaries as a whole. In doing so, we seek to examine    some are useful to management, a complete review
    the current status of the national estu{arine system.    of classifications is beyond the scope of this report.
    This will be done in relation to modifications in    For our purposes it is sufficient to note the existence
    quality, quantity, and utility of the resources and    of the different ones, adopt one with utility, and
    environments of those coastal waters resulting from    move on.
    the activities of man. In this effort the intention is to  Along with others who have considered the prob-
    consider existing quality, trends in quality, existing    lems of managing the quality of waters of the coasts,
    water quality criteria, and the state of the art in    I have found it expedient to simplify terminology.
    establishing and evaluating the same. Ability to    Consequently, in this essay the word estuary is
    monitor will be examined also.                          construed broadly, covering all semi-enclosed basins
                                                          and tributaries which interact with the world's seas
                                                          and oceans (including the tidai bodies frequently
    THE WATERS IN QUESTION                                  classified separately, such as fiords, tidal rivers to
                                                          the upper limits of tide, lagoons, brackish and saline
      To accomplish the purposes projected above, we    bays and sounds, and others).
    must first define the various components of the
    waters under consideration and examine them in
    some detail. It is only in the light of adequate factual    COASTAL WATERS
    knowledge about these waters that effective manage-
    ment can be cast!
                                                            For all open coastal situations the term coastal
                                                          waters suffices. Both estuarine and coastal waters
    Estuarine and Coastal Waters                           interact with'the land; with surface runoff and sub-
                                                          terranean aquifers, and with man and his activities
      While most of the legislation previously mentioned    and properties. Both receive his effluents directly
    especially referred to and used the terms estuary,    and indirectly. Both retain or transmit them to the
    estuarine and estuarine zone it soon became clear   sea or to the bottom. To protect the oceans, husband
    that the, coastal waters, those on the coast of the    their qualities and uses, and properly serve present
    open ocean, also were involved. They, too, are ln-   and future societies both must be effectively under-
    termediary between land and land drainage and the    stood and managed. Adequate understanding is
    seas and oceans. Both estuaries and coastal watfers    absolutely necessary for management! See especially
    must, therefore, be considered, if our management    the background materials comnenting on these
    system is to be complete in its coverage.              points presented in the NAS-NRC paper "Waste
                                                          Management in the Coastal Zone,"  (NAS-NRC,
                                                          1970, p. 2).
    ESTUARINE WATERS                                       .      -

      The word estuary usually denotes a semi-enclosed    Characteristics of Estuarine
    body of water opening into or debouching from the    and Coastal Waters
    ocean, receiving ocean waters and tides and, gen-
    erally, contributing freshwater to the seas. This         The oceans, themselves, and the highlands (or
    definition  is rather  broad.  Some,  for example    fastlands) comprise about 95 percent of the surface
    Pritchard (1967), construe it more narrowly, re-   of the earth. The waters and adjacent lowlands
    stricting the term to those areas or reaches of tidal   which interface between these two major geographi-
    tributaries within which ocean waters are measurably    cal realms make up less than 5 percent of the total
    affected by or mixed with freshwater from upstream.    area of the globe. This is the "coastal zone." Corn-
      Much discussion has been devoted in the literature   paratively minor in area, this small portion of inter-
    to the various categories into which the estuaries    acting land, water, and air is highly critical. It is all-
    and coastal waters of the world may be divided. A    important to the condition and welfare of land and
    number of classification schemes for estuarine waters    sea and of society. Like all such transition zones it
    have been devised and published in various scholarly   is a dynamic and changing fraction-a zone of high
    and technical papers, such as Williams (1962),    energy flux.

                                            CONCLUDING REMARKS                                            705

    FEATURES OF ESTUARIES                                     Geophyszcal features--Even  within  themselves
                                                          estuaries contain different zones or reaches, as for
      As indicated, many attempts at definition have    example, a) the upriver, fresh, but tidal reaches
    been made and several classifications pubhshed The    occurring immediately below the fall lihne, b) the
    snmple definition utlllzed here, i e. estuaries are bodies    mtermediate brackish transition reach which con-
    of water regularly connected with the ocean, within    nects both oceanic and land-originating waters, and
    'which measurable quantities of ocean water occur    c) the near-oceamc zones at their mouths. Figures
    and/or winch experience ocean tides, encompasses    1, 2 and 3 depict various features of a partially-mixed
    all known types occurring around the United States,    estuary which features partial stratification and two-
    from the several hypersalne lagoons (winch receive    way surface and bottom non-tidal currents (To the
    only hmited amounts of freshwater, have weak    latter two reaches occurrming at the lower ends of tidal
    flushing action and contribute salty water to adja-   tributaries  the  term  estuary  'is restricted  by
    cent coastal areas) to the mighty estuary of the    Pritchard, 1969)  Another classification applied to
    lower Mississlppi River  (whinch inmects massive    these reaches or zones is oligohaline, or low sea salts
    amounts of freshwater, sediments, and other ma-    (0 5bo-8 0%o),  mesohaline,  or  intermediate  sea
    terials into the northern Gulf of Mexico).             salts (8 0%v-18 0%o), and polyhaline or high sea
      The frmingmg coastal bays, sounds and lagoons    salts (18 0%o-30 0%o) Thirty-five parts per thousand
    protected behind the barrier Islands of the Atlantic    is standard full seawater salinity
    and gulf coasts and the fresher, more elongate and        Not only are these reaches, extending up and
    frequently larger tidal bays and tributaries of all   downriver, different but there are marked variations
    coasts also fall within the defimnition The Laguna    from side to side and from top to bottom involving
    Madre of Texas, the Carolina sounds, the seaside    such characteristics as currents, temperature, oxygen
    bays of Vlrgnma, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey,    content, transparency, and other aspects. Too, these
    and Long Island are examples of the former (fringing    zones may move horizontally landward or seaward,
    coastal bays and sounds)  Cook Inlet, the various    or vertically toward the surface or the bottom,
    fiords and river mouths of Alaska and the Great    depending upon  regular  (seasonal, monthly,  or
    Northwest, Mobile Bay, Tampa Bay, Wynyah Bay,    daily) changes in tides or freshwater mflux or ab-
    Charleston Harbor plus its entering tidal tributaries,    normal winds, coastal surges or land runoff.
    the Ashley and the Cooper Rivers, Chesapeake Bay,         Just as morphological and physical aspects of
    Delaware Bay, the lower Hudson, the lower Charles    estuaries and coastal waters are immensely com-
    plus Boston Harbor, and the Passamaquoddy-all    phcated and ever-changing so also are their other
    fall within the latter grouping                         features. In terms of structural and functional
      These estuarine bodies occur at many latitudes    complexity-blologlcally,  chemically and geologi-
    (and longitudes on east-west oriented coast) m         cally-these waters have no natural peers They are
    every coastal reach from the northern border of    extremely dynamic and productive.
    Maine to Brownsville, Tex, and from southern
    Cahforma to the North Slope of Alaska  Hawah
       California to the No rth Slope of Alaska  Hawaii       Bsologtcal aspects.-In these chemically rich and
    and the far-flung commonwealths and terrtores con-    fertile estuarine waters and the shallow oceanic
    tam them also, though Island estuaries are usually    areas  to which they drain grow most of the marine
    very small Thins extremely wide geographical range    blologcal organisms-the plants, marine fish, and
    has a profound effect on their diverslty.               shellfish that help nourish many peoples of the world.
      Obviously, with such a range of type, location, and    A large number of authors including Stroud (1971)
    size, estuaries are difficult to generalize about There    have concluded likewise.
    are considerable differences in the sizes and slopes of   Accorling to Teal, Jameson and Baden (1972)
    the land areas they drain and in the geometry,    there were harvested from estuarine and shelf areas
    hydrography, and biology of their watercourses          10 billhon pounds of commercial finfish and shellfish
      Too, estuaries are subject to varying prevailing    in 1970. Most of these fish are species which live in
    atmospheric climates and weather in accordance    (at one time or another m their life stages) or are
                                                          dependent upon these productive waters Were the
    with their locations, being subjected to widely differ-       dependent upon these productive waters  Were the
                  p     a     tterns a ndamo raa s t ad   figures utilized by Teal, Jameson and Baden (1972)
    ing patterns and amounts of ramnfall, sunhght, and    expanded to include the amounts and kinds of ani-
    temperature  See, for example, the maps, zonal    mals and plants taken by recreational fishermen as
    concepts and  classifications presented in USDI    well as those which are harvested for sale but un-
    (1969 and 1970), Odum, Copeland, and McMahan    reported (undoubtedly a significant'number!), the
    (1974), and Clark (1974).                              poundage taken would be even more Impressive.

    706                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

                                         BRACKISH
                       FRESH WATER        ESTUARINE            OCEANIC
              7271-  ESTUARINE CURRENT

                                                                  ESTUARINE COUNTER
                                                                    CURRENT

                Z.,

                                                               CO      ~

                   FRESH WATER         BRACKISH   -       OCEANIC
                 _.. .   .      .     ..ESTUARINE
                                                  --_  \_~             s       UPWELLING

                                                                        ESTUARINE COUNTER
                                                                Ca?,   CURRENT

                                                                    Z

                         hi -\   I    \

                 -- FRESH WATER         BRACKISH
                                      ~-  ESTUARINE        OCEANIC

                                                                         ESTUARINE

    FIGURE 1 (top) -Tidal tributary-profile of mixed type FIGURE 2 (center) -Tidal tributary-partially mixed bottom clrcu-
                      lat16n. FIGURE 3 (bottom) -Tidal tributary-partially mixed surface circulation

    Of course, these figures do not incorporate the mil-    Bacteria, countless millions of phytoplankton and
    hons of tons of nonharvested animals and plants    zooplankton plants, wetlands grasses, attached and
    which grow in the waters of the coastal zone or feed   sessile organisms all contribute to this tremendous
    upon their products and which nourish those that   productivity In any one estuary thousands of species
    are harvested.                                        may occur. Some have extremely complex patterns of

                                            CONCLUDING REMARKS                                          707

    migration and several life stages. For example, the    This bears directly, of course, on difficulties of
    blue crab (Callinectes sapidus) has separately identi-   establishing  meaningful  baselines,  criteria,  and
    fiable stages and molts several times before reaching    standards for many chemical constituents.
    its final size. The young stages are planktonic while
    the adult, an active swimmer as well as walker, lives
    on or in the bottom most of the time. Their numbers     Geological aspects.-The geological processes of
    and species composition change from year to year,   inshore waters are variable and varied. The amount
    season to season, day to day, between day and night,   of suspended matter (hence transparency and color),
    and even from hour to hour.                           which includes particles of geological origin as well
      Their  physiological  activities  and  dependent    as microscopic plants and animals (the plankton),
    environmental requirements are diverse. Some, like   varies with, a) fluvial or riverine and lateral runoff,
    the hardy adult Fundulus can survive wide ranges of   b) winds and currents, and c) biological processes
    temperature, oxygen, and pollutants. Others are    and other hydrographic factors. It also depends
    extremely fragile, like the larvae of the Atlantic    upon the condition of the soils of nearby land masses.
    oyster, Crassostrea virginica, which have been found High water flows caused by spring rains and thaws
    recently by scientists at the Virginia Institute of   and by storms scour the upland river bottoms and
    Marine Science to be very sensitive to chlorine, with    adjacent lands. Downstream, estuaries run turbid
    an LCo0 of 0.005 ppm. in 48-hour bioassays. (LC   Nwith the reds or browns of dislodged soil particles.
    means lethal concentration, referring to that con-    These particles are quite active in picking up and
    centration at which 50 percent of the individuals   transferring chemicals, bacteria, and viruses from
    subjected to the substance being tested die within   land to water, from water mass to water mass, and
    the time specified). Levels well above these (0.02-    from water to bottom sediments and back again. In
    0.03 ppm) have been observed in the lower James    this way beneficial chemicals, i.e. necessary nutrients
    estuary over a mile from the nearest sewage treat-   and trace elements, are brought into the system.
    ment plant outfall. In some species the adults are   Unfortunately, toxic molecules and microbes are
    considerably different in habit, appearance, and    also.
    resistance. For example, adult Atlantic oysters can     While dancing about in estuarine waters, sus-
    tolerate much higher levels and appear to do quite    pended silt acts to "scrub" the water and to enrich
    well on beds in the same waters of the James, which    it by releasing nutrients. Pollutants carried to the
    contain chlorine concentrations two orders of magni-    bottom by falling silt and stored in the sediments
    tude above the LC50 established for larvae, (Huggett,   later may be recycled during periods of high tur-
    R. J., personal communication).                       bulence induced by winds or currents. They can also
                                                          be recycled and relocated by dredging and spoil dis-
                                                          posal operations. Too, processes of erosion, transport,
      Chemical aspects.-Natural chemical constituents    and deposition move geological materials up and
    of coastal zone waters are derived from land runoff,    down the estuary and from shallower to deeper
    subsurface terrestrial drainage, interchange with the    waters (and vice versa where conditions are right).
    bottom and with oceanic waters, atmospheric fallout   Estuarine sediments are carried on outgoing tides
    and precipitation, and from biological processes. The    and currents into the waters of the open coast and
    actual numbers of inorganic and organic molecules    the reverse may be true.
    in estuarine (and coastal) waters are great, Even af-    Eolian earth particles, generally with attached (or
    ter decades of analysis many molecules remain to be    accompanied by) chemicals and plant and animal
    identified; more must yet be properly and fully   matter are deposited in estuaries. Fallout and pre-
    characterized. As with the biota, the kinds and    cipitation also inject natural and unnatural atmos-
    amounts of chemical constituents vary considerably    pheric travelers. Some, like lead and its derivatives
    over time and with various weather conditions. Add    and radioactive particles, can be troublesome.
    the thousands of, manmade compounds in varying          The biology and chemistry of shallow waters of the
    mixes and concentrations contributed in sewage and    sea are closely dependent upon the geological activi-
    industrial effluents and entering from the atmosphere    ties mentioned above. Since these waters and their
    and by land runoff, and an already complex and
    constantly changing chemical soup is further ncmp  processes are all complex and varying, the resultant
    constantly changing chemical soup is further com-
    plicated.                                             "broth" is likewise, contributing further to difficul-
      Indeed,  their natural  complex  and  dynamic    ties of understanding, definition, and control. Thus,
    chemical systems are the features which render    they present great and growing problems to scientists,
    separation, or detection, and analysis of the various    engineers, and management people alike. Great,
    chemical components of these waters so difficult.   because of the natural complexity and their dynamic

    708                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    nature. Growing because of the added contributions    estuarine situations. In such cases, assimilative and
    and pressures of burgeoning coastal populations.      dispersive capacity may be restricted or reduced
                                                         and the system may behave like an estuary or lagoon.
                                                         Sewage outfalls and sludge deposits should not be
    FEATURES OF COASTAL WATERS                            placed in such coastal reaches unless slow dispersion
                                                         or containment is desired.
      Outside of the mouths of the great bays and tidal
    tributaries and of the passes and inlets of the fringing
    bays, lagoons, and sounds lie the coastal waters.    People-Another
    Shallow and turbulent, yet bordering on the depths    Estuarine Concept
    of the oceans, these coastal waters are subject to
    effects of wind and of water injected into them from    Coastal waters and/or estuaries have been estab-
    upland drainage and from the wetlands, estuaries,   lished above as complex and dynamic natural sys-
    bays, and sounds they drain.                          tems in their own right. Neglected has been mention
      In the- deeper passes and rivers and through the    of people, people in concert-of society and its im-
    bay mouths -a two-way flow exists with saltier shelf   pacts on these difficult and fragile ecosystems.
    water flowing inward at the bottom while fresher and
    lighter estuarine water flows outward at the top.
    In some this flow pattern is reversed. In yet others    THE EFFECTS OF MAN
    the lighter, fresher water flows out at one side and the
    saltier, heavier water in at- the other. Thus, coastal  As we have seen, even without society and its
    waters receive fresher estuarine and surface runoff   varying needs and wants and its changing demands
    waters- (or saltier water from -hypersaline embay-    and pressures, estuaries and coastal systems are
    ments) as well as contribute directly to estuarine   sufficiently complex and dynamic to confuse com-
    flows. Additionally, inshore coastal waters may be    prehension and confound management. Add man
    augmented by upwelling from deeper oceanic basins,    and his works and the difficulties of understanding,
    by water masses moving alongshore, and by injec-   working with, or managing them are magnified and
    tions and meanders -from powerful' ocean currents    compounded.
    like the Gulf Stream. As shown schematically in
    Figures 1, 2, and 3, all receive surface drainage and
    lateral flowage into their surface waters, to say noth-  Society's demands.--Society has been living on the
    ing of injections from the atmosphere via precipita-   shores of the seas since before written history and
    tion.                                     -           long before the problem of waste management
      In-these coastal waters mixing is usually vigorous    became a major concern. Society's demands on the
    and large volumes of water are available; hence,    environments and resources of the estuaries have
    quality as determined by dissolved oxygen is gen-   grown and changed over the millennia as they are
    erally good. However, domestic and industrial out-   doing even today. Beginning with simple wants and
    falls dominate in some places. Where they do, quality   needs, the demands of the small populations com-
    is often poor. There are some locations, too, where    prising early families and tribes and tribal confedera-
    circulation patterns may concentrate pollutants or   tions probably worked no significant hardship on
    flotsam and jetsam, which remain either offshore or   estuaries. However, as engineering capabilities have
    move  toward and onto shore. These places are   developed and human populations and maritime
    usually unsightly or foul, or both. There are reaches   industries have grown and changed, man's impact on
    of beaches where wave energy is focused into such    the estuaries has magnified also. It is sufficient to
    strongly erosive forces that surface and subsurface   point out here that the impacts of society on estuaries
    structures are endangered by buffeting and erosion.    and coastal waters have increased markedly in size,
    (Goldsmith, V. G., personal communication). Ob-    number, and complexity and that they are dynamic,
    viously, such features would have to be considered    changing as society's needs, demands, and technolog-
    when placing, building, and operating ocean sewage   ical abilities do.
    outfalls or in disposal of dredge spoils, sludge, trash,  Man's activities, too, can only be roughly ca-tegor-
    or other materials.                                   ized and understood, at least partially, but their
                                                         dynamic effects introduce a whole new dimension
                                                         of difficulty into our attempts to understand -the
      Semi-estuarine situations.-At places along the    ecosystems involved. With man in- the picture, estu+
    coast peninsulas and promontories may so restrict   arine and coastal ecosystems become increasingly
    circulation as to produce semi-lagoonal or semi-   difficult to understand.

                                            CONCLUDING REMARKS                                            709

      Growth-one factor.-That most of the people    management',  use,  and  preservation  developed.
    in the United States live on the shores of the oceans    But prescription of uses or the most economical
    and their tidal tributaries or of the Great Lakes has    and reasonable basis to meet the needs of nature and
    been stated and demonstrated many times. Further    society can only be accomplished by a detailed local
    repetition is unnecessary.  Sometimes  neglected,    knowledge of each estuary or inshore zone and of
    however, is the fact that each year the populations of    each of its affected operational segments.
    the coastal counties of the nation change in numbers,
    generally increasing ("The National Estuarine
    Pollution Study," USDI, 1969). Too, the specific    The Receiving Streams
    demands placed on estuarine ecological systems vary
    from region to region, from estuary to estuary, or        Having established that coastal waters and estu-
    even within estuaries.                                 aries are complex, dynamic, variable in location,
                                                          extent, depth, and in other critical dimensions and
      Time--the other factor.--One other natural factor    that they are subjected to varying conditions of tides
    plays a role in both coastal waters and society, that    and climate and other features, it remains to estab-
    of long-term, one-way and normally irreversible   lish clearly why these features are important to our
    change-evolutionary change. As do natural, un-    ps because these are the receiving
    disturbed estuaries, societies undergo evolutionary    streams, the waters for the effluvia and rejecta of
    changes as well as short-term modifications. Those    coastalsocieties (and even those far inland). And it
    alterations wrought by nature usually require longer   is their absorbing, diluting, and modifying powers
    periods of time, while those of man often require    which, coupled with the contaminants and altera-
    only a short time. Man-caused modifications are tions of many will determine the ultimate questions
    taking place at an increasingi rate and are of growing of quality within coastal zone waters or even far at
    magnitude as technological skills permit.               sea-of whether or not pollution exists and its extent.

      Long and short-term changes.-Superposition of the    U1DERSTANDING FOR MANAGEMENT
    short-term, dynamic characteristics of estuaries and
    coastal waters with their daily, seasonal, and other      These waters, therefore, must be understood and
    cyclical changes upon the slower, largely unidirec-   that understanding must be utilized in any sound
    tional alterations of nature makes understanding and    program of water quality (or wastewater) manage-
    control difficult. Adding the alterations of man and    ment. Obviously, all of the factors mentioned above,
    his changing numbers, needs, and uses compounds    natural and social, must be known and considered
    this dynamism. In truth, -estuarine and  coastal    when water quality criteria are being developed,
    ecosystems with their added burden of society are    when standards are established, when control and
    not only complex and sometimes fragile but they are    monitoring schemes are projected, and when projects
    variable and varying. Thus, even without man they    for industrial development, recreational develop-
    are difficult to study, to learn, and to know. Add    ment, utilities, housing, and other activities are
    society and these difficulties are worsened. Man can    being planned, sited, constructed, and operated.
    make substantial changes even while conducting            The biological, chemical, geological, and physical
    studies designed to learn how' things were! These    characteristics of estuaries and coastal waters and
    changes can so alter the nature of the system as to    the realities of social activity on the coasts will
    make new studies necessary, 'even before the old    ultimately determine not only the nature of the uses
    one is completed!                                      to which these environments can be put without
                                                          severe'damage to them and to society but also de-
                                                          termine the costs.
      How can estuaries, and coastal waters be under-         Economics also must be considered. Under current
    stood.--There are certain basic similarities 'among    conditions of world wide economic stress it is appar-
    the-myriad and unique estuaries and coastal waters,   ent that':every effort must be made to maximize the
    to be sure. Similarities of structure and function,    productive uses to which marine resources and en-
    which can be used to develop understanding, princi-    vironments can be put while retaining their utility,
    pies, and models' can be detected and described. By    viability, and potential. The food, minerals, recrea-
    doing so, common factors of the classes, systems,    tional, and aesthetic aspects and the' cooling and
    and phenomena of estuaries and coastal waters    absorptive properties of estuarine'and coastal waters
    can be ascertained and generalized frameworks for'   are of great economic value!

    710                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      Variation and environmental management.-Thus,    the two extremes. However, there can be little ques-
    estuaries, which in reality are complexes of natural    tion that man and his demands are pressing the
    ecosystems and ecotones (smaller zones of transi-   resources and environments of the coastal margins
    tion between ecosystems), are extremely varied    of the World Ocean-and heavily.
    and variable. Because of their variety and changea-
    bility and their wide variation in size and location,    CLASSIFICATION AND QUALITY
    estuaries are hard to generalize about, to know, or
    to deal with as a group or in classes. They are almost
    as variable and difficult as human individuals and  t      iny ings of "The National Etuarine Pollution
    present similar difficulties to students and managers   Study."-This work (USD, 1969) divided coast-
    alike. Groupings can be mades but s t u d e n     s    land anag er lines, the United States, and its commonwealths and
    alike. Groupings can be made, but in the last analy-    territories into the 10 biophysical regions depicted
    sis they must be understood and managed as in-   territories into the 10 biophysical regions depicted
    dividuals. Doing so poses massive problems             in Figure 4. It then proceeded to typify the classes of
              dividuals.   D oi n g s o poses lassive problems anestuarine and coastal waters within each region and
    great strain, and requires considerable knowledge,    estuarine and coastal waters within each region and
    care, and skill. Careful environmental and resource    to discuss their condition.
    engineering  is required.  Management  must  be           It would be profitable to examine anew and in
    sophisticated and well-equipped with technological    detail the conditions of uses, modification, and the
    capability. It must also be well-staffed and provided    quality in each of these 10 zones and to conduct a
    -with scientific knowledge of the environments and    thorough review of all estuaries and coastal waters
    resources involved and of society's needs and de-    included; however, restrictions of time and space do
    mands. A  close interaction between management    not allow it. Fortunately, we can utilize previous
                                                          work.
    and science and engineering is required. Unfortun-    work
    ately, at present there are many shortcomings in the
    ability of each to respond to the problems. Not the    find that 25 estuarine systems (page II 60), including
    least of these is a lack of understanding of the com-    Penobsc ot Bay, Boston Harbor, New York Harbor,
    plex and dynamic environments and resources which    Raritan Bay, the Delaware Estuary, Baltimore
    we seek to utilize wisely or of the "real" present and    rbor, the upper Potomac, the James, Charleston
    future needs of society.                                Harbor, San Juan Harbor (P.R.), Tampa Bay, the
                                                          lower Mississippi Laguna Madre, San Diego Bay,
                                                          Puget Sound, Silver Bay (Alaska), and Hilo Harbor
    WATER QUALITY ASPECTS                                   (Hawaii) "show definite documented water quality
                                                          degradation as a result of human activities." It
      It is not within the province of this essay to com-   further stated that for "38 percent of the systems of
    ment in detail upon possible organizational arrange-    the United States there is a lack of information to
    ments for management or for all of the myriad    allow judgment  of whether  there is ecological
    scientific and engineering activities required to de-    damage, or whether there are just no easily identi-
    termine how much of man and his various demands    fiable problems present"-yet.
    the environments can tolerate and support. Instead,       The report proceeds to point out that, "Wherever
    it is our task to evaluate trends in the quality of    people live, work and play in the estuarine zone the
    estuarine and coastal waters, to examine existing    demands of their social and economic activities
    water quality criteria, and to evaluate the state of the    place stresses on the biophysical  environments.
    art in establishing and evaluating water quality and    These stresses frequently result in degradation of
    water quality criteria.                                 that environment, perhaps not immediately or even
                                                          in a few years, but nonetheless certain in its devast-
    Quality of Estuaries                                   ing final impact."
    and Coastal Waters                                        The study continued (Page II 61) "The complex
                                                          nature of pollution in the 'estuarine zone (Author's
      Many authors and groups have examined and    note-used broadly in that study to include all tidal
    commented on quality of marine waters in the last   coastal waters as is done herein) prevents the separa-
    two decades. Their pronouncements range from    tion of sources of pollution, kinds of pollution ahd
    doomsday statements (such as the public pronounce-    types of environmental damage into neat compart-
    ments made by irresponsible, unfettered environ-    ments of cause and effect. All of human activities in
    mentalists) to euphoric, optimistic ones (such as    the estuarine zone can damage the environment and
    those propounded by some industry spokesmen or    most of them do." The report imparts a decidedly
    development-oriented propagandists). As frequently    negative impression of the condition of the Nation's
    happens, the truth seems to lie somewhere between    estuaries.

                                            CONCLUDING REMARKS                                            711

        PACIFIC                                                                                      NORTH
    NO RTHWEST                                                                                       ATLANTIC

                                                                                               MIDDLE
                                                                          CHESAPEAKE BAY       ATLANTIC

        PACIFIC
    SOUTHWEST

                                                                                           SOUTH
                                                                                       ATLANTIC

                        LALASKA  |~                             GULF OF MEXICO  C
                                                                                      CARIBBEAN
                                             GUAM     �u              PUERTO RICO

                                           ;' ~       HAWAI I
                        ALASKA                  PACIFIC ISLANDS           CARIBBEAN

       FIGURE 4.-Biophysical regions of the United States (from The National Estuarine Pollution Study, U.S.D.I., 1969).

      Whether one subscribes to this somewhat dismal    a large majority (73 percent) of the estuaries and
    and dismaying conclusion, there is no question that    subestuaries in the United States had been moder-
    for each use to which man puts these waters there is   ately or severely modified by man. Even though
    a cost in quality or quantity or both. The objective    some of the modification described is in the form of
    of good management is to arrange it so that our uses    summer-home encroachment on scenic areas (an
    and demands absorb only what nature can spare-    activity whose damaging impacts are often difficult
    that we use only the overage or excess, the interest    to establish or qualify), this is a staggering per-
    and not the principle. We must be "good" parasites    centage considering the fragility of estuaries and
    and not kill the host.                                 their importance to the adjacent seas and to the
                                                          economic and social welfare of man. Much of the
                                                          modification recorded by this study, directly relates
      Findings of "The National Estuary Study".-    to the problem at hand-degradation of water qual-
    After developing a series of interesting color-coded    ity by pollution and modification.
    maps depicting the condition of estuaries and coastal
    waters according to whether they were: 1) relatively
    unmodified, 2) moderately modified, or 3) severely        Good is not good enough!-It is possible to find
    modified, this effort (USDI, 1970) presented a table    weaknesses in both studies and in all other such
    illustrating the degree of modification of estuaries.    nationwide, general evaluations. It is easy to point
    Like the chart previously mentioned (Figure 4)    out that, some of these systems are naturally "dirty;"
    this table (adapted for use herein as Table 1), uti-   that they were on the evolutionary road to oblivion
    lized biogeographic zones. Of all of the American    long before the industrial and technological revolu-
    estuaries and subestuaries reviewed, 23 percent were    tions began and the population pressures of today
    severely modified and 50 percent were moderately    developed. We can even point with pride at the
    modified while only 27 percent were slightly changed.    efforts being made to eliminate or reduce toxicants,
    Thus, in the opinion of the preparers of that study,    nutrients, and harmful changes-and we should!

    7/12                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    Table i.-Modifications of the Natron's estuaries.' Most estuarine areas of the   becomes'a problem, one which must be directly ht-
    United States have been modified more or less severely by man's activities.
    The degree of modification Is indicated by regional zones in the following table:   tacked and solved. We talk of food and resource
                                                            shortages and environmental problems, but never
                             Degree of Modification of Estuaries   seem willing to face its root causes-too many people,
        Biogeographic Zone  Slight      Moderate  evere    too many demands. We seem to have a blind side
                                                            when it comes to population and to growth. We 4till
                                     Percent               generally seem to believe the more the better, even
                                                            if not the merrier. This abysmal attitude is discouragZ
    North Atlantic  ..- ..... 44         48           8   ing.
    Middle Atlantic .. --           - -- 5  68       27   i n
    Chesapeake Bay -.-.-.--..- - - 44     50          6      It is not possible to agree, however, with the doom-
    South Atlantic .-. ......... 36       60          4   sayers that the oceans must die in a decade or three
    Biscayne and Florida Bay .. 50       50 50  0
    Gulf of Mexico --- - --                       --15  51  34   or even five decades. Nor is it possible to agree with
    S.W. Pacific -... . .     ... 19      19         62   those who apparently believe that man has no right
    N.W. Pacific- --- - --13             50          37   to occupy the coastal zone or to use or modify its
    Alaska -------------------..  80      20          0
    Hawaii --------------------. 54      15          31   resources and environments. Both conclusions seem
    Great Lakes ...- ..... 35            46          19   overdrawn. The last is foolish! Man, too, is a product
                                                            of nature, of the evolutionary process, and belongs
    United States        -     -    - -- -           ---------- 27  50  23
                                                            naturally on planet earth. It is necessary to conclude,
    Source: Field evaluation carried out by Fish and Wildlife Service's personnel during   however, that the quality of the coastal zone is
    course of Estuary Protection Act study.                being degraded and that we have neither learned to
                                                            appreciate and apply the well established concepts of
     o From the "National Estuary Study" (u.S.D.I., 1970)
     i From the "National Estuary Study" (U.S.D.I., 1970)  carrying-capacity, nor how to match ourselves with
     2 All estuaries and subestuaries were individually rated for each zone. The per-
    centage refers to the proportion of these individual areas that were rated as indicated.   nature--nor to understand and manage either well.
                                                            Much must yet be learned!
    The condition of some estuarine areas has been im-
    proved or the rate of degradation altered, as for    Existing Water
    example the upper tidal Potomac, New York Harbor,    Quality Criteria
    and San Francisco Bay. There must remain, nonethe-
    less, the conclusion that the best that we have done     The con'clusion' that the United States continues
    or can do under present conditions of knowledge,    to lose ground in its fight to reverse the trend' of
    technology, and commitment is not enough. All of    degradation' of estuaries and 'of coastal water does
    the signs available today indicate that the quality of   not detract from the positive effiorts that have been
    estuaries and coastal waters continues to decline.    made at the federal level, by Congress and the
    We are making 3 knots against a 4 knot current.    Executive, by state legislative and executive authori-
    Our water quality management-<effort is making    ties, and even by many regional and local bodies.
    "sternway"-more slowly than without the effort,   Fruitful efforts to improve management capabilities
    but sternway nevertheless. We are still losing!        have gone forward under the several acts mentioned
      It is to be expected that the current economic    above. Most states, counties, and cities have in-
    downturn and the lowering trend in population    creased their efforts at controlling pollution and
    ,growth will slow the rate of degradation or modifica-    engineering and 'there has been general improve-
    tion of estuarine and coastal environments and    ment. As pointed out above, some estuarine areas
    resources but it is doubtful that progressive deg-    have been partially cleaned tiup. In others, the'prog-
    radation will be stopped until knowledge and con-    ress of degradation continues with little abatement.
    trol techniques and arrangements improve mark-           Among the efforts that have contributed positively
    edly. Pressures of the coastal zone continue to grow    to our increasing control ovei the factors affecting
    as the population of the United States rises '(by    water quality have been the Water Quality Criteria
    births, decreasing mortalities, and immigration)    developed by the National Technical Advisory
    and especially as the populations of the'counties,    Committee (NTAC, 1968) and the several panels of
    cities, and towns in the coastal zone grow due to the    the Water Quality Committee of the Environmenital
    continuing coastward movement of people. We have    Studies Board of the National Academy of'Sciences-
    not yet learned how'to establish' carrying capacity    National Academy  of Engineering  (NAS-NAE,
    of specific land areas or' river basins or how to Control    1973).
    population levels in specific regions.; We mustf In-     The Environmental Protection Agency has also
    deed, there is as yet no 'general agreement that in   recently developed suggested criteria (EPA, 1974).
    some places or at certain rates and levels, growth    These will be considered in order.

                                            CONCLUDING REMARKS                                          713

    THE NATIONAL TECHNICAL �                              mitted quickly into standards of control for wide geo-
    ADVISORY COMMITTEE                                    graphic application. Several other cautionary notes
                                                         or warnings included -in the report were apparently
      Based upon a review of published data and con-   unheeded. As a result, many of the standards pre-
    clusions, and including even unpublished data, a    scribed are impossible of attainment.
    group of scientists and engineers familiar with the
    various problem areas was gathered, to accumulate,
    evaluate, and summarize a wide range of the existing    Mixing zones and zones of passage.-Too, the
    kriowledge related to water quality with the purpose    Committee addressed itself to other problems re-
    of establishing water quality criteria and recom-   lated to management of water quality in estuaries
    mendations for management. The results of their   and coastal waters such as "mixing zones" and
    considerable effort were published in 1968 and the    "zones of passage." These two subjects are quite
    report quickly became known as '"The Green Book"    important since as long as there are effluents to be
    (NTAC, 1968a). Of course, the NTAC owed much    released there will be mixing zones and the problem
    to earlier encyclopedic efforts such as those by    will be to keep them limited in extent and number to
    Vinogradov (1953), McKee and Wolf (1963), and to    the bare minimum required.
    many  technical  papers  produced  by  previous         Limitation of mixing zones is necessary to allow
    workers.                                              multiple use of the waterways in question and sur-
                                                         vival of the fish, wildlife, and other species of the
                                                         normal biota so vital to the economic and aesthetic
      The Results.-In addition to addressing the water    activities of man. Additionally, effluent mixing zones
    quality requirements for the various broad categories    must be so arranged within an estuary (or along the
    of uses to which natural waters are put, or for the   coast) as to allow adequate zones of passage for
    aquatic resources on whichithe various uses may be    species which must travel (or be transported) up
    based, the Advisory Committee considered certain    and down stream or along shore, such as herring and
    details of the many pertinent sampling and analytical   shad, striped bass, and most other coastal and/or
    procedures.                                           estuarine-dependent fishes. Pelagic larvae of oysters
      Within these categories of uses and the resources    and clams and a host of other ecologically or econom-
    on which those uses depend, many species of chemi-   ically important shellfish are also involved.
    cals and groups of manmade contaminants were con-
    sidered. These included toxic or damaging chemicals,
    oils, and heavy metals, as well as other factors, for   Research Needs for Water Quality.-In addition to
    example, nutrients, turbidity producers, and color   the water quality effort, the National Technical
    modifiers.                                            Advisory Committee also reviewed the research
      Summaries of the demands and requirements for   needs related to establishing and improving water
    water by various major industrial activities con-   quality criteria and standards and for monitoring
    sidered were also provided in "The Green Book."'  natural and modified aquatic systems. Its report,
                                                          "Research Needs" (NTAC, 1968b) was- published
                                                         after "The Green Book" appeared. Unfortunately,
       Specific criteria and standards.-Specific criteria   its recommendations have not been well-heeded and
    or recommendations for management of quality were    much of the important research and development
    developed where possible. Unfortunately,; the water    activities urged in that report has not yet been
    quality criteria established by NTAC  were too    accomplished.
    quickly converted by the authorities responsible into
    "Standards." The word "unfortunate' is used be-
    cause in the rush to develop those standards the    THE NAS-NAE ENVIRONMENTAL
    caveats so clearly specified by the committee in pre-    STUDIES BOARD
    paring the report, were ignored. They were restated
    by J. G. Moore, commissioner of FWPCA, in his let-      The efforts of the various panels of the Environ-
    ter of transmittal to then Secretary Stewart L. Udall;    mental Studies Board of the National Academy of
    Moore pointed out that "Regional Variations in   Sciences-National Academy of Engineering seem to
    climate, typography, hydrology, geology, and other    have been patterned after the work of the NTAC.
    factors must be considered in applying the criteria   This activity, conducted under a contract from the
    offered by the Committee to the establishment of   Environmental  Protection  Agency,  resulted  in
    water  quality  standards  in  specific localities"    a voluminous report which is, not surprisingly,
     (NTAC, 1968a). However, the criteria were trans-   coming to be called "The Blue Book" because of its

    714                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    striking blue cover. The report utilizes the same    current change induced by the deepening of an
    broad categories of water uses and water-dependent    estuarine channel or by diversion of freshwater
    resources (aquatic life and wildlife) as did the NTAC    inflow can have as far-reaching effects on water
    effort. Too, the NAS-NAE report makes recom-    quality, on fishery and wildlife resources, and on
    mendations for management guidelines and criteria   users as any chronic contaminant.
    for the various classes of contaminants and the im-
    portant chemical molecules known or believed to be
    of importance in water quality.                           A basis for revised criteria and standards.-Despite
                                                          these criticisms (and there likely could be others)
                                                          "The Blue Book" should provide a broader and
      Improvements  over earlier efforts.-"The  Blue    firmer basis for specific improvements upon the cri-
    Book" effort of NAS-NAE included far more data    teria and standards developed in earlier efforts. It
    in its presentation, than did that of the NTAC. Of    will be necessary for the standards-setting agencies
    course, the NAS-NAE panels had the benefit of    such as EPA and state governments to consider well
    several more years of research but they also seem    the qualification stated in the general introduction,
    to have been able to encompass more of the avail-   to wit: "The Committee wishes to emphasize the
    able data than the 1968 study did. Review of the    caveat so clearly stated in the introduction to "The
    report in preparation of this article, confirms the    Green Book." The Committee does not want to be
    statements of Drs. Handler and Linde, presidents of    dogmatic in making its recommendations. They are
    the National Academy of Sciences and the National    meant as guidelines only, to be used in conjunction
    Academy of Engineering respectively, which said,    with a thorough knowledge of local conditions." In
    "The 1972 report drew significantly on its 1968    other words, the Committee can be interpreted
    predecessor; nevertheless the current study repre-    as saying that these recommendations and criteria
    sents a complete reexamination of the problems, and    should not, indeed cannot be, automatically adopted
    a critical review of all the data included here."      as nationwide, regional, or even statewide standards.

      Shortcomings.-While generally a significant im-    EPA's PROPOSED CRITERIA
    provement upon the earlier NTAC work, the 1972    FOR WATER QUALITY
    report has some shortcomings. For example, "The
    Blue Book" fails to address the possible water de-        Following the work of the NAS-NAE Committee
    grading effects of modifications of the various geo-    on Water Quality, EPA prepared its own report
    physical parameters, such as: a) bottom topography,    ("Proposed Criteria for Water Quality," Volume I
    depth, and shoreline contours by dredging and spoil    and  "Water  Quality Information,"  Volume  11,
    disposal; b) shoreline contours and basin cross-    1973) in partial fulfillment of the provisions of
    section by shoreline filling or cutting; c) cuifrent    Section 304(a) of the Federal Water Pollution Con-
    modifications as by training wiers; and d) inflow    trol Act Amendments of 1972. According to Vol-
    changes as by impoundments and diversions of up-    ume 1, page 12:
    stream waters. As the NTAC study pointed out
    in "The Green Book," these modifications may have           Water quality criteria as compiled in this document are
                                                              defined as the acceptable limits of constituents in receiv-
    profound effects on such important factors as circu-        ing waters based upon an evaluation of the latest scien-
    lation patterns, tidal patterns, and salinity levels,       tifie information by the Environmental Protection
                        others. The significance of modifications in  Agency. They are to form the datum for the Agency's
    among others. The significance of modifications in          1983 interim goal of improving the Nation's waters to a
    the natural order of things caused by these activities,     quality that provides for the protection and propagation,
    both by themselves and in concert with introduced           of fish and wildlife, and for the health of humans in their
    contaminants, has been treated by a number of               pursuit of recreation in and on these waters.
    authors. (See for example the works of Hargis, 1966
    and 1972; Chapman, 1971, and others, as well as    AN EPA COMPARISON
    the appropriate sections of the NTAC report).           OF CRITERIA
      These aspects have also been ignored in the de-
    velopment of many of the various water quality            The EPA Document, "Comparison NTAC, NAS
    standards by the states and EPA. Perhaps this is   and Proposed EPA Numerical Criteria for Water
    because many state water quality management or-    Quality" (EPA No. 449, no date, probably 1974)
    ganizations do not have primary jurisdiction over    comprises a comprehensive tabular comparison of
    channel dredging or water diversions or similar    those criteria which can be presented in numerical
    engineering-type projects. Nonetheless, a salinity or    form or as brief narratives. It is based upon all

                                             CONCLUDING REMARKS                                            715

    three documents mentioned above, i.e. the NTAC    probably the best that could have been achieved by
    "Green Book," the NAS-NAE "Blue Book" and    any reasonable national effort, examination of the
    EPA's "Proposed Criteria for Water Quality" and    foundations on which they are based is necessary.
    is useful in drawing a great deal of data together,    To develop the most effective and least costly man-
    allowing a quick comparison.                           agement effort possible requires, among other things,
      In general, a review of these new EPA documents    standards that reflect reality as accurately as pos-
    indicates that the current proposed EPA criteria   sible. Poorly founded standards place unnecessary
    are based closely upon those presented in "The    burdens on the user and his customers, if any, (if
    Blue Book." This seems an acceptable procedure    too high) and on the public's environments and
    since the NAS-NAE effort is the most recent and    resources (if too low). Like other types of engineer-
    complete compendium currently available, as far as    ing, environmental engineering must be based on
    this author is aware.                                  reliable or "real" data and it must be done to as
                                                          close tolerances as possible!
                                                            All three of the groups involved with developing
      Missing parameters.-Unfortunately, several of   national criteria had to deal with certain difficulties,
    the significant chemical parameters such as nitrates,    though NAS-NAE and EPA had fewer to handle
    nitrites, phosphorous, salinity, and others, are not    than did the NTAC-the pioneer group. Each was
    indicated in the EPA Criteria even though one or    faced with formidable tasks of attempting to accu-
    the other (or both) of the two basic compendia of    mulate and evaluate data from many sources within
    criteria (NTAC, 1968a and NAS-NAE,  1972) did    restrictive periods of time. The NTAC effort prob-
    think them sufficiently important to examine and    ably suffered most in this last respect; its working
    mention. This lack should not deter states, or EPA    life was limited to a few months.
    for that matter, from addressing these ecologically
    and economically important features.
                                                          ADEQUACY OF BASIC DATA

    Development of Standards                                  The data that are available are variable in statis-
      The purpose of criteria is to provide a basis for   tical and analytical reliabilit. Frequently, it is
                  development of standards and management proe-    difficult to validate them, even with adequate time.
    dures. However, the cautions expressed above re-   Under pressing time constraints a great deal must
    garding the universal applicability of any of the    be taken on the reputation of the author or institu-
    previously developed criteria for adoption or modi-    tion performing the work-or on pure faith!
    fication as standards must be considered. Standards
    developed directly from criteria without due care
    developed directly from criteria without due care         Status of scientific knowledge.-Actually, the cover-
    of their limitations for use in specific locations or     Status of science of the various chemical, physical, and
                               situaions.annot  ind wl n t,=   bage by science of the various chemical, physical, and
    situations cannot, indeed will not, be adequate. The    biological parameters involved in water quality is
                                                           biological parameters involved in water quality is
    ills of estuaries and coastal waters, like human    variable. Sonie have been well investigated-some
    health, must be managed on an individual basis    varale.  ome have been well  vestgated-some
    Too, as will be seen, many of the data currently    only superficially Fortunately, the coverage and the
    available and used in developing criteria and stand-    competence  of t hat   erage has  reased rapidly
    ards are not especially well-verified nor is their   in the last decade, but serious gaps rema
    significance known. In many instances sufficient
    data are lacking. All of these factors present very       Analytical weaknesses.-It is extremely difficult to
    real limitations upon criteria and upon standards    detect many of the possible harmful chemical consti-
    developed from them and future revisions in both    tuents in estuarine and coastal waters because these
    will be necessary. Like many current medical data    waters contain so many natural chemical substances.
    and practices, however, they are the best we have    As the analytical chemists aver so colorfully, these
    to work with, and the patients (the marine waters    waters are extremely "dirty." Often, the contami-
    in this case) have problems and must be treated now!    nants involved are effective or toxic in extremely
                                                           minute quantities, (i.e. tenths or hundredths of
    The State of the Art:                                   parts per million or even tenths or hundredths
    An Examination                                          of parts per billion). Too, they are frequently so
                                                           similar to natural constituents of tidal waters that
      Having concluded that the water quality criteria    they are difficult to separate analytically. Also, they
    developed by the three groups mentioned above are    may appear, do their damage, and be removed by

    716                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    natural processes of sedimentation, flocculation, cir-   so dear to the hearts of medical experimenters) are
    culation, or dilution. Because of these problems    almost unknown. Unfortunately, little effective sus-
    effective analyses are difficult.                       tained effort to overcome these weaknesses is in
      For some chemicals, techniques of detection are    progress.
    still poor. In other words, analytical methods are
    weak or they are cumbersome-requiring specialized
    equipment or skills. For many chemical constituents,      Weaknesses in bioassay data.-Man  of the estu-
    only especially well-staffed and equipped laborato-    arne and marine criteria adopted by NAG  and
    ries are competent. All too frequently, enforcement    NAS-NAE are based upon bioassays conducted on
    laboratories are neither. The same may be said of   freshwater species alone. Often those done with
    some institutions engaged in basic research involved    actual marine and estuarine species have utilized
    in generating the data which are later incorporated    only the most hardy, the most difficult to damage
    into reports such as those under discussion.            or kill. It is desirable, as EPA workers have said
                                                          (EPA, 1973), to base criteria and standards on the
                                                         most important (importance is defined in several
      Standardization weaknesses.-Standardization  Of    ways, i.e. in numbers, economic importance, position
    sampling, analysis, and reporting is weak. It is,   in food chains and others) species in the estuarine
    therefore, difficult to compare results or evaluate    or coastal system for which they are being developed.
    them. In addition to all of these negative factors,    This is an objective rarely attained! As a conse-
    instrumentation and other facilities for sampling in    quence, criteria and standards are often based upon
    the field and laboratory, are in many instances, poor    extrapolations from less important and tougher
    or nonexistent. An excellent example is the lack of   species.
    readily available reliable and rapid analytical tech-     The uncertainties devolving from these short-
    niques for detection of chlorine and chlorine by-    comings render certain of the current criteria and
    products in estuarine waters. Standard chemical    standards of dubious validity or significance. Too,
    techniques are poor and instrumentation weak. Only    the safety factors involved in extrapolation to ac-
    in the last year has there been a promising break-    count for and cover the basic weaknesses in the
    through in this area due to joint efforts of the    data are extremely high, often placing severe eco-
    National Bureau of Standards and the Virginia    nomic burdens upon the users who must engineer
    Institute of Marine Science (R. J. Huggett, personal    to meet the standards.
    communication).
      To the all-too-frequent incompetence of specific
    sampling and analytical groups must be added the          Criteria for certain biological contaminants.-The
    extreme variability and dynamic nature of the estu-    above described difficulties occur in many of the
    arine and coastal waters, themselves. These aspects    chemical analyses (organic and inorganic), envi-
    were discussed in detail above.                         ronmental observations, and bioassays utilized in
                                                         management of estuarine and coastal waters. But
                                                         nowhere is the data base as weak as those on which
      Sampling and experimental difficulties.-Estuarine    the criteria and standards for pathogens, fungi,
    and marine animals and plants are difficult to sample    bacteria, and viruses, must be founded. There are
    effectively in nature. Statistically significant sam-   many basic unknowns concerning the viability of
    ples are hard to secure. Laboratory experimentation    viruses in natural waters. This is especially true of
    is even more difficult since the organisms involved    viruses in estuarine and coastal waters (Vaughn,
    often have complex life cycles with several stages,    1974). The same applies, but to a lesser extent for
    some of completely different habits. It was pointed    bacteria where the significance of the basic examina-
    out earlier that adult oysters are sedentary but the    tions, measurements, and standards have been in
    spawn of many species are discharged into the water.    question for almost 20 years. Despite its human
    Many of the larvae are free-swimming. The larval,    health significance and importance to quality con-
    free-swimming stages are more susceptible to adverse    trol, this aspect of water quality has been badly
    water conditions than are their sessile parents.        neglected. The criteria and standards suffer accord-
      Few marine species have been effectively held in   ingly. Much additional work is required. Unfortu-
    the laboratory even for one life stage, much less for    nately, few research laboratories are equipped or
    a complete life cycle. Far fewer have been reared or    staffed for (or concerned over) observations and
    cultured under controlled conditions. Laboratory    experiments in this area. Apparently, many local,
    lines of known genetic makeup and environmental    state and federal water quality laboratories are weak
    history (as for example in the mice or rat populations    also. The number of competent microbiologists and

                                            CONCLUDING REMARKS                                          717

    mlcroblological technicians with experience working    and signmficance of petroleum hydrocarbons, halldes,
    with estuarine and coastal waters is believed to    heavy metals, viruses, and bacteria are serlousl
    be small                                              Others are understood better
      This lack of intelest and broad capability with
    such important health-related factors is especially
    troublesome Unfortunately, no good techniques for
    sterilization or removal of viable viruses from effiu-   be based on competent local knowledge usmg the
    ent waters now exist (Vaughn, 1974)                   nationally developed criteria as a guide In most
      There are many other areas of weakness in basic    mstances, the level of knowledge required is very
    understanding of the factors important to effective   hgh and quite detailed for a specific locahzed envr-
    -water quality management.                            ronment Frequently, information does not exist or
                                                         is weak Most often, data have been hastily gathered,
                                                         covering only a short span of time Glven the nature
    BASELINES                                             of biological cycles and the seasonal and annual
                                                         variabllty of precipitation over estuarine and coastal
      Given the complex and dynamic nature of the    systems (and the extreme perturbations (i e wet
    waters under consideration and the vast volumes    or dry) and other extreme weather phenomena)
    and areas involved, it is little wonder that baseline    many of the observations now available for use in
    knowledge, or understandmg of the natural ambient    design and operation of industrial plants and sewage
    conditions, is not strong Until recent years effort m    outfalls are weak Inasmuch as tins ignorance intro-
    the field and laboratory has been spare and weak    duces uncertainties into the criteria, standards, and
    To be sure, conditions have improved in the last   pernut systems that obtain, and since engineering
    decade-and-a-half, but holes in the data remain A    to cover those uncertainties requires much effort
    number of the estuaries and coastal waters of the    and cost, if one must overdesign and overconstruct,
    United States have been investigated, but many    adequate baseline knowledge is importantl Examl-
    have not As an example of the magnitude of the    nation of the current situation indicates that much
    task involved, the Chesapeake Bay has been the    additional effort directed toward improving our
    home and arena of activity for what has been prob-   baseline knowledge is required
    ably the largest aggregation of estuarine scientists
    in the world since before 1950, yet much remais    Monitoring
    to be done As an example, among the several insti-
    tutions involved have been the Chesapeake Blologi-      Even after water quality criteria and standards
    cal Laboratory at Solomons, Md., and a part of the    have been developed and programs for construction
                                                         have been developed and programs for construction
    University of Maryland, the Chesapeake Bay Insti-    and operation of treatment plants are under con-
    tute of The Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore,    sideration-or actually m bemg-more remains to
    Md, the Virgima Institute of Marine Science at   be done Public and private managers must track
    Gloucester Point, Va ,the National Marine Fisheries    and learn the amounts and characteristics of dls-
    Service Laboratory at Oxford, Md ; the Environ-    charges and they must determine the condition of
    mental Protection Laboratory at Annapolis, Md,    the environment and biota on a frequent, even con-
    Old Dominion Umnversity in Norfolk, Va., the West-    tlnuous basis  Momtormg capability is required?
    inghouse group at Annapolis, and the several state    Without it it is impossble to evaluate success or
    investigative units m both Maryland and Virgima.    failure of the management program, to establsh
    Other institutions and individuals have been active    blame, or to rectify problems.

    CONCLUSIONS CONCERNING                                  Monstoring requirements -For momtorng to be
    PRESENT CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
                                                         effective, it must be timely, accurate, precise, and
                                                         complete in coverage For many parameters it must
      Clearly there must be shortcormngs in existing   also be frequent and regular Its reliability should
    criteria and standards since they are based, in part,    be assured
    upon the current, somewhat inadequate baseline
    knowledge of a) the environments involved and
    b) the requirements and tolerances of those environ-    Monztoring limitatzons -Unfortunately for man-
    ments and of the ammals and plants livung therein    agement, the same factors winch made baseline
    or dependent thereupon For some parameters, these    development and bioassay difficult also plague mom-
    shortcomings such as uncertainties over the fate   toring efforts. In sltu momtoring instruments of

    718                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    reliable quality are not readily available at reason-   are concerned. Not only are there weaknesses of
    able cost even now. Analytical techniques are in-   fact and of extent (detail, comprehensiveness, range)
    adequate and adequately trained technicians are   of basic understanding but also of technique. Our
    sparse. The salaries of water-treatment technicians    ability to conduct meaningful bioassays, using those
    are frequently too low to attract people of the re-   marine organisms that are really critical (as opposed
    quired level of training and reliability. Management    to being hardy and amenable to handling), to detect
    of treatment facilities is often weak.                and analyze many natural and manmade substances,
      All too frequently public water quality control   to provide effective instrumentation, and to mount
    agencies are forced to rely on effluent data gathered    adequate monitoring capability must be strength-
    and supplied by the discharger. Properly controlled,    ened! Otherwise, baseline knowledge, criteria and
    this obvious shortcoming need not be too damaging    standards, planning, operating, monitoring and en-
    but often there is no adequate followup or check.    forcement will continue inadequate.
    Without adequate checking such self-monitoring by
    dischargers must always be suspect. Many treat-
    ment plants are plagued by chronic overloads, poor      Imnprovements.-Sufficient improvements in these
    management, and inept personnel. Breakdowns in   areas have been made in the last decade and a half
    equipment and procedures are frequent and the   to allow greater confidence in present criteria, stand-
    "midnight valve" appears to be the ready resort of   ards, and management capability. We are doing
    operators with troubles.                              better and can improve.
      It is not unusual that the public agency whose
    task it is to provide management-level surveillance
    or monitoring of effluents in estuarine and coastal     Research needs.-Unfortunately, we lag badly in
    waters, is poorly prepared to do so. These weaknesses    support of meaningful background research, in de-
    are unfortunate because:                              velopment of better treatment techniques, and in
                                                          training personnel and staffing waste treatment
        The effectiveness of water management programs depends   facilities. Improvements in these aspects are possible
        in major part on the scope, accuracy, and precision of   also-even now!
        the characterization of both the waste sources and the
        receiving waters. Rational waste control systems and
        facilities cannot be developed and operated without
        accurate information on the significant sources of waste,  New forces.-New forces are upon us such as:
        and on their relation to the receiving water characteris-   a) the increased apparent need to develop new
        tics established for protecting the beneficial uses. Only
        in the light of this type of information can the limited   sources of energy by bringing Outer Continental
        financial resources available for waste control measures   Shelf oil and gas supplies into use; and b) the need
        be effectively allocated.                        to develop more nuclear generating plants, and other
                                                          water-affecting energy facilities. In the meantime,
      The preceeding quotation is the paragraph that    with inflation and a declining economic situation,
    introduced the excellent chapter dealing with moni-    pressures to reduce or eliminate controls and man-
    toring included in the NAS-NRC  (1970) study    agement efforts, which undoubtedly addto costs of
    entitled "Waste  Management  Concepts for the    development and use, are growing! It is a great
    Coastal Zone." The reader is referred to that docu-   temptation today to forget environmental safety in
    ment for a more comprehensive treatment' of the    order to reduce costs to meet an emergency of money,
    problem.                                              energy, and time-especially when many other coun-
      The NAS-NRC Committee examined the needs   tries have done so. To do so would be extremely
    of monitoring carefully and in detail. Others have    foolish and short-sighted! We must resist the pres-
    recently addressed the problems of monitoring ma-    sures! This can be done in part by increasing knowl-
    rine pollution at a workshop sponsored by the    edge, tightening quality control specifications, and
    National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration    managing to closer quality tolerances.
    in southern California (Goldberg, ed., 1972a). Their
    results confirm the opinions expressed above.
                                                            Zero discharge-a nonviable concept.-It must be
                                                          noted at this juncture, however, that the zero-
    A Summary of Shortcomings                             discharge concept of waste disposal and the urge
                                                          and effort to release to the environment effluents
      Weaknesses.-There are, then, weaknesses in our   which are "purer" than the natural waters of the
    basic understanding of the estuarine and economic    receiving stream are not reasonable or viable con-
    environments and of the resources with which we    cepts. Both ideas have contributed to: a) the antip-

                                            CONCLUDING REMARKS                                            719

    athy that the clean-water movement receives; b) a    they otherwise would be. But all concerned must
    lessening of legitimate efforts to acquire much needed    realize that additional efforts are necessary before
    knowledge; c) a weakening of the development of    we can prevent or reverse the processes of degrada-
    improved effective management; and d) a certain    tion as effectively as we must.
    false sense of security and accomplishment in legisla-
    tion and regulation. This is not to say that it may
    not be technically possible to accomplish such objec-    What Must Be Done?
    tives but it will be extremely costly for society to
    do so-even unnecessary.                                   Several shortcomings in ability to understand and
                                                         to devise and bring about effective systems for con-
                                                         trolling the quality of estuaries and coastal waters
      A point of urgency!-Hopefully, the current eco-    have been identified and described above. What
    nomic downturn, the urge for economy in govern-    must be done to reduce or eliminate them?
    ment, and the strong thrust for development of new
    energy sources will not result in reversal of the
    recent trend toward improving the ability to prevent    IMPROVEMENT OF
    pollution, or rather to contain it within reasonable    RESEARcH AND MANAGEMENT
    bounds. We cannot afford unnecessary expenditures
    of money to achieve levels of environmental control       The need for additional knowledge of the estuarine
    beyond those actually required. Neither can we allow    environments and organisms in question and the
    degradation of environment or unfettered use of   forces that act upon, and especially against them,
    resources!
                                                         is clear. So is the necessity for improved manage-
                                                         ment technology and organization. Additional finan-
    CONCLUSIONS                                             cial support for research and development and for
                                                         management applied in the right place is clearly
                                                         required. It is beyond the scope of this essay to
    The Current State of                                    indicate in greater detail or more specifically where
    Estuaries and Coastal Waters                           the needs for research and management are. It can
                                                         be said, however, that water quality criteria for
      Headway in development of standards and con-    estuaries and coastal waters and for dependent biota
    trols and greater public awareness and concern    and uses must be improved! To do so, additional
    has led to considerable improvement in ability to    effort at research and engineering development is
    slow, even prevent, contamination of estuaries and    necessary. As noted above, noteworthy effort was
    coastal waters. Older cities, located on estuaries    devoted by the National Technical Advisory Com-
    or coastal waters, such as Richmond, Va., and    mittee (USDI, 1968b), the NAS-NAE group (NAS-
    Washington, D.C., have stopped spewing raw sew-    NAE, 1973) in "The Blue Book," and by the EPA
    age into the upper James and upper Potomac, or    Water Quality Group  (EPA, 1973) in reviewing
    are supposed to have. The volume of untreated    research and engineering needs and those publica-
    sewage and the level of treatment have both changed    tions should be consulted for details. Most of the
    for the better in most places. However, in certain,    needs identified in the excellent document, "Waste
    even most, estuaries the trends of degradation con-    Management Concepts for the Coastal Zone: Re-
    tinue and at a much faster rate than in other waters.    quirements for Research and Investigation" (NAS-
    As a result it must be concluded that, however    NRC,  1970) remain unmet. It, too, provides a
    effective the effort has been, we still lose more than    well-developed guide to scientific and engineering
    we win. Thus, despite bright spots and the growth    requirements for all phases of waste-management
    of understanding and the ability to control, the    related water quality work, establishment of criteria
    general quality of the waters of our estuaries and    and standards, treatment, monitoring, and other
    coastal waters taken as a whole is worsening-at a    aspects of management, technology, and operations.
    slower rate in comparison with the growth of popu-    If the research and engineering needs described in
    lations and industry than 20 years ago-but still   these and other recent papers are carried out rapidly,
    worsening.                                             management will improve soon. If they are not--it
      The agencies, institutions, and persons who have    will be later! The same applies to improvements on
    been involved in the evolution of water quality    a) organization for management, b) criteria and
    criteria and standards deserve credit. American estu-    standards, c) waste treatment techniques, d) system
    aries and coastal waters are in better shape than    design engineering, and operation, and e) monitoring!

    720                                         ESTUARINE POLLUTION, CONTROL

    REFERENCES                                                      National Academy of Science-National Academiy of Engi-
                                                                    neering, Committee  on Water  Quality Criteria. 1973.
    Beers, Roland F., Jr. and 12 others (1971). The Chesapeake         Water Quality Criteria 1972: A Report of the Committee
      Bay: Report of a Research Planning Study, The Johns             o  Wter  uality Criteria. Government Printing Office,
      Hopkins University, the University of Maryland 'and the         Washington, D.C. EPA R3-73-003, March 1973.
      Virginia Institute of Marine Sciehce.
                                                                  National  Academy  of Science-National Research Cobuncil
    Chabreck, R. H. 1973. Proceedings of the Coastal Marsh             Com       mittee on Oceanography and National Academy of
      and Estuary Management Symposium. Louisiana State               Wastes Management  Concepts  for the Coastal  Zone,
      University, Baton Rouge.                                        Washington, D.C.
                                                                    Washington, D.C.
    Chapman, C. R. 1971. The Texas Water Plan and Its Effect
      on Estuaries, in a Symposium on the Biological Signifi-          1971. Marine Environmental Quality: Suggested Research
      cance of Estuaries. Sports Fishing Institute Publication,       Programs for Understanding Man's Effect on the Oceans,
      Washington, D.C.                                                A Report of a Special Study of the NAS-NRC Ocean Affairs
                                                                    Board, August 9-13, 1971, NAS, Washington.
    Clark, John. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems: Ecological Considera-
      tions for Management of   the    Coastal Zone. T eConserva-   National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering
      tions for Management of the Coastal Zone. The Conserva-
      tion Foundation, Washington, D.C. In cooperation with           Development 167 1968, 1969, 1970, 1971 Marin        Engineering
                                                                    Affairs. A series of Annual Reports of the NCMRED,
                                                                    considering Federal Oceanic Activities. Government Print-
    Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources.          ing Office, Washington, D.C.
      1969. Our Nation and the Sea: A Plan for National Action.
      House Document No. 91-42. Government Printing Office,    Odum, H. T., B. J. Copeland and E. A. McMahan. 1974.
      Washington, D.C.                                                Coastal Ecological Systems of the United States. The
                                                                    Conservation Foundation and National Oceanic and At-
    Duce, R. A., P. L. Parker and C. S. Giam. 1974. Pollution          mospheric Administration, Office of Coastal Environment-
      Transfer to the Marine Environment. Deliberations and           Washington, D.C. 4 volumes.
      Recommendations of the National Science Foundation:
      International  Decade  of Ocean  Exploration Pollutant
      Transfer Workshop, January 11-12, 1974, Kingston, RIPolltant    Pritchard, D. W. 1967. Observations of Circulation in Coastal
      Transfer Workshop, January 11-12, 1974K.                        Plain Estuaries, in Estuaries. G. H. Lauff. American
                                                                    Association for the Advancement of Science, Washington,
                                                                    D.C. AAAS Publication No. 83.
    Federal Interagency Committee on Multiple Use of the
      Coastal Zone. 1968. A Report on the Seminar on Multiple
      Use of the Coastal Zone. National Council on Marine Re-    Stroud, R. H. 1971. Introduction, in A Symposium on the
      sources and Engineering Development. Government Print-          Biological Significance of Estuaries. Sport Fishing Institute,
      ing Office, 870-042, Washington, D.C.                           Washington, D.C.

    Goldberg, E. D., Convener. 1972a. Marine Pollution Monitor-    Teal, J. M., D. L. Jameson and R. G. Baden. 1972. Living
      ing Strategies for a National Program. Report of the            Resources, in the Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the
      Marine Pollution Monitoring Workshop at Santa Catali            Coastal Zone. E. W. Ketchum, ed. MIT Press, Cambridge
      Marine Biological Laboratory. NOAA, Washington, D.C.            and London: 37-62.

    Goldberg, E. D., Convener. 1972b. Baseline Studies of Pollu-    U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution
      tants in the Marine Environment and Research Recom-             Control Administration. 1969. The National Estuarine
      mendations: The IDOE Baseline Conference, May 24-26,            Pollution Study,  Washington,  D.C.  3 volumes.  Also
      1972, New York, 1972.                                           available at Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
                                                                    Senate Document 91-58.
    Goldsmith, V. 1974. Personal Communication.
                                                                  U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution
    Hargis, W. J., Jr. 1971. An Evaluation of Physical and             Control  Administration,  National  Technical  Advisory
      Biological Effects of the Proposed James River Navigation       Committee. 1968a. Water Quality Criteria: Report of the
      Project. VIMS SRAMSOE 7.                                        National Advisory Committee to the Secretary of the
                                                                    Interior. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
    Hargis, W. J., Jr. 1972. Engineering Works and the Tidal
      Chesapeake in Remote Sensing of the Chesapeake Bay.           U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution
      A  Conference held at Wallops Station, Va. National             Control  Administration,  National  Technical  Advisory
      Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington, D.C.          Committee. 1968b. Research Needs. Government Printing
      NASA Sp-294: 105-123.                                           Office, Washington, D.C. 0-311-141.

    Huggett, R. J. 1974. Personal communication.
                                                                  U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,
                                                                    Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife and the Bureau of
    Lauff, G. H. 1967. Estuaries. American Association for the         Commercial  Fisheries.  1970. National  Estuary  Study.
      Advancement of Science. Washington, D.C. AAAS Pub-              Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 7 volumes.
      lication No. 83.
                                                                  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 197? (likely 1974).
    McKee, J. E. and H. W. Wolf. 1963. Water Quality Criteria.         Comparison of NTAC, NAS, and Proposed EPA Numerical
      The Resources Agency of California. State Water Quality         Criteria for Water  Quality. Environmental Protection
      Control Board. Publication No. 3.-A.                            Agency, Raleigh, N.C. EPA 449.

                                                CONCLUDING REMARKS                                                  721

    US  Environmental Protection Agency  1973  Proposed    Vmogradov, A P 1953 The Elementary Chemical Composl-
      Criteria for Water Quality, Washington, D C  2 volumes       tion of Marine Organisms Sears Foundation, New Haven,
                                                                Conn
    Vaughn, J M  1974 Human Viruses as Marine Pollutants    Williams, J  1962 Oceanography  An Introduction to the
      m Marinne Pollution Oceanus, Volume 18, No  1 Woods          Marnne Sciences  Little, Brown and Company, Boston,
      Hole Oceanographic Institutlon, Massachusetts 24-28          Toronto

    SEVEN WAYS TO                               -
    OBLITERATION: FACTORS OF
    ESTUARINE DEGRADATION

    JOEL W. HEDGPETH
    Pacific Marine Station
    Dillon Beach, California

                  ABSTRACT

                  The most significant factor contributing to the degradation of our estuaries is our failure to
                  treat an estuary as a natural system, rather than as a convenience serving man's many and
                  conflicting purposes. This attitude is exacerbated by lack of competence on the part of con-
                  sultants called upon to predict the results of interfering with natural processes they do not under-
                  stand in the first place. When this is combined with notions of cost-benefit analysis and trade-offs
                  that justify to ourselves the addition of deleterious substances and chemicals, alteration of tem-
                  perature and sediment regimes, and spillage of oil, the synergistic action may accelerate the
                  demise of an estuary.

    INTRODUCTION                                                 sewage, heavy metals, organochlorine compounds,
                                                                industrial effluents of all kinds, cooling water, oil,
      Estuaries have been a major factor in the develop-    radioactive material, and inert dumped  material
    ment  of civilization  and  man's  institutions.  As    from estuaries. Many of these can be treated to-
    sheltered environments for the establishment of cogr-    gether, e.g., chemical wastes of various kinds, al-
    merce and, for the most part, pleasing sites for    though we do not understand the effects of many
    settlement, estuaries provide the environment for    of them. There is also the danger that we may
    most of the great cities of the world. Yet, they are    synthesize  some  extremely  deleterious  substance
    also valuable resources for food gathering, and are    whose action will become apparent before we realize
    the site of man's first attempts to farm the sea. They    that we should never have produced it in the first
    are often thought of as fragile environments but, if    place.
    they were, they would have been destroyed long                  In this context, it is useful to consider some state-
    ago. It is the daily fluctuation and the regime of    ments from a British report on estuarine pollution:
    environmental changes, both tidal and seasonal,
    that protect the life of estuaries from  excessive
                                                                     In considering pollution in estuaries and coastal waters,
    damage, at least from moderate amounts of pollu-                   we frequently met the assumption that pollution is not
    tion, for the life of estuaries is adapted to, and de-             a hazard unless it directly endangers human health.
    pends on the environmental fluctuations. The same                  Wbetherefore emphasize that dangers to other forms of
                                                                     life may be no less serious. For example, if it were ever
    mechanisms that make estuaries excellent nutrient                  to become the case that a pollutant which inhibited the
    traps and enhance their value to life also make them               capacity of microorganisms in the sea to convert carbon
                                                                     dioxide to oxygen, or to break down organic matter,
    pollution traps, as emphasized by W.  E. Odum                      became widespread, this could be a menace. Concern
    (1970). There can easily be too much pollution and,               for the eventual impact on man of the ecological cycle
    most dangerously, combinations of various kinds of                 which ultimately sustains life is sometimes misinformed,
                                                                     but this concern is not mere sentimentality.
    pollution that together may have much more effect
    than several factors acting singly. This synergistic                                               the sea. Some of it is
    effect is difficult to estimate and predict.                       discharged through sewers directly into tidal waters;
       One of the most significant sources of environ-                 some reaches the sea through rivers. Some is carried into
                                                                      the air and brought down to the sea with rain; and some,
    mental degradation in estuaries is not usually thought             including some very toxic wastes, is dumped in containers
    of as "pollution." This is man's habit of digging                  from ships. The sea is a powerful and effective scavenger
    up estuaries for harbors and filling their borders                 of many pollutants,butrecently biologists have become
                                                                     apprehensive about its capacity to deal indefinitely
    and sometimes middle parts, for land on which to                   with the waste materials being put into it. There has
    build docks, factories, and even residences. At least              already been enough degradation of the environment to
    10 classes of polluting materials are discharged into             justify this apprehension, notably in enclosed seas like
                                                                     the Baltic and the Mediterranean, which have very
    estuaries  and  coastal waters;  some  of these are                little tidal rise and fall.

                                                                                                                    723

    724                                       ESTUARiNE POLLUTION CONTROL

         Two attitudes to the problems of pollution in estuaries    ECOLOGICAL  INEPTITUDE   -
         now confront the public. Contamination is without any
        doubt taking place and some estuaries are, by 'general
        consent, highly objectionable. Impressive quantities of     One  of the greatest endangering factors which
        offensive and, in some cases, potentially dangerous sub-    contributes less to .direct degradation of estuaries
        stances, are being put into them. and out into the sea.    than to inadequate protection measures and im-
         Evidence is available to show that these discharges may
        damage or destroy shellfish, birds, and fish. The im-    proper restoration recommendations is a peculiar
        mediate emotional reaction is to urge that this contami-    form of half-ignorance or lack of competence on the
        nation should be stopped and stopped at once, before
        it is too late to reverse the process of destruction.    part of the consultants and administrating officials.
                                                                This deficiency usually takes the form of oversimpli-
        The opposing attitude is to play down the'harm that    fied statement of ecological theory and a resulting
         is being caused and to point out, with every justification,    doctrinaire approach to such matters as food chains
         that the discharge of sewage  and industrial effluent    or webs, viewing diversity index as a magic number
         into the estuaries reduce the costs of industry by a
         considerable amount. Those who hold this attitude    for administrative purposes. The uninformed espouse
         point out correctly that to eliminate entirely these dis-    the mistaken notion that because sea and estuarine
         charges would throw a heavy burden on certain of the
         industries concerned and generally on the local com-
         munity, sufficient in some cases tocause some enterprises    loss of 99 percent is part of the course of nature,
         to be abandoned and people to be thrown out of work.    another small percent of loss of survivors can do
         Simultaneously, they argue that the tangible benefits
         to be gained, which can actually be costed, are minimal,    no harm. Inadequate understanding of ecology is
         amounting to little more than what would be saved by    not peculiar to those involved with estuaries, but
         reducing damage to inshore fisheries. They claim that    the estuarine situation is beset with many more pit-
         no damage to human health has resulted from these
         discharges nor has any long-term danger been proved to    falls for unwary  and  inadequate  ecologists than
         exist. Granted that many people are offended by the    terrestrial and freshwater environments.
        squalid condition of some estuaries; that does not justify  One would hope that such a statement as the fol
         putting local' government and industry to vast cost to
         remove the offence.                                      lowing, made in behalf of releasing pollution in a
                                                                bay instead of into the ocean, is exceptional, but
         The Commission's conclusion is that the truth lies    similar gems from the soft paper literature. suggest
         somewhere between these two sets of views. However       otherwise:
         desirable it would be to remove contamination from
         estuaries, there is a practical limit to the burden which
         should be placed on the community to achieve this aim.        More important than the argument of plant reliability
         This limit can be defined as the point beyond which the       because it deals with a falsr concept, is the argument of
         marginal cost of abating pollution exceeds the marginal       fragile ecosystem populations. Biologists recognize that
         cost 'of the damage being done by pollution. But the          a population that has a high diversity is more shock-
         inputs for this sort of calculation are rarely at hand; so    resistant than one that has low species diversity. No
         in practice, arbitrary constraints have to be put on the      matter what the shock that occurs to a highly diverse
         amount of pollution. This does not only mean the tangi-       population, there is some species within that population
         ble measurable damage such as the loss of fishery pro-        that is capable of dealing with that shock. There is a
         duction, but includes any loss of welfare that the            great deal of give and take in a highly complex environ-
         community may suffer as a result of the pollution. In         ment such as that found in the bay. The bay is, in com-
         addition, it may be some time, even years, before the         parison, a more diverse ecosystem than that of the open
         damage caused by certain forms of pollution-becomes           ocean, particularly in the case of such a limited aspect
         apparent.                                                     of the ocean as the near shore environment off the
                                                                     Samoa Peninsula. Indeed, environmentally, 'we miist
                                                                      consider that the bay is more amenable to transient
         (Royal  Commission  on  Environmental  Pollution,             plant operation disruptions than is the open ocean.
         LIj.M.S.O., 1972.)                                            It is on this particular error that the whole policy
                                                                     failure of the State Water Quality Control Board rests,
                                                                      as have some of the mistakes of other public agencies in
      This rational view of the situation, as the com-                 the past. It is true that many estuarine systems have
    mission concedes, constitutes an attitude of trade-                 suffered from hypereutrophication and toxicity due to
                                                                     various waste discharges, including municipal effluents,
    off, of potential sacrifice of life or environment                 'None of those estuarine situations are similar to that of
    that can be averted only by "arbitrary constraints."                Humboldt Bay. Humboldt Bay does not contain the
    Too often, from the environmentalist point of view,                 freshwater-saltwater wedge th     at is present in most
                                                                     rivermouth estuarine systems. The populations of Hum-
    constraints are relaxed in favor of the short-term                 boldt Bay are not subject to a daily or twice-daily shock
    advantage to man.  Without clearly realizing the                   of fresh water and salt water which limits the number
                                                                      of species. They are composed of hardy forms that have
    implication of this attitude,  we -are treating our                 evolved in a system of fairly uniform  temperature,
    fellow passengers on this planet, and the environ-                 salinity and density gradients subject to minor shocks
                                                                      of freshwater and of heavy organic loads from fresh-
    ment 'that supports us  all, as secondary  in im-                   water streams; in short, situations very much like
    portance  to  our  own  desires  and  as  potential                municipal sewage treatment facility effluents. These
                                                                     populations have evolved to handle such minor shocks
    nuisances that get in our way.                                      and to utilize the nutrients provided to attain high

                                            - CONCLUDING REMARKS.                                           725

        levels of productivity. Great-diversity at the lower    for inadequate environmental impact reports. They
        trophic levels of a system will be reflected in the high
        diversity at the upper levels of the system. It is very    have' committed themselves to predicting the effects
        difficult to imagine, a system with its high productivity    of a process when they do not understand the process
        and high diversity at the upper levels of a system without    involved. Many of the people concerned are unaware
        a great deal of diversity and productivity in the lower
        levels of the system. One of the higher levels of a system    of their inadequacies, serene in the delusion that
        such as that of the bay is the bird life. Birds eat the    since we all live in the same environment we are
        animals that ive on thh pankton smdaller marine    all qualified to study it. The complexities of en-
        debris in the bay. Humboldt Bay is noted for its wildlife   viromnental studies make it difficult to set standards
        and especially for its waterfowl population which are    and qualifications for consultants and experts, how-
        highly diverse and very abundant. Birders come from
        all over the country to watch birds on Humboldt Bay.    ever. Perhaps many  of the less endowed would
        One of the favorite spots for watching waterfowl 'on   retire from the field if they were required to reduce
        Humboldt Bay is the sewage oxidation ponds of Arcata    their fee at least 50 percent if their environmental
        where the concentration is great and the diversity of
        species to be found is truly amazing. It can be easily    impact reports were disqualified as inadequate by
        inferred that the steps of the food web below the bird    courts or hearing bodies.
        population are equally diverse, equally productive.    Education in the basic concepts of ecology is

        (Challenge of Water Quality Control Plan, North    needed urgently. There has been too much haphazard
        Coastal Basin 1B, 1974.)                            and inadequate teaching by persons whose own
                                                           grasp of ecological problems is inadequate and in-
      The reasoning behind this kind of inept ecology    complete to begin with. Perhaps we need a concise
    provoked Michael T. Ghiselin (1974) to remark:    text book for administrators and hearing Officers, a
    "Undergraduate instruction and public policy, at    guide to the interpretation of environmental impact
    least, are seriously threatened by ecological ortho-    reports. Yet, it would seem that there hasbeen
    genesis. It is as if we were teaching medicine out of    enough bad ecology in environmental assessment
    Science and Health."                                     and impact reports to inspire the judicious skepticism
      This may seem harsh, but much of modern ecolog         necessary for interpreting inadequate work.  Ob-
    is a sort of glass-bead game of rarefied abstractions    viously, our greatest scarcity in this, as in so many
    manipulated with algebraic dexterity into pretty    other problems, is that rare commodity, horse-sense.
    designs of many colors by young men eager to im-           Nowhere is ecological ineptitude more  clearly
    press their masters.  The  Glass Bead  Game  of    demonstrated than in the notions of cost-benefit
    Hermann Hesse's novel was an ironic parody of    and tradeoffs. An economist who suggests that we
    scholasticism withdrawn from reality; its greatest    set a money value to the fish or amenity that
    practitioner, the nMagister Ludi, died in the icy    may be destroyed by a power plant, and submit the
    waters of an alpine lake while trying to keep up with    cost-benefit ratio to a public vote, is proposing an
    his last student. True, he had left the sanctuary of    evil and senseless procedure. This notion that we
    the Glass Bead players, but too late.                    can assign money values to such diverse matters
      The problem is not so much ignorance as it is   asclean water,'fisheries, pleasing scenery; kilowatts,
    the great demand for ecological "interpretation and    and parking lots is a recent contribution of man's
    administration, prompted by the concern for en-    hubris, especially when we make a decision on the
    vironmental protection. Proper or adequate deter-    basis of this arithmetic of apples and oranges that
    mination of environmental conditions and estima-    may extirpate other species from the scene and set
    tion of the effects of man's intervention call for more    irreversible ecological decay in motion; this notion
    informed talent than is currently available. Mere    is reprehensible. The idea of assigning a dollars and
    possession of a PhD  does not of itself guarantee    cents value to life-any life--can lead to the end of
    competence or even knowledge of the subject area,    life on earth as it now does to the exhaustion of
    and some of the suggestions made in California by    non-renewable resources, a mining-out of life as if
    W.  F. Libby and Chauncey Starr at UCLA  to    it were some raw material. This approach to the
    require certification of environmental specialists or    problem of environmental insult assumes that the
    to license consulting ecologists, as engineers are    processes of nature are simple and can be safely
    licensed, could blanket in unsuitable people.            tampered  with in terms of our idiotic anthro-
      Nevertheless, we do have too many self-styled    pocentricism.l Not only may we destroyone or
    environmental consultants whose qualifications are    several species, we  may  destroy gene pools by
    little more than a small sum of money to pay a    obliterating "worthless" wild relatives of cultivated
    printer's bill for letterheads and  calling cards.
                                                            VSignifide the  graded scales of one-ness wih nature," sense of awe,"
    Significant sums of money are paid to these people    etc., i Dee, 1972.

    726                                   ESTUARINE  POLLUTION CONTROL

    or exploited stocks. We are-or should be--aware              imagine a greater change than this produced by the
                                                                 influence of man in nature. Our Concord River is a dead
    of the danger of this in agriculture where we have           stream in more senses than we had supposed. In what
    produced plant varieties incapable of adjusting              sense now does the spring ever come to the river, when
    themselves to change in an artificial ecological             the sun is not reflected from the scales of a single salmon,
                                                                 shad or alewife? No doubt there is some compensation
    system. In fisheries also, we need reservoirs of wild        for this loss, but I do not at this moment see clearly
    genetic stocks against inevitable ecological change.         what it is. That river which the aboriginal fishes have
      Another danger of this cost-benefit approach is           not deserted is a more primitive and interesting river to
                     Another danger of this cost-benefit approach is me. It is as if some vital quality were to be lost out of a
    that we do not know, in many cases, the key species          man's blood and it were to circulate more lifelessly
    in an ecological system and we could vote or recom-          through his veins. We are reduced to a few migrating
    mend a significant species out of existence without          suckers, perchance.
    being aware of what we have done until an ir-
    retrievable loss has occurred. To think of economics    FILLING AND DREDGING
    in this sense as hard and objective is a mistake, for
    in the field of cost-benefit analysis, economics is the    No factor affecting the degradation of estuaries
    squishiest and most subjective of human thought    is more permanent than filling. Once filled, for what-
    processes. It leads us to the position that in times    ever purpose, an estuary is no more, and even partial
    of economic crisis we cannot afford to preserve the    filling can have serious consequences. The other side
    environment  or our fellow species as we  must    of this coin is dredging; sediments dredged to main-
    maintain our standard of living, even if it is our    tain channels and turning basins or to provide
    standard of living that has brought us to this crisis   access to docks must be put somewhere, and often
    with national resources.                                they constitute a valuable addition to waterfront
      In 1864, George Perkins Marsh, formerly a mem-    real estate from the viewpoint of commerce, navi-
    ber of Congress from Vermont and for 20 years    gation, and industry. Indeed, it is the chief interest
    ambassador to Italy, published his famous book,    of harbor commissions that undesirable tidal flats
    "Man and Nature." In this book, he predicted that    be converted to useful real estate as rapidly as pos-
    if mankind continued his misuse of the earth at a    sible. In recent years, however, we have become
    like rate as he had done since civilization began,    aware that filling is a kind of pollution and that a
    the earth would become unfit for human habitation    tacit national policy of filling all available tidelands
    in about the same period of time. In Marsh's day,    is in the long run not in the national interest. We
    they thought that civilization was perhaps 5,000    have only so many estuaries, and their prime im-
    years old. But our abuse of the earth has increased    portance, both to commercial fisheries as nursing
    exponentially in these last 100 years so that our    grounds for the young of various stocks and to the
    time  has been  reduced,  at least an  order  of   recreational fisherman, dictates a much more strin-
    magnitude, from thousands to hundreds of years.    gent policy on dredging and filling than we have
    At the rate we are going, our children may be the    had in the past. Yet, it was not quite 70 years ago
    last human generation on this earth,                    that Nathaniel Southgate Shaler (1906), otherwise
       It is too precious a refuge from time to be sub-    a man before his time in many of his environmental
    jected to the irrelevancies of ill-informed economists    concerns, could write:
    and incompetent ecologists; if we are to survive at
                                                                  There are in all the great lands vast areas of lakes,
    all, we must drive these miserable moneychangers             There ad all the gawaiting the skillful labor which
    of cost-benefit analyses, trade-offs, and externalities      has won Holland from the sea. The largest opportunity
    out of our temple.                                           of profits is in such brave combats with the incomplete
                                                                 work of nature.
      We talk of the "needs of man." What are they?
    If we put the survival of a species to a vote-and
    in such an election, all must vote who lead lives of        Shaler was not a bolognst, although he was one
    quiet desperation-it is the inevitable step to the    of the moving spirits behind Agassizs first seaside
    destruction of the quality of environment that man    laboratory experiment at Penikese, so he perhaps
    needs to continue his "standard of living." In the    c      ould  not have been expected to r ealize the
    end, man will drink water from his sewage plants,    margins of the  sea, the marshlands,  and  the tidal
    breathe the exhaust of his factories, and reside on    flats constitute essential parts of nature's natural
    his own garbage heaps. Henry Thoreau, writing in
    his journal on April 11, 1857, foresaw it all:          polished off for man's economic benefit.2
                                                               2 Agassiz's concept for the future of Penikese as a center of practical
                                                             application of studies of "fish... oysters, lobsters...."is a startling
         The very fishes in countless schools are driven out of a    anticipation by a 100 years of the present sea grant program. See Edward
         river by the improvements of the civilized man, as the   Lurie, "Nature and the American Mind" (Science History Publications,
         pigeon and other fowls out of the air. I can hardly   New York, 1974), pp. 59-60.

                                             CONCLUDING: REMARKS                                         727

      It is this aspect of dredging and filling, the de-   missionary zeal and fire. So it is often with public
    struction of the margins, or separation of them from    bodies, no matter how high-minded.
    the waters of the estuaries, that is most serious.      Unless, of course, they are harbor commissions.
    Much of the nutrient source for the maintenance of   These bodies are always concerned with developing
    estuarine life comes from the runoff across the    ports and harbors. Quite often, the development is
    marshlands and upland borders, yet often such wet-   related to the personal interests of some of the
    lands are not protected by restrictions on dredging    members, but it would be impossible to form such
    and filling. Referring to these areas as "wetlands,"    a body otherwise. In some parts of the country, it
    as if they were separate from the estuaries, is a    would appear that there is not enough disinterested
    mistaken classification. It is the reduction of the    and knowledgeable talent to staff the commissions,
    wetlands and of tidal access to marshes, as much    yet these commissions often have powers that are
    as the filling itself, that has resulted in the $1.4   greater than those of any other local bodies, since
    million estimated loss to fisheries in Boca Ciega Bay    they are responsible for state lands. Some years ago,
    since 20 percent of its surface area has been filled,   the Harbor Commission for Bolinas Lagoon, a small
    primarily for the development of small boat facili-   marine embayment just north of San Francisco,
    ties (Taylor and Salomon, 1968). The combined    planned extensive marina development which would
    factors related to the loss of fisheries value are the    have completely changed the character of the lagoon.
    reduced bay volume, disturbance of bottom by    As a result of public outcry, the Harbor Commission
    dredging and bulkheading (which also separates the   itself was abolished in 1969. This ought to happen
    borders from tidal action), and consequent impaired    to more small harbor commissions which forget that
    tidal action.                                         they are in charge of a living environment, not
      There are many examples of piecemeal, bit-by-bit   potential marina property.
    filling in our estuaries; it was considered the best
    thing to do with the shallower parts of bays, and    DIVERSION
    subsequent efforts to unfill illegally filled or obliter-
    ated tidelands have not been successful. Such an
                                                            Since an estuary is a region mixing fresh waters
    area as Pony Village in North Bend, Ore., was built   of terrestrial origin and saline water from the sea,
    by filling the upper end of Pony Slough, without so   it follows that diversion of fresh water in sifit
    much as by your leave. A large shopping mall, a
         motel, asny seral lacre. Afl-pa rge  soing spall ar    quantities will change the character of the estuary
    motel, and several acres of paved parking space are
    difficult to retract.                                 system involved. Diversion of all the fresh water
                                      ifencroachment of   would turn an estuary into a marine lagoon; in
      tiConcerdn Snfor preventing further encroacihment o such an event, the productivity base of the system
    this kind in San Francisco Bay led to the establish-ea and
                                                          would depend entirely upon the neighboring sea and
    ment of the San Francisco Bay Conservation and
                                 Development Commission in 16. At that time, it   the vagaries of tidal exchange. Such systems, as
                                             e t m n   5s     te    exemplified by the saline lagoons of south Texas,
    was realized that more than 250 square miles of the
                                                          may fluctuate and be less dependable in their fisher-
    original open water surface of San Francisco Bay
                                                          ies resources than a well-balanced estuarine system.
    had been filled, and more was in prospect. One
                 had been filed, and more was in prospect. One    Yet, major diversions have been proposed for the
    project would have cut down a large part of San
    project wou ld h    ave cut down a large part  of San   Texas bays and, while these may be pipe dreams of
    Bruno Mountain to fill in areas near the San Fran-    engineers one cannot forget that such ideas have
    cisco Airport. Among the possible effects of such a    been proposed an        that, in one ase, are well on
    continued haphazard filling of San Francisco Bay
    could be a loss of the climatic amelioration related   the way to fulfillment unless there is a drastic
    to the surface of San Francisco Bay itself; in short,    change in  water policy.
                                                            This is, of course, the diversion of water from
    if there were to be no bay, there would be no bay
              area. A     pc ctio b.enob  lhere  toul the  s tabl - northern California to putative agricultural lands of
    area. A public action movement led to the establish-
                 ment of the commission  although the legislature   the San Joaquin Valley and the megalopolis of Los
                                      t  he commission,  is   Angeles. The diversion is to be accomplished by an
                                                          elaborate bypass system, called the Peripheral Canal,
    of representatives from state and local agencies as
                                                          around the delta (confluence) of the Sacramento-
    well as public members, has jurisdiction over filling.                       The diversion scheme has
    Unfortunately, its jurisdiction includes only the bay    proceeded in the absence of sound environmental
    and harbor development, not the entire estuary sys-   or hydrological information; it is considered impos-
    tem. It has undoubtedly prevented some excesses,   sible, for example, to compute the volume of water
    but as the interests of the membership become more    that flows out of the delta into San Francisco Bay,
    vested, it shows signs of losing some of its original   because of the complex nature of channels, sloughs,

    728                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    and streams. Estimates of diversion of water to    other life during the summer months, so that there
    Los Angeles that would leave perhaps about 50 per-   would be no serious effect on the estuaries1
    cent of the net outflow required to maintain water      One of the serious aspects of diversion of water is
    quahty and protect fishlife aroused alarm and stimu-    the reduction of the natural sediment load of streams
    lated lengthy hearings before the California Water    flowing into bays and estuaries As brought out m
    Resources Control Board m 1969-1970 The upshot    the hearings about the diversion of water from the
    of these hearings was Decision 1379 (1971), which    delta m  San Francisco Bay, this reduction could
    recommended substantial increases m flow from the    have a serious effect on primary productivity and
    delta in low water periods, winch would reduce the    the ablhty of the estuary to handle pollutants, since
    diversion to the southlands desired by the California   fine sediment particles protect the waters from ex-
    Department of Water Resources by perhaps 0 9    cessive sunlight and function as scavengers by bring-
    milhon acre feet. Decision 1379, which in effect   ing down heavy metals when they flocculate on
    recognized ecological water rights, has been con-   reaching the saltwater part of the estuary.
    sidered a landmark decision, but it has been bitterly   In this context, it Is not encouragmg to find that
    opposed by the diversion interests and is under    detailed consideration of altered sedimnentatlon proc-
    appeal In the meanwhile, the Department of Water    esses has been omitted from the environmental
    Resources has issued its environmental impact re-   impact report on the Peripheral Canal prepared by
    port on the Peripheral Canal, contending that all   the Callfornia Department of Water Resources One
    will be well If water is released m a sort of bleeding   is reminded that the excessive sediment loads m
    action at various places along the canal into the    San Francisco Bay from hydraulic mimng were not
    delta system                                          stopped because they were shoalihng the bay and
      In all, the EIR for the Peripheral Canal has not    altering the tidal prism as a consequence (Gilbert,
    satisfied everyone and, most conspicuously, there is   1917), but because the mimng debris was destroying
    not an adequate assessment of the impact of the    farmlands
    vast quantities of electrical energy needed to operate  A point often forgotten about natural sediment
    the pumping system upon the economics of the    loads m  our estuaries is that the heaviest occur
    diversion and other energy needs                      during the runoff season, when river temperatures
      There are other ways to accomplish diversion of   are lowest A sumilar heavy sediment discharge or
    water from an estuary besides turmng the water    accelerated erosion m  summer, from construction
    into a ditch to be carried away  Our concern for   actlvltles or farming is deleterious to the life of an
    protecting estuaries from temperature increases from    estuary
    coolhng waters may result in practices that could in
    the long run achieve the same effect by reducing    CALEFACTION
    the volume of river flow Proposals for power genera-
    tion m the Susquehanna Valley, for example, could       Calefaction, the process of makig thigs a bit
    lose large volumes of water by evaporation m closed
    circuit cooling systems and towers, perhaps amount-    Merrman a few years ago (1970a) The idea implct
    ing to a third of the low-water flow of the Susque-   in Merriman's usage was that a little calefaction
    hanna, one of the major tributaries of the Chesa-    did no serious harm, the increases m temperatures
    peake Bay (Olson, 1974)                               associated with the power plant on the Connecticut
      Such a possibility suggests that more serious con-    River that was his principal concern were not cas-
    sideration be given to reducing evaporation loss m    ing   any significant change  th e sequence of events,
    coolihng systems; certainly, the great battery of cool-   excepg any s omeficant catfish were sequence of events
                                                         except that some catfish were not doing well But
    ing fountains at the Pacific Gas and Electric cool-   the Connecticut River i the region of the power
    ing ponds at Pittsburgh function admirably as   plant  question s subect to tidal action and t he
    evaporators. Large numbers of such coolhng systems,    thermal pl um     e  did not really cal action and the
    combined with the flow reduction for the California   thermal plume dd not really  aefy the river So
                                                         m the sense of increasming the temperature of the
    waterworks, might increase the loss of water to the    environment, there was not any real calefaction at
    system by unacceptable amounts.                       all, and the observed effects could be just as reason-
      Not long ago, it was suggested in Oregon that,   ably attrbuted to entramment, the drawig m of
    because of the scarcity of fresh water in many coastal    water through the plant, and to scour from the
    regions during dry years, entire streams be diverted    steady effluent current from the discharge outfall of
    from above tidewater during the summer months.    the plant
    It was thought by whoever made this suggestion          Nevertheless, calefactlon is a real concern and we
    that the estuaries were not being used by fish and    are aware of situations where temperature increases

                                             CONSCLUDING REMARKS                                           729

    from the use of environmental water as a coolant    of conditions that occur on land. Very few organisms
    may reach significant values. Furthermore, while    are adapted to survive even a small part of the total
    the present scale of operations may not have serious    range of temperatures occurring in the sea. Many
    effects on open coasts, our increasing reliance upon    of the organisms of the Antarctic and abyssal seas
    coastal water to cool down the exponentially expand-    experience temperatures within the narrow range of
    ing power-generating installations suggests that the    about -2.0 to +1.5�C or so, whereas species of
    time is not far off when we may anticipate significant    shallow tropical waters may live within the range
    changes in nearshore temperatures. A few massive    between 20 and 30�C. Most organisms appear to
    power plants here and there, releasing warmer water    be able to withstand short period extremes of tem-
    into a small region near the outfall may have no    perature; such tolerance depends upon other factors
    real effect except upon the organisms ground to bits   in combination with the temperature rise or fall,
    within the plumbing, but arrays of ever larger    such as oxygenation, or reduction of internal tem-
    generating plants pumping significant percentages    perature by evaporation in intertidal species. Many
    of the nearshore currents of an open coast or of an    organisms can adjust themselves to long-term altered
    estuary into their condensers and release of the warm    temperatures, within certain limits; such adjustment
    water into the environment may cause a serious   is called acclimation. Many others are adapted to
    alteration of the environment.                          regular variations or seasonal temperature cycles.
      It was suggested, for example, that our engineering    Others, we suspect; meet the temperature variations
    capacity might make it possible for us to construct    in nature, especially those associated with changes
    perhaps 4,000 nuclear parks along the shore to   in strength or position of currents, turbulence, and
    utilize coastal water for cooling purposes (Weinberg    internal waves by producing an excess of reproduc-
    and Hammond, 1970). A series of power plants on    tive stages, most of which are sacrificed to environ-
    that scale, designed to meet all our exaggerated    mental vicissitudes. Therefore, we must consider the
    demands for energy by supplying power to 20 billion    temperature regimes of each situation somewhat
    people at our present rate of consumption, would    differently.
    undoubtedly change the character of coastal waters.       With respect to the attrition of reproductive
    It would also seem that such a bulk of people would    stages, it cannot be assumed that because 99 per-
    of itself increase the temperature of the earth. One    cent of the young produced by a species are lost,
    would like to think that the authors had a satirical    we may safely levy upon the remaining I percent.
    intent and did not really believe their own estimates,    For many organisms, the cleavage stages may be
    since they gave no serious thought to possible effects    most sensitive to temperature, and later stages pro-
    on nearshore circulation patterns or plankton popu-    gressively less so, but the vulnerability of all stages
    lations. Some lip service is given to ecological con-    suggests that exposure to artificially high tempera-
    siderations in a brochure titled "Siting Considera-    tures should be as short as possible. And, while the
    tions for Offshore Nuclear Power Plants" (Dames    adult may be the least sensitive, it must produce
    and Moore Engineering Bulletin 42, 1973); it is   this vast excess of young to ensure at least one adult
    stated on p. 31 that "part of the overall objective    survivor for the next generation. A single reproduc-
    is to see whether the site is sufficiently decoupled    ing adult (or a pair) may not be enough, conversely,
    ecologically from. . . associated estuarine systems."    to establish a new population, as demonstrated by
      Temperature is a relative measure of the amount    the many failures to establish exotic species.
    of heat, and heat is the energy of molecules in           Some critical mass of reproducing adults seems
    motion. The lowest possible temperature would be    necessary to establish populations in new waters.
    that of the situation in which there is no molecular    Thus, at both ends of the logarithmic curve of popu-
    motion, or -273.15�C (0�K); at the other extreme,    lation, matters are difficult for survival in nature;
    the temperature of the sun is several thousand    whatever the optimum may be, the sea is not a
    degrees. Temperatures in the sea range from -2.0    benign and undemanding environment, but quite
    or -1.8� in the deepest trenches and near surface    the reverse.
    Antarctic waters to over 400 at the surface in semi-      It would be impossible to summarize the exten-
    enclosed tropic waters such as the Red Sea. The    sive literature on studies of the effects of temperature
    average temperature of all water masses of the world    upon organisms in anything less than a large book,
    ocean is about 3.9�C.                                   yet this work taken together leaves something to be
      No form of life that we know can withstand the    desired when we try to understand the actual rela-
    extremes of absolute zero or the heat of the sun,    tions of temperature to organisms in the environ-
    and the range of temperature encountered in the    ment. Environmental events usually have not been
    sea and estuaries is but a small fraction of the range    synchronized with laboratory tests and seldom have

    730                                   ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    experiments taken into consideration the fluctuating    more significantly, the range of variation, the re-
    regimes of the actual environment. As with many    bound from very warm conditions at low tide to the
    other factors, laboratory tests are simplifications or    daily immersion in water many degrees cooler, is
    abstractions which may give us clues to how or why    not taken into consideration. The situation is ex-
    things happen in nature, but fail to explain what    treme in estuarine and intertidal organisms; many
    may really be happening.                                 of these, however, are, the organisms most likely
      Now, to the sometimes irrelevant data of expdri-    to be within range of a warm water plume from a
    mental physiology, we have added the even less    power plant.
    relevant data of environmental impact studies. Too          It must be remembered that while there may be
    often, such studies are beside the point and leave    no direct relation :between a warm surface tempera-
    the basic problem untouched. For example, an in-    ture and the organisms only a few centimeters below,
    vestigation of the possible effects of a warm water    the surface layer is one of the most biologically
    effluent on shallow water organisms presents tem-    active regions of the sea, and that what happens in
    perature measurements of the uppermost surface    this interface between sea and air ultimately affects
    layer taken by a distant infrared sensor, and lists of    all life in the sea (MacIntyre, 1974). Thus, while
    species, numbers, and size classes of invertebrates    some fish or clam or other invertebrate may well
    living from several centimeters to perhaps two or    withstand the increased temperature of a power
    three meters below this measured layer, or within    plant and perhaps survive a trip through the con-
    the sediment still further removed from the surface    denser tubes, the real impact on the environment
    layer. Values are correlated and regression lines    may be of a different order entirely, subtle, not
    drawn, indicating as might be expected that there    easily measured, and not perceptible for perhaps
    is no relationship between surface effluent tempera-    several years. Here in the active surface layer is the
    tures and the biota beneath. Unfortunately, the    mare incognitum of calefaction. Tentative evidence
    conclusion is then offered that the altered tempera-    suggests that there may be danger of interfering
    tures have no effect on the biota, a conclusion that    with the basic productivity of the system, which
    cannot be substantiated by the data offered (Adams,    would be far more serious than Merriman's "maras-
    Price and Clogston, 1974).                               mus of catfish."
      Such misleading interpretations of inadequate            The literature on thermal relationships of orga-
    data are far too common and there is little to choose    nisms is a tide that shows no sign of ebbing. Coutant
    between this quasi-scientific approach, often invested    and Goodyear (.1972) listed 394 references, most of
    with the trappings of quantitative ecology, and the    them published, during 1971. The application of
    public relations interpretation that the warm water    much of the experimental work to practicaliproblems
    effluent outfall of a power plant enhances fish life.   of thermal alteration is debatable, as the authors
    The latter approach is based on the observation    emphasize:
    that more fish may be caught there than in other
    parts of the nearby environment. However, this                Determining the tolerance of aquatic organisms to tem-
                                                                perature extremes, both upper and lower, is a common
    rationale fails to make it clear that perhaps the            peri mental goal which has been given new relevance
    power plant site may be the only place at which              by thermal discharges from the electric power generating
    fishing is possible along that part of the waterfront;       industry. In principle, the data obtained should have
                                                                predictive utility for managing thermal discharges for
    nor does it point out that nowadays such fishing is          minimum ecological impact.... Critical study of the
    welcomed, to promote the idea that fish are thriving         reports published largely in 1971, however, indicated
    there or that a parking lot for company employees            that any predictive utility is severely hampered by the
                                                                plethora of experimental methods employed in the
    is open to visitors who desire to fish during off hours.      laboratory and the wide divergence of the quality of
      Much of the literature of physiological responses          field observations.... Anyone wishing to use tolerance
                                                                data from most of these reports must certainly read in
    to temperature by fishes and invertebrates is diffi-          its entirety the experimenter's paper in hopes of finding
    cult to interpret without adding this kind of logic          a rationale for that particular methodology and the
    to the confusion. Too often, experimental data is            particular limitations of results.
    based on restrictive conditions not typical of- what
    is actually happening in the environment. A lethal                          (Coutant and Goodyear, 1972, p. 1263.)
    temperature for sea urchins may be demonstrated
                                                              The barrage of impact studies, pre-operational
    in the laboratory that is below the actual conditions    surveys of plant sites, and luncheon speeches circu-
    under which the species may survive at low tide in    lated in mimeographed form that comprise such a
    nature, because the cooling of the animal by evapo-    large part of the soft paper literature suffer similar
    ration and its access to abundant oxygen are factors    defects without even the purgative of editorial
    eliminated from the experimental protocol. Even    review.

                                            CONCLUDING REMARKS                                          731

      Natural temperature regimes, the seasonal varla-   ticular and the climatic variations wlthin historic
    tion from cold in winter to warm m summer, are not    times in many parts of the ocean, one may well ask
    consistent and undeviating from year to year, al-   why we should be concerned at all over a little
    though much of the discussion of thermal alteration    calefaction. The problem is that our meddling with
    of the environment by human activity would imply    the climate, inadvertent or deliberate, may result
    that the only change m the environment is that   in temperature anomalies that are out of phase with
    possibly induced by human agency As with the    environmental events This is essentially what hap-
    terrestrial climate, however, temperature changes in   pened m England where an attempt was made to
    the sea vary m their onset throughout the seasons,   domesticate the eastern American hard shell clam
    and often m unexpected ways which may be related    (quahog, Mercenaria mercenara) m the warm efflu-
    to the global climatic fluctuations. Variations m    ent of a power plant adjacent to a sewage treatment
    temperature of the seas are often in the order of   works Here was a situation where everything seemed
    two or three degrees above or below the yearly aver-   right: a source of warm water, a source of carbon
    age There appears to be some relation between such    dioxide, and nutrients for plant growth. But the
    small magnitude temperature changes and the suc-   larvae of the clams could not be held m place, and
    cess of major fisheries stocks; the catastrophic decline    were produced out of phase with the natural cycle
    m the abundance of the Cahfornia sardine may have    of the adjacent sea.
    been related to changing temperatures m the 1940's      It should be emphasized also that maintenance
    along the Pacific coast of North America We do    of stable temperatures m such situatlons may depend
    know, for example, that the eggs of the California   on the operating conditions m the power plant, that
    sardine hatch most rapidly at 17�C and that a de-   such conditions depend on the demands of industries
    crease of 1� adds six hours to the hatching time, so    and mumclpahtles, and that these demands may at
    that at 15� the hatchiung period is increased from    times conflict with the seasonal requirements During
    54 to 77 hours It was estimated that a 3� decrease    the slummer, for example, power demand may be
    in temperature (and since the sardme egg floats at   reduced and the schedule of plant operation reduced,
    the surface, these are surface conditions) during the    with a resultant drop m delta T at the outfall, on a
    period of hatching and development of the larvae   cold upwellhng coast such as Oregon, where up-
    could decrease survival of the eggs by as much as   welling is most intense m  midsummer, it might
    10 times                                              prove uneconomical to operate m accord with the
      The world's climate may be in a warming phase,    temperature demands of the local shrimp or mussel
    according to some meteorologists, whereas others    farm
    with equal reasonableness have announced that the       Or, for that matter, to maintain artificially altered
    present warm mterglaclal period has about run its   local environmental conditions for the benefit of the
    course and withm a few hundred years (or millema)    acclimated fauna This is illustrated by an episode
    the glaciers will be back The prospect of climatic    m the Chesapeake Bay where fish, attracted to a
    change induced by man's industrial activities is   warm water effluent, were killed by cold water
    also seriously considered by such authorities A num-    during a shutdown of the power plant in winter
    ber of proposals for tampering with the earth's         Our present knowledge of the subtle and intricate
    thermostatic system, the ocean-including the re-   relations of life wilthn the environmental ranges of
    arrangement of the freshwater supply of North    temperatures m which they have evolved and be-
    America, Africa, and Siberia by massive unpound-    come adapted is madequate to reassure us that even
    ments and canals-could have unanticipated effects    a little calefaction can do no harm In his effort to
    on coastal and estuarne environments of the regions    reassure us that the warm water effluent of the
    concerned, since the freshwater contribution would    Haddam's Neck power plant is doing no real harm
    be severely reduced.                                  to the environment or its blota, Merriman (1970b)
      Proposals for tampering with the regime of the    nevertheless suggested that the present limits were
    sea itself include the Bering Strait Dam, which    about as far as we should go Certainly we can exceed
    would, it is hoped, result m warming waters of the   biological limits with very little increase m temper-
    Arctic Ocean, although some oceanographic oplion    ature m the tropics where the marine blota is already
    suggests that such an effect would be masked or   living near its upper limits of tolerance Who knows
    negated by the natural variations of the Atlantic    what the effects of warming the Arctic might be
    water flowing into the Arctic Basin.                  upon slow-growing organisms adapted to low tem-
      In view of the natural fluctuations in the sea and    peratures? Inevitably, artificial calefactlon will be
    possible major interrelations between events in the    subject to fluctuations because of the added pertur-
    northern and southern Pacific Ocean masses in par-   bations and off-and-on phases associated with opera-

    732                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    tion of the associated machinery. The limits of                          Primary Organic Pollution
    calefaction may be much lower than we think.
      From the viewpoint of a naturalist, it may not be                 ~            ~ .
    only the amount of temperature change we may    Nondecomposed organic matter of   Environmental modifications
    bring about, but the rate of such changes which               organic effluents    tH        c.,    turbidity, certain
    may have unforeseen consequences on the biota of
    our coastal seas and estuaries. So much of our data               Nutrients: P N, Micr-  Community modifications
    is tentative or applicable only to individual speci-              elements, Vitamins, other    4
                                                                        biologically active com-  Diversity decrease
    mens or species that we must be conservative about                pounds            Reducti on of    Reduction of
    the effects of potential calefaction upon communities                               consumption  4. competition
    or the interactions of animals in nature. We are                                      Clima development of fe.-
    told that "we do not have the time toe wait" for
    such understanding, which is the same  as saying                          Secondary Organic Pollution
                                                                                        S.OP.
    "we do not have the time to consider the conse-
    quences of our action." Such anthropocentric arro-                       Increase in total productivity
    gance! Do we really have the authority to tell the                       Surplus in ttal rganic matter
                                                                               Surplus in total organic matter
    rest of 'organic life that their future-is contingent    .r
    upon our immediate understanding of what our                             Decomposition processes aerobic
    needs may be?                                                              Oxygen dpletion
                                                                                 Oxygen depletion
      It must be reemphasized that, with respect to
    tampering with the phenomena of nature, the view-                      Decomposition processes anaerobic
    point of the naturalist is profoundly different from                   Secondary toxicity of pollution
    that of the engineer. The engineer approaches such                              4
    problems with an attitude of complacence, -or with                    Mass mortalities and temporaryor
                                                                             permanently azooic conditions
    the assumption that if what we do is bad, we can
    change or stop what we are doing. The naturalist    FIGURE 1.-Schematic presentation of processes of organic
    knows that life is not a reversible process--an envi-   pollution and its consequences in marine environment
    ronment to some extent, and a species absolutely,    (Stirn, 1973).
    once destroyed, cannot be restored. A "try it and
    see" attitude about any pollutant inimical to life   extirpation or elimination of more valuable species
    processes is profoundly dangerous. Calefaction can-   to such an extent that their return to a revitalized
    not be considered an exception, even where it might    estuary may be long delayed or impossible (Figure
    seem most permissible, in our coastal waters. The    1). Bascom (1974) has suggested that the ocean is
    naturalist can only view changes in temperature as   the best place for our effluents, but it is still too
    he does all pollutants, as potentially damaging unless    early to be certain that massive releases of excess
    proven otherwise.                                      material will be processed for us by the ocean with-
                                                             out some damage or alteration of the natural system.
                                                               In any event, we have come to the position that
                                                             estuaries are not the best place for untreated sewage
      Pollution of rivers and estuaries by man's effluvia   outfalls There seems to be no deleterious effect of
                                                             disposing unprocessed human sewage in the cold
    has been with us since the establishment of cities,
    but wholesale release of wastes in liquid form as    waters of Cook Inlet, Alaska; at least, the major
                                                             factor in the inlet is tidal exchange, rather than
    domestic sewage is a comparatively new environ-
    mental factor. To the extent that sewage consists of   bolocal processes within  the  system  However
                  readily biodegradable or natural substances, its ef-   the capacity of the inlet is said to be finite, and not
    readily biodegradable or natural substances, its ef-   adequately understood (Murphy, 1972)
    fects may not be irreversible and, in time, estuary       t is often -pointed out that we may be wasting
    systems heavily polluted by sewage may recover.          It is ofte-pointed out that we may be wasting
                  Reovery is apparently now  happening  in the    valuable material by open ocean disposal and that
                                                             excess discharges into bays must be prevented. A
                  Thames River, which, a century ago, was a foul-   recent statement of the case for use of our wastes in
    smelling distressing mess, but to which fish are now    maricultue is t hat of Joze Stirn (1973):
    returning. This is not to say that we can continue
    to pollute estuaries indefinitely with sewage, under       In my opinion, a theoretically ideal solution for sewage
    the notion that, once we stop, all will be well.           disposal would follow these requirements: effluents
    Excess production of blooms and large biomasses            should not have a destructive influence upon marine
                                                                 ecosysterfs, which happens as a rule in quite large
    of not-altogether, desirable species may result in the     territories encircling underwater outfalls, and they

                                                 CONCLUDING REMARKS                                                 733

         should not accelerate uncontrolled and useless eutrophi-   to discharge purified fresh water into the sea, yet
         cation, which is also the case whether the effluents have
         been previously treated or not. This leads to undesirable    some water quality requirements have approached
         changes, including aesthetical and sanitary ones, par-    this extravagant ultimate.
         ticularly and in a drastic way, in shallow cdastal waters,
         i.e., in these parts to which the recreational activities
         and with them the important growth of the national    ALL OTHER  CHEMICALS
         economies as well are focused.
         Sewage-born nutrients, including biologically active     We throw everything soluble (and often the in-
         organic compounds, should be saved and returned to soluble substances as well) into our streams and
         bioproductive processes in a way which could enable
         their utilization as food for the growing human popula-    -estuaries; our rivers may "wind somewhere safe to
         tion.... an optimal solution might be found within a    sea," but with a burden of substances alien to the
         potential possibility of developing a combined treatment-
         mariculture technology. There is of course no ambition    environment as man knew it barely 200 years ago.
         of using this idea as a universal suggestion, which it    The era of affluence and effluence is still in its
         cannot be, among others, because of a particular reason:    beginning and, while it may not last much longer
         for every coastal mariculture, an adequate geomorpho-
         logical formation (bay, fjord, estuary, abolished salinas,    even in the terms of human history, the potential
         lagoon) has to exist, available for this purpose, and out    damage from the complex of chemical wastes we
         of competition of space with more rentable industries.    are producing is incalculable. Even in the terms of
         Considering the Mediterranean or similar areas (where
         the mariculture has to be promoted anyway), we are    a human lifespan, the effects of a particular sub-
         dealing from this point of view with an enormous num-    stance are difficult to assess, because it may take
         ber of adequate geomorphological formations, located
         as a rule just in the economically passive (excluding    25 or 30 years for a cancerous condition related to
         tourism) territories, many of them desert, whether real    some substance to develop, or at least to be noticed.
         Ones in the south or karstic barelands in the north and    We do not know what we are doing, yet if every-
         in the east.
                                                               thing does not turn up dead because of some chem-
                                                               ical we discard into the estuary, we seem to think
      Such direct use of organic wastes in maricultural              we    card into the estuary, we seem to think
    projects will not of course take care of all the organic      There an  cont inu e to dump   in discussing all the pos-
                                                                 There seems little point in discussing all the pos-
    wastes generated by man and processed in sewage    sible kinds of chemicals individually (as opposed to
    plants, and use of solid wastes on land has been and                o                                       t
    should continue to be a significant application of    natural or quasi-natural organc substances that re
    this valuable resource. Nevertheless, we have not    include the unusable or economically unretrievable
    progressed far since the extravagant waste of this    wastes of our advanced and complicated chemical
    valuable resource in France was so eloquently de-    indust ry as it operates along our watercourses-
    nounced by Victor Hugo in "'Les Miserables:"3               industry as it operates along our watercourses--
                                                               from pulp mills to petrochemicals from the growing
         Paris throws five millions a year into the sea. And this    plastics industry. This last industry, it might be
         without.metaphor. How, and in what manner? day and    noted, is based on the wastage of resources in all
         night. With what object? without any object. With    sorts of plastic accessories and containers, and evi-
         what thought? without thinking of it. For what return?
         for nothing. By means of what organ? by means of its    dently assumes free disposal of all this junk to the
         intestine. What is its intestine? its sewer.           environment. It may not be long before the most
                                                               common object dredged from our estuaries will be
         We fit out convoys of ships, at great expense, to gather    the plastic ballpoint and felt-tip pen cases that are
         up at the south pole the droppings of petrels and pen-    the plastic ballpoint and felt-tip pen cases t
         guins, and the incalculable element of wealth which we    produced by the millions. It is now impossible to
         have under our own hand, we send to the sea. All the    walk along an ocean shore without finding a few on
        human and animal manure which the world loses, re-    any gi
         stored to the land instead of being thrown into the    any given day. I have picked up disposable syringes
        water, would suffice to nourish the world.             and discarded ballpoints at Punta Espinosa in the
                                                               Galapagos; discarded, I am sorry to say, by visiting
      Sea disposal of recyclable organic wastes is not    scientists.
    the extravagance that Hugo supposed, however, for             Toward the closing years of World War II, we
    we do owe the sea some  of its substance and the    released four categories of pollutants into the envi-
    steady drain of protein from the sea in our great    ronment which we now realize as deleterious to life:
    fisheries should be repaid. But it is not economical    radioactive isotopes from military and industrial
    to take it back to Peru, so we dump it into the sea    uses, antibiotics (sulfa drugs and 'others), insecti-
    at New York, Los Angeles, and other great maritime    cides (such as DDT), and detergents. To these Four
    centers of population. A far greater waste would be    Horsemen of the Ecological Apocalypse, we have
                                                               since added a Fifth, the effluvia of our plastics
     I "Les Miserables" .was published in 1862. The two paragraphs quoted    industry, the polychlorinated biphenols, chlorides,
    are a small part of the panegyric to the sewers of Paris, from Jean Valjean,
    the last book of the novel.                                 and all the solid bits and pieces that are now turning

    734                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    up in the surface layers of the ocean, far from land.    An increasing source of heavy metals is from mal-
    It is difficult to decide which substance may produce    functioning heat exchangers; in one recent incident,
    new and greater dangers to aquatic life. Many of    enough copper was released from the tubing of the
    them persist for years, and may surface in un-    condenser of the nuclear power plant being con-
    expected places with unanticipated effects. It is not    structed at Diablo Canyon on the California coast
    easy to estimate the significance of potential pol-   to kill large numbers of abalone (San Francisco
    lutants in the sea and estuaries, as indicated by a    Chronicle, January 24, 1975).
    recent study conducted by the National Academy            2. Mill wastes. The effluents of pulp mills consist
    of Science (Goldberg, et al., 1974).                    of sulfate or sulfite liquors, indigestible wood parti-
      Always remember that we develop pesticides and    cles (lignin) and other substances; often, the exact
    herbicides to kill things. We apply tons of them to    composition of the wastes is considered a proprietary
    farmlands, gardens, and marshlands every year; by    secret, as it would betray the nature of the proc-
    1972, 390 or more kinds of chemicals were used to   ess. Steel mills may release cyanides, phenols and
    kill or control unwanted organisms. It says some-    ammonia.
    thing for the ecological viability of many of these       3. Refinery effluent usually consists of volatile
    pests that we must continue to use noxious sub-    hydrocarbons; crude oil is in a special category and
    stances to get them out of our way; at the same    may produce a catastrophic environmental mess in
    time, we risk destruction of other forms of life which    confined waters, although direct long-term damage
    we may not be able to afford to lose from our envi-   is not easily measured. Some fractions such as diesel
    ronment in the long run. As for the pests, their    or heating oil act differently from the rest, moving
    ecological viability depends primarily on the ideal    into the bottom sediment and persisting in a condi-
    conditions we have set up for them, especially in our    tion hazardous to benthic life for many years.
    vast areas of single crop agriculture. Conversely,        4. Pesticides, herbicides, and other agricultural run-
    we must also add fertilizers to keep the crops grow-    off. In some regions, as predicted for San Francisco
    ing, and if we do not continue this double jeopardy    Bay, there may be added the salinized agricultural
    of fertilizers and biocides, the whole artificial system    runoff water from irrigated fields. A new addition
    collapses into the diversified but less immediately    to synthetic organics are artificial pheromones, sub-
    productive system of undeveloped or preindustrial-    stances that act like hormones and upset the natural
    ized agriculture.                                       sexual cycles of insects. Some of these may be
      As we continue to keep our chemists busy develop-    dangerous to marine anthropods in very low concen-
    ing new and more deadly substances, the danger    trations, but they are only now being investigated.
    that we may develop some universal biocide in-            5. Chemical processing plant wastes. Ours is an era
    creases. Insecticides developed specifically to kill   of chemistry and the kinds of pollutants from our
    arthropods may in time kill off many arthropods    vast and complex industry are legion. They include
    in estuaries and seas; some herbicides may sterilize   acids, alcohols, all sorts of inorganic salts, and chem-
    a stream of all arthropod life. Yet, too often we    ically inert materials that may interfere with filter
    find out about the effects of these substances after   feeding organisms. (The effect of taconite processing
    they have been tried out, not before. It is admittedly    wastes could be very different from that in Lake
    difficult to decide what effect, if any, new sub-    Superior, for example.) Many chemicals are neu-
    stances being synthesized and put to use may have;    tralized or rendered inert by interaction with sea-
    for one thing, many industries keep their processes    water in more saline estuary conditions; others may
    private and it is difficult to determine what some    become danerous to life.
                                                           become dangerous to life.
    proprietary substance is, or what processes may
    produce dangerous chemicals. The long generation          6. Litter. Bits of flotsam and jetsam have always
    time of some diseases in man and of the induction    been with us, but a new feature of our culture is the
    of ecological imbalances also make estimation of the    vast amount of material that is for the most part
    effect of a newly-synthesized chemical difficult.       chemically inert, and reducible, if at all, by mechan-
      In a general way, the chemical pollution of estu-   ical action. The surface of the oceans almost every-
    aries consists of the following kinds of substances:    where is littered with small pieces of plastic and
                                                           the shores of estuaries are an unsightly mess of
      1. Heavy metals, e.g., mercury, zinc, copper, cad-   plastic receptacles, parts of toys, ballpoint pens, and
    mium, primarily from industry, but in some cases,    sheets of plastic. Cans, bottles, and boxes degrade
    as probably in San Francisco Bay, much of the    in time, but such things as the bridles for six packs
    mercury detected in sediments may come from drain-    of beverage may persist for years. None -of this is
    ages through cinnabar-rich deposits in the region.    pleasing to the eye and its effect on organisms, other

                                               CONCLUDING REMARKS                                            735

    than physical entrapment or clogging the alimentary    beyond Carquinez Strait. At the present time, tank-
    tract, is yet to be determined.                         ers of 30,000 tons dead weight can be accommo-
                   I'i  i                                    dated; the increased depth would make it possible
      Obviously, it is impractical to monitor all the    for tankers of 70,000 tons dead weight to unload.
    substances being released into the environment, es-    One cannot of course afford to spill oil these days,
    pecially when the presence or nature of some of    and doubtless every precaution would be taken to
    them are unknown. One would like to have everyone    prevent loss, but the public was not reassured to
    assume, as good biologists should, that until proved    have the company attorney state that no expansion
    harmless, a new substance should not be released    of dock facilities was planned for the Pittsburgh
    in the environment for any purpose, and perhaps    dock, at the same time the permit was being applied
    this is done on some other planet in some other    for. Such lack of communication within the company
    galaxy, but not on the only planet we have.              suggests operational difficulties could develop at the
                                                             peril of the environment.
    OIL                                                        Puget Sound will be especially vulnerable to tanker
                                                             accidents, because of the narrow passages to the
                                                             proposed facilities near Bellingham and the density
      So far, there have been few oil spills in estuaries;    proposed facilities near Bellingham and the density
      So far, there have been few ol spilnls in estuaries;    of maritime traffic. In anticipation of the potential
    the spectacular Santa Barbara incident of 1969 oc-    difficulties in the region, a group of students and
          1urred on  .he open coast. Fortunately, most of th difficulties in the region, a group of students and
    curred on the open coast. Fortunately, most of the
    spillage from the tanker collisionat the mouth of    instructors at the University of Washington at-
     spillage           f    rom  the tanker ollision at the mouth of    tempted to assess the problem and recommend pro-
    San Francisco Bay on January 8, 1971, passed out
    of the bay, but major spill, and leakage from in-    cedures in the event of a major oil spill. The resulting
    creased loading and unloading operations in busy    document, "Oil on Puget Sound: an Interdisciplinary
    ports is inevitable. Small leakages, in the order of    Study in Systems Engineering" (University of Wash-
    perhaps several barrels a day, are considered a nor-    ington Press, 1972), f irst of a most instructive analysis
    mal part of operations in an oil port, and such    of the problems, first of all of getting any accurate
    leakages are predicted for Port Valde  in Alaska    idea of the present magnitude of oil loss in Puget
    when tankers will be loaded from the end of the    Sound and, most significantly, in revealing the lack
    when tankers will be loaded from the end of the
    Alaska pipeline. The example of what is happening    of any coordinated plan or procedure to cope with
                                                             the situation. These problems are concisely stated
    in Bantry Bay on the west coast of Ireland is not    the situation. These problems are concisely stated
                           mlassuring. lT e  lae            min the preface to this bulky contribution, and the
     reassuring. There have  as yet been no adequate    statement can serve for other ports and estuaries
    studies of the effects of such chronic pollution; most    in the United States as well:
    of our major ports have been subjected to this sort
    of thing for so long that no baseline is available           The objectives set forth at the beginning of the study
    from which to judge such effects. Port Valdez would          were to define the oil spill problem in Puget Sound and
    be an ideal site for a baseline study, before the oil-       to formulate a model for the solution of the problem.
                         facilities become operational.          The study group discovered, as the study progressed,
    loading facilities become operational.                       that identifying the sources and consequences of oil
      Few harbors in North America are adequate for              spills was a most time-consuming task. If solving a
    the massive new supertankers which may  draw                 problem warrants a ten dollar reward, then definition
                                                                 of that problem should be worth at least one hundred
    more than 60 feet when loaded; recently, a medium-           dollars. At least, this was the sentiment of the group
    sized (100,000 tons, dead weight) tanker was un-             upon completion of their study. Thus, the primary
    loaded in San Francisco Bay at Richmond, but it              efforts of the students were in collecting, analyzing, and
                                                                 evaluating data on Puget Sound and its related oil
    was necessary to transfer three 15,000 tanker-loads          industry. It was only after completion of this tedious
    from the large tanker before the ship could be moved         task that a meaningful solution could emerge.
    to the dock. This sort of thing means more dangers                    *        *        *         *
    from spillage with increased handling and, eventu-           solution to the oil study to evolve into an effective
                                                                 solution to the oil spill problem, the organizations in-
    ally, from an expensive fire along a commercial              volved, and the people within them, must consent
    waterfront.                                                  willingly to change. Nothing could be worse than blindly
                                                                 instituting some legislation, technique, or procedure
      Unloading oil at refineries or pipelines is not the        institut fu lly understanding or acepting the overall
    only source of potential pollution; many large power         impact of its activation. Too often, such fragmented
    plants have their own oil docks, or plan to increase         actions are taken to obtain short run, narrow solutions
    their facilities. For example, the Pacific Gas and           to problems without evaluating the bigger picture.
    Electric Company has applied for a permit from the           Historically, plans to cope with oil spills have emerged
    Corps of Engineers to dredge 56,000 cubic yards              as the aftermath of disasters, or have been formulated
    from San Francisco Bay, to increase the capacity             in a vacuum, without considering the implication or
                                                                 conse dockuence of such plans. Therefore, the most impor-
    of its dock at Pittsburgh, some miles up the bay             tant message of this report is: The environmental preser-

    736                                   ESTUAAINE -POLLUTION CONTROL

        vation of the Puget Sound region requires the cooriinated    exacerbated by our incomplete understanding of
        effort of all responsible and capable parties, whether they   ecological processes and the confused idea that ost-
        represent society or industry.                      ecological processes and the confused idea that cost-
                                                            benefit ratios and trade-offs are intelligent manage-
                                     (Vagners et al., 1972.)    ment policies. Such concepts have-no real meaning
                                                            in the maintenance of natural conditions in the
      It is to be hoped, as oil becomes more expensive    environment. It follows that most of our problems
    and scarce, that economics will force more concern    with estuaries (and of course with everything else)
    and less wastage if environmental concerns remain    rise out of our own inadequacies and shortcomings,
    ineffective. Public concern was increased in the    prompted by our anthropocentric concerns.
    Puget Sound region by a series of articles in the          It is symptomatic of our present state of knowl-
    Seattle Post Intelligencer during the last week of    edge of estuarine management that Perkins (1974)
    October 1974, which concluded with the question    in his text on the biology of estuaries, should devote
    of the value of Puget Sound itself--is it worth the    more than 90 pages (including a list of 402 refer-
    risk of a catastrophic oil spill, or do the "benefits"    ences) to biological effects of waste disposal, and
    of massive oil commerce offset such a loss? Senator    six pages (with 10 references) to management.
    Magnuson, running for reelection, evidently sensed         One should not, however, stand too long at the
    the public sentiment by taking the public position    wailing wall, but hope that we can learn to manage
    that the big tankers must be kept out of the inland    our estuaries without altering them for the worst.
    waters of Puget Sound.                                  We have abundant information to help us in under-
     Attention was called during this controversy-to    standing many'of our estuaries. What we need is
    the:large oil spill from the tanker Metula in the    respect for them as unique and significant environ-
    Straits of Magellan; a more recent account suggests    ments; as I have stated in another context, we
    that the results of this spill, which occurred on    should develop an "estuarine conscience," a concern
    August 9, 1974, may persist for years (Washington    for estuaries on their own terms, not on ours, and
    Post, Feb. 19, 1975). Because of the remoteness of    get on with the task:
    the area and the expense, the government of Chile
    has been unable to make any attempt to clean up              The continued reliance upon consultants and other ad-
    the 18 million gallons of oil. Obviously, these vast         studies, an produce   vmontoring programs are di-
    tankers should be kept to the open sea and broad,            verting funds from needed activities. The broad national
    easily navigated harbors. Our estuaries do not meet          policy is that estuaries must be preserved and main-
    these criteria.                                              tained, and it is time that we began to do just that.
                                                                                                (Hedgpeth,. 1973.)
    SUMMARY
                                                              To put it more concisely, we have recognized that
      Since this review is essentially a summary of vari-    estuaries are places for life, not death, the places
    ous factors degrading estuaries, a summary seems    where the rivers should come safely to the sea.
    hardly necessary. If there is any conclusion to draw
    from this recital of estuarine ills, it is that much of
    what has happened to our estuaries is the result of    REFERENCES
    our obsession with managing this most valuable of    Adams, J. R., D. G. Price, and F. L. Clogston. 1974. An evalu-
    interface environments from the viewpoint of some          ation of the effect of Morro Bay power plant cooling water
    specific use desired by man, or that planning pana-       discharge on the intertidal macroinvertebrate community.
    tea, "multiple purpose." Our recognition of en-           Pacific Gas & Electnc Coipany, Dept. of Engmeenng
    cea, "multiple purpose." Our recognition of en-           Research, San Ramon, Calif. April 1947 mimeo.
    vironmental quality, of the need for maintaining
    "environmental integrity," suggests that our pri-    Baecom W. 1974. Disposal of Waste in the Ocean. Sci. Amer.
    mary concern should be to manage estuaries on             231(2): 16-25. Aug. 24, 1974.
    their own terms, as natural environments. Such
    management is inhibited by ecological ignorance or    California Department of Water Resources. 1947. Draft
                                                              Environmental Impact Report. Peripheral Canal Project.
    misunderstanding and, especially in most large estu-      Sections separately paged. Aug. 1974.
    aries, by conflicting jurisdictions and interests, by
    refusal of various local governmental agencies, as    Coutant,    C. and C. P. Goodyear. 1972. Thermal Effects.
    well as state and federal jurisdictions, to surrender     Jour. Water Poll. Control. Fed. 44(6): 1250-1294.
    sovereignty for the good of the natural system as a
    whole. All the mechanical (filling, dredging, diver-     ee  N. resourct al. 1972. Environmental evaumbus Laboratories.
    sion) and chemical pollution of our estuaries is          NTIS, PB-208 822.

                                                 CONCLJUDING REMA'RKS                                                   737

    Ghiselmn, M   T  1974  The Economy of Nature and the    Murphy, S R  (ed) 1972 Effect of Waste Discharges into a
      Evolution of Sex Umv of Callf Press, Berkeley                  Silt-laden Estuary. A Case-study of Cook Inlet, Alaska
                                                                  Unmv of Alaska Institute of Water Resources
    Gilbert, G K 1917 Hydrauhc mining debris in the Sierra
      Nevada U S Geolog Survey Professional Paper 105-154          Odum, W  E  1970 Insldious alteration of the estuanne en-
                                                                  vironment Trans Amer Fish Soc 1970(4) 836-847
    oldberutants E. A  et al 1974 AssesOsing ptential oceanrs Bd po  Olson, M  C 1974 The Hot River Valley The Nation, Aug
                      lutants Nt. Acad of Sciences, Ocean    irs  d  3,1974
    Hedgpeth, J W  1973 Protection of environmental quality    Perkins, E  J 1974 The Biology of Estuaries and Coastal
      m estuaries Chap 13 m Environmental Quahty and Water            Waters London, New York Academic Piess
      Development Ed by C R Goldman, J McEvoy III, and
      P J Richerson W  H  Freeman, San Francisco 233-249           Shaler, N  S 1906 Man and the Earth. Fox, Duffield & Co
                                                                  New York
    Hesse, H  1927 Steppenwolf Eng transl 1929
                                                                Stirn, J 1973 Orgamc pollution as the main factor causing
    MacIntyre, F  1974 The top millimeter of the ocean Sci            biological disequlibrna m coastal waters Archo. Ocenogr
      Amer 230(5) 62.                                                 Lmmnol 18 (suppl) 111-119

    Marsh  G  P 1964 Man and Nature Belknap Library, Har-    Taylor, J L  and C  H  Saloman 1968 Some effects of hy-
          ard Uiversity Press, 1965 reprnt Ed by D  Lowenthal       drauhc dredging and coastal development m Boca Ciega
                                                                  Bay, Fla Fish  Bull  US  Fish &  Wivdl Serv  67(2)
                                                                  213-124, 13 figs
    Mernman, D  1970a The Calefactlon of a River Sci Amer
      222(5) 42-52.                                                Vagners, J  (supervised by) and P  Mar (coordinated by)
                                                                  1972 Oil on Puget Sound An Interdisciplinary Study m
    Merrnman, D  1970b Does mdustrnal calefaction jeopardize          Systems Engmeenng Washington Sea Grant Pubhcation
      the ecosystem of a long tidal river? Preprint IAEA/SM-         Umv of Wash Press
      146/31, Symposium on environmental aspects of nuclear
      power stations International Atomic Energy Agency, U A,      Weinberg, A  M  and R  P  Hammond  1970 Limits to the
      New York, 10-14 Aug 1970                                       use of energy Amer. Scientist, 58. 412-418, 3 figs

    INTERACTIONS OF POLLUTANTS
    WITH THE USES
    OF ESTUARIES

    L. EUGENE CRONIN
    University of Maryland
    Cambridge, Maryland

                 ABSTRACT
                 Twelve principal uses are made of estuaries, providing exceptional value to human interests.
                 In the United States every one of these uses is expected to increase in the next 20 years above
                 its present high level. At present, at least 16 major classes of pollutants are placed in estuaries,
                 with effects that range from minor inconvenience to serious reduction in the usefulness of the
                 system for other purposes. Some present pollutants have high potential for beneficial introduction
                 if the quantity, site, and characteristics of the material are appropriate.
                 In this overview, the uses and pollutants are identified, the trend for each is noted, the principal
                 deleterious effects of pollutants in coastal waters are summarized, and visual summaries are
                 presented to suggest which of the uses may be affected by each class of pollutant.

    INTRODUCTION                                               might be damaged by each important class of pollut-
                                                           ing substances.
      The purpose of this report is to identify the princi-      This presentation draws upon many of the other
    pal uses of estuaries and the significant pollutants    reports presented at this conference to help identify
    entering estuaries in the United States, and to indi-    the principal present uses of estuaries, distinguish
    cate which of the uses are likely to be affected by    the most important pollutants at this time, and
    each pollutant. It is intended that this information    discuss some of the significant trends in both uses
    be presented with both technical accuracy and ease    and pollution.
    of comprehension. Such a summary is necessarily
    limited to the broad national situation, and must be    THE PRINCIPAL USES OF ESTUARIES
    applied with care and local information to any
    estuary. The method for such local use will be sug-          The values which estuaries serve in relation to
    gested.                                                    human  activities have  been  summarized  rather
      The  International  Oceanographic  Commission    frequently in recent years, and it is helpful to review
    (IOC)  for the United Nations' Educational and    the listings developed. They are presented in Ap-
    Scientific Commission (UNESCO) defines pollution    pendix A. It is apparent that these lists were pre-
    as: Introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of    pared for various purposes and from diverse points
    substances into the marine environment  (including    of view. They have been employed to assist the
    estuaries) resulting in such deleterious effects as harm    preparation of a fresh listing which attempts to
    to living resources, hazards to human health, or hin-    include all significant uses in the simplest set which
    drance to marine activities (including fishing), im-    is adequate and accurate.
    pairing the quality for use of seawater and reduction        Table 1 presents my listing of principal general
    of amenities. (Ketchum, 1972)                              uses of estuaries in the United States. Each of these
      This definition will be used in subsequent dis-   is important to the people of the nation. However,
    cussion, with the interpretations that "substance"    subclasses of some of these uses merit specific at-
    includes heat and that the term "foxygen demand" is   tention, even in this national overview, since the
    employed as a short substitute for "substances which    effects of pollutants can be substantially different
    increase chemical or biological demand for oxygen."    between the subclasses. For instance, recreational
      This definition requires that one of the diverse    use for boating is not likely to be harmed directly
    uses that man makes of the aquatic area is or is    by some of the chemical pollutants which may de-
    likely to be deleteriously affected. Therefore, it    stroy fishing or hunting. Therefore, a limited number
    seems reasonable and constructive to summarize    of subordinate categories has been chosen and in-
    the uses of the estuary and illustrate which of them    eluded in Table 2, Principal Specific Uses.

                                                                                                            739

    740                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

              Table 1 -Principal general uses of estuaries  Commercial shipping, involving many kinds of ves-
                                                         sels, increased substantially in recent decades to a
         Commercial Shipping      Military Purposes      level of 1 6 bilhlion tons min 1972, and is projected to
         Shoreline Development    Research and Education
         Recreation and Aesthetics  Climate Control      continue  that trend in the foreseeable future
         Mining                   Biological Harvest     (Langlois, 1975)  The NES forecasts predict in-
         Electricity Generation   Preservation
         WaElectrcty Gene Extration  Waste Placement     creased commercial shipping m all eight case study
                                                          estuaries (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970)

              Table 2.-Principal specific uses of estuaries  Shoreline Development

       Commercial Shipping        Water Extraction
       Shoreline Development      Military Porposes        Construction and other engineering of the shallow
        A For Residences          Research and Education  floor, shoreline, and adjacent land mass have been
        B For Industry            Climate Control        ntensive around every coastal city, and extensive as
        C, For Recreation         Biological Harvest
       Recreation and Aesthetics   A Food                thousands of miles of estuarme edge have been modl-
        A Boating ,                B Industrial Materials  fled for residential and recreational use The popula-
        B Swimming,Surfing, Sunnng  Preservation         tion of the United States is rapidly shifting to the
        C Hunting                  A Species
        D. Fishing                 B Ecosystems          coastal area with resultant intensification of such
        E Aesthetic Enjoyment      C Productivity        development (Belcher, 1975)  Exceptional growth
       Mining                      D Other Features
        A Aggregates              Waste Placement        In populations is expected to continue in coastal
        B Oil and Gas              A Human Wastes        regions (Belcher, 1975), so that such alterations are
       Electricity Generation       B Industrial Wastes  likely to increase
                                                            Conservation has been apparent recently in
                                                          managing wetland conversion and, indeed, all modi-
      The intensity and value of each use varies widely   fications of estuarine edges This backlash to the
    for the 850 estuaries of the nation, and each system    almost ungoverned development of such areas is
    merits analysis and management on a specific and    presently slowing the changes The uncertainties of
    individual basis  For such analysis, these tables   economic probablhtles and legislative predilection
    provide checklists to be culled and applied appropri-    preclude useful forecastmg of specific trends
    ately.
      Each of the prmeincipal and specific uses is briefly
    discussed in the following pages, with notes on    FOR RESIDENCES
    magnitude and trends if information is available
    Extensive additional information is available m         These include permanent homes, part-time cot-
    "The National Estuarnne Pollution Study" (Federal   tages, and campsites They frequently involve altera-
    Water Pollution Control Admiistratlon, 1969) and    tlons from grading and construction and the use of
    especially in other papers presented at this confer-   bulkheads and piers for land protection and recrea-
    ence  "The National Estuary Study" of the Fish   tion The quahty of sites for use for residences usually
    and Wildlife Service (1970), in its Appendix G,    depends on the aesthetic quality of the estuary and
    provided predictions (which will be called NES    surrounding lands, and secondarily on potentials for
    forecasts) of uses for selected estuaries including    such actlvlties as fishing and boating  Belcher's
    Penobscot Bay, Delaware Bay, Charleston Harbor,    summary of recent trends for the eastern seaboard
    Tampa Bay, Galveston Bay, Newport Bay (Cal),   suggests that residential use of estuarine edges is
    San Francisco Bay, Yaquma Bay, Puget Sound, and    likely to be increased by the shift of population, by
    Cook Inlet These and other projections are noted    more leisure, by early retirement, by the growth of
    below                                                commuting, by the trend toward more dwelling
                                                          units per family group, and by the quest for a new
                                                          quality of life with more contact with nature In all
                                                          of eight specific estuaries, increased residential
                                                          development is expected (Fish and Wildlife Service,
       The estuaries include every port m the nation,     1970
    since offshore ports have not yet been developed
    Therefore, all surface import and export, as well as
    all coastal and local traffic by ships, tankers, and    FOR INDUSTRY
    barges, involve estuaries The great boastal cities
    were sited as they are because of estuarmine shipping,  This development covers waterfront facilities
    and continue to be dependent on such transport    (deepwater, piers, intake and effluent structures,

                                             CONCLUDING REMARKS                                            741

    bulkheads, fills and specialized structures) and on-    palatial. Kalter reports that 49,045,000 days in-
    land buildings, transportation systems, utilities,    volved boating in the U.S. BEA areas adjacent to
    and other appurtenances. No statistical summary of    estuarine zones in 1972, and that every area is ex-
    recent and prospective trends is available to me, but    pected to increase by 1978, with an average of 17
    future use for these purposes seems likely to be    percent. All eight case estuaries are predicted to
    substantially affected by, nationwide efforts to zone    undergo increased boating (Fish and Wildlife Ser-
    coastal activities. NES  forecasts project greater   vice, 1970).
    industrial development in all of the eight example
    estuaries studied (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970).
                                                           SWIMMING, SURFING, SUNNING';

    FOR RECREATION                                            The variety of pleasant activities along the beach
                                                           and in or on water needs no definition. This combina-
      Public and private parks and beaches are included    tion of activities is, according to Kalter, the largest
    here, as well as camping areas, facilities to support    recreational activity in the BEA  areas adjacent to
    boating, and other installations. The use of estuarine    estuarine zones, involving at least 250,000,000 person
    shores and waters for recreation is very large and    days in 1972. By  1978, increases of 12 percent
    expected to grow (Kalter, 1975), and the develop-    for swimming and 14 percent for skiing are forecast
    ment of associated facilities is expected to follow    by Adams (1973).
    parallel trends. Kalter slunmarizes from Adams
    et al., 1973, relevant data on recreational activity
    and expected demand in all of the BEA areas ad-    HUNTING
    jacent to estuarine zones. This totaled over 500 mil-
    lion activity days in 1972, not all on estuaries. Every   Waterfowl,  shorebirds,  game  mammals,  and
    activity (boating, swimming, nature walks, fishing,   reptiles are all hunted for recreation. Irby (1972)
    water skiing) is expected to increase from 1972 to    notes the dependence of many of these on the estu-
    1975 for each of the 37 estuarine areas documented    ary and their presence in many different estuarine
    in the 1972 survey. Kalter notes that the demand for   habitats. Bird hunting can involve use of several
    facilities is unlikely to vary much from the demand    estuaries at once since many species are highly mi-
    forecast based on population and that facility supply    gratory and may reproduce, feed and rest on different
    is the balance wheel to the demand. Significant varia-    bodies of water-all of which are necessary. No data
    tion is apparent by region and by types of recreation,    are at hand on the extent of use of estuaries for
    and change in preference is expected. The national    hunting, on recent trends, or on future probabilities.
    trend of development for this use is strongly pre-
    dicted. Recreation also is expected to increase in each
    of the eight case study estuaries inNES forecasts.      FISHING

                                                              Angling, with gear ranging from the simplest hook
    Recreation and Aesthetics                              and line to the complex rigs used for giant carnivores,
                                                           is popular on all coasts. Clark (1975) summarizes
      Use of estuaries for personal pleasure and refresh-    data from   a 1970          survey by the National Marine
                                                           data from a 1970 survey by the National Marine
    ment takes many forms in the almost infinite variety    Fisheries Service to note that 10,000,000 coastal
    of specific situations which exist in, on, and around    anglers caught 350,000,000 fish along the coasts and
    such bays and waterways. Predictions for continued    468,000,000 in estuaries-which provide essential
    increases in population movement to, and personal    support for many or mst of thecoastal catch. en     o
                                                            support for many or most of the coastal catch. Vtom
    use of, estuarine areas provide similar prediction of    1960-1970, participants increased by 50 percent. Ad-
    greater recreational and aesthetic use. Brief addi-    ditional data provided by Kalter describe 110,000,000
    tional comment on each selected subclass of use is    itionaldataprondedbyKalterdescribe Io  estu-
                                                           fishing days in 1972 in BEA zones adjacent to estu-
    appropriate.     '                                      aries and project a 9 percent increase by 1978. NES
                                                  :  '     forecast&, predict Igreater fishing in all eight sample
    BOATING                                                estuaries,,(Fish and Wildlife, 1970). Bollman (1975)
                                                            expects increase in ,value of the fish. caught, of the
       This category is widely diversified, from dinghys    social activity, and of related goods and services.
    and paddleboats through canoes, rowboats, kayaks,    As with commercial harvests discussed below, it is
    pirogues, small to large outboards, sailing vessels,    important to note that estuaries are essential breed-
    houseboats, and barges, to yachts from modest to   iLg and nursery grounds for most of the coastal

    742                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    species and provide necessary migratory pathways    erals, including precious metals, are known to exist
    for a wide variety of fish.                             and mining is likely to increase. Salt, sulfur, and
                                                           potash minerals are primarily associated with evapo-
                  Ay~STHETIC ENJOYP~MENT        ~rite deposits, and Biggs considers the increased ex-
                                                           traction of these to be highly probable. Mining is
                   Visual pleasure from water and shores; laing in expected to grow in six of eight case study estuaries,
                                                           and to remain at about the same level in Charleston
    the environs of estuary; observing birds, plants and         o    an ata             a e      fresto
                                                           Htarbor and Yaquina Bay (NES forecasts).
    animals; and a great variety of other uses engaging
    the senses and emotions are widely enjoyed. Counts
    and  measurements  of such use are difficult to    OIL AND GAS
    obtain-and not easily separated from other recrea-
    tional uses. Kalter provides one index, reporting         Extraction of these materials within estuarine
    that nature walks involved over 62,000,000 activity    areas has been occurring in Louisiana, Texas, and
    days in 1972 and may increase 14 percent by 1978.    Alaska, at least. No data are available on present
    As for other uses, fuel expense or shortage may en-    and future trends.
    hance such usage for those nearby, and reduce it for
    those who must travel.
                                                           Electricity Generation

    Mining                                                    Direct use of estuarine water for condenser cooling
                                                           water, the most-discussed use of estuaries in the
      Sand, gravel, oil, gas, shell, and commercially    generation of electricity, was generally avoided as
    useful quantities of various chemicals occur under    long as utilities could obtain fresh water and elim-
    estuaries as under many other surfaces on the earth.    inate the problems associated with use of saline or
    Except for such biogenic deposits as shells of estu-    brackish water.
    arine molluscs or of coral, their presence has no         Production of electricity may utilize estuaries in
    relationship to the existence of the estuaries, with    several different ways. The most direct use is for
    which they are in accidental coincidence. The uses    condenser cooling in steam electric stations. Water
    of such materials have varied, and probably will    may constantly flow through the system or be with-
    vary, as different materials become useful, as tech-   drawn to make up evaporative losses in cooling
    niques for locating and extracting minable substances    towers. The dependence of large nuclear plants on
    are improved and as more easily accessible sources on    estuaries as the only feasible means of transporting
    land become partially or completely exhausted.    massive containment vessels and other large com-
    Estuarine mining is now relatively limited, and Riggs    ponents sometimes controls the siting of such plants.
    (1975) points out that our knowledge of the po-          Such uses are relatively recent in coastal bays, and
    tentials of both estuaries and the continental shelves    no summary of present estuarine use has been seen.
    is presently only superficial.                          Because populations and industrial activities are
                                                           growing in coastal areas, demand is expected to
    AGGREGATES                                             increase and there have been predictions of as many
                                                           as 10 large nuclear plants in upper Chesapeake Bay
                   For the purpose of this summary, and at some    and its tributaries, for instance. Mihursky (1975)
                   For  he prpos  of his  ummay, ad atsome notes the recent regulations which may substantially
    variance with geological terminology, this includes    notes the recent regulations which may substantially
    surface and near-surface sediments, gravels, sands,    affect the direct usage that such systems will make of
    clays, shells, and chemicals. Biggs describes the    estuaries. No simple prediction appears feasible at
                                                           this time.
    huge American demand for some of the materials
    and the difficulties of making reliable estimates of
    estuarine production,, and  notes that increased    Water Extraction
    populations near estuaries are highly likely to in-
    crease demand for the exploitation of useful deposits.    The salt content of most estuarine waters seriously
    Shell deposits by oysters, brackish-water clams, and    hampers use for drinking water, agricultural irriga-
    other species have many uses (including that of   tion, industrial processing, and other purposes com-
    cultch to assist the production of more shellfish),    mon for fresh water, although all of these occur at
    but some of the massive deposits are apparently    some sites, especially in fresh or nearly fresh tidal
    showing  depletion  (Biggs,  1975; Espey,  1975).    waters. Such use as that of a heat transfer medium
    Special purpose clay mining and extraction of min-   in generating electricity or some other industrial

                                             CONCLUDING REMARKS                                          743

    processes is not an extraction but a borrow, since the    of scientific personnel involved with the eastern
    total quantity is usually returned near the intake.   estuarine environment indicates that research inter-
      The principal extractive use of water is from the    ests among 644 respondents to 1,200 queries were
    total watershed of estuaries. Withdrawal may occur    overwhelmingly  biological in 1972  (Kerby  and
    for inter-basin transfer (Delaware to the Hudson,    McErlean, 1972). All of the many other fields listed
    Sacramento Valley to Los Angeles, and so on), for   lagged far behind, confirming impressions at con-
    irrigation, or for other uses which permanently re-   ferences on coastal topics.
    move water and may drastically affect the estuary.       Recent trends have been for increased research
    Uses which involve substantial alteration of the    and teaching. Large estuarine research societies now
    pattern of flow releases into the estuary (damming    exist, with the umbrella Estuarine Research Federa-
    for hydroelectric generation, water supply, recrea-   tion having about 1,200 members in constituent
    tion, flood control) are not extractive but may also   societies in New England, Middle Atlantic, South
    have important estuarine consequences. These differ   Atlantic, and gulf coast regions. Several similar
    from the extensive borrow-and-return pattern of   groups have been formed on the west coast. Estuaries
    most domestic and industrial use, which has little   will be used extensively for these purposes, but
    estuarine effect.                                     future trends are difficult to predict because most
      No  data are available for estimating present    financial support is from state and federal funding,
    extractions of estuarine water nor for predicting    which in itself is presently unpredictable.  "The
    trends.                                               National Estuary Study" predicted increased use for
                                                           research and education of seven of eight selected
                                                           estuaries, with continuation at the same level in
    Military Purposes                                     Galveston Bay (Fish and Wildlife Service, 1970).

      These include transportation, firing and ordnance    Climate Control
    ranges, research on vessels and equipment, filling for
    air strips and other land use, storage of vessels,      Modification of climate is perhaps the most exten-
    vessel construction and maintenance, coastal patrol   sive, least measurable, and least priceable use of
    and its support, and education in naval operations,    estuaries. As  compared with land    masses, they
                                                           estuiaries. As compared with land masses, they
    flying, and related fields. No summary has been seen    moderate summer  and winter temperatures, lag
                                                           moderate summer and winter temperatures, lag
    of the present extent of these uses, although they are
                                                           spring and fall temperature transitions, and increase
    obviously large in some bays and estuaries. Prediction   in anall e         tue rres
                                                           humidity. These substantially affect uses for resi-
    is impossible, since extended periods of peace may
                                                           dential, recreational, industrial, and aesthetic pur-
    bring reduction in some of these activities as being    e   ,       t           tral o       sheti   u
                                                           poses, but the value of such effects is obviously
    unnecessary or inappropriate for estuaries--and
    escalation toward war would make other considera-    complex and elusive. The trend of this use, if indeed
    escalation toward war would make other considera-thtwrisapoiteisrprinteote
                                                           that word is appropriate, is proportionate to the
    tions relatively trivial.
                                                           activities listed above. Since they are expected to
                                                           grow, so too will the importance of climate modifica-
    Research and Education                                tionbyestuaries.

      Research is conducted in estuaries to solve the    Biological Harvest
    problems which occur and to broaden understanding.
    Since estuaries have many problems which are in-        Since estuaries have higher natural rates of produc-
    creasingly recognized to be important, there has   tion of organic materials than almost any other
    been rapid increase in the number of projects related   biological system (Teal and Teal, 1969), large bio-
    to fisheries, waste management, water quality, and    logical populations exist and have been harvested
    the social, economic and legal aspects of estuarine    throughout the world. Most of the harvest is achieved
    use. In addition, the diversity and dynamicism of   by hunting techniques, capturing the yield with
    the geological, physical, chemical, and biological   little or no investment in cultivation, although
    components of estuarine systems have also attracted    management through public agencies and by private
    growing use as wild laboratories.                     efforts exists and may increase. Harvest for food and
       Similarly, estuaries are highly used in training   harvest for industrial materials are not significantly
    students, both in livelihood (fishing, recreational    different, despite the different distribution of the
    bbating, maritime skills, and so forth) and funda-    products-and consequent difference in the ultimate
    mental sciences and arts. Marine and estuarine bi-   users. These two subclasses of the biological harvest
    ology has been the most popular field, and a survey    will be treated together in this brief discussion.

    744                                 ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

      The catch of estuary-dependent species was worth    and encouragement for increased preservation in
    about $660 million at dockside in 1973, about 73    estuaries, so that such use may be expected to grow.
    percent of the total commercial fish landings value of
    $900 million for the United States (Tihansky and
    Meade, 1975). All of the principal species are useful    Waste Placement
    for food except menhaden, although some of the food
    species also yield industrial products (bait, 'meal,    Waste placement is used with intentional avoid-
    shell, and so on). Menhaden, the great industrial    ance of the comforting term "waste disposal" since
    species which provides meal, oil, and many chemical    even slight critical thought proves that most of our
    products, had a 1973 landing of 1.9 billion pounds,    placement of waste materials has not disposed of
    valued at $73 million at dockside (Broadhead, 1975).   them-merely transferred them from one site to
    Both food and industrial species increase at least   another. Estuaries have always received substantial
    severalfold in value as they move through processing,    quantities of the materials humans wish to dispose
    distribution, and sales to reach the consumer. Even    of because (1) estuaries le in the basin-catching
    at dockside values, Bollman (1975) notes that the   position for all land drainage; (2) population clusters
    capital required to produce $660 million would, at    along the coast; (3) the chemistry, geochemistry,
    5 percent yield, be about $13.2 billion dollars, an    and dynamics of estuaries provide large capacities
    approximation of the value of estuarine fisheries-   for some wastes without harm, or at least visible
    and of this use of estuaries,                         harm, to other users; and (4) the magnitude and
      Prediction of use trends for estuarine biological   extent of possible damage from wastes was not even
    resources is exceptionally difficult. In the "National    partially known until recent decades. The cheapness,
    Estuary Study," increased fisheries were predicted    convenience, and capacity of estuaries for receiving
    for all of the eight case study estuaries, but this may    wastes favor their use within appropriate limits-the
    have mixed estimates of demand with estimates of   extraordinary values, dispersive nature, and relative
    yield. Broadhead (1975) has stressed the instability   fragility of the biological systems require conserva-
    of marine populations and the complexity of the    tive use for such purpose.
    factors which may affect abundance. It is not pos-
    sible to forecast the supply, although demand for    Human Wastes
    both food and industrial harvest will increase.
                                                            At source, human wastes are already complex.
    Preservation                                          Undigested foods and liquid products of metabolism,
                                                          neither of which is chemically simple, are quickly
       Estuaries contain many biological forms, assem-    mixed with shower and bath water, kitchen wastes,
    blages, environments, and other features which    washings, and anything else put in the toilet or sink.
    merit preservation. These have been noted and    In systems for sewage collection and treatment, these
    extensively considered in the volume "Marine and    are frequently combined with industrial wastes and,
    Estuarine Sanctuaries, the Proceedings of the Na-    intermittently, with surface runoff from storms.
    tional Workshop on Sanctuaries" (Virginia Institute    Even after some degree of treatment, such wastes are
    of Marine Science, 1975). Preservation may be    usually composed of many materials. For instance,
    needed to assure the continued existence of a species   the discharge from the Hyperion and White Point
    or system, to protect such a component for future   outfalls on the west coast contains more than 20
     availability, to guarantee the productivity of all or    components to a level of a ton or more discharged per
    part of an estuarine system or to preserve a unique    day to the receiving waters. The specific composition
    physical, geological, chemical, or biological feature.   of the discharge varies principally with the sources. of
       Partial preservation now occurs in various wildlife   waste and the kind of treatment, generally but im-
     refuges, sanctuaries, parks, and preserves, but there   precisely described as none, primary, secondary, or
    is no national summary of the quality or quantity of   tertiary (advanced). No operating plant completely
    such protection. Those participating in EPA's Con-    removes all potential pollutants from domestic
     ference on Estuary Pollution Control vigorously pro-   wastewater except on an experimental or pilot scale.
     posed substantial increase in this use of some parts    The magnitude of such wastes is difficult to
     of the national estuarine complex, and provided    estimate. As an example, a recent inventory of sew-
     detailed guidance for such preservation, Both the    age treatment plants for Chesapeake Bay (Brush,
     Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972,(P.L. 92-583)    1974) identified 243 such plants, of which 35 pro-
     and the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctu-    vided primary treatment and 208 were secondary.
     aries Act of 1971 (P.L. 92-532) contain authorization    The total effluent was estimated to be 2.8 percent of

                                             CONCf/rDING RFMARKS                                           745

                 Table 3.-Generated municipal wastes   "-   best achievable" by July of 1983, and states a
                                                          national goal of eliminating all pollutant discharge.
                            1960   1970   1980   Increase
                                               1970-1980
                                                          THE REAL WORLD OF USES
    Wastewater, billion gallons .-.... 1,612  1,902  2,131  229 or 12%
    Standard BOD, millions of pounds:.  2,230  2,632  2,974.  342 or 13%
    ttleables oafnd suspended solids11   ,1   380 or 2%       Rarely, if ever, is an estuary utilized significantly
                                                          for only one of the uses noted above. Even primitive
                                                          populations of low technological capability are
                                                          likely to fish, use boats, place wastes, and recreate in
    the average freshwater flow into the bay; Without    such waters. This, then, is the simplest form of
    similar data from other estuaries, national summa-    multiple use, and the most complex form occurs in
    tion is impossible, but the use is obviously a very    the harbors of industrialized cultures with large
    large one.                                              populations, where every listed use may be occurring
      Trends will be affected by the developing pressures    at once. The problem lies in the fact that almost
    from population increase and the changing con-    every use can become so large that it impinges upon
    straints through regulation. The first of these has    other uses and users.
    been briefly described above, and the very great          Several interesting and potentially useful concepts
    changes in national regulations have been summar-    for managing uses of estuaries have received recent
    ized by Hargis (1975). "The National Estuarine    attention and may become incorporated in coastal
    Pollution Study" (1969) quoted (P IV-334) from    zone management. One may be called an exclusion
    a FWPCA publication "The Cost of Clean Water"    concept, which dictates that the exceptionally valu-
    that the national estuarine population would gener-    able shoreline will be reserved for those uses which
    ate the following quantities of several components    are  genuinely  dependent  on  such siting-and
    in the areas served by sewers.                          excludes those which are not. For instance, docks,
      No certain prediction is possible, because economic,    swimming beaches, and large marine railways can
    political and environmental efforts are all likely to    only exist at the edge of water. Processing plants
    be intense. The outcome cannot be foreseen,             (even for seafood), power generating stations, and
                                                           oil refineries can frequently be sited as well, or better,
                                                           away from the estuary. Such siting may become
    Industrial Wastes                                      mandatory.  Another  concept  receiving  present
                                                           currency is that of clustering of uses, an intense
      The composition of unwanted materials from    form of zoning. If industrial activities are concen-
    commercial activity is as variable as the industry.    trated, the argument runs, efficiencies are possible in
    (See "The National Estuarine Pollution Study;"    providing utilities, handling wastes, and arranging
    1969, pp. IV-386 to IV-389, Volume II; for a catalog    transpoi'tation, as well as in surveillance and en-
    of such wastes, their characteristics, and the dis-   forcement. With clusters, more of the total estuarine
    tribution among the states.) Through most of the    shoreline is left without problems of such use. These
    industrial period in this country, industries were    concepts, and many additional ideas, seem likely to
    permitted to take full advantage of the economy of   receive increased attention as the task of balancing
    placing wastes in nearby waterways as long a's they    uses, the focal thrust of the Coastal Zone Manage-
    did not endanger human health or cause quite    hnent Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-583), is implemented.
    obvious damage. Change in public knowledge and            It is appropriate to note, in this discussion of the
    concern in recent decades has brought all new in-   interactions of pollutants with the uses of estuaries,
    dustry, and much old, under considerable control in    the obvious but very important fact that use is usu-
    this regard. As a result of this transition, 'waste    ally the source of pollution. Most, but not all, of the
    placement has been drastically reduced, although    listed uses have this potential. Change in usage or
    there are residual uses in the forms of (a) contam-    change in the regulation of pollution can have major
    inated deposits from previous activities, (b) -uncor-   effects on each other.
    rected violations of regulations, 'and (c) transport of   The large task is that of achieving, through suffi-
    wastes short distances to the oceanic water as a    cient knowledge and wise government, the optimal
    means of disposal.         -       '                   balancing of multiple uses of estuaries so that they
      The Federal Water:Pollution Control Act Amend-    serve the-public interest most effectively. To achieve
    ments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500) direct use of "best    this, all human activities must be constrained so as
    available" control technology  by July of 1977,    to remain within the inherent capacities of the estu-

    746                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

               Table 4-Principal pollutants of estuaries  forest clearing and agriculture, surface alterations
                                                         in urbanization, mmmg activites, channelhzation,
          Pathogens                 Brine                 poor sediment control during construction of roads
          Sediments                 Toxic Inorganlcs
          Solid Wastes             Toxic Organics         and other facilities, excessive enrichment, sohd waste
          Color Sources             Petroleum             placement, and dredging and spoil placement have
          Odor/Taste Sources        Nutrients
          FlodorTables              Radioactivity         massively increased the rate and quantity of sedi-
          Heat                     Oxygen Demand          ment input, deposit, resuspension, and redistribution
          Freshwater               Acids and Bases        in many of the nation's estuaries Storage reservoirs
                                                          and improved land management practices have
                                                          sometimes effectively reduced sediment input See.
    arine system-lest they destroy the system and its   Boyd et al, 1972, Carpenter, 1975, Commuttee on
    uses                                                   Water  Quahty  Criteria,  1969, Hedgpeth,  1975,
                                                          Hood, 1975, Lee, 1975, "National Estuarine Pollu-
    THE PRINCIPAL POLLUTANTS                               tion Study," 1969; Schubel, 1975
    OF ESTUARIES
                                                          Solid Wastes
      Introductions by human activities which can be
    damaging in estuaries have been cataloged several        Accumulated unused solid wastes are presenting
    times, and some recent lists are provided in Appendix    one of the serious problems of all urban, and many
    B Taking advantage of these summaries, a new hlst-   suburban, areas Domestic materials, Agricultural
    ing of 16 pollutants has been prepared, again    wastes, and, especially, industrial unused products
    attempting to include all significant Introductions in    are involved Estuarine placement has been widely
    the simplest set which is both accurate and adequate    used as one of the alternatives, with placement
    (Table 4) Each of these is defined or described, and    ranging from dumps in the marsh and edge of the
    references are provided to selected papers which    river to ship transport to deeper water. The composl-
    contain information on the quantity and probable    tion of such materials defies single description, and
    future trend of each                                   the effects include those of sediments, toxicants and
                                                          many other pollutants See' Committee on Water
                                                          Quality Criteria, 1972, Veibusch, 1975, Gross, 1969,
                                                          Hood, 1975, Srmth, 1975
      Living organisms which can cause pathology or
    sickness in either the animals and plants within the    Color Sources
    estuary or in humans who eat or contact materials
    taken from the water include a wide variety of bac-      Natural sources of color in estuarine waters include
    teria, protozoa, viruses, and fungi Human pathogens    leachates from marshes, swamps, and other vegeta-
    are frequently abundant in sewage, but may enter   tive areas, suspended particles, and blooms of plank-
    the water from  other waste  disposal or from    ton. Human effects on color are most likely from
    accidental spills. The pathogens of aquatic species   industrial effluents or accidental spills Color is not
    are often introduced with transplanted orgamnisms,    toxic, but affects the quality and quantity of light
    and are often indirectly affected by environmental    penetration  and  availabllity,  and  the material
    alterations such as sallmty increase or decrease    causing color may have additional effects
    See' Colwell, 1975, Ketchum, Ed, 1972, McEwen,
     1972, "National Estuarine Pollution Study," 1969,
    Smdermann, 1972
                                                            Many materials can affect the odor or flavor of
     Sediments                                              edible (to humans) estuarmine products or the aesthetic
                                                          quality of the estuarine environment. They are
       Inorganic particulate materials ranging in size   primarily organic, and the most common are oils and
     from clays and silts up to at least sands may occur    petroleum products Little is known about the effects
    in many forms, from essentially single-size loads to   of various materials on the edibility of estuarne
     extremely complex mixtures of particles with loose   species by other species, although it is reasonable to
     and firm aggregates containing many materials.    suspect that it occurs and may be important The
     Estuaries are inherently sediment traps, but the    effect on human seafoods is economic, since the
     effects of man's activities through practices m        presence of offensive odor or taste usually prevents

                                            -CONlCLUDING REMARKS                                          747

    eating sufficient quantity to cause illness. See: "The    Toxic Inorganics
    National Estuarine Pollution Study," 1969.
                                                            Although every inorganic element or compound
                                                          can be toxic at some level of concentration and
    Floatables                                             exposure, attention is usually most appropriate for
                                                          those of exceptionally high toxicity or probability of
      Low-density materials on the surface may be in the    release. Thirty-five to 40 elements and a much larger
    form of slicks, globs, wood and fibrous organic mater-    number of compounds are known to be potential
    ial, undigested plastics of many types, rubber goods,    serious pollutants. These exist in industrial effluents,
    sealed bottles or cans and many other substances    domestic waste treatment effluents, biocides (espe-
    which are either inherently light or capable of holding    cially as the result of chlorination), drainage from
    gases. They occur on the surface and usually move to    mines or quarries, and many other sources. Especially
    s';he shoreline. See: Pearson, 1975.                   thorough summary has been presented by the Com-
                                                          mittee on Water Quality Criteria, 1972. See: Blus
    Heat                                                   et al. 1975; Committee on Water Quality Criteria,
                                                          1972; Hedgpeth, 1975; Hood, 1975; Ketchum, Ed.,
      Heat is introduced into the estuary from conden-    1972; Middaugh and Davis, 1975; "National Estu-
    ser cooling in power plants, cooling by other industry,    arine Pollution Survey," 1969; Smith, 1975.
    and in relatively small amounts incidentally with
    other waste discharges. After initial warming, the    Toxic Organics
    receiving waters act essentially as a transfer medium,
    conveying virtually all introduced heat to the at-        Most of the especially toxic organic compounds
    mosphere. This release may involve extremely large    turned loose in estuaries are synthetic compounds,
    estuarine areas, because of dispersion by tidal flow    and the most serious are those which are highly
    and mixing processes. See: Blake, 1975; Committee    persistent. They arise primarily from the wide range
    on Water Quality Criteria, 1972; Clark and Brownell,    and large quantities of biocides employed on land
    1973; Cronin, 1975; Hedgpeth, 1975; Jensen 1975;    (fungicides, herbicides, insecticides, rodenticides)
    Mihursky,  1975; Smith,  1975; Water Resources    but also from additional halogenated hydrocarbons,
    Criteria, 1972.                                        petroleum, and industrial chemicals. The nature
                                                          and experimental toxicity of these creations of man
                                                          have been detailed by the Committee on Water
                                                          Quality Criteria, 1969. See: Blus et al. 1975; Butler,
                                                          ii ii 1975; Committee on Water Quality Criteria, 1969;
      Darom man'sg introducons of fresh water resulting    Hedgpeth, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., 1972; Lincer, 1975;
    from man's activities can result from opening of
                                                           Smith, 1975; Walsh, 1972.
    spillways and diversion channels, release of large
    volumes of low salinity effluent in water of higher
    salinity, and land use practices which permit flashier    Petroleum
    runoff than would have occurred under natural
    regimes. See: Cronin, 1967; Smith, 1975.                  Petroleum and its complex components are prin-
                                                           cipally organic but the extraction, transportation,
                                                           handling, refining, and distribution of these fossil
    Brine                                                  energy sources have created a distinctive set of
                                                           problems in pollution. Since estuaries are the waters
       Salt in detrimental concentration may be intro-   of entry, and petroleum pollution is highly associated
    duced as true brines from industrial activity or from    with transporting, handling, and refining, consider-
    blowdown residues in cooling towers. It may also be    able concern exists and will continue. See: Blus et al.
    added in more dilute form observable as salinity    1975; Brown, 1975; Committee on Water Quality
    increase above that which would have occurred    Criteria, 1972; Farrington, 1975; Hedgpeth, 1975;
    without human causes. This can be caused by diver-    Hood, 1975; Ketchum, Ed., 1975.
    sion of freshwater from the watershed for consump-
    tive uses like inter-basin transfer, irrigation, or
    evaporative cooling. towers; by deepening of channels;    Nutrients
    by up-stream release of condenser cooling water; and
    by other mechanisms. See: Hedgpeth, 1975; Schubel    - Nutrients are the chemical raw materials which are
     and Meade, 1975; Smith, 1975.                          essential for biological processes. These enhance

    748                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    productivity m  appropriate  quantities but can    exceeded by large additions, and thus' would dan-
    seriously disrupt the estuarine ecosystem through    gerously alter the environment of the biota', which
    excessive enrichment  Nitrogen, phosphorous, and    cannot survive much change of this kind In addl-
    carbon are the most noted specific elements, but less   tion, the toxlcity of most other pollutants increases
    abundant elements and compounds can be signrfi-   under such circumstances  Acids or bases might
    cant Polluting quantities can be introduced from    reach the estuary from mme drainage, accidental
    sewage effluent, runoff from cleared or agricultural   spills, or industrial wastes  See  Committee  on
    land, detergents, street runoff, and industrial wastes    Water Quality Critleria, 1972
    As eutrophication occurs with increasing frequency
    afhd at additional locations, many consider these
    additions to present one of the most serious threats    THE EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS*
    to best use of estuaries See Champ, 1975, Commit-
    tee on Water Quality Criteria, 1972, Hobbie and           The introduction of a chemical compound or a
    Copeland, 1975, Ketchum, Ed, 1972, Pearson, 1975;    change m  the physical environment may affect a
    Smith, 1975                                            natural marine ecosystem in many ways In coastal
                                                          waters undisturbed for long periods of time, the
                                                          ecosystem has adjusted to the existing conditions
    Rad ioactivity                                         The system is productive, species are diverse, the
                                                          biomass is high, and the flow of energy is compara-
      RadioactLve elements and compounds can enter    tlvely efficient The addition of pollutants to such a
    the estuary from fallout from atmospheric burden,    system mght.
    from testing of weapons and other uses, release of
    wastes from nuclear power plants and other users of           reduce the iput of solar energy ito the
    such fuels, drainage of mines, accidental spillage min
    hospitals, and with wastes from reprocessmg plants    ecosystem,
                                                             m  increase the minput of organic matter and nu-
    and some industries. Because of increased mtroduc-
                                                          tnents winch nught stimulate the growth of unde-
    tion, longevity of emission, and the knowledge that
    it can cause somatic and genetic damage m estuarineents by ireased
    biota and possibly in humans, this relatively new
                                                          sorptmn and sechmentaon,
    pollutant is of national significance. See- Committeer              eate intolerable physical extrementats for some
    on Water Quality Criteria, 1972, Ketchum, Ed,    orga tsms, as by the addhilon of heat,
    1972; National Academy of Sclences-Natlonal Re-          ga kll or reduce the    success of he  dual organ-
    searcha Council, 1971.                                    * klll or reduce the success of indlvdual organ-
                                                          isms, as by lethal toxicity or cripplng with oil,
                                                               eliminate species by adding a toxic material or
    Oxygen Demand                                          making an essential element unavailable,
                                                             * interfere with the flow of energy from species to
      Some additions can create additional demand for   species, as by a chemical that interferes with feeding
    the finite quantity of oxygen m  estuarine water    behavior,
    Sewage sludge, wood wastes (pulp, bark, chips),           � reduce species diversity m the system,
    sediments stirred during dredging operations, and         . interfere with regenerative cyclng by decom-
    the secondary effects of excessive enrichment can    posers,
    all contribute to this demand Freshwater manage-   o         decrease biomass by reduction of abundant
    ment practices which increase vertical stratification    species or disruption of the processes of ecosystems,
    during periods of high temperature will enlarge the        * increase biomass by removing important con-
    area and volume of oxygen depletion in some estu-    sumers,  allowing  runaway  production  of other
    aries See' Committee on Water Quality Criteria,    species
    1972; Hood, 1975; Ketchum, Ed, 1975, Pearson,
    1975                                                      All of these may involve changes in production and
                                                          lowered human usefulness of the system These are
    Acids and Bases                                        examples, additional effects can occur The specific
                                                          impacts of pollution at a site can be determined only
       A complex carbon dioxide-bicarbonate-carbonate    through long-term study of that portion of the ocean
    system buffers estuarine waters to help stabilize them    and the changes that occur
    against change from the addition of acidic or basic      * Verbatim from Committee on Water Quahty Criteria, 1972, pp
    chemicals The buffering capacity can, however, be    219-220

                                               CONCLUDING REMARKS                                              749

    VISUAL SUMMARY OF                                         components, processes, and systems of estuaries-
    THE INTERACTIONS BETWEEN                                  and many of the pollutants might either interfere
    POLLUTANTS AND USES                                       with or substantially enhance such research and the
                                                             effective education of students.
      Matrix charts have been prepared to suggest               These matrices may  have  several uses. They
    which  of the uses are likely to be significantly    suggest which pollutants are potential threats to the
    affected by each pollutant (Figures 1 and 2). A           fewest and to the most uses, and which face the
    simple set of symbols was selected, so that:              largest and smallest number of probable sources of
                                                             damage--and all of the intermediate probabilities.
        Black:    Danger, this pollutant can have se-    Thus, they may help in identifying the pollutants of
                   rious effects on that use.-    ; y        highest priority for control in national, regional,
                                                             state, or local programs. In. any one estuarine system,
        Hatched: Caution, this pollutant may in some              '                              w
                                                cutn s    utat  sselection of the uses most valuable to, or preferred
                                                             by, the people of the region can. be followed by pre-
         ' Grey:   This pollutant can be beneficial' to    liminary identification of the most probable sources
                   that use in favorable circumstantces.    of destruction for those uses. Such a preliminary
                   that use in favorable circumstances.
                                                             identification from these matrices would, of course,
        Blank:   No' substantial effect is known to    be but the first step in constructive local' efforts to
                                                             assure good balance. One of their most stimulating
                                                             aspects is the display of many potentials for con-
      As with all efforts to reduce massive complexity to   'structive use of possible pollutants-of 'conversion
    an unqualified simple summary, the viewer shares    of problem materials into positive resources.  If
    some of the responsibility for preventing mis- or    preparation  of these  summaries  facilitates that
    over-interpretation. The following qualifying com-    necessary process, value will hae been achieved.
    ments may help:
                                                             REFERENCES
      1. The selection of signals is subjective, not quantita-
    tive. It is based on about 35 years of scientific ex-    Adams, R. L., et al. 1973. Outdoor recreation: Appendix
    perience with estuarine pollution, participation in         "A", an economic analysis. U.S. Dept. Interior (cited
    several of the panels' cited, and the advantage of          through Salter).
    excellent reports prepared by many expert specialistS.             R      . D.
      2. The time scale is dificult to handle. As regulations    Bargmanrkhurst.. 1969.  Evluation of
                                                               sources and characteristics of waste discharges. Background
    are changed, -or enforcement is modified, or new            paper, NASCO-NACOA Study Session on Coastal Wastes
    knowledge emerges, the real threat from a pollutant         Management.
    is altered. So, too, may the importance of a use vary
    with tinm  t:hese estimates applycher, J. C. 1975.                          Report on population redistribution and
                                                               water pollution on the estuaries of the Eastern Seaboard.
      3. EacBr estuary is                                             ound paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary
    ally stresses the most likely interaction among the         Pollution Control.
    850 or more such systems in the nation, but each
    case can be effectively' understood only on its own    Blake, J. 1975. Impact of waste heat discharged into estuaries
                   terms. Perhaps the matrix can best be posed as a  when considering power plant siting :requirements. Back-
                   terms. Perhaps the matrix can best beground pape r for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution
    series of questions for each estuary--"Is this pollu-       Control.
    tant reasonably likely to have -the suggested effect
    on that use? If not, what is the' real local relation-    Blus, L. J., R. C. Stendell,;S. H. Wiemeyer, H. M. Ohlendorf,
    ship?" At least, a useful set of questions may be           J; A. Herwin and LJ F. Stickel. 1975. Impact of estuaine
                             Iummariaed in the mpollution on birds. Background paper for the EPA Con-
    summarized in the matrices.                                 ference on Estuary Pollution Control.

       In most cases, it is probably easy to comprehend    Bollman, F. H. 1975. The values of estuarine fisheries habitats:
    the opinion of the author, but one set of symbols           some basic considerations in their preservation. Background
                                                               paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
    requires explanation--those under the use of Re.
    search' and Education. While the presence of a pol-    Boyd, M. B., R. T. Saucier, J. W. Keeley, R. L. Montgomery,
    lutant offers opportunity for study and for teaching,       R. D. Brown, D. B. Mathis and C. J. Guice. 1972. Disposal
    that interaction was not chosen for emphasis. Rather,       of dredge spoil-problem identification and assessment
    the symbol indicates how the pollutant is expected          and.S. Army ch progrways develperiment Tech. Repti Hs-72-8,
    to affect research and education on the basic nature,       Miss...

    750                                  ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

       Pathogens                 t_|r|
                                   0~~~~~~~~, %. \.                       %     :       \

       Sediments x W   , g                                                              _ I

       Solid Wastes @1

       Color Sources

       Odor - Taste Sources

       Floatables                             _}                                    g                }

       Heat                         vt  'X "b                                                 $
                                                                                    ~~~~~~~~~

       Fresh Water                                                                                   }

       Brine                                                g                                %

       Toxic Inorganics

       Toxic Organics

       Petroleum

       Nutrient        s

       Oxygen Demand

       Acids & Bases

              *  Damage               ~    Caution               3  No Effect    ~    Benefit

                                         FiGuR] 1 -Probable effects of pollutants.

                     CONCLUiDING REmAIUB,                             5

    ~~~5"& OF

      ?t~~ONE

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                    M m ORONO&

                        -1   PI                     fil~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4

                                        xx~~~~~~~~~~

       *~~~ (,   xo0x

    752                                        ESTUARINE POLLUTION CONTROL

    Broadhead, G. C. 1975. Our estuaries and future commercial       Fish and Wildlife Service (Bur. Spt. Fish Wildlife, Bur.
      fishing trends. Background paper for the EPA Conference          Comm. Fish.). 1970. National Estuary Study. U.S. Dept.
      on Estuary Pollution Control.                                    Interior. 7 volumes.

    Brush, L. M., Jr. 1974. Inventory of sewage treatment plants     Gross, M. G. 1969. New York City-a major source of
      for Chesapeake Bay. Publ. No. 28, Chesapeake Research            marine sediment. Background paper for the NASCO-
      Consortium.                                                     NAECO Study Section on Coastal Wastes Management.

    Butler, P: A. 1975. National Estuarine'Monitbring Program.       Hargis, W. J., Jr. 1975. Evaluation of water quality in
      Background paper' for The EPA Conference on Estuary             estuarine and coastal waters. Background paper for the
      Pollution Control.                                              EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.

    Carpenter, J. H. 1975. Limiting Factors that Control Dredging   Hedgpeth, J. W. 1975. Seven ways to obliteration. factors of
      Activities in the Estuarine Zone. Background paper for          estuarine degradation. Background paper for the EPA
      The EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.                Conference on Estuary Pollution.

    Champ,  M. A. 1975. Nutrient Loading in the Nation's            Hobbie, J. E. and B. J. Copeland. 1975. Effects and control
      Estuaries. Background paper for The EPA Conference on           of nutrients in estuarine ecosystems. Background paper
      Estuary Pollution Control.                                      for the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.

    Clark, J. 1974. Coastal Ecosystems. Ecological Considerations   Hood, D. W. and J. J. Goering. 1975. Pollution problems in
      for Management of the Coastal Zone. The Conservation            the estuaries of Alaska. Background paper for the EPA
      Foundation, Washington, D.C.                                    Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.

    Clark, J. 1975. Status of Estuarine Sportfish Research.         Irby, H..D. 1975. Problems encountered in wildlife manage-
      Background paper for The EPA Conference on Estuary              ment and factors controlling wildlife management programs
      Pollution Control.                                              in the nation's estuaries. Background paper for the EPA
                                                                     Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
    Clark, J. and W. Brownell. 1973. Electric Power Plants in the
      Coastal Zone: Environmental  Issues. Am.  Litt.  Soc.,    Jensen, L. 1975. Effects of thermal discharges on estuarine
      Highlands, N.J., Spec. Publ. No. 7.                             ecosystems. Background paper for the EPA Conference
                                                                     on Estuary Pollution Control.
    Committee on Oceanography (NAS-NCR) and Committee
      on Ocean Engineering (NAE). 1970. Wastes Management                     .  . 1975. Recreation activities in the nation's
      Concepts for the Coastal Zone-Requirements for Research         estuarine zone. Backgr o und paper for        the nationference
                                              an netyof Sciences and  estuarine zone. Background paper for the EPA Conference
      and Investigation. National Academy of Scie nces and                Estuary Pollution Control.
      National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D.C.

    Committee on Power Plant Siting, National Academy of    Kerby, Catherine and A. J. McErlean. 1972. Scientific per-
      Engineering.  1972. Engineering for Resolution  of the          sonnel resource inventory: list and index to research scien-
      Energy-Environment Dilemma. Washington, D.C.                    tists involved with the estuarine environment, especially
                                                                     the Chesapeake Bay. OLP/Smithsonian Inst., Ref. No.
    Committee on Water Quality Criteria. 1972. Water Quality           72-li; U. Md. Natural Resources Inst. Ref. No. 723.
      Criteria. 1972. Environmental Studies Board, National
      Academy of Sciences-National Academy of Engineering,          Ketchum, B. H. 1969. An ecological view of environmental
      Washington, D.C.                                                management. In: Systems Analysis for Social Problems,
                                                                     pp. 236-248. Washington Operations Research Council,
    Cronin, L. E. 1967. The role of man in estuarine processes.        Wash., D.C.
      In: G. Lauff (ed), Estuaries. A.A.A.S. Publ. No. 83, pp.
      667689.                                                       Ketchum, B. H. (Ed). 1972. The Water's Edge: Critical
                                                                     Problems of the Coastal Zone. Product of the Coastal
    Cronin, L. E.  1975. Ecological implications. In: Water            Zone Workshop held May 22-June 3, 1972, sponsored by
      Management in the Electric Power Industry. Water Res.           the Inst. of Ecology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic
      Symp. 8, Center for Research in Water Resources, U. Texas       Inst. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass.
      at Austin. In press.
                                                                   Langlois, E. 1975. Factors limiting and controlling the
    Ellis, R. N. 1973. Analysis of critical management issues          operation of U.S. ports located in estuarine areas from the
      related to Chesapeake Bay. The Center for Environment           standpoint of pollution control. Background paper for the
       and Man, Inc., Hartford, Conn.                                  EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.

    Espey, W. H., Jr. 1975. Environmental aspects of dredging       Lee, G. F. 1975. Limiting factors for the controlling of
      in the Gulf Coast zone with some attention paid to shell        pollution from dredging in estuarine areas. Background
      dredging. Background paper for the EPA Conference on            paper for the EPA  Conference on Estuary  Pollution
      Estuary Pollution Control.                                      Control.

    Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. 1969. The
       National Estuarine Pollution Study. U.S. Dept. Interior,    Lincer, J. L. 1975. The impact of synthetic organic compounds
       3 volumes.                                                      on estuarine ecosystems. Background paper for the EPA
                                                                     Conference on Estuary Pollution Control.
    Feibusch, H. A. 1975. Solid waste disposal and its relationship
       to estuarine pollution. Background paper for the EPA Con-    McEwen, T. D. 1972. Human wastes and the Chesapeake
       ference on Estuary Pollution Control.                           Bay. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 62(2) :157-160.

                                                  CONCLUDING 'REMARKS'                                                753

    Mlddaugh, D  P and W  P Davis 1975 Impact of chlornna-    Smith, S V  1975 Environmental status of Hawaiian estua-
      tlon processes m marinne ecosystems Background paper for     ries. Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary
      the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control              Pollution Control

    Mlhursky, J -A  1975  Thermal discharges and 'estuarne    Teal, J and Mildred Teal 1969 Life and Death of the Salt
      systems Background paper for the EPA Conference on           Marsh Little, Brown and Company, Boston and Toronto
      Estuary Pollution Control
                                                                Teeters, Robert D, Jr 1968 Present and future demands
    National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council          upon the coastal zone A panel working paper for the
      1971 Radloactlvity m the marine environment. Nat Acad        Semunar on Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone Nat Council
      Sci, Washlngton, D C                                         on Mar Resources and Eng Dmt pp 77-96

    Pearson, E  A  1975  Estuarmine wastewater management        Tlhansky, D. P  aid N  F  Meade  1975 Estimaing the
      Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary           economic value of estuaries to US  commercial fisheries
      Pollution Control                                            Background paper for the EPA Conference on Estuary
                                                                   Pollution Control
    Riggs, S R  1975 The extractive industries m the coastal
      zone of continental Umted States' Background paper for    Vlrgima Institute of Marinne Science  1974  Marine and
      the EPA Conference on Estuary Pollution Control              estuarnne sanctuaries November 28-30, 1973 S S S   Rept
                                                                   No 70
    Schubel, J R and R H Meade 1975 Man's nmpact on
      estuarine sedimentation Background paper for the EPA    Walsh, G  E  1972 Insecticides, herbicides, and polychlorn-
      Conference on Estuary Pollution Control                      nated blphenyls m estuaries J Wash  Acad Sci, 62(2)
                                                                   122-139
    Smindermann, C J 1972 Some blologlcal indicators of marine
      environmental degradation  J Wash  Acad  Scl, 62(2)        Center for Environmental and Estuarmne Studies, Umverslty
      184-189                                                      of Maryland Contributlon No 653

                                �`~~~~~~~~~                                                           I

    APPENDIX A

    Previous Lists of Uses                                          Transportation
    of Estuaries and Coastal Waters                                  Mining
                                                                     Waste Disposal
    (Chronologlcal [order)                                          Pest Control (predominantly minsects)
                                                                     Defense
    Batelle, 1966 In Development Potential of U S Continental        Agrculture
      Shelves ESSA, Dept Conmmnerce (Cited from Teeters 1968)       Power Production
                                                                     Water Supply
      Mmmining and Petroleum                                        Recreation
      Marine Engmeernng                                             Commercial Fishing
      Recreation                                                    Research and Education
      -ealth and Welfare
      Transportation                                              The Natsonal Estuarne Pollution Study, 1969 Volume I, Part
      Food and Agriculture                                          2, pp 30-44
      Defense and Space
      Research and Development                                      Fishing
      Other Industry                                                Recreation
                                                                     Transportation and National Defense
      The original report noted 51 specific uses under these        Municipal and Industrial Water Supply
      categories                                                    Waste Disposal
                                                                     Exploitation of Mmineral Resources
    Resources for the Future, 1967 In NationaI Interests in the      Aquaculture
      Marine Environment (Cited from, and as modified by,           Shorehline Development
      Teeters 1968)
                                                                   Ketchurn, B H, 1969
      Economic Development
         Resource Development                                        Swlmmnmg
         Transportation and Commumnicatiqn Facilities                Boating
         Recreation                                                  Sportfishing
         Disposal of Wastes                                          Commercial Fishing
       National Security                                             Boat Yards and Marinas
         Defense of U S Territories                                  I{ousinmg
         Support of U S Forces                                       Land Fill and Development
       Promotion of Cultural and Social Values                       Marine Transportation
         Research and Development                                    Dredgming and Filling
         Preservation of Natural Beauty                              Industry
         Enjoyment of the Environment                                Minimmg and Petroleum

    Cosrel, 1968 "Coordminatming Governmental Coastal Activities"    National Estuary Study, 1970 Appendix F, pp 6-7
       (Cited from Teers 1968)
                                                                      Water Transportation
       Resources                                                      Commercial  Fisheries
         Animal                                                      Extractive Industries
         Non-living                                                  Water Utilization and Estuarine Discharge
         Vegetable                                                   Urbanizatlon
         Energy (tidal)                                              Recreatlon
         Repository for Wastes                                       Research and Education
       Enjoyment
         Recreation                                                National Estuary Study, 1970 Appendix G
         Aesthetic
       Transportation                                                Commercial
         Sea-ormented                                                Cmeca
         Sea-oriented                                                Deep-draft Transportation
         Land-oriented                                               Boating
       National Defense                                              Mining and Minerals
       Land and Sea Use                                              Fisheries
         Private                                                     Wildlife
         Comm~ercla                                                  r     r
         Commercal                                                  Waste Disposal
         Industrial                                                  Recreation
                        Mg~~~~~xtary ~~~~~~Recreahton
         Military                                                    Aquaculture
          Other                                                      Resldential
                                                                      Industrial
     Ipon, 1968. "Identification of Problems and Opportuimties        Education-Research
       and Needs, Existing and Potential" (Cited from Teeters        Water Supply
       1968)                                                         Agriculture
                                                                      Defense
       Urbamnization                                                 Power Production
       Industry                                                      Log Storage

     754

                                                  CONCLUDING REMARKS                                                 - 755

    Lill, Gordon, 1970(?). For California Advisory Committee         Non-renewable Resources
      on Marine Resources (These are apparently more accu-             Petroleum and Natural Gas
      rately called activities than uses)                              Sand, gravel and shell
                                                                      Minerals
      Policing, Control, Inspection, Regulation                      Recreation and Aesthetics
      Breakwaters, Dredging, Coastal Maintenance                       Swimming
      Right of Way, Easements, Access Roads                            Skin Din
      Commercial Harbors and Terminals                                   s       aing
      Shipping                                                         Pleasure Boating
      Commercial Fishing                                               Sport Fishing
      Kelp Harvesting                                                  Tourism and Recreation
      Shellfish Farming                                                Coastal Preserves
      Sand and Gravel Production                                    Urbanization and Industrial Development
      Petroleum Production                                             Housing
      Nuclear Power and Desalination Plants                            Industrial Development
      Non-petroleum Offshore Platforms and Other Construction          Energy Needs
      Federal Government Reservations                                  Government Uses
      Public Coastal Parks                                .Transportation and Coastline Modification
      Public Underwater Parks                                          Shipping and Commerce
      Underwater Research Parks Assigned Use                        Waste Disposal
      Resorts
      Housing and Other Real Estate Development  .                Ellis, Robert N., 1973. Uses of Chesapeake Bay
      Swimming, Surfing, Water Skiing, Sunbathing
      Surf fishing
      Boat Sport Fishing                                 .Waste Disposal
      Marinas and Recreational Boating                              Wetlands (Natural Production)
      Waste Disposal                                                Commercial Fishing
                                                                    Water Supply
    Coastal Zone Workshop on Critical Problems of the Coastal        Commercial Marine Transportation
      Zone, 1972. Discussion topics                                 Recreation
                                                                    Shoreland Residential Development
      Food                                                           Shoreland, Commercial/Industrial Development
      Waste Disposal                                                 Preservation
      Mining and Extraction                                         Mineral Resources
      Recreation and Aesthetics
      Commerce (Transportation)
      Habitation (Human)                                          Clark, John, 1974. Coastal ecosystem uses
      Scientific Preserve
      Industrial Land Use
      Power Production                                               Cmmercial Fishing
      Water and Chemical Extraction                                 M inin      g
      Military Uses                                                 Mariculture
      Species Preservation                                           Transportation
    The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone,        Utilities
      1972. p. 13 of Summary of Results and Conclusions             Recreation
                                                                     Residential Construction
      Living space and Recreation                                    Preservation of Fish and Wildlife
      Industrial and Commercial Activities
      Waste Disposal                                              EPA, 1975. Conference on Estuary Pollution Control-Uses
      Food Production                                               listed for discussion
      Natural Preserves
      Special Governmental Uses
                                                                     Waste Disposal
    The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone,         Sport Fishing
       1972. Uses discussed in various chapters.                     Commercial Fishing
                                                                     Mining
      Living Resources                                               Transportation
         Commercial Fisheries                                        Electric Generation
         Sport Fisheries                                             Wildlife
         Aquaculture                                                 Recreation

    APPENDIX B

    Previous Lists of                                                Water Quality Criteria, 1972. Principal categories considered
    Pollutants of Estuaries                                            by the Panel on Marine Aquatic Life and Wildlife
    (Chronological Order)                                             Temperature
                                                                     Inorganics (including Heavy Metals and factors affecting
    The National Estuarine Pollution Study, 1969. Volume I,            pH)
      Part 2, pp. 52                                                  Oil
                                                                     Toxic Organics
      Decomposable Organic Material                                    Oxygen Demand
      Flesh-tainting Substances                                        Radioactive Materials
      Heavy Metals                                                    Sewage and Nutrients
      Mineral Salts                                                   Solid Wastes
      Pathogenic Organisms
      PToxic Materials                                              Clark, John, 1974. Environmental Events
      Thermal Pollution
      TSediment aPoBiological Oxygen Demand
      Sediment                                                        Dissolved Oxygen
                      ~~~~~~~~~~~Oil  .                                 ~Nutrients
                                                                     Pathogens
    Wastes Management Concepts for the Coastal Zone, 1970.             Pathogens
                                                                     Floatabios
      Provides discussion on the following:                            Odors and Tastes
      Pesticides                                                       Color
                                                                     Toxicity
      Sludges and Solid Wastes                                         Dissolved Salts
      Heat                                                             Radiological
      Oil
                      Oil ~~~~~~~~~~~~Temperature
      Toxic Substances                                                Temperature
      Nutrients                                                       pH Buffering
      Dissolved Organics                                              Ground Water
      Oxygen Demand
      Brine                                                         EPA, 1975. Conference on Estuary Pollution Control. Pollu-
      Fresh Water                                                     tants listed for discusssion
    The Water's Edge: Critical Problems of the Coastal Zone,           Oil
      1972. Considered to be of special concern:                      Solid Wastes
                                                                     Sediments
      Trace Metals                                                    Nutrients
      Plant Nutrients                                                 Sewage
      Organic Additions                                               Heat
      Solid Wastes                                                    Synthetic Organics
      Radioactivity                                                   Metals
      Pathogens                                                       Chlorination
      Heat                                                            Bacteria and Viruses
      Dredging, Filling, Marine Mining                                Agricultural Wastes

            UAJ.S. GOVERNMiENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977 Z00-369 1-3                                                             756