    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

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                        1975

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                                      Charleston, SC 25405-2413

                                                     KACHEMAK BAY

                                                           a

                                                    Status Report

                                                                                                           41

                                                          by

                                    M.P. Wennekens, PhD - Program Supervisor
                                          Pollution Biology - Marine Ecosystems Protection

                                    L.B.  Flagg
                                          Fisheries Biology   - Marine Ecosystems Protection

                                    L..Trasky
                                          Marine Biology - Marine Ecosystems Protection

                                    D.C.  Burbank
                                          Technical Supervisor - Transport Measurements

                                    R. Rosenthal
                                          Marine Botany (Consultant) - Macrophyte Ecosystems

                                    F.F.  Wright, PhD
                                          Oceanographic  Consultant     Transport Measurements

                                         Alaska Department of Fish and Game
                                             Habitat Protection Section
                                         Coastal Habitat Protection Programs
                 Q-A)                                  Anchorage

                                                     December 1975

                                                     KACHEMAK BAY

                                                            a

                                                    STATUS REPORT

                                                  Table of Contents

                 Abstract

                 Introduction                                                                    page

                 Section I        The Marine Environment of Kachemak      Bay                    I-1
                                        General Description                                      I-1
                                        Circulation                                              1-4
                                        Drift Card Studies                                       1-33
                                        Seasonal Properties of Kachemak Bay
                                             Marine Waters                                       1-43

                 Section II       Environmental and Biological Attributes of Kachemak
                                  Bay
                                        Macrophyte Ecology      Summer 1974-Spring 1975          11-8
                                        Commercial Fisheries    of Kachemak Bay,
                                        An Overview                                              11-23
                                        Crustacean Larval Biology                                11-60

                 Section III      Sensitivities of Kachemak Bay to Man's Impacts                 III-1
                                        Pollutional Aspects of Hydrocarbon Intrusion
                                        into th e Kachemak Bay Marine Environment                111-8
                                        Anatomy and Potential Impacts of an Oil Spill
                                        upon Kachemak Bay                                        111-14
                                             A - Behavior and Fate of Spilled Oil                111-16
                                             B - Ecological Impacts                              111-41

                 Section IV       Conservancy and Protection of the Renewable Energy
                                  Resources of Kachemak Bay                                      IV-1
                                        Kachemak Bay Critical Habitat                            IV-8
                                        Environmental Protection, How     Effective?             IV-14

                 Section V        Kachemak Bay: Perspective and Overview                         V-1

                 Bibliography

                                                    ABSTRACT

                         Results from continuous radar tracking of current drogues for
                    periods as long as three weeks, show that the Bay has a complex
                    circulation characterized by rather rapid flushing of the "Crab
                    Sanctuary" and by a semi-permanent small counterclockwise eddy and
                    larger clockwise eddy southward of a line drawn directly westwards
                    from the tip of Homer Spit. Residence time of the waters within
                    the Bay appears to be 20 days at the most and-the Bay must be
                    considered as an input-output system with respect to the dispersal
                    and settling of crustacedns larvae. Preliminary considerations of
                    the transport processes strongly suggest that crustacean larvae
                    spawned outside the Bay will settle in the Bay and that larvae spawned
                    in the Bay will be flushed to settle outside the Bay.
                         Preliminary results of sampling to determine the extent and
                    patterns of settling of the first benthic stages of king crab larvae
                    suggest a strong preference by the post larvae to settle on stony
                    bottoms heavily encrusted with bryozoams (Flustrella) sponges, hydroids
                    and other epifaunal mats.
                         The macrophyte ecosystem studies show diverse, abundant red,
                    brown, green algal assemblages exhibiting well defined intertidal and
                    subtidal zonations. Preliminary results show marked seasonal variations
                    in growth and densitities of Alaria and other species, as well as in the
                    utilization of the macrophyte environment by juveniles and adult
                    ki.ng crabs, pandalid shrimps, dungeness crabs, and various fishes
                    usually closely associated with the algal environment.
                         Analysis of current literature shows that sufficient information
                    is available to describe the potential behavior, fate and impacts
                    of various types of spilled petroleum products. The 250,000 barrels
                    METULA spill of August 1975 in the Straits of Magellan, in a marine
                    environment very similar tothe Kachemak Bay - Lower Cook Inlet
                    one, can be used to directlygauge the magnitude and extent of impact
                    that could accrue from mishap involving the 125,000 to 500,000 barrels
                    capacity of tankers presently plying the waters of Cook Inlet.
                         Analysis of current agencies statutory and regulatory practices
                    indicate that, while technology is presently available and the body of
                    environmental protection laws considerable, application of such
                    technologies and laws is not as effective as it should be to protect.
                    and maintain the quality of the marine environment.
                         The fate of Kachemak Bay cannot be divorced from the fate of Lower
                    Cook Inlet; both areas form an environmental/ecological unit of prime
                    quality and productivity. The long term attributes of the biological
                    resources and of their rapidly accruing values to the citizens of.the
                    state must be viewed in terms of a total "energy budget" between "non-
                    renewable (oil and gas) energy resources" and "renewable (biological)
                    ene.rgy resources."

                                                           LIST OF FIGURES

                                                                                                        page

                        Fig. 1 - General Bathymetry - Cook Inlet                                        1-2

                        Fig. 2 - General Bathymetry - Kachemak Bay and Approaches                       1-3

                        Fig. 3 - Tidal Heights    - May-August 1975                                     1-7

                        Fig. 4 - Drogue Drift,    27-31 May 1975                                        1-8

                        Fig. 5 - Drogue Drift,    8-24 July 1975                                        1-9

                        Fig. 6 - Drogue Drift,    9-18 July 1975                                        1-10

                       :Fig. 7 - Drogue Drift,    8-11 May 1975                                         1-11

                        Fig. 8 - Drogue Trajectories, 27 May      - 3 June 1975                         1-12

                        Fig. 9 - Circulation Patterns - Kachemak Bay                                    1-13
                                  27 May-3 June 1975

                        Fig. 10 - Drogue Trajectories, 8-24 July 1975                                   1-15

                        Fig. 11 - Drogue Trajectories, 8-24 July 1975                                   1-16

                        Fig. 12 - Circulation Patterns - Kachemak Bay                                   1-17
                                    July 7-25, 1975

                        Fig. 13 - Drogue Drift, 16-24 July 1975                                         1-18

                        Fig. 14 - Drogue Trajectories, 7-12 August 1975                                 1-19

                        Fig. 15 - Circulation Patterns - Kachemak Bay                                   1-20
                                    7-12 August 1975

                        Fig. 16 -   Drogue Drift, 4-8 September     1975                                1-22

                        Fig. 17 -   Drogue Drift, 4-9 September 1975                                    1-25

                        Fig. 18 -   Drogue Drift 10-17 November 1975                                    1-27

                        Fig. 19 -   Drogue Trajectories, 10-17 November 1975                            1-28

                        Fig. 20 -   Drogue Drift, 18-20 November 1975                                   1-30

                        Fig. 21 -   Drogue Trajectories, 18-20 November 1975                            1-31

                        Fig. 22 -   Inferred Net Circulation - Cook Inlet                               1-34
                                    (From Burbank, 1974)

                        Fig. 23 - Drift Card Recoveries       Site A                             1-35
                                    (Vessels Holding and Anchoring    Area)
                        Fig. 24 -   Drift Card Recoveries                                        1-37
                                    Site B  (Homer Spit)
                                    Site C (Yukon Island)
                        Fig. 25 -   Drift Card Recoveries - Site D                               1-38
                                    (Point Pogibshi)
                        Fig. 26 -   Drift Card Recoveries                                        1-40
                                    Site E (Shell, SoCal    Drill Site)
                                    Site F (Bluff Point)
                        Fig. 27 -   Drift Card Recoveries                                        1-41
                                    Site G (Anchor Point)
                                    Site H (Cape Kasilof -
                                                SoCal Drill Site)

                       .Fig. 28 -   Seasonal Tem
                                                 p. Regime    (Bright et al 1969)                1-44
                                    Kachemak Bay

                        Fig. 29 -   Seasonal Run Off Regime For Selected Drainage                1-45
                                    (Knull 1969)

                        Fig. 30 -   Longitudinal Density Stratification        April 1969        1-46
                                    (Knull and Williamson - 1969)

                        Fig. 31 -   Cro ss Channel Density Stratification       April 1969       1-48
                                    (Knull and Williamson - 1969)

                        Fig. 32 -   Longitudinal and Cross Channel Distribution of               1-49
                                    Density - July 1969 (Knull and Williamson - 1969)

                        Fig. 33 -   Cross Channel Distribution of Density, Lower Cook            1-51
                                    Inlet (NOOA/NOS 1973) July 1973.

                        Fig. 34 -   Longitudinal Distribution of Density - October 1969          1-52
                                    (Knull and Williamson - 1969)

                        Fig. 35 -   Kachemak Bay - Environmental-Biological Attributes           11-3

                        Fig. 36 -   Selected Bottom T.V. Observations -                          11-6
                                    (Westinghouse Ocean Research Lab - March 1969)

                        Fig. 37 -   Shrimp Catches (lbs) From Trawl Investigation                11-7
                                    Kachemak Bay. (National Marine Fisheries - 1972)

                        Fig. 38 -   Kachemak Bay salmon streams and commercial salmon            11-30
                                    catch zones. A Upper Kachemak B Tutka
                                    C Seldovia D Port Graham

                        Fig. 39 -   Kachemak Bay tanner crab size frequencies.                   11-44
                                    (Carapace width). 1970-1974

                       Fig. 40    Average monthly commercial trawl catch of pink              II-53a
                                  and humpy shrimp Kachemak Bay, May 1970 through
                                  September 1973.

                       Fig. 41    Average monthly commercial trawl catch of coonstripe        II-53b
                                  and sidestripe shrimp, 1(achemak Bay, May 1970
                                  through September 1973.

                       Fig. 42    Kachemak Bay, major herring spawn and commercial            11-59
                                  catch zone.

                       Fig. 43 -  Net transport velocities through Kachemak Bay as            11-63
                                  derived from drogue data.

                       Fig. 44 -  Planktonic Occurence of Crustacean Larvae                   11-64

                       Fig. 45 -  NMFS Sampling Stations for Zoea Larvae                      11-67

                       Fig. 46 -  Kachemak Bay king crab larval periods, 1972                 11-70

                       Fig. 47 -  Schematic Model of the effects of the two types of          111-6
                                  pollution - (From Odum, 1971)

                       Fig. 48 -  METULA oil spill - Straits of Magellan - 9 August           III-10
                                  1975 (Gunnerson, 1975)

                       Fig. 49 -  Processes controlling the fate of spilled crude             1 11-15
                                  oil in the ocean.     (Burwood and Speers - 1974)

                       Fig. 50 -  Spreading of an oil slick                                   111-21

                       Fig. 51 -  Inferred oil spill trajectories for Kachemak Bay.           111-24
                                  (Miller and Britch - 1975)

                       Fig. 52 -  Observed persistence of petroleum substances in             111-38
                                  various marine habitats following actual oil spills.
                                  Maximum times shown do not necessarily imply complete
                                  removal of oil, but may represent author's estimate
                                  of persistence or termination of study.
                                  (CEO Report, OCS Oil and Gas - An Environmental
                                  Assessment, 1974)

                       Fig. 53 -  Composition of crude oil and toxicity of its fraction 111-43
                                  (Blumer, 1969)
                       Fig. 54 -  Potential impacts of an oil spill upon Kachemak Bay         111-55

                       Fig. 55 -  State of Alaska 28th Oil and Gas Lease Sale                 V-2

                       Fig. 56 -  Proposed BLM/OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sale, Lower              V-4
                                  Cook Inlet

                        Fig. 57     From:  Albrecht,  W. A.        1971                      V-9
                                           Physical,  Chemical and Biological
                                           Changes in Soil Community -
                                           In: Man's Impact on Environment
                                                 pp. 395 - 418

                        Fi-g.-58 - Energy subsidies for various food crops. The              V-11
                                  energy history of the U.S. food system is shown
                                  for comparison. (Steinhart and Steinhart, 1974)

                        Fig. 59 - Cook Inlet:    Inferred circulation   and pollutant        V-13
                                  transport

                        Fig. 60 - Cook Inlet Marine Sanctuary and Critical Habitats          V-14

                                                           LIST OF TABLES

                                                                                                   page

                      Table 1.    Kachemak Bay, Cook Inlet, Commercial Fisheries                   11-26
                                  Harvest, 1966-75.

                      Table 2.    Estimated Value in Millions of Dollars of Kachemak               11-27
                                  Bay Commercial Fisheries in 1973.

                      Table 3.    Percent of Total Cook Inlet Shellfish Production                 11-28
                                  (pounds) Contributed by Kachemak Bay, 1964-1974.

                      Table 4.    Kachemak Bay District Salmon catch, by species,                  11-31
                                  1954-1975.

                      Table 5.    Kachemak Bay@district pink salmon catch by area.                 11-33

                      Table 6.    Kachemak Bay area, estimated pink salmon escapements             11-34
                                  in thousands of fish.

                      Table 7.    (A & B) Kachemak Bay, King     Crab Landing, by Month,           11-38
                                  in Pounds 1960-1966.

                      Table 8.    Kachemak Bay,  king crab landings; 1960-1974.                    11-39

                      Table 9.    Comparative measurements of king crab carapace                   11-40
                                  lengths-in percent for winter and summer commercially
                                  caught crab in Kachemak Bay.

                      Table 10.   Average weight of king crab for Kachemak Bay, Cook               11-41
                                  Inlet, 1960-1974.

                      Table 11.   Kachemak Bay, Tanner Crab Landing, by Month, in                  11-43
                                  Pounds, 1962-1974.

                      Table 12.   (A & B) Kachemak Bay, dungeness crab catch by                    11-46-47
                                  month, 1961-1974.

                      Table 13.   Shrimp trawl catches by month for Kachemak Bay,                  11-49
                                  1969-1975.

                      Table 14.   Trawl shrimp catches   in pounds per drag hour for two           11-50
                                  vessels in Kachemak Bay, 1969-1975.

                      Table 15.   Average species composition of the commercial trawl              11-52
                                  catch from Kachemak Bay - May 1970 through September
                                  1973.

                      Table 16.   Kachemak Bay Pot Shrimp catches, 1971-1974.                      11-55

                      Table 17.   Kachemak Bay historical herring catch, 1914-1928.                11-57

                      Table 18.   Kachemak Bay herring catches in pounds, 1969-1974.               11-58

                        Table 19.   Estimates of total abundance of king crab zoea                    11-71
                                    for each semi-monthly sampling period in Kachemak
                                    Bay, Alaska, March-June, 1972.

                        Table 20.   Estimates of instantaneous mortality and seasonal                 11-71
                                    survival rates for king crab zoea stages I, II, and
                                    III collected in Kachemak Bay, Alaska, 1972.

                        Table  21.  Estimates of survival of king crab zoea per 100,000               11-71
                                    individuals released in Kachemak @ay, Alaska, 1972.

                        Table  22.  Basic Data For Oil Composition Model.                             111-19

                        Table. 23.  Estimated % of Composition (by weight) and Comparison             111-50
                                    of Solubilities for Various Petroleum Substances.

                        Table  24.  Summary of Toxicity Data                                          111-51

                        Table  25.  Alternative approaches to key legislative issues in               IV-21
                                    water pollution control.

                        Table  26.  (A & B) Water Quality Criteria for Waters of the                  IV-22-23
                                    State of Alaska

                                                 INTRODUCTION

                       Kachemak Bay, an area rich in scenic beauty and natural resources,

                    has become a center of symptomatic controversies between environmental,

                    fisheries and oil and gas interests, symptomatic because the story of

                    Kachemak Bay will be the story of many other areas of coastal Alaska, as

                    the quest for nearshore and offshore mineral resources development escalates.

                         Kachemak Bay is unique in that, within a few hundred square miles of

                    coastal waters are concentrated high natural scenic beauty, rich and -diverse

                    biological resources, sheltered waters that can accomodate large ocean

                    going vessels as well as rowboats, recreational facilities easily accessible

                    from Alaska's largest metropolitan area, potentially highly renumerative

                    oil, gas and coal deposits, thriving shellfish and fin fish fisheries, all

                    within sight of a potentially eruptive volcano.

                         Kachemak Bay is not quite the kind of-"pristine' coastal-environment

                    readily found within a few miles from its shore, but is an area of still

                    prime environmental quality and productivity. Human impacts are localized

                    and minimal, and much of current human activities can still assimilate within

                    the natural, controlling environmental processes. Human impacts are visible,

                    but again localized and with proper planning, foresight and fortitude can

                    easily be repaired and controlled.

                         The intent of the present status report, the first of a series dealing

                    with environmental and resources management, conservancy and protection issues

                    for the Kachemak Bay - Lower Cook Inlet area, is to discuss and summarize
                    salient findings emerging from ongoing field'studies and analysis of current

                    literature as they relate to man's disruption of the marine environment,

                    especially by oil and gas related activities.

                       The present document reports on some of the results of work in progress,

                  with the realization that, with the rapidly escalating tempo of oil and gas

                  activities in the Lower Cook Inlet area, the continuing needs for "real time"

                  management, protection and control actions necessitate immediate application

                  of best integrated available knowledge, without. waiting for the benefit of

                  completed studies.

                       Environmental studies, such as transport mechanisms as they affect the

                  distribution of crusteacean larvae or of pollutants, require not less than one

                  full seasonal cycle of observations or about 18 months of measurements before

                  some assessment of the dynamics of the system can be made. The first results

                  of the Kachemak Bay studies initiated during the summer of 1974 are beginning

                  to emerge. The results are rewarding as they already challenge some of the

                  prevailing concepts on the mechanisms of distribution of crustacean larvae in

                  the@@area. The results are challenging in that current published knowledge can

                  provide for a pragmatic assessment of fate, behavior and impact of petroleum

                  intruding into the environment of the Bay. The results are especially

                  challenging in that they can already point at a course of Action that can

                  effectively protect the quality of the Bay as well as provide for a com-

                  prehensive management of its resources.

                  Marine Research in Kachemak Bay

                       A number of investigations have been conducted in Kach,emak Bay by

                  various agencies including the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Bureau

                  of Commercial Fisheries, National Marine Fisheries Service, University

                  of Southern California, University of Alaska, and the Alaska Department

                  of Fish and Game. Most of the research was until recently aimed at

                  stock assessment. The Kachemak Bay Program'has started the initial

                  emphasis towards establishing an ecosystem approach to assessment of

                  conditions and ecological relationships. A brief listing and description

                  of some of the studies which have taken place in Kachemak Bay follows:

                  Year            Agency                 Project

                  1941         USFWS               Otter trawl survey     located areas with

                                                   commercial potential for king crab, tanner

                                                   crab, and dungeness crab. Also noted bottom

                                                   fish concentrations.

                  1957-59      University of       King crab research - studied movements and

                               Southern            migrations; basic life history in Kachemak Bay.

                               California

                  1058;63      BCF                 Shrimp exploration - located commercial popu-

                                                   lations of pandalid shrimp in Kachemak Bay

                  1961-63      BCF, ADF&G          King crab research - tagging operation in

                                                   Kachemak Bay and lower Cook Inlet. Determined

                                                   stock mixing and migration. Crab from Shelikof

                                                   Straits recovered in Kachemak Bay during

                                                   breeding season.

                  1962-75      ADF&G               Pink salmon escapement/return relationships

                                                   studied, forecast program developed.

                  1963         ADF&G               Dungeness crab tagging; determined movements

                                                   between upper and outer Kachemak Bay.

                  Year            Agency               Project

                  1968         ADF&G; BCF         Scallop exploration in Kachemak Bay, revealed

                                                  scallops present but not abundant in quantities

                                                  to support large trawl operation.

                  1969         Westinghouse       Underwater TV survey in Kachemak Bay, scallop

                               Research Lab       bed located plus a reas of shrimp  concentration.

                  1970-75      NMFS; ADF&G        Annual trawl surveys for shrimp species composition,

                                                  distribution, and abundance.

                  1971-72      NMFS               Studied distribution of larval shellfish forms in

                                                  Kachemak Bay. Bluff Point found to be major larval

                                                  release and rearing area for king crab, shrimp,

                                                  and tanner crab.

                  1971-75      ADF&G              King and tanner crab tagging to determine movements

                                                  and migration patterns. Adult crab, after breeding

                                                  in Kachemak Bay, moved to other areas in lower Cook

                                                  Inlet.

                  1971-75      University of      Basic research on king crab physiology.

                               Alaska

                  1972-75      ADF&G (F.R.E.D.)   Assessed potential for saltwater rearing of salmon

                                                  in Kachemak Bay.

                  1972         ADF&G              Tagging of pink salmon in Kachemak Bay to determine

                                                  movements and migration rates.

                  1973-75      NMFS               Basic research to describe larval forms of Pandalid.

                                                  shrimp.

                  1974-75      ADF&G              King and tanner crab pot index surveys for distribution

                                                  relative abundance of stocks, and year class strength.

                  1974         ADF&G              Scallop exploration in Kachemak Bay. General infor-

                                                  mation on distribution obtained.

                  Year             Agency                      Project

                  1974          ADF&G (S.F. Div.)          Hardshell clam inventory and distribution study

                                                           in Kachemak Bay.

                  1974          Halibut Comm.              Distribution and relative abundance of halibut

                                                           studied through trawl survey.

                  1974-75       ADF&G (Dames &             Ecological relationships studied in intertidal and

                                Moore)                     near shore subtidal areas of Kachemak Bay with

                                                           emphasis on macrophyte (kelp) communities. Base-

                                                           line date collected.

                  1974-75       ADF&G                      Current movements studied in Kachemak Bay as

                                                           related to larval transport. Show more complex

                                                           and variable circulation patterns than previously

                                                           assumed.

                  1974-75       NMFS/r4%uke Bay            Bioassays performed on juvenil.e shellfish usi,-.g

                                                           Cook Inlet crude oil. Low levels of oil induced

                                                           mortalities on early life forms.

                  1975          ADF&G                      Larval timing and distribution; benthic biology

                                                           studied. Early settling stage king crab found in

                                                           Bluff Point area as well as south side Kachemak Bay.

                  1975          USFWS; Rutgers             Study of salt marsh communities in Kachemak Bay.

                                University                 The senior scientist, Dr. Crow stated that on a

                                                           per unit area basis, Kachemak Bay is one of richest

                                                           areas he has ever studied.

                        This list is by no means complete; however, it provides for an overview

                  of the main ecological/biological investigative programs presently in Kachemak

                  Bay. It is interesting to note that very little research has been directed

                  toward herring, bottom fish, or clam resources in Kachemak Bay.

      9

                                            I .

                                                  SECTION I
      0                                    THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT

                                                     OF

                                                KACHEMAK BAY

      9

          I

                                                SECTION I

                                  THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT OF KACHEMAK BAY

               General Description

                    Kachemak Bay is an elongated embayment contiguous to the southeastern

               entrance to Cook Inlet (Fig. 1 ). The bay is about 45 miles long (about 67 km)

               and about 22 miles wide (about 33 km) at*its western approaches between Anchor

               Point and Pt. Pogibshi. The narrow, 4 miles long (about 7 km) Homer Spit projects

               about 1/2 way through the central width of the bay, separating the bay into an outer

               and inner bay.

                    The sea floor and shore topography of Kachemak Bay reflects the sudden

               transition between the mountainous, highly indented coastal terrains of

               the Gulf of Alaska Coast, and the gently rolling coastal terrain bordering

               the eastern side of Cook Inlet.

                    The northern shore of the bay is fronted by an extensive shallow

               platform, well defined (in the outer bay) by the 20-30 fathoms contours and by

               the 10-20 fathoms contours (in the inner bay) (Fig. 2). Extensive tidal

               sh.allows and mudflats are found along the eroding - slumping cliffs and

               bluffs of the northern shore.

                    The inner head of the bay is characterized by the extensive tidal flats,

               braided drainages and marshlands of the Fox River complex, a major drainage

               outlet for the mountainous terrain and ice fields bordering the coast; the

               greatest portion of the drainage from the SW sector of the Kenai Mountains

               separating Kachemak Bay from the Gulf of Alaska flows into Kachemak Bay,

               an important factor which greatly controls the seasonality of the estuarine

               regime of the bay.

                                        1-2

                              154*              1520              1500
                                                       Susitno R.
                                                 Boluga R.              nik Arm
                                                              v
                                                                 a   ANCHORAGE
                                COOK INLET ALASKA
                                              RANGE
                                  30 N.M.

                                         DrIf t          KENAI

                                                       I IS.
                                                             KENAI
                                                             MOUNTAINS

                         60   ALEUTIAN
                              RANGE                   HO

                                                                      0
                                       4
                                          OOK
                                        1 LET
                                            110

                                                                   Alaska
                                                     GULF OF
                                                     ALASKA

                                  Shollk f     KODIAK IS.
                                   St.
                                                             DEPTH IN FATHOMS

                                 Fig. i GENERAL    BATHYMETRY -COOK INLET

                                                                                                     1-3

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                                                                                                                                                                      A

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                                                                    Fig. 2                Ceneral            Bathymetry                     XachemAk Day and approacbes

                    The southern shore of the bay is characterized by a mountainous, dissected

               coast, fronted by the remnant of a glacially carved trough; depths in excess of

               30 fathoms.extend from almost the head of the bay to the main channel

               of Cook Inlet.

                    The deepest waters of Kachemak Bay center between Halibut Cove and

               Yukon Island. Depths slightly in excess of 80  fathoms are found off Gull Island,

               SW from the tip of Homer Spit and about 95 fathoms, the deepest portion of the

               bay is found off Cohen Island.

               Circulation

                    The circulation of Kachemak Bay has been variously investigated by Bright

               et al (1960), Knull and Williamson (1969), NOAA (1973, 1974), ADF&G (1974,

               1975). The direct flow measurements usually fall into two main sampling

               techniques: Lagrangian (pathlines) performed with drifting devices (drift

               cards, current drogues), and Eularian (single point) performed with moored

               current meters.

                    Apart from the recent current measurements performed by NOOA and ADF&G,

               most of the available data were of short duration, encompassing at best a

               few hours to a few tidal cycles. The 1973 NOOA Eularian measurements collected

               at the entrance of Kachemak Bay at a location midway between Anchor Point and

               Pt. Pogibshi covered a period of about 18 days of continuous measurement of

               surface, midwater and near bottom currents. ADF&G Lagrangian measurements to date

               continuously sampled over periods in excess of 23 days.

                                                 1-5

                     The ADF&G studies initiated in 1974, are specifically designed to

                better define the long terms transport mechanisms of the bay. The prime

                objective is to correlate the onset of spawning, duration of planktonic

                larval stages and timing of first bottom settling of crustacean larvae. The

                Kachemak Bay area, especially the outer bay, is well recognized as being one

                of the most important breeding, spawning and reproduction center for

                commercially important crustaceans. Much inferences have been made about the

                occurrence of a "gyre" that,concentrates the spawn and larvae and the

                ADF&G long term transport measurements were specifically designed to update

                the rather fragmentary information on the local circulation.

                    .To overcome the problems of vessels availability, scheduling, costs

                and sea keeping capabilities a shore based radar tracking technique

                of "current drogues" is being used. The technique consists of con-

                tinuously tracking, by means of a standard marine radar (Decca), the

                motion of radar reflectors mounted on a surface float tethered to either

                6' X 6' canvas biplanes or to personnel or cargo parachutes deployed

                at various depths.   The technique has proven to be highly effective

                for continuous monitoring of the.circulation over the entire bay.

                The radar is mounted on a truck and can moved from location to location

                in accordance with changes in tracking requirements.

                                          A

                                         Tracking offshore drogues, Bluff Point

                                                            AM

                                            Early morning radar watch

                                                    1-6

                       A highway overlook at Bluff Point has proven to be a most advantageous

                  location, the elevation enabling better than a 25 mile range for tracking

                  of drogue reflectors. Better than 8 drogues, each programmed to sense currents

                  at different levels, can easily be tracked, around the clock. Tidal Periods

                  continuously sampled during the course of the present investigation are

                  shown in figure 3.

                       The results obtained so far, show that the circulations of the bay is

                  complex reflecting the combined influence of the diurnal and monthly lunar

                  inequalities of the tidal.forces, seasonal changes in tidal regime,
                  meteorological effects and runoff fluctuations. (Fig. 4, 5, 6)

                       Preliminary analysis of the drogues data show:

                  Period 8 - 11 May 1975

                       Drogue trajectories for this period are shown in Fig. 7. The surface

                  drogues released in and near the mouth to the inner bay moved rapidly seawards,

                  drifting in a northwestern along the northern shore of the outer bay. The

                  drogue movement near the mouth of the bay may reflect a general net outflow

                  of relatively fresh water at the surface, and the net inflow of more

                  saline water at depth. Such  a circulation is typical of many estuaries,

                  particularly during periods of high runoff. Subsequent drift up coast

                  developed a sawtooth pattern as a result of the flood and ebb impulses

                  superimposed upon the net northwestward transport of surface waters.

                  Pe-ri6d'27 May -m'3 June 1975

                       The generalized drogue trajectories.and the inferred circulation for

                  this period are shown in figures 8, 9, and 10. Tides were changing from
                  spring to neap   (figure 3). Although the period of observation was short,

                  evidence is strong to support the presence of a counterclockwise gyre

                  extending throughout the water column of the outer bay. Surface waters

                  ingressed into the bay along the southern shore moving seawards along the

                      1 2 3 4 5 .6 7 8 9 10 11    12 13 14 15 16 17 IS 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
                    20                   -RA                                                     DAR-
                    15
               MAY  101

                     0
                                                V  V  V U

                    2C
                       RADAR                                     A A
                    15
               JUNE 10

                     5
                     0--
                                           u                                v  V u
                    20                                        RADAR-----'-
                    15
               JULY 100

                     5
               TIDE
                 IN                      v
               FEET
                    20                    AD                                   --- - ----
                    15

              AUGLISTIO
                     5

                                                               Fig. 3    TIDAL HEIGHTS
                                                                          MAY - AUGUST    1975
                                            AR

                                                                          RADAR TRACKING DARK

                                                                                      151  OW
                                                  31 MAY                                              590 40'. -
                                                                        0 RADAR

                                                                                       H MER

                                                              30 MAY

                                                       30MAY
                                                       (SURF)-
                                      31 MAY

                                         I JUNE
                                       JUNE                  30MAY V
                                                 I    At
                                                        731 MAY          1>29MAY
                                                                                       27MAYOOOFT)
                                                  9                                      14:15
                                                  3 JUNE
                                                                                        (SURF)
                                                                    28MAY

                                  3 JUNE"'

                                              I JUNE                            2 JUNE

                    30 MAY          31 MAY                                       IWO
                    10:50                                                                  %3 N
                   (SURF)
                                                                                          3

                                                                                   KACHEMAK BAY
                                            Fig.    Drogue Drift, 27-31 May 1975   CURRENT DROGUES

                         02 (SURF.)                         RETRIEVEO ABOUT
                            24 JULY                          18:00 9JULY    17:00
                              10:00

                                                                  %

                                                               %%
                          RETRIEYEO

                            12,30

                0
                OQ                                                                  %9
                                                                                                       LOST RETPIEVED
                                                                                  %                                      Is
                                                                                   %                          it:od@i* jLL@.Is
                                                                                                                 20

                                                                                                                               %%
                                                                                                                                 %            ORADAR

                co

                                                                                                                         16

                                                                                                                                Is

                                                                                                                                                Is
                F-i                                                        4t.7(SURF)      01(75-)                                    17                               R@ @RIEVED
                %0                                                            10:53          10:48.                                                      09            0
                                                                                            e JULY                                                         *4                     06:0
                                                                                                                        15                                       *5(501
                                                                                                                                      16                           09:10
                                                                                                                                                            14     a JULY                    9
                                                                                                                                        12                                   %W 6 (1501
                                                                                                                                                                                    08:35
                                                                                                                                                 14                    12           8 JULY

                                                                                                                                           10           11

                                                                                                                                                              13

                                                                                                                                          3
                                                                                                                                     9                        11
                                                                                                                                            f                         Na
                                                                                                                                           10

                                                                              #3 (1001)               4#2 (SURE)                                                  10
                                                                                12:05                    12 * 15
                                                                               8 JULY                   a JULY
                                                                                                                                  N,

                                               I-10

                                                  %% %    %%                        BLUFF POINT
                                                                  --00:00
                                                       %            18 JULY                RADAR
                                                                                            -(D-

                                               00:00
                                                17JULY

                  COOK                                      %                KACHEMAK BAY
                   INLET                                         14:25
                                                                 9 JULY

                       00:00
                       16 JULY                    00:00
                                                  14 JU

                                                               00:00
                                                               10 JGL-y
                                                             00-00
                        00:00
                                             00:00          HJU
                        13 JULY             15JULY

                                                                                  SELDOVIA

                               00:00
                              12 JULY

                                Fig. 6    Drogue Drift, 9-18 July 1975

                                                     151   4 OrW                                        151* 3dW
                             22:00

                                                                                                               KACHEMAK BAY

                                                                                                              SURFACE TRAJECTORY
                  I I MAY75                 12.100
                 :-*Oo:oo     20:00                        BLUFF PT.                                                 I I MAY 1975
                                                    J.              0 RADAR
                                            o            lo,: 75 * (BLUFF)
                               13:00                   \,O                                                                      590
                                                                                                                                   40N
                                    14:37       106:00
                                                            \22:00
       tv                                       700:00                                               H MER
              2 2.- 0 0
       0
                        20:00

                                                                            18:00                                  HOMER
                                                                                                                      SPIT            14:3
                                                                                                      OG:oA,                        16:00
       00

                                                                                                                            RADAR         SMAY75
                                                                                             14:OOW                         (SPIT)
                                                                                                              lf-J                         02
                                                                           18:00                                     02:0                    15:00
                                                                  18:35                                  %-,,,, 12:0O\
       Ln                                                                                 16:00     O8-.K,',5                          -%20'00
            00 8 MAY 00 9MAY 00 IOMAY 00                  IIMAY   00                                      V,_06:00 '%OO:Oo
          20                                                                                                   22:00i% 10,  V0000 3
                                                                                                14:06    0         %           a MAY75 -   00:00
                                                                                                             2
                                                                                                              0:00, ,.oo-'.,,            - 9MAY7
                                                                                                                         18:00
          15                                  SIR                                                   12:00

                                                                                                              -10
          10                                                                                         10:00       0:00       00:00
            5                                                                                                                9MAY75
            O@
                         TIDAL PERIOD SAMPLED

                                                                      GENERALIZED DROGUE TRAJECTORIES

                                                                         FOR PERIOD 27 MAY - 3 JUNE
                                                                                   19T5
                                                                                                       4-
             co                                              31
                                                                                   HOMER

             0
                                                                         30

                                                         31                 29

                                                            30
             n                                                                     2TMAY
             rt                                                31
             0
                                                                             29

             ID
                                                                  2
                                                         2.;                 % % 28
                                                             3                 Y C.
                                                        3                     2       MAYO

                                                          30 MAY

                                                          r
                                                31                                 2
                                                                                   a

                                30MAY
             Ln

                                                                         SURFACE

                                        1-13

                                                             HOMER

                                                          SURFACE
                                                          27MAY-3 JUNE 1975

                                                             HOMER

                                                         -IOOFT.

                                                         27MAY-3JUNE 1975

                          Fig- 9 CIRCULATION PATTERNS - KACHEMAK SAY
                                                             HOMER

                                     27 MAY - -3 JUNE 1975

                                             1-14

                  northern shore.

                       Subsurface circulation in the gyre appears considerably more sluggish

                  than at the surface. The period (time required for transport once around

                  the gyre) for the subsurface gyre (at 100' depth) appeared to be approximately

                  10-12 days, in contrast to about 5-6 days at the surface.

                  Period 8 - 24 July 1975

                       Generalized drogue trajectories and inferred circulation for this period

                  are shown in figures 11, 12, and 13. During the period 8-20 July, the

                  existence of a counterclockwise rotating gyre in the outer bay was evident,

                  the gyre however, having moved several miles eastward into the bay;

                  accompanying this was a larger clockwise rotating gyre to the west. This

                  pattern persisted through the spring and neap tidal phases. However,

                  with-the onset of the following spring tide (21-24 July), the outer

                  clockwise rotating surface gyre became enlarged and moved farther east-

                  ward into the outer bay, inducing a southwestward transport of surface

                  waters to develop along the southern shore. The inner counterclockwise

                  rotating surface gyre was either eradicted or displaced farther eastward

                  into the outer bay; however data are insufficient to determine the

                  exact sequence of events.

                       The heights or ranges of the two spring tides did not appear to be

                  significantaly different to account for the observed variation in

                  the current pattern, suggesting that other variables, as yet undefined,

                  are probably quite important in determining the circulation pattern.

                  The subsurface gyre persisted throughout the period 8-24 July.

                  Period -7-.*-- 12 August 1975

                       The spring tides amplitudes for this period were significantly larger

                                                         GENERAUZED SURFACE DROGUE TRAJECTORIES

                                                             FOR PERIOD 8 - 24 JULY 1975

                                  19

                         +                                                                    4-

                                                                         HOMER

                                                     16
                                                                    9

                                                          15
          0                          SJULY
          oQ                                10
          r_    24       17
                                                                         8 JULY                              Zn
                                           9JULY              12
                                   9JULY
                        13                                  0 1  14 11
          0
                                         14                   Is
          m    2                                         16          19
          co          is              10          21              is
                                                                  22
          C-4
                                         SJU
                          12      22

          Ln

                                                           GENERALIZED DROGUE TRAJECTORIES V70R 50-.150 FEET
                                                                    FOR PERIODS- 24 JULY 1975.

                                                                DROGUE DEPTH INDICATED IN PARENTHESES

                                           9
                                                             20

                                                              19                  H   ER

                                              GJULY(-75')          17 16
                                                                          15                                         CA
             m                                          9 JULY (-501)               SJULY
             n                                -9                               14    (-50')
             rr -                             JULY(-5
             0                                9
                                                        21                                 SJULY(-150)
                                              21
                                                                                    12 13

             co
                                             12
             C-4                                                         10       11

             10
              4
             Ln                                  8 JULY
                                                Woo')

                                        1-17

                                                          SURFACE
                                                          8- 20 JULY 75

                                                           SURFACE
                                                           21-24JULY75

                                               /00          50F -loonk,
                                                            8 - 4 JULY75"@
                                                      @
                                                           UARFAC
                                                           _ OJ
                                                          8 2   U
                                                                 LY 75

                            Fig. 12 - CIRCULATION PATTERNS - KACHEMAK BAY

                                        JULY 7   25 1975

                                                              SURFACE DROGUE TRAJECTORIES  FOR DROGUES
                                                              0 104 DURING PERIOD IS - 24 JULY 1975.
                                                              THE INFERRED TRACK (DASHED LINE) FOR * 4
                                                              WAS DEAD-RECKONED DURING A   PERIOD IN
                                                              WHICH THE FEFLECTOR COULD NOT BE
                                                              TRACKED.

                               +                                                                    +

           cQ                                                                  HOMER

           0                                                                                                  co
           OQ

                                                                 20
                      4                                                 19
                                                                           4is

                        23
                                                                   #4 17
                                                                   21
                                                                           18

                                                                            3
                                               22           21     17
                  A'                                                      22

                                                                 --- INFERRED TRACK

                                                                KACHEMAK SAY

                                                       GENERALIZED DROGUE TRAJECTORIES

                                                           FOR PERIOD 7-12 AUGUST 1975
            ftl
            H.
            T         +
                                   12                                                      +
                               12
            tl                                                       HOMER
            0

                                                 9

            rl
            0

                                                 f          X9     ".12
                             7-SAU                  10
                                                                UG
                      7-9 AUG
                                                 10

                        10               7 AUG

            @j
            Ln
                                        7-9AUG

                                                            SUR CE

                                                             -50FEET

                                       1-20

                                                          SURFACE
                                                          10 - 12 AUGUST 75

                                                           - 50 FEET
                                                            7 - 12 AUGUST 75

                          07
                                  Fig. 15  CIRCULATION PATTERNS - KACHEMAK BAY
                                             7-12 AUGUST 1975

                                                   1-21

                  during the height of the spring tides. A well defined clockwise gyre

                  was also present in the southeastern sector of the outer bay during the

                  early phases of the  spring tide, the resulting flow becoming incorporated

                  into the general northward movement of the surface waters as shown in

                  figure 13. Significant differences in flow patterns between the surface

                  and the subsurface waters were observed during the period of large amplitude

                  spring tides. In contrast to the events observed in the surface waters,

                  the southeasterly subsurface counterclockwise gyre persisted throughout    the
                  period and showed no evidence of breaking down. A subsurface (50'),

                  figure 14, drogue released farther offshore, along the margin-of the clock-

                  wise gyre, moved eastwards and became incorporated into the inner counter-

                  clockwise gyre. The reverse of this flow transfer between gyres was

                  observed during the 8-24 July period when a surface drogue transected

                  from the inner to the outer gyre in the region where the two gyres

                  coalesced (figure 15.).

                  Period 4 - 8 September 1975

                       During the sampling period a southwesterly gale with average wind

                  velocities of approximately 20-30 kts developed on the evening of 4

                  September and continued unabated for three days until about midnight of

                  7 September. The actual drogue trajectories-are shown in figure 16 and

                  drogues B, 2, 51 6 released into the outermost reaches of the Bay,

                  tended to.remain in the area for a longer period than those re    leased

                  further eastwards in the more central portion of the outer bay, suggesting

                  the presence of an eddy in the outer bay, or at least a more sluggish

                  water movement in the outer reaches as compared to the inner portion    of

                  the outer bay. Drogues A, 1, 4 & 7 released in the eastern part of the

                                          1-22

                                              1* 4
                                               8 SEPT

                                             CAPE STARICHKOF

                                      #4

                                                        SEPTEMBER 1975

                                                             4
                                                20

                             41
                             I       ANCHOR PT ul 10 -
                             I                 Lu
                                               U.
                                        RADAR  - 5-
                             ,7 SEP   8 SEPT.  'X-
                                               00-

                                               x

                                                             TIDAL RANGE
                               %%%
                             4,  %%
                                 %      EPT
                           *5r, '%%%%%c6S
                                   oe
                            SEPT
                                                   445 15 SEPT
                                                     44 6 8 SEPT
                                    SE           BLUFF              HOMER
                                                   POINT
                                                          ZRADAR
                                             0
                                             L ST
                     6 SEPT
                                                              5 SEPT

                                                                 SURFACE
                 0*5   50'--
                     SURFACIF,          SEPT                    4 W
                   14:00                                      12:15
                   4 SEPT
                                                             4 SEPT.
                                               5 SEPT
                               5 SEPT

                                                     SELDOVIA

                           Fig. 16 - Drogue Drift, 4-8 September 1975

                                              1-23
                  outer bay moved rapidly northwards and their drift behavior gave no

                  indication of the counterclockwise gyre previously observed in the area.

                       Drift patterns suggest that by 6 September the southwesterly gale

                  had induced a considerable acceleration in the northerly movement of the

                  surface water down to at least 50', inducing net drogue movements as

                  high a-s 10 n. mi./day. Direct wind drag upon the observed drift

                  of the drogue; it is interesting to note however, that the drogue,

                  responded well to the cyclic reversal of the tidal flow.

                       The trajectories of drogues 5 and 6 are of particular interest. Both

                  5 and 6 were set at 50' and were being carried north well offshore when

                  lost from radar view at approximately 1500 hrs on 6 and 5 September

                  respectively. Both drogues, however, evidently reversed direction during the

                  height of the gale and were carried southeast to Bluff Point where they

                  washed ashore. (Aircraft reconnaissance located #6, washed ashore, on

                  8 September, and although # 5 was@:.,not located until 15 September (by

                  local hunters), it's lack of detection by the 8 of September aircraft

                  reconnaissance was apparently due only to its almost total destruction
                  in the surf). Although exacting meterological data for the period of

                  the gale have not yet been analyzed, it is unlikely that a change in wind

                  direction could have induced the southeastward movement of the deeper

                  drogues since the surface drogues in the same  vicinity were not similarly

                  affected. An interpretation of the observed drift patterns must await

                  more'detailed analysis of the meterol-ogical conditions imposed upon the

                  Cook Inlet during the period of the survey. Such a compensatory current

                  logically would intensify as the gale forced a Dileup of surface waters

                  in upper Cook Inlet. If such is the case, the southward flowing subsurface

                  compensatory current was apprently strong enough by 6 or 7 September to
                  carry the 50' drogues (5 and 6) south and east back into outer Kachemak

                                              1-24

                  Bay with eventual grounding near Bluff Point. That the surface drogues

                  in the same vicinity were not carried southeast also is strong evidence

                  that the drogue movements were not dominated by wind influence on the

                  ab ove surface reflectors, but rather were produced by current drag on

                  the drogues themselves. Why drogues 1 and 4 (both 50') were not similarly

                  affected as 5 and 6 is not known. The grounding of the float reflector

                  components of drogues 1 and 4 is undoubtedly due to the fact that their

                  closer proximity to shore caused loss of their drogue assembly as they

                  grounded over the shore fronting Anchor Point.

                       As shown in the inset of figure 17, drogue # 2 (surface) was again

                  located by radar after the gale subsided and was observed to be moving in

                  a westerly direction fron Ninilchik. Further observations of #2 however

                  were curtailed due to radar malfunction. (Drogue/reflectors A, 2 and 7

                  have not yet been located or retHeved as of 4 October).

                       Present observations strongly suggests that winds have a profound

                  effect on the net circulation of Kachemak Bay and Cook Inlet, and that

                  transient events such as a gale may be most significant in controlling

                  the transport and dispersal of planktonic larvae and pollutants.

                                                1-25

                                            #2        A; 8 SEPT.
                                                         RADAR MCDONALD FLATS

                                                                      21:20
                                                                      8 SE

                                                    4
                                                   8 SEP
                                          011:30            0 .45       NINILCHIK
                                                          9 SEPT     41    McDONALD
                                                              RADAR            FLATS
                                               fIf

                                                                    *4
                                                                  CAPE   STARICHKOF
                                             ANCHOR PT                   ]fit 11 -j
                                        SE    RADAR                      0     5     10
                                               8 SEPT            ANCHOR    NAUT. Mi.
                                                         RADAR POINT
                                     A.
                            4416                                     5 6
                          I : 0.       %%\                        RADA      HOM
                                       %        5   EPT
                         5SEP .           #7
                                      %
                                       %     2-30
                                       % %%                                           r-7
                                                            .5 5 SEPT.
                                      16:0                  ' 6 6 SEPT.
                         .6 SEPT.5-                    BLUFF             HOMER
                                                        PCI NT
                                               6 SEPT.          RADAR

                              6 SEPT

                                                        5
                                                       SE
                                        5 SEPT               17
                                            @1151: 0 rO    ls:OO
                                           M/4 SEPT.       4 SEPT

                                                         SELDOVIA

                                        Fig. 17   Drogue Drift, 4-9 September 1975

                                               1-26

                  Period 10-17 November 1975

                       Weather during the period 10-17 November was characterized by moderate

                  (approximately 10 kts) westerly to southwesterly winds, interrupted by a

                  period of strong (20-30 kt) westerly to southwesterly winds beginning the

                  evening of 13 November and subsiding early on 15 November. Direct and

                  indirect influence of the wind on drogue assembly drift was probably sig-

                  nificant during the entire period of observations, however, weather data

                  for the outer bay have not as yet been fully analyzed.

                       Drogue trajectories are shown in Figure 18. Southward movement of

                  drogues 8 and 9 suggest the possible existence of a clockwise gyre in the

                  southwestern outer bay, (figure 19), although its size is much smaller

                  than that of clockwise gyres previously ovserved. Within 3-4 nautical

                  miles of the southern shore, an obvious eastward movement of surface and

                  subsurface waters was observed.

                       In the entrance to the upper'bay, the surface water exhibited a pre-.

                  dominant NE-SW oscillation (with no significant net movement) in synchronism

                  with the flood and ebb of the tides; the surface drogue (#3) remained in

                  the same vicinity for approximately 7 days before transgressing into the

                  Homer small boat harbor. Water movement at 100 feet differed markedly from

                  the surface movement, as evidenced by a rapid southwestward drift out of

                  the entrance to the bay.

                       Drogues I and 23, released in the northwestern*portion of the outer   bay

                  redffirmed a unique differentiation between the surface and subsurface currents

                  observed earlier. in the season (4-8 Sept.) during a southwesterly gale of

                  3 days duration. The strong (20-30 kt) westerly to southwesterly winds

                  which developed a few hours after the release of drogues 1 and 23 drove    the

                  surface drogue (#l) rapidly to the north, whereas the subsurface drogue
                  (#23) was carried rapidly east. More' definitive explanation of the

                  observed transport must however await further detailed analysis of the

                  records.

                                                                                                                             22--00                     2Z.00       15
                                                                                                                     #3        13
                                                                                                                 12 NOV.                                                 15
                                                                                                             06.0                             AGR
                                                                                                                                              IN so
                                                                                                                                              HARS R
                                                                                                                13                    Toll    06:00
                                                LJOST                                                                                         17 NOV.
                                             0% 12:00
                                                14 NOV.
                                                                                                                       x4e)-pArf .9
                                                                                                                  BLUFF PT                             +    59040'
                           I-A
                           00                           1          14                                                        oRADAR                    151 * 30'W
                                                                                                                             RETRIEVE           HOMER
                                                                                                                             08:0016%
                                                                                               14
                           0                                                                                                             AGROUND                      SEE INSET FOR CONTINUATION
                           00                            12:40 #1   (SURF.)                                                              18:30 14 NOV.
                                                        ft23        12:20                                                                                             OF 4# 3 TRAJECTORY
                           m                           w            13 NOV.
                           0                                                                                                                                                        12
                                                                                                                                                                    *3 SURF)              &,@0501
                           1-h                                                                                                                                      C
                                                                                                                                                                                         10 NOV.

                                                                                                                                                  14

                                                                        *S(SURF)
                           o                                             11:00 IONOV.'
                                                                           .0                                          CLT                   13
                                                                                                                       18:3015
                           c                                                              12
                           m                                                                                                      6
                                                                                      *a LDST

                                                                                                                                       12
                           ko                                                                                                                          rm    0*4 12 NOV
                             1                                       (501 10 NOV.                                                          >
                           Ln                                           14; 00       12                           #9                  14       IVY
                                                                                                                                                                  RE
                                                                                                                 LJOST                                             *8 1
                                                                                                                   12                                  12
                                                                     *11(SURF.)                                                                                      15
                                                                    11:45
                                                                  10 NOV                                                                               0
                                                                                                                            RETRIEVED                  1
                                                                            *10(50') 12:00                                AGROUND 12
                                                                               10 NOV.

                                                                                                          .SELDOVIA
                                                                                                                 '2
                                                                                                                  0
                                                                                                                -O@'
                                                                                                                13 V@
                                                                                                                                                  OUND
                                                                                                                                                       AT
                                                                                                                                                       0
                                                                                                             @BL 3U F

                                            1-28

                                                 SURFACE CURRENTSj 10- 17 NOVEMBER '75

                                                         LUFF PT.
                                                                  HOMER

                                                                4-
                                                                  AQ

                                                      SELDOVIA

                                                   SUBSURFACE (56) CURRENTS
                                                     10 - 17 NOVEMBER '75

                                                        BLUFF PT
                                                                 HOMER

                                                     --SELDOVIA

                                 Fig. 19   Drogue Trajectories, 10-17 November 1975

                                                 1-29

                  Period 18-20 November 1975

                       Weather during this period was characterized by steady 20-30 kt north-

                  easterly winds which abated for a short period on the morning of the 19th
                  (2200, 18 November - 0600, 19 November). Surface and subsurface drogue

                  movements in the upper bay (figure 20) was generally WSW, in the direction of

                  the wind field, until the drogues were within a few miles of Homer Spit, at

                  which time they were carried around the tip of the spit. In addition to the

                  general counterclockwise movement observed in the southwestern region of the

                  upper bay, smaller gyres (1-2 miles in diameter) were observed near the tip

                  of Homer Spit; these consisted of a subsurface (50') counterclockwise gyre on

                  the north side and a surface clockwise gyre on the south side.

                       Of particular interest is the movement of drogue #10 during the period

                  0200-0400 on 19 November. Although the tide was ebbing from 0134-0713, drogue

                  movement during the first 2-3 hours of the ebb tide was easterly up bay.

                     ."Following this period of calm, northeasterly winds of 10-20 kts pre-

                  vailed for the duration of the tracking period. The resultant water movement

                  in the outer bay was generally westward and at an unusually high velocity.

                  The waters tended to spread out laterally, with a particularly noticeable

                  northward component along the northern shore. Inferred circulation, based

                  upon drogue movements, is shown in figure

                       Wind influence, both direct (wind drag on the above-surface reflector)

                  and indirect (surface water transport induced by wind drag on the

                  water surface), was no doubt significant during most of this period.

                  However, it is difficult to differentiate between the magnitudes of each

                  factor with respect to surface drogue movements. However, a measure of
                  the direct wind influence*on the exposed reflector of subsurface (50')

                  drogues was obtained by comparing the drift of a standard 6.foot square
                  canvas biplane (#26) and with that of*a personnel parachute (#19) (ratio of

                  cross-sectional areas, approximately 1:12.6 respectively.)

                            151040'W                                                                    151* 20! W

                                                                                                                59" 40'N

                                         RADAR

                                                                                            *3 SURF is NOV.          Is Nov.
                                                           HOMER                              17,20
                                                                                                     19             *26 W
                                                                                         19      tA          *19     BIPLANE
                                                                                                             wcHurE  K, 35
                                                                                                010
                                                                                               VCJiUTE                    *SSURF.
                                                             *26                                -13-20                     1415
               t:l                                           RETRIEVED
               0                                                                     Lo
               ()Q                        -* 19       LOST                             2:00                                                  CD
               r-                      RETRIEVED        15:00   00:10
               (D                      10:30 20 NOV.   vs Nov.  aa NOV.  RADAR
                                                                                 03 LOST
                                                  20                               22*30 -"1',

               rt                                  19

                                                          &30RS
               co
                                                           0:00
               t"                                         :9 NOV.
               0           4010
               t4          RETRIEVED
               0

                           IOLOO 20 NOV.                                   *-30RG
                                                                            12:00
               m                                                            19 NOV.
               pi                                          LOST
                                                                 15100
                                                                 19 NOV.

                                                                   Cie)

                                                                                                           0       1      2      3

                                                                                                               NAUTICAL MILES
                                                                                                            59* 30'N

                             SURFACE AND SUBSURFACE, CURRENTS

                                           18-20 NOVEMBER 1975

                            BLUFF PT.
                  OQ

                                                 HOMER

                   0

                                                                   E               CCW GYRE
                                                            CW-- GYR
                                                                urface             at 50' only
                                                                 only'-*,

                  OD

                                                                                       0     1    2     3
                                                                                         NAUT'ICAL 'MILES

                                             1-32

                   The results, to date have shown:

                   I.   The stages of the tide during which a given larvae pollutant or

                        object is introduced into the water column plays a controlling

                        role in determining the eventual net trajectory. For example,

                        figure 13 shows the trajectories of two surface drogues which were

                        set adrift at the same position but at different stages of the

                        same tidal cycle. Number 1 was set adrift at 0820 hrs. on 16

                        July at high tide, while number 4 was set adrift at 1415 hrs.,

                        about six hours later, at low tide. Number 4 escaped from the  inner

                        gyre and was transported 13 n. mi. farther offshore, to the western

                        edge of the outer gyre. Number 1 remained within the in ner gyre,

                        although its pattern of drift suggested that it might also have

                        transected further offshore to the west. Such differences in net

                        transport from a singular geographical position may be even greater

                        in the westernmost reaches of the outer bay, where t.idally induced

                        current osciliations of as much as 11 n. mi. in amplitude are

                        observed during each tidal cycle.

                   2.   During the periods of small (neap) tides, effects from non-tidal

                        factors, such as variations in winds and runoff may induce profound

                        perturbations in the circulation regime in the outer bay.

                   3.   In the westernmost reaches of the outer bay, the large amplitudes

                        in tidal current oscilations exert a major control upon dispersal

                        and mixing processes, as shown by the lack and/or weakness of the

                        density stratification in Cook Inlet proper.

                   4.   Present observations strongly suggest that winds have a profound

                        effect on the net circulation of Kachemak Bay and Cook Inlet, and

                        that transient events such as a gale may be most significant in

                        controlling the transport and dispersal of planktonic larvae and

                        pollutants.

                                                  1-33

                  Drift Card Studies

                        Drift cards were released at several locations in an attempt to obtain

                  further insights on long term patterns of dispersals of waterborne com-

                  ponents. The general circulation of Cook Inlet is still not well understood,

                  but certain general features appear to dominate the movement and distribution

                  of sea. water properties throughout the area. An inferred net surface circulation

                  for Cook Inlet is illustrated in Fig.*22, from the works of Anderson et al

                  (1973) and Wright and Sharma (1973).

                        The inferred model,.based upon water mass characteristics, turbidity and

                  imergency from ERTS Satellites (Burbank 1974), indicate strong influx of

                  saline, relatively clear coastal shelf water along the eastern shore and

                  strong outflow of brackish, turbid water along the western shore.

                        During August and September of 1974, a total of about 10,100  drift cards

                  were released at selected points in Kachemak Bay and southern Cook Inlet.

                  The  results are summarized and illustrated as follows:

                  Site A (Vessel Holding orAnchoring Area) Figure 23

                        Recoveries from this site were extrememly good,  averaging 15%;

                  Drift cards from this site tended to move raDidly seawards Dast the end

                  of Homer Spit. The majority of recoveries occured within a week, usually from

                  along the seaward side of Homer Spit (probably one of the most intensively

                  beachcombed area of Cook Inlet). During a persistent period of

                  westerly winds at the time of a drop, significant numbers of cards

                  were carried to the south side of Kachemak Bay, particularly in the

                  China Poot Bay area. No cards released at thi   s site A were reported north

                  of Bluff Point; a single card was recovered from Amakdedori Beach directly

                  west across the Inlet from Kachemak Bay, two months after the drop. The

                  finding of this card, on the Kamishak side of the inlet is in close agreement

                  with the observations of local mariners who suggest that objects adrift in

                  upper Kachemak Bay tend to come ashore either in the vicinity of the Spit or

                  on the Amakdedori Beach side.

                                          1-34

                      1550       154*      153*      1520      1510       1500      1490

                                a TURBID WATER                              ANCHORAGE
                                                     N.FORELAN    .00
                               z*SEA WATER                                           610

                                        DRIFT RIVER           KENAI

                                     SNUG
                                      HARSO                  E NINILCHIK              600

                                                 4ers
                             ILIAMNA SAY                  HOMER
                                          ell.

                                                         SELDOVIA
                                                         PT GRkHAM
                                                         PTtHATAM

                                                                                      590

                                               ie

                             .Fig. 22 - INFERRED NET   CIRCULATION - COOK INLET

                                           F.mm Burbank, 1974).

                                                        1-35
                                      1550      1540      1530     1520      1510      Lr)OO     1490

                                              TURBID WATER                             jj
                                                    TER
                                          a-# SEAWA                                         MORAGE
                                                              N.FORELAN          ",.V
                                                                                                 -610

                                                     DRIFT RIVER            KENAI

                                                                         t

                                                                       -CAPE NINILCHIK             600

                                         ILIAMNA BAY                          HOME5.,

                                                                        V
                                                                        SELDOM

                                                                       Cb
                                                                                                   590

                                            Fig..23    Drift Card   Recoveries     Site A
                                                       (Vessels Holding and Anchoring      Area)

                                             1-36

                  Site B (Homer Spit)    Figure 24

                      To correlate the information from Site A, cards were released at the

                  end of Homer Spit. Returns were much poorer than from Site A, averaging

                  3.5%, but the pattern was quite similar. Most recoveries were on the Spit or

                  from the Northwest shore towards Anchor Point. One card was recovered from

                  Eldred Passage on the south shore of Kachemak Bay.

                  Site C    (Yukon Island) F igure 24

                       This site, one mile north of Yukon Island, was selected to characterize

                  water movements along the south side of Kachemak Bay. It was anticipated

                  that drift would be rapid, to the northeast into the upper bay. This
                  apparently did not happen, for returns were poor (averaging 1.1%), and en-

                  tirely from the north, along the Kenai Peninsula, or west in Kamishak Bay.

                  Site D. (Point Pogibshi) Figure 25

                       it was anticipated that drift of cards released off Pt. Pogibshi

                  could either move directly north toward Anchor Point or ENE along the

                  southern shore of Kachemak Bay. Returns from this station were adequate,
                  averaging 2M for five separate drops, and definitely indicate that

                  waters from Point Pogibshi follow both routes. On one occasion, August 11,

                  cards were recovered from Homer Spit within a week and at Kalgin Island

                  within two weeks from the time of release.

                                                                     1-37

                                                            1550        154*       153P       1520        1510       1500        149*
                                                                  -4@ TURBID WATER                            x               ORJI GE
                                                                       SEAWATER
                                                                                       N. FORMAN
                                                                                                     A                        '"'610

                                                                             DRIFT RIVER                 KENAI
                                                                                             f

                                                                           SNUG HAR      R
                                                                                                    APE NINILCHIK                  600

                                                                ILIAMNA 8
                                                                                                          OMg
                                                                                                      LDOVI

                                                                                                                                   590

                                                                                        P

                                                                       TURBID WATER
                                                                  C-* SEAWATER                                            CHORAGE
                                                                                      N. FORELAN                                 -610

                                                                            DRIFT RINVER                 KENAI

                                                                                        It
                                                                          SNUG HARBO
                                                                                                   :CAPE NINILCHIK                 600

                                                                 IUAMNA 8
                                                                                                          MER

                                                                                                     ELDOVI

                                                                                                                                 -590

                                                                    Fig. 24     -Drift      Card    Recoveries
                                                                                   Site B (Homer Spit)
                                                                                   Site C (Yukon Island)

                                                       1-38

                                            k"o        1540      1530     1520       1510      15CP      1490

                                                 --4 TURBID WATER
                                                 wm@ SEAWAFER                                       CHORAGE
                                                                    N.FORELAND                             610

                                                          DRIFT RIVER               KENAI

                                                                             V t

                                                       SNUG HARBOR              CAPE NINILCHIK             610

                                               ILIAMNA BAYw     All                 HOMER@

                                                                               kl-DOVI

                                                                             --.PT--CHATHAM
                                                                             a C.
                                                                                                           590

                                                                     le
                                                                   tv

                                                  Fig.'25    Drift Card    Recoveries     Site D
                                                                  (Point   Pogibshi)

                                              1-39

                  Site E (Shell, SoCal Exploratory Drill Site) Figure 26

                       The proposed Shell Oil drilling site in the middle of outer Kachemak Bay was

                  regarded as particularly important, for it was believed to lie in the center

                  of.a crusteacean nursery area. Over 3000 cards were released here upon six

                  different occasions, but returns were porr, averaging less than 1%. Recoveries

                  were recorded from Anchor Point, Augustine Island, Kamishak Bay, and several

                  of the most distant discovery points along Shelikof Strait. One card was

                  returned from Wide Bay on the Alaska Peninsula west on the north shore of Shelikof

                  Strait, the most distant authenticated return to date. This card must have

                  traveled at least 250 and more likely 350 nautical miles in less than 2-1/2

                  months.

                  Sites F & G (Bluff Point    Anchor Point) Figures 26, 27

                       Returns from these two sites averaged only less than 1%. On three separate

                  occasions no cards were recovered. Site F (midway between  Bluff Point and

                  Site E had returns only from Anchor Point and from Augustine Island. From

                  Site G (1.5 miles west of Anchor Point), cards were returned from near Bluff

                  Point (to the east, possibly a result of drift along the beach), from the

                  Anchor Point-Cape Starichkof shore nearby, and from Spiridon Bay, on the Kodiak

                  Island side of Shelikof Strait.

                  Site H (Cape Kasilof - SoCal Exploratory Drill Site) Figure 27

                       This release.point was located almost 5O.miles north of Kachemak Bay, one

                  nautical mile NW of the Sisters, off Cape Kasilof, the site of a

                  Standard Oil of California exploratory well. Recoveries from this site

                  were about average, 2.8%. A high recovery qf 8.7% occurred on one occasion
                  during a period of persistent onshore (WNW) wind, the only significant card

                  recoveries from the Kenai Peninsula shore. In general the drift cards

                                                  1-40

                                             1550    1540    153*    1520    1510    150     1490

                                                    TURSIDWATER                     p   NCHORAGE
                                                    SEAWATER N.FORELAND                        610

                                                        DRIFT RIVER     141 KENAI
                                                                          t

                                                    SNUG HARBOR                                  600
                                                                                 LCHIK
                                                                          APE NINILCHIK

                                               ILIAMNA B                    &ER

                                                                          ELDOVIA

                                                                                                 59P

                                                                     Ab
                                                              Ile

                                                  IDE
                                                 SAY     UGANIK
                                                           ISL.

                                                    TURBID WATER                         NCHORAGE
                                                    SEAWATER
                                                               N.FORE                           Gr
                                                                          A

                                                         DR11Fr RIVER        KENAI

                                                    SNUG HARBOR"
                                                                          APE  NIINILCHIK        600

                                               ILIAMMA 8                     MER

                                                                          E LD OMA 1.1

                                                                                                 590

                                                Fig. 26  - Drift Card Recoveries
                                                           Site E (Shell, SoCal Drill Site)
                                                           Site F (Bluff Point)

                                                                     1-41

                                                          1550        154*        1530      1520       1510        150*        1490

                                                               --4 TURBID WATER
                                                                     SEAWATER                                           CHORAGE
                                                                                      WFORELAND                                 610

                                                                           DRIFT RIVER P                KENAI

                                                                      SNUG HARBO      IR- V     :CAPE NINILCHIK                 600

                                                              ILIAMNA B
                                                                                                      HOMER,

                                                                                              g.   EL

                                                                                                                               -590

                                                                SPIRIDON
                                                                    BAY

                                                                ---),TURBID WATER                                       NCHORAGE
                                                                     SEAWATER                                    A
                                                                                      N.FORELAND,                              -610

                                                                                               'A
                                                                            DRIFT RIVE        j*i  I    KENAI

                                                                       SNUG HAR 80                CAPE NINILCHIK                600

                                                             ILIAMNA B
                                                                                                         MER

                                                                                                 @SEL       A

                                                                                                                               -590

                                                                                      ie f*,%,

                                                                      UGANIK
                                                                        ISL. Fig.     27    Drift Card       Recoveries
                                                                                            Site G (Anchor Point)
                                                                                            Sitc H (Cape Kasilof
                                                                                                             SoCal Drill Site)

                                             1-42

                  released off Cape Kasilof were recovered at Kalgin Island or along the

                  west side of the Inlet. There were recoveries from Ursus Cove, Augustine

                  Island, and a single card from Uganik Island, south of Shelikof Strait.

                                             1-43

                  Seasonal_Properties of Kachemak Bay Marine Waters

                       The marine waters of Kachemak Bay exhibits marked seasonal variations

                  in temperature, salinity, density and oxygen distribution. The seasonality

                  of water mass properties can best be*described from the work of Knull and

                  Williamson (1969) and from the earlier studies of Bright et al (1960).

                       Present information shows that the water temperatures of the bay respond to

                  both seasonal as well as year to year variations in warming and cooling processes,

                  as illustrated in figure 28. Of interest are the low temperatures recorded

                  for the winter and early spring of 1959.

                       As previously mentioned, Kachemak Bay receives the greatest portion of

                  the drainage from the surrounding mountainous area thus the yearly regime

                  of the runoff controls much of the estuarine properties of the bay. Figure  29

                  illustrates the seasonality of influx of fresh water into the bay.

                  The seasonal regime of sea water properties can be summarized as follows:
                  1.   Late Winter - Early Spring

                       The "oceanographic winter", characterized mostly by low water temperatures,

                       occurs betweenfebruary and April. Salinities usually remain fairly

                       high and stable, at about 32%. Prior to breakup, in February and March,

                       the entire bay is relatively well mixed, as reflected by a near uniform

                       dissolved oxygen content of about 9 ml/l.

                       The onset of breakup brings about increased influx of fresh water, which,

                       coupled with the warming trend, develops a marked density stratification,

                       making the bay a more typical two layered positive estuary.

                       The interplay between warming of surface layers, and mixing processes

                       results in the build up of a rather Complex densit structure as
                                                                         y

                       illustrated in Figure 30. The basic density structure can be subdivided into:

                                          1-44
                           is-
                           is-
                           14-
                           13-
                           12-
                           11-       '*,%
                           10-         %
                       0   9-
                       CL: 8-
                       2   7-
                       w   6-
                           5.
                           4-
                           3'
                           2-
                           1
                           0

                                                        S N           M J s
                                              A M              JrAN
                                 1957      1        1958       1        1959
               @A I%               MEAN MONTHLY SURFACE TEMP. FOR KACHEMAK BAY

                           15-
                           14-
                           13-
                           12-

                       o   10-
                           9-
                       a:  0-
                       2
                       W   7-
                           6-
                           5-
                           4-
                           3-
                           2-

                                                                %
                           0                                     %
                           -1
                                    S N JAN M M J       i I   Ails  I       i   N
                                1957       1    1958           1       1959

                                   MEAN MONT"LY BOTTOM TEMP. FOR    KACHEMAK SAY

                                                        UPPER BAY
                                                    --- LOWER SAY
                             Fig. 28 SEASONAL TEMPERATURE REGIME
                                              WRIGHT ET AL 1969)

                                                              ANCHOR RIVER

                       800-

                       600-                                                                      PRECIPITATION
                    LL
                    LL                                                                             IN BASIN
                    0
                    z  400-
                M

                0      200                                                                                 RUN OFF

                Fj
                :v                                                                               JUL.   AUG.   SEP
                                                 JAN.    FEB.   MAR.     APR.    MAY    JUN.
                           OCT   NOV.    DEC.
                                                                             1967
               90               1966

              ko
             C,
                171    1200-                                BRADLEY RIVER                    GAUGE
                0                                                                             RUN OFF

                cn
                m      1000-
                @-j 6
                m

                r?
                       800-

                       600-

                    0
                    z  400                                                                 PRECIPITATION

                                                                                              IN BASIN
                       200

                          0
                           OCT.   NOV.   DEC.    JAN.    FEB.    MAR.    APR.   M AY    JUN.     JUL.   AUG.   SEP
                                                                                                               *IF

                                1966                                         1967

                                                        1-46

                                                              CHOR PT.
                                                                         10 FATHOM LINE

                                                                      BLUFF PT.                           f
                                                                                                      'Ile
                                                                             HOMER

                                                                                 16    13

                                                                    SEL    IA

                                      1     2   3     4    a     10   13      16    21       24      29      35A    36

                                    10-
                                    20-

                                    40-
                                E
                                    60

                                    Go-

                                    100-                                               SIGMA- t CONTOURS

                                    120-

                                             INNER    BAY                    OUTER    BAY                   COOK INLET

                                      1     2   3     4    8     10   13      16       20      25      28      37
                                    10-
                                    20-          ------

                                    40-

                                E   61D

                                    so-

                                    100-
                                                                                             SIGMA-t CONIOURS
                                    120-

                                            2   4     6    9   10,   12  14    16 IS 20      22    24 26     28   30
                                                                      NAUTICAL MILES

                                       Fig.    30   Longitudinal    Density Stratification         April  1969
                                                         (Knull and Williamson - 1969)

                                             1-47

                            a.   The inner bay, with its well defined two layer "wedge".

                            b.   The outer bay, with a more complex but still well defined

                                 two layer system.

                            C.   Cook Inlet with its typically more uniformly top to bottom

                                 mixed water column.

                       The cross channel density distribution (figure 31) reflects the control

                  of the Coriolis force forging the net outflow of the less saline waters to

                  flow to the right against the northern shore, and the inflow of more saline

                  waters to flow along the southern shore. The density distribution clearly

                  shows that Kachemak Bay becomes a typical two layered positive estuary as

                  soon as breakup sets in.

                  2.   Late Spring to Early Fall

                       At warming progresses, the fresh water influx into the bay increases

                       and, combined with the increase in surface heating, induces the

                       formation of a well developed thermocline. The net result is the

                       build up of a well developed shallow density stratification; in

                       July, sharp density gradients are usually found between 5 and 10 m.

                       (15-30 ft.) in the inner bay, deepening to 10-20 m. (30-60 ft.)

                       in the outer bay., An example of the well developed two layer density

                       structure of the bay is shown in figure. 32. Of interest is the

                       relationship of the density structure of.Kachemak Bay to that

                       of Cook Inlet. Figure 33 illustrates what can be considered as a

                       representative conditions for July. The main channel of Cook Inlet

                       exhibits no horizonal stratification, as a result of intense mostly

                       tidally induced mixing; the brackish outflow of Kachemak Bay, com-

                       bined with the discharge from the Anchor River contributes to the

                       shallow*stratified cell.observed along the eastern shore.

                                               1-48

                                                   ANCHOR PT.

                                                       -----10 FATHOM LINE

                                                            BLUFF PT
                                                                 HOMER          6

                                                                                9

                                                                         14
                                                               2

                                                         SELDOVIA

                                                                    STATION
                                                .22           21               20

                                              to-
                                              20-

                                              40-

                                              60-

                                          w   so

                                              100- SIGMA-t CONTOURS

                                                    NORTH                                 SOUTH
                                                        STATION                      STATION
                                                 6    7       8      9          12     13   14

                                              10                            10.

                                              40-                           40-

                                              60-                           60

                                          E   80 -                          so-

                                              100 -                        100-

                                          w
                                          a   120 - SIGMA- tCONTOURS       120  SIGMA- t
                                              140                          140   CONTOURS
                                                                               @
                                                                                    @TQ70URS\,
                                                                                r
                                                                                 Co@@j
                                 Fig.  31 -.Cross Channel  Density Stratification    April 1969
                                                 (Knull and Williamson    1969)

                                                                  1-49

                                                                                     HOMER         20

                                                                                              IP5

                                                                    14

                                                                               41

                                                                                           MAP OF KACNEMAK BAY
                                                                                              PROFILE STATIONS

                                                    1  2     3    4     5 6       7     a     9     to    11   12    13. 1
                                                    to
                                                    20.

                                                    40-

                                                    So -

                                                    so.
                                           ILI      100- SIGMA- t
                                                           FLOODING TIDE
                                                    120-

                                                         INNER BAY                        OUTER SAY                     COOK
                                                                                                                         INLET

                                                                                   STATION
                                                    36          3T           38             39           40           41
                                                    10
                                                    20

                                           E        40
                                           3@
                                                    SO-

                                           U1       80

                                                    100

                                                            SIGMA-f EBBING TIDE
                                                                                                              STATION
                                                                                                           15     7    16
                                                                       STATION                        10-
                                                           20      19         Is       17             20
                                                                                                      40
                                                    10
                                                    E2                                                so-
                                                                                                  E   so-
                                                    CL
                                                    60-                                          x    100-

                                                                                                      1PO

                                                                                                      140 -

                                                                           MILES

                                     Fig. 32        Longitudinal and Cross            Channel     Distribution       of
                                                    Density - July 1969 (Knull and                Williamson         1969)
                                                    ------------

                                                        SIGMA   t
                                                           FL   ODING TIDE

                                             1-50

                       As expected, the, greatest vertical gradients in temperature correlate

                       with the periods of sharpest vertical density stratification. Data

                       from Knull (1969) show that temperature will vary from about 12'c at

                       the surface to Vc at the bottom of the thermocline (at about 15 m.).

                       Similarly, salinities in the inner bay will vary from about 25-28% at

                       the surface to 31-31.5% at the bottom of the thermocline or a change

                       of about 10 salinity units within 10-15 m.. Salinities in the deeper

                       waters are more uniform, ranging between 31.5 and 31.8% throughout

                       the bay. Dissolved oxygen concentrations also reflect the patterns

                       of density stratification, ranging from about 6 ml/l at the surface

                       to about 8 ml/l in the deeper waters.

                  3.   Late Fall and Early Winter

                       By October, surface cooling wind and tidal mixing and reduction in runoff

                       considerably weakens the sharpness of the density strall.-ification. A

                       temperature inversion develops, the upper, slightly less saline waters

                       becoming colder (less than 80c as observed by Knull in 1969), the

                       deeper more saline waters being warmer (above 8.50c). While no data

                       are presently available forwinter temperature distribution in the bay,

                       it can be assumed that the temperature inversion, colder water at the

                       surface, warmer waters at depth, will prevail through much of the

                       period between freezing and thawing. (Figure 34)

                       Convective cooling has been observed at a number of inshore locations of

                       the Gulf of Alaska coast, and it can be postulated at this time that

                       extensive surface cooling during cold snaps will induce convective

                       mixing of the shallower waters of the inner bay. Such convective mixing

                       will contribute to the oxygenation of the entire bay.

                                                                                                                                                                  - ;X'-
                                                                                                                az 7.

                                                                                      t
                                                                                                                                          k

                                                                                                  W ... ......

                                                                                                                            I GMA-T

                                                                                                                   Wit J%ij-m' mulst W Suff-Us

                                                                                           On               to

                                                                            lot
                                                                                                                                                                                   04S              tit
                                                                                            110             1430                  048             Its

                                                                                Its-

                                                         Fig.        33          Cross Channel Distribution                                     of Density, Lower Cook                                Inlet
                                                                                July 1973.                 (NOOAINOS 1973)

                                                   1-52

                                                                  10 FATHOM LINE

                                                                                   /.-o

                                                                 HOMER
                                                                           If*."0

                                                                            0
                                                            0    0   0 _@6

                                                              ELDOVIA

                                                                        MAP OF KACHEMAK SAY
                                                                             STATION CHART

                                                                STATION NO.
                                    1     2      3     4     5      6      7      a      9      10      If

                               20                                                                     1

                               40-

                               60-

                               so-
                           w
                           C,  100-                              1

                               120
                                                                                        SIGMA- t

                               14MO

                                           INNER BAY                       OUTER BAY                   COOK
                                                                                                      INLET

                                  Fig. 34     Longitudinal Distribution of Density        October 1969
                                                       (Knull.and Williamson      1969)

                                                   SECTION II

                                   EM      -,ENTAL AND BIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

                                                       OF

                                                 KACHEVIAK BAY

                                                   SECTION II

                                         ENVIRONMENTAL AND BIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES

                                                           of

                                                      KACHEMAK BAY

                       One of the first approach to gauge the biological importance of

                  an area is usually to look at some fisheries statistics. To put it    in

                  perspective, Kachemak Bay comprises only 2.6% of the marine waters of

                  Cook Inlet, yet yields 62% of the shellfish harvest, and, it undoubtedly

                  harbors important life stages of shellfish ultimately harvested in

                  other areas outside the bay.

                        In 1973 the total salmon harvest in the Kachemak Bay was 126,407

                  fish. The king crab catch for 1973 was 2.1 million pounds, tanner crab

                  3.8 million pounds, shrimp 5.0 million pounds, and dungeness crab

                  300,000 pounds. 407,500 pounds of herring were also taken in 1973 in the

                  Kachemak Bay area. The estimatedi..value of these catches of salmon to

                  fishermen was $200,000; first wholesale value was $400,000. The king

                  crab value to fishermen was $1.7 million; first wholesale value being

                  $3.3 million. Tanner crab value to fishermen was $700,000; first wholesale

                  value $1.7 million. Shrimp value to fishermen was $400,000; first

                  wholesale $1.5 million. Dungeness crab'value to fishermen was $200,000;

                  first wholesale value $400,000. Herring value to fishermen was $30,000;

                  first wholesale value $60,000. The total value of the 1973 Kachemak Bay

                  commercial fisheries harvest, as mentioned earler, was $3.2 million

                  to fishermen and $7.3 million first wholesale value.

                       The Bluff Point Sanctuary was established by the Board of Fish and Game

                  in 1970 to prohibit king crab fishing during a critical part of their life

                  cycle when breeding, moulting and egg hatching occur. This Sanctuary has

                                                  U-2

                  been closed each year from the middle of January until the end of the king

                  crab season. ADF&G and National Marine Fisheries studies have shown that

                  this area is also a very critical area for not only the adult, but also

                  the juvenile and larval forms.

                       While the fisheries statistics for the Kachemak Bay area are an

                  eloquant expression of its productivity and values, they only express a

                  partial insight upon the total biological attributes of an area. Also,

                  while statistics might relate to number of fish and poundage of crus-

                  taceans, expressing the number of pounds of crabs or shrimps does not

                  provide for a meaningful concept of their abundance.

                       To better express the combined environmental - biological attributes

                  and values of Kachemak Bay, the following chart was prepared to under-

                  score the attributes of Kachemak Bay in toto. (Figure 35)

                       First to consider is the fact that the environmental values of the

                  area were recognized through the creation of the Kachemak Bay State Park

                  (which includes Chugashik Island along the SE border of the Fog River

                  tidal flats) in 1970.

                       The biological.values of Kachemak Bay were recognized by the creation

                  of the Fox River Flat Critical Habitat in 1972 to protect extensive

                  waterfowl populations. The Bluff Point Crab Sanctuary was, as previously

                  mentioned, established in 1970 by the Board of Fish and Game to protect

                  critical reproduction.area.

                                                                                                                                     KACHEMAK BAY
                                                                                            ANCM  9@eZENVIRONMENTAL- BIOLOGICAL ATTRIBUTES
                                                                                                                PARTIAL ESTIMATE OF AVERAGE OF BIOLOGICAL POPULATIONS
                                                                                                                                HARBOR SEAL CONCENTRATIONS                                             1,0096 '00.
                                                                                                                                SALMON SPAWNING GROUNDS                                                      OCARS

                                                                                                                        A       MARINE BIRD NESTING AREAS

                                                                                                                                                                                             FOX RIVER FLAT
                                                                                                                                                                                                    CRITICAL
                                                                                                                                                                                                       HABITAT
                                                                                 CRAB         '74                                                                                                20,00,04 WATrRMK
                                                                                                Ire
                                                                              SANCTUARY           co,
                                                                             @@z m/1 f. ION
                        w                                                          DUNGENESS CRABS                   HOMER                                                            C G HIK     ISL.
                        f-n                                                                                                    "I          - -  jVjA il                               KACH. SAY STATE PARK
                                                                             f. MILLION44 KINO CRABS
                                                                           3-5 A41WOiv-                                                 to 0
                    C+                                                                              Z-1                                         s     /
                    ct r)                                                          rANNER CRAYS
                        rD                                                                                                               I                                                  MOUNrAIN S*ArS
                                                                                                                                                160 C's
                    C+                                                                                                                  Lip -ro ,I
                    (D                                         j,     HALIBur                              S/ 44        0 A'
                                                                         ROCK SOLE
                                                                                                                           NE                            HALIBUT
                                                                         YELLOWrIN SOLE                                                                      COVE
                                                                         SCAL40PS
                                                                                                            Oil
                        m
                                                                                                                                                       kA CiyeJ4
                                                                                  SELDOVI
                        -5                    SEA           PT POGISSHI                                             RICH, D                                4 re  AAr a
                                                                                                                            VERSE       VrE             S7'
                        0                                                                                                    MACROPHY                                 4
                                                                                                                                  a E                            P4pk
                        rD

                        C+
                                             PORT
                                               GRAHAM                                                                                    k4 Cjy
                                                                                                                                        S 74 7-,p e4f4
                        0

                        0
                                                                                                                          OLIS
                                                                                300                                  V, Ifq --                             ss
                                                                                    '00           O)vS                           ms          Ape'4
                                                                                        0 SALAf                   F
                                                                               9'**N,N LOWER REACHES

                                                                              rq;Fm WOO

                                                                               OA@

                                                        -VA
                                                               VIM

                                              Aff

                                                           Isow,   0

                     At

                                                      Al

                                   At,

                            'S@
                                     ;' "-ff

                      0

                    qp

                             Nesting marine birds, Gull Island

                                              11-5

                       in 1974, the entire Kachamak Bay area, eastwards from a line drawn

                  between Anchor Point and Point Pogibshi was legislatively set aside as a

                  crucial critical habitat area.

                       While the progressive setting aside of State parks and critical

                  habitat underscores the public awareness of the environmental/biological

                  values. of the area, it still does not focus on the acutal extent of  the

                  biological richness and intensity of biological utilization of the area.

                  The estimate of the average numbers of individuals comprising what can

                  be considered as the standing crop prior to harvest, is shown on the map

                  of Fig. 35.

                       The combined sheer number of individuals, shrimps, craps, herrings,

                  salmon, marine birds, puts a greater emphasis upon the biological attributes

                  of the system. It must be underscored at this time that such figures

                  are only a partial estimate of the amount of marine life utilizing or

                  living in the bay.

                       The large numbers of shrimps suggest that certain areas of  the

                  bottom must be blanketed by individuals.   Several studies can serve to

                  illustrate the extent of bottom occupancy  by various types of invertebrates.

                  In March 1969, Westingouse Ocean Research  Laboratory, San Diego, California

                  while performing other duties in the Cook  Inlet area, undertook for the

                  benefit of ADF&G and other interested parties, to conduct a brief T.V.

                  survey of selected bottom areas in Kachemak Bay. Some results of the

                  T.V. observations are illustrated in Fig. 36. The studies conducted by

                  NMFS indicating the total shrimp poundage per I mile drag can also

                  serves to illustrate the abundance of crustacean life upon the sea    floor

                  (Fig. 37). One should note here that shrimps feed actively, and in view

                  of their large numbers competition for food must be fierce; but to date

                  no information is available on the spectrum of thier diet.

                                               AINCHOR PT

                                                               Zooplankton abundant in the whter column. Along the
                                                               bottom were dense aggregations of pink shrimp and
                                                               unidentified larger striped shrimp, also oriented
                                                               tail into the current. Tanner crabs, hermit crabs,                                     /*
                                                               a cottid fish and two large scallops were observed.
                                                               Lumps of coal were also seen in this area.

                                   N
                     W

                                                                       BLUFF PT                                                                                      5904d -

                     M       Large white sea pens very a6mundant.   01mall             HOMER
                     n                                               11>ttom.                                     Ile        A
                     rt      number of pink shrimp sighted along the
                 0   M                                                    N
                 rt                                                                                                           HALIBUT
                 )j. td
                 0 a                                                                -I                                               COVE
                 M r?
                                                                   TUARY
                 ::r r?                   L. . . . .5ING CRAB SANC-
                 0   0                                                                         - - - - - - - - -

                 0   4
                 0
                 M
                                                          K      A
                     M
                 cn  -4      observed a large bed of scallops (in depressions).                                              Richest shrimp bed located during the survey.
                 M   0)      many sea pens and a small number of pink shrimp.                                                Pink and coonstripe shrimp occurred in dense
                                                                                                                             aggregations. Tanner crabs also sighted.
                 n   0
                 -Ir 0                                                                     (%^.- r
                     W                                                                                                                                               we 30, -

                                                                  SELDOVIA
                 C%

                                                                      .40'                  151* 30'                    20'                      to,                    1510

                                                          ANCHOR POINT

                                                                                                                              10
                                                                                                                             37,
                                                                                                                       3 10
                                                                                                                    /17  79
                                                                                                                       58
                             10 FATHOM LLNE                               BLUFF POINT                                                 590406-
                                                                                                                 12    Ile
                                                                                     H   ER
                                                                                                               203
                                                                                                   /* 15  191
                                                             0                                               14 3752
                                                                     T       10                     94     289
                                                                                                                  J,

                                                             T     so   275     614  882      521
                                                       T
                                                               697          109          642  465      .00--
                                                                   561          30 76
                                                                                      4       35
                                                      2    4444         050  TO  76      .,1-  ./i.
               f? En                                                                     *
               Fa. -.@                                           272    344   46  15F
               0                                                   666              5t   rl
                                                            50                    a      k.
                                                     T               8001632 102 9  i3l
                0                                                      153    306 12
                                                                 14     415
                                                                 12
                                                        0                                                     KACHEMAK BAY SHRIMP
                                                                                                       12
                                                                                                                STUDIES, MAY 1972
               Cn <                                                                                          Total shrimp catch (pounds)
               :r (D                                                    SELDOVIA
               (D CO                                                                                                per I mile drag
               M0Q                                                                                                         hung up
               w0
                r?
               IF4
                0                                  Vx

                                                                                                   To convert to average number
                                                                                                   of shrimp per mile, multiply
                                                                                                                                      59020-
                                                                                                   pounds by 102.

                                          152t                          151* 40'*                     151-120-                        1510

                                                      11-8

                Macrophyte Ecology -- Summer 1974 - Spring 1975

                                 One of the most conspicuous features of Kachemak Bay is'the

                      macrophyte bel t.    It is especially well-pronounced along the southern

                      shoreline. The term macrophyte is generally used when referring to larget

                      attached marine plants, such as seaweeds and       seagrasses. The macrophyte

                      zone usually extends from the highest reach of the tide down to about

                      30m below the sea surface. The plants       and animals that live within     this

                      zone a.re separated into   two distinct environments, namely the intertidal

                      and the subtidal. However, because of the        interaction of physical    and

                      biological processes within these zones, a       separation  of the two   habitats
                      often  becomes som@what   subjective..

                                 Marine  plant  communiti*es  are highly  diverse,   and  are known to

                      be among some of   the more  productiVe systems on    e a r '%,.h  (Dawson, 1966; Mann,
                      '1973).  Besides the plants, these assemblages provide        shelter, food and

                      living substrate for countl-ess numbers of nearsh     ore organisms.     In Alaskan

                      waters, the macrophyte zone is often utilized by species of.present          day

                      ComIllercial importance such as   crab,  shrimp and herring.

                                 Stands of   attached  marine  plants are  found throughout     the in-
                      shore waters of southern Alaska.      Some  occur near areas of    human popula-
                      tion.   Despite this wide' distribution.'and nearshore occurrence these
                      algal  associations are among 'the most poorly understood.        Because of an

                      apparent sensitivity to changes in water quality and environmental stress,
                         o
                      these habitats could be abused or severely impacte@ by man. The macrophyte
                      zone is probably a cornerstone' in tile Kachemak Bay ecosyst      em, and any per-
                      turbation or disturbance to the plant connunity could affect the overall
                      health and vitality of the Bay.

                                                                H-9

                       ANCHOR PT

                                                                                                                        . . . . . . . . . . .
                                               SLU  F
                                                                        M
                                                                        ER;:

                                                                                            SULL L

                                                                                                          T:
                                                                         COHEN L

                                                                     YUKON L

                                                                 HESKETH L

                                          SELDOVIA PT.

                                                      SELDOVLA

                                                                                                              om

                                                                                          tto:: :t

                                                          INDICATES     LOCATION OF       PERMANENT        STUDY     SITE
                                                     10%-Nt I N D I C AT ES LOCATION OF   MAJOR     KELP     BED

                                                                                               -tzt-

                                   ...%
                                                                               j, t....
                             io@ <1

                                                Kachemak    Agal  Belt Studies

                                                    U-10

                Study Sites and Observations

                      GULL ISLAND (Semi-protected Intertidal)

                                 Located less than 2 miles off    the Homer Spit. The island is

                      .composed of sedimentary rock that rises    to an elevation of 93 feet above

                      .sea level. Seaweeds formed a border around the lower margin of the

                      island; at   higher elevations terrestrial   plants.such  as grasses and wild

                      cel.ery were  found.

                                 Transect lines   and quadrats  were  placed in the  intertidal   zone

                      at opposite ends (west-east)    of the island. The    stakes were   replaced in

                      May  1975-by more  permanent stainless   steel bolts  and hydraulic cement.

                      --A pneumatic drill and masonry bit were used    in drilling the holes for
                      eacfi bolt. .1he distance between each marker and their respective eleva-

                      tions were determined by metric tape and surveyor's transit and rod.         On

                      the western end of Gull Island the intertidal transect extends from the

                      fucoid or rockweed belt to'the edge of the Laminaria belt. The shoreline

                      is irregular and the width of each algal     belt appears to be   highly depen-

                      dent  upon tidal  elevation and exposure

                                 Al"ong the eastern end of    the island the transect  lines   were 10m

                      .and 18m in overall length; differences    in elevation were 4.25m and     5.47m,

                      respectively. Scuba dives     have been made in the   sublittoral waters    that

                      encircle Gull Island.

                                 A li,st of the plants and animals that inhabit the. intertidal

                      zone  was started; representative algal species were collected and identi-
                      fied               Fixed quadrats '(0.25m2) were photographed with 35mm film,

                      and a drawing was made of the biota living within the borders of each

                      quadrat. Particular attention was given to the plant and animal assem-

                      blages that adhere to rock surfaces. Percent coverage was estimated..
                      Haphazard (random) casts were made with 0.25m2 quadrats at different

                      tidal' elevations. This information will be used in determining the dens-

                      ity and distribution of the conspicuous intertidal organisms.

                                During spring and-summer the island   becomes an important-rook-

                      ery for sea birds such  as puffin, gull, kittiwake, murre, and cormorant.

                      Besides their physical  presence, the birds appeared  to play a key ecologi-
                      cal role in the intertidal macrophyte system.    In some nearshore systems,

                      marine  birds interact-in a casual or  limit ed way. However, at Gull Island,

                      there was strong evidence to support   the conjecture that sea birds, par-
                     ..ticularly glaucous gulls, entered the  intertid@l fo6d chain.   Gulls preyed

                      heavily upon the green  sea urchin, Strongylocentrotus droba-chlensis, during

                      lovi tide cycles.  Predation seemed to affect not only the density and size

                      structure of the  intertidal sea urchin population               but alsd the

                      vertical distribution of  some species of macroalgae. Sea    urchins are herb-

                      ivorous, and are known to exploit algal resources in    other parts of

                      Kachemak Bay. Therefore   predation on herbivores such as the sea urchin

                      possibly reduced grazing  pressure on the marine vegetation.

                               ..The most notable change  in the intertidal zone  from season  to
                      seasoh  (1974-75) was the change in algal abundance.    For example, during
                      summer, major "dominapt" species of algae such as fucus distichus and
                      Alaria  (Praelon9a) covered as much as 90 percent of the rock surface-.

                      However, by fall most of the Alaria was 'abraided and reduced in areal
     tie              cover,  During the winter survey (February-March 1975), adult Alaria were
                      rare in this location, and only immature sporophytes (2-6 cm in height)

                                                           11-12

                      were found   in the intertidal zone.      By late spring these same      plants had
                      grown to cover    an estimated 80-95 percent of the available substratum in

                      the low intertidal.

                                ..'Conspicuous invertebrates, such as Thais lamellosa (snail) and
                                                  troc@elii, displayed-seasonal variation in dis-
                      .the sea star Evasterias
                      tribution. During summer, Evasterias density was           estimated at 1.34 ind./M2

                      on the southwest, end of the i sl and. However, the        same area in winter had
                      a meaddensity of 0.075 ind,./m2.        Both,Evasterias.   and Thais had 'shifted

                      their center   of distribution    into  the shallow   subtidal   zone during fall

                      and winter.

                      SELDOM     POINT  (Exposed   Intertidal)

                                 '.Seldovia  Point is  a prominent   land  projection   on the   southern
                      side  of   Kachemak Bay. The intertidal      zone is  composed   of 'cobbles, boulders,

                           some  bench or  pavement substrata. A cliff,       approximately 200 feet in

                      elevation, rises    vertically-from the narrow      shoreline. Seldovia Point is

                      strategically located in terms       of exposure to the waters of      lower  Cook

                      Inlet.

                                   A*50m transect line   was  staked   into the intertidal zone      running

                      vertically from    the  high intertidal   down  to about   3m below  MLLW.     Eleva-

                      tions  and zonation patterns were recorded       along the   transect. Fixed
                      quadrats   (0.25m2) were photographed and mapped, percent algal coverage

                      estimated, and numerical counts were* made of the "characteristic" epi-

                      faunal invertebrates.      Characteristic epifauna "were those species that

                      were seen, and that dominated the habitat, both numerically and in terms

                      of their demand ana impact on it," (Fager. 1968).

                                                                        MP

                                                                               T

                                              Macrophyte sampling transect
                                                                   IW

                                                       11-13

                                   At the seaward end    of the transect, dense patches of green sea
                       urchins.were found. Samples       of the intertidal sea urchin population were
                       taken from these tidal elevations, and size frequency distributions were
                       plotted                 Macrophytes were rare in the low intertidal, and
                       biological factor's such   as grazing appeared to be one reason for the ab-
                       sence.of fleshy algae.     Sea birds were uncommon in this.location, so        the

                       area makes an excellent    control  site for the predator hypothesis we pro-
                       posed for Gull Island.     The larger size'classes.(>39mm) of sea urchins

                       that were found to be    a major part of the intertidal population at

                       Seldovia Point were a    minor  constituent of the Gull Island population.

                                   The undersides   of the rocks and boulders    had a reoccurring

                       assemblage   of macro-invertebrates. The associatiofi was composed of iso-

                                    *id amphipods, sn
                      .pods,  gammar                   ails,  sea cucumbers,  sea urchfns and sea

                       sUrs.     Snailfish  and cottids were major members    of the ichthyofauna.

                       An  important predator   in  this association is the   "6-raiyed star,"

                       Leptasterias. We     have begun to  quantify its diet in this location, and
                       of  the 255 sea stars   examined for food items, 24 were feeding on littor-
                       ines, 23 balanoid barnacles and 8      mussels. As many as 25 sea stars/0'.25m2

                       have  been  observed under one rock    in this location.

                                   There was   anoticdable  change in the distribution     and abundance

                       of the  intertidal.  snail*, Littorina sitkana,   from August 1974 to   May 1975.

                       During  the summer, Littorina was found in dense concentrations in the high
                       intertidal zone.     These aggregations were highly visible, and some con-

                                                              2
                       tained  as  many as  2,000 ind./O.25m . However, by fall most had moved to

                       more cryptic   locations such as the cracks and crevices in the       pavement   or

                                                    11-14

                    boulder field. The.dense    aggregations of snails had not appeared by May

                    1975.   Possibly the distribution and density change was in response to
                    changes  in the physical environment associated with storms,   freezing or

                    low ambient light level.

                    JAKOLOF'BAY (Semi-protected   Subtidal)

                               At the constricted  entrance to Jakolof Bay, we  established a

                    fixed  25m transect line in a  bed of.ribbon  kelp, Alaria fistulosa. The
                    transect was placed al'ong a- shallow reef that' consisted of pavement,

                    boulders and coarse sand. Most of the study area was between 5m and 10m

                    below.the sea surface. A    great deal.of water movement, in the form    of

                    tidal  currents, is  typi'cal of this location.  For example, on a flooding

                    or  ebbing tide, the floating kelp canopy was usuall  y pulled completely

                    beneath the sea surface.    The currents*generated during extreme I.Ades

                    were.estimated at between   2.and 3 knots, and the angle of  plant   deflec-
                    tion  approached 300 with respect to the sea floor.

                                      kelp plants were tagged and  their positions*plotted along

                    the Im  x 25m transect line.   Adults-are those individuals with   reproductive

                    blades  or sporophylls. During July 1974,    there were 60 adult,Alaria pre-
                    .Sent. along the transect for a mean density of 2.4/m2                BY

                    October that number had been reduced-to 41 plants.     Concurrently,  the

                    floati'ng canopy was reduced from an estimated 50-75 percent cover    at slack

                    tide, to 20 percent in October 1974. Adult plants were still attached
                    along the transect; however, most had lost portions of their vegetative

                    and/or reproductive blades. therefore, many of the kelps no longer

                    reached the sea surface and contributed to the floating canopy. By      early

                                                       11-15

                    Harch  1975, the number df adult Alaria   .on the transe@t was 24 and the
     40             density was 0.'96 ind./m2. When we returned to the study site in May 1975,
                    there were only three surviving adult Alaria. However, Alaria        fistulosa
                    ha.d recruited the entire area with heavy germination along the      transect
                    line. Many of the young plants had      either reached, or were approaching,

                    the sea surface within the two-month time interval. The surface canopy

                    now covered an estimated 50-60 percent of the underlying transect line.
                    The ribbon kelp density along the transect was now 18.7      ind./m2. The

                    algal understory was also dense and was      composed  mainly of Laminaria,
                    Agar6m, Desmarestia and foliose reds.

                                Two additional  underwater study  plots  were added  in the  spring;

                    a total  of 22  Alaria were  measured and  their positions  recorded within

                    .each of' the plots.. This  information  could be useful   in determining growth,
                    m6rtality and   recruitment.

                               An  inventory of  the  biota that inhabit  the reef  and associated

                    kelp  bed was  started. Many   of the  reef dwelling  organisms have  been

                    photographed   for future   reference.  -Information on species abundance,

                    ..patterns of- distribution, and  size frequency was also   recorded.  The food

                    habits of a number of invertebrate     species are an integral part of    the in-

                    formation being gathered in*this location.      Major predators on the     ree*f

                    -are the  sea stars. A total of 432    sea stars, representing.7 species,

                    have been examined underwater for food items. The major constituents

                    in their diet were mussels, clams, sea urchins, sea.cucumbers and anemones.

                                During summer months,   smelt or eulachon have been observed to

                    school  in the kelp bed and feed    during slack tide.   Other fishes, such

                                                         11-16

                        as greenling and sculpin, inhabit      the underlyini reef; however, very little
                        is known' about'their movements or     food habits.

                                   To date the activities of the logging mill        located near the head
                        of Jakolof Bay have been poorly understood. Steel bands and bark from the
                        rafted logs have been seen along the sea floor.         For example, during a 20-
                        minute swim we counted 15 steel bands scattered along the'bottom at depths
                        of 6m to. 12m  below the sea surface. Apparently the strong tidal currents
                        help  to keep  this part of the bottom    relatively free of debris, since even

                        more  bark and steel bands were found     seaward of the   reef.

                                       early  March  1975, we found   juvenile king crabs hiding under

                        bark  and within  the  rock-vegetation understory approximately 100m north-

                        west  of the kelp   bed. -Species  of  pandalid and hippolytid shrimp     were

                        also  important constituents of    the understory habitat.

                                   In  summary, the underlying reef supported      an  interesting    array

                        of benthic organisms. Most of      "the inhabitants are   morphologically     adapted

                        to take full   advantage   of the extremes in water movement.       Possibly this

                        location is one   of  the more  productive shallow water     areas  in Kachemak

                        Bay.

                        SADIE   COVE (Semi-protected Subtidal)

                                   At the   head of Sadie  Cove,  we   established a  fixed  subtidal  sta-

                        tion  just above the 16-fathom    contour.    Two  transec.ts,  each 25m inlength,

                        Were  placed-on the bottom    at depths'of   5m and 8m below   the sea surface.

                        An additional station was     added in October   1974 at a depth of 30m within

                        the basin.

                                                       11-17

                                The  study area consisted of sand, silt and mud.       Clam shells

                     provided most   of the available solid substratum.      Low statured kelps such
                     as laminaria saccharina either drifted along the bottom, or remained loosely
                     attached to shells and small stones. During        the summer these kelps were

                     bleached and flaccid in.   appearance;  however,   by fall most were robust and

                   ..fertile.

                                 In the summer  1974,   the cove was  an important habitat Of    tanner
                     crab,  dungeness crab,   'horse crab and decorator crabs.    Pandalid shrimp were

                     abundant both along the    slope and  within the 16-fathom   basin.   Most of the

                     shrimp used either clam    shells or  kelp debris  for cover.   Cancer magister

                    .was seen in the shallow    (4m-15m) portions of Sadie Cove,    either p@rtially

                     buried in the sediment or     hiding under the macrophytic understory. Most

                     were adul t mal es;  however, a f ew females-were collected and-released during
                     the fall survey. The horse crab, Telmessus*cheiragonus, was the most abun-.

                   .-dant  crab seen in the Cove    during July-August.    Usuall' this species was
                                                                                 y

                     closely associated with the      near bottom  kelps.  For instance, of the 80
                    @-Telmessus observed either   along the transect lines or within the study area,

                     67 or 84 percent were using     the kel*ps for either forage or cover.      During

                           and August 1974, we counted 19 mating pairs of Telmessus; density was
                                                2
                     estimated at 0.24 ind./m        In October there were only a few pairs of

                     horse crab observed in the area, and by winter there       were no horse crabs

                     seen along the transect lines. Telmessus was       returning to the study site

                              the spring 1975 survey.

                                 Dungeness crab exhibited   a similar   change in distribution and

                     abundance. This is a ubiquitous animal in       this location during the summer

                                                      11-18

                      and fall; however, -by late February' 1975, only two individuals were seen

                      throughout the entire study site. Adult dungeness crab had returned to

                      the shallow water flats in Sadie Cove by May 1975.

                                 Another readily apparent seasonal change was the appearance of

                      the king crab during the winter study period. . While diving along the 16-

                      fathom contour on February 26, 1975, we encountered two pods of king crab

                      sitting along  the bottom. Each   aggregation was composed of between 30-50

                      crabs; the sex ratio was not determined. This was the first encounter
                      wiih adult king cr abs in Kachemak  Bay, and these in situ observations in

                      Sadie Cove agree with the migration findings of Bright (1967).

                                 Another conspicuous group  of animals in  this shallow  water assem-
                      blage are  the bivalve clams. The.gaper clam, Tresus capax    was  the most
                                clam seen on the shelf.   Esti a-es of clam density were ma
                      abundant                                                                de

                      along both of  the fixed transects. Tresus was usually visible because
                      of the siphon*that extended above.  the substratum. Other conmon bivalves

                      in this location were the  -cockle, Clinocardium, and the butter clam,

                      Saxidomus.   The sea stars, Pycnopodia. and Evasterias, prey upon the var-

                                            Sadie Cove.   Both are capable of removing the clams
                      ious clam species  in

                      from *the substratum by digging. Upon completion of a feeding, the'empty

                      shells are discarded along the bottom. These. shells not,only provided

                      attachment sites for the macroalgae, but also    substrate and cover for

                      invertebrates and fishes alike.

                                 One of the major objectives in this   location is to   document

                      habitat  requirements and energy  flow in this near bottom  kelp ecosystem.

                                                     H-19

                    SELDOVIA POINT (Exposed Subtidall
                              'The 1*argest and most conspicuous kelp bed i'n  Kachemak Bay 'was
                    Jound in the vicinity of Seldovia Point. A major part     of the b&d was
                    located off the northeast side of the Point. There is     historical evidence

                    for the occurrence 'of the Seldovia kelp bed since the early 20th     Century
                    (Cameron, 1915).

                               During July and,August 1974, the floating kelp    canopy was com-
                    posed  of two species of algae, Alaria fistulosa and Nereocystis    luetkaena.

                    Hereocystis, orbull kelp,    occurred predominantly  nearshore, and Alaria

                    was more abundant on   the outside edge of the bed.   The summer canopy

                    covered  an'estimated  80-90 percent of the underlying sea floor.

                               A 25m transect  line was placed  in lOm-l@m of water  during  July
                    .104.    The  bottom was composed  of cobbles, boulders, pavem'ent 'and sand.

                    Individual  kelp plants were tagged  and their positions were plotted   along

                    the transect.    In July th&e.werb  103 kelp plants present within this 25m

                    "Strip of sea floor; however,  by October all  of the plants had disappeared.

                               Alaria was the most  abundant kelp  in the floating can6py during

                    summer.   By'October the kelp   most often seen on the sea surface was

                    Hereocystis.   There were attached  Alaria plants in the study site; however,

                    most  had abraided fronds or  blades that no longer reached the surface    of

                    .the water.

                               Another  transect line was added   to the sampling  array in October.
                    This line  was 15m  in length and was located'approximately   100m inshore

                    from  the other transect. The position of the kelps was mapped     along the
                    line, and the composition of the algal unders.tory was r6corded....

                                                                                                            i r1i

                                                                                  op@

                                                                                              4111 -

                                                                         Fucus      zone, upper intertidal level
                                                                                            ZK

                                                      11-20

                            ..,,-Conspicuous plants and animals were either. collected or identi-
                    fied. The food habits of a number of species were recorded and photographs

                    were taken. Night dives were also made during the hours of 2100-2300.

                    Pandalid shrimps were extremely abundant on the understory kelps and

                    associated rocks in the eveqing hours.     Kelp holdfa.sts were examined

                    underwater, and most were found to contain small crabs and shrimps.

                    CRAB SANCTUART(Exposed    Subtid-al)

                               A series  of dives were made in  the  kelp beds that fall  within

                    the boundary of the crab sanctuary    off Anchor-Bluff  Point. The dives

                    were made during July and August 1974 at    depths between 8m and 25m below

                    the surface. The sea floor consisted of     flat.pavement, large boulders

                    and patches of sand.    Coralline algae encrusted much of the solid sub-

                    St,ratum.  A fixed'transect line and marker buoy were placed at.a depth

                    of 1O.m to 12m below MLLW.   When the  tin veneer of encrusting algae was

                    penetrated by  the   transect stakes, it exposed  an underlying layer of coal.

                               The marine   plant community  was "dominated" by Alaria  fistulosa.
                    The-estimated  mean   density of adult Alaria was,2.2 ind./m2 and   5.2/m2 for

                    plants   without  sporophylls             The other  member of the  floating

                    canopy  was Nereocystis. This species    was not  as abun dant, and we estimated
                    the density at  0.1/m2.

                              -The alg'al understory  consisted mainly  of Laminaria  and  Agarum.

                    Str ngylocentrotus droebachiensis was very abundant. The size       structure

                    of the urchin population               was remarkably similar to the inter'-

                    tidal population at Seldovia Point. Density estimates ranged from 27
                    ind./m2 to 31 ind./m2, depending on the sampling method.

                                                      11-21

                                 Further offshore the bottom was composed of more boulders and

                      rock outcroppings. The Alaria bed was less pronounced at a depth of 15m.

                      The algal understory is more luxuriant and robust. Laminaria, Agarum and

                      folios6 reds "dominate" the macrophytic understory.       In some areas, par-

                      ticularly along the shoreward edge of the "Standard      Oil Lease," the sea

                      urdhins have grazed   the macrophytes down to a coralline pavement. This

                      is an  area of high water-motion. Sabel-lid worm tubes carpeted the sea

                      floor.   Desmarestia viridis and D.   ligulata were found growing on the     worm
                      tubes.  --The invertebrate assemblage reflected this high water motion envi-

                      ronment. The bottom supported an extremely diverse biota; conspicuous

                      forms  such as polychaete worms, bryozoans, sea anemones,      tunicates,   barna-

                      cles and sponges formed the epifaunal crust.

                      -COHEN ISLAND (Semi-protected   Intertidal)

                                 A small islet off the northwest     end of Cohen  Island was  the loca

                      tion*of  this study site. A 25m transect      line was established  in the rocky

                      intertidal zone. The line     ran from the high  intertidal down to MLLW.
                      Plants and animals were collected    and photographed; fixed 0.25m2 quadrats

                      -were mapped and  photographed. Numerical information on biomass, consptcu-

                      ous invertebrates present, size frequency distributions, and usage of the
                      macro.phyte belt  by adult and/or  juvenile crustaceans were recorded.       tohen

                      Island and Gull   Island 'appeared to be similar in terms   of plant and animal

                      c6mponents of the intertidal ecosystem

                      ARCHIMANDRITOF SHOALS

                                 Approximately I   mile off  the Homer Spit is  a shoal  area   known
                      as Archimandritof..   Bull kelp,  Nereocystis,  grows along this   area, and

                                                                                                                                         4

                                           -ADM

                                                                                Guarding      the nest

                                                                                                                             "06 -

                                                                                                                   lei"
                                                                                          -@ zo

                                                                                                                                4,-   -   -

                                                                                  Camouflage

                                                       11-22

                      during August 1974 we estimated, fr6m an aerial survey of Kachemak Bay,

                      that this  kelp bed was approximately 1-1.5 miles in length and between

                      100-200 meters wide.    During low or slack tide, the floating canopy was

                      visible on the sea surface. In the fall 1974, we made a reconnaissance

                      dive in the kelp bed. Mature bull kelp was. growing 5-6m below the sea

                      iurface on  solid substratum overlain by    unconsolidated fines such as silt

                      and sand..  Silt covered not'only the rocks but also most of the low sta-

                      tured macrophytes. The algal understory      was dominated by Laminaria

                                                            Green  sea urchins grazed on both     the
                      .9roelandica and Agarum cribrosum.

                      understory and the holdfasts of the attached     bull kelp. Juvenile tanner

                      crabs and pandalid shrimp's were extremely abundant in this location.
                      Juvenile pandalids were estimated at betVieen    8-10 ind.1m2; most of the

                      tanner crabs were seen   on soft substratum adjacent to    rock.   Many of   the

                          urchins had abraided spines and-tests.

                                 Other common i.nvertebrates in this   location  were  the sea   star,

                      Evasterias; rock jingle, Pododesmus cepio; sea      star, Crossaster papposus;

                      whelk, Fusitriton oregonensis;    and the clam, Mya   truncata.

                                                            SUMMARY

                                 During  the summer and  fall 1974  and winter 1975   field  surveys,

                      89  spqcies of macroalgae were collected within     Kachemak Bay.   Many of

                      these species represent geographical range extensions.

                                                   11-23

              Commercial Fisheries of Kachemak Bay   An Overview

                   Kachdmak Bay, located in lower Cook Inlet, is 35 miles long, averag-
              ing ten miles in width and totalling about 350 square miles (Figure J).

              It is one of the most highly productive marine environments in the state
              Pf Alaska and probably one of .tfie richest bays in the world on a per unit

              of area basis. Commercial fisheries harvest data and research results

              from marine investigations are supportive of this statement.

                   Salmon were first ha rvested commercially from the Bay near the turn
              of the century and were the@main species taken until 1914 when a commercial
              herring fishery started up. The herring fishery which was centered in
              the Halibut Cove area was active for 15 years during which time nearly    90
              million pounds of herring were  produced in Kachemak Bay. At the conclusion
              of the herring fishery in 1928  salmon again were the mainstay of the
              Commercial fishery until 19.51 when a sustained commercial effort began
              on king crab. Since 1951 over 40 million pounds of king crab have been
              harvested from Kachemak Bay and the Bay presently has an annual quota of
              2.0 million pounds.
                   Shrimp was the  next commercial fishery to start on a sustained basis
              in Kachemak Bay in  1959 followed by dungeness crab in 1961 an d tanner crab
              in 1968. There had also been some sporadic effort on dungeness in the 1950's.

                                                    11-24

                 Pacific halibut have also been taken commercially in Kachemak Bay for a
                'number of years, however, records kept by the Halibut Commission do not

                 show a breakdown between Kachemak Bay and the adjacent lower Cook Inlet

                 area.

                      In addition to commercial fisheries there are substantial subsistence

                 and sports fisheries in Kachemak Bay which harvest all of the above men-

                 tioned species plus several species of bottom fish and clams. The subsistence

                 fishery is  the highest use  subsistence fishery in the Cook Inlet area and
                 probably in the state of   Alaska although accurate records -are not kept state-

                 wide to determine this.    The Kachemak Bay sports fishery in terms of man

                 days of e ffort expen ded was the highest use sports fishery in the state in

                 1973. Over 31,000 man days of effort was recorded between June and
                @September.   (Sports   Fish Investigations of Alaska, 1974 Report)
                       Kachemak Bay is not  only uniqde as Judged by it greatly diverse and

                 highly productive marine   fisheries. It is unique in many other ways. At

                 various seasons of the year. the Bay harbors'tremendous concentrations of
                 shore;birds, sea birds5- and  waterfowl.   There are several species of marine

                 mammals including   harbor seals, porpoises,  sea otters, sea lions and

                 several species of    whales which.are common in the Bay. Several major big

                 -game species including black bear, brown  bear, moose, mountain goats, and

                 Dall sheep   inhabit the shore line and adjacent mountainous area around

                 Kachemak  Bay. All   of the above forms  of life are found elsewhere in the

                 state of  Alaska. But no where    else in the state can one find the diver-

                 sity and  abundapce of life all   together in one place as it is in the Kach-

                 emak Bay  area. You add to this the fantastic s   cenic qualities of the

                 area and  this is what makes Kachemak Bay so unique.

                                                  11-25

                      This report will attempt to document the biological values of

                  Kachemak Bay by summarizing the commercial catch and production figures

                  as well as some of the various marine research projects which have taken

                  place.and are currently taking place in Kachemak Bay.

                11.* COMMERCIAL FISHERIES

                      Commercial fisheries in Kachemak..Bay take place on five species of
                  Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus), five species of shrimp (Pandalid , three
                  species of crab .(king, -tanner and dungeness), Pacific herring, and Pacific

                  halibut. All catch.records are kept by the Alaska Department of Fish and

                  Game* except for halibut which is tallied by the Pacific Halibut Commission.
                  During the last five years. (1970-75) the total production in pounds for

                'all commercial soecies in Kachemak Bay has averaged just over 11 million
                .,poun'ds per year (Table 1). The annual value to fishermen and the first

                  wholesale-value to processors fluctuates tremendously with market conditions
                  and prices. The peak year during the last five"years was  1973 when a

                  total harvest of more than 12.0 million pounds was worth about  $3.2 million

                  to fishermen-and about $7.3 million on a first wholesale basis  (Table 2).

                  The importance of Kachemak Bay-to the entire Cook Inlet area shellfisheries

                  is exemplified in Table 3 which shows -the percent of total Cook Inlet

                  -shellfish production by species, contributed by Kachemak Bay. Since

                  1964 nearly 60 percent of all shellfish harvested have come from Kachemak

                  Bay.

                       The number of vessels participating in the various Kachemak Bay

                  commercial fisheries during 1973 was as follows: King crab-56, tanner crab-

                  80, dungeness crab-53, pot shrimp-40, trawl shrimp-8, herring-12, a.nd

                  salmon-60. Figures for halibut are not available, however, a conservative

                                                                11-26

                          Table-I..'. Kachemak Bay, Cook Inlet, Commercial

                                               Fisheries Harvest, 1966-75

                   Year          Kings         Reds          Cohos         Pinks          Chums         Total

                   1966             60       12,192          4,535       177,544          28,754       223,085
                   1967            173       26,350          2,393         95,100         23,416       147,432
                   1968             61       18,716          4,671       154,033           4,518       181,999
                   1969             59       12,578            485         70,753          2,600        86,475
                   1970             91       12,245          3,705       208,174           8,174       232,389
                   1971             41       18,403          3,151         50,066         .2,857        74,518
                   1972             69       31,34.5'        1,283           9,126         4,936        46,759
                   1973            1@9       24,072          1,241         97,574          3,588       126,614
                   1974            182       27,029          3,054         48,875          2,725        81,865
                   1975            138       27,385          1,240       866,335           5,411       900,509

                                                     Shellfish (Pounds)

                   Year          Kin& Crab          Tanner   Crab          Shrimp          Dungeness Crab

                   1966          1,910,364                                 309,676               12,523
                   1967          1,279,708                                 741,438                7,168
                   1968          . 996,520             146,491               26,030            484,452
                   1969          1,302,554          1,436,680           1,849,710                49,894
                   3.970         1,501,288          1,152,609           5,815,268              209,819
                   1971          1,251,142          1,186,488           5,438,091                97,161
                   1972          1,900,006          2,942,082           5,450,493                38,930
                   1973          2,114,841          3,763,060           4,709,486              308,777
                   1974   2/     1,609,53   0       1,106,263           5,740,647              721,183
                   1975 -

                                                             Herring

                                             1969                       1.1 Million Pounds
                                             1970                      .5.4 Million Pounds
                                             .1971                      25,000 Pounds
                                             1972                       2,000 Pounds
                                             1973                       407,500 Pounds
                                             1974                       219,359 Pounds
                                             1975.1/                    48,833 Pounds

                        1975 data preliminary.

                   2/ Shellfish seasons still in           progress.

                                            11-27

         TABLE 2,' ESTIMATED VALUE IN MILLIONS OF DOLLARS OF KACHEMAK BAY
                                  COMMERCIAL FISHERIES IN 1973

              .-SPECIES         VALUE TO FISHERIMEN       FIRST WHOLESALE VALUE

               SALMON                       2                         4'

               KING  CRAB                 1,7                      33

               TANNER CRAB`               s7                       lo7

               SHRIMP                     A                        1,5,

               DUNGENESS CRAB             s2

               HER' R ING                 .03                       :106

               TOTAL                    .3,2.                      7,3

                                      11-28

     Ole 3.  Percent.of Total Cook Inlet Shellfish Production (pounds)
             Contributed by Kachemak Bay, 1964-1974.

             Year   Dungeness Crab King Crab Tanner Crab Shrimp  Total
                                                             1
             1964      94.9        26.0              98.1  35.3

             1965     100.0        65.3             100.0  67.0

             1966      10.5        48.4             100.0  51.0

             1967     100.0        41.2             100.0  52.6

             1968      99.3'       25.1     97.A     98.1  35.7

             1969     100.0        45.6     98.7    100.0  74.7

             1970.    100.0        38.5     86.9     99.9  77.2

             1971     100.0        29.8     55.9     99.8  67.3

             .1972     99.4'       41.3     61.2     98.3  68.9

             1973      .98.5       47.7     46.4     97.4  61.9

             1974      99.9        34.8     .14.4    99.8  49.2

             AVERAGE   94.4%       38.6%    45.8%    99.1% 59.8%

                                                   11-29

                   estimate would be that about ten halibut vessels fished in Kachemak Bay
                   during 1973. From one to four crewmen assist the skipper on each vessel
                   depending on the size of the vessel and the fishery engaged in, although,
                   most fishing boats in Kachemak Bay utilize a crew of two in addition to
                   the skipper. Using the   above figures one can get a general idea of the
                   number of fithermen who  utilize Kachemak Bay, however, it is difficult

                   to come up with an exact figure  since some fishermen engage in several

                   different fisheries. There    are. four major and several minor fish pro-
                   cessors who depend on product from Kachemak Bay for their operations.
                   Maj&  processors are Alaska Seafoods (Homer), Whitney Fidalgo (Homer and
                   Port Graham), Wakefield Seafoods (Seldovia), and Seward Fisheries
                   (receiving station in Homer).   A general discussion On each of the major

                   commercial fisheries follows.

                        Salmon    The major portion of salmon taken    in Kachemak Bay are taken

                   with seine gear and the  major species caught   are pink salmon. Pink salmon

                   have made up 82.7 percent of the catch since    1954 followed by  Chum salmon
                   (8.2 percent), sockeye  salmon (7.8 percent),   coho salmon (1.2  percent)
                   and king salmon (.1 percent). The average    total salmon catch   for Kachemak
                   Bay since 1954 is 248,886 (Table 4).

                        Kachemak Bay  is separated  into four major catch  zones with each zone

                   contai.ning one of the four major pink salmon   streams (Figure Z). Zone A,

                   upper Kachemak Bay, contains Humpy Creek and    the yearly catch in this

                   area has averaged  67 thousand pink salmon since 1961. Zone B. contains

                   Tutka Creek and has produced an average pink catch of 64 thousand since

                   1961. Seldovia River   is the main producer in Zone C and this area has

                   averaged 53 thousand pink salmon since 1961. Area D contains Port Graham

                   stream and this area has averaged 8 thousand pink salmon s.ince 1961.

                                                             11-30

                                                                                                             Z.
                     ARCRDR irl

                                                                               it

                                                                  Y-'i 4,;
                                                                    ik

                                    41, 30,

                                                                                A"

                                                                 0,

                                                                                       GULL t);'-
                                                             P,@

                                                                    COHEN t1t

                                                                                                                . . . . . . . . . . . .

                                                                                   SAO
                                                            tESKETH 1 C>2

                                                                   W(AF

                                      SELDOV144 Vt/

                                                      4E! QV."
                                                                         .5

             FLAT"
                                                             3.

                                                                                      0
                                                                                         M@
                                                                                        h r.  @,I

                                                                                                       cal@:!@ tud

                Figure3.8      Xachemak   Bay  salmon streams    and commercial    salmon  catch   zones.
                               A Upper    Kachemak B Tutka C Sildovia D Port               Graham

                                                                11-31

                                                          Table 4.

                                                  Kachemak Bay District

                                          Salmon catch, by species,.1954-1975

                    Year         Kings        Sockeyes            Cohos          Pinks          Chums           Total

                    1954         1,522          22,913           12,235         180,977        150,769       368,426
                    1955             562        30,848            3,230         565,216         24,398       624,254
                    1956             310        33,054            4,693         150,486         53,515       242,058

                    1957             286        19,4 '31          1,507         130,511         57,403       209,138
                    1958             119        17s731            1,713         209,798         24,096       253,457
                    1959             7 4        10,026               709         50,076         15,278         76,163

                    1960             12         12,292            1.1237        250,818         4,100        268,459
                    1.961            39         10,180            1,161         191,911         .2,924       206,215
                    3.962            '58        16,569            2,095         564,050         9,089        591,861

                    1963             88         13,142            4,020          99,829         7,695        124,774
                   -1964             84         17,283            8,905         266,489        11,529        304,290
                    1965             10         11,229               733         90,330         2,459        104,761

                    1966             60         12,192            4,535         177,544        28,754        223,085
                    1967             173        26,350                           95,100        23,416        147,432
                    1968             61         18,716            4,671         154,033         4,518        181,999

                    1969             59         12,578               485         70,753         2,600          86,475
                    -1970            91         12,245            3,705         208,174         8,174        232,389
                    1971             41         18,403            3,151          50,066         2,857          74,518

                    1972             69         31,345            1,283            9,126        4,936          46,759
                    1973             139        24,072            1,241          97,574         3,588        126,614
                    1974             182        27,029            3,054          48,875         2,725          81,865
                    1975  Y        .138         27,385            1,240         866,335         5,411        900,509

                    TOTAL         4,177         425,013           67,996      4,528,071      .450,234       5,475,491

                    AVERAGE          190        19,319..          3,091         .205,821.      20,465        248,886

                    PERCENT            .1             .7.8             1.2            82.7            8.2          100.0

                         Preliminary Alaska Department of Fish and Game fish               ticket count.

                                                 11-32

                 Port Graham is capable of producing many more fish, however, stream

                 -stabilization and rehabilitation are needed. The catches for the four zones

                 described above, by year since 1961, appear in Table 5.

                      Preliminary catch figures for Kachemak Bay for 1975 indicate it will

                 be the highest year on record with a total salmon catch of over 900 thousand.
                 The bulk of this year's catch were pink salmon (866,335). The peak escape-

                 ment-counts in 1975 for the pink salmon run to Kachemak Bay totaled 120
                 thousand to the four major streams (Table 6). Final escapement has not  yet

                 been.tabulated, however, as a general rule the peak counts tallied in the

                 streams at the height of the pink run usually account for about 60 percent

                 of the total season's escapement. If this rule holds true for 1975 the total

                 pink salmon escapement in the Kachemak Bay area will reach about 200 thousand

                 thus making a total run to the bay of over one million pink salmon.

                      The record pink run is attributed to a conservative management approach

                 in the past and excellent stream and ocean survival conditions. The  maintenance
                 of a pollution free and undisturbed habitat will be a critical.factor in

                 determining whether Kachemak Bay can produce runs of this magnitude in
                 6ture years. Since much of the spawning takes place in the intertidal areas
                 .of the streams and since juvenile salmon spend the first few months after

                 stream emergence in nearby areas, it is especially important to the survival
                 of salmon that the waters of the bay maintain their high quality.

                                                     11-33

                         Tab le 5. Kachemak Bay district pink salmon catch by area.

                                 A                                            D
                              Upper             B              C            Port
                   Year      Kachemak          Tutka       Seldovia        Graham

                   1961         68             .107          16               1

                   1962        110             291           145            10

                   1963         58              38             2              2

                   1964         83             101           44             36

                   1965-        14                6          19             10

                   1966         42              54           59               7

                   1967         40              36           12               4

                   1968         46              29           56             19

                   1969           1             37           31               2

                   1970        114              45           29-

                   1971         11              10-          27

                   1972         .3                              .2             .9

                   1973         44              20           19             13

                   1974         35                5            3              3

                   1975         342            173           334              6

                   TOTAL     1,011             957           796            126

                   AVERAGE      67              64           53               8

                   1/ See Figure-2 for catch zones.

                   2/ Preliminary Alaska Department of Fish and Came fish ticket count.

                                                  Table 6. Kachemak Bay area, estimated pink salmon escapements in-thousands of fish*

                       Stream           1962      1963      1964      196*5     1966      1967       1968       1969     1970      1971       1972     1973       1974      1975 !J

                       11=PY            56.0      34.7      18.5      28.0.     30-0.     25.0       24.7        5.4     55.2      45i'O      13.8     36.9       17.4      39.7

                       Tutka            30.0      10.0      20.0      20.0      12.0         7.0       7.9       6.5       6.5     16.7        1.5        6.5       2.6     .20.1

                       Seldovia         50.0      15.0      60.0      30.0      b6.0      55.0       53.2       60.0     23.0      -31.1      5.8.     14.5       13.7      37.6

                       rt4 Graham       50.0        2.0    '16.0        1.5     24.0         2.0     24.4        4.0     16.6      13.2        2.4        7.0       2.8     22.6

                       TOTAL           186.0      61.7.'. 114.5       79.5      152.0     89.0      110.2       75.9     101.3     106.0      23.5     64.9       36.5      120.0

                            Peak stream count for 1975. Total escapement has not yet been determined, however, is estimated at 200 thousand.

                                                  11-35

                -King Crab
                      The king crab fishery in Cook Inlet started on a commercial basis in 1951.
                 Both trawls and pots were used and effort was concentrated in Kachemak Bay.
                 A total of 6,619 pounds of king crab was landed.  In 1952 there was very little
                 effort and the catch was only 2,900 pounds, -occurring in the late summer.
                 1953 was the first year of any considerable production of king crab in Kachemak
                 BAy, 6s effort was accelerated and 1.3 million pounds were taken. Pots,
                 trawls, and tangle-nets were used and effort was concentrated in August and

                 September. About 12 boats participated in the fishery.

                      The fishery developed slowly between 1953 and 1959 and the average

                 produ ction during this period was 1.4 million pounds, nearly all caught in

                 Kachemak Bay.
                      -A jump in production occurred in 1960 when 60 boats registered for king
                 trab. Although only 35 of these boats participated inthe fishery at any one
                 time, the catch jumped up to 4.3 million pounds.  Prior to 1961 nearly all

                 of the king crab catch in Cook-Inlet came from Kachemak Bay.   In 1961 the

                 bay was still the main producer with 3.0 million pounds, however, 1.3 million

                 pounds were also taken in Kamishak and the Outer districts. Throughout the

                 1960's Kachemak Bay averaged about 2.0 million pounds of king crab annually

                 and  in 1969 the Alaska Board of Fish and Game established a 2.0 annual million

                 pound quota which is still in effect. The fishing season was also reduced

                 tremendously with the season established  from August 1 to February 28 to protect

                 king crab during their breeding, molting,  and soTt shell period. The season was
                 changed again in 1973 when the closing date was extended  two weeks to March 15.

                 In 1973 a total of 56 different vessels landed 2.1 million pounds of king crab

                 from Kachemak Bay.   In 1974 there were a total of 133 king crab vessel

                 registrations in the Cook Inlet area. Of these.,76 vessels landed 1.6 million

                                                                   Table 7.'

                                                                 Kachemak Bay'

                                               King Crab`-'Landing, by Month,  in  Pounds

                                                                1960-1966

             Month           1960           1961            1962          1963          1964            1965          1966

             January        336,917        237,660        .131,304       114,941       105,657         149,128        51,935

             February       997,617        544,190        238,135        515,029       192,473          52,243       272,776

             March          475,197        221,137        494,653         91,042       238,594         512,206       332,233

             April          425,820        266,240        162,820        .189994        43,655         118,246       236,820

             May            648,515        389,287        135,833        316,078        55,360         111,923           5,879

             June           298,768        622,736          85,350       526,617       246,200          97,291       113,731
             July*..'       545,863        530,088        150,469        459,757       630,416         330,877       426,599
             August         439,518        171,097        258,023        153,320       333,045         414,190       331,370
             September        10,641.         7,025         42,879       167,791        80,001          66,107        78,983
             October           3,856            856       182,187         42,169        71,247              694         5,225

             November            663         14,430         43,771          6,763'        7,003           9,137         6,764
                                                                           t
             December         56,400         27,670         43,556        78,028        29,269          17,911        48,049

             TOTALS        4,239,775     39032,416       1,968,980     29490,529      2,032,920      1,879,953      1,910,364

                                                 11-37

                  pounds from Kachemak Bay. From January 1 through mid-March in 1975 a total of
                  668 thousand pounds of king crab were caught in the bay. The season was

                  scheduled to reopen on August 1, however, due to a fishermen's strike there

                  has been no fishing as of late August.

                       TablEs 7through 10 contain catch and biological data collected from the

                  Kachemak Bay commercial king crab fishery.

                                                               IV

                                                                  Table  7. cont.

                                                                   Kachemak Bay

                                               King Crab Landing, by Month,       in  Pounds

                                                                 1967-1974

             Month            1967           1968            1969           1970           1971           1.972           1973         1974

             January          20,456-        14,725          23,913         36,697        107,782        359,169          93,459      123,479
             February        134,217        222,196          88,927                       127,456        343,560         308,347      152,084
             March           282,286        115,693                                        79,039        352,631         150,254      134,651

             April            71,499           5,840

                                                                                                                                                00
             May                6,467

             June
                                                                                                            5,682

             July            412,588

             August          298t523        4779168          5970235    1,016,501         552,378        .404,416      10102t2ll      6710381
             September       .29,174         98,507          459,065        153,925       160,163        117,351         193,788      3249135
             October          11,503           8,764         93,751         12,876         39,836          18tl74         61,,477       51,653
             November.          3,605        20,908                         14,566         35,109          97,707        110,909        49,672
             December           9,390        32,719          39,663         27,873        149,379'       201,316          9 4,396     102,475

             TOTALS        1,279,708        996,520       i,302,554      1,501,288      1,251,142      1,900,006       2.,114,841   1,609,530

                                                          11-39

                   Table 8. Kachemak Bay king crab landinggs; 1960-1974.

                                                                      'Crab Per
                   Year            Landings            Crab            Landing

                   1960              2,434            455,000            187

                   1961              2,619            364,045            139

                   1962              1,843            296,123            160

                   1963              1,435            347,096            241

                   1964              1,019            299,165            225

                   1965                742            217,544            293

                   1966.               681            226,557            332

                   1967                705            164,335            233

                   .1968               659            128,720            195

                   1969                681            196,2350           288

                   1970                700            206,471            295

                   1971                857,           1530856            179

                   1972              1,011            238,092            236

                   1973              1,070            284,543            266

                   1974              1,175            223,454            190

                   TOTAL            17,631          3,731,351@          3*459

                   15 Year
                   -Average          1,175            248,757            231

                                                     11-40

                Table 9. Comparative measurements of king crab carapace lengths
                          in percent for winter and su=er commercial caught crab
                          in Kachemak Bay.

                                               KACMUNK BAY

                                                  WINTER

                Carapace
                Size Range   1962 1963 1966 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974           1975 Ave.

                140-159 mm     4     21     16   33    20     11    31     35    5      20
                160-179 mm    59     52     65   56    68     69    52     55   63      60
                180+      mm  37     27     19   11    12     20    17    .10   32      20

                                                  SUMER

                Carapace
                Size RanZe    1963   1968    1969   1970    1971   1972   1973   .1974 Ave..

                140-159 mm     69      58     65      65     40     56      60     58    59
                160-179 mm     28      38     32      -34   52      38      34     39    36
                180+            3       4      4       1      8       6     6       4     5

        z4"

                                                     11-41

                Table 10.   Average weight of king crab for Kachemak Bay,
                                        0
                            Cook Inlet, 1960-1974.

                                                           KACHEMAK BAY
                                 YEAR                      AVE-Ru%GE WEIGHT

                                 1960                          9.2

                                 1961                          8.5

                                 1962                          8.2

                                 1963                          8.1

                                 1964                          T.9

                                 1965                          8.2

                                 1966                          8.5

                                 1967                          7.9

                                 1968                          8.3

                                 1969                          7.2

                                 1970                          @7..2

                                 1971                          8.0

                                 1972                          8.0

                                 1973                          7.3

                                 1974                          7,7

                                 Average                       8.0

                                                 11-42

                  Tanner Crab

                      Tanner crab were first harvested commercially in Cook Inlet in 1968 when

                  165 thousand pounds were taken in Kachemak Bay. The fishery has expanded

                  rapidly since then and tanners are now harvested throughout lower Cook Inlet.
                  Tanner crab appear to be -more ubiquitous and abundant than any other commercial

                  shellfish species in the lower Cook Inlet area.

                       The commercial catch of tanner crab in Kachemak Bay from 1968 through

                  1974 has Averaged 1.7 million pounds. The peak year of production occurred

                  in-1973 when 3,763,060 pounds were landed. A total of 80 vessels landed

                  tanner crab from Cook Inlet waters. in 1973 and most of these vessels fished

                  Kachemak Bay during the peak of the season.
                       There was a decline in'the Kachemak Bay tanner catch during 1974 as only

                  -1.1 million pounds of tanners were landed. The- poor catch was attributed

                  partially to less effort and also a general decline in the stock. The 1975

                  catch through June was 936 thousand pounds and this low catch can be attributed

                  largely to a lack of effort due to poor market conditions. The 1973 catch

                  was probably above the rate the bay is capable of producing on a sustained

                  basis. The Board of Fish and Game established a 3.0 million pound quota for
                  Kachemak Bay in 1974. The tanner crab season'was also reduced and is presently

                  set from December I through June 15. The closure was established to protect

                  tanners during their molting, reproductive, and soft shell periods.

                       Table 11 shows the tanner crab catch, by month in Kachemak Bay since

                  1968 and Figure 37shows the size distribution in the commercial catch from

                  1970 through 1974.

                                                                  Table  110

                                                                Xachemak Bay

                                                Tanner Crab   Landing, by Month,   in  Pounds.
                                                                  1962-1974.

           Month            1962            1968           1969          1970            1971           1972           1973        1974

           January                                          38,893       51,789          26,545          81,104       223,061     210,684
           February                          2,515       115,496         156,672        107,832        163,554        550,652       95,014
           March                             8,613       298,678         289,044        227,506        642,638        747,590     222,613
           April                           .35,215       474,234         362,576        358,024        593,642        558,530     325,896
           May               3,404           80,070      161,753         256,017        231,751        618,143        336,687     222,779

           June                              5,420       288,752         21,824          82,357        272,748        229,504

           July                                            41,950                          3,024          9,527            144

           August                               608                                                       1,688

           September                            490                                           728         3,226             60

           October                           1,570           7,692         19304              602        13,645

           November                          1,514                            595        569992        252,529        829,119
           December                          10,476          9,232       12,788          91,127        289,638        287,713        29,277

           TOTALS                          146,491      12436,680      1-1152,609     1,186,488 '-2,942,082          3,763,060   1,106,263

                                                           11-44

                                                                     1971'

                 33
                                                                                1 70

                 30                                       1  2
                                                                     1973      19 4

                 25

                 20

              64
              41 15

                 10

                                                                                                           970
                  5.                                                                                      ..1974

                                              1971
                            1972.
                  is
                                  i0o                                                                      9B73
                                                                      roup.                                1972
                                                          Millimeter

                               120         130          140         150         160         170 -       180
                    kiguro  39. Kachemak Bay tanner crab size.frequencies.  (Carapace width). 1970-1974.

                                                                                                      Ar

                                                                                    M      46

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                                                                                   04           -
                                                                                               77

                                                                               Juveniles

                                              11-45

                   Dungeness_Crab

                       The dungeness crab commercial fishery started on a sustained basis in

                   Kachemak Bay in 1961 after some sporatic attempts in the 1950's. Ten boats

                   fished out of Seldovia and Homer in 1961 and all processing was aboard a

                   floating cannery anchored in Halibut Cove. The primary months fished were

                   during October and November and a total of 191 thousand pounds were taken

                   mostly from above.the Homer Spit. In 1962 processing was conducted in Seldovia

                   as well as Halibut Cove and 460 thousand pounds were landed from Kachemak Bay.

                   The peak year of.production occurred in 1963 when 1.7 million pounds were

                   landed from the bay. In 1964 a total of 400 thousand pounds were taken and
                   then during the next three years (65-67) the fishery fell off drastically due

                   to a lack of processing facilities following the 64 earthquake and a decliriing

                   market.

                       In 1968 a processing plant was opened in Homer (Alioto Fish Company) and

                   378 thousand pounds were taken from the! bay, most of this production from four
                   boats. Since 1969 the dungeness fishery has been sporadic in Kachemak Bay with

                   an average annual yield of 235 thousand pounds. The highest year of production

                   since 1964 was in 1974 when 721 thousand pounds were landed from the bay. A

                   total of 36 vessels participated in the 1974 fishery and made a total of

                   609 landings. The bulk of'the catch was made in the Bluff Point area between

                   July and November.
                       Dungeness crab landings'by month for Kachemak Bay from 1961 through 1974

                  .appear in Table 12.

              Table  12. Kachemak Bay dungeness        crab-catch by month,.1961-1974.

              Month             1961         1962        1963       1964        1965         1966       1967.       1968         1969

              January             699                    3,379      1,492                                                         488

              February                   10,090            609         170                                                         25

              March                                    37,240       1,984.                                                        335

              April               250                  36,165       3,004                                                      1,346

                                                                  17,672           466     2,836      1,776                    1,833
              May                 664      1,963     .226,922
              June                442    11,502      262,645      66,979       11,029      7,651      1,471                    3,987

              July                       30,167      291,664      62,587       13,389                              84,480    13,898

              August                     67,811      247,915      73,807        7,607                             182,393    14,876

              September                  165,407     271,376     .118,709     .'-,"27;192  1,183           90     120,240    13,106

              October         54,965 188,317         258,062      64,346        9,318                 3,831        66,841

              November        136,623    21,868        24$665       6,255       4,008        853                   30,482
              December-'                   6,645        4,957                   1,202                                   16

              TOTALS         193,683 503,770       1,665,599      417,005      74,211     12,523      71,168      484,452    49,894

                                                             11-47

                            Table 12 continued. Xachemak Bay dungeness crab catch by month, 1961-1974.

                            Month              1970        1971       1972        1973         1974

                            January                                        60     3,555@       3,899

                            February                                  1,620           615         975

                            March               115                        36         158      2,969

                            April                                                 4,032           468

                            May                           1,745                  11,429        5,374

                            June              7,889     11,271        1,715      12,742       16,185

                            July            15,009      21,818        5,336       7,861     110,855

                            August          379597     17,049         3,568       8,224-    2179'570,'!

                            September       95,571     20,.287        5,085      36,G69     201,839

                            October         529265     15,951         4,517      147,502'     98,803

                            November          1,373     7,221         7,031      68,203       43,781

                            'December                   1,819-        -9,962      8,387        4,192

                            TOTALS         209,819     97,161         38,930     308,777    706,910

                                      f

                                                                 fib

                                                  Cancer Magister at home

                                                  11-48
                  Trawl-Shrimp

                      .The first attempt at establishment of a permanent shrimp fishery in
                  Kachemak Bay occurred in 1959 when two processing facilities were established

                  in Seldovia. Records are not available separating the Kachemak Bay shrimp catch.

                  from the remainder of the Cook Inlet Management area for the first three years

                  of the fishery (1959-1961), however, 5.2 million pounds were taken during this.
                  time period and indications are that most of this catch was from Kachemak Bay

                  with smaller catches coming from Nuka Bay, Resurrection Bay, and Day Harbor.

                  From 1962 through 1964 the average shrimp harvest from Kachemak Bay was 800

                  thousand pounds. From 1965 through 1968 the fishery suffered from poor market

                  conditions and lack of processing facilities in the area. The average catch

                  during this period was 276 thousand pounds.
                       The Kachemak Bay shrimp fishery began to stabilize in 1969 when a new
                  processing plant owned by Ala@kan Seafoods went into operation at the end of the

                  Hom.er Spit. Two boats participated in the fishery in 1969 and 1.8 million

                  pounds of shrimp were landed from the bay. The trawl shrimp catch from 1970
                  through 1�74 averaged 5.2 million pounds for the Bay.

                       The trawl shrimp season presently runs from June 1 through March 31. At

                  present, the waters of Kachemak Bay inside a line from Anchor Point to Point

                  Pogibski are on two guideline harvest level periods, June 1 - October 31 and

                  November I - March 31, of 2.5 million pounds each for a total quota of 5.0

                  million pounds.

                       The trawl shrimp catch from Kachemak Bay by month since 1969 appears in

                  Table 13. Since 1969 a log book program has been maintained  on the Kachemak

                  Bay shrimp trawl fishery and catch per unit of effort (C.P.U.E.) data from

                  this program appears in Table 14. It is interesting to note that since 1969

                  there has'been no decline in C.P.U.E. observed, in fact there has been a

                  general increase during the last few years indicating a very healthy stock.

              Table 13.    Shrimp   trawl  catchis'by'month     for Xachemak    Bayo 1969-19750

              LIonth            1969           1970           1971           1972            1973             1914            105          -average

              January            11130       215,036        102,836        .405,730          450,873        1.9209,366      592,535        494,396

              February           31274       448,856        446,'136       641,653          .-443,266         156@,524      572,648        451,514

              March              1,870        -494,894      979,136        170,868           102,614          328j332       506,505        430,392

              A ril              11,927      550,731        -466,265        77,133-            49,625                                      285,939
               p

              May                4,661       3380599        160,617         77,318.                                                        192,178

              June             104,026       665,715        434,045        539,482          -615,078          4370331                      538,330

              July             158,178       852,126        484,362        544,454-                        "1 1-613-ij 168                 716,091

              August           249,924       7679600        590,623        569,364           727,595          '478,953                     626,827

              September        3459296       603,127        624,752        -471,9121           73,137         789,933                      512,574

              October          4-32,848      324@360        488,492        651,547                            193,139                      414,385

              November         219,791       3869357        457,822        618s781           431,023          431,827                      465,162

              December         -314,227        77t287       160,030        608,930        -570,249            424,901                   -368,279

              Totals         1,847,152      5,724,688    -5,395,116      -5,377,181        4,549,804   -__--52063,474     1,661,688 -5z496,067

                 Preliminary data.

                                                              11-50
                  Tabl e 14@   Trawl shrimp catches in ounds per drag hour for two vess&ls
                                              in.Kachemak gay, 1969-1975 jj.
                               West of Spit           East.of Spit                                  Rest of Spit
                                 A          B          A            B                                   A          B

        96                                                                      1973     Jan.       3027        2193
           9      July      '2243       1795
                  Au@.       -1523      2440            660        862'                  Feb.       3996        4710
                  Sept.      3651                                                        Mar.       Closed        --
                  Oct.       3630                     2321         1964                  April      Closed
                  Nov.                                1863         1695                  May        Closed        --
                  Dec.                                2543         2046                  June       3126        2115
                                                                                         July       3088        2859
                                                                                         Aug.       3876        3541
       1970       Jan.                                2897         2672                  Sept.      5882        4113
                  Feb.                                2798         2769                  Oct.       Closed      --
                  Mar.                                2733         3017                  NoV.       4331        4470
                  Apri 1     2581       2440          1903         2078                  Dec.       6234        6049.
                             2811       2207
                  June       1562       1216
                  July       2289       1837
                  Aug.       2253       1730                                    1974     Jan.       6157        .5179
                  Sept.      2281       2048                                             Feb.      11641        12150
                  Oct.       2580       2198          1619         1740                  Mar.      15558        22193
                  Nov.       3338       2547          1272         1309                  April      Closed
                  Dec.                  .1396         1585         1167                  May        Closed      --
                                                                                         June       3579        2489
                                                                                         July       3150        2669
           1      Jan.       4015       1651          1101         1112                  Aug.       2760        2902
                  Feb.       4187       3446          3050                               Sept.      5374        5591
                  Mar.       7409       10850                                            Oct.       4151        4993
                  April      1888       2630                                             Nov.       5047        5179
                  May        1516       1727                                             Dec.       6572        6504
                             1462       1151
                  June
                  July         813        821           715
                  Aug.       2097       2320            839
                  Sept.      3658       2811                                     1975    Jan.       6440        5999
                  Oct.       3114      -2728                                             Feb.       5708       ..5651
                  Nov..      2692       2844                                             Mar.       9039        8276
                  Dec..      2959       2938

        1972      Jan.       5801       4709'
                  Feb.       4861       5763
                  Mar.       12279      8295
                  April      3150       2940
                  May        2756       1923
                  June       2182       5346
                  July       1694       1688
                  Aug.       2757.      3259-
                  Sept.      4772       4281
                  Oct.       4530       4765
                  Nov.       2616       3531
                  Dec.       2917       2842

                        These two  vessels    have been   in the fishery the longest and        are used
                        as indicators in changes in       CPUE.

                                             11-51

               The average C.P.U.E. for the Kachemak Bay trawl shrimp fishery is the highest

               in the state, surpassing even the most productive areas in the Kodiak region.

               It is als*o higher than the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of Maine where major

               trawl fisheries on shrimp also occur. The C.P.U.E. in the Kachemak Bay trawl

               fishery is probably the highest in the United States and may be the highest

               in-the world.

                    Table 15-and Figures 40 and 41 provide or depict an index of the species
               composition of the commercial trawl catch between May of 1970, when sampling

               of the commercial catch began, through September of 1973. As can be seen

               from Table 15 and Figure 40 pink shrimp dominate catches (57.1%) followed by

               humpy shrimp (36.3%). Coonstripe and sidestripe shrimp make up a relatively

               small percent of the trawl catch. 1974-1975 data which is presently being

               worked up will show a similar composi,tion. The.re are annual differences in

               species composition of commercial catches as well as variations between

               months. More information on the biology of the shrimp will appear in the

               research section of this report.-

                                                                 11-52

                                       TableM' Average species composition of the comercial
                                                   trawl   catch from Kachemak Bay I'May 1970
                                                            through September 1973.

                                                                Percent by     Species

                                          P.   Borealis        P.  Soniurus         P. hv2cinotus                    11. dispar
                       Month                   Pink                 HI-anov           Coonstripe                   Sidestrioe

                                                                                           11.5
                                                                                                                         1. 7

                        Feb..                  55.3                  20.9                   -7.5                         26.3

                                                                                            '3.5
                        Mar,".                 34*5.                 58.5                                                3.5

                                                                                                                         2.5
                                               72   5                24.0                   1.0
                        Apr..

                                                                     38.5                   0* 2

                        Jun.                                                                                             1.4
                                               71.9                  23.7                   3.0

                       @Jul.                   56.4                  41.0                   1.5

                                               48 2                  50.0                   I.T.                         0.6
                       .-.Aug

                                                                     57.4
                       -,Sep.                 -41.

                       .Oct.                   51.2                  47.3                   0.7                          0.8

                        Nov.                   62.5                  ..22.6                 6.9                          .8. 0*

                                               60.0                  34.0                   2.0                          4.o.

                                               57.1                  -36.3
                                                                                            4.o                          3.4

                        liata    based on    weekly    random samples of        the  commercial catch.

                                                             I I -53a

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                                                                                                    -7@7

                  140

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                  130

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                        SOMY    FLBRUART  MARCH    APRIL    PAY     JUNE     JULY   AUCUST  SUMMER   WCUR     NOVEMBER MINUR

                                                                         19--Month

                           Visure40. Average monthly commercial trawl catch of pink and humpy shrimp.
                                              Kachemak Bay, May 1970 through September 1973.

                                                                                                                II-53b

                            14P

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                               -240

                                                                                                                                    '71
                                                                                                     :'N qW
                                      Am= IT         FrM-CRY         MARCH          AP,71          to., I       JUNE           JULY        AUCUST      SPIVA-SER        GCTC21R       XZ'VEMIE)t      tTCE93-fA
                                                                                                                          19_j1opth

                                    .'Figure /it. Average                        monthly cor ercial trawl catch of coonstripe and sidestripe
                                                                     shrimp, Kachemak Bay, @Lay_1970 through September 1973
                                    HE                                                                                                               I                                           P;-=--
                                    rM r-

                                               11-54

                Pot Shrimp_
                      The're is also a Pot shrimp fishery in Kachemak Bay. This fishery did

                not start up on a significant basis until 1971 when 55,665 pounds were landed.

                The 1974 catch of 678,097 pounds was the highest on record and the fishery

                presently appears to be in a very healthy sta.te. A slight increase occurred

                in the number of vessels participating in the fishery from 41 in 1973 to 46

                in 1974. The number of landings made was 1,249, a 65 percent increase from

                1973.

                      A good abundance of pot shrimp, which are over 90 percent     coonstripes,

                and a fairly steady market and increased effort have caused the significant

                increase in catches during the past two years.

                      A sampling program has been initiated to   monitor the pot shrimp fishery.

                Sampling will determine species and age class    composition of the catch as well

                as the area being   fished. An attempt will be   made to determine C.P.M. in

                pounds per pot.
                      Table 16 shows  the Kachemak-Bay pot shrimp catches by month from 1971 through
                1974.   There is presently a 600,000 pound quota on pot caught shrimp in

                Kachemak Bay.

                                                   11-55

                  Table 16. Kachemak Bay Pot Shrimp catches, 1971-1974.

                  Month               1971              1972             1973            1974_

                  January                               1,494           13,883          60,793

                  February                              1,463           35,235          47,955

                  March                                11,764-          18,634         203,161

                  April                  960            6,434           32,115          259,209

                  May                 3,680             7,257           22,081          28,065
                  June.               25872            23,063           20,239          15,423

                  July                   260           24,191           11,946          15,517

                  August              4,945            11,752           20,036           8,600

                  September              759           16,241           10,960           5,210

                  October            13,251             3,242           33,738           8,067

                  November           26,720            29,288           66,864          10,898

                  December            2;218            29,752           38,380          15,180

                  Total              55,665            165,941        .324,111          678,078

                                                        ol Ar
                                                                                           A

                                                           Kachemak Bay    Renewable   Wealth

                                            11-56

                  Herri nq

                       Pacific herring have undergone two periods of exploitation in Kachemak

                  Bay. The first period was from 1914 through 1928 when a saltery fishery was

                  centered in the Halibut Cove area. A total of nearly 90 million pounds of

                  herring were harvested during this time period*(Table 17). The second fishery

                  on herring in Kachemak Bay started in 1969 when a sac roe market developed.

                  Since 1969 a total of 7.2 million pounds have been harvested from Kachemak

                  Bay. The peak year was 1970 when 11 vessels landed 5.4 million pounds (Table 18).
                  The herring fishery occurs during May and early June in the Kachemak Bay

                  area and most of the catch comes from the Halibut Cove - Glacier Spit and

                  Mallard Bay areas. (Figure 42). The annual sustained yield is not known at

                  the present time and research into stock status is needed.

                                                11-57

                  Table 17. Kachemak Bay historical herring catch, 1914-191-8.

                  Year                Millions of Pounds                    Tons

                  1914                       0.3                            150

                  1915                       0.03                             15

                  1916                       0.1                              50

                  1917                       1.9                            950

                  1918                       4.0                          2,000

                  1919                       5.3                          2,650

                  1920                       1.9                            950

                  1921                       5.2                          2,600

                  1922                       1.0                            500

                  '1923                      7.6                          3,800

                  1924                       14.1                         7,050

                  1925                       19.2                         .9,600

                  1926                       14.3.                        7,150

                  1927                       7.2                          3,600

                  1928                       4.3                          2,150

                                               11-58

                Table 18. Rachemak Bay herring catches in pounds, 1969       1974.

                Year             Pounds              Landings             Vessels

                1969             1,103,041              41                   5

                1970             5,417,385             104                  11

                1971                 25,050             4'                   2

                1972                  2,046              1                   1

                1973                407,533             20                  12

                1974.               219,359             19                  11

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                                             11-60
                     Crustacean Larval Biology

                          In 1971 the NMFS began a comprehensive study of the larvae of king

                     crab and shrimp in Kachemak Bay. In general, the  study was designed to

                     determine the distribution,, abundance, and survival of larvae. The

                     first requirement of the study was to determine locations in Kachemak

                     Bay where larvae are released and their subsequent dispersal from the

                     releasing areas. Preliminary sampling began in the spring of 1971 to

                     standardize techniques and to verify the expected seasonal occurrence  of

                     larval release. Sampling in 1972 was more intensive and designed to

                     determine more precisely the areas of release and the patterns of dispersal

                     of larvae from the releasing areas. The preliminary results of the 1972

                     studies have recently been received by the Alaska Department of Fish and

                     Game. The following are some excerpts from that report which testify to

                     the critical nature of the Bluff Point area, which was also the major

                     area of interest in the oil and gas lease sale.

                          The patterns of larval abundance and distribution in Kachemak Bay

                     in 1972 can be summarized as follows: king crab zoea (which is

                     the initial stage larvae after the eggs hatch) were released in Kachemak

                     Bay primarily in the Bluff Point area. Many larvae remained in the

                     release area throughout their planktonic or free floating existence.

                     The remaining larvae were rapidly displaced from the releasing area by

                     tidal action along primarily two routes, one southwestward toward Cook

                     Inlet and the other.souteastward toward Tutka Bay and Sadie Cove.

                          Larvae first occurred in the plankton samples during the latter

                     half of Apr'il. The area of greatest abudance occurred in the Bluff

                     Point area. Abundance decreased rapidly on either side of this area.

                     During the latter half of May larvae were distributed throughout Kachemak

                                                  11-61

                  Bay. The most obvious feature of larval distribution at this time was

                  the band of highest abundance which extended across the outer bay south

                  of Anchor Point to Seldovia Bay. Abundance decreased rapidly seaward of

                  this band but remained relatively high shoreward throughout most of the

                  inner bay. Both distribution and abundance of larvae continued to

                  changq throughout the Bay during the first half of June. Two centers of

                  abundance existed in the outer bay. The first centered around the Bluff

                  Point area and extended as a tail in a southwesterly direction from the

                  Bluff Point area. Another extended as a band of abundance from the

                  Homer Spit southward to Kasitsna Bay. In general, the concentrations of

                  larvae from April through June provide evidence of the location of

                  releasing sites. The initial occurrence and higher abundance of these

                  larvae.off Bluff Point indicate that this area is a major releasing area

                  in Kachemak Bay for king crab zoea-larvae. This assumption is supported

                  by studies of female king crab bythe Alaska Department of Fish and

                  Game. These studies show that egg bearing king crab congregate in this

                  area during spring for the purpose of releasing larvae. Further studies

                  by the NMFS also indicated that the Bluff Point area is a major settling

                  area for king crab larvae.

                       During the king crab  larvae study, notes were also kept on other

                  crustacean larvae such as  shrimp and tanner crab. Preliminary information

                  indicates that the area of  greatest abundance of these species was also

                  in the Bluff Point area. If so, then the area off Bluff Point is critical

                  for release and subsequent settling of several species of economically

                  important shellfish larvae.
                       The above summary of theiarvae biology and inferred role played   by

                  the Bluff Point site in the reproduction and larvae biology is to date

                  the.prevelant point of view.

                                              11-62

                       The newly acquired information on the circulation of Kachemak Bay,

                  together with some preliminary estimate of the residence time of a water

                  parcel as it swings through the system, does not quite tally with the

                  assumption that the larvae will tend to remain and settle in the Bluff

                  Point'area and/or would be redistributed southwards towards the south

                  shore.

                       Fig. 43 illustrates the more recurrent transport pattern as derived

                  from the drogues trajectories. Preliminary analysis of the drogue data

                  indicates that the two gyres seem to remain somewhat south of an east-

                  west line drawn across the tip of Homer SDit. Much of the crab sanctuary

                  area appears to lie mostly across the path of a rather steady net outgoing

                  flow. That the Bluff Point area is a center for the spawning of king

                  crab is already documented. What happens to the larvae spawned in the

                  area is, based upon the present preliminary results of the drift studies

                  open to speculation.

                       Perhaps, to best relate the knowledge gained from the circulation
                  studies with the larval life history of the various crustacean known to

                  spawn in Kachemak Bay, one should refer to the diagram of Fig. 44. The

                  diagram shows the length of time through which crustacean larvae will be

                  observed in the plankton. Major spawning periods for the various species

                  are indicated.

                       Developing king crab larvae will be planktonic for about 30 to 40

                  days, Tanner crab larvae for about 60 days, dungeness crabs are for the

                  present unknown, and pandlid shrimps for about 60 days.

                       Based upon the present preliminary estimate for.a water parcel

                  residence time within the Bay, most of the larvae spawned in the Bay

                  ought to be transported out of the Bay before they have reached the

                  settling stage.

                                          11-63

                           HOMER

                                    -8 DA

                  Fig. 43   NET TRANSPORT VELOCITIES THROUGH KACHEMAK BAY
                        AS DERIVED FROM DROGUE DATA

                                                              MONTH

                                        F    M      A     m     J     J     A     S      0     N     Q,

            KING  CRAB                               .......

            TANNER CRAB

                                                                                                                                 0)
            DUNGENESS CRAB
                                                                       C

            PANDALID SHRIMP
                                                                                  -3

                                                                            CRUSTACEAN LARVAL            BIOLOGY

                                                                                                LARVAE   IN PLANNTON

                                                                                                FIRST DEMERSAL-BENTHIC
                                                                                                                SETTLING
                                                                                            PEAK SPAWNING
                                                                                            PERIODS- KACHEMAK BAY

                                             Fig. 44   Planktonic Occurence of Crustacean Larvae

                                             11-65

                      Various unpublished data report by Haynes (NMFS Lab. Kasistna Bay)

                  and others discuss recent observations on various phases of larval

                  biology. The following insert summarizes their findings.
                       dare'ful analysis of the material of indicates that our present

                  understanding of various stages of larvae development in Kachemak Bay

                  is very incomplete. Observations are obtained at a network of fixed

                  stations, but no one can give any assurances that the same population

                  is being repeatedly sampled. The nature of the circulation indicate

                  that Kachemak Bay is an input-output system, suggesting that much of

                  the larvae sampled at any one given time might have been spawned

                  outside the Bay.

                       Work is presently underway to reevaluate all basic data in terms of

                  new knowledge on transport mechanism being gathered by the long term

                  drift measurements program.

                                            11-66

                                  Preliminary results of larval distribution,

                                  abundance, and survival studies in Kachemak

                                  Bay, 1972 (Abstract)

                                             KING CRAB ZOEA

                        Plankton tows were made semi-monthly in Kachemak Bay beginning the latter

                   half of March and extending through June, 1972. Preliminary sampling in 1971

                   had indicated that king crab zoea occurred in the bay during these months.

                   Samples were collected using the National Marine Fisheries Service research

                   vessel R/V Sablefish except during the latter half of May when a few plankton

                   tows were made with the University of Washington's research vessel R/V Commando.

                   Sampling terminated at the end of June unintentionally; zoea were still present

                   in the water at that time.

                        The station pattern consisted of 24 stations distributed somewhat evenly

                   over an area of about 688 kilometers (428 square miles) (Figure 45). Not all

                   stations were occupied during each semi-monthly period due to inclement weather

                   especially at the beginning of the sampling season.

                        Plankton tows were made with Miller High-Speed samplers (Miller, 1961).

                   Nets of #0 mesh were used throughout.the study.

                        Zoea first occurred in the plankton samples during the latter half of

                   April. Area of greatest abundance occurred as a band extending seaward from

                   off Bluff Point to station 17. Abundance decreased rapidly on either side of

                   this band.

                        During the first half'of May, zoea abundance increased markedly in the

                   outer bay. Greatest abundance occurred in the northern half of the outer bay

                                                                    11-67

                                                                                                                                                    go
                                                                                                                                            %3

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                                                   Fig. 45. NMFS Sampling Stations for Zoea Larvae
                                                       -A

                                             11-68

                -and was centered at station 17. Dispersal of abundance extended from the

                  center eastward to Homer Spit and then southeastward to China Poot. Lower

                  levels of abundance were found throughout the remainder of the outer bay

                  and at the entrance to the inner bay. A few zoeae were also caught at the.
                  head of the bay (station 1). No zoeae were.caught during this sampling period

                  in either Tutka Bay or Sadie Cove.
                      During the latter half of May, zoeae were caught at all stations except
                  one (station 21) but abundance remained highest in the outer bay. The most

                  obvious feature of zoeal distribution at this time was the band of highest

                  abu.ndance that extended across the outer bay from south of Anchor Point to

                  Seldovia Bay... Abundance decreased rapidly seaward of this band but remained
                  relatively high shoreward and throughout most of'the inner bay.

                       Both distribution and abundance of zoeae continued to change throughout

                  the bay during the first half of June. Two centers of abundance existed in
                  the outer bay, one that included stations 16 and 17 (in the center of the bay)

                  and extended as a tail in a southwesterly direction to include station 24 and

                  another that extended as a band of abundance from Homer Spit southward to

                  Kasitsna Bay. High abundance occurred between these two areas, in Sadie Cove

                  and in the inner bay.  Zoeal abundance along the outer transect of stations

                  was again low except at stations 23 and 24 where high abundance reflected the

                  dispersal of zoeae from stations 16 and 17.

                       A -strikin'g change in zoeal distribution and abundance occurred during the
                  latter half of June in the northern portion.of the outer bay between Anchor Point
                  and Homer Spit.  In this area,. zoeal abundance had increased markedly, particularly
                  at stations 12,* 13, 17, and 18. 'Catches of zoeae throughout the remainder of the

                  outer bay, although still high, had decreased from the previous sampling period,

                  especially along the southern shore.

                                                   11-69

                       In general, concentrations  of stage 1 larvae provide evidence of the
                  location of r*eleasing sites. In this study, the zoeae caught during April

                  and nearly all those caught during the first half of May were stage 1. The

                  initial occurrence and high abundance of these zoeae off Bluff Point indicate

                  that this area is the-major releasing area in Kachemak Bay for king crab
                  zoeae,.* This assumption is supported by stu@ies of female king crab in

                  Kacheipak Bay by the State of Alaska Department of Fish and Game. These

                  studies show  that egg bearing king crab congregate in this area during spring

                  for the purpose of releasing zoeae.

                       The patterns of zoeal abundance and distribution in Kachemak Bay in 1972

                  can be summarized as follows.   King crab zoeae were released in Kachemak Bay

                  primarily in  an area that extended from Bluff Point seaward to at least the
                  location of station 17. Many zoeae remained ih-the releasing area, expecially

                  in the vicinity of stations 16 and 17, throughout the  ir plankt6nic existence.

                  The remaining zoeae were distributed rapidly from the releasing area by tidal

                  action along primarily two routes, one southwestward toward Cook Inlet,    the

                  other  southeastward toward Tutka Bay and Sadie  Cove. A large number of   late

                  stage  zoeae were carried into the bay along the northern shore during the

                  latter half of June.    Settling of glaucothoe likely occurred throughout the
                  b@y but primarily in the outer bay   in the vicinity of the releasing area.

                  Figure46 shows the king crab larval periods by stage in Kachemak Bay from

                  April 15 to June 30, 1972. Tables 1, 2, and 3 show estimates of king crab

                  zoeae releaded, estimates of mortality, and estimates of survival in

                  Kachemak Bay based on data collected during the study.

                                          11-70

                                                      KING CRAB
                                  WEAL STAGEI5 II nL                 I v
                             100

                             50

                              0
                                      Apr      May       May     June      June
                                      15-30    1-15      16-31   1-15      16-30

                                Fig. 46. Kachemak Bay king crab larval periods, 1972.

                                                                      11-71

                                          Table 11 Estimates of total abundat                ice or kinp cr.-.I) zoeic (x 109
                                          for each swi-Trondily                       ,)crind iri Yadicwak I'ay, Alaska,
                                          11-irc           1972.
                                               !I-JLMC

                                           S.W. ling                                         I4ocal sta.@,C
                                             period
                                          .Mar.                                        u                   U.                   U
                                          Apr. I-IS                   0                0                   0                   .0
                                          Apr. 16-30                  8.85             0                   0                    0
                                          flay 1-15                 12S.59             2.34                                     0
                                          May 16-31               331. Sri           13S.SO                3.59                 0
                                          Jima 1-15                  39.16           331.7S              252.34                27.16
                                          Jtuic 16-30                 0                7.66               01.01                135.25
                                                                   507AS              477.S8             347.01                162.41

                                                                Tthle 20 Estimates or iv;tantancoLLs rior-
                                                                .tality (i) aild seasonal survivil (s) rates
                                                                for klng crnt) zoeal sta@@cs 1, 11, and III
                                                                collected in K-tchei;iak i'ay, Alaska, 1972.
                                                                =ar va
                                                                @S t an
                                                                      gCS                                            s

                                                                                             0.3193               0.7266
                                                                III-IV                          'S(,4             0.4680

                                          Table 9,1 Estinates of survival o; kin-@. crab zoeac pur 100,000 in-
                                          dividuals rclcasc(1 in 1,achentak lla@          , Alaski, 1972.        (--*-' estimatcs
                                          probably greatly undcrostiiiiatcd).

                                                                                                                     urk
                                                                Duraf 1C 11                                                       iZr
                                                                beturcei,                @s ti;,.jted
                                          Larval                  sta!@C@;               abul. ixicc                       ZGC
                                                                                                                               s2d
                                          $tape                                              (x -.0,                    relca

                                                                                             477.58
                                                                      37.0
                                                                                             347.01                      722661)*

                                                                                             16?.41

                                             11-72

                                              BRACHYURA ZOEAE

                       zoeae first occurred in the samples in the latter half of April but

                  only in insignificant numbers.

                       Numbers of zoeae increased during the first half of-Maybut only

                  @slightly - greatest number of zoeae at. any -one station was only 22. During
                  the latter half of May abundance of zoeae increased markedly. Greatest

                  abundance occurred.in a band of zoeae that extended from station 17 to Homer

                  Spit.' The renidinder of the Kachemak Bay had intermediate abundance of

                  zoeae (10-100 zoeae per station) except the outermost area of the bay

                  where abundance was lowest (1-10 zoeae per station).

                       The band-. of greatest abundance found during the latter half of May
                 ..persisted throughout the first half of June and consisted of at least a

                  five-fold increase in zoeae. Zoeal abundance   in the remainder of the outer

                  bay-was high, including  the outermost stations. The inner bay had a

                  relatively low level of  abundance (10-100 zoeae per station).'

                       Zoeal abundance was  high throughout the outer bay but conspicuously

                  so at station 17 during  the latter half of June. Samples for the inner bay

                  forAhe. latter half of June were not -processed due to lack.of time 6nd

                  the assumption, based upon prior sampling, that zoeal abundance was low.

                       The above-pattern  of Brachyuran zoeal abundance is strikingly similar
                                                                                   C.
                  to that.of king crab and Pandalid shrimp zoeae from the same sampling

                  period.  The most noteworthy feature for all three groups of zoeae is that

                  zoeal, abundance originates and remains consistently high - in the vicinity
                  of -station 17. Also, zoeal abundance 'of all three groups was consistently

                  greater in the outer bay than the inner bay. Apparently the inner bay is
                  not a major nursery area for these forms as originally supposed.

                                            11-73

                                           PANDALID ZOEAE

                    Pandalid zoeae were f irst caught in 1972 during the first half of
               April - at station 17 and 13 (Figure 1). During the latter half of April

               abundance at-thesetwo stations had increased about thifty-fold.   Lower

               levels of zoeal abundance (100 zoeae per station) occurred throughout

               the-remainder-of the.bay.
                    During the: first half' of p4ay, zoeal abundance -was generally high

                                                      In
               -throughout -the'. outer bay but. still low- the inner bay. Zoeal abundance

               at, station 17 was very high, having increased. from 208 zoeae during the

               latter half of April. to nearly 5,000 zoeae during the first half of May.

               Zoeal abundance shifted slightly toward the -inner bay diring the second

               half of May, being highest at station 13. Abundance had dropped  considerably

               -along the outer sample transect.

                    Zoeal.abundance during the first half!of June.was essentially  identical

               to the previous sampling period except for a band of high abundance extend-
                                       C,

               ing from the center of  Kachemak Bay toward th6 southern entrance of the bay.

               During.the.latter half  of June, zoeal abundance was markedly higher off

               Bluff Point toirard Anchor Point and low elsewhere in the bay.

                    The'above pattern  of zoeal distribution is markedly similar to that

               of king crab zoeae  during the same sampling period. Pandalid zoeae  apparently
               were released primarily in outer Kachemak Bay in the vicinity of station 17.

               :.The zoeae were carried toviard the inner bay only slightly before some of

               the  zoeae were carried toirard the southern entrance of the bay. Abundance

               of zoeae remained consistently higher in about the center of the bay through-

               out the sampling period. Apparently an influx of zoeae occurred during the

               latter half of
                               June alona the northern entrance to the bay. The inner

               bay is not likely a major  rearing area for Pandalid zoeae.

      0

                                            I

                                                 SECTION III

    . I                              SENSITIVITIES OF KACHEMAK BAY TO
      0                                         MAN'S IMPACTS         -

      0

                                                   SECTION III

                                SENSITIVITIES OF KACHEMAK BAY TO MAN'S IMPACTS

                        As previously mentioned, Kachemak Bay is not the kind of "pristine"

                   environment readily found within a few miles from its shore; the Kamishak

                   side of Cook Inlet can be considered as having more of a "pristine"

                   status than Kachemak Bay.

                        Kachemak Bay has and still is being subjected to an ever increasing

                   spectrum of human encroachment: increasing population, increasing sewage

                   discharge, increasing small boat traffic, increasing ocean going traffic,

                   increasing use of its sheltered waters as emergency harbor of refuge to

                   repair and salvage various types of damaged vessels and floating structures,

                   increasing recreational pressures upon wildlife and fishes, increasing

                   logging activities.

                        Man's impacts upon Kachemak Bay can be viewed from two standpoints:

                             1.   Impacts Resulting From Harvest of Renewable Resources

                                  The fishing harvest impacts primarily upon the adult,

                                  reproductive segment of the population. Fisheries

                                  management constantly strive to maintain a commercial

                                  level of "sustained yield" to be harvested with a minimum

                                  level of effort. However, recurrent removal of large number

                                  of crabs, shrimps, herrings,.salmons, from a restricted coastal

                                  area is bound to have a substantial impact upon the ecosystem, a

                                  facet of human impact upon the Kachemak Bay resources hardly

                                  investigated. For example, there is strong suggestions that

                                  in the Bering Sea, large scale harvest of pollocks and other

                                  commercial species are significantly altering the species

                                  composition, reduced harvest species being replaced by

                                  competitors previously held in check by the species being

                                  fished. Indication also are that reduction of the number

                                             111-2

                             of harvest species significantly affect the food supply

                             of fur seal and some marine birds. Thus the impact of perhaps

                             removing even a small excess of mature adults, upon the overall

                             ecology of Kachemak Bay should be carefully considered.

                        2.   Impacts From Disruption of the Natural Geo-Bio-Physical - Chemical

                             Processes

                             The harvest of specific species and the disruption of the spectrum

                             of species diversity of Kachemak Bay does not per se impair the

                             ability of the environment to perform its life sustaining

                             functions. However, recurrent addition and/or constant release

                             of seemingly small quantities of substances foreign to the

                             natural system, at rates and concentrations in excess of the

                             natural ability of environmental processes to cope with the

                             influx, usually Alter the ability of the system to sustain life.

                             A brief discussion on the meaning of the term "pollution"

                             seems apropos at this time. The term pollution is widely used,

                             but seldom defined. Webster's definition show that the word

                             11pollution" is a derivation of the middle English word

                             11pollucion" meaning "emission of semen at other time than in -coition,

                             defilement, uncleanliness." Webster's definition hardly conveys

                             the intended meaning of the word, as currently used.

                                                  111-3

                              A definition of pollution is given as.:

                                   "An undesirable change in the physical, chemical or
                                   biological characteristics of our air, land and
                                   water, that may or will harmfully affect human
                                   life or that any other desirable species, or
                                   industrial processes, living conditions, or
                                   cultural assets; or that may or will waste or
                                   deteriorate our raw material resources". ("Waste
                                   Management and Control", Committee on Pollution,
                                   Natural Academy of Sciences, Natural Research
                                   Council, Washington, D.C., 1966).

                              The definition is highly anthropocentric, but conveys some of

                              the complexities of man induced impacts.

                              The State statutory definition of pollution reads as follows:

                                   (15) "Pollution" means the contamination or altering
                                        of waters, land or subsurface land of the state in
                                        a manner which creates a nuisance or makes waters,
                                        land or subsurface land unclean, or noxious, or im-
                                        pure, or unfit so that they are actually or.potentially
                                        harmful or detrimental or injurious to public health,
                                        safety or welfare, to domestic, commercial industrial,
                                        or recreational use, or to livestock, wild animals,
                                        bird, fish, or other aquatic life;

                              From an ecosystem viewpoint, it is essential'to recognize two

                              basic types of pollutants.

                              a.   Nondegradable Pollutants

                                   Materials and poisons, such as aluminum cans, mercurial salts,

                                   long chain phenolic chemicals, DDT and other compounds that

                                   either do not degrade or degrade only very slowly in the

                                   natural environment; in other words, substances for which

                                   there are no evolved natural "assimilative" processes that

                                   can keep up with the rate at which man injects them into

                                   the ecosystem. Such non degradable pollutants not only

                                   accumulate but are often "biologically magnified" as they

                                                  111-4

                            translocate through the food chain.

                            Removal of such pollutants, once introduced into the biosphere

                            is difficult and costly; the easiest control is to initially prevent

                            their dumpings into the environment, or at least strictly control

                            their rate of influx to avoid toxic build ups. An important factor

                            is that such pollutants can be biologically harmful or even biocidals

                            at concentrations which tax the ability to detect and measure them.

                       b.   Degradable Pollutants

                            Pollutants, such as domestic sewage, that can readily be de-

                            composed by natural processes or by engineered systems (treatment

                            plants). Such pollutants include substances for which there

                            exist natural "assimilative" processes. Problems arise when   the

                            input into the environment overcomes the "assimilative" capacity.

                            In contrast to pollution by toxic, non degradable substances,

                            pollution by degradable pollutants can be controlled by

                            combinations of mechnical and biologcal processes.

                            Odum (1971) interestingly points out that there are limits to

                            the total amount of organic matter than can be decomposed within

                            a given area and that, to avoid exceeding the overall limits of

                                                111-5

                             the biosphere, something like 4 to 5 acres of biologically

                             productive land-fresh water space per person (plus the ocean)

                             must be preserved.

                             The concept of the two basic kinds of pollution, as it applies

                             to Kachemak Bay, can be expressed in terms of pollutional

                             effects upon system energetics, as illustrated in the schematic

                             model of Fig. 47. The diagram shows that, as long as the rate

                             of input is moderate, degradable substances provide energy

                             (organic matter) or nutrients (phosphate, nitrates) and selec-

                             tively increase the productivity of the system by providing

                             an*energy subsidy. At high input rate, a critical range is

                             reached that is frequently characterized by severe biological

                             fluctuations (e.g. algal blooms).. At still higher rates of

                             inputs, the system essentially becomes poisoned by the over-

                             whelming influx of degradable substances. In contrast, the

                             diagram shows that non-degradable, toxic materials, stress

                             the biological systems from the beginning, increasingly

                             epressing productivity as their amounts increase; however,

                             the effects can be hard to detect at low or chronic levels

                             .of influx.

                             The pollutional status of Kachemak Bay, for the present, lies

                             close to the ordinate. Of great importance however, to the

                             long term ecological quality of the bay, is the rate of inputs

                             of ubiquitious toxic material which can induce long term

                             biological changes, changes difficult to detect above the natural

                             spectrum of fluctuations.

                                                                             111-6

                                                                          THE ENERGETICS OF POLLUTION

                                                                    INPUT ACTS AS AN   CRITICAL      INPUT BECOMES
                                                                    ENERGY SUBSIDY     RANGE-        AN ENERGY DRAIN
                                                                                       DANGEROUS     OR STRESS
                                                                                       OSCILLATIONS
                                                                      -C               LIKELY
                                                                     Ca

                                                              0       <
                                                                     -y-

                                                              0

                                                              W
                                                              -j

                                                                 0                     LETHAL  LEVEL
                                                                      INPUT OF USABLE ENERGY OR NUTRIENTS

                                                              W
                                                              W

                                                                                     ,LETHAL LEVEL.
                                                                 0
                                                                      INPUT OF TOXIC MATERIALS

                                                              Fig. 47. Schematic Model of the Effects of the Two Types
                                                                            of Pollution. (from Odum, 1971)
                                                                  Fill

                                                    111-7

                        Kachemak Bay is the recipient of a mix of discharges emanating from

                   various forms of human activities. An identification of the type of

                   wastes entering the Kachemak Bay marine environment can be schematized

                   as follows:

                                                           Degradable          Non-Degradable

                   Municipal Sewage

                   Solid Wastes

                   Municipal Storm Runoff

                   Natural Runoff

                   Household Discharges

                   Food Processing Wastes

                   Sanitary Vessel*Discharges

                   Bilge Discharges

                   Loggi ng Debris

                   Aquaculture Wastes

                   Spilled Crude Oil                                                -------

                   Spilled Bunker

                   Spilled Gasoline

                                 POLLUTIONAL ASPECTS OF HYDROCARBONS INTRUSION

                                   INTO THE KACHEMAK BAY MARINE ENVIRONMENT

                       The basic issues of the Kachemak Bay fisheries - oil interests centers

                  upon the public concerns on the impacts of oil upon the prime environment

                  of the Bay.

                       Much of the concern relate to the hazards from oil spill, usually

                  defined as a dramatic, large sudden release of either crude or refined   oil

                  by drilling or shipping activities. A moderate to large spill is a

                  psychologically stirring event, highly visible and with readily observable

                  dramatic effects upon all surface dwellers (marine birds, mammals), shoreline,

                  beaches, pleasure crafts and beach dwellers. Not as psychologically stirring

                  however are the constant, steady dripping and small spills of petroleum pro-

                  ducts in harbor, out of exhausts of outboard motors, or overboard pumping of

                  bilges.

                       A large spill is a dramatic  and usually locally catastrophic event,

                  especially if it occurs in an area rich in birds, mammals and other marine

                  life. If the spill occurs near population centers, public outcry and concern

                  is great. Spills occurring in more remote areas, usually do not enqender the

                  same high levels of public clamour for protective action, as for example, in

                  the recent grounding of the suoertanker METULA in the Straits of Magellan.

                       Attempting to develop a predictive impact scenario for oil in Kachemak

                  Bay can be somewhat speculative; however, a little Dublicized event, the

                  spill resulting from the grounding of Royal Dutch Shell supertanker "METULA"

                  in the Straits of Magellan on August 9, 1974, can s-erve as a documentable

                  insight on the anatomy and aftermath of an oil spill in an environment very

                  similar to the Kachemak Bay   Lower Cook Inlet environment. The following
                  narrative by C.G. Gunnarson, summarizing preliminary on-site assessment of

                  the impact of the spill underscores salient events:

                                                     111-9

                                        The "Metula" Oil Spill

                                       (C.G. Gunnarson - 1975)

                                 (NOAA Marine Ecosystems Analysis  Program Office)

                        Background
                              On 9 August 1974, the 206,000 ton supertanker "Metula",
                        transiting the Strait of Magellan (Figure ), at 14 1/2 knots
                        ran aground. The ship stopped in a distance of 260 feet (80
                        !neters), a small fraction of the two or three miles (3 to 5 km),
                        ordinarily required to come to a halt. The METULA, owned by one
                        subsidiary of Royal Dutch Shell, operated by a second, and
                        leased to a third was carrying oil owned by the Chilean National
                        Petroleum Authority (ENAP). The Government of Chile requested
                        and received assistance from the U.S. Coast Guard who, in
                        Icooperation with the owner's salvage forces, transferred most
                        of the oil to smaller tankers. The METULA floated free on 25
                        September 1974, after 51,500 tons of Saudi Arabian crude and
                       .2,000 tons of Bunker-C had been spilled. The spill area is
                        isolated (Figure48) and no cleanup procedures were attempted.

                        Physical Geography of the Strait of Magellan

                              Discovered in 1520 by Ferdinand Magellan, the Strait lies
                        between Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego and since then, has
                        served as an alternate shipping lane to the dangerous and longer
                        route around Cape Horn through Drake Passage.

                              The southern Andean Cordillera, composed of granitic,
                        volcanic, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks lies along the
                        Pacific Coast. Along the Atlantic, the area is one of glacial
                        moraine with low hills and periglacial sediments of sizes
                        varying from coarse'sand to boulders along the shoreline and
                        extensive loess deposits back from the coast. The ground
                        surface often has strong parallel ridges, with some elongate
                        salt pans, lined up with the prevailing westerly to
                        northwesterly winds.

                              Mean air temperature near the Atlantic is 6.70C (460F)
                        varyin g from 2.50C (360F) in July to 11.7'C (530F) in January.
                        Annual rainfall is about 300mm (12 in) along the Atlantic Coast
                        to over 1500mm (60 in) in the higher cordillera. Winds are
                        almost always westerly to northwesterly and commonly exceed
                        40 knots (75 km/h). Storm winds exceed 100 knots (185 km/h).
                        During the spill, 70 knot (110 km/h) winds frequestly occured
                        and once exceeded 115 knots (200 km/h).

                              Water currents in the spill area are mostly due to tides
                        with average ranges of 7.6m (25 ft) at the eastern entrance to
                        about 0.8m (2.5 ft) near Punta Arenas. Maximum currents occur
                        in the narrows where the cross sectional area of the water is
                        reduced (see Figure ). Currents calculated from tide table
                        data durin the spill period are as much as 4.4 to 4.8m/sec
                        (9.3 knots@ in the First Narrows, depending on the tidal
                        range. 9 knot (16 kn/h) currents have been measured in the

                                                                                                                                          50 KM          OIL SPILL ON
                                                                                                                                                          BEACHES
                                                                                                                 BAHI'O                          40M                               Arge@tina
                                                  South America                                                 POSESSION                                   3OKM      20KMk
                                                     Continent
                                                                                                                                                                    77.            K
                                                                                                                                                                                     Chile
                                                                                                                                  PUNTA
                                                       Chile                                                                       POSESSION                05/r                          0
                                                                                                                                                           8                           0
                                                                                                                                                 So IWILE's
                                                                                                                                                               BEACH    IlWpACr
                                                                                                                                                                                         PUNTA
                                                                                                        KM    PUNTA                                                                    DUNGENES
                                                                             FIRST                             ANEGADA
                                                                              NARROWS
                                             BIOLOGICAL                                                                                                          PUNTA
                                              CONTROL                                                               BANCO                                        CATALINA
                                               STE                                                    Faw
                                                                                           2.       ESTUARIES         ORANGE                                                        Atlantic
                                                                   SATAUTE           C          0                  10 KM                      DEPosIr                                 Ocean        C)
                                                                                     .7  :,-         PUNTA
                                                                    PATCH                      KM    ESPORA
                                                             AfE7VI-A
                                                                                                    MANANTIALES                            BANCO
                                            BAHIA               SROUNDING                                                                   LOMAS
                                           GREGORIO
                                                                                             30 KM   WEST OF
                                                                             D.rposlr            PUNTA ANEGADA
                                                    BAHIA FELIPE                A                                                                       OIL DEPOSIT
                                                                                                                                                        ON  BEACHES
                                                                                               PUNTA REMO
                                                                    @%v RVI             40KM                      Tierra     Del Fuego
                                                                  -,v
                                                              AP
                                                                                        OIL DEPOSIT
                                                                           50 KM        ON BEACHES              %ERRO SOMBRERO
                                                                                                       "y                                                       Chile
                                                                           PUNTA   PIEDRA
                                                  70               60 KM
                                                          *-HOTEI- BAHIA                                         FIGURE 3                                                     Argentina
                                            pw BEACH SURVEY            FELIPE              SITE OF GROUNDING AND             IMPACTED BEACHES         0     Km    to
                                                 SPOT BEACH SURVEY                                  FIELD SURVEY JANUARY 1975
                                                 BIOLOGICAL STUDY       SITE                                                                          0       Mi         10

                                                                Fig.    48. METULA Oil Spill. Straits of Magellan. 9 August 1975. (Gunnerrnn, 1975)

                        narrows by ENAP. In Bahia Filipe, where the oil was spilled
                        and most of it went ashore, calculated maximum tidal currents
                        are about 4 to 6 knots. Actual currents in the bays are
                        affected by the wind as well as the tide.

                        Environmental Impacts of the Spill

                             Effects of the METULA spill are continuing. Some of these
                        are still in the future. For instance, as lighter, more
                        volatile fractions of the oil evaporate, an asphaltic surface
                        will develop through which plants will be unable to force their
                        way. Future research will be needed to determine the total
                        impacts of the spill. Meanwhile, it is of interest to summarize
                        observations made at the time of the spill -in August 1974 and
                        five months later in January 1975.

                        August 1974 Observations. Most of the environmental damage
                        occurred during the spill, which began with an 6,000 ton
                        initial loss of Saudi Aragian crude. A preliminary environ-
                        mental assessment was made by Dr. Roy W. Hann, consultant to
                        the Coast Guard. Up to 40,000 tons of oil were deposited
                        along some 50 miles (80 km) of shoreline and in estuaries,
                        mostly on Tierra del Fuego. Loadings in the more heavily
                        oiled areas are estimated at from 5,000 to 10,000 tons
                        per mile (3,000 to 6,000 tons per kilometer) of shoreline.

                             Amounts of oil deposited on beach varied widely according
                        to rates of released, tides, and winds. Aerial observations
                        showed the oil mostly along the Tierra del Fuego shore and,
                        on August 20, spread over 1,000 square miles (2,500 km) of
                        the eastern part of the Strait. No attempt was made at the
                        time to evaluate satellite imagery of the spill.

                             Bird losses were originally estimated at from 600 to
                        2,000, mostly cormorants but including penguins, petrels,
                        gulls, and others. Mussels, limpets, and starfish were also
                        affected. Up to $10,000,000 was available from TOVALOP,
                        established by the international oil companies and carriers,
                        for oil spill cleanup and damage correction. This was not
                        accepted by Chilean authorities although concern over possible
                        damage to king crab fishery and other local marine resources
                        was high.

                             Factors leading to this decision were: (1) effects were
                        mostly limited to Tierra del Fuego where the main activities
                        are sheep ranching and oil production; (2) the cleanup pro-
                        cedures were considered likely to cause even more damage than
                        the spill; and (3) both local and long distance logistic
                        support were, and still are, considered out of proportion to
                        the possible benefits of remedial measures. Other considerations
                        included uncertainty as to shared liability and litigation.

                                                    111-12

                        January 1975 Conditions. A second reconnaissance survey of the
                        spill site was carried out in January 1975 by Dr. Hann, Dr.
                        Dale Straughan, marine biologist from the University of Southern
                        California and consultant to NOAA, Mr. H. Kenneth Adams, marine
                        biologist from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
                        the writer.

                             METULA oil was found where it was originally deposited,
                        although there had been optimistic speculation that most of the
                        6il had been driven by winds and surface currents into the
                        Atlantic Ocean. The amount of oil deposited or remaining on
                        the beaches and estuaries is not precisely known. Dr. Hann
                        estimated that some 20,000 tons were present in January. How-
                        ever, the widespread extent and persistence of the oil is
                        obvious, and to argue that most of the oil went to sea is  to
                        argue that the large-scale pollution which we saw was due  to
                        a smaller quantity of oil.

                             In the most heavily oiled areas on the southern shore  of
                        Bahia Filipe 'and the First Narrows, and in a large salt marsh,
                        oil is ubiquitous. Heavily oiled cobbles are found on some
                        beach areas. Oil and mousse (en emulsion with from 5% to 20%
                        water and with the appearance of chocolate mousse) which was
                        originally deposited on the beach is flowing through saturated
                        beach sediments to mean tide level. In some areas, this oil
                        colors the breakers and is returned to the beach as swash marks.
                        Seasonal and diurnal heating of the dark-colored oil deposits
                        promotes bleeding and flowing of the oil on the surface and sub-
                        surface flow of the oil through the sediments.

                             Biological impacts of the oil spill were and still are
                        severe. Local mussel and fin-fisheries were reported by one of
                        the fishermen to have been moved to other areas because of
                        taste problems. In the salt marsh, large quantities of oil were
                        found floating on the surface of tidal channels, deposited on
                        tidal flats, and in isolated patches where they had apparently
                        been blown by the wind. There are large blackened areas which
                        once were covered with green marsh plants.

                             Oiled birds were found landward of shore areas in which the
                        original counts of dead birds were made. In one area, 22 dead
                        cormorants were found within a 25 yard.(25 meter) radius which
                        had not previously been counted. Samples of intertidal organisms
                        and sediments were collected by Dr. Straughan at a total 30
                        quadrats located in areas of heavy, light, or no visible oil
                        contamination. A total of 40 sediment and 7 tissue (mussel) samples
                        were collected for quantitative petroleum hydrocarbon analyses.

                                               111-13

                       The "Metula" mishaps spilled about 51,500 tons of Saudi-Arabia crude or

                   about 20 million gallons which spread a little over 1000 square miles of the

                   coast and marine waters of the strait. (Fig. 48)

                       Supertankers do not ploy the waters of Cook Inlet yet, the biggest

                   tanker transiting through the inlet being in the 70,000 tons range. It   must

                   be noted that a mishap by a 70,000 ton tanker, with a capacity of about 500,000

                   barrels, in Lower Cook Inlet could result in a spill similar in magnitude to

                   the one of the "Metula". Thus the "Metula" mishap, in an area, environmentally

                   very similar to Lower Cook Inlet, can serve for a basis to examine the conse-

                   quences of an oil spill in the Lower Cook Inlet - Kachemak area. It should

                   also be noted, that the magnitude of the "Metula" spill can also be likened to

                   part of the amount that could emanate from an uncontrolled oil well in the

                   Inlet.

                                                   111-14

                                    Anatomy and Potential Impacts of an Oil SDill

                                                  Upon Kachemak Bay

                       Attempting to fully quantify both the short and long term impacts of

                  an oil spilled in to Kachemak Bay, even if all the intricacies of the geo-

                  bi o/physical chemical processes were known, would be unrealistic due to the

                  large-of initial variables to be considered such as; volume of the spill,,

                  chemical composition of the oil, location of the origin of the spill, local

                  and regional variabilities in currents, wind, sea state, sea surface roughness,

                  sea water and air temperatures, local and regional variabilities in the con-

                  centration and types of inorganic and organic particulate, strength of the

                  vertical density stratification, occurrence of sea ice and shore ice, amount

                  of daylight and intensity of sunlight, (Fig. 49).

                       It must be underscored at this time that in general, the post mortem

                  investigation of an oil spill are usually of short duration. This point was

                  stressed in the April 1974 CEQ, Oil and Gas Environmental Assessment (Q. 40)

                  which stated:

                            "Many observations depend more on the  lenth of the study than on

                            the actual time the oil remains in the habitat". Hence these.

                            observations relate to) minimum residence time of oil.

                            In many cases, the investigative reports terminated their data

                            collection before the oil was no longer detectable (either visually

                            and analytically)."

                                                                                                         111-15

                                                                                                                                             CMOCOLATE UO-ASE'      T-,
                                                                                                      St. SVRFAct C

                                                                                                            DIISOLWT-0                         0

                                                                                                                           10.1
                                                                                                   C-ULSIC.

                                                                                                0                                                        OCEAN
                                                                                                                                               CCICLE

                                                                                                        C.10C 0"

                                                                                       WO"-%UO ANT
                                                                                           0-4.
                                                                                          aMOMS                          I.OLOG.CAL
                                                                                                                           01YRITUS
                                                                           ,:ULX
                                                                              IVAIAII
                                                                           0.
                                                                             &C.A

                                                                                                                               St. FIO(M
                                                                                                    ... IC

                                                     Fig. 49              Processes controlling the fate of spilled crude oil in
                                                                                         the ocean.                  (Burwood and Speers                           1974)

                                                   111-16

                       At present, only few investigators study the long term fate of spilled

                  oil (e.g. Blumer et al on the West Falmouth Oil Spill). Thus any attempts

                  to adapt existing results to project the extent and levels of impacts of

                  oil spilled upon the Kachemak Bay marine environment must be tempered with

                  the realization that the reported results usually refer to minimum effects,

                  usually of the more acute levels of persistance and effects.

                       As pointed out in an article by K.G. Hay (1974), results from a wide

                  spectrum of multidisplinary investigative activities can affirm certain

                  facts and put to rest certain speculations about the fate and effects of

                  oil upon the marine system.

                  A. -.Behavior and Fate of Spilled Oil.

                       The anatomy of an oil spill in Kachemak Bay shall be discussed within

                  the framework of the fates and effects format of the NAS Publication "Petroleum

                  in the Marine Environment" (1975).

                       1.   Oil Dosage

                            Spills occurring in small confined areas, so that the oil can

                            be contained for long periods of time, will cause greater damage

                            than spills released in the relatively open sea.

                            The environment of Kachemak Bay provides for nearly all ranges of

                            openness or containment of spilled oil. Its southern shore characteristics

                            by many embayments, can, especially during the periods of the year

                            of little or no runoff, usually also associated with shore line

                            conditions, has all the Dotential for high periods of retention

                            for any spilled material, even for relatively small spills. Local

                            wind factors with sheltering and/or channelling effects of the

                                                    111-17

                             steep topography extent a primary control upon the rentention or

                             dispensal of a spill.

                             The inner portion of Kachemak Bay, especially the area most utilized

                             by large vessels, the degree of initial oil release will obviously

                             be the controlling factor as to the extent to which the area will be

                             affected.

                             Estimate of the expected surface area to be covered by a given

                             amount of oil are difficult to make, as a number of factors modify

                             the composition and the spreading behavior of the oil.

                             The amount of oil that could be spilled into the inner portion of

                             Kachemak Bay can range from a few gallons to in excess of perhaps

                             in excess of 10 million gallons (about 45,000 b1s) from a

                             tanker.'

                             Of interest, referring to the METULA incident, is the high dosage

                             of oil on various beaches (5 to 10,000 tons/mile). The surface area

                             of the inner Bay, eastward of Homer Spit, is about 96 square nautical

                             Miles. Assuming an even distribution of oil over the entire inner

                             bay, about 400 bls of oil could be expected per square mile.

                             Large spillage in the outer bay, would obviously have different

                             dosag e depending upon the points of relase. The dosage from an

                             uncontrolled well, drilled at the proposed exploratory well locations

                             in outer Kachemak Bay are unquantifiable at this time, due to the

                             absence of information about the size and volume of flow.

                        2.   Dispersal of Oil

                             The fate and biological effects of oil, once relased in marine

                             waters such as those of Kachemak Bay, is controlled by the initial

                             physio-chemical characteristics of the oil. Crude and refined

                                                       111-18

                               products exhibit a wide complexity and variations in their physical-

                               chemical composition. Since the physical-chemical processess the

                               oil will undergo once introduced into the marine environment depends

                               upon its composition, a knowledqe of the composition and physical-

                               chemical properties of the spilled material is an essential pre-

                               requisite to predicting its fate.

                               The most likely types of oil that can be spilled in Kachemak Bay

                               consist of crude oil, both local and imported from the Middle East,

                               Bunker C or No. 6 fuel   oil, diesel or No. 2 fuel oil and light

                               petroleum products such as kerosene and gasoline.

                               The composition of "average" crude can be most easily described in

                               terms of its:

                               Molecular Size                       Molecular Type

                    Gasoline                   30%             Paraffine (alkanes)        30%

                    Kerosene                   10%             Naphtene Hydrocarbons      50%

                    Light Distillate           15%             Aromatic Hydrocarbons      15%

                    Heavy. Distillate          25%             Nitrogen, sulfur, oxygen

                                                               containing compounds        5%

                    Residues                   20%

                               Moore et al (1973) distinguished light fractions of oil, as

                               summarized in table.

                               The dispersal of oil includes: spreading,    evaporation, air-sea

                               interchange, emulsification, solution, sinking, chemical oxidation,

                               microbial oxidation, ohoto-chemical reactions and beaching.

                                                                                       TABLE 22,
                                                                      BASIC DATA FOR OIL COWSITION MODEL
                                                                              (from Moore et al., 1973)

                                                                                                                                          b    Solubility  C
                                                                       a                  b    Boilipg      Molecular       Vapor Press*              6
                                                              Z by*wt.           Density       Pointo                             20%          (gm/10 9M
                          Fraction      Description  a       in Crude Oil        (gm/ml)         (90        Weightb              (mm)          Distilled H 0)
                                                                                                                                                            2

                                        Paraffin
                                        C 6-C 12             .1-20               .66-077..     69-230       86-170          110-.1             9.5-.01

                          2             Paraffin
                                        C    -C              0+-10               .77-*78      230-405      184-352-'         .1                .01-.004
                                          13 . 25

                          3             Cycloparaffin
                                        C 6-C 12             5-30                075-.9        70-230       84-164          100-1.             55-1.

                          4             Cycloparaffin                                                                                                                  P1-4
                                        C 13-C 23            5-30                .9-1.        230-405      156-318          l.-O               l.-O

                          5       Aromatic (mono- and
                                        di-cyclic)
                                        C 6-C 11             0-5                 .88-1.1       80-240       78-143          72-.1-             1780.-0.

                          6       Aromatic (Poly-
                                        Cyclic)
                                        C 12-C18                                 1.1-1.2      240-400      128-234          .1-0,              12.5-0

                          7         Naphtheno-Aromatic
                                        C 9-C 25             5-30                .97-1.2      180-400      116-300          1.-@O              L-0

                          8             Residual
                                      (including heter-
                                        ocycles)             10-70               L-1.1            >400     300-900            0                 0

                                                    111-20

                            a.    Spreading

                                  Spreading occurs rapidly at first; Fay (1969) investigating the

                                  spread of oil on a calm sea, concluded that gravitational effects

                                  (hydraulic head) controlled the initial spreading of the oil. As

                                  the oil thins however, interfacial tension between oil and water

                                  becomes influential. From available spill data, it is observed

                                  that even viscous crudes spread into thin layers that become

                                  influenced by surface effects. For example, Berridge et al (1968)

                                  calculates that 100 cu. m. of various crudes will thin to an

                                  average value of . 55 cm within 17 minutes, .12 cm after 3 hours

                                  and .003 cm after 28 hours.

                                  Once*a spill has thinned to the point that surface forces play

                                  an important role, the oil layer is no longer continuous, but

                                  becomes fragmented by wind and waves into patches and wind rows

                                  where thicker layers of oil are in equilibrium with thinner films

                                  rich in surface active compounds. Observations on experimental

                                  spills (Jeffrey, 1973; Hollinger an-d Mennella, 1973) indicate

                                  that patches of oil several millimeters thick were surrounded

                                  by thin films of less than 4 mm - approximately 90% of the

                                  volume of the oil was in the thicker layers that occupied only

                                  10% of the visible slick area (figure 50).

                                  Wind, waves and eddies determine the shape and direction of the

                                  spill. Blokker (1964) considered the wind as being the most

                                  influential factor, the oil drifting at about 3-5% of the wind

                                  speed.

                                                                                                                                                   0 min        4 min        22 min          42min                2 It

                                               CA

                                               (D

                                                                             Thickness (mml
                                               LQ                                                                                                                    7h*

                                                                                                                                                                                                     2 days

                                                                                                                         POP

                                                                            1.5 1.2    0.1                                                                                               IQZ3

                                                                                                                                                                                        2% days

                                                                                                                                                                  L@P                        C:Z>
                                                                                                                                                                      %@.- -,

                                                              0                     100                    200                   300                      Thicker Oil
                                                                                            Distance im)                                                                                4 days
                                                                                Comparison of visible slick with actual lbick-                                      A series of. diagrams showing the outline de-
                                                               ness of oil on water as measured by multifrequency microwave                        velopment and subsequent breakup of the oil slick (P. G. Jeffrey.
                                                               radiometry (Hollinger and Mcnneila, 1973).                                          1973).

                              (paliodajun) aAO3 4nqLPH     Mds LP LLPWS

                                                                        I Til,

                                                        -ja

                                                                       7 @+4`-

                                                    111-22

                                  The importance of the surface active constituents in spreading

                                  and dispersion of oil in water is demonstrated by the fact that

                                  most pure hydrocarbons do no spread spontaneously by surface

                                  forces. Surface active constituents are known to  exist in crude

                                  oil. Dunning et al (1953, 1954, 1956) attributed  the major

                                  interfacial activities from Oklahoma and California crudes to

                                  vanadium and nickel porDhyrin complexes. Canaveri (1970)

                                  identifies prophyrin emulsifier from Kuwait crude. Nitrogen-

                                  sulfur-oxygen compounds (NSO) have also been shown (Seifert

                                  and Howells, 1969) to be highly surface active. Such compounds

                                  enhance the weathering processes by increasing the surface to

                                  volume ratio, giving a greater exposure to the air and under-

                                  lying water. The cessation of slick growth has been attributed

                                  by Fay (1971) to the decrease in spreading tendency from loss

                                  of NSO compounds by dissolution or by inclusion into tar bases.

                                  The spreading of an oil slick in Kachemak Bay will be greatly

                                  influenced by the regime of the circulation. The results of the

                                  transport measurements performed to date clearly show that the

                                  pattern of.transport of the spill will be complex and will depend

                                  to a great extent to the sta ge of the tide at the onset of the

                                  spill to the location within the bay, and to the effects of the

                                  local winds.

                                  The present data indicate that:
                                  1.) Hydrocarbons released near the inner portion of the spit

                                      would most likely spread along the seaward face of the spit

                                                   111-23

                                      and along the shores between the spit and Bluff Point.

                                 2.)  Hydrocarbons released in the vicinity of.the Shell-SoCal

                                      drilling site would most likely affect the shore between

                                      Anchor and Bluff Point, an area where a number of otters
                                      have been olvserved in the kelp beds, along the shore.

                                 3.)  Hydrocarbons released in the vicinity of Point Pogibshi

                                      would.follow several paths, depending upon the prevailing

                                      tidal regime. They.spread along the southern shore and enter

                                      various embayments travel to the Anchor Point-Homer Spit

                                      shore, travel up channel or even reach the Kamishak side

                                      of the inlet.

                                 4.)  Hydrocarbons released within the inner oortion of the outer

                                      bay would follow a circuitous route, within the gyres system.

                                 Of interest is the predicted oil spill trajectory inferred by

                                 Miller and Britch (1975) for a location in outer Kachemak Bay.

                                 The prediction shows inferred trajectories for various wind

                                 speeds and directiom, neglecting the effects of the tidal

                                 circulation, and an inferred trajectory with the combined

                                 effects of winds and tides (Fig. 51).

                                 Analysis of present information on the processes controlling

                                 the spreading of spilled oil indicate that significant knowledge

                                 has been acquired on some of the controlling factors. However,

                                 the degree of knowledge so far acquired can only provide gross

                                 understanding of spill spreading processes. At this time,

                                 one can only reflect upon the statement of p. 1, chapter I. of

                                 the MIT studies on "Oil Spill Trajectory Studies for the Atlantic

                                                                                                     111-24

                                                                                                                                 PREDICTED OIL SPILL TPAJECTORY Wir,40VT TIDAL
                                                                                                                                       TRAVERSE FOR VARYIEG WINDS AT HOMER

                                                                                                                                                    C. Lm
                                                                                                                                                    northeast winds
                                                                                                                                                    Southwest Winds
                                                                                                                                                    northwest Winds
                                                                                                         24                                wind speeds are in xnote
                                                                                                                                       24 Asrival Tims are in    Hours

                                                                          k
                                                                                                                                 LIU                                 a          a

                                                                                                                                                            j0y

                                                                                                                              4AC14
                                                                                                                                         /0

                                                                   war

                                                                                                                                     PREDICTED OIL SPILL TRAJECTORY WITH A
                                                                                                                                        10 KNOT NORTKWEST WIND AT HOMIER
                                                                                                                                     - - -    Spill acmirring :t nigh Tide
                                                                 d
                                                                 w                                        a).                                 Spill Occurring t La. Tide.
                                                                 er.
                                                                                                                                     ------   Spill Without Tidal Traverse

                                                                 W..e

                                                                                                                                    40MER  J
                                                                      k

                                                                                                       IN
                                                                                                                                                         L3AY
                                                                 se-se

                                                                                                                                        42
                                                                                                                24
                                                                                                                                                    56 HR
                                                                                                                      12,
                                                                                                                             3r.
                                                                                                                                    35 RS

                                                                                                                            5 MRS

                                                                                                        r

                                                                 Fig. 51. Inferred Oil Spill Trajectories for Kachemak Bay.
                                                                                     (Miller and Britch, 1975)

                                  Coast and Gulf of Alaska" (CBQ Report - OCS Oil and Gas, An

                                  Environmental Assessment - April 1974).

                                       "Despite the ten or fifteen papers available on the

                                       subject of oil spill transport in the ocean, it is

                                       fairly clear that we do not understand how the waves

                                       passing underneath an oil flick, the wind blowing

                                       over an oi-1 slick, and the gross motions of the

                                       underlying water combine to move the oil. In fact,

                                       we fi,nd that the motions of the waters lying right

                                       at the air-sea interface, in the absence of oil are

                                       still the subject of much current research."

                                  Much work has been done, and much understanding acquired,

                                  but for Kachemak Bay, a spreading spill will require real

                                  time, constant field monitoring for control and clean up.

                             b.   Sea-Air Transfer Processes

                                  Hydrocarbons fractions, spilled upon the surface of Kachemak

                                  Bay will be transferred to the atmosphere by evaporation and

                                  by wave produced spray and bursting bubbles.

                                  The rate at which spilled oil evaporates off the sea is

                                  determined by its chemical composition. The more volatile

                                  components, gasoline and kerosene, can, according to Kreider

                                  (1971) be volatized within 10 days. Light distillates show

                                  limited volatility and will be retained for the most part in

                                  the slick. Heavy distillates and residues do not volatize

                                  readily. Evaporation alone can remove 50% of the hydrocarbons

                                  from an "average" spilled crude, depleting the lower boiling

                                  components (fractions 1, 3, and 5 shown on table).

                                                 111-26

                              The evaporated hydrocarbons enter the atmospheric pool of

                              hydrocarbons. Chemical reactions in the atmosphere convert

                              an unknown amount of these hydrocarbons into less volatile

                              non-hydrocarbon compounds. The fates and effects of such

                              compounds are unknown.

                              Hydrocarbons are also removed by wave produced spray and

                              bursting bubbles. Rough seas tend to favor losses of

                              hydrocarbons to the atmosphere as spray and bursting bubbles

                              eject both volatile and non volatile components. However,

                              wave action and turbulence also favors emulsification of

                              the oil and facilitate its solution.

                              Exam ination of the drogue data and of the inferred spill

                              trajectories of Miller and Britch, indicate that, due to the

                              rather restricted.size of Kachemak Bay, oil would reach the

                              shores within a few hours to less than 4 days. Based upon

                              present estimates for evaporation of the light oil fractions,

                              most of the oil reaching the shores would still contain a high

                              percentage of its volatile fractions. At this time no estimate

                              can be made of the magnitude of the fraction of oil ejected

                              to the atmosphere by spray and bursting bubble that would settle

                              upon the coastal area bordering the bay. The METULA incident showed

                              that spray will induce heavy coatings of the back shores by oil.

                              Under appropriate sets of wind and wave conditions, sea-air

                              transfer processes can be a major factor in translocating
                              spilled oil beyond the'shorelines.

                                                  111-27

                            C.   Emulsification

                                 Turbulence and sea surface agitation will induce two types of

                                 emulsion: oil-in-water and water-in-oil.

                                 The oil-in-water emulsions consist of droplets of oil, up to

                                 a few mm in diameter which are stabilized by the presence of

                                 various hydrophylic groups naturally present in crude oil but

                                 usually removed during refining. (Pilpel, 1968). Oil-in-water

                                 emulsions are readily miscible in sea water and are easily
                                 dispersed by currents and turbulence. Forester (1971)

                                 investigated these fine particles in details following the

                                 spill at Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. He observed particles

                                 ranging from 5 mm to several mm dispersing as a result of

                                 wave agitation down to a depth of 80 m inside the Bay and down to

                                 45 m, 65 km outside the bay; near surface distri-bution of

                                 particles extended 250 km SW along the Nova Scotia coast. The

                                 spill released approximately 108,000 bbls of Bunker C fuel

                                 oil into the bay, in Feburary 1970.

                                 Water-in-oil emulsions are formed particularly by heavy asphaltic

                                 crudes and residual oils. Water-in-oil emulsions are not miscilble

                                 with sea water, consisting of droplets of water enclosed into

                                 sheaths of oil rendered stable by the presence of various

                                 resinous and asphaltic materials naturally occurring in crudes.

                                 These emulsions can contain uo to 80% water and have a consistency

                                 ranging from thick cream to road tar. They tend to occur as

                                 somewhat coherent semi-solid lumps often referred to as

                                 "chocolate mousse". Studies by Dodd (1971) show that the rate

                                 of formulation of water-in-oil emulsions under comparable con-

                                                  111-28

                                  ditions vary dramatically with the nature of the oil.

                                  The water-in-oil emulsions usually remain as thick, greasy layers

                                  or may break up into lumps. Some washes ashore, some sinks to

                                  the bottom and the rest gradually decomposes. Three factors

                                  induce an oil-in-water emulsion-to increase its specific gravity

                                  and sink. (ZoBell, 1964): Adsorbption of sand, clay, silt, and

                                  skeletal remains of various organisms, spontaneous oxidation

                                  and microbial oxidation.

                                  Sinking occurs most rapidly in shallow water and in the intertidal

                                  zone, where the concentrations of suspended solid is high. Along

                                  beaches and muddy estuaries, the oil material is soon located

                                  with sand, small pebbles, shells and other debris and turns into

                                  a hard mass. Along muddy and sandy beaches, a good deal of it

                                  becomes buried in the intertidal zone.

                                  Kinney (1970) observed that,in upper Cook Inlet, crude oil

                                  changes rapidly from its initial state of black oil spreading

                                  along the surface into particles of water-in-oil emulsion,

                                  exhibiting considerable variations in size and a high degree

                                  of stabi*lity. Cook Inlet silt was observed to have no apparent

                                  effects upon emulsion formulation or sinking of Cook Inlet

                                  Crude (Button et al 1970), a fact consistent with what is known

                                  about the displacement of hydrogen bonded water from clay

                                  surfaces by non-polar Darticles. Initial emulsification from

                                  an experimental spill of 20 gallons ofCook Inlet Crude was very

                                                    111-29

                                  rapid. Within three hours the predominant character of the

                                  spill was black patches of emulsion, ranking in size from

                                  very small to up to two inches in size, some exhibiting almost

                                  fibrous appearance, interspaced in a light surface slick. Winds

                                  averaged about 10 knots (Kinney, 1970).

                             d.   Solution

                                  Present information indicates that water-soluble aromatics and

                                  aliphatic hydrocarbons exhibit sublethal effects on marine

                                  organisms at concentrations of 10-100 pob, lethal toxicity at

                                  0.1-10 ppm for most larval stages and lethal effects at 1-100 ppm

                                  for most adult organisms (Moore et al, 1973). Although little

                                  is known of the relative percentages of loss of such components

                                  by evaporation and solution, it is usually assumed that most is

                                  lost mainly by evaporation. Detailed understanding of the fate

                                  of such components, especially during the early stages of slick

                                  aging is crucial, as the low boiling hydrocarbon fractions contain'

                                  almost all of.the lethal components of the slick (Blumer, 1971);

                                  investigations on the "weathering" of crude oil slicks on the

                                  sea have demonstrated that all of the lower boiling com-

                                  ponents evaporate or dissolve within a few hours of slick

                                  initiation (James - et al, 1973; Sivadier and Mikolaj, 1973).

                                  Water solubility of hydrocarbons drODs drastically as the carbon

                                  number increases (McAuliffe, 1969; Baker, 1967). Solution

                                  preferentially removes the lower molecular weight components;

                                  however, aromatic hydrocarbons have a higher solubility than
                                  n-paraffin at the same boiling point (Blumer, 1970).

                                                   111-30

                                 Dissolution of hydrocarbon fractions into sea water can also

                                 take place over a period of time, after all visible evidences

                                 of the slick have disappeared. McIlvaine (1974) indicates that

                                 dissolved oil was observed during oil spill survey during

                                 finger printing analysis of waters taken from control stations

                                 showing no evidence of surface 5licks or iridescence. Blumer

                                 and Sass (1972), working with No. 2 fuel oil showed that low

                                 boiling aromatics (C-1 to C-3) incorporated in the sediments

                                 were being replaced by,highly soluble aromatics, suggesting

                                 that the low carbon aromatics were going into solution rather

                                 than being degraded by the marine microfiora. McIlvaine

                                 indicates that there is direct evidence that refined hydrocarbons

                                 can go into solution and that such solution is mainly restricted

                                 to the toxic aromatic fractions.

                                 The emulsification and solution processes controlling the fate

                                 of spilled hydrocarbons are of great importance to the assessment

                                 of spill impacts upon the Kac.hemak. Bay environment. As previously

                                 commented, the relatively small geographical extent of the

                                 Bay, the rather high residence time of the spilled material

                                 within the semi-daily tidal eddies and the semi-permanent

                                 gyre, indicates that the basic circulation and transport

                                 process would favor significant incorporation of spilled

                                 material within the water column, beach, intertidal and

                                 subtidal sediments.

                                 The processes of incorporation and the environmental fate of

                                 the spilled material will be governed by the initial composition

                                                    111-31

                                  of the spilled hydrocarbons. Fuel oil would probably be in-

                                  corDorated as an oil-in-water emulsion and, under various con-

                                  ditions of sea surface roughness, could be incorporated through-

                                  out much of the water column of the Bay. Its potential toxicity

                                 .to marine life would be high.

                                  Crude oil would take to rapidly form water-in-oil emulsions,

                                  giving rise to thick tarry lumps with formation of some

                                  "chocolate mousses", and much of the material would either

                                  coat the shore with a viscous layer or sink to the bottom.

                                  The fate of the material once sunk beneath the surface is

                                  difficult to ascertain. During the San Francisco spill, the

                                  writer (Dr. M.P. Wennekens) obtained reports from divers

                                  working in Bolinas Bay, at the entrance to San Francisco Bay,

                                  stating that a two to three foot layer of viscous oily globules,

                                  some of them several inches long, could be found suspended

                                  above the bottom, the globules being in hydrostatic equilibrium

                                  within the near bottom turbid layer often observed along the

                                  coast. Part of.the sunken oil would periodically wash ashore,

                                  necessitating several recleaning of beaches.

                                  The subsurface fate of emulsified and dissolved constituents

                                  will be greatly influenced and controlled by the vertical

                                  density stratification. As shown in the beginning of the

                                  report, the Bay is characterized by a COMDlex, seasonal regime

                                  of density stratification. Work by LaFond (1969) and others

                                  has demonstrated the close relationships between subsurfaced

                                  distribution of sharp density layers and the concentration of

                                  particulates (and planktons). The subsurface density

                                                    111-32

                                  stratification behave in a fashion similar to an atmospheric

                                  inversion layer in the entrapment of particulates. The

                                  seasonal density stratification of Kachemak Bay will be a

                                  significant factor in the control of dispersal of emulsified

                                  and dissolved hydrocarbons.

                             e.   Sedimentation

                                  The NAS report (Petroleum in the Marine Environment, 1975) notes

                                  that: "Actual sedimentation plays an essential part in the fate

                                  of oil in the marine environment, however, virtually no systematic

                                  field work has been done on this subject and it is difficult to

                                  make more than a qualitative prediction about either the rates of

                                  sedimentation or the amounts of Petroleum to be found in the

                                  sediments".

                                  Decomposition of petroleum components in the marine environment

                                  of Kachemak Bay must consider deposition on the shore, intertidal

                                  and subtidal areas. Processes increasing the density of the

                                  spilled oil include evaporation, solution, flocculation and

                                  agglutination of oily particles, adsorption to particulates,

                                  absorption into particulates.

                                  Following a spill, considerable incornoration of oil into the

                                  sediments can occur within a few weeks (Kolpack, 1971). As

                                  previously noted, evaporation and solution, combined with other

                                  reaction such as oxidation, contribute to the formation of

                                  semi-solid globules. As the more volatile constituents of the

                                  oil are preferrentially removed, the specific gravity of the

                                  remaining fractions induces the remaining oil to become
                                  denser. Sea water has a specific, gravity (density) of about

                                              111-33

                                  1.025; from table 22*, it can be seen that the specific gravities

                                  of fractions 4 through 8 would readily make them sink to the

                                  bottom.

                                  Agglutination of dispersed liquid oil particles have been

                                  observed following spill (Forrester, 1971) and formation of

                                  of oily aggregrates in Upper Cook Inlet was, as previously

                                  mentioned, commented upon by Kinney.

                                  In the coastal-estuarine conditions of Kachemak Bay, usually

                                 .characterized by a certain amount of turbidity, especially along

                                  the shoreline subjected to wave action, agglutination of

                                  particulates by oily residues can be expected to be high.

                                  Under such conditions entrainement of oil into bottom deposit

                                  is greatly enhanced, especially along the extensive tidal and

                                  shallow subtidal area characterized by fine grain sediments.

                                  Many Bunker-C oils and some heavy crudes have specific gravities

                                  near 1.0, thus only slight addition of particulate matter will

                                  induce their sinking.

                                  Sorption processes induce clay minerals to adsorb large quantities

                                  of dissolved hydrocarbons (Meyers, 1972). Organic matter in

                                  the clay contribute to the process; sorbtion increases with

                                  salinity, but decreases with temperature. The rate of in-

                                  corporation of oil into the sediments can also be acclerated by

                                  the fecal pelleting of particulate matter by organisms. The

                                  magnitude of the amount of fecal material that can be generated

                                  can be gauged by observations showing that oysters covering

                                  1 acre of estuary would deposit about 7.6 metric tons (dry weight)

                                  of fecal pellets in 11 days, which would come to about 290

                                                   111-34
                               metric tons per year or the equivalent of about 46 kg/m2
                               (1 acre = 4.1 x 103 M2).

                               The movement of oil, once incorporated in the sediments, is

                               poorly understood. Although the chemical composition of the

                               oil does not appear to be altered materially, oil incorporated

                               into the unconsolidated sediments may persist for long periods

                               of time, especially the higher boiling fractions. Loss of low
                               boiling fractions proceed.at much lower rates (months as com-

                               pared to hours or days) as suggested by Blumer and Sass (1972)

                               observations on the W. Falmouth spill. Blumer et al (1971),

                               Kolpack et al (1971) indicate that lateral spreading (up to 1 km)

                               can continue for at least several months after a spill.

                               In the intertidal area, the fate of the oil will depend upon

                               the type of substrate. In the Kachemak Bay area, several types

                               of substrate are present: fine grained sediments of the tidal

                               marshes, protected embayements and semi-exposed extensive

                               intertidal flats, coarse sediments along the more open beaches

                               subjected to wave action, rocky shores with extensive intertidal

                               and subtidal algal matting.

                               On beaches, reworking of liquid and particulate oil takes

                               place on the foreshore (Asthana and Marlow, 1970). On un-

                               protected beaches, subjected to more energetic wave action,

                               such as the beaches of the Bluff Point area, the entire amount

                               of oily residues can be deposited during one tidal cycle and

                               removed on the next one, the residues transgressing progressively

                               lo,ngshorewards with the prevailing transport.

                                                    111-35

                                   Tarry globules on beaches tend to accumulate large amounts of

                                   sediments, become rounded and finally behave like pebbles

                                   (Ludwig and Carter, 1961). They tend to concentrate near and

                                   above normal high tides, where the degradation of large masses

                                   become very slow (Blumer et al 1973).

                                   In the extensive fine grained intertidal and shallow sub-

                                   tidal areas of the Bay, sedimentation processes are quite

                                   active, so that layer of oily material can be rather quickly

                                   buried. Much reworking of the sediments takes place by the

                                   action of the often prevalent wavelets stirring up the surface

                                   of the shallows. Once on the bottom and incorporated into the

                                   sediments, the oil constituents will be ingested by the various

                                   benthic forms and pelletized. Once within the sediments,

                                   further degradation will proceed under anaerobic conditions

                                   (Gebelin, 1971).

                                   Along rocky shores, retention of the liquid and finely dis-

                                   pensed oil is usually controlled by the algal matting of the

                                   lower intertidal, upper subtidal region and pores of the rocky

                                   surface. Large amounts of petroleum can become entrapped in

                                   the ho.ldfast-sediment complex of the algal mat and the oily

                                   residues then are progressively leached out by tidal action over

                                   long periods of time (Foster et al, 1971).

                                   Again, making a parallel between the METULA incident and the

                                   potentials for a mishap in Kachemak Bay, one must note that

                                   reports from the METULA incident only referred to accumulation

                                   of oil on the beaches and intertidal area. It is interesting

                                                   111-36

                                  to note that the grounding occurred in August, at the peak of

                                  the Austral winter. It can be postulated at this time, from

                                  the fact that the spill consisted primarily of crude, that much

                                  of the oil formed a water-in-oil emulsion, which would greatly

                                  favor the formation of heavy oil globules and some "chocolate

                                  mousse    Thus much of the oil probably was initially subtidally

                                  deposited along the bottom within the general area of the
                                  spill. The January observations ( mid Austral summer)

                                  still showed massive retention of oil in the salt marshes and

                                  in sediments and that oil leaked out was returned to the beach

                                  as swash layers. Thus the Dersistence of oil in marshy, intertidal

                                  and subtidal sediments can be high.

                                  The persistence of oil in sediments is also documented by

                                  several series of observations undertaken to assess the long

                                  term fate of spilled oil (CEQ Report - OCS Oil and Gas - An

                                  Environmental Assessment, 1974).

                                  Chedabucto Bay - Nova Scotia*- Canada

                                  108,000 bls (about 22,000 tons) of No. 6 Bunker C fuel oil

                                  was spilled into the bay on February 4, 1970. The oil entered

                                  two habitats: sandy beaches and rocky shores. U.V. spectro-

                                  photometry showed that 26 months after the spill (April 1972),

                                  about 300 mg of Bunker per gram (wet weight) of fine sediments

                                  remained in the first three feet (10 M.), an amount comparable

                                  to the concentration initially measured shortly after the spill..

                                  In contrast, measurements in gravelly sediments showed only

                                  traces of pilr

                                                  111-37

                                  Re-oiling due to the original spill, reoccurred in the bay as

                                  late as the summer of 1973. About 50% of the original oil

                                  content was still present in the lagoons and salt marshes.

                                  Little residual oil was found on rocky shores.

                                  West Falmouth - Massachusetts

                                  An estimated 4,500 bls (about 1100 tons) of No. 2 fuel oil

                                  was spilled off West Falmouth Harbor on September 16, 1969.

                                  In the heaviest hit area, two years after the spill, 117 mg

                                  of fuel oil/per 100 grams (dry weight) of sediment were still

                                  observed; from gas chromatography, it was demonstrated that

                                  30% of the oil consisted of aromatics. Oil was found in the

                                  marshes at least five feet below the surface of the sediments

                                  and undegraded fuel oil was still present four years after the

                                  spill. Researchers at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute

                                  estimate a persistence time in excess of five years for this

                                  relatively small spill.

                                  Santa Barbara, California

                                  Starting on January 28, 1969, and lasting for several weeks, a

                                  wild well spilled in excess of 33,000 bls (about 6600 tons) of

                                  oil. Sediment samples analyzed for oil in March, May and June of

                                  1970 showed no reduction in oil content; oil has been measured

                                  in sediments as late as June 1970. Straughan (1973) comments

                                  that the effects of oil on rocky shores were least, and that

                                  exposed sandy beaches recovered from oil contamination during

                                  1972-73.

                                  The CEQ report indicates @hat the data from eight different

                                                                                                  mi nIrmum Persistence Time-Cyrs) of Weothered Oil

                                                           tr 0

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                                                 111-39

                                   oil spills can provide for an estimate of the persistance of

                                   oil in different types of substrate habitats, as illustrated

                                   in figure 52.

                                   As previously mentioned, care must be exercised in internt-P,

                                   the graph. As the observed persistance relate primaril@

                                   length of time a particular investigator or a particular inv

                                   program was studying the problem. Research work can be

                                   terminated at any given time, but termination of the work dI-I-

                                   not mean that the research ceased because oil was no longer

                                   Thus the data from figure 52, must be considered as observed

                                   minimum of the persistance of oil in a given habitat.

                              f.   Biodegradation

                                   Micro-organisms play an important role in the decomposition

                                   of oil introduced into the marine environment. Because of tr,-

                                   substrate specificity of oil degrading bacterias, the initial

                                   chemical composition of the oil a controls its rate of bacter-

                                   degradation.

                                   Viscosity, toxicity, water solubility and surface area are

                                   controlling factors, thus it is often uncertain whether a

                                   slow degradability reflects bacterial specificity towards

                                   a given hydrocarbon or the combined effects of the above

                                   factors. Due to the lower solubility of the higher boiling

                                   compounds, their decomposition require a direct contact

                                   between the bacteria and the oil and bacterial colonization

                                   of the emulsion interface, where the degradation rate depen(j,

                                   primarily upon the surface to volume ratio; the toxicity of

                                   soluble fractions only allows bacterial growth in the less

                                   toxic portions of the undissolved oil (Gunkel, 1973). Durin,

                                                    111-40

                                  the degradation process, the bacteria can produce surface

                                  active substances which lower the surface tension and

                                  contribute to the formation of oil-in-water emulsion.

                                  It is a well established fact that the activity and

                                  multiplication of heterotrophic bacterias and subsequently

                                  the amount of oil that can be degraded is not limited by

                                  the density of bacterias at the beginning of the degradation

                                  processes, but by controlling environmental factors (Fuhs, 1961;

                                  Zobell, 1964; Gunkel, 1967). Zobell for example calculated

                                  that 3.3 kgs of oxygen is needed to oxidize 1 kg of mineral

                                  oil, or the equivalent of the oxygen content of about 400

                                  cu.meter of sea water. Thus oxygen availability is a limiting

                                  factor, especially in confined embayments, with sluggish

                                  circulation.

                                  Inorganic nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphate, due to

                                  their low concentrations in sea water, are another limiting

                                  factor, especially at the time of high phytoplankton pro-

                                  dudtivity. T emperature is another important controlling

                                  factor; at low temperatures, the more toxic, low boiling

                                  fractions take longer to evaporate from the slick and

                                  bacterial activity is usually reduced. PsychrODhylic (cold

                                  loving) bacteria, prevalent in the Arctic Sea and sub-arctic

                                  waters can degrade oil at temperatures as low as -1.10C

                                  (Zobell, 1972).

                                  Organisms other than oil oxidizers can also influence the de-

                                  gradation. Gunkel notices that, after a short time, oil

                                                    111-41

                                  degradation almost ceased and the number of bacteria dropped

                                  considerably. Microscopic examination showed the existence

                                  of large number of protozoams actively feeding on the

                                  bacterias.

                                  Once the oil has been deposited on the bottom, the limited

                                  availability of dissolved oxygen, and incorporation of the oil

                                  within the sediment matrix, favors anaerobic degradation.

                                  Under such conditions, degradation will be much slower, being

                                 ,of the order of days and weeks rather than hours and days.

                                  Recent studies indicate that by-products from microbial

                                  break down of oil can be more toxic that the original compounds.

                                  Information on that subject is as yet scant. Brown and Tisher

                                  (1969) indicate, based upon results of preliminary bioassay

                                  utilizing the spent media from microbial degradation of motor

                                  oil and naphtenic crude that the resulting water soluble

                                  fractions were more toxic to test fish than the original oil.

                  B.    Ecological-Impacts

                        The ecological impacts upon a marine environment such as Kachemak Bay,

                        reflects the combined integrated effects of both whole oil and individual

                        oil components upon all levels of biological organization: subcellular,

                        cellular, whole organism, population and community.

                        To analyie    the bio-physical-chemical changes brought by whole and

                        degradation products of oil, the chemical classes of compounds that

                        are most likely to affect organisms must be considered and the extent

                        of the gross biological effects that can be expected ascertained.

                                                    111-42

                        For instance, if the effect is immediate mass mortality, even at

                        low concentration, then the importance of subsequentde degradation

                        of the oil must be viewed in a different context than when the

                        effects pertain to long term, ubiquitous biological damage by

                        chronic exposure.

                        The biological effects of oil can be examined by considering its

                        main components as shown in fig. 53 (Blumer, 1969).

                        1.   Saturated Hydrocarbons

                             Low boiling n-alkenes, until quite recently, had been considered

                             harmless to the marine environment. Marine organisms naturally

                             synthesize n-alkenes, odd carbon chain length predominating; in

                             marsh grass and benthic macroalgae, 21-29 odd carbon chain

                             predominated, while in phytoplankton, 15-21 carbon chains seem to

                             prevail (Clark, 1966; Blumer et al, 1971).

                             It has been found that low boiling n-alkenes, which are rather

                             readily soluble in water, induce at low concentrations (ppb to few

                             ppm) anaesthesia and narcosis, and at greater concentrations (ppm)

                             damage and kill a wide variety of animals; n-alkenes can be especially

                             damaging to the larvae and juveniles of many forms of marine life

                             (Blumer, 1971; Goldacre, 1968).

                        2.   Olefinic Hydrocarbons

                             The olefinic hydrocarbons, intermediated in structure and pro-

                             perties and probably toxicity (Blumer, 1971) are rarely present

                             in crude oils. They are abundant in refined products, and are

                             also produced by many marine organisms and may serve biological

                             functions such as biocommunication.

                                                 111-43

                     SA-TU RATED HY;D ROCAR BONS

                     0 L E F I N I C        HYDROCARBONS

                     AROMATI C              H Y D R 0 C A R B 0 N
                                           .................................
                                       ................................................
                                       ........................................
                                               ............
                                                                          . ..................
                                       .........................

                                                                                ............
                                                                                ...........
                     N' 0 N F1 Y D R 0 C.A.R.B. OJ,@.@ .... (N.I. S. O.Y. q.n d N i
                                        .... ....... ..               . ..............................
                                        .................. . . .. . .. .............. ........
                                        ...... ............

              .'low  boiling                                                     high  boiling

                                   acute toxicity

                       .....................
                       .. ...........
                                    long term toxicify
                                   suspected interference     with  biologicol processes

               Fig. 53. Composition of Crude Oil and Toxicity of its Fraction. (Blumer, 1969)

                                                 111-44

                        3.   Aromatic Hydrocarbons

                             Aromatic hydrocarbons are abundant in petroleum and represent

                             its most dangerous fractions. Low boiling hydrocarbons (benzene,

                             toluene, xylene) are acute poisons. They are highly water

                             soluble and can kill aquatic organisms either by direct contact

                             or by contact in diluted solutions.

                             The great tragedy of the Torrey Canyon spill was greatly

                             compounded by the fact that the detergents used to disperse the

                             oil had been dissolved in low boiling aromatics; their appli-

                             cation multiplied the damage to coastal organisms. It should

                             be pointed out however, that poisoning of marine life can

                             occur even with non-toxic detergents, as their application

                             disperses the toxic material from the oil, thus increasing

                             toxic exposure through contact and ingestion.

                             Supporting evidence shows that toxic responses are primarily

                             caused by the lower boiling aromatics: e.g. the comparisons of the

                             effects of benzene, n-hexane and toluene on marine algae by

                             Wilber (1968), the data for Various Dispersants reported by

                             Sprague and Carson (1970), the Experiments on Gastropods by

                             Ottway (1971); the present results of Lee et.al. (1972) on the

                             effects of various hydrocarbons on mussels. In each of these

                             cases, as well as others where information on the types

                             of compounds causing toxicity is available, the low boiling,

                             more soluble aromatics are consistantly implicated as the

                             primary.biocidal components.

                                                  111-45

                             The investigations of Teal and Stegeman (1973) with two oyster

                             populations and of Brocksen and Bailey (1975) with two fish

                             differing in lipid content, (Chinook Salmon 11% of total body

                             fat and Striped Bass, 21% of total body fat) indicate a close

                             relationship between concentrations of aromatics and lipid

                             levels. Experiments on the low and high fat oyster show that,

                             although the initial rate of uptake was the same for both groups

                             of oysters, the animals with a lower fat content approached

                             equilibrium more quickly than those with about twice the tissue

                             levels.

                             Brocksen and Bailey, through measurement of respiratory stresses

                             of Chinook Salmon and Striped Bass exposed to substantial concen-

                             trations of Benzene, showed that the probable physiological

                             pathway was through absorption across the gill membrane,

                             attachment to the erythrocytes and.lipoproteins for transport

                             into lipid rich tissues. The authors observed that the Striped

                             Bass, with its higher lipid content, det-oxified more rapidly than

                             the Chinook Salmon; they postulated that the fish with higher lipid

                             levels had higher concentrations of compounds needed for enzymatic

                             detoxification of benzene and as such were able to recover more

                             quickly.

                             The inference that the biological effects of aromatic hydro-

                             carbons are more pronounced in forms with high fat/lipid contents

                             is beginning to emerge as a factor controlling the sensitivity of

                             various marine forms to hydrocarbons.

                                                    111-46

                       4.    Residuals (Non-Hydrocarbons, NSO)

                             Residual fractions consist of high boiling hydrocarbons of all

                             types, containing oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen and heavy metals, in

                             the molecular weight range of 900-3000; they can represent a

                             significant portion of the crude, up to 20%. In their behavorial

                             and toxicity they closely resemble the corresponding aromatic

                             compounds.

                                                    111-47

                      Biological Effects of Oil

                      The literature on the biological effects of oil is profuse and diverse

                 requiring much independent interoretation to sort out some of the in-

                 herent biases of various authors. Those interested in some of the scientific

                 polemics on the pros and cons of effects of oil spills should refer to the

                 paper of J.G. Mackin (1973). The overall effects of oil on marine fauna

                 and flora can be summarized as (Moore, 1973):

                              Effects of Direct Coating

                              Direct Lethal Toxicity

                              Sub Lethal Disruption of Physiolgcial and Behavioral Activities

                              Incorporation of Hydrocarbons in Organisms which may cause

                              tainting and/or accumulation in the food chain

                              Changes in Biological Habitat

                      1.    Direct Coating

                            Overwhelming, massive accumulation of oil, such as the 5 to 10,000

                            tons per mile along the shore as a result of the METULA spill,

                            smothers all attached life.

                            Seabirds usually suffer most dramatically from coating by oil;

                            birds are the most obvious organisms lethally affected by oil

                            pollution and the impacts are usually on a sufficient scale as

                            to affect the local, regional, and world populations. The avian

                            most susceptible and most severely damaged by oil pollution are the
                            auks (murres, guillemots, puffins, razor bills), diving sea ducks

                            (scoters, eiders, goldeneyes, etc.), such birds commonly found in

                                                   111-48

                       in great concentrations in the marine waters of Kachemak Bay and Lower

                       Cook Inlet. Their high vulnerability to oil pollution rests with the

                       fact that they spend most of their lives on the water, dive to collect

                       their food and are rather weak flyers. Their reaction to disturbance is

                       to dive rather than fly away; their pelagic habitat particularly expose

                       them to oil pollution and if contaminated at all, they are likely to be

                       heavily contaminated (Clark, 1973).

                       Toxic fractions can still be present at the time of coating, but in

                       combination with larger amounts of heavier oil, the resulting damage can

                       be quite less than the mortalities that can be induced by less "diluted"

                       soluble aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives (SAD). Most sessile intertidal

                       organisms can poke through a coat less than about a centimeter thick;

                       thick, long lasting coat smothers the organisms.

                  2o   Direct Lethal Toxicity

                       Much of the existing literature on direct lethal toxicity deals

                       with "bioassays" on individual species; results are usually reported
                       as of LD50, the hydrocarbon cencentrations which would produce a 50%
                       mortality within a given period of time (24, 48, 96 hrs.). However,   the

                       explicit comparison between various "bioassays" usually ends there
                       (Moore, 1973).

                       Researchers rarily use identical experimental methods, or even

                       the same petroleum product. The concentrations of hydrocarbons

                                                   111-49

                       dissolved in water are rarely measured (especially the biocidal

                       fractions) and the experimental laboratory conditions are usually

                       quite dissimilar to those of the natural habitat.

                       Far worse, are the many experiments in which the test substance is

                       either not identified or only vaguely described as "oil" and where the

                       results refer to the test organisms as being "very sensitive" or

                       "moderately resistant".

                       A common ground for comparison however exists (Moore, 1973). Table 23

                       lists the percentages of various oil products which go into solution,

                       and the percentage which is SAD. Using this information, it is

                       possible to critically evaluate and normalize various experimental

                       data. Table'24 (Moore et al, 1973) summarizes estimates of the

                       minimum toxic concentrations for a number of different classes of

                       organisms; the evidence is fragmentary, hence the uncertainty factor

                       of ten.

                       Larval stages appear to be considerably more sensitive than adults

                       (Portmann and Connor, 1968). Larvae are affected by toxic con-

                       centrations as low as 0.1 ppm. Most adult marine organisms are

                       sensitive to SAD in concentrations of 1. ppm or less; toxicity

                       usually occurring in the 10-100 ppm concentration range (Mironov, 1970,

                       Smith, 1968). In general, crustaceans and burrowing animals are

                       most sensitive, fish and bivalves moderately sensitive, gastropods

                       and some macrophytes least sensitive.

                                                                     Table 23.
                                          Estimated % of Composition (by weight) and Comparison of
                                                Solubilities for Various Petroleum Substances

                                                                      (Heavy)         (Medium)         #2
                                                                       Crude           Crude           Fuel
                    FRACTION         DESCRIPTION                         A                B            OIL       KEROSENE RESID.

                          1          Low Boiling Paraffins              1               10             15              15     0

                          2          High Boiling Paraffins             1                 7            20              20     1

                          3          Low Boiling Cyclo-Paraffins        5               15             15              20     0

                          4          High Boiling Cyclo-Paraffins       5               20             15              20     1

                          5          Mono- and Di-cyclic Aromatics      2                 5            15              15     0

                          6          Polycyclic Aromatics               6                 3              5               2    1               CD

                          7          Naphtheno-aromatics               15               15             15                8    1

                          8          Residual                          65               25              -                -   96

                    Estimated Maximum % of Soluble                     10               30             60              65     1

                    Estimated Maximum %, Soluble Aromatic
                    Derivatives                                     .1-10             .1-10          1-30             1-20    0-1

                    Reported % Soluble Aromatics
                    Obtained in Seawater Extracts                      .1               .01                            .01

                                                               Summary of Toxicity Data

                                                                          Table 24.

                                                               Estimated
                                                               Concentration               Estimated amount (ppm) of
                                                               .(ppm) of soluble           Petroleum substances containing
                                                               aromatics causing           equivalent amount of aromatics
                                                               toxicity

                    Class of Organisms                                               #2 Fuel Oil           Fresh Crude
                    Flora                                      10-100                50-500                104 _ 105
                    Finfish                                    5-50                  25-250                104 _ 105
                    Larvae (all species)                       0.1-1.0               0.5-5                 102 _ 103
                    Pelagic Crustaceans                        1-10                  5-50                  103 _ 10 4
                    Gastropods (snails,   etc.)                10-100                50-500                104 _ 105
                    Bivalves (oysters, cl  ams, etc.)          5-50                  25-250                104 _ 10 5
                    Benthic Crustaceans (lobsters,    crabs,                                                 3 - 104
                                           etc.)               1-10                  5-50                  10
                    Other Benthic Invertebrates                                                              3 _ 10 4
                    (worms, etc.)                              1-10                  5-50                  10

                                                    111-52

                       3.   Sub-lethal Effects

                            Marine organisms depend upon a complex set of behavioral

                            characteristics to maintainnormal life patterns; many of these,

                            especially orientation, feeding and reproduction, involve

                            communication based upon chemical cues or pheromones. Chemical

                            communication has been extensively studied in insects; only recently

                            has significant attention been given to marine animals pheromones.

                            It was a well known fact that the lobster (Homarus americanus)

                            can be attracted by kerosene soaked bricks. Todd et al (1972)

                            have shown that pheromones play a significant role in regulating

                            reproductive and social behavior in aquatic organism. Marine organisms

                            have been found to detect food or preys through chemoreception of

                            specific compounds in the parts per billion range. Todd et al

                            (1972), Hasler (1970) indicated that feeding, reproduction and social

                            behavior in marine organisms can be disrupted by SAD concentrations

                            as low as 10-100 ppb.

                            The full implication of disruption of chemical communication by

                            very low concentrations (ppb) of dissolved hydrocarbons is uncertain

                            at this time.

                       4.   Incorporation of Hydrocarbons in Organisms

                            Tainting and accumulation of hydrocarbons in organisms tissues

                            occur in almost all marine species. Essentially, any aquatic

                            organism can be expected to equilibriate chemically with its

                            surrounding media.

                                                    111-53

                            At 5-50 ppm of hydrocarbons, animal tissues develop an ob-
                            jectionable taste (McKee and Wolf, 1963). Burns and Teal (1971)

                            reported that #2 fuel oil spilled in a salt marsh was incorporated

                            into nearly all organisms in the marsh ecosystem. Very small

                            concentrations of hydrocarbons can produce tainting.

                            Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are widely distributed

                            in the ocean (Zobell, 1971); they are found in the residual

                            fractions of all crude oil and are readily absorbed in the gut

                            of marine organisms, the metabolic breakdown of these compounds

                            in the bodies of animals is slow. PAH have been shown to be

                            highly carcinogenic.

                       5.   Changes in Biological Habitats

                            The incorporation of oily constituants affects the habitat and

                            disturbs, inhibits or prevents organisms to function normally.

                            Intertidal and sub-tidal habitats are of prime concern. The

                            amount and composition of oil that would inhibit or prevent any

                            given organism to utilize the substrate of such habitats is

                            unknown. Oil introduced into the sediment will leach and degrade

                            slowly. Available toxicity data show that low to medium boiling

                            point aromatic hydrocarbons, in concentrations as low as 10-100 ppb

                            may be chemically offensive to virtually all species. As

                            previously discussed, the effects of habital alteration by oil

                            can persist for minimum periods of 3 to 10 years or more, depending

                            upon the type of habitat.

                                                    111-54

                              Overview of Oil Spill Impact Upon Kachemak Bay

                       The salient impacts of spilled oil upon Kachemak Bay are summarized

                  on the following chart (Fig.54).

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   111POM SMKLINE              Vida fmtovtldal go"            of la-6
                                                                          em OIL Ant 1141F -111 P611141Y brook Vis to                                                                                                                  WA. gravol. bouldeve. hard substrate exposures,
                                                                          oftews Pattlol. tarry lut" and                                                                                                                               subjected to Active turf actfon. Spill will all
                                                                          ,Pwislce. Large mcrtage .111 link. left                                                                                                                      entire Intertidal area. Wave action would favor
                                                                          real Ia.               if cx.,, I t ft.. if concentration dq@                                                                                                relatively short 'esiorric, of oil 1. id-f.t.,tiolol
                                                                          &Rd lighter fractions                     Is IIgh. Rapid                                                                                                     sot. Accumaolotloo of all In upper s"ll 114
                                                                                                 III inhibit #vapor&tOx. fi.orin r                                                                                                     spray serve. Oil rvx*@ed few swish .he Ml                                            UIREI OAV S[MI-PMICnO SHM                 61APpill" Isiah`
                                                                                                                                        n                                                                                              4ccsniva late in back Ash of surf tone to becone                                                                               -411 ad shallow
                                                                          llt:mn *.ftd           luttom of topic fractions bg lath                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    subject to iscide'Ate
                                                                                                 1,rl                                                                                                                                  Incorporated 1. long short drift. Oil residtoce                                                                                Oil,-, of Ime'tilsol ma would
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       Unt In s..1 fore,                      Is .I,*ry ... ty                              be                                        WAlt Oct -111 favor loaxIIII
                                                                                                 b:4 1,ount, ejected as                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               law
                                                                                                 " 'y .. ...        y "' bar !@Ilgq sun A,                                                                                             patches. low, or,       loan,      . 00                                                                                        from a. at0to,tidal
                                                                          b,b5l,s                by hit. lips and or: In                                                                                                                                                        f It Atc- 14ttd                             rapid relus M of 041
                                         -M                                                                                                                                                                                            so urper %,ash and spray to" hiSh. up to .... ral                                    zone. through Incorporation Iii s*411"Its and
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           r  .
                                                                          ut,                    7no "' fr          'Or'                11                                                                                             years. leredi#te lF.Pset, of %pill long esposed                                                                                'of    &cha
                                                                          ,v,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               tidal..Jnd set
                                                                          f                                         1%cll'.ns .1111 bt"d to                                                                                                                                                                                                                           ,tra. port., tog.sho
                                                                          :!c                                       ;%chs. S@,f and                                                                                                                                                                                         jrdce actual,                             it Ash 1 1. u per
                                                                                                 14 d11-:1.011 Ird.o                                                                                                                                                                          II a,
                                                                          @tj.n                  0., 111                                of                                                                                                                                                                                  intertidal Area.                               fart. 614 Infawao.
                                                                          v1stous ond tarry deposits                on upper Portion of                                                                                                a     try high it., to concentrations of first                                                                                 incorporated in uc@t a
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       c1f                                                                                  0                                              -4t. 111.1-1
                                                                          tPI4sh lone.                                                                                                                                                 ru, c,:n, I      ....                                                                V I.N1                                    t "t %so
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         'In        v,r        "'s I" co,@-Plf .. )each slow !1y auto*
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               r, hr.cr , ng                                                retidence tire in a I's f 10 Yrs.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       t,                             led 1j1"9,u1.1:,r for's
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       ,pp,i" , ,                               'Anal
                                         4M-                                                                                                                                                                                           R:%tlJe!co = oil entrppdilm pifa. I                         eva Wall
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           of                                 no
                                                         KAVY rrirrq OIL                         - Most likely to rapidly to- a                                                                                                        of subtidal 10,411 Probably high. several woaLhl to
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       several year%.                                                                       r111111ce                                 excess Of 10 yrs. Toxic
                                                                                                                    :IIIl:;.1klLh                                                                                                                                                                                           frc"       on%                            11 :ch out or,:r to" Period of list.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                         towards                                                                                                       IJup.,t upon nor               in -more of I met bay
                                                                          1,1.t,l It 1111, Is. to,,, easily Isclble all-Or,                                                                                                                                                                                                 0          'pit
                                                                          stir-                  'r, Sure of the IlShte, fractions                               I spilled to        Is or" ill I I More awroard
                                                                          .111 a'so "at* if S    rf,c, comdlmrs a,, cal..                                   oil                                             divioll birds and                                                                                                          ...                            ptrcentigN Of oil ng &ad
                                         0                                                                                                                  M    :.pmMed sho_        in. Retards to                                                                                                                         space b1'r%t*
                                         4r+                              Splay,and bursting txtblel frox h         "I call I'd                             son tters %I
                                                                          b a. '.                                   111. It,                                                             I
                                                                          ro,                                       signt               ce.tago
                                                                          "I . as                1,ry               rl ,, a,
                                                                          favo: acc@ Istic" 14 u;'n                 14 , r!,
                                         C+                                                      p`                 P
                                                                                                 ca,be validly Injected At
                                                                          depth by J,rfjco and subsurface turbulent Processes.
                                                                                                                                        Off 10110111 IN this no can rommelft entrapped for
                                                                                                                                        several itsys withl the rotary tidal ellipses. Will
                                                                                                                                        ft- wit.1-I.-Oll nd oll-t-ster emulsion. Potgaw,
                                                          UGHT'"CE4,011. - wh                    I!, c                                  sea                      licit, modim to high lights tidiij
                                                                                                 1. , . r:,
                                         .23                              liar t, 0. rte         , I                , ,, , f*_ 1, 00 Of olllp:wbtvrfoce
                                                                          C                                         cl,
                                                                          pro                                       t:;.c -ewu I Ong.                                                                                                                      x.
                                                                                                                                        t
                                         C+                               -t to be lrj"f,d in                       Interface by
                                         (A                               as' :1aM b.'stlog b,@bl,s fr. hit, cap& and
                                                                          b,,i                                                                                                                      Oil spilled 1:,th a area will disperse scumidat
                                                                          fractl                                    @1tAV.C'ftI.'a'.1C1ll                                                           likely. all          111raddily fam mullions. Pateatill
                                                                          favor 0*7149 of vrker                     and'spray to".                                                                  :obiurface tonicity kigh. especially during istricals
                                                                                                                                                                                                    of crustacean spaximilmil and planktonic larval
                                                                                                                                                                                                    devolop"At.
                                                                          LiGg'PCTRaiLlm FILACTICIS                 Aust likely '111 ".pearage
                                                                          rapidly If                                It h                11
                                                                                                 c                  "n
                                                                          mist I am I.,
                                                                          ".;b                   6@@pltl train hit* cap% and
                                                                          ,V "::11",             .4
                                                                          7 ...                  . or Ily dispersed by surface
                                         __j                              c-ts am Ids.                                                                                                                                             6

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     INNER-OUTER BAY PROTECTED SHORES AMD flogsVilmigns .
                                         _J.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  C-tersiv, irderticial expels" along tidal flats.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              rocil, faces and POCktt beach,$. Post of short
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              Protected f                              Rocky faces &,A
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              beach , .,:@ ",,, action.
                                                                                                                                                EXPOSEO ROCKY SNORE                  At"St.41 Imemdal 1.101rum                                                                                e c        red with dense and diverse #19.1 -
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              epila                         Extensive Subt(dol 0941
                                                                                                                                                      thertst md diverse alg4l.epifs...) mo-Vages.                                                                                            so ......                     ling of sh It &14 i.t rtidal
                                                                                                                                                      IP*S:d to wave actl an. Oiling of latertidal                       spill                                                                                                         9                              ItI
                                         0                                                                                                            in IllIly extensive, Ith,r Unit on of all In                                                                                            Zone ill be                   ..d Itsti: . 1.                           .11 U
                                                                                                                                                                                         of                                                                                                   be retat
                                                                                                                                                      rocky cracks. pores and a go Vplfaunal ftttlAg.                                                                                         0    I!,d,
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            r;4,            in.        t                              r:,
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      A
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       oil                            !I r,,dl
                                                                                                                                                      Yawl action will Induce rather rapid lesching                      of
                                                                                                                                                      1ths101.";.d"Cp'c'   will be varied, depend:ng. Pon
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              In 0-1     d 11               ch ou-     rI"., r
                                                                                                                                                                      nc   nIrllc" of t*,:c,        I,act   an                                                                                           percentage a( toxic                                          a's ill 0
                                                                                                                                                      Breaking aye .11     , "       .0r ,Cft I     ,"    , .11          In                                                                   n             "d sedi-ts. TO-JC rwIct h190.
                                                                                                                                                      upper levels of rocky face,. Mw- "side' a                                                                                               .11@0cI.:'1;'dZri.g sp,..,ng old
                                         =r                                                                                                           ti" of oily residues few a few mnthS to                            fa                                                                   art ads. Heavy calling wwId              'rot,                          wo
                                                                                                                                                      e.mt of S ym.                                                                                                                           ,(
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              P(ITIcl!".     canting .11, .11. $_ an,                                 still
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              P@ :@n      r 1                          11
                                                                                                                                        111           COAST                                                                                                                                   to be loss affecte's. pAj@@gj' .1        ftcf)69, t.ting
                                                                                                                                        ""o OUT       .. ...     Large     lnt@,tldll e,po"res                                                                                                                                         re idunce it" of
                                                                                                                                        subject.                                                                                                                                              ol I In faces% of 10 ym.
                                                                                                                                        Rotary to                ... .     Ilon 6:1 I'd             rental
                                         7r                                                                                                     Ida   I          .c-,.g 'Ide Ill
                                                                                                                                        por!,ol 11               sh:r,     - 1-d"1.9 .11 to 'via'                                                                                                                                                                                     KACHEMAK BAY
                                                                                                                                        eft are n,    no         - ertrI111d,
                                                                                                                                                                           0"'..     111@ t
                                                                                                                                                      T.         'X."I'llo. .1
                                                                                                                                                         '@'o`lld                        ,,11-trapidly                                                                                                                                                                Fate and Effects of Spilled Oil
                                                                                                                                        Un                                                 It ,
                                                                                                                                        Itach out oil. Wave and surf so                             o act                                                                                                                                                             (inferred from various sources)
                                                                                                                                        ,c- .is. Of .11 1. the Ppq,                  I all f        the
                                                                                                                                        Inteltid.) zourHi here     leach ti.         .111 bass      10.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      A

                                                SECTION IV

                                     CONSERVANCY AND PROTECTICN OF 7HE

                                        RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

                                                    OF

                                                KACHEMAK BAY

                                                    IV-1

                                             SECTION IV

                                   CONSERVANCY AND PROTECTION OF THE

                                      RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

                                                  OF

                                             KACHEMAK BAY

                    Kachemak Bay is aesthetically invigorating, biologically rich and prolific

               and endowed with a diverse spectrum of renewable (fish, crabs, shrimps, clams,

               waterfowl, trees) as well as non-renewable (sand and gravel, perhaps oil and

               gas, peat and coal) resources, all actively sought for profit and pleasure by man.

                    The basic controversy about Kachemak Bay revolves around various concepts

               for the use of its natural resources. The following two articles, one from the

               magazine "Science" and the other from the "Anchorage Times" expressing different

               points of view, opinions and philosophies, rather well summarize the issues.

                    Polemics aside, the articles underscores a most important factor in the

               evolving Kachemak Bay controversy. Initially, the Kachemak Bay issue was

               was purely a state problem. Since the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the

               greatest portion of Lower Cook Inlet is in federal ownership, thus readily

               opening the Lower Cook Inlet sea floor to OCS oil and gas leasing, the Kachemak

               Bay issue has assumed totally new dimensions.  Environmentally, Kachemak Bay

               cannot-be segmented from Lower Cook Inlet; the need to consider Kachemak Bay

               Lower Cook Inlet as an environmentally integral' unit is critical.

                    While differing, the following articles underscore differing concerns for a

               basic human need, that of energy. Seemingly overlooked by the writers however,

               is that, while under the guise of either fisheries or oil and gas, both

               refer to two basic forms of energy vital to man's survival:

                                                                                             IV-2
                                                                                                                                      Hammond's narrow election victory. (fie
                                              On's-hore Drilling: Fishermen                                                           won by 285 votes.) Now he says, "I feel
                                                                                                                                      like a soldier who fires his artillery,
                                                and Oilmen Clash in Alaska                                                            charges forward to the enemy trenches,
                                                                                                                                      takes the position, and then discovers his
                                                                                                                                      shells haven't arrived yet."
                                                                                                                                         In adopting, the issue. Hammond may
                                                                                                                                      have inadvertently contributed to the late
                                                                                                                                      filing of the lawsuit. Affidavits in the court
                          Anchorage. Ell'orts by a group or Alas-              area until 2 weeks before the sale and                 record indicate that Hammond's chief lieu-
                       ka fishermen to invalidate a state offshorc             long after the go-allead decision was made.            tenant several times counseled the fish-
                       lease mav offer a preview of what's ahead                 For their part the companies that leased             crinen to delay their lawsuit, apparently to
                       for offshore oil and gas leasing in general.            bay lands, notably Shelf Oil and Standard              keep the question alive for a campaign is-
                       At the same time, the fishermen's protest               Oil of California, argue that the fish-                sue.
                       has opened a window onto the bureaucrat-                ermen's suit is "estoppcd- by an arcane                   A deposition filed by one of the plaintiffs
                       ic process by which at least one oil-rich               doctrine known as "laches." In effect, this            says that Bob Palmer, a former state sena-
                       state sells its hydrocarbons.                           doctrine says that regardless of the inerits           tor and now Hammond's chief of staff, ad-
                          The fishermen are fighting in state court            of the suit it w  'as filed too late and there-        vised against filing the suit just 2 months
                       and in the political arena to void a Decem-             fore is invalid. In addition, the companies            after the lease sale. Again at a meeting in
                       ber 1973 sale of oil and gas leases on                  say they have spent "considerable" surns               August 1974 at the Hammond campaign
                       98,000 acres in the lower Cook Inlet Basin.             on exploration and planning for Kach-                  headquarters in Anchorage, according to
                       The sale brought the state a total of about             emak Bay drilling. Voiding the leases, they            the deposition, Palmer said, ". . . the
                       $25 million. Included in the leased acreage             say, would cost them far more in real dam-             Kachemak Bay mess would be cleaned up
                       were portions of Kachernak Bay totaling                 ages than any potential damage their activ-            if Jay Hammond were elected          ......   Some
                       less than 5,000 acres. This is the focus of             ity might do the fishermen.                            of the fishermen feel they were sold out
                       the coriffict.                                            This May an Alaska District Court                    and community bitterness against the
                          Kachemak Bay, near the mouth of Cook                 judge agreed with the companies' position              political process is mounting.
                       Inlet, is acknowledged to be one of the                 and refused to hear the fishermen's case.                 Besides the strictly political aspects of
                       most biologically productive bodies of                  Anchorage lawyer Warren Mathews is ap-                 the situation, the fishermen say that the bu-
                       water in the nation. and perhaps the world.             pealing the narrow legal ruling to the                 reaucratic process the state uses to lease oil
                       Although relatively small, the bay is                   Alaska Supreme Court and expects a rul-                and gas lands is discriminatory, fails to
                       among the most important breeding                       ing within "about 6 months." Mathews                   take important information into account,
                       grounds and most productive fisheries in                represented      fishermer.    from      Cordova,      and is so informal as to be irrational.
                       Alaska. The annual first wholesale value                Alaska, in &ir fight against the trans-                   During pretrial investigations evidence
                       of the bay catch exceeds $7 million. The                Alaska pipeline. Ultimately an act of Con-             surfaced which indicates that the leasing
                       catch includes all five species of salmon,              gress was needed to overturn court deci-               process, not too unlike the federal proce-
                       three species of crab, and at least two spe-            sions he won delaying construction of the              dures, is a series of official "Catch-22's."
                       cies of shrimp, as well as herring and hali-            line.                                                     Twenty months before the December
                       but. There are also major sport fisheries                  Ironically, the newly elected governor,             1973 lease, the Alaska Department of Nat-
                       for all the commercial sp@cies. In addition.            Jay Hammond, may have doomed the fish-                 ural Resources decided to hold a series of
                       tourists- and residents dig thousands of                ermen's cause by espousing it in his cam-              sales in the lower Cook Inlet Basin. Poten-
                       buckets of clams from the intertidal flats              paign. Last fall Hammond, campaigning                  tially, Kachemak Bay would be included in
                       every year.                                             as a "conservationist," encouraged the                 this area. so officials from the nearby town,
                          The waters near the mouth of the bay                 fishermen in their fight and made a major              Homer, wrote seeking information about
                       appear to be part of an unusual circular                campaign issue out of state leasing policies           possible bay leasing. Thc@ were regularly
                       current system that concentrates food and               that led to the Kachemak Bay sale. Sup-                told by state officials that interest in the
                       holds shrimp and crab larvae through sev-               port for the fishermen has been credited as            bay was "slight" and chances of leases
                       eral molts.                I                            one of the main issues responsible for                 therefore "small." Therefore, local offi-
                          This gyre phenomenon has been known                                                                         cials were told they needn't seek further in-
                       since at least 1968, when the Bureau of                                                                        formation.
                       Commercial Fisheries (now the National
                       Marine Fisheries Service) began a research                            A L A S K A                                           Public Hearing Refused
                       program in the area. As a result of that and                                                                      Finally,   8 months before the lease,
                       other research it became clear that the area                                                                   the head of the Homer Chamber of Com-
                       serves as the major shellfish breeding                           Anchorage                                     merce wrote to the director of the state
                       spund for Cook Inlet and at least part of                                                                      minerals division complaining that it was
                       the Gulf of Alaska.
                                                                                                                                      impossible to get information on potential.
                          But the fishermen say that the state sim-                                                                   lease sales because the decisions about
                       ply ignored the scientific evidence about                                                                      which lands to offer were made through a
                       the bay's importance. And they say they                                  Kachernak Bay                         closed process. Industry nominates lands it
                       were routinely misinformed about the pro-                                                                      is interested in leasing and the state
                       posed lease, were not allowed to comment                                                                       chooses lands from among those nomi-
                       in a meaningful way, were denied a public                           P A C I F i C         0 C E    A N         nated for the actual sale. There was, he
                       hearing, and did not even know for sure                                                               - - I    said, no provision for public input.
                       that the buy would be included in the lease                   Kachetnak RaY is the con tesied area.               Somewhat incongruously, the state min-
                            2G4                                                                                                                                     SCIENCE, VOL. 189

                                                                                                  IV-3

               crals director wrote back saying that the
                                                                                              A
               proper time for "appropriate" public com-
               ment    was   after   nominations       were    taken
               and before tile sale was announced. It %as                 P
               never made clear how the public, not privy
               to the semisecret dealings between govern-
               ment and industry, was to know when tile
               proper time arrived.
                  Early in August 1973 the Homer city
               manager wrote again to tile itate minerals
               chief seeking further clarification of Kach-
               emak's status in tile leasing program. On                                                     jR "i.   .:s:     Ji
                                              als director wr
               22 August the minor,                               ote
                                                                                                                                                                Ilk'
               back saying, essentially, "we don't know
               exactly what areas will be included, but we
                                                                                                                                                                           41
                                                                ay.                                       &
               expect little interest in Kachernak B,                                                       -A      -%--_j
                                                                                 _W   let'.
               Less than a month later he wrote to                 the
               commissioner of natural resources recom-
               mending a sale to include Kachemak                 Bay                          ALL               N
               in December 1973. On 19 October,                    the
               commissioner, after reviewing the plan                                                                r
               with then Governor William Egan, gave
                                                                                                                                                tau,
               his approval for the sale.
                                                                                                                       _
                                                                                                                             1
                                                                                                                        %klZ

                  Two weeks before the           13 December sale                                  q        r
               date area residents felt          they finally had
                                                                                                                                             'N
               concrete information that         a sale was to be
               held and sought a public          hearing on it. A
               petition drive garnered 275 signature But
                                                              S.
               state officials refused to        hold the hearing
               because the lease process was too far along                        Preparingfor evplorator.v drilling, a "i    ck-up    oil rig is anchored in Kach entak Balv.
               and it' was too late for          public input. Be-
               sides, they indicated, there were no out-
               standing issues in the sale that a public                     The Bluff Point -area (one of the places                  "On a given area basis," he savs,
               hearing could help resolve.                                subsequently leased) is both a "major re-                emak Bay is at least ten times            more pro-
                  Almost as an afterthought, it seems, the                productive area" and a "major rearing                    ductive than tile Gulf ol'Mexico. We found
               State Department of Natural Resources                      area" for shrimp and crab.                               that the production ofthis area is such that
               sought information on the biological com-                     "Kachemak Bay harbors tremendous                      you can harvest about half the [shrimp]
               munity in the bay. On 22 October Natural                   populations of shorebirds and waterfowl at               stock [per year] and still maintain the
               Resources finally asked the Alaska De-                     various times of the year. The bay also has              quotas which are pretty high, especially on
               partment of Fish and Game (ADFG) for                       various forms of marine mammals and                      a species that only lives 4 or 5 years."
               comment on the sale. "Due to a communi-                    many other forms of marine life ... oil            de-       Since 1972 Haines has surveyed the bay
               cation problem in our department we were                   velopment in an area so rich in life is            not   to determine on a three-dimensional plot
               very late in deciding which areas to offer,"               worth the risks involved."                               where the most productive areas %@ere, On
               the Natural Resources memo said. It                           But by the time Flagg was consulted his               the basis of that research he says, "we
               asked for comments within a week so that                   suggestions were largely too late.                 He    know that the drill site is located in a spot
               notice of the sale could be published tile                 thought his comments would influence               tile  that is a vcry critical habitat for the larval
               first week of November, just meeting the                   decision-making process, but actually              the   stages. Apparently the larvae are held in
               legal notice requirement.                                  decision to offer bay lands had already                  there, and it has something to do with the
                  The ADFG area biologist in Homer,                       been made. The consultation with ADFG                    currents.
               Loren Flagg, received the memo on 29 Oc-                   was almost a pro forma exercise. Flagg's                     "I speculate," he savs, "that there is
               tober. He hurriedlv drafted a memo to his                  comments in the strong pro-oil climate.of                some tNpe of a current holdin- them in.
               superiors calling their attention to the im-               1973 were extremely courageous. If any-                  For instance, with king crab larvae you
               portance of the. bay. He said, in part:                    thing he may have understated what was                   find all four stages until the settling stage
                  The ADFG should seek an immediate                       at stake in the bay and underestimated the               in there ... you're talking about a time
               delay qf 30 days in the sale -to allow suf-                potential risks from oil development.                    from release to settling of 3 or 4 months.
               ficient input from all state and government                   At the isolated National Marine Fish-                 No organism can possibly maintain itself
               agencies and from the public.                              cries Service (NNIFS) field station at                   in an area for that length of time without
                  "We believe, and have evidence to sup-                  Kisitsna Bay, a small arm of Kachernak                   some type of circular motion being in.
               port our belief, that Kachemak Bay ... is                  reachable only by light plane or small                   volved.
               one of the most highly productive marine                   boat, Evan I laines has been doing research                  *1 had a series of stations," Haines says,
                                                                                                                                                                                 4Z

               environments in the world. The Cook Inlet                  on the life cycle of shrimp for 4 years. As              "when I got done plotting. Without a
               staff feels that this area should be classified            the result of' extensive N M FS population               doubt there they were [at tile proposed
               -as critical habitat and,that ao development               studies. lie is able to say that Kicheniak               drill site], right at that station. Not only
               should be allowed which would risk this ex-                Bay "is Ifarl more productive ... than                   king crah larvae, but Tanner crab and high
               tremely valuable environment."                             most people realize.                                     concentrations of Dungeness crab larvae
             -1.8 JULY 1975                                                                                                                                                      205

                                                                                             IV-4
                      and two commercial species of         shrimp as        tion that they think is more immediate.                credit. fuel, Ind niai n tena lice, faced with
                      well. All of them were right there.                    "We lost 40 pots out there this past year              uncertain markets Ind catches as a result
                        "I worked up the data," Haines contin-               due to increased traffic, most of it due to            of foreign competition, the fishermen feel
                      ued, "without any knowledge whatsoever                 oil Work. If there's drilling out there it will        buffeted by forces beyond their control al-
                      or potential drilling, and I gave the infor-           wipe us out," says Rosalee "Snooks"                    ready. But to lose thousands of dollars
                      mation, as we always do, to [ADI-G1.                   Moore. Willi her husband Ken, she oper-                worth of" gear to workboats and drilling
                      They called me back the next day ... and               ates three boats that fish Kachemak Bay                rigs infuriates them further.
                      said, 'You know what's going on? They*re               and occasionally Cook Inlet and the Gulf                  When conip;mY ofllcial,@ come to Horner
                      thinking of drilling out there and the drill           of Alaska in good @%cathcr. In addition to             seeking to settle clainis for lost gear they
                      site is right at station 17.'                          keeping the books. she skippers one of the             find an atmosphere heavy with hostility.
                        "They couldn't have picked a worse                   boats that fishes the bay for salmon and               Fishermen are driven to near frenzy, they
                      site.- Haines says, "in regards to the biol-           shellfish, particularly king crab.                     say, when oil companies %o,orth hundreds of
                      on. of the bay." And he notes that larvae                                                                     million,; of dollars haggle over a few thou-
                      are "much more susceptible to any adverse                             Crabbing Gear Lost                      sand dollars worth of crab pots that can
                      environmental threats than later stages."                 Pots are the tools of the crabber's trade.          make the differctice between making a
                        Working independently at Kisitsna Bay                The pots used by Alaska crabbers are steel             profit and seeing a boat repossessed. An
                      and at the main NNIFS laboratory at                    mesh boxes as big its 6 feet on a side. They           incident in which Shelf promised to carry
                      Auke Bay, near Juneau, two other re-                   are bailed and dropped to the ocean floor              a local fishernian aboard the rig when it
                      searchers seem to be confirming Haines'                but attached by ropes to a surface buov                was moved to guide it through the fishing
                      fears about the dangers of environmental               that helps the fishermen identify an@                  grounds, but then inexplicably failed to
                      stress. especially petroleum pollution, to             locate their own pots. An Alaska crab pot,             call him, poisoned the air still further.
                      shellfish larvae.                                      Moore says, costs "anywhere from S450 to                  Privately, company officials admit that
                        At Kisitsna      Bay, Tony Micklenburg               $600 plus the cost of up to 500 feet of                the publicity from Kachcmak Bay is hurt-
                      says that "at 7    ppm [parts per million] of          heavy nylon line and the buoys."                       ing them, and some doubt that any oil
                      petroleum in solution with seawater we get                The trouble, she says, is that careless or          strike there will be sufficient to offset that.
                      a complete kill of larvae." He is presently            "ignorant" oil company workboat and tug                But they also see themselves as victims of a
                      reducing the oil concentration and seeking             operators run over the buoys and "they cut             situation that they didn't create. "We fol-
                      an LD   ", level (lethal dose needed to kill           them right off." Without the buoys, fish-              lowed all the rules," says an oilman, "it's
                      half a test population).                               erman can't locate their pots and lose                 not our fault that we bid on these contested
                        At Auke Bay, John Karinen, working                   them. In addition. the pots keep trapping              lands. The state offered them for sale."
                      partly under a $175,000 NMFS toxicity                  crabs that can never be recovered, depict-                State officials say also that they were
                      study funded by Shell Oil, feels that Dun-             ing crab stocks and competing with captive             just following well-established policies and
                      geness crab larvae are even more sensitive             pots.                                                  practices for leasing oil and gas lands.
                      to oil in the water. His preliminary results              Last winter Shell Oil moved a "jack-tip"            "This was no different from any previous
                      indicate an LD, for Dungeness crab lar-                drilling rig into Kachemak Bay to begin                sale, and there was never any         .  complaint
                      vae of less than I ppni. The L D.,0 for other          exploratory drilling. Moore says the rig or            before," a state official says,
                      shellfish, he says, seems to lie in the range          its towboats cut off seven of her pots in one             In a real way the oilnien and the bureau-
                      of I to 5 ppm.                                         night. "The loss for us for those pots :Ind            crats are right; there were no basic differ-
                        But he thinks there are other significant            their product for 20 days before they were             ences between the Kachcmak Bay sale and
                      effects on organisms from concentrations               replaced was over $8000." she says. She                its predecessors. Although the bay's rich-
                      of oil far too small to kill outright. "I'm            conservatively estimated the value of the              ness makes it the ideal focus for a chal-
                      pretty sure there are behavior effects from            lost catch at more than $5000.                         lenge, the real differences are psychologi-
                      amounts so tiny they're practically nio-                  If the Moores, among the bay's highest              cal rather than physical. Tile fishermen of
                      lecular," Karincn says. Possible effects in-           earners, sustain comparable gear losses                Kachemak Bay see their life and their live-
                      clude failure of an organism to mate or to             again next year, they fear they may be                 lihood equally under attack by forces they
                      release premating sex attractants (phero-              driven out of the fishing business. *'Crab-            feel are arrogant, insensitive, and short-
                      mones) and failure to respond to light af-             bing is the biggest part of our income,"               sighted. They have organized an angry po-
                      fecting feeding and growth.                            Moore says. "If we lose that, I think we'll            litical and legal campaign to defend them-
                        "Any spill situation," he says, -%vill ex-           have to look somewhere else. But I don't               selves. At one time in Alaska and most of
                      ceed these ILD    ',,] values even at depth. A         think there*s anywhere else, especially with           the rest of the United States, energy pro-
                      spill in Chebucto Bay. Nova Scotia, left               the boats we have-a 42-footer and a 56-                duction was sacrosanct. But last fall,
                      emulsions of oil 50 meters deep in-the %%,,I-          rooter. They're basically not real rough               adopted as an election issue. the Kach-
                      ter column and 10 kilometers from the                  water boats, they're bay crabbers. And you             emak Bay challenge touched enough voters
                      -spill site."                                          don't go very far ovith a bay crabber-not              to play a major role in electing          -.I "con-
                        Industry figures seem to indicate toler-             unless you want to die."                               servationist" governor. Although          the ulti-
                      ances for much higher levels of oil. One                  Fishing is an expensive gamble against              mate rate of this challenge will be decided
                      reason, he suggests, might be the way            the   the elements and an uncertain market.                  in the courtroom. it seems clear          that the
                      oil is mixed into the water Ind the wav          the   Boats costing as much as S200,000 are not              fishermen of Kacliernak Bay have already
                      concentration is ultimately measured.           We     u  'ncornmon in Alaskan waters. And some               influenced future state sales and         possibly
                      mix oil into the seawater for 20 hours be-             families have grown wealthy fishing, with              federal sales as WCII.-MARK PANITC11
                      fore we begin a test," he says. Oil values             crab or salmon catches some years bring-
                      are checked by extraction, infrared absorp-            ing in as much as $100,000 or more. But.                  Afark Panitch is Washington corre-
                      tion, and gas chromatography.                          the brisk trade in repossessed boats in-               spondent for the Anchorage Daily News.
                        But apart from long-range dangers such               dicatcs how thin the line is between success           Research ft)r this article was parliall        -v fi-
                      as oil spills and other pollution, the fish-           and failure for the fisherman.                         nanced by the Fundfor In vesligative Jour-
                      termen see another threat from oil explora-               Hit hard by rising costs for equipment.             nalisin.

                           206                                                                                                                                    SCIENCE. VOL. 189

    	IV-5

    Kachemak Bay
       Lease Sales
        By Thomas E. Kelly

      (EDITOR'S NOTE:  No sub-
    ject is mor controversial in
    Alaska today than the
    utilization of the state's
    natural resources. And no
    figure on the state scene is
    more outspoken on the subject
    than is Thomas E. Kelly, for-
    mer state commissioner of
    natural resources and now a
    consultant in earth science sin
    Anchorage.  To stimulate
    additional discussion the
    Times has invited Kelly to
    write a series of weekly colum-
    ns on Alaska's resources.  This
    is the first).

      KACHEMAX  Bay is a mag-
    nificent geographic gem.  For
    those unfamiliar with its deep
    azure blue waters, the bay
    extends 30 miles eastward
    from its confluence with lower
    Cook Inlet.  It is endowed  with
    some of the most spectacular
    scenery of any inland bay in
    the state.  The south shores are
    popular recreational areas for
    many Anchorage residents
    who enjoy the magnificent
    surroundings of Halibut Cove,
    Seldovia Bay and the mar-
    shalands of the Fox and
    Bradley Rivers at the head of
    the bay.
      Homer, the picturesque
    community on the north shore
    of Kachemak Bay, is at the ter-
    minus of the Sterling Highway
    on the Kenai Peninsula.
    Homer is potentially a
    superior port to Anchorage
    and has one of the best deep
    water anchorages in Alaska.
    The community ahs only two
    basic natural drawbacks to
    making it a Balboa of Alaska-
    fresh water and a plentiful sup-
    ply of clean, inexpensive fuel.
      Kachemak bay is well
    known for its crab and shrimp
    fishery that has been bill d as,
    "faboulosly productive" -
    somewhat of a misleading
    statement since the catch;
    quota of shrimp and    crab
    allowed by the Alaska Depart-
    ment of Fish and Game
    amounts   about 5 percent of
    the state total of these high
    dollar market seafood produc-
    t.

      IN RECENT years there has
    been little exploratory activity
    in the vicinity of Homer.
    During the period 1960-  six
    wells were drilled within 15
    miles of the city.  Five wells
    were dry holes and one
    resulted in the discovery of a
    small gas field that has
    remained shut-in for 10 years
    because of lack of market and
    questionable economic vlaue.
      In 1956.  Texaco, Inc. drilled
    the Cold Bay State No.1, and oil-
    shore exploratory test located
    in Kachemak bay five miles
    northeast of the city.  The well
    was drilled in 11 days and was
    abandoned as a dry hole.  The
    activity occurred with  ir-
    tually no public attention but it
    attempted today the wrath of
    every environmentalist in the
    state would be invoked.
      Oil and gas lease sales in
    Kachemak bay are nothing
    new either, but are interesting
    if only from a historic stand-
    point.  At the first competitive
    state lease sale held on Dec.10,
    19 9, several tracts of offshore
    lands in the bay were offered
    and leased to local Anchorage
    businessmen.
      In December 1951 the state
    offered tracts of tide and sub-
    merged lands in Kachemak
    Bay and received bonus bids of
    about  1 million for seven trac-
    ts.  Again at the 16th com-
    petititve oil and gas lease sale
    in July 1966, the state offered
    and leased offshore tracts
    lying immediately west of the
    Homer city limits.
      The lease sales went vir-
    tually unnoticed and there was
    never any indication of conflict
    -that is, until the 28th com-
    petitive sale in December 1973.
    Partly because of the Arab oil
    embargo and uncertain fate of
    Middle East oil holdings of
    multi - national oil combines,
    some large oil companies went
    berserk and bid $25 million
    dollars for tracts of offshore
    land at the mouth of the bay
    adjacent to what the U.S.
    of Supreme Court has ruled are
    federal OCS lands.

    background - now for the
    problem.
      Following the sale in 1973,
    certain oil industry represen-
    tatives who perhaps were not
    the world's best salesman,
    attempted to explain to local
    Homer residents, including
    fisherman, the program for
    exploration operations on the
    recently acquired leases.
    Spurred on by what Homer's
    Mayor Hazel Heath has
    described as "an itinerant hip-
    pie who doesn't work anymore
    than he has to" and "a Florida
    courthouse lawyer who never
    baited a hook in his life, "some
    of the area's fisherman loudly
    denounced the sale and filed
    suite to have the leases voided.
      The state Superior Court
    dismissed the complaint on a
    "laches" basis for not being
    timely filed, and the case is
    now on appeal to the state
    Supreme Court.
      In the meantime, the gover-
    nor and members of his
    cabinet from time to time issue
    official statements that the
    lease sale was a tragic mistake
    that the previous
    adminsitration committed and
    that the current
    administration hopes to
    encourage the forthcoming
    legislative session to pass a bill
    cancelling the leases.  This is
    somewhat of a paradox since
    the state is the defendant in the
    lawsuit on appeal an dis by
    inference, if not by direct
    action urging hte Supreme
    Court to rule agains tthe state.
    Normally when the soverign is
    a defendant in litigation it does
    not try its case in the
    newspapers, particularly
    when the potential cost to the
    taxpayers is about $50 million:
    that is, if the state loses and
    rebates all bonus, lease rentals
    and costs incurred by the
    leasees.
      But far more damaging than
    loss of dollars is the precedent
    of encouraging and abetting
    abrogation of property rights
    established by binding legal
    contract.

      THE FOUNDATION for
    canceliation of the leases is
    leased on the premise that oil
    operations will endanger the
    fisheries or that resulting
    developments, in event of
    discovery, will    the
    esthetic beauty of Kachemak
    Bay.
      The state has passi ely
    acqueiesced to leasing and
    attendant exploration of
    federally controlled waters of
    lower Cook Inlet, the boundary
    of which is 1 1/2 miles from the
    proposed first test    on the
    state offshore elases.
      The department of fish and
       has classified much of

    for the protection of the animal
    or plant dependent on the area
    for propagation and other
    uses, if permitted at all, are
    subject to special restrictions.
      While there are valid
    biological and ecologic
    reasons for protecting a
    boundary of the area is surely
    not pinned down to an
    arbitrary line adjacent to
    which oil explroation is
    allowed but immediately
    across the line activity would
    destroy the fishery.
      If anyone cares to trace the
    whereabouts of king crab in
    the bay today he will find that
    the crab moved but since the
    end of AUgust and are located
    somewhere in the lower Cook
    Inlet waters under federal
    jurisdiction.  If that areas is
    leased and someone starts to
    drill, one hopes the crab will
    have enough "smarts" to
    hustle back to the sanctuary on
    state land.
      On esthetics, if an offshroe
    production platform on state
    land is offensive to the viewer
    from Bluff Point on the hill,
    above Homer, why is it not jsut
    as offensive on federal lands
    1 1/4 miles to the west?

      THE FINAL incongruity is
    economic.  If production is
    established on federal leases
    abu  ng state lands and the
    proudcer starts drainage oil or
    gas from under state lands
    what hapens?  Are the resour-
    ces of the state drained away
    with no benefits to its
    stockholders - Alaskan
    citizens - or does the state
    change its mind and hold
    another sale at that time to
    protect against drainage?  And
    what about the crab then?

      Like the Flying Dutchman, a
    silhouetted vessel in the fog
    with no one at the helm, the
    state administration creates
    the problem and resolves none.
    A balance between environ-
    mental concerns and develop-
    ment seems harder and harder
    to achieve.
      There seems to be littel
    effective management of
    resources in Alaska at a time
    when the state is drowning in
    red ink.  Perhaps the best
    solution is to allow those most
    directly affected - the crab
    the crab fisherman and the oil
    industry - to work out a com-
    patible solution.  I bet it can be
    done with far less pain and
    strain than now continues
    under the reins of
    bureaucracy.

                                                    IV-6

                         1.   Energy to perform mechanical work and provide for creature
                              comfort (oil, natural gas, electricity, coal, atomic fission).
                         2.   Energy to sustain vital life processes (food stuff).

                    Thus the various Kachemak Bay resource development and utilization

               issues can be synthesized within a common concept of planning,

               management, protection, conservancy, development and use of renewable

               and non-renewable energy resources. This portion of the document addresses

               itself to the aspects of conservancy and protection of the "renewable energy

               resources" (living resources) essential to man's life support.

                    The sustenance of "renewable energy resources" is totally dependent upon

               the prime integrity and quality of the supporting environment or ecosystem.

               Ecosystems can be considered as being renewable and non-renewable.

                    A refiewable ecosystem can be characterized as one within which the dynamic

               equilibrium between diverse interacting processes is maintained in its natural

               balance. The equilibrium is dynamic, in that nature in its constant state of

               unrest, will impose transient-disturbances upon the system; but the time scale

               (geological rather than human) and rate of occurrences of such disturbances is

               such however, that they are readily assimilated within the spectrum of natural

               variabilities without disrupting the overall dynamic equilibrium between

               interacting processes.

                    Of late, many allusions  have been made on"how nature itself "pollutes".

               It is undeniable that severe and at time cataclysmic events, can overwhelm

               segments of biological populations and induce mass kills. The demise of a

               number of individuals however is not an indication that the ecosystem itself

               has been severely damaged, but that a transient event has temporarily disturbed

               the equilibrium of a segment. Once the disturbance is over, the system re-

               establishes itself quickly. It must be noted that, as a rule, many of

                                                        IV-7

                nature's disturbances are physical or geochemical, through release and in-

                trusion of components in an elemental state readily compatible with the

                geo-chemical "assimilative capacity" of the natural system.

                      A "non-renewable" ecosystem can be characterized as one in which the

                dymamic equilibrium between the natural processes is being continuously

                disturbed  and/or altered by either attrition of the "lebensraum" (vital

                space) required to maintain biological populations, destruction through

                excessive harvest or overprotection of "desirable" species, or intercompetition

                between diversity of species, or introduction of ever increasing quantities

                of unnatural compounds which readily react with, disturb, alter, block,

                obstruct natural biological processes; under such condiditons, nature has

                lost its ability to "assimilate" and the usually reversible biological

                changes are taking place on a "human time" scale (a few decades) rather than

                a geological time scale (many decades to centuries). Under such conditions,

                except perhaps for bacteria and other more primitive forms of life, the

                bulk of the biological systems cannot benefit from natural selection and

                evolutionalry processes to compensate for rapid and drastic changes in

                environmental quality. The true meaning of "pollution" resides in this          fact.

                      The conservancy and protection of the renewable energy resources of

                Kachemak Bay (and Lower Cook Inlet) can be pursued by:

                      1.   Setting aside an area within which the sustenance of life processes

                       -   will be given dominant priority and only other "compatible" uses

                           of the environment will be tolerated (e.g. Critical Habitat).

                      2.   Imposing strict technical and environmental controls upon "non com-

                           patible" uses of the environment to minimize to the utmost the life

                           damaging direct and indirect effects of conflicting resources uses.

                           (i.e. anti-pollution nfeasures, application of best technology, strict

                           operational controls an'd enforcement).

                                                    IV-8

                                      KACHEMAK BAY CRITICAL HABITAT

                    As a result of the environmental/fisheries/oil and gas leasing con-

               troversy, the legislature established in 1974 as the "Kachemak Bay Critical

               Habitat", the entire marine waters area eastward from a line drawn between

               Anchor Point and Point Pogibshi. The establishement of the Critical Habitat

               expressed, in broad terms, the concerns to protect the area from uncoordinated

               and potentially uncompatible resources use.    -

                    Prior to the establishment of the Kachemak Bay Critical Habitat, a number

               of actions had already been taken to maintain and protect already well recognized

               biological and ehvironmental values of the area:

                    1.   Incorporation of the Sheep Creek - upper Fox River drainages into

                         the Kenai National Moose Range

                    2.   Creation of the Fox River Critical Habitat (1972)

                    3.   Creation of Kachemak Bay State Park (1970)

                    4.   Creation, through Commercial Fisheries Regulatory Stipulations
                         (S AAC 21.750 - Closed Waters) of the Bluff Point Crab Sanctuary (1970)

                    All above actions reflect the intent to protect and maintain the environ-

               mental and biological attributes of the area.

                    To project the purpose and significance of a Critical Habitat,

               within the intent of a conservancy and protection spectrum of actions,

               the statutory definition of the Critical Habitat and the statutory obligations of

               the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, as the agency responsible for the

               administration and protection of the Critical Habitat, needs to be underscored.

    							IV-9

    		"Critical Habitat" as defined under Article 5 of Title 16 (Fish and

    	Game) reads as follows:

    		Article 5.  Fish and Game Critical Habitat Areas.
    Section						Section
    220.	Purpose					260.	Submission of plans and specifi-
    230.	Critical habitat areas established			cations
    240.  Regulations					270.	Additional critical habitat areas
    250.	Multiple land use

    	Sec. 16.20.220.  Purpose.  The purpose of   220-270 of this
    chapter is to protect and preserve habitat areas especially crucial
    to the perpetuation of fish and wildlife, and to restirct all other
    uses not compatible with the primary purpose ( 2 ch 140 SLA
    1972)

    	Sec. 16.20.240.  Regulations.  The board shall promulgate regu-
    lations it cnsiders advisable for conservation and protection pur-
    poses governing the taking of fish and game in state fish and game
    critical habitat areas. ( 2 ch 140 SLA 1972)

    	Sec 16.20.250.  Multiple land use.  Before the use, lease or other
    disposal of land under private ownership or state jurisdiction and
    control, within state fish and game critical habitat areas created
    under this chapter, the person or responsible state department or
    agency shall notify the commissioner of fish and game.  The com-
    missioner shall acknowledge receipt of notice by return mail (
    2 ch 140 SLA 1972)

    	Sec. 16.20.260.  Submission of plans and specifications.  When th
    board so determines, it shall instruct the commissioner, in the
    letter of acknowledgment, to require the person or governmental
    agency to submit full plans for the anticipated use, full plans and
    specifications of proposed construction work, complete plans and
    specifications for the proper protection of fish and game, and the
    approximate date when the construction or work is to commence,
    and shall require the person or governmental agency to obtain the
    written approval of the commissioner as to the sufficiency of the
    plans or specifications before construction is commennced. ( 2 ch
    140 SLA 1972)

    							IV-10

    	In order to better emphasize the management, protection and enforcement

    function of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game with respect to a "Critical

    Habitat", several improtant statutory functions and requirements must be

    underlined.

    	First, under the functions of the Commissioner:

    	Sec. 16.5.020. Functions of commissioner.  The commissioner
    shall
    	(1)	supervise and control the department, and he may appoint
    and employ division heads, enforcement agents, and the technical,
    clerical, and other assistants necessary for the general administra-
    tion of the department;
    	(2)  	manage, protect, maintain, improve and extend the fish,
    game and aquatic lant resources  of the state in the interest of the
    economy and general well-being of the state;
    	(3) 	have necesary power to accomplish the foregoing including
    but not limited to, the power to delegate authority to subordinate
    officers nad employees of the department. (  4 art I ch 94 SLA
    1959; am  1 ch 110 SLA 1970)

    	The language of Part 2 of Sec. 16.05.020 is of special interest, as it

    specifically refers to the Commissioner's responsibilities towards both the

    fish and game and aquatic plant resources of the State.

    	To clearly underscore the scope of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game

    duties, the statutory definitions of fish, game, and aquatic plants must be

    stressed.

    	Sec. 16.05.940.  Definitions.  In this chapter

    	(6) 	"fish" means any species of aquatic fin fish invertebrates
    and amphibians, in any stage of their life cycle, found in or in-
    troduced into the state:

    	(9)  	"game" means any species of bird and mammal, including
    a feral domestic animal found or introduced in the state, except
    domestic birds and mammals; and game may be classified by reg-
    ualation as big game, small game, fur bearers or other categories
    considered essential for carrying out the intention and purposes
    of this chapter;

    	(23)	"aquatic plant" means any species of plant, excluding the
    rushes, sedges and true grasses, growing in a marine aquatic or in-
    tertidal habitat;

                    The term Fish and Game must be viewed as an acronym encompassing

               all of the zooligical entities (except perhaps insects of the State).

               It must also be strongly underscored that, apart from what is nebulously

               referred to as "rushes, sedges and true grasses", the Department

               has statutory responsibilities for all aquatic plants (phytoplankton,

               thallophytes or red, brown and green algae and marine angiosperms or eel

               grasses).

                    The statutory language of Sec. 16.20.220 of Article 5 states that the

               purpose of Fish and Game Critical Habitat Areas "is to protect and preserve

               habitat areas especially crucial to the perpetuation of fish and wildlife...."

               What is meant by "habitat areas especially crucial to the perpetuation of fish

               and wildlife" is left open to many interpretations.

                    In referrence to the previous discussion relating to "renewable" and

               "non-renewable" ecosystems, the term Critical Habitat can be defined as:

                         "A natural area or type of environment of sufficient size

                         and prime quality essential to the survival, reproduction,

                         productivity and life functions of fauna and/or flora of

                         unique character, diversity, natural, recreational and/or

                         harvestable value".

                    Two components essential if a Critical Habitat is to fulfill its intended

               purpose must be stressed:

                    1.   Sufficient Size

                         Adequate space, or in the case of the marine environment,

                         a sufficient volume of marine waters, is most essential to the sus-

                         tenance of the biological functions of diverse interacting biological

                         entities, many of which range in and out or migrate through the area.

                                                    IV-12

                         Insuring an adequate size or volume for a Critical Habitat to

                         perform its intended function is usually one of the more difficult

                         and demanding aspects of defining and legislating the creation

                         of a Critical Habitat.

                         As presently defined, the Kachemak Bay Critical Habitat has

                         the surface area and volume of water requisite to function

                         satisfactorily. It is interesting to note that, based upon biological

                         considerations for the protection of crab spawning area, ADF&G

                         initially requested an area extending further into the open

                         waters of Lower Cook Inlet.

                    2.   Prime Environmental Quality

                         Prime environmental quality  is a most essential requirement to

                         the effective performance of  a Critical Habitat. A Critical Habitat

                         cannot withstand heavy, and  especially incompatible human use.

                         Because of the present intensity'of commercial fishing, the

                         increasing volumes of urban and vessel discharges, use of part of

                         the area as log storage and log transfer, the increasing use of the

                         protection afforded by the Bay for marine salvage and repair,.the

                         increased small boat traffic, the increase in ocean going traffic,

                         a good portion of which consists of tankers carrying loads as great

                         or greater than the amount of crude spi-lled by the METULA, the

                         prime environmental quality of Kachemak Bay is already under stress.

                    The longevity of the Kachemak Bay Critical Habitat and its in-

               tended function to maintain the environmental/biological attributes  and pro-

               ductivity of the Bay must also be viewed within the context of Article VIII

                                                   IV-13

               (Natural Resources), Section 4 of the State of Alaska Constitution, especially

               the last six words:

                               Section 4. Sustained Yield. Fish, forests, wildlife, grasslands,
                             and 'all other replenishable resources belonging to the State shall
                             be utilized, developed, and maintained on the SLIstained yield prin-
                             ciple, g
                                   @ibiect to PlIeferences @ on - beneficial uses.

                    The creation of the Kachemak Bay Critical Habitat must be considered as

               statutory recognition of its environmental and biological worth to the citizens

               of the State; conservancy and protection of its prime values must be such that

               the intended course of action by the legislature does not become prostituted

               by shortsighted actions governed by: "subject to references among beneficial

               uses", but instead that the course of action be carried out within the full

               meaning of Sec. 16.20.220:

                              "To restrict all other uses not compatible with

                              that primary purpose".

                    The basic question then arises, can "other uses" be so planned, engineered

               and  controlled as to be "compatible with that primary purpose" (e.g.

               development of oil and gas resources in a highly productive fishery

               area).

                    Present statutory, regulatory and enforcement authorities of the state

               agencies (e.g. Department of Natural Resources, Department of Environmental

               Conservation, Department of Fish and Game) as well as of federal agencies (e.g.

               Corps of Engineers, Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Geological Survey,

               National Marine Fisheries, Fish and Wildlife Service) are, if properly coordinated,

               formulated and applied, and enforced already sufficient to maintain and

               protect the quality and productivity of the environment of the Bay.

                                                    IV-14

                    The next basic question then is, in view of the availability of large
               bodies of laws and regulations, how effective are the current agencies'

               practices in the effective imposition and enforcement of environmental

               protection measures so that "other uses" are indeed "compatible with

               that primary purpose".

               Environmental Protection, How Effective

                    Safeguard of environmental quality is the major, concern that must be

               accomodated if the public is to be persuaded that the oil and gas resources

               of Kachemak Bay and Lower Cook Inlet can be developed with as close to zero

               risk as possible. Developing the oil and gas resources is a hazardous

               undertaking; environmentally damaging accidents can occur during any of

               the four major phases of exploring, developing, producing and transporting

               oil and gas.

                    At present, in the absence of any drilling, transportation of pet-

               roleum over the waters of Lower Cook Inlet - Kachema,k Bay, poses the

               greatest hazard to the environment. Petroleum capacity of the tankers

               plying through the area range between 120,000 and 500,000 barrels;

               the METULA incident spilled about 250,000 or so barrels, thus present tanker

               traffic has the potential for creating a mishap the size of the METULA.

                    Technological capabilities and knowhow, as well as the ability to impose

               effective environmental protection measures is readily available. However,

               how well such technical knowhow and protection is being applied needs

               to be critically and pragramatically examined.

                    Effectiveness of environmental protection technological  and regulatory

               practices can be gauged from two points of view: (1) ability  to apply the

               highest level of technological control at the source and (2)  imposition

               and enforcement of environmentally effective protection measures.

                                                   IV-15

                              Control Technology at the Source

                              A comprehensive discussion of the adequacy of OCS technologies

                              can be found in Chapter VI of the University of Oklahoma document

                              titled "Energy Under the Ocean". The document comments upon

                              the fact that, until recently, oil and gas offshore tech-

                              nologies were geared primarily to satisfy the interests

                              of the petroleum industry and regulatory agencies. Now,

                              however, environmental concerns have changed the criteria

                              used in determining what is satisfactory, and as a result,

                              when evaluated on the basis of these new criteria, many

                              of the operational standards, procedures and technologies

                              afre found to be most inadequate.

                              The dominance of the industry in the preparation of,operational

                              stipulations, safety and anti-pollution guidelines

                              (e.g. USGS OCS Orders) and the permisiveness of responsible

                              regulatory agencies, prompted a congressional inquiry

                              on the appropriateness and effectiveness of responsible

                              regulatory agencies in dealing with an industry under their

                              control. House Report No. 93-1396, 93rd Congress, 2nd Session,

                              published October 1, 1974, (Our Threatened Environment,

                              Florida and the Gulf of Mexico; Committee on Government

                                                     IV-16

                    Operations, 19th Report to 93rd Congress, based upon study made

                    by the Conservation and Natural Resources Subcommittee), analyzes

                    and discusses the salient problems. In its finding the report

                    states that:

                               "The studies have shown that there is a considerable

                               body of federal laws to deal with environmental problems

                               such as - - - - to prevent and reduce the adverse effects

                               of OCS oil and gas and mineral development on coastal

                               waters and onshore

                               "However, these studies have also shown that, in many

                               cases, the federal agencies charged with the duty to use

                               this body of law economically and efficiently have

                               failed to do so".

                    A most important facet, when considering how effective point source

                    controls are imposed upon offshore oil and gas operations is reflected

                    in the committee findings that:

                               "The Survey (USGS) is placing too heavy reliance on

                               industry committees to implement recommendations aimed at

                               solving OCS safety and anti-pollution problems".

                    The house  document indicates that as late as April 1974, the formulation

                    and revision of the various OCS orders which the USGS promulgated to

                    regulate the offshore activities of the industry were mostly a by-

                    product of industry - government cooperative procedures that ex-

                    cluded the public until the orders were acceptable to both the in-

                    dustry and the Survey.

                                                    IV-17

                         The USGS, in August 1974, indicated that three joint GS-API (API

                         is a national trade association representing all branches of the

                         petroleum industry) committees are now dealing with OCS safety

                         and anti-pollution problems. Each committee, each with several "task

                         groups" is headed by a representative from the industry. Each

                         committee has at least one GS representative, but several of the

                         task groups do not have GS representation. There is no representation

                         on these joint committees from outside organizations or the public.

                         The house document also states that when the survey was queried about

                         whether these joint industry committees, formed at the request of

                         USGS,, were subject to the Federal Advisory Committee Act of

                         October 6, 1972, the survey indicated that. the GS-API joint committees

                         did not fall under the requirement of the act. The hous-e document

                         then states that:

                                    "The survey dependence on these joint committees is

                                    misplaced - - - - the joint GS-industry committee pro-

                                    cedures gives the industry a significant and perhaps

                                    dominant role in the survey's standards setting and

                                    R & D program, no similar opportunity is provided to

                                    any other groups or the general public".

                         The house  document serves to focus upon past and still current

                         industry - agency procedural practices. Without an appropriate

                         technically independent and knowledgeable body of professionals

                         capable of evaluating the technological worth and effectiveness  of

                                                    IV-18

                    predominantly industry generated specifications and standards, the question

                    of how well environmental protection controls at the source can be

                    imposed and enforced remains unanswered.

                    An example of how deficient technology is permitted to operate

                    in the rigors of Alaska's OCS waters, is provided by the

                    recent tribulations of the drilling vessel "Glomar Conception",

                    in the N.E. Gulf, off Yakataga. The ADF&G, in its comments on the

                    proposed "Strat-drilling" operations, queri ed the USGS about their

                    involvement in ascertaining the adequacy of a multi-moor drilling

                    platform as compared to a much more stable semi-submersible platform

                    to drill at the site. USGS reply was that the agency relies

                    upon the industry to provide what the industry considers to be

                    appropriate and that the drilling vessel was deemed adequate based

                    upon past on station performance in the North Sea. The shortcomings and

                    failures of the platform to complete the task are history. The case

                    of the Glomar Conception, perhaps best illustrates what can be

                    considered as a very thin margin of environmental safety at the

                    operational site, due to a lack of effective check and balance

                    between operators and regulators in the planning and use of best

                    technology and operational safeguards.

                    A parallel can be made with the State of Alaska in respect to

                    the jack-up rig "George Ferris". As yet unanswered is the

                    responsibility of pertinent state agencies to insure that  the

                    most modern and fail safe technology is designed for operation

                    in the rugged, unpolluted and biologically rich marine waters of

                                                   IV-19

                         Alaska. Present, seemingly unchecked reliance on industry practices

                         does not provide the level of environmental protection safety

                         required in the highly biological sensitive and valuable areas

                         of Lower Cook Inlet and Kachemak Bay.

                    2.   Imposition and Enforcement of Environmental Protection Measures

                         A major aspect of the environmental protection of the marine waters

                         of Kachemak Bay and Lower Cook Inlet rests with the protection and

                         maintenance of the quality and productivity of such waters.

                         Protecting the quality of the marine waters can be approached

                         from two different points of view: technological and ecological.

                         The basic differences in approaches and methodologies are illustrated

                         in Table 25. (Westman, 1972).

                         In terms of ultimate water quality goals sought, the technologists

                         define their goals in terms of uses to which water is to be put

                         by man. The current statutes defining the "Water Quality Criteria

                         for Waters of the State of Alaska", follow the technologists'

                         definition, as shown in Table 26.

                         The ecological viewpoint, by contrast, seeks to maintain pro-

                         tection and if so needed, restore the physical, chemical and

                         biological integrity of the waters. The ecological viewpoint
                         regards "pristine" or as close as possible to "pristine" con-

                         ditions as providing the "balance of nature" that can insure

                         water clean enough to meet all of man's requirements regardless

                         of "use". The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendment of

                         1972 (PL 92-500), takes the ecological approach to the maintenance

    ~0

                                                  1~q8 AAC ~q70.02~0                                                                 WATER QUALITY CRITERIA, ~FO~R~q!~VA~qTE~R~qi ~qCF THE STATE OF ALASKA
                                                                                                                                    (2) --- ~q-~q(3~q)~q-                     ~. _                                   ~q-~qC
                                                                  Wate quality          Total Col~fforn                        Dissolved                               Turb~qi~d~qj~:~qy~, measured in                e~r~a~perature, as ~M~ea ur
                                                                                                                                                                      Ja ~ckso~n   Tu
                                                                     Parameters         Organisms (see note 1)                Oxygen ~m~g~q/~qI                  ~p~i~t                      rb~qidity Units           ed in degrees
                                                                                                                              or ~: Satur~a-~.. (see note 3              (JTU)                                 Fahrenheit ~q(~*F)
                                                     Water Uses                                                               t~ion
                                                      ~@ater supply, drink-              Mean o~0qF5     or ~i~rcre                 Greater than- ~8qTe~q-~twee~n                                                     ~~_~8qVe ow V~qr
                                                     n~g. culinary and food              samples in any ~ronth                  75~9 satura-          and ~q8.5
                                                     r~ocessin~g without.the              may not exceed ~q50 per                 tion or
                                                                                        ~100 mi    exce~ot ~Sround               5 ~j~r~.~9/1
                                                     ee~d for tr~eat~rent                                                                                                       .~4
                                                     t~her than si~r~-ple disin-           water shall contain
                                                  fection and si~nple re-                zero per 100 m~i.
                                                     v~al of naturally
                                                  ~nresent i~np~urit~ie~s.
                                                       a er supp y, ~8qF~1~_~n~qT~_~q_ ~_~f can o                 or more                   reater ~t      a     Be~twe        .~5 ~qfess      ~8qV~qi    ~5 ~'~1     above           e ow ~6~0~1~F~.
                                                  ~ing. culinary and food                samples in any month                  60% satura-          and ~q8.             natural cn~o~nd~qlti~o~ns.
                                                  processing with the need              ~'~may not exceed 1000 per              tion or
                                                  for treat~rent equal to                100 m~i~, and not more                     ~i~r~qo/~ql
                                                  co~e~Sulation, sediment~a-               than 20% of sa~nples
                                                  t~i~cn. filtration, disin-              during one month may
                                                  fection and any other                 exceed 2400 per 100 ml,
                                                  treatment processes                   except ground water
                                                  necessary to remove                   shall contain zero
                                     ~qM            naturally present                     per 100 m~qi.
                                                  impurities.
                                     ~N~)
                                     ~0~)
                                                  ~qC~T~.~-~8qVa~ter o~@n~_t~a~ct~_~q_                  Sa~r~ve as ~8-1                          Greater than         Between     6.5    ~'~q6~_~cT~o`~qw-~q2~2qn U except when             u~mer~ica~l v~a~iue ~i~s~q-~8qT~qn~2q_~q_
                                                       Recreation                                                             ~5 mg~q/~l.              and ~8.5            1
                                                                                                                                                                      natural conditions ex-                app~ql~qicab~ie.
                                                                                                                                                                      ce~ed this figure efflu-
                                                               I                                                                                                      ents   ~0~2         increase
                                                                                                                                                                      th~e
                                                                                                                                                                             tu~y~bi~q2~q7~tt
                                                  ~U.   Growth     and  pr~op~a-           Same a     ~8~-~1 to pro-"               ~_~qd~_r~_ea~_t~_~e~q_~r~_t~qF~a~q_~n  Between ~q7.~5                       ~qY~0q@~0qn ~qt~the~'~n~'            May not e~xce~,~-~:      natural
                                                  ~qg~at~qi~on of       fish and              tect ~8qloc~qiated                         6 ~m~g/~qI in            and 8.5 for        attributable      to solids.          terp. by more than 2~q*F
                                                  other ~a~uu3t~ic life                    recreational                          salt water           salt water.        which result      from other          for salt water. ray n
                                                  Including       ~tf~ate~r~qf~o~qf             values.                               and greater          Between 6.5        than natural      origin.             exceed natural       t~e.~,.~p. b
                                                  and fu~rbearer~s.                                                             than 7 m~g~q/~qI          and 8.5 for                                              more than OF 'or ~Ires
                                                                                                                              in fresh             fresh water                                              water. No ch~a~n~Se s~q@~q,al
                                                                                                                              water..                                                                       be permitted fOr ~te~qm~qp.
                                                                                                                                                                                                            over 6~0~'F. ~Xax~l~nu~m
                                                                                                                                                         A                                                  rate of c~h~a~r~.~Se per-
                                                                                                                                                                                                            m~itted is ~&.~S~'~F oar ~qhr
                                                          ~'~e                            ~f~lot to exceed limits                 ~qG~q-~r~e~d ter -t~qha-n ~8q4~e~_t~qw~_~e~e~q;              ~_~8q5r~re  as ~6qr~6q7~.~7~q-                       Less Tn~an ~c~r-~..
                                                  ~4qF~n~-d~q' r~8q2p~a~qg~q"~8qMo~qn In-                   specified in National                 6 m~g/~ql in the        and    ~qB.S
                                                  clud~i~n~g natural and                   Shellfish Sa~rT~q@~qi~q-t~i~o~n                 larval stage.
                                                  c~o-~rerc~qi~al growing                    Pro~q~r~a~w ~Xa~m~;~a~l of                     Greater than
                                                  areas.                                ~q?~qi~qF~q_~Pr~at~ions, ar~t 1~q,~.                 5 ~i~r~g/~ql in the
                                                                                                            t
                                                                                        ~2qE~p     ~- ~4q7s~ee           I             adult sta~ne.
                                                  ~F A~rr                                                                                                    -~q7~8qM                                                                   ~c 70~q1F
                                                           ~icu~ltur~a~l ~vater              ~h~e~an   of 5 or ~r~-~or~e sa~n-             Greater than         ~Betw~ee~q2            numerical values are                  uet~veen 6~qV~F ~a~r~,
                                                  ~s~u~pp~qfy. including fr.                 pies   ~may not exceed                 3 ~r~qg~q/I               a~nd ~q8.5            inapplicable.                         for o~pt~qi~n~o~m ~qgr~a~wtn to
                                                  r~qi~qg~atfo~n, stock water-                1000   per ICO nl with 20~9                                                                                          prevent p~tys~i~o~ql~4qq~qfc~qa~8ql~q-
                                                  Ing. and truck firming.               of samples ~not to exceed                                                                                            shock to plants.
                                                                                        2400 per 100 mi for
                                                                                        livestock watering~, for
                                                                                        Irrigation of crops          for
                                                                                        human c~on~su~o~rption, and
                                                                                        for general f~ar~r~. use.
                                                                                        except ground water shall
                                                                                        contain zero Per ~q1~00 mi.
                                                  ~V~P   ~I~n~d~us~tr~i~ai water                 ~-~qS~qi~-~m-e~qis ~B-~1 w~6~e~never                Greater than         ~B~a~tw~"~I~n ~6~q0~5 Ila imposed ~t~urb                                   than ~q7~q0~1~qF.
                                                                  Water ~qlua~ql
                                                                     ~'ara~.~e~q"

                                                                  ~s
                                                     ~fater U~6q@~,e

                                                                                                                                                                                              ~I~t~y
                                                  ~qt~y~qp~qp~ql~qy lather than                    worker ~c~q9~n~qJ~o~c~q% is                     ~q5 111 for            and ~q4~8q4             that   may i~n~qt~er~qr~,     r~, with
                                                                                                                                 ~r                               I    ~qa~qst~a~qbl~qi~t~qh~ed level, at
                                                                                                                              ~qs~u~r ace water,
                                                                                                                     ~0                                                water ~g~u~qp~qp~ql~qy t~r~e~at~m~e~A

    ~0

                                                  18 AAC ~q7~0.~02~0                                                         WATER ~qqUA~qLI~TY     CRITERIA FOR      RATERS OFT~P~E STATE OF ALAS~Y~qA
                                                              ~(7)                                   (8)                          9                               ~1~0~q1                  fill
                                                  ~.esfeues   including Oils,               Settleable     solids    Toxic or Other Deleterious.             color. as            Radioactivity                  ~qA~e~st~qk~qa~q:~q1
                                                  l~o~at~f~n~g    Solids. Sludge                suspended solids         Substances, p~esticfd,~.~S and.            measured                                            ~qC~c~n~s~0qi~q'~q-~qr
                                                  ep~os~fts    and Other Wastes.             (includes sedi-          Related Organic and                     in color
                                                                                           ment ~& dredge            Inorganic materials                     units
                                                                                           Moil ~& fill)
                                                     e as ~8~-~7                              Beloit normally          ~q@~2qar~bon c~8qhloro~ro                ~S~q= rue co~lor~-~0qM~e -concentrations ~of
                                                                                                                                       ~r~m eztr~ac~2qF                                                               May ~r~qz~q- ~qz
                                                                                           detectable               less than 0.~1     ~' /I and              less than radioactivity shall not:                  e~d ~t~y ~q-~q.~q:~q-~qe
                                                                                           amounts                  other ch~e~m~fca    I  onst~ituents ~-       1~5 color                                            of ~=~at~qe~qr,
                                                                                                                    tray not exceed~6qISP~PS Drinking           u~n~qi t~'~s.      ~a)~-Exce~Td 1/30th of the               t~n~e~ir ~qt~q9~ql
                                                                                                                    'later S~tandard~y~.                                          values given for con-            ~q0-~.~u are
                                                                                                                    ~qI~q-See~-~note                                            ~'~qi~'~4q4~1~q"~OuS ~OcCu~L~at~ional expo-          ~q;~qi~8qZ~,~q;~q: ~q_~q.
                                                                                                                                                                          Sure in the ~:~!a~tional                 s~:~-~e~q:~,~. ~q. t~qa
                                                                                                                                                                               ~a~ndards ~Pand~@~.o~a~*~,
                                                                                                                                    ~0qj~q-                                    ~-~o' S~'
                                                  ~P~qi~s~f~e~ve~s   ray not ~n~a~@~.e the re-         No ~I posed               Chemical constituents shall             ~qTa~q-~me as      ~q1~69.                                  ~a~=~a as
                                                  ce~iv~qi~r~g water unfit or unsafe            loadm~s that will         conform t~o USPH~S ~Dr~in~Lk~qt~qi               A~-1~q0
                                                  for the uses of this clas~qi~qt-             Interfere with           Water Stan~qda~q-~r~qd~'~s~-~.          ~qL~n~qj                      ~1b) Exceed t~he concentra-
                                                  fic~at~i~on; nor cause a film or
                                                                                           established              (see note 4)                                          ~'t~io~is s~pecfi~ed in the 1962
                                                  sheen upon. or discoloration             levels of                                                                      U.S. Public ~Y~ealth.Serv~qi~te
                                                  of. the surface of the ~@~:at~er            water supply                                                                   Drinking Water Standards
                                                  or adjoining ~shoreli~ne~. nor              treatment.                                                                     ~Ifor waters us~sd f~qor ~e~o~me~s-
                                                  cause a sludge or emulsion                                                                                              -tic supplies.
                                                  to be deposited beneath or
                                                  upon the surface of the                                                                                                 ~c) Have a de~.~-~r~onstra~ble
                                        ~qM         water. within th~qq water        col~-                                                                                     detrimental effect on
                                        ~qN~)        u~rn~. on the bottom or upon                                                                                              aquatic life.
                                        ~qM         a~qd~qj~_~9~_~qj~n~I~n~j_~s~qh~2
                                        ~q0~-        Same as ~B-7                              ~Ho visible               Below  concentrations        found      ~-~q@~q_~t~c~ch~j      d) ~The c~o~nce~r~tration of
                                                                                           concentrations.          to be  of public health                 disc v~q1s~.     radioactive materials in
                                                                                           of sediment.             Significance                            ~Ible at       ~qAhese waters shall. be less
                                                                                                                                                            m~ln.~*~d~e~pt~q@th~an those required t
                                                                                                                                                            of I meter~ireet the Radiation Pro-
                                                                                                                                                                                                     0

                                                  ~q5~a~q@~'~q_a                                   ~-~to dep~os ~I t Ion                                                              ~It~ect~ion Cu~i~des ~lor ~m~3xi-                   as
                                                     ~e                                                              Concentrations shall be less            ~4am~e as
                                                  lotting: Residues shall be               which adversely          than those levels which cause           C~-10          ~mu~n exp~@sure of critical
                                                  less than those levels which             affects fish             t~a~inti~n~g~'f~ish, :less than acute                       hur~t~e~n organs r~ec~c~:~:~:~n~ended
                                                                                                                                                                          by the for~r~-er Federal
                                                  other organisms and less
                                                  cause tainting of fish or                other aquatic            or~,~,~chron~qic pro~t~2q4~i levels as                                                      the
                                                                                           life reprodu~c            r~e ealed by bioas~s~ay or other                         -Radiation Council in
                                                  than acute or chronic                    t~ion and                 appropriate methods and below
                                                  problem levels as determined                                                                                            case of foodstuffs harvest-
                                                                                           habitat.                 Concentrations affecting the                          ~ed from these waters for
                                                  by b~i~o~ass~ay.                                                      ecological balance.                                   hu~nan consu~r~pt~ion. Be-
                                                                                                                                                                          cause any h~u~rr~an exposure
                                                                                                                                                                          to ~icn~izi~n~g radiation is
                                                     me as                                 1~1~o deposition           Sane as ~0-9                                                            ~T~h~e C~'~OACe~n-               as
                                                                                           which adversely                                                  ~C~-~q1~0          tr~a~ti~on of r~a~d~qio~a~.~-t~iv~ity
                                                                                           affects ~gro~-~wth                                                                In these waters shall be
                                                                                           and propagation                                                                ~t~ra~qi~n~t~a~i~ned at %:he lowest
                                                                                           of shellfish.                                                                  practicable    level.
                                                  Sam as ~8~-~q7
                                                                                           ror sprinkler            ~qFess Ran Gat       ~s~q6~ow~n ~qio ~qCe              ~qjp~q@~qj~qj~q:~'                                         ~qS~qV~�   as.
                                                                                           irrigation, ~wa-          deleterious to     I ~qive~s~t~ock or        cable.
                                                                                           ter free of par-         plant  ~'~s or their s~ub~s~e~qq~je~nt
                                                                                           ticles of 0.074          C~OnSu~mpt~qion by humans.
                                                                                           m~n or coarser.
                                                                                           For irrigation
                                                                                           or water spread-
                                                                                           ~i~ng, not to ex-
                                                                                           ceed 200 ~i~rg~q/~ql
                                                                                           for an extended
                                                  ~4q@es
                                                  ~'~o
                                                  ~'~P

                                                                ~4q7                          period of ~t~i~r~p~.
                                                                                           No ~i~nposed ~loa           Chemical ~c~o~q;~istitu~en~t~s       way nor.
                                                                                                                ~c~s  I                                                                                                 as
                                                                                           that will inter.         exceed concentrations        found
                                                                                           fere with es-
                                                                                           tabl~i~s~hed level          significance.
                                                                                           of tr~e tment.            to ~be of public health

                                                   IV-20

                          and protection of water quality. In attempting to follow the

                          ecological approach, the U.S. Congress ruled that by 1981, the

                          discharge of pollutants into the waters of the nation must be

                          eliminated.

                          The technologists repeatedly argue that the level of cleanliness

                          sought by the ecologist is "unnecessarily high" for many intended

                          uses and therefore is unnecessarily costly to comply with. The

                          ecologist's retort is that, once pollution is allowed to proceed,

                          the level and the manner of destruction wrought cannot be con-

                          trolled and that the cost of rehabilitating the water for man's

                          use will continually accrue; by contrast, protecting and maintaining

                          the waters to as close as possible to their natural state, will

                          allow for nat ural processes to maintain the prime state of quality,

                          at essentially lower long term costs.

                          The most basic arguments usually revolve around the question of

                          what is the natural "assimilating capacity" of the marine waters

                          for pollutants. Traditionally the technologists have assumed

                          that aquatic ecosystems have the capacity to digest, degrade and

                          ultimately cause to disappear pollutants placed into them. To

                          the ecologists, a functional definition of assimilative capacity

                          is that of the resilience in a natural water body which insures

                          that any changes in the aquatic ecosystem resulting in a physical,

                          chemical or biological change in an unplolluted water body will be

                          of a temporary one, such that within a few hours, days or weeks,

                                                    IV-21

                          the aquatic ecosystem will return to its original functional state.

                          In the ecological approach, such as the one followed by PL 92-500,

                          no reliance is placed upon "assimilative capacity", which

                          directly leads to the conclusion that discharges of pollutants

                          must be eliminated at the source.

                          The applicability of water quality laws, criteria and standards to

                          the as yet mostly unpolluted status of the marine waters of Kachemak

                          Bay and Lower Cook Inlet needs to be critically examined.

                          PL 92-500, through its progressive schedule of improved levels of

                          treatment, leading to eventual elimination of pollutant from

                          discharges, aims at repairing and rehabilitating much of the waters

                          already damaged by pollution. The marine waters of the Coast of

                          Alaska, in contrast to most of the coastal waters of the Atlantic,

                          Gulf and part of the Pacific Coast, are for all practical purposes

                          unpolluted and in their prime "pristine" natural quality. The coastal

                          waters of Alaska do not need to be rehabilitated; they only require

                          maximum effective protection, through application of strict,

                          point source prevention of pollutant discharge. For Alaska, the

                          1981 PL 92-500 goal for elimination of discharge of pollutant is

                          the basic environmental protection goal to be applied today.

                          In the implementation of PL 92-500, the technologists still exert

                          a dominant control in the implementation of the law through the

                          application of "best treatment technology". To the ecologist how-

                                                   IV-22

                          ever, application of "best treatment technology" raises very

                          serious doubts as to its biological protection effectiveness.

                          Present application of best treatment technology revolves around

                          the levels of treatments that can be achieved by what the regulatory

                          agency considers to be the better performing treatment facilities.

                          Effluent criteria for the allowable concentration of various classes

                          of pollutants are based upon the ability of best current operating

                          plants to reduce or control the levels of various pollutants. As

                          presently practiced, application of "best treatment technology"

                          considers neither the biological sensitivities of the receiving

                          waters nor'the levels of treatments that must be imposed to

                          effectively protect marine life from low level pollution. Numbers

                          such as 25/50 mg of oil concentration in the discharges emanating

                          from production and/or drilling platform are numbers strictly generated

                          by arbitrary statistical manipulation of treatment facilities performance

                          data: such numbers are'not'based upon biological protection rationales.

                          To date, even with the available technology and rather large body of

                          environmental laws, the quality and integrity of the marine waters of

                          Alaska must be considered to be virtu.ally unprotected under existing

                          regulatory and enforcement practices.

                          PL 92-500, in Section 403 (Ocean Discharge Criteria) of the Act,

                          specifies an ecological approach to the drafting of environmental

                          protection guidelines for marine waters. To date, better than

    86 STAT, 883	Law 92-500			-68-				October 18, 1972

    			establishing specifications for safe transportation, handling,carriage,
    			storage, and stowage of pollutants.
    				"(h)  In the event any condition of a permit for discharges from a
    			treatment works (as defined in section 212 of this Act) which is
    			publicly owned is violate, a State with a program approved under
    			subsection (b) of this section or the Administrator, where no State
    			program is approved, may proceed in a court of competent jurisdiction
    		 	to restrict or prohibit the introduction of any pollutant into such
    			treatment works by a source not utilizing such treatment works prior
    		 	to the finding that such condition was violated.
    				"(i)  Nothing in this section shall be construed to limit the author-
    			ity of the Administrator to take action pursuant to seciton 309 of this
    			Act.
    Public			"(j)  A copy of each pemrit application and each permit issued
    information.	under this section shall be available to the public.  Such permit appli-
    			cation or permit, or portion thereof, shall further be available on
    			request for the purpose of reproduction.
    				"(k)  Compliance with a permit issued pursuant to this section shall
    			be deemed complaince, for purposes of sections 300 and 505, with sec-
    			tions 301, 302, 306, 307, and 403, except any standard imposed under
    			section 307 for a toxic pollutant injurious to human health.  Until
    			December 31, 1974, in any case where a permit for discharge ahs been
    			applied for pursuant to this section, but final administrative disposition
    			of such application has not been made, such discharge shall not be a
    			violation of (1) section 301, 306, or 402 of this Act, or (2) section 13
    30 Stat. 1152.	of the Act of March 3, 1899, unless the Administrator or other plain-
    33 USC 407.		tiff proves that final adminsitrative disposition of such application has
    			not been made because of the failure of the applicant to furnish infor-
    			mation reasonably required or requested in order to process the applica-
    			tion.  For the 180-day period beginniing on the date of enactment of the
    Ante. p. 816.	Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972, in the case
    			of any point source discharging any pollutant or combination of pol-
    			lutants immediately prior to such date of enactment which source is
    			not subject to section 13 of the Act of March 3, 1899, the discharge by
    			such source shall not be a violation of this Act if such a source applies
    			for a permit for discharge pursuant to this section within such 180-day
    			period.

    							"OCEAN DISCHARGE CRITERIA
    				"SEC.403. (a)  No permit undrer section 402 of this Act for a discharge
    			into the territorial sea, the waters of the contiguous zone, or the oceans
    			shall be issued, after promulgation of guidelines established under sub-
    			section (c) of this section, except in compliance with such guidelines.
    			Prior to the promulgation of such guidelines, a permit may be issued
    			under such section 402 if the Administrator determines it to be in the
    			public interest.
    				"(b)  The requirements of subsection (d) of section 402 of this Act
    			may not be waived in the case of permits for discharges into the
    			territorial sea.
    Guidelines.			"(c). (1)  The Administrator shall, within one hundred and eighty
    			days after enactment of this Act (and from time to time thereafter),
    			promulgate guidelines for determining the degradation of the waters
    			of the territorial seas, the contiguous zone, and the oceans which shall
    			include:
    				"(A)  the effect of disposal of pollutants on human health or
    			welfare, including but not limited to plankton, fish, shellfish, wild-
    			life, shorelines, and beaches;
    				"(B)  the effect of disposal of pollutants on marine life includ-
    			ing the transfer, concentration, and dispersal of pollutants or their

    October 18, 1972					-69-		Pub. Law 92-     STAT, 884

    by products through biological, physical and chemical processes;
    changes in marine ecosystem diversity, productivity, and stability;
    and species and community population changes;
    	"(C)  the effect of disposal, of pollutants on esthetic, recreation,
    and economic values;
    	"(D)  the persistence and permanence of the effects of disposal
    of pollutants;
    	"(E)  the effect of the disposal at varing rates, of particular
    volumes and concentrations of pollutants;
    	"(F)  other possible lcoations and methods of disposal or recy-
    cling of pollutants including land-based alternatives; and
    	"(G) the effect on alternate uses of the oceans, such as mineral
    exploitation and scientifc study.
    "(2)  In any event where insufficient information exists on any pro-			Prohibition.
    posed discharge to make a reasonable judgement on any of the guide-
    lines established pursuant to the subsection no permit shall be issued
    under section 402 of this Act.

    			"PERMITS FOR DREDGED OR FILL MATERIAL

    	"SEC.404. (a)  The Secretary of the Army, acting through the Chief		Notice, hearing
    of Engineers, may issue permits, after notice and opportunity for				opportunity.
    public hearings for the discharge of dredged or fill amterial into the
    naviagable waters at specified disposal sites.
    	"(b)  Subject to subsection (c) of this section, each such disposal
    site shall be specified for each such permit by the Secretary of the Army
    (1) through the application of guidelines developed by the Adminis-
    trator, in conjunction with the Secretary of the Army, which guide-
    lines shall be based upon criteria comparable to the criteria applicable
    to the territoral seas, the contiguous zone, and the ocean under section
    403(c), and (2) in any case where such guidelines under clause (1)
    alone would prohibit the specification of a site, through the applica-
    tion additionally of the economic impact of the site on navigation and
    anchorage.
    	"(c)  The Administrator is authorized to prohibit the specification		Disposal site,
    (including the withdrawal of specification) of any defined area as a			specification
    disposal site, and he is authorized to deny or restrict the use of any			prohibition.
    defined area for specification (including the withdrawal of specifica-
    tion) as a disposal site, whenever he determines, after notice and oppor-
    tunity for public hearings, that the discharge of such materials into
    such area will ahve an unacceptable adverse effect on municipal water
    supplies, shellfish beds and fishery areas (including spawning and
    breeding areas), wildlife, or recreational areas.  Before making such
    determination, the Administrator shall consult with the Secretary of
    the Army.  The Administrator shall set forth in writing and make				Findings of
    public his findings and his reasons for making any determination				Administrator,
    under this subsection.											publication.

    				"DISPOSAL OF SEWAGE SLUDGE

    	"SEC. 405.(a)  Notwithstanding any other provision of this Act or
    or any other law, in any case where the disposal of sewage sludge
    resulting from the operation of a treatment works as defined in section
    212 of this Act (including the removal of in-place sewage sludge from
    one location and its deposit at another location) would result in any
    pollutant from such sewage sludge entering the navigable waters,
    such disposal is prohibited except in accordance with a permit issued
    by the Administrator under this section.

                                                   IV-23

                          four years since the law was passed, EPA, the responsible

                          regulatory agency, has not impTemented the ecological requirements of

                          Sec. 403. (403, C 1 and 2).   Moreover, by a recent ruling of its

                          General Counsel, EPA (Sept. 8, 1975 Memorandum, as shown) has divested

                          itself of compliance with NDPES permit requirements for drilling

                          vessels and floating drilling structures, vessels and structures most likely

                          to be extensively used in the Cook Inlet and other OCS areas

                          of coastal Alaska.

                          USGS OCS orders contain some pollution control stipulations; such

                          stipulations however, are environmentally and biologically

                          ineffective.

                          EPA is presently attempting to develop "interim final effluent

                          guidelines and new sources performance standards for the offshore

                          segment of the oil and gas extraction point source category" (Sept.

                          1975). Review of the document shows that nowhere are the

                          requirements of Sec. 403 of PL 92-500 even alluded to, nor has

                          any consideration been given to constrain the quality of effluent

                          to the pollutional levels of sensitivities of various marine life as

                          demonstrated by various researchers and results of bioassays.

                          It should be.noted here that in effect, the Sept. 8, 1975 ruling

                          by the General Counsel of EPA, negates EPA's efforts to establish-

                          and implement the intended effluent guidelines for much of the

                          Coast of Alaska.

                          The ADF&G, in coordination with NMFS, FWS, EPA and ADEC is attempting

    					IV-23a
    		UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
    				WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460

    										OFFICE OF
    									GENERAL COUNSEL

    MEMORANDUM

    SUBJECT:  ARCO Seismographic Drilling in the Gulf of Alaska

    TO:  	Clifford Smith, Jr.
    	Regional Administrator

    FROM:	Robert V. Zener
    	General Counsel

    	This is in reference to your request for advice as to the
    applicability of the FWPCA and the Ocean Dumping Act (Marine
    Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972) to the
    activities of ARCO in the Gulf of Alaska.

    	We understand the facts to be essentially as follows:
    ARCO proposes to commence seismographic drilling in the Gulf
    of Alaska.  Such drilling will be conducted form a ship located
    approximately 20 miles offshore and anchored during the period
    in which drilling will occur.  During the course of drilling,
    discharges of drilling muds and concrete can be expected.  The
    ship, the Clomar Conception, is registered in the United States.

    					NPDES PERMIT

    	On the basis of the facts set forth above, Sections 301 and 402
    do not apply to the discharges.  Section 301 prohibits the "discharge
    of any pollutant" except as in compliance with enumerated sections.
    Section 502(12) (B), however, defines "discharge of pollutant" as
    "any addition of any pollutant to the waters of the contiguous
    zone or the ocean from any point source other than a vessel or
    other floating craft."  Since the drilling will take place
    20 miles offshore the geographic conditions of section 502(12)(B)

                                                IV-23b

                   are satisfied. (1)    Moreover, the mere fact that the ship will
                   be anchored does niot remove it from the class of "floating
                   craft.". Thus, there  can be iio "discharge of a pollutant"
                   within the meaning of the FVTPCA and, therefore, no permit
                   under section 402 need be issued. The Agency may not exercise
                   rulemaking authority under the Act in an area 'in which
                   Congress has withheld jurisdication.    Thus, 40 CFR 125.4(a)
                   may-not be read to expand, by negative inference, our
                   authority by control pollutants on the high seas.

                                          OCEAN DUMPING PERMIT

                       While no NPHS permi@ is required for the     explo.ratory drilling
                   as above described, if discharges of drilling   muds, concrete or
                   other maLerials brought from on-shore facilities will occur,
                   a permit pursuant to section 102 of the Marine Protection,
                   Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (MPRSA) is required.
                   Section 101(a) of the IIPRSA provides, in part, that no person,
                   shall transport from the United States any material for the
     ,Now           urpose of dumping it into ocean waters except as may be
                   authorized by a permit. "Dumping" is defined in section 3(f)
                   as the "disposition of material" and "material" is broadly defined
                   Pin section 3(c' as "matter of any kind, or description,
                   including ... solid waste, ... chemicals, ... rock, sand ...
                   and industrial waste." Clearly., the drilling mud and cement
                   discharges constitute the "disposition of material" within
                   the meaning of the MPRSA, for which a permit is required.

                                                       Robert V. Zener
                                                       General Counsel

                   (1) see th'c definitions of,"territorial  seas", "contiguous zone"
                        and "oevan" in section 502(8)(9)(10), respectively.
     I@V

     V13

                                                                          L
     It

      iT

                                                    IV-24

                         to formulate effluent limitation criteria based upon existing

                         knowledge of effects of oils upon the marine biota. For Lower

                         Cook Inlet and Kachemak Bay, two areas biological sensitive due to

                         the extent and duration of crustacean larval development, the

                         maximum permissible levels of oil concentration in any discharge

                         must, to be biologically effective, remain within 0.05 and 0.1 mg/l at the

                         point of discharge, such concentrations to be achieved by

                         treatment rather than mixing within a given "mixing zone";

                         the .05 and 1. mg/l of oil concentration are based upon

                         synthesis of published information on the sensitivity of larval

                         and developmental stages of marine life to hydrocarbons.

                         Drill cuttings, drilling muds, drilling fluids are unavoidable by-

                         products of any drilling operation. Drilling muds and fluids

                         consist of mixtures of suspended solids, chlorides, alkaline

                         compounds, chromium compounds, bacteriocides, organic polymers,

                         dispersant, defoamers, lubricants and detergents. The toxicity

                         of either.the individual components or of the complex "whole"

                         mixture to various forms of aquatic life, especially developmental

                         and larval stages, still needs to be ascertained. The results of

                         a recent EPA sponsored conference on "Environmental Aspects of
                         Chemical Use in Well Drilling Operations" (1975), in which a

                         number of papers dealing with bioassay on drilling muds components

                         were presented and can perhaps be best summarized by the statement

                         by D.G. Wright, a biologist with the Fisheries and Marine Services

                         of Environment Canada:         although a great deal of information

                                                    IV-25

                         was exchanged there are a great many questions still unanswered. The

                         conference merely emphasized our lack of understanding of the problem".

                         Fragmentary information on the toxicity of drilling mud components,

                         stemming from bioassay performed mainly on fresh water fishes,

                         suggests that drilling fluids are toxic to aquatic life. To date, no

                         toxicity measurements have been made on marine juveniles and

                         larval form. Until the toxicity of drilling fluids and muds

                         can be fully ascertained, present ADF&G requirements are for

                         drilling muds and fluids to be fully contained for controlled

                         disposal at an appropriate dump site.

                    Oil spills, ranging from a few gallons to several hundreds of barrels,

               are a6-inevitable consequence of oil.and gas exploration, production, trans-...

               fer and utilization. An interesting and pragmatic discussion of agencies

               industry prevention, control and cleanup responsibilities and procedures in

               Alaska can be found in the master's thesis of R.L. Beving: "Oil Pollution

               in Maritime Alaska" (1974). A good portion of Beving's thesis discusses

               the various "oil spill contingency plans".

                    Control, containment and cleanup of oil spilled into the marine waters

               of Kachemak Bay and Lower Cook Inlet is an important facet of environmental

               protection. Section 311 of PL 92-500 establishes a "National Contingency

               Plan" to "provide for efficient, coordinated and effective action to minimize

               damage from oil and hazardous substances discharges, including containment,

               dispersal and removal of oil and hazardous substances           The plan

               requires predesignated on-scene coordinators, requires cooperation and

               coordination among the various federal, state and local government agencies

                                                     IV-26

               and the private community. It even requires stockpiling    of cleanup equip-

               ment in strategic location, for ready availability and deployment. How

               effectively can the plan and especially the technology of cleanup be

               applied to the Lower Cook Inlet - Kachemak Bay water is an open question.

               Except in sheltered areas, the weather,, sea conditions, and the speed of    the

               current,  are often such that most present containment and cleanup operations   must

               be delayed until the oil reaches the shore. Even so, access to the beaches,

               cleanup procedures, stockpiling and removal of oil soaked straws and sor-

               bent pads, can only be accomplished under relatively calm conditions.

                     Perhaps a pragmatic expression of current realities on agencies

               industry ability to cope with an oil spill is expressed in Beving's masters'

               thesis (p. 2):

                          "At an August 1972 meeting between the U.S. Coast Guard and

                          EPA officials, it was agreed that in the event of a large

                          spill (2000 barrels or more, 100,000 gallons or more), max-

                          imum cleanup effort would have to be put forth because of

                          image propaganda for the public, not because the cleanup

                          attempts would be successful".

                     In conclusion, all present'evidence  shows that from a technological

               and regulatory standpoint, environmental   protection of the marine waters

               of Lower Cook Inlet and Kachemak Bay with respect to pollution threats from

               oil and gas activities will be, for all practical purposes, ineffectual.

                     To be effective, environmental protection must be applied at the source,

               through either prevention of oil and gas activities in highly biologically

               sensitive and/or areas of high productivity supporting important commercial

               fisheries, or through imposition of a total moratorium, until the industry

               federal - state agencies consortium can demonstrate, to the concerned citizenry,

               Ilk-

                                                             A6

                                                                  74
                                                                   "M
                                 Or

                                                       -IBM-

                                                  77

                           Requiescat in Pace 0 Thou Leviathan of the Deep

                                                   IV-27

               that the best levels of technology will be applied and the laws effectively

               enforced to insure "fail safe"   "ultra clean" operations.

                                                 SECTION V

                                                KACHEMAK BAY

                                          PERSPECTIVE AND OVERVIEW

                                                   V-1
                                              SECTION V

                                             KACHEMAK BAY

                                       PERSPECTIVE AND OVERVIEW

                    Any attempt, at this time, to fully assess both the short and long

                term environmental implications of the intrusion and expansion of oil and

                gas activities in the biologically rich waters of Kachemak Bay and Lower

                Cook Inlet, must be tempered by the fact that, key information on the

                geography of the extent and location of sub-sea floor structures that

                could be considered as potential traps for hydrocarbons, is not available

                to the Fish and Wildlife resources agencies.

                    It is somewhat ironical that, while the Fish and Wildlife resources

                agencies are requested to provide all available data whenever an "Environmental

                Impact-Assessment" is being prepared for an area the oil and gas interests want

                to exploit, all of the essential information on the oil and gas resources

                potentials is withheld from the same agencies under the guise that disclosure

                of such information would drastically impair industry's competitive edge in

                bidding for various tracts. Thus in effect, all other resources become

                subjugated to oil (and/or gas).

                    The only information available to ADF&G to gauge the potential size

                of the Kachemak Bay field, as per the 28th lease sale, is the final
                monetary bidding for each tract. The map (fig; 55), showing the area of

                highest bids, which by inferrence can be regarded as the potential

                location of the field, suggests that the extent of the promising structure

                is rather small, encompassing about 2500 acres.

                                                                                         V-2

                                                         ".I.     P1   w                                m w,                              R M w

                                                71

                                             Sax CMA

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                                                                                                                 11                              1

                                                                                                                            ...........                   .......

                                                                              c -wr.    sm!:@             cm;;tt
                                                               5 a CA I..

                                                                                                                                        ------------

                                             -42
                                                                                                .... ......... ... . .... . . .......   .........   . . .....

                                                                                                                                          +

                                                                  ;pg@ .....       ...... ...... ...... ..... M"        ... .....
                                                                                                                                                               --'T7

                                          C2T@
                                                                                                                             .. ...... ......

                                                                                   .... .. ...... .... . ...
                                          c2"                                                                                               f7)

                                                                             sl-D-o                   F@   W                              A (3  W
                                                                                                                                               Bib Takcr"

                                                                                                                                                            GRID 'Vo.
                                                                                     ..L.

                                            55. State of Alaska, 28th Oil and Gas Lease Sale.

                                                      V-3

                     The U.S. Supreme Court ruling, allocating much of the waters of Lower

               Cook Inlet to the federal government, has. quickly prompted the opening up

               of Lower Cook Inlet to oil and gas leasing as shown by the recent DOI/BLM

               "Prop osed OCS Sale No. C 1" (Fig. 56).   Of interest is the enclosed news

               release which clearly infers that the oil companies play the lead role

               in the decision making for the nomination for tracts. As in the case of

               Kachemak Bay, the details on the location of the potential structure will

               not be made available to the resources agencies a,nd the public until the

               bidding pattern for various tracts has been finalized and made public.

                     Once such information becomes available, and the area is committed to

               oil and gas development, then some initial assessment of environmental impact

               can be made in terms of the evolving scenario of exploration, development,

                           and transportation, abandonment and rehabilitation. The evolving

               scenario clearly shows that the impacts must be viewed in cumulative terms

               and that higher and escalating levels of impacts will occur.after oil

               and/or gas is found and the field proven to be commercial.

                     The most immediate environmental problems, once leases are sold and

               authorization is obtained to proceed with eXDloratory drilling will come from.

               increased vessel traffic and onshore support activites. If exploratory drilling

               results only in dry holes, then the problem of impacts of oil and gas

               activities can be relegated to development in more remote areas. If exploratory

              .drilli.ng demonstrates occurrence of hydrocarbons in commercial quantities,

               the impact will relate to the presence of either an oil, oil and gas or gas

               field, and until this is determined, assessing future environmental impact

               is strictly conjectural.

                     The most basic issue affecting Kachemak Bay is the most basic issue
               of the time, mainly the quest for "cheap"' bountiful supply of energy,

               quest, as previously mentioned, pursued along a two pronged course:

                                                    V-4
                               1540                1630                1520

                              FRONTIER OUTER
                         CONTINENTAL SHELF AREAS
                            LOWER COOK INLET
                        OROPOSED OCS SALE No. C 1                          00
                           Area of Call for Nominations
                       EM Areas of Public Concern

                       EM Areas of High lndustr@ Interes#
                       SM Areas of Low Industry Interest             K
                                    Sta:vc Nmes

                600
                                                                   J,

                                                                              Homer

                                                                               Kenai PeninSI-11-

                                  Aucqustb
                                     gustb
                                    IslanA
                                          :.N.:N

                                                              N

                                                                        C>
                                 Cape Douglas
                                                                   Barren Island

                                                                         DEPARTMENT OF THE INTER i.-J
                                                                          Bureau of Land Managenion!

                                                                              ov
                                                         Afognak I land
                                                                                  ALASKA

                                                                                              %
                680

                              1540                 1530                1520

                                      Proposed BUI/OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sale, Lower Cook Inict
                           Fig. 56

    					ANCHORAGE

    					DAILY NEWS

    VOL. XXX, NO.1   36 PAGES				ANCHORAGE, ALASKA, FRIDAY, JANUARY 2, 1976

    Oil companies choose 2.1 million acres

    Black area shows tracts nominated for
    leasing by oil companies in a 450-tract
    area in Lower Cook Inlet.

    		By SALLY W. JONES
    	Dally News Staff Writer
      Sixteen oil companies have nominated 2.1 million acres
    for offshore oil development in Cook Inlet.
      The Department of Interior called for the nominations in a
    2.3 million-acre area in the inlet in September, and set the
    deadline for nominations for November 17.  A spokesman for
    Interior's Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)  Office said Alaska
    OCS Manager Edward Hoffman has forwarded
    recommendations to Washington on the tracts that should be
    leased this fall.  The spokeman said the tracts Hoffman
    identified for leasing are not public record at this time.  The
    U.S.  Geological Survey also is to recommend tracts for
    leasing.
      	THE AREA being considered for oil and gas lease sale is
    located at the lower end of Cook Inlet, generally south of
    Kenai.
    	Nine groups, including private organizations and
    government agencies, also responded to the call for
    nominations and cited from 48 to 157 tracts that should not be
    considered for a lease sale because of their location  in the
    midst of fishery resources, critical bird and seanmammal
    habitats, and hazardous seismic zones.
    	None of the tracts nominated by the oil industry is closer
    than three miles from shore and some lie as far as 26 miles
    offshore in an area 58 miles wide and 87 miles long.  In all, 433
    of the 450 tracts identified in the call were nominated for
    leasing.

    	THE OIL COMPANIES showed highest interest in 192
    tracts located in the central portion of the 450-tract area.  All
    but 48 of the high-interest tracts lie in areas the nine
    government and private groups cities as sensitive.
    	Although the OCS office would not comment Wednesday
    on the tracts that Hoffman has recommended for leasing.
    Hoffman has met with representatives of the state of Alaska
    and three federal agencies to discuss the call area.
    	Hoffman said the meeting was called to keep the state
    "involved in the total OCS process."  The meeting was held
    Nov. 16 but onshore impacts from OCS development were not
    discussed, said Hoffman.

    	HOFFMAN SAID comments he received from groups
    other than the oil industry were "specific as to precise tracts
    which the concerned groups feel should not be leased.  When
    we know such facts in advance, we are better able to seek
    substantiating evidence of claims such as the interference
    with established fisheries or potential environmental
    hazards."
    	Hoffman said earlier this month his recommendations on
    which tracts should be leased would be based on all
    comments received following the September nomination
    call.
    	Nominations for leasing came from Gulf Oil Co.;
    Marathon oil Co.; Getty Oil Co.; Exxon Co., USA; Louisiana
    Land nad Exploration Co.; Atlantic Richfield Co.; DEPCO
    Inc.; Mobile Oil Corp.; Shell Oil Co.; Phillips Petroleum Co.;

    Union Oil of California; the Oil Development Co. of Texas;
    Texas Gulf Co.; Cities Services Co.; Standard Oil of California
    and the Amoco Production Co.
    	The U.S. COAST GUARD  commented that offshore
    leasing in the inlet should take into account increased vessel
    traffic in the Kachemak Bavarea.
    	The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Alaska
    Department of Environmental Conservation identified
    sensitive wildlife areas.
    	Comments also were received from the Board of Fisheries
    Advisory Committee in Homer; the North Pacific Fisheries
    Association and the Kachemak Bay Defense Fund.  The
    groups pinpoointed critical commecial fisheries areas in the
    nomination call area.
    	THE ALASKA Conservation Society also noted sensitive
    sea bird and fisheries areas; and the National Marine
    Fisheries Service said "the entire area of the lower Cook
    Inlet is productive" for commercial fishing.
    	Hoffman's and the geological survey's recommendations
    will be used to formulate Interior's proposal for specific
    tracts to be considered for OCS leasing.  Once Interior decides
    upon the tracts and environmental impact statement will be,
    written and form the basis for the tracts that are selected for
    oil and gas industry bids.
    	The Department is scheduled early this year to open
    bidding for offshore oil leases in the Gulf of Alaska.  The state
    has been critical of the gulf sale, arguing it is being held too
    hastily before all impacts and effects are addressed.

                                                   V-6

                    1.   Energy to do mechanical work and provide for creature comfort, in

                         the form of hydrocarbons, electrical, atomic energy generating

                         devices.

                    2.   Energy to sustain life, in the form of food.

                    To put the resources conflict issues of Kachemak Bay in perspective, let

               us consider man's needs and uses of energy in a different context and refer

               to the substance of enclosures 1 through 4. Let us look as the food energy

               side of the escalating national (and international) energy dilemna.

                    If one begins to look at food as part of man's total energy budget, and

               consider how much energy must be supplied to provide a unit of food energy,

               the substance of enclosures 1 and 2 serve to underscore the key issues of the

               energy problem, mainly that the so called advanced countries can produce,

               process, transport and sell food in abundance and relatively cheaply as long

               as such food can be produced and made available through a large and c@ @a

               energy subsidy.

                    The magnitude of present energy.demands to provide food stuff in the

               U.S. is perhaps best expressed in a statement in 1974 Science article by

               Stei'nhart and Steinhart:

                         111n 'primitive cultures', 5 to 50 food calories are obtained

                         for each calorie of energy invested. In sharp contrast, in-

                         dustralized food systems require 5 to 10 calories of fuel to

                         obtain 1 food calorie."

               Enclosure 2 aptly summarizes the magnitude of "energy subsidy" involved in

               producing common staples.

                    A second major, and perhaps more ubiquitous issue, rests with the fact

               that American agriculture is an agrochemical agriculture geared to produce

               large volumes of grains of steadily decr easing balanced nutritional values
               through the cultivation of "high yield hybrids" (Enclosure 3).   Due to their

    	By BRUCE JOHANSEN				Food costs

    	With the help of a recent-		counted in
    ly isued report, energy
    conservationists now may			energy terms
    count their Bristish Thermal
    Unites, as well as their calor-
    ies, as they eat.
    	The report, issued by the
    Center for Science in the
    Public Interest, analyzes
    the amount of energy re-
    quired to produce, package
    and peddle various food
    items.

    	IN ADDITION, the report
    states, energy requirements
    for food generally rise with
    the degree of processing,
    while nutritional value falls.
    	"Good eneryg conserva-
    tion practices... are com-
    patible with good nutrition
    and good consumer-buying
    practices," the report's au-
    thors, Dr. Albert Fritsch,
    Linda Dujack and Douglas
    Jimerson, assert.
    	"A considerable portion
    of the energy expended in
    food production occurs in
    the packaging.  High-energy
    users include such pro-
    cessed food items as aero-
    solized cooking oil, flavor-
    ings and spreads, TV din-
    ners, frozen prepared foods
    and canned beverages," the
    report states.
    	Consumers who want to
    place themselves on an
    "energy diet" should follow
    five steps, the authors rec-
    ommend:
    	-Start a home garden
    and/or orchard.  Home-
    grown lettuce requires 1,750
    B.T.U. a pound; store-pur-
    chased lettuce requires 5,-
    200, most of the difference
    coming in transportation
    and retailing energy costs,
    such as truck fuel and light-
    ing for a supermarket.
    	-Shift to vegetable from
    animal sources, especially
    from grain-fed beef.  A
    pound ofmeat proetein re-
    quires about four times the
    energy of a pound of plant
    protein.  Grain-fed beef re-
    quires about  0 per cent
    mroe energy than grass-ied
    beef.  Poultry requires about
    half the energy expenditure
    of grain-fed beef.
    	-Reduce use of pro-
    cessed food, especially fro-
    zen ones.
    	-Avoid non-returnable
    bulk and unprocessed lo ds.
    	-Increase purchase of
    beverage containers.
    Frequent stores which allow
    customers to bring their
    own containers, such as co-
    ops.

    	THE MOST energy-inten-
    sive of all edible products
    surveyed in the report were
    distilled spirits, which re-
    quire 85,300 B.T.U. a gallon
    to produce, transport, pack-
    age and sell.
    	Ironically fish, often rec-
    ommended by nutritionists,
    consumes more energy a
    pound than any meat prod-
    uct, accourding to the report,
    which says one reason is
    the large amount of energy
    required to fuel fishing
    fleets.
    	Packaging and freezing of
    fish for consumption away
    from coastal areas may add
    to the energy cost of fish
    and fish products.
    	Canned salmon, for exam-
    ple, requires  1,150 B.T.U. a
    pound , more than grain-ied
    beef, which takes 42,600.
    	In total, the United States
    consumed more than nine
    calores in energy to prod-
    uce eachc alorie in food val-
    ue, according to the report.

    	"THESE inefficiencies
    are subject to critical exam-
    ination in an energy-short
    world." the authors con-
    tend.
    	The United States also
    has been exporting "energy
    intensive" agriculture
    through the so-called
    "Green Revolution." the report
    contends.
    	"The Green Revolution
    has compounded the prob-
    lem since it substituted
    chemical fertilizer-intensive
    grain types for more hardy
    but less productive varie-
    ties," it said.

    	Much of the reason for
    rising food prices in recent
    years is rising energy costs,
    and the rising amount of en-
    ergy required to produce in-
    creasingly processed and
    overpackaged food items,
    according to the study.
    	"While in the past energy
    never amounted to more
    than a cent or so of each
    food dollar, the picture is
    changing due to rising ener-
    gy cost," it said.
    	The report said tat the
    United States now uses
    about 12 per cent of its en-
    ergy budge to produce or
    prepare food.

    	UNITED STATES agri-
    culture, among the world's

    most productive in terms of
    yeilds, also is very energy-
    intensive.
    	The most obvious reason,
    according to the report, is
    the continuing sbstitution
    of machine power for hu-
    man and animal muscle in
    the fields.
    	Less obvious reasons in-
    clude energy used to manu-
    facture fertilziers, despite
    the fact that nitrogen can be
    "fixed" in soils through ro-
    tation of legume crops with
    others.
    	Another "hidden energy
    cost" is irrigation pumping,
    the report said.
    	And, as more crops are
    transported greater dis-
    tances to markets, transpor-
    tation-energy costs rise, too,
    the report said.

    							V-8

    			How much energy is required to produce, prepare
    		and sell the foods you eat?  A smapling of some com-
    		mon items follows, from a report compiled by the Cen-
    		ter for Science in the Public Interes:

    		Beef:  grass or forage fed:  	29,650 British Termal Units
    										a pound.
    Food		Beef: grain-fed			42,600	"	"	"
    		Pork					29,400	"	"	"
    		Chicken				19,150	"	"	"
    		Turkey				21,400	"	"	"
    		Eggs					31,950	B. T. U. a dozen
    cost in	Cheese				47,550	B. T. U. a pound
    		Ice Cream				23,100	"	"	"
    		Fluid milk				 6,810	B. T. U. a pound
    		Canned Salmon			51,150	B. T. U. a pound
    energy	Canned tuna				51,300	B. T. U. a pound
    		Fresh or frozen fish
    			(average)			58,538	B. T. U. a pound
    		Cantaloupe		(fresh)	 5,750	B. T. U. a pound
    		Carrots		(fresh)	 4,750	B. T. U. a pound
    terms		Sweet Corn		(fresh)	 5,250	B. T. U. a pound
    		Apples		(fresh)	 5,950	B. T. U. a pound
    		Oranges		(fresh)	 7,500	B. T. U. a pound
    		Corn		  (canned)		10,300	B. T. U. a pound
    		Carrots	  (canned)		 9,200	B. T. U. a pound
    		Wheat bread				 8,300	B. T. U. a pound
    		Pies					16,600 	B. T. U. a pound
    		Cookies				12,700	B. T. U. a pound
    		Distilled liquor			85,300	B. T. U. a gallon
    		Wine					27,600	B. T. U. a gallon
    		Soft drinks				24,400	B. T. U. a gallon

                                                                                V-9

                                                                                              1940

                                                                                           F

                                                                                                                      A

                                                                                                    4-

                                                                        MMMAI,..
                                                                        �R r
                                                                        R-I... 32

                                                                                                                                           Protein
                                                                                                                                          Percent
                                                                                                                                                9
                                                                                              1949                                              10

                                                                                                                                                12

                                                                                                                                                13

                                                                                                                                                14

                                                                                                                             /Z
                                                                                                                                           PRIP/ i5
                                                                                                                                                16

                                                                                                                                                17

                                                                                                                                                18

                                                                                                                                                19

                                                                                              1951

                                                                       xx     X

                                                                                      10

                                                                                                                            W/
                                                                                  ,X@ .

                                                                             The concentration of crude protein in the wheat of Kansas, by county
                                                              averages, has been declining during successive years of sampling.

                                                                   (Albrecht, W.A., 1971)

                                                                                                               V-10

                                                                                   20
                                                                                                                                 i           Distant      fishing        C>       Fe dlot beel

                                                                                   10   -t
                                                                                                                                 Fish
                                                                                                                                 Protein                                                __10,970
                                                                                                                                 concentrate                                    .95     1960
                                                                            0          5          - - - - --   4- - -F- - --- --- @ -- -- -1 ---1-                         Z1,91,9 _Q         __4 - - - -
                                                                            "0                                                   1   Grass-fed
                                                                            0                                                    1           beef                4-      1940 Intensive eggs

                                                                                                                                                          ,P     1930
                                                                            .T         2                                                        - - - -- -                      - - - - - - -
                                                                                                                                                                                       Modern
                                                                                                                                 Coastal            _Z@ *
                                                                                                                                    f it s hn             1920                           n    k
                                                                                                                                                                         I                 ass-fed
                                                                                   1.0         1
                                                                                                                                                                 _ntT                         cows
                                                                                                                                               1910       Low-i te sity
                                                                                                                                                                 e,,,s

                                                                                                                R
                                                                                   0.5 -
                                                                                                                                                                     An
                                                                                                                    be ef  -fed                                               tensiv
                                                                                                                      ge
                                                                                                                      Low-in     tensity               Intensive             c          ej
                                                                                                                                                                               orn
                                                                                                                                                       Potatoes                         Soybeans
                                                                                   0.2                                           corn
                                                                                                     'u 't'n                                                                   0 Intensive
                                                                                                                                                                                     rice

                                                                                   0. 1
                                                                                                                      I Low -intensity
                                                                            C,
                                                                                                                        @@O t _@3tO e s                          Thailand
                                                                                  0.05                                                             4U     i;
                                                                                                                                                       !rBurma
                                                                                              Shifting agriculture                        Z@@ .1";- C h i n a
                                                                                  0.02                                                             Indonesia

                                                                                       Energy SUbSidiC;
                                                                            systeni is shown for comparison. [Sour,:e                   uf datl: (31)1
                                                                                                               fOr v-1601's food        crops. 71-11C energy history           of tile   JJ-S. f d

                                                                                (From: Steinhart and Steinhart, 1974.)
                                                                                                                                               e /d
                                                                                                                                                 e f

                                                                                                                                                               _L932
                                                                                                                                                                         j
                                                                                                                                                          192  0

                                                   V-11

               diminished "balanced.nutritive" values, consumption of high yield grains

               requires protein supplement to insure balanced nutritional requirements.

                    Agrochemical agriculture requires large amounts of fertilizers, and

               the usually less disease or insect resistant hybrids require large applications

               of insecticides and pesticides all mostly manufactured from hydrocarbons.

                    Thus the escalating scarcity in the r6ady availability and supply of

               hydrocarbons is initiating a total change in man's ability to feed himself

               on a regional, national and global scale.

                    Returning to Kachemak Bay, one can see that the highly protein rich

               fisheries resources will rapidly escalate in human values as the artifically

               maintained agrochemical system begins to break down due to the increasing

               scarcity of abundant, cheap hydrocarbon energy.

                    Examination of the graph of enclosure 4 demonstrates the values of

               local fishing and local agriculture, close.to the centers of needs, in terms

               of energy budget. Distant fishing is highly "energy subsidy" dependent.

               It might be selfish interest to note that, limiting the sharing of oil with

               others might reduce the intensity of foreign fishing off Alaska's coast.

               Coastal fishing is much less energy consumptive. Of' interest to the citizens

               of Alaska are the energy requirements for "low" and "high" intensity cultivation

               of potatoes, a tuber readily adapted to growing in the Kachemak Bay area

               and other locations in South Central Alaska. Thus, the combination of the

               high renewable seafood energy reservoirs of the waters of Kachemak Bay and

               Lower Cook Inlet, coupled with high agriculturalpotentials of nearby land

               makes the area potentially capable of providing a good portion of the basic

               food energy requirements for most of the present population of South Central

               Alaska. As the availability and especially cost of transporting basic food

               stuff from distant sources becomes excessive due to petroleum energy scarcity
               and cost, the ability of the area to self support its citizens will dramatically

               escalate in value.

                                                      V-12

                     For environmental and resources planning, management, conservation

                and protection actions, Kachemak Bay cannot be separated from Cook Inlet.

                The development of a long term conservati.on and management plan for the

                fisheries (protein) resources of Kachemak Bay will have to be implemented

                as pa:rt of an integrated resources management and environmental quality

                protectio.n plan for the entire Cook Inlet area.

                     Preliminary results from ADF&G circulation   studies strongly underscore

                that the Kachemak Bay environment is intimately   tied to the environment of

                Lower Cook Inlet. From a marine water quality standpoint, Kachemak Bay,

                is in an environmentally privileged situation, being on the "upstream"

                portion of inflowing clean, unpolluted ocean waters. Recent results from

                drift measurements indicate that Kachemak Bay is continuously being flushed,

                if sometimes sluggishly by clean ocean water; 30 days appears to be a

                maximum length of time for residence of water in the outer bay. Through

                                                                     -he "ups-ream" location
                strict.-environmental control of compatible users,  4k,      L.          L

                and flushing attributes of Kachemak Bay can insure long term maintenance

                of its high natural level of environmental quality.

                     In contrast, as shown in Figure 59, the net circulation of Cook Inlet

                will tend to carry pollutants towards its southwestern shore, as

                shown, the Kamishak - Chinitna side acting as a pollution trap for both

                acute and chronic, cumulative pollution. The Kamishak - Chinitna Bay side

                of the inlet is a biologically rich and productive area, requiring utmost

                protection.

                     All evidences also point to the fact that the entire Lower Cook Inlet

                is a highly rich, productive and sensitive biological area. Lower Cook Inlet

                warrants the best environmental protection possible to preserve its increasingly

                high seafood values. Very serious considerations should be given to putting the

                entire lower Cook Inlet area as delineated in F.igure 60, into some form of a

                                             V-1 3

                   15 5*     154*      1530     152*      1510      1500      1490

                            TURBID WATER                                NC
                                                                  loo
                            SEA WATER         N. FORELAND,
                                                                               -610
                            AREA MOST LIKELY TO            v
                            BE AFFECTED BY           k,
                            CUMULATIVE POLLUTIO
                                    DRIFT RIVE            ENAI

                                    SNUG
                                     HA
                                       @RBOR         CAPE NINILCHIK             600
                        CHINITNA BAY

                       ILIAMNA BAY                       0 ER

                                                     Al,
                                                      E DOVIA
                    KAMISHA
                                                    PT     AM
                      BAY
                                                    PT CH HAM
                                                ob                              590
                                                        INFLOWING   CLEAN
                                                         COASTAL WATER

                          Fig. 59 - COOK INLET: INFERRED   CIRCULATION  AND

                                                 POLLUTION  TRANSPORT

                                                        V-14

                        1550       15,V        153*        1520        151'0        1500        149*

                                 TURBID WATER
                                  SEA WATER            N. FORELAND           Ow        ANCHORAGE
                                                                                                  61*

                                                                         FORELANDS

                                                     elm
                                          DRIFT RIVER                 -KENAI

                                        SNUG HARBO,               APE NINILCHIK                   600
                                                          A.              KACHEMA
                                         SPRING PT,.                                K
                           CHINITNA                                         BAY
                                                     -@-- . 0   HOMER    'CRITICAL
                           BAY                                             HAPI
                           KAMISHAK
                           BAY                                         VIA
                                                                -SEL
                                                                PT  G  A
                           CRITICA.
                           HAD[                     co                     GORE PT.
                                                                 lee                              59*
                             CA DOUGLAS

                                                         POINT BANKS

                                          Fig. 60 -  COOK INLET MARINE SANCTUARY

                                                        AND CRITICAL HABITATS

                             TV

                                                        Reflections

                                                    V-1 5

               marine sanctuary status. In addition, two Critical Habitat areas should be set

               aside to better further the pro tection of critical biological areas from non-com-

               patible resource use and insure that the biological resources of the area

               are qiven dominant priority in any contemplated-resources use.

                    The.Marine Sanctuary portion of the inlet would not per se necessarily bar

               oil and gas development. The industry however, would not be able to enter

               the area until totally new technologies for environmental protection have

               been developed (as fully containing drilling and well sites within completely

               sealed enclosures, shipping all wastes to treatment facilities which would

               provide "zero" pollutant discharges, location of shore facilities,

               outside Critical Habitats).

                    The main emphasis of any future action, in both Kachemak Bay and Cook

               Inlet must be placed upon protection., through immediate enforcement of the

               most advanced and stringent environmental protection technology. Baseline

               studies can be pursued ad infinitum, but availability of results from such

               studies however, lag much behind the continuing demands.placed upon the

               natural resources. Present actions must make use of best current available

               knowledge to argue for the imposition and application of highest levels of

               control and prevention technology.

                    Seemingly drastic measures, such as abrogating the use of Kachemak Bay

               -as asource for hydrocarbons can be a first bold move in balancing the long

               term values of other essential human resources against seemingly short

               term gains to nurture a breaking down "energy subsidy" system.

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    q

                                                                  11101111110m,
                                                                   3 6668 14102 4200

      1