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Coastal Zone Information Center International Decade of Ocean Exploration GC 57 .U5294 1973 c.2 Second Report October 1973 Coast3l Zone I Information ZONE Center CE zoo, D u LN TL "7 GC 57 U5294 1973 t a t'on- er ZOO, c .2 E- @ Tu 1 vc, I 1 --011 0 zi) @c@ 0 1 Program Description CSC International Decade of Ocean Exploration, U 8 . DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON , SC 29405-2413 Office for the International Decade of Ocean Exploration U National Science Foundation Washington, D.C. 20550 4n .1 J Contents PREFACE ....................................................... v 1. U.S. PARTICIPATION IN THE INTERNATIONAL DECADE OF OCEAN EXPLORATION .................................... 1 2. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ................................. 5 3. ENVIRONMENTAL FORECASTING ............................ 17 4. SEABED ASSESSMENT ....................................... 27 5. LIVING RESOURCES ......................................... 39 6. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ............................ 49 7. GOALS AND DETERMINATIONS ............................. 53 APPENDIX ...................................................... 55 Areface ... The moisture and varying temperature of the land depends largely upon the positions of the currents in the ocean, and it is thought that when we know the laws of the latter we will, with the aid of meteorology, be able to say to the farmers hundreds of miles distant from the sea, 'You will have an abnormal amount of rain during next summer,' or 'the winter will be cold and clear,' and by these predictions they can plant a crop to suit the circumstances or provide an unusual amount of food for their stock.... From a study of these great forces, then, we derive our greatest benefits, and any amount of well-directed effort to gain a complete mastery of their laws will revert directly to the good of the human race. Lt. John E. Pillsbury, 1891 from The Gulf Stream In many respects the history of the evolu- percha in the 1840's as a reliable coating for tion of the nature and extent of oceanographic undersea cables. Suddenly there was a real research correlates with the diversity and in- need to know the ocean's great depths and tensity of man's use of the sea and its re- contours. This need to look beneath the waves sources. As early as 500 B.C. the Phoenicians intensified man's curiosity about other deep and other ancient mariners plying the Medi- sea phenomena as well. Was there, for ex- terranean Sea for commerce and conquest, ample, life in the great depths, or was there brought forth an early form of oceanographic a depth limit, an azoic zone in which no life report, noting not only coastal landmarks and could exist? What were the temperatures of topography, but distances in sailing times, pre- the depths? ... the currents, if any? vailing winds, critical depths, severe currents and, occasionally, bottom conditions. The ris- An almost direct cause-and-effect sequence ing volume of North Atlantic traffic in the last of events can be established leading from the half of the 18th Century inspired and enabled development of undersea telegraphy to - the whaler Timothy Folger and statesman Benja- sailing of H.M.S. Challenger on its world- min Franklin each to delineate the Gulf famous three-and-a-half year voyage of dis- Stream, including seawater temperature tables covery in 1872 and the countless expeditions designed to tell sailing captains if they were that ensued through the balance of the 19th in or out of the Stream. The rise of the Ameri- and the early part of the 20th Century. can Navy and the extension of regular clipper In the period that followed, the military ship schedules to all parts of the world caused submarine came into being, raising a host of Matthew Fontaine Maury in 1855 to publish new and different questions about the ocean. his "Physical Geography of the Sea" which World fisheries expanded from a largely described ocean winds and currents over coastal, unmechanized, limited-catch activity major trade routes. To this point in history, to its present state where great industrial fish- however, with the exception of Charles Dar- ing expeditions roam the world catching with win's cruise aboard H.M.S. Beagle, ocean ex- such intensity that whole stocks are threat- peditions for pure research were small in ened with extinction, and conflicts over access number, infrequent and often poorly funded. occur among nations. The industrial and eco- Two developments leading to a whole new nomic activities of man ashore have increased use of the sea and lending practical impor- to a point where wastes released to the ocean, tance to the ocean's third dimension were once minor and incidental, now have the po- Samuel F. B. Morse's invention in the 1830's tential for major impact with, again, conflicts. of the telegraph and the discovery of gutta- The rapid draw-down of mineral and fuel re- v sources ashore coincident with the realization synonymous with "abuse of the sea." Free that vast resources may be found beneath access to, and the laissez-faire taking of, both the shallow and deep sea constitutes an- oceanic resources is being forced to give way other intensive use of the sea, another source to allocation and management. The need to of international conflict. The science of mete- know the -ocean, its processes and resources orology and the demands of modern society in greater detail and in quantitative as well as on it have advanced to the point where qualitative terms, therefore, is dictated in weather forecasters need to know the influ- large measure by the need both domestically ence of the ocean on weather in discrete, real- and internationally to make important social, .time terms. These and other uses each have economic and political decisions relating to required more knowledge. The development management and access. Hypothesis, specu- of such knowledge illuminates new uses and lation and unsupported opinion lead to emo- resources of the sea which, in turn, create a tional confrontations. Knowledge, broadly new demand for knowledge. acquired and soundly based, provides a fac- tual foundation on which intelligent and ac- ceptable rules and institutions can be built. Thus, the uses and the users of the sea have Thus, only through a thorough understanding increased and continue to increase in both of the laws and processes at work in the ocean diversity and intensity. A once inexhaustible it is possible to hope, as Pillsbury postulated, resource has quite suddenly acquired limits, that the fruits of research efforts will "revert and "use of the sea" becomes increasingly directly to the good of the human race." Feenan D. Jennings, Head Office for the International Decade of Ocean Exploration vi Chapter 1 U.S. PARTICIPATION IN THE INTERNATIONAL DECADE OF OCEAN EXPLORATION The mid-1960's was a critical turning point In March 1968 the President endorsed the in marine activities. In the United States the concept of an International Decade of Ocean 1966 enactment of the Marine Resources and Exploration. He stated: Engineering Development Act and creation of The task of exploring the ocean's depth the national Sea Grant College Program re- for its potential wealth-food, minerals, flected the growing concern for man's use and resourGes-is as vast as the seas them- protection of the marine environment. That selves. No one nation can undertake that same year the United Nations General Assem- task alone. As we have learned from bly asked the Secretary General to survey the prior ventures in ocean exploration, co- marine science and technology activities both operation is the only answer. of member States and those of intergovern- mental and nongovernmental international or- I have instructed the Secretary of State ganizations, and to compile proposals to bring to consult with other nations on the steps about the most effective arrangements for an that could be taken to launch an historic expanded program of international coopera- and unprecedented adventure-an Inter- tion. national Decade of Ocean Exploration for Common to these actions was the acknowl- the 1970's.1 edgment that nearly all the issues relating to Two months later the intergovernmental the seas transcend national boundaries. Presi- Oceanographic Commission (IOC) adopted a dent Lyndon B. Johnson captured this feeling formal recommendation supporting the Dec- in his remarks commissioning the research ade idea and went on to endorse "the concept ship Oceanographer in July 1966. He observed of an expanded, accelerated, long-term and that: sustained program of exploration of the oceans Truly great accomplishments in oceanog- and their resources including international raphy will require the cooperation of all programs, planned and coordinated on a the maritime nations of the world. And world-wide basis." Further endorsements so ... I send our voice out ... calling for came from the United Nations General As- such cooperation, requesting it, and urg- sembly. In December 1968 the United Nations ing it.... We greatly welcome ... inter- endorsed the idea of a coordinated, long-term national participation. Because under no program of oceanographic research and for- circumstances, we believe, must we ever mally welcomed the proposed Decade as an allow the prospects of rich harvests and important part of this effort. General Assem- mineral wealth to create a new form of bly Resolution 2467 D (XXIII) endorsed "the colonial competition among the maritime concept of an international decade of ocean nations. We must be careful to avoid a exploration to be undertaken within the frame- race to grab and to hold the lands under the hicyh seas. We must ensure that the deep seas and the ocean bottoms are, and 'Special Message to the Congress on Conservation: remain, the legacy of all human beings. "To Renew a Nation," March 8, 1968. work of a long-term programme of research tional planning and coordination would target and exploration . . .... and further invited on the most promising geographic areas and member states "to formulate proposals for na- lines of scientific inquiry, set priorities and tional and international scientific programmes agree on the sharing and distribution of effort. and agreed activities to be undertaken during The results of this work would be published the international decade of ocean exploration freely and promptly for the benefit of every- with due regard to the interests of developing one. There was to be strong insistence on countries, to transmit these proposals to the standardized data collection and dissemina- United Nations Educational, Scientific, and tion, expanded activity by a large number of Cultural Organization for the Intergovern- nations and greater coordination among the mental Oceanographic Commission in time to international organizations concerned with the begin the decade in 1970, and to embark on oceans. In short, the Decade was to be a such activities as soon as practicable." period of "intensified collaborative planning At its Sixth Session in September 1969 the among nations and expansion of exploration Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commis- capabilities by individual nations, followed by sion defined the purpose of the expanded pro- execution of national and international pro- gram to be: "To increase knowledge of the grams of oceanic research and resource ex- ocean, its contents and the contents of its sub- ploration so as to assemble a far more soil, and its interfaces with the land, the comprehensive knowledge of the sea in a rea- atmosphere, and the ocean floor and to im- sonably short time." I The anticipated success prove understanding of processes operating in of the effort hinges largely on the "extent to or affecting the marine environment, with the which various nations contribute their par- goal of enhanced utilization of the ocean and ticular expertise and capabilities, assume a its resources for the benefit of mankind ...... share of responsibility for the program, de- At the same time the IOC established a Group velop their manpower and facilities and dis- of Experts on Long-Term Scientific Policy and seminate to others the results of scientific and Planning who were "to develop the scope and other discoveries.' 14 content of the long-term and expanded pro- As a major part of President Richard M. grammes of oceanographic research of which Nixon's program in marine science, Vice- the International Decade of Ocean Explora- President Spiro T. Agnew announced on Oc- tion is an important element." tober 19, 1969, the initial U.S. plans for partici- The U.S. National Council on Marine Re- pation in the International Decade of Ocean sources and Engineering Development then in- Exploration. Several weeks later the Vice- vited the National Academy of Sciences and President, in his capacity as Chairman of the National Academy of Engineering to prepare National Council on Marine Resources and detailed recommendations for the United Engineering Development, assigned responsi- States contribution to the Decade. Distin- bility for the planning, management and fund- guished scientists and engineers from the ing of United States IDOE activities to the academic, industrial and governmental com- National Science Foundation. In assigning munities examined the full range of questions Decade responsibility to the Foundation, the related to this unprecedented effort. Attention Vice-President set out the following goals: focused on priorities among the scientific and Preserve the ocean environment by ac- engineering goals, the capabilities necessary celerating scientific observations of the to realize them and the products and benefits natural state of the ocean and its inter- to mankind anticipated from implementation actions with the coastal margin-to pro- of the Decade idea. In May 1969 the Acad- vide a basis for (a) assessing and emies jointly reported their conclusions .2 predicting man-induced and natural modi- The guiding premise of the International fications of the character of the oceans; Decade concept was that sustained interna- 3Marine Science Affairs-A Year of Broadened Par- ticipation. The Third Report of the President to the 2An Oceanic Quest, the International Decade of Congress on Marine Resources and Engineering De- Ocean Exploration, National Academy of Sciences velopment, January 1969, p. 125. and National Academy of Engineering, Washington, D. C., 1969. 4ibid., p. 126. 2 (b) identifying damaging or irreversible buoys and other remote sensing plat- effects of waste disposal at sea; and (c) forms; comprehending the interaction of various Improve worldwide data exchange levels of marine life to permit steps, to through modernizing and standardizing prevent depletion or extinction of valu- national and international marine data able species as aresult of man's activities; collection, processing, and distribution; Improve environmental forecasting to and help reduce hazards to life and property Accelerate Decade planning to increase and permit more efficient use of marine opportunities for international sharing of resources-by improving physical and responsibilities and costs for ocean ex- mathematical models of the ocean and ploration, and to assure better use of lim- atmosphere which will provide the basis ited exploration capabilities. for increased accuracy, timeliness, and geographic precision of environmental Shortly after receiving the Vice-President's forecasts; charge, the National Science Foundation set Expand seabed assessment activities to up the Office for the International Decade of permit better management-domestically Ocean Exploration and began to define the and internationally-of marine mineral United States program. In the first year of the exploration and exploitation by acquiring Decade's existence, three areas were chosen needed knowledge of seabed topography, for priority attention: (1) environmental qual- structure, physical and dynamic proper- ity; (2) environmental forecasting; and (3) sea- ties, and resource potential, and to assist bed assessment. In 1971 living resources was industry in planning more detailed in- added as a fourth program area. The remain- vestigations; der of this report describes the status, accom- o Develop an ocean monitoring system to plishments and plans for the projects within facilitate prediction of oceanographic and each of these major program areas, as well as atmospheric conditions-through design the technological and international aspects and deployment of oceanographic data that are integral parts of the IDOE concept. 3 Chapter 2 ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY Over the past three decades human activi- and distribution of trace metals, chlorinated ties have had a growing impact on the quality hydrocarbons (DDT, DDE, TDE), polychlori- of the marine environment. The introduction nated biphenyls (PCB) and petroleum in the of biologically active chemicals into the oceans water, biota and sediment. A deliberate effort has made it necessary to determine the extent was made to use reference samples and to in- to which these pollutants threaten to alter the terchange replicate samples frequently among natural state of the oceans. participating laboratories in the United States In August 1971 an international group of and United Kingdom. Throughout the study scientists actively engaged in environmental analytical data were constantly interchanged. research met to consider critical areas in en- The extensive sampling provided sufficient vironmental quality research and to recom- material to establish approximate baseline mend research priorities. They emphasized levels for the pollutants measured. the need to: (1) identify major pollutants and their probable sources and rates of release; Baseline Conference (2) delineate processes affecting the dispersal The participants in the baseline data ac- of these pollutants; (3) understand the geo- quisition projects and other environmental chemical and biological transfers of ea "ch ele- scientists-60 university, industrial and gov- ment or compound in the ocean; (4) determine ernment experts from both the U.S. and the effects of pollutants on organisms and abroad-met at Brookhaven National Labora- their life processes; and (5) determine the sites tory in May 1972 to assess the data, evaluate where pollutants are finally deposited in the the program and make recommendations for ocean.1 future research. These recommendations, plus those from Prior to this Conference an 800-page com- subsequent workshops, have provided the pilation of data resulting from the baseline basis for the IDOE program in Environmental data acquisition projects was studied by all Quality. Its major research areas include base- the participants to ensure a thoroughly critical line data collection, studies of the transfer and review. The Conference was extremely valu- effects of pollutants and the use of geochemi- able in describing program deficiencies and in cal analysis in the study of diffusion, mixing stimulating new insights into research projects. and large scale ocean circulation. Within a week after the Conference a report summarizing the results and recommendations for future marine environmental research was PROGRAM: published, and distributed shortly thereafter at the UN Conference on The Human Environ- BASELINE DATA RESEARCH ment held in Stockholm.' The following gen- In 19'71-72, regional baseline data acquisi- eral position was taken by the participants: tion projects funded by NSF/IDOE were con- RECOMMENDATION ducted in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the The participants of the National Sci- Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean. Quantita- ence Foundation's IDOE Baseline Confer- tive results were obtained on the occurrence 2 Baseline Studies of Pollutants in the Marine En- Marine Environmental Quality, National Academy vironment and Research Recommendations, The IDOE of Sciences, Washington, D. C., 1971. Baseline Conference, May 24-26, 1972, New York 1972. 5 ence unanimously agree that the highest sensitivity and contamination, and (b) to priorities should be given to determining describe necessary precautions for reducing the impact of pollutants (e.g., synthetic contamination effects during shipboard col- organic chemicals, petroleum, and metals) lection and analytical treatment. on the nearshore marine environment. The program consists of three phases: We feel that this is the concern of na- tional or regional authorities.. (1) analysis of water samples by participat- The readily identifiable contamination ing laboratories; in the open ocean by synthetic haloge- (2) meeting to exchange views and formu- nated hydrocarbons (such as PCB and late recommendations; and DDT and their metabolites) and petro- (3) analysis of additional standards, if leum hydrocarbons,potentially constitute necessary, and the summarization of a problem of global concern. We therefore program results. recommend: That a continuing research Projects of this type are vital to investiga- program to determine inputs, dispersal tors concerned with the levels of pollutants in paths and present levels of the synthetic the ocean, and it may. be desirable to arrange halogenated hydrocarbons and of petro- similar studies for measuring other pollutants. leum hydrocarbons in representative plants and animals of coastal and open ocean zones be immediately initiated with the objectives of evaluating hazards POLLUTANT TRANSFER PROCESS to living processes and of defining sources of these materials. Simultane- RESEARCH ously and with high priority, research A detailed understanding of mechanisms should be expanded in biological labora- controlling the rate of pollutant transfer from tories to evaluate the impacts of existing source to and within the ocean is necessary levels of these substances upon living for predicting pollutant distribution in the organisms. Until this is done, every effort marine environment, for assessing whether should be directed toward restricting dis- the oceans are becoming measurably polluted, charges to the marine environment. and ultimately for indicating rates at which Lead Analysis Workshop such pollutants may be released safely to the environment. Before meaningful experiments As a result of the Brookhaven Conference can be conducted on the effects of pollutants, discussions on the determination of lead it is necessary to know if and how particular levels in seawater, a group of investigators pollutants are taken up and concentrated by interested in heavy metal determinations un- organisms. Likewise, if the final deposition dertook a careful comparison of lead analysis of pollutants is to be determined, one must methods. The purpose is to ascertain that understand the types and rates of chemical technique which is rapid and inexpensive, but transformations that occur as the pollutants which, nevertheless, gives the desired accu- are transferred into and among water, or- racy and sensitivity. Isotope dilution mass ganisms and sediments. spectrometry, although slow and expensive, The IDOE Pollutant Transfer Process Re- has sufficient sensitivity and accuracy to search Program is designed to contribute to provide standardized samples of seawater the solution of these problems. The research suitable for evaluating the more rapid and projects in this area are summarized in Table inexpensive atomic absorption and anodic 1. Research on riverine and atmospheric in- stripping techniques. The final evaluation of troduction of pollutants (heavy metals and techniques is taking place at the California synthetic organic compounds) may help to Institute of Technology following analysis by answer the basic, question of whether the the investigators of standard samples in their ocean is being measurably polluted. The own laboratory. quantities and forms of heavy metals, haloge- Important objectives of these studies are nated hydrocarbons and petroleum hydrocar- (a) to establish the minimum size of water bons are determined at the sea surface and in sample needed to overcome errors due to the coastal regions where they enter the 6 marine environment. Particular attention is organisms equilibrate with their aquatic sur- given to the concentration and dispersion of roundings? What is the significance of differ- pollutants at the air-sea interface, injection of ent levels of pollutant residues in organisms? pollutants through estuaries to continental Do they reflect ambient concentrations or shelf waters, pollutant emplacement in sedi- previous short-term exposure to high pollutant ments and the chemical forms of each pol- concentrations? What are the half-life resi- lutant. dence times of various pollutant forms in Chemical Studies different, organisms? Such information is especially important for interpreting those These studies involve investigation of the studies in which selected species are moni- alteration of the physical and chemical prop- tored for levels and significance of environ- erties of pollutants. The studies are carried mental pollution. out as integral parts of research projects con- cerning the dispersion of pollutants in the Goals marine environment and the uptake of pol- The goals of the transfer process research lutants by organisms. Chemical problems program are: (1) to determine important trans- being considered are: (1) the form of heavy fer mechanisms; (2) to identify major environ- metals (organic complex, adsorbed, detrital); mental factors that affect the transfer pro- (2) the types of PCB (several types have been cesses; and (3) to develop the principles released into the environment); (3) the nature governing transfer. of the equilibrium between pollutants in water and in the lipid fraction of organisms; .(4) the weathering of tar balls and resulting changes in their chemical compositions;. and (5) the EFFECTS OF POLLUTANTS changing chemical nature of pollutants as they ON MARINE ORGANISMS enter different aquatic environments. The baseline and transfer studies provide Table 1 the foundation for investigations designed to POLLUTANT TRANSFER PROCESS determine the extent to which pollutants have RESEARCH PROGRAM an adverse eff ect on marine life. The pollutant effects research projects portion of the En- Material Heavy Halogenated Petro- vironmental Quality Program involve three metals hydrocarbons leum distinct levels of marine life: cell-free en- Process Number of Projects zymes and bacteria, whole organisms (zoo- Atmospheric 2 2 1 plankton, microalgae and higher forms) and Riverine 2 1 complete communities. Studies at any level are guided by three considerations: (1) con- Chemical 2 3 2 centrations of pollutants should be at or near Biological 2 4 1 the concentrations known to be present in Geological 2 marine waters and sediments; (2) biological limits used for detection of pollutant effects Biological Studies should be something other than acute toxicity levels; and (3) studies should include both The biological research programs are de- laboratory and field phases. All investigators signed to quantify the mechanisms of pol- have agreed to use pollutants (petroleum, lutant uptake by organisms and the 'means PCBs and others) from a common source so of pollutant transfer through the food web. that results may be more directly comparable A variety of questions needs to be answered. and duplication of the analytical work neces- Are pollutants taken up directly from the sary to characterize pollutants may be water, passively absorbed by organisms or avoided. Research projects were initiated in ingested with their food? Should high con- 1973 dealing with the biological effects on centrations of heavy metals in higher preda- marine organisms of trace metals, petroleum, tory organisms be ascribed to food-chain am- halogenated hydrocarbons, and other syn- plification or to absorption over their longer thetic organic compounds. These are shown life spans? Do pollutant concentrations in in Table 2. 7 Biochemical Studies Community Studies Biochemical studies concentrate on the ef- The community studies require living sys- fect of pollutants on bacteria and key enzymes tems that are less than complete compared to and enzyme systems. If successful the tech- natural ecosystems but which are still enough niques used to study the effects of petroleum like the natural system to provide valid an- compounds on the rates of reaction of these swers about pollutant effects. Research on enzymes in a cell-free assay could be extended the effects of chemical pollutants on ocean to other pollutants. ecosystems,is being carried out by scientists from several U.S. and Canadian institutions in the Controlled Ecosystem, Pollution Experi- Table 2 ment (CEPEX). BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS PROGRAM In this project natural marine communities Contaminant are maintained in large, flexible plastic cylin- ders which are open to the atmosphere and Halo- closed at the bottom (Figure 1). In the ex- genated periment the contents of one enclosure are hydro- - Petro- Trace altered by adding chemical pollutants while carbons leurn metals a second functions as a control. The response Biological Material Number of Projects of specific trophic levels to the chemical per- Cell-free enzymes turbations will be assessed and the changes Bacteria 1 compared to those taking place in the control enclosures which are maintained under con- Phytoplankton 2 ditions as close as possible -to the natural Zooplankton 1 environment. These experiments are inter- Higher organisms 2 2 disciplinary, requiring cooperative research Communities project being reviewed Pilot study of biological effects of phthalates in ere project Whole Organism Studies The effects of pollutants on photosynthetic microalgae will be determined by measure- ments of growth, respiration and photosyn- A thetic rates. If severe effects are observed, morphological changes will be sought using light and electron microscopy. Both pure and mixed cultures will be used in these studies. The short generation time of microalgae makes them well suited for short-term experi- ments. In the case of zooplankton and higher or- ganisms, a much longer generation time dic- tates that biological parameters other than growth and reproductive rates must be used to measure pollutant effects. Metabolic rate, determined by oxygen consumption, is being used with animals at several trophic levels. Other parameters being investigated include filtering and ventilation rates, lethal tempera- ture limits, simple behavior and genetic struc- ture changes as measured by electrophoresis of protein molecules. Figure I 8 by chemists, microbiologists, botanists, zoolo- than.the inshore forms. If they are, the fact gists and mathematical modelers. that they receive less pollution may be can- The first CEPEX experiment is being carried celled by their greater sensitivity. If a given out at Saanich Inlet, Vancouver, British Co- trophic level is more affected by pollutants lumbia, Canada. During the summer of 1973 than others, then one would expect that level three prototype enclosures (2x10 meters) were in the ocean food chain to be the critical link built and tested in the Inlet. (Fig. 2.) At the in the biological response of the ocean to same time researchers surveyed the pollutant pollution. Recognition of these types of rela- baseline levels and the natural plankton popu- tionships will contribute to the intelligent lations in the experimental areas. If these management of ocean resources. pilot experiments confirm present expecta- tions, full-scale enclosures (10x30 meters) will be built the second year. GEOCHEMICAL OCEAN SECTIONS STUDY (GEOSECS) The Geochernical Ocean Sections Study (GEOSECS) is significant to both the Environ- mental Quality and the Environmental Predic- tion Programs. The multi-year project, de- signed to provide global baseline data and to further understanding of physical oceanic pro- cesses, involves geochemists from 15 U.S. uni- versities and participation from Canada, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, In- dia, Italy and Japan. Major portions of the ggv, U.S. program are based at the Woods Hole -N A Film- Oceanographic Institution and the Scripps.In a PA`j, gn 72 Snrj flu, stitution of Oceanography. 'f Fd -MT Q "K, Man's exploitation and conservative man- A agement of planetary resources depend on detailed understanding of oceanic processes including stirring and mixing in the deep se a, the interchange of energy and material 04NIV between deep and surface water and the ex- change of energy and material between the water and the atmosphere. ,f, _p@ Background The ocean appears to resemble a great con- vective cell in which the upper layers are heated by the sun and stirred by wind-driven waves and currents. Cold water sinking in the polar regions where surface waters lose their heat and increase in salinity through ice formation seems to provide the mechanism Figure 2 which drives this circulation, New bottom water, thus formed, flows as abyssal currents to the deep basins of the oceans. Although two areas are known where abyssal currents Goals originate-namely, the North Atlantic Ocean and the Weddell Sea in the Antarctic region A primary goal of the biological effects of the South Atlantic-the rates at which projects is to determine whether open ocean such water masses form, the nature of their organisms are more sensitive to pollutants subsequent sub-surface flow within the dif- 9 ferent oceans and whether other sources survey tracks which follow the approximate exist are not known. GEOSECS research con- trajectories of the bottom water currents in tributes substantially to the understanding of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The U.S. these processes. schedule of cruises includes the Woods Hole Although a crude idea exists of the average Oceanographic Institution's R/V Knorr run- effective speed of chemical constituent diffu- ning the Atlantic track during July 1972-April sion processes, little is known of the vertical, 1973 and Scripps Institution of Oceanogra- horizontal or time-dependent variations, or of phy's R/V Melville running the Pacific track the source of energy that drives the turbu- during August 1973-May 1974 (Figure 3). lence. Radionuclides such as strontium, Cruises by ships of West Germany, Japan and cesium, tritium and man-produced carbon-14, other nations add supplementary sections. recently introduced to the surface waters as At each U.S. station vertical profiles of fallout, are measured by the - GEOSECS 50 samples are taken, and at alternate stations scientists. They are used to deduce the rates large samples are taken at 16 to 20 depths for of downward mixing from the surface to measurements of trace constituents and low intermediate depths, thus determining (quan- concentration radioisotopes. The vertical titatively) the rates of turbulent diffusion and spacing of all these samples is guided by con- downwelling in various oceanic situations. tinuous on-station recording of temperature, Interpretation of radioisotope tracer data salinity and dissolved oxygen. Particulate in relation to the rate of vertical mixing re- matter is collected at all depths, and dissolved quires exact knowledge of the concentrations gases are extracted from the sea water for of the corresponding stable isotopes. For onboard analysis by gas chromatography. example, the release'in deep water Of C"02 Much of the analytical work is done on the by the decay and sinking of biological parti- ships during the expedition, with the balance cles is correlated with the release of stable to be done in the laboratories of participating C02 which can be estimated from measure- geochernists throughout the world. For future ment of dissolved totalC02, alkalinity and pH, work alibrary of water samples is maintained or any two species within the oceanic carbon- at Woods Hole. ate. system. Measurements of the concen- Shipboard Laboratory Analyses trations of the natural radioactive isotopes radium-226, silicon-32 and cosmic-ray-pro- Since project success depends upon the duced carbon-14 in the deep and bottom precise and rapid measurement of several waters of the ocean will improve knowledge ocean variables automated analytical systems of advection and turbulent diffusion. These are used aboard ship for many of the routine convenient nuclear clocks are being used to chemical measurements. All physical and determine the age of water masses in much chemical measurements made at sea are fed the same way that carbon-14 is used to mea- into the shipboard computer. Data logged sure the age of solid objects. The potential from principal and auxiliary sources are of these new methods for studying the sea brought together in a real-time system to com- has only begun to be realized. pute final values of all parameters. A large GEOSEGS scientists are making detailed proportion of the data is, therefore, available measurements of oceanic constituents at all for evaluation by the Chief Scientist while still on station (Figure 4). depths along north-south sections from the Arctic to the Antarctic, to provide, for the first The computer console consists of: Analogue time, -a set of physical and chemical data tape recorder for recording signals from the measured on the same water samples. In addi- in situ package, trouble-shooting equipment, tion to establishing geochemical baselines, real-time clock, trigger controls for the rosette, these data will provide input for quantitative cathode ray display units, typewriter terminal, studies of oceanic mixing and for descriptive hard copy reproduction unit for printing models of ocean circulation. cathode ray tube displays and an X-Y print Sampling Plan plotter. The following shipboard systems are auto- The U.S. portion of the project calls for the mated or partially automated and interfaced occupation of oceanographic stations along with the computer: Salinometry, alkalinity- 10 140 160 larfilh., _j0140 120 X C2 cTAK B i c3_ B5, TOKYO B4! Al 5 Dl 3 ! A3 A2 C4 2 1132 Bi SAN DIEGO 'r 10 D3 HiONOLULU 4 D4 -1 A --- D5 8 E2 D6 E3 E6 E4 0 ET 5 GEOSECS-PACIFIC ES E9 R/V MELVILLE E10 %"F3 AUGUST `1973-APRIL 1974 PAGO-PAGO F5 Fl 4 -PAPE E FIB T F9 16 A L.VOLUME STATIONS H6 5 4 S. VOLUME STATIONS '?0 H7 14 H5 AUCKLAND H2 H4 LLINGTON HI G G10 G9__ G2 GS G3 G G5 G6 Figure 3 ke, Figure 4 Nerve center. Scientists at acomputer console aboard the Knorr can request displays of data being collected far below by undersea instruments, displays of analyses from the shipboard labs, or displays of comparison records from other times. total C02 titration, gas chromatography (total Alkalinity-Total C02-Alkalinity-total C02 C02, N2, Ar), autoanalysis (N02-, NO.,-, P04---, is analyzed by an automatic titrator which is Si02) and Rn 222. under process control from the computer. The Data from the thermosalinograph, atmos- Gran plot method described by Edmond is pheric sensors, ship speed and heading indica- used to process the data. Precisions of 0.1% tors and satellite navigation systems are are being obtained for alkalinity and 0.2% for added continually and automatically to the C02. This is the best precision ever obtained computer data bank and are available for for these parameters. instant recall. Argon and Nitrogen-Two chromatographs are used on board ship, one for the analysis of Salinometry. In the Atlantic, the University total C02 and another for the analysis of dis- of Washington Bridge and Schleicher-Brad- solved argon and nitrogen. The two chroma- shaw salinometers are being used with a pre- tographs operate concurrently and are con- cision of -L .003 parts per mille. Readings from tained in the same enclosure. The total C02 these laboratory salinometers are used to cali- gas chromatograph uses a thermal detector, brate the salinity-temperature-depth sensor on the. argon-nitrogen, an ultrasonic detector. the bottom package. Presently, two people Nutrients-The nutrients (phosphate, sili- working full time are required for salinometry, cate, nitrate and nitrite) are measured using but it is hoped that an automatic laboratory a four-channel autoanalyzer calibrated to salinometer now available will reduce man- GEOSECS and Sugami standards. Data from power requirements for this task. the chart recorder is punched and processed 12 by the computer. A precision of 0.5% is The instrument, originally intended for micro- obtained. Calibration from leg to leg is well- structure work, has a high rate of data accu- maintained. mulation. The CTD profile is fed to the ship- Radon-Excess radon gas is measured in board computer. both surface and near-bottom profiles at each Bottom Proximity. Bottom proximity is de- station. It is extracted from samples by flush- tected by a 12 KH, pinger mounted on the ing with helium and freezing at liquid nitrogen rosette and monitored with a precision depth temperatures. Four extraction systems are in recorder on board the ship. use at all times, and the extraction time is Dissolved Oxygen. An oxygen sensor that approximately two hours. Following purifica- works below 2,000 meters is not available tion to remove water and carbon dioxide, the commercially. In an effort to overcome this radon gas is transferred to a counting system limitation, investigations were conducted on consisting of eight scintillation tubes. the various sensors available. Results show All shipboard automatic systems are de- that the membrane-limited polarographic type signed and programmed so that analyses may is the best available and will serve as the basis also be done manually. for the GEOSECS probe. Preliminary investi- gations indicate that the precision is better In Situ Underwater Measurement than one percent, with a lower detection limit of 0.05 ml/l of oxygen. To obtain this accu- In addition to measurements on board ship racy, calibration facilities are maintained on from bottle samples, scientists use a newly board ship. Figure 6 illustrates the results developed underwater sensor package (Fig- taken with the 02 probe to a depth of 5,000 rn ure 5) which includes: Conductivity-temp era- and compared with laboratory determinations ture-depth (CTD) sensor; bottom proximity using the Carp enter-modified Winkler titrator. pinger, dissolved oxygen probe, nephelometer and a rosette of 30-liter sampling bottles. DISSOLVED OXYGEN PROFILE GEOSECS STATION 61 - SOUTH ATLANTIC 137-S 45-WI By DISCRETE BY GEOSECS SAMPLING OXYGEN PROBE -1000 -1000 -15M -20DO -2me- -2590 -3DOO -3000 -4000 CD -4000- -4500 -45N -5000 -5000 4.201 4.600 5.400 3.600 4.200 4.6rA 1.400 OXYGEN CONTENT Iml/ft) Figure 6 Nephelometry. To detect suspended par- ticulate matter, a nephelometer is included in Figure 5 GEOSECS underwater sensor package. the underwater sensor package. This instru- ment uses a He-Ne gas laser beam light source. A resistive photocell placed just out- side the beam detects forward-scattered radia- tion, and the response is a measure of the par- Conductivity-Temperature-Depth. The CTD ticulate matter in the water column. A similar sensor is an adaptation of one constructed at photocell placed in the back-radiating beam the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. of the laser monitors the emission. 13 pH and Carbonate Saturation. An instru- two or more measurements. A surface pump- ment to measure in situ pH and carbonate ing system is used to obtain large-volume sam- saturation is being used in the Pacific legs of ples down to 250 in depths. The requirement GEOSECS. The apparatus consists of two of 18 large-volume samples per station neces- high pressure pH electrodes and a reference sitates both multiple casts and the use of electrode attached to a pressure housing multiple sampling devices (270-liter Gerard- which contains the necessary electronics. An Ewing samplers) on a single wire. in situ pump periodically flushes a carbonate cell with surrounding seawater while the pH Shoreside Analysis of the slurry is monitored continuously. The C14 ond H 3-The GEOSECS project will pH shift due to seawater- carbonate reaction is generate about 1,200 C" samples and about used to calculate the degree of saturation of 2,500 H 3 samples. Of the C14 samples, about the seawater with respect to the carbonate 900 most likely will be collected below 200 material. meters, and the greatest possible precision and Data Handling, Processing & Display accuracy is desired for these. In the C14 scale, a precision of better than four parts per mill, Data from the underwater sensor package experimental errors included, was stipulated are transmitted by frequency shift keying by the GEOSECS Advisory Committee and is along the coaxial lowering cable. On board being met by the researchers. ship the raw data are recorded on analogue Analytical facilities were built at the Uni- magnetic tape and directed to a Nova 1200 mini-computer for preprocessing. Selected versity of Miami and at the University of portions of the data, normally about one in Washington. No other existing radiocarbon every sixteen data points, are transmitted to laboratories in the U.S. can presently process an IBM 1800 computer which maintains proc- a significant number of samples meeting these essed data files and controls four storage criteria. scopes which can be used to plot the data or Trace Elements-The Trace Elements Panel any function thereof. of GEOSECS has identified four trace ele- Profiles of salinity, temperature, oxygen and ments-iron, zinc, barium and strontium-for light scattering versus depth are displayed on principal study during 1972-73. All have an two scopes, while density versus depth and ocean-wide variance significantly in excess of potential temperature-salinity correlations are the sampling and measurement error, and all shown on a third scope. The fourth scope is are involved in processes of particulate trans- used for temporary displays of detailed blow- port in the oceans but probably with different ups of significant parts of the water column fractions of the suspended matter. The possi- and for review of those laboratory systems bility exists that iron is injected into midwater that are interfaced with the computer. regions of the Pacific Ocean from the rift val- leys of midocean ridges. Other elements will As they are accumulated, discrete sample be determined at selected stations. Particulate data are fed to the 1800, either directly or by matter samples and data being obtained as punched cards, and station master files are part of the GEOSECS program include: Con- stored which are available for review by the centration data throughout the water column; scientists within 24 hours of the start of the C, N and P in samples through the thermo- station. In addition, master files from past cline; distribution of elements such as Fe, stations may be recalled at any time for com- Ba, Zn, Sr, Si and Al in suspended matter parison with the current data. throughout the water column (by chemical electron scanning and x-ray probe tech- Large-Volume Water Sampling niques); and concentration, size fractionation, Large-volume water samples are require mineralogical and chemical composition data d for many of the radioactive elements meas- on detailed near-bottom profiles in the nephe- ured during the project. Analysis of C" re- laid layer. quires 200 liters; Sr" and Cs"', 100 liters; IMajor Elements-Difference chromatogra- Ra"', 100 liters; Ra"', 800 liters; and particu- phy is used to study the proportional varia- late matter, 250-400 liters of sea water. In tions of the major ions in sea water. The some cases the same sample may be used for sensitivity of the method is sufficient that 14 systematic variations in the Ca" fraction of sea salt show up clearly and quantitatively. Ca" profiles can be drawn and dissolution rates for calcium carbonate calculated. Stable Isotopes-Variations in the CII/C12 ratio of bicarbonate carbon are measured on a large suite of deep water samples. Shifts toward C13 -depleted carbon are used to evalu- ate the oxidation of detrital organic matter in deep water. Variations in the 0'1/0" ratio of dissolved oxygen are also being determined because they reflect the same oxidation proc- ess. Atmospheric water vapor variations in D/H and 0"/0" ratios are of great interest AVIK for studies of the air-sea exchange of moisture and for estimating the latitudinal transport of atmospheric water. 44, Preparatory Cruises Since the inception of the program, six in- tercalibration and testing expeditions were mounted, in which detailed vertical profiles were obtained: GEOSECS-I in the North Pa- cific, September 1969; GEOSECS-11 in the North Atlantic, August 1970; leg 15 of S.I.O. Antipode Expedition in the South Pacific, August 1971; and the Gogo I and II reoccupa- tions of GEOSECS-I in November 1971 and April 1972. GEOSECS-11 was reoccupied by Knorr in July 1972. Of necessity, most of the work on these stations has involved intercali- bration studies by U.S. and foreign investiga- tors and extensive testing of equipment and techniques. Nevertheless, the results to date are important in their own right because of The Atlantic the detailed vertical sampling and the associa- course of CAPETOWN tion of many types of measurements on the GEOSECS same water masses. The GEOSECS-I results were reported in the journal of Geophysical Research, 75: 7696 (1970). In Earth and Plane- tary Science Letters, 15 (1972), some of the initial results are reported from Leg 15 of the S.I.O. Antipode Expedition. These include: SOUTH SANDWICH ISLAND The current status of the measurement of SOUTH ORKNEY ISLAND barium, an element of great importance be- Figure 7 cause of its relationship to radium and sili- con; recent developments in the extraction of Si" and Ra 2211 on synthetic. fibres; and the work done at the North Atlantic Station, GEOSECS II. The Atlantic Cruise The GEOSECS cruise track for the entire Atlantic Ocean was completed in March 1973 (Figure 7). The scientific and technological 15 goals -of the program have been reached and Atlantic (numbers 3, 11, 17, 19) have been in many respects exceeded. The concept and designated key stations. Analyses of these operation of a system for continuously meas- stations were done on a priority basis by the uring salinity, temperature, oxygen and cooperating laboratories so that results would nephelometry profiles have been proved. The be available for discussion at the Summer In- precision obtained for these and other chemi- stitute held May 7-11, 1973, at Woods Hole. cal determinations was better than those Although it is too early to have sufficient which had been taken as goals-in general, goals which until then were beyond the state scientific results at hand for evaluation, it is of the art. The computing system used in the clear that GEOSECS data on the complex in- Atlantic legs enabled preliminary cruise re- terfingering of water masses will produce a ports to be produced in a few weeks. far more detailed picture than has yet been achieved and that our understanding of water Four large-volume stations in the North movement will undergo a major advance. J, 16 Chapter 3 ENVIRONMENTAL FORECASTING The purpose of the IDOE Environmental that their kinetic energy content is compara- Forecasting Program is to provide the scien- ble to that of the mean flow and that this is tific base necessary for an improved capability sufficient to prevent adequate numerical simu- in predicting changes in the environment. lation unless it is properly taken into account. Long-range and accurate 'environmental Such knowledge may be even more important forecasting depends on an understanding of to the proper modeling of the temporal and the state of the oceans as well as of conditions spatial behavior of ocean circulation. in the atmosphere. In order to enhance fore- The MODE consists of a continuing theo- castin g capabilities, data on processes at work retical effort and a series of field experiments, in the air and sea must be incorporated into two of which (MODE-0 and MODE-1) have predictive models. Since knowledge about been completed. The site chosen for the these processes and mechanisms is incom- MODE-0 and the MODE-1 is an area of plete, it is necessary to put major emphasis on 600-km diameter and approximately -5-km studies of the ocean surface and its interaction depth near the Tropic of Cancer and southeast with the lower atmosphere, and to determine of the Bermuda islands (Figure 8). The region the dynamic processes in the deep ocean that was chosen for its lack of a strong mean cur- influence this interaction. Three projects rent, convenience to the U.S. east coast and focus on these problems: "Mid-Ocean Dy- good Sound Fixing and Ranging [SOFAR) cov- namics Experiment" (MODE); "North Pacific erage. The MODE-0 field experiment, de- Experiment" (NORPAX); and "Climate: Long- signed to provide additional information on Range Investigation, Mapping, and Predic- medium-scale eddies prior to a more compre- tion" (CLIMAP) program. hensive field experiment, began in November 1971 and continued until the start of MODE-1 in March 1973. PROGRAM: THE MID-OCEAN DYNAMICS MODE PROGRAM (MODE) Mode-0-The MODE-0 field program con- The ultimate purpose of the Mid-Ocean Dy- sisted of: Current measurements made with namics Experiment (MODE) is to establish the four series of current meter arrays, each of dynamics and statistics of meso-scale eddies, which contained two moorings at the same their energy sources and their role in general site; preliminary density and bathymetric sur- ocean circulation. It is estimated that these veys; and test deployments of SOFAR floats medium scale eddies, if indeed they are ubiq- and bottom pressure gauges. Results from uitous, contain at least as much kinetic energy MODE-0 include: (1) the identification of 100 as the mean ocean circulation and possibly krn as the scale (quarter-wavelength) of the ten times more. Where the energy comes from, medium scale eddies; (2) the determination how much is present and what it does are that subsurface flotation for current meter A questions which must be answered in order moorings is the most practical method of en- to refine the numerical models that are the hancing signal-to-noise ratios; and (3) the basis of environmental prediction. It is known discovery of numerous uncharted bottom that similar eddies exist in the atmosphere, features. 17 75 70' 65 85* W 7P 70* 65 Gr 40 45* 45* 40* 40- 4r .Ck 35* 35- It"M :z 35! 30* 3r MWE-1 I 2V MOY AREA % CAA Ir @!h 20* J 30, 15' P&', 10* r 10* 85* go. 75* W W W Figure 8 The area where the MODE-1 25 . . . . . 25' Field Experiment took place is shown on a physiographic diagram of the North Atlan- Jk- tic Ocean. The region within 200 km of the center of the array contained 20 in- strumental moorings and 20 drifting buoys. 90, -17 80* 75* 70' 65 MODE-1-The MODE-1 field experiment centrated at four standard levels-500, 800, took place from March-July 1973. It will also 1500 and 3000 m-plus two deep levels, one include limited extended measurements for a of which is 100 m above the sea floor of the period of one year. Five ships from the U.S.- abyssal plain, and another at 4000 m in the R/V Chain of Woods Hole Oceanographic abyssal hill terrain. The array was designed Institution, O.S.S. Researcher of NOAA's to help realize the following experimental Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological objectives: Laboratory, R/V Trident of the University of Rhode Island, R/V Eastward of Duke Univer- (1) pattern recognition over a circle of 350 sity and the R/V R. F. Hunt of Marine Acous- km diameter; tical Services-were joined by the R.R.S. (2) accurate mapping in an inner circle of Discovery II from England's National Institute 200 km diameter; of Oceanography. The ships conducted an integrated program of standard measurements (3) thermocline, deep water and bottom of ocean temperature, salinity, and pressure geostrophic balances; fields (Figure 9). (4) precise float-flow intercomparison in the The Moored Array-A fixed array of inner circle; moored instruments consisted of recording (5) information on the effects of interme- current meters (about 94 on 24 moorings) and diate scale rough topography on the temperature/pressure recording instruments coupled vertical and horizontal struc- of new design. The current meters were can- tures of the large scale patterns; 18 777 f 7 ,77 y W M G Tr@,WA N_175 @@,W -6t E' -_-ITIEL VA" VAI"i W nj- b 'FLOA ., Mr @',SURJFACE 6110M 7 EULMAN ARRAYS j", ,@PROFILE&AATV A r cibe e46 1 V H, W FAMIR SFARASRAV, FiV,0 SFAR;A4RAV,,'@-,,8ATA,4. T0,S90RU-'%`, @V V -@-@'GEGMAGKT ICILECTROXIN Figure 9 (6) extended pattern recognition at 3000 m 36 floats were launched to drift at depths, depth. variously, of 500, 1500 and 3000 m. Mini- Benthic Array and Floats-Superimposed on MODE was designed and executed largely by this fixed array of current meters was a sec- British oceanographers to examine features ond fixed array of benthic instruments for with spatial scales smaller than those which pressure and electric field measurements. Also could be detected by the main arrays. included in the experiment were free-floating and profiling instruments including 20 large, neutrally buoyant floats situated near 1500 m The Theoretical Program depth in a sound channel. Moreover, deter- Close scientific cooperation between theo- minations of transport over different depth reticians and experimentalists is essential to ranges were made over the entire MODE a successful investigation of medium-scale region utilizing instruments dropped from motions and to progress towards an under- aircraft. standing of their dynamic interrelationships. Mini-Mode-The Mini-MODE experiment The development and application of numerical was situated in a small portion of the MODE-1 models is of great importance in several re- current meter, benthic, and float arrays.. Five spects: the detailed design of field experi- additional moorings were deployed with cur- ments; the development of synoptic mapping rent meters at 500, 1500, 3000 and 4000 m in techniques; ar@d the investigation of dynamical an area 100 km square and to the east of the hypotheses. Numerical modeling is an essen- central array. Within this region a total of tial tool in MODE in that it provides the link 19 between theoretical concepts and the design contact with MODE ships and aircraft as well and interpretation of the field experiment. as a special telephone circuit to data analysis During the planning phase of the MODE-1 and scientific facilities in the U.S. In this man- project the theoretical panel played a key role. ner early identification of features was as- Important questions which were addressed sured, enabling field sampling programs to be included the effect'of bottom topography on modified accordingly. medium-scale eddies, optimum vertical and horizontal spacing of current meters to ob- tain "mappable" fields and float deployment and redeployment strategies. Future work by PROGRAM: the theoretical panel includes determination of Lagrangian and Eulerian signatures for var- THE NORTH PACIFIC ious possible causal mechanisms, construction of an ocean basin model and consideration of EXPERIMENT the effects of microscale. Naturally, many fu- Between the dimensional and temporal lim- ture aspects of the theoretical program will its of "weather," on the one hand, and of evolve in accord with insights gained from the "climate," on the other hand, are substantial field program. fluctuations of the ocean and atmosphere which involve time periods ranging from months to decades and which affect large por- Program Management tions of the. earth's surface. It is this interval- The various components of the MODE-1 are intermediate between weather and climate- substantial experiments in their own right. to which the North Pacific Experiment Current U.S. participants in MODE represent (NORPAX) addresses itself. eleven universities and two research insti- For five years the Office of Naval Research tutes. Scientists from the National Institute (ONR) supported a research program in the of Oceanography in England have made a North Pacific to identify the oceanic processes major contribution to the MODE-1 field proj- relating to these anomalous "weather" condi- ect; other participating scientists are from the tions. Large areas of anomalously hot or cold University of Cambridge, the University of sea surface temperatures (anomalies related Hamburg, the University of Goteborg and the to 30-year monthly mean values) were identi- Soviet Institute of Oceanology. - fied in the North Pacific. It was postulated The MODE principal investigators form a that these sea'surface temperature anomalies, scientific council, and specific, long-term via o cean- atmosphere coupling, affect the cli- problems are dealt with by special commit- mate from the Eastern Pacific eastward across tees. For example, in addition to processing the entire North American continent (Figure and interpretation by individual scientists of 11a, i1b). the data they gather, project-wide data anal- Indeed, 'a direct correlation appears to have ysis and interpretation is carried out by three been established between (a) such sea surface committees-theoretical, intercomparison and temperature anomalies and the correlate mi- synoptic. Day-to-day project management is gration of an anomalously deep atmospheric provided by an executive officer who acts in trough from 155' E in September 1972 to concert with the two co-chairmen of the scien- 90' W in May 1973, and (b) the heavy winter tific council. Intermediate-scale problems are and early spring rains in California and the dealt with by an executive committee which southwest, the flood-producing spring rains is composed of seven scientists and includes and tornadoes in the central U.S. and the New the executive officer. Figure 10 illustrates the England floods of June. Obviously, major at- committee structure of MODE. mospheric perturbations in an area as large as . To provide for the demand of the MODE-1 the North Pacific will have impacts not only field experiment for quick decisions and the in adjacent regions-Asia, the Arctic, North careful weighing of differing needs, a special America and the South Pacific-but much communications facility, the Hot Line Center, more remotely as well. To the extent, for was maintained at the Bermuda Biological Sta- example, that Pacific-born weather off the tion. The Hot Line Center provided daily radio New England coast affects sea surface tem- 20 S P R-J M f A M ARNMRS-f-RA - Al tot WOR &mr, a OF, - MINFA-WIVIN Me RY - WIN$ "a @V7 410, 170" AM gpy 'Igp ' ARAFf M r 1 - 11 Q@' - __V gaffi! i OFF rE, u, Al RIF X % OEM !%EQ_ I FA 4,E.N'@Y@ M kyl-I'M FA OEM 50 - Figure 10 peratures and other phenomena in the western mechanisms responsible for the large-scale North Atlantic, weather in Western Europe is oceanic and atmospheric fluctuations that to some degree controlled by conditions in the occur in the mid-latitudes of the North Pacific North Pacific area. Ocean. The fluctuations may be described in It became obvious that the ongoing level of terms of complex interactions between and effort for this research program was insuffi- within major oceanic and atmospheric sys- tems. All of the contiguous systems and re- cient to discover the causes of a number of environmental phenomena so far identified. gimes in the North Pacific Basin interact with Thus, the resources of International Decade each other to some degree. This fact makes of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) and ONR were it clear that NORPAX must consider the en- combined to produce a larger and more com- tiresequence of systems. prehensive effort than either could support To achieve this objective, research efforts alone. are concentrated in two main areas of study: investigations of the total North Pacific sys- tem; and investigations of regional interactions Objectives (e.g., how fluctuations in the position and The major objective of NORPAX is to de- strength of the Aleutian Low affect the North scribe and develop a basis for explaining the Pacific Current). 21 --- -- - ---- 146 A@ iA @.:,hl -01 Kip 33L g p- A FC t, F @VW xi@o" T v q'-po WZa.Z ,@5 Figure lla g,w srp@qyqv , , -3 7 W, NA @t m,,O, N AIR 1611@11, "?go 74pepq. 0 7 0 - Figure llb 22 Methodology and Operations of the overall program, with particular em- These studies proceed by formulating a set phasis on each Principal Investigator's indi- of working hypotheses to be tested. For ex- vidual area of interest and expertise. Equally ample, consider two general hypotheses of the important areas for their attention will be the type that may account for large-scale ocean- composition and balance of the main program atmosphere fluctuations over the North Pacific and determination of NORPAX data needs. A Ocean. Scientific Advisory Panel, composed of scien- tists not actively doing research in this proj- Hypothesis 1: That major fluctuations in the ect, has been established. it critically reviews central Pacific are induced by air/sea inter- the plans, direction of effort and past perfor- actions occurring in the equatorial regions. mance of the project and advises the funding Hypothesis 11 (the reverse of hypothesis 1): agencies as well as the project participants. Cycles observed in equatorial regions are ex- For the North Pacific Experiment to be truly plained in terms of central North Pacific phe- successful, a commitment of resources beyond nomena; these latter events, the ones which those of ONR/NSF and the United States will affect North American weather, are induced be necessary. Scientists of other nationalities primarily by "local" mechanisms. are invited to bring the resources of their Each hypothesis has incorporated a number countries to bear on aspects of the major sci- of lesser conjectures. However, the first job entific objective. Within the U.S. one of the in verifying either hypothesis is to determine NORPAX project goals is to establish appro- experimentally the nature of the interaction priate working relationships with other gov- between equatorial and mid-latitude systems. ernmental groups. This requires a determination of the dominant processes responsible for the energy and mo- mentum exchanae in the North Pacific Basin; the monitoring of important regions and de- PROGRAM: termination of the time histories of the major ocean and atmosphere systems in the North Pacific Basin; and the measurement (if pos- CLIMAP sible) or derivation of the energy and mo- mentum exchanges between the individual Objectives systems and/or regions. The experiment in- Research associated with the third major volves four major operational phases. Phases project in the Environmental Forecasting Pro- I and Il will take approximately one and one- gram focuses on the description and under- half years and involve development of theory standing of climatic changes over the last (numerical models), test and development of 700,000 years. An accurate definition of these skeleton data-gathering and scientific support changes over such a time scale is mandatory systems. Based on the results and knowledge if scientists are to understand the transition gained during Phases I and 11, the data gather- between what are currently considered the ing network will be optimized during Phase III. two stable states of global climate, the ice age Phase IV will involve operation of the data and the temperate age. By comparing an ac- gathering system and analysis of incoming curate description of this transition to that data. It should be emphasized that scientific predicted by models of global climate, a better research on all aspects of the problem is car- understanding of the mechanisms of climatic ried out continuously during all four phases. change will be achieved. The CLIMAP project should shed light on such basic questions as whether changes in climate are due to fluctua- Program Management tions in solar radiation, or whether they are caused by changes in the earth's hydrosphere. Much of the scientific direction and plan- A thorough understanding of climatic changes ning of the project is carried by the Co- is necessary if we are to comprehend our pres- Principal Investigators' Panel, which consists ent place in the natural cycle. Moreover, such of the scientists actively doing research within knowledge is important in order to assess and NORPAX. The Panel's main responsibility is to anticipate the effects of man's activities on to help formulate the general scientific aspects the global environment. 23 Work Plan ture and salinity of bottom and surface The CLIMAP project seeks to answer these ocean waters. important questions through the study of The methodology described above has been deep-sea sediments. When compared to the applied to produce a map of the sea surface scanty record kept by man on changes in the temperatures in the North Atlantic 17,000 oceans and atmosphere, the layers of sediment years ago. It is interesting to compare this on the seafloor provide a rich source of data. pattern, illustrated in Figure . ., with that Indeed, an excellent chronological record has presently observed in the North Atlantic (Fig- been captured in the ocean-bottom sediment ure 13). Such maps can now be used as an cores which are preserved in marine geologi- input to, or a check of, the product of numeri- cal archives (Figure 12). Recent advances in cal models. dating techniques, automated analyses of indi- vidual sediment cores and computer correla- Program Management tion of the many features in the sediment This is an integrated project in which some strata make it possible to generate global-scale data are produced by many individual spe- summaries of past sea surface conditions. cialists and experts, but in which data inter- Pale o-oceanographic maps are being con- pretation is a joint effort of all participants. structed for four selected periods: 6,000 years Coordination is achieved by a management ago (the post-glacial thermal maximum), structure consisting of an executive commit- 17,000 years ago (the last glacial stage), tee and a number of task groups. The Execu- 120,000 years (the last interglacial stage), and tive Committee consists of five members who: 700,000 years ago (the mid-Pleistocene base). 1) assume overall responsibility for the proj- Comparable maps for the present form the ect; 2) coordinate and assure the free flow of basis for interpretation. Presently available information among institutions; 3) assure co- core archives are adequate to provide sample ordination among task groups; and 4) set and material for the study. The general plan of implement policy. research work includes: a. A survey of existing core collections to n determine those most suitable for use as the base grid for the paleo-oceanographic study. This consisted primarily of rou- tine paleontological examinations and was completed during the first year of the project; b. The acquisition and initial interpretation of paleontological, sedimentological, and geochernical data on suitable grids for all "time" levels; c. Extension and consolidation of present work on quantitative relationships be- tween the oceanic environment and sediment properties is followed by mul- P tivariate analysis to provide interpreta- tive paleo-oceanographic maps for each level; d. The close coordination of the results of this study with those of the ongoing ex- amination of Greenland and Antarctic ice cores. These comparisons promise to yield critical information regarding high latitude glacial and interglacial cli- mates and their effect on the tempera- Figure 12 24 1000 600 600 40* 200 00 200 70* 70* 4 60* 600 500 -%7 50* --OA 40* 400- 30cL 30' 34 2 OL 20* 10*@ SEA SURFACE 10* TEMPERATURE 0 ck. TODA Y 0. WINTER 7 Ock 70* 60* 60o 500 50* AO& 40' 6 40* 30cL 30o 20ct 20* IV. 10* 17,000 TS W [email protected] ` CLIMAP Oo. Oo 160- 8'0 6'0 o 40o 20o 60 Figure 13 Maps of the average sea surface temperatures (in degrees Celsius) during the recent winters and 17,000 years ago. The recent map (top) represents a synthesis of oceanographic data, while the 17,000 year CLIMAP (bottom) is constructed from estimates of past temperatures based on the fossil foraminifera in approximately 90 deep-sea cores from the Atlantic. 25 Chapter 4 SEABED ASSESSMENT The Seabed Assessment Program is de- PROGRAM: signed to increase understanding of the geo- logic processes active along the continental C'ONTINENTAL MARGIN STUDIES margins, the mid-oceanic ridges and the deep ocean basins (Figure 14) which generate the The continental ma .rgins are important for raw materials (e.g., petroleum and heavy both economic and scientific reasons. Rich metals) of our modern industrial civilization. deposits of sulfur, heavy minerals, sand, and The obvious deposits have already been gravel are dredged from the bottom. Except found. However, new sources must be located, for a few areas where oil fields have been and the results of these seabed investigations developed, however, the continental margins already materially aid resource geologists in of the world remain largely unknown (Fig- that search. ure 15). -7r jrjj, INTE OEC AN * A T1 o N 'A T1 0 N`.1,-;,S!EA,B'E D, AS S E SS M E NT' @Z y AW tg@,mplwfts? W". ft r,,-NOD,ULES OF AT` @Ns'(Nt,uu co t I U. A, 7_ t: ts., zT. AT iej@';AT qf A 17T I A, C p, ,,HEAV,Y.MINERAL@:IDEPOSfT,,g@@-'@@I A fW Y ON ANCIENT_STI RAND, Ltua 04MAM, lz@- T@d 6- j-, % ROVINCES ON"', VIL & Gi@Ai` T tCO TINENTAL MARG N MINERAL THEAVY,, IDOE 73-7635 @.@',%CONCEN@RATION A-LONG RIFT VALLEYS 11-7-72 Figure 14 27 CONTINENTAL MARGINS OF THE WORLD . ... .......... .. ... ... ............ EURASIA NORTH AMERICA PACIFIC AFRICA SOUTH AMERICA AUSTRALIA ANTARCTIC .. .......... ....... El POORLY KNOWN El MODERATELY KNOWN BEST KNOWN Figure 15 Program of Work African Atlantic Assessment Major studies of the continental margins Preliminary findings from the 1972 work in- along the South Atlantic are now under way. dicated two potential sources of oil accumu- One study off west Africa extends from South lation, one in a thick sedimentary section off Africa to Portugal; another along the east the delta of the Orange River in southwest coast of South America extends from Argen- Africa, and another in a large diapiric salt tina to Brazil. The African studies were ini- basin off Angola. The areal extent and thick- tiated in January 1972 when scientists from ness of both deposits were outlined using geo- the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution physical methods, and their internal structure began a systematic study extending from Port has been analyzed using seismic reflection and Elizabeth, South Africa to the Congo River. refraction data. K. 0. Emery, the Principal Although survey tracks concentrated on the Investigator from Woods Hole, concluded continental margin, a few tracks were ex- that: "Within the delta are probably numerous tended out to the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. A total stratigraphic traps capable of retaining oil and of 50,000 km of seismic reflection, gravity and gas if they are present and within the diapir magnetic data were recorded. Precision bathy- field are many structural traps caused by the metric data were also obtained, and seismic upward movement of the salt. The landward refraction data, using sonobuoys, were rou- side of both features underlies the outer con- tinely recorded. Lo@ation of lines at sea was tinental shelf or the upper continental slope, controlled by satellite navigation. In 1973 the but the major parts lie much deeper. Nearly second and final cruise extended the study all of both features lie within 200 nautical from the Congo River to Lisbon (Figure 16). miles ... of the adjacent coasts. While depths 28 40* AZORES V. I IV MADEIRA 1 30* 20o CAPE VERDE 1. .10o 0. SAO TOME 10, LU 0 20o 30- - 40- - Ck 40o 30o 20o 10, 0. 10, 20- Figure 16 29 of more than about 100 m are too great for tists-may have played the same role in con- present economic exploitation of oil and gas, trolling the salt deposition as the Walvis Ridge they may justify testing by the drill within a off Africa. Indeed, in the early stages of rift- decade. Successful exploitation of the deep- ing they may have been parts of the same water features can greatly modify the econ- structural feature. Further definition of the omy of the adjacent countries and broaden the several sedimentary basins off Argentina and petroleum supply for the rest of the world."' detailed study of the Malvinas (Falkland) On one or more of the various legsi twenty- Plateau and Scotia Ridge-the active segment one scientists, technicians and students from of the southwest Atlantic continental mar- Argentina, Brazil, the Republic of the Congo, gin-will add to our understanding of how the United Kingdom, France, Portugal, the Re- South America and Africa separated. public of South Africa and Spain participated. Paleogeogrophic Maps-Concentrating on Preparatory to the cruise about 150 African the continental margins on both sides of the and other interested scientists received a South Atlantic simultaneously has broad ap- bathymetric atlas and preliminary reports on peal. The exactness of the geometrical fit of geomagnetics, gravity and sediments. The the continents offers a textbook example of profiles and charts of geophysical data from the way they may have been united (Figure 17) the 1972 cruise were printed and distributed and suggests that the process of spreading in January 1973. must have been relatively straightforward here. The concepts which evolve from a'study South American Atlantic Assessment of these margins will form useful working A similar study, being carried out in the hypotheses for other, perhaps more compli- southwest Atlantic extends from the Scotia cated, margins. Ridge to the Caribbean. This cooperative pro- A significant product of this cooperative in- gram involves scientists from the Lamont- vestigation will be a series of paleogeographic Doherty Geological Observatory, the Woods maps, one for each successive stage of the Hole Oceanographic Institution, Brazil, Argen- "opening" of the South Atlantic Ocean. De- tina and France. A significant portion of the spite the acceptance of the general principle work is being done from a Brazilian research that present day geologic conditions are a key vessel, and scientists from both Brazil and to the past, it is difficult to account for either Argentina have received additional training the existence of 500-million-barrel oil fields or aboard ship and in residence at Lamont and the enormously thick salt deposits in the Woods Hole. The study includes the entire geologic column. A reconstruction of geologic ,western margin of the South Atlantic, as a unit. conditions during past geologic ages may pro- The thickness and areal extent of the entire vide an understanding of the causes of these sedimentary section is being measured, its phenomena. internal structure is being analyzed, and, New continental margin studies may be un- where geological formations subcrop along the dertaken when international groups of scien- ocean bottom, samples are taken in order to work out a stratigraphic section, In areas of tists recommend major areas or problems great sedimentary thickness, such as the Ama- which can best be investigated on a large- zon cone, a two-ship refraction technique is scale, co operative basis. used in order to record the depth and attitude of the acoustic basement. The prominent frac- ture zones are mapped in order to answer PLATE TECTONICS AND questions involving their relationship to mar- METALLOGENESIS gins off Africa. For example, the diapir-like structures of the Sdo Paulo Plateau appear to Geological processes operating along mid- be the counterpart of the diapir field off oceanic ridges and active trenches may be Angola. The Rio Grande Rise, off Brazil-the responsible for the generation of heavy metal target of an investigation by French scien- ore deposits. Metalliferous sediments and hydrothermal rocks in the crust have been 1 K. 0. Emery, "Eastern Atlantic Continental Margin; dredged up from the ocean bottom near the Some Results of the 1972 Cruise of the R. V. Atlantis active spreading centers. Heat-flow measure- IL" Science, Vol. 178, Oct. 20, 1972, p. 300. ments show anomalously high values in these 30 w v Lly "t 10 4 IV VON -, "1 .1. , ; q'n .0, Of aq rM ImOp. Whig in IOU 2 b, IW 4P 'W"'fma Vlfi Rm" I fitz NA O;U@ Alt 1440 W ilw@ N;g N ,Ifir n WWI 1-,, tv Y PIR A UAW, Wt, L A W@ UV 'M 30 p --goo Y 0 J- V @N4 @77 @Ml Item finfl, R@ Jk r@ g 44 'INT! ffalr_Rlm HIM FAF AV- %I'MEMN 07i A "p, #44pol Nw-H, pt-'a "lop, W, fill- C'N VMAAA 0 le ra I f, J, 01WR H Aga, U "k @4 I Rqu- WIN, Nt T?`;@ S11; !i FA, qfgg, -4 21@11@7 "WIP "M VIM, X Figure 17 31 zones suggesting that the metal-rich crust and they originated through this process. The overlying sediments emanate from the rift and Nazca Plate is small enough to be studied as move toward the active trenches (Figure 18). a single geologic entity yet large enough to be Preliminary isotope studies suggest that ore representative of the great lithospheric plates bodies in igneous rocks above subduction which make up the surface of the earth. Since zones result from partial melting of the the spreading rate along the East Pacific Rise subducted crust-the melting of which in con- is among the most rapid yet measured, the junction with upward transport through vol- volcanic processes producing metalliferous canism can be considered the second stage crust and sediments must be quite intense. of a two-stage geochernical enrichment pro- Furthermore, because the Plate itself receives cess. Since such ore bodies are known only on little sediment from the land, the dilution land, the study of metallogenesis on the mar- process must be minimal. gin edges will be a partial contribution to the The Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, Ore- understanding of a much larger problem.* gon State University and the Pacific Oceano- graphic Laboratory of NOAA are conducting Nana Plate a study of the plate margins using comple- mentary geophysical, geochernical and geo- The Nazca Plate (Figure 19) has been recog- logical techniques. Scientists from Colombia, nized as suitable for a detailed investigation Ecuador, Peru, and Chile are all actively of the complete cycle from crustal formation participating in the cruises and data analysis. along the East Pacific Rise to its consumption Simultaneously, a large-scale geophysical in the Peru-Chile Trench. The presence of study of the subduction zone under the Andes, major ore deposits in the Andes overlying the as it extends from Colombia south through zones of subduction supports the thesis that Chile, is being carried out. Although this study goes beyond the scope of IDOE, the data on the subduction zone has obvious im- Guidelines for metallogenesis proposals are avail- plications for the Nazca Plate metallogenesis able from the IDOE Office, study and vice versa. THE GENESIS OF COPPER DEPOSITS OCEANIC SEDIMENTS (LAYER) WITH METAL RICH HORIZON AT THEIR BASE COPPER CONCENTRATIONS PORPHYRY COPPER DEPOSITS IN OCEANIC CRUST OCEAN RISE VOLCANIC CHAIN (SITE OF METAL. R I&W@ TRENCH EXHALATIONS) OCEAN --- 50 KM - Cell MAGMA ------ JO.- 4( 0 T4 10 Z Figure 18 700 KM 32 The workshop results summarize our present 0 V knowledge and outline a comprehensive pro- gg gram for a concerted attack on the major OW 714 O,@ 11. AI A problems.' - ----- The workshop identified five programs as '10 high-priority field projects, as follows: Long-range (1,600-to-2,000 km) seismic NAZCA PLATE refraction measurements to provide in- . . . . . . . . . . formation on the geometry and physical 20- properties of the deeper lithosphere, the asthenosphere and the transition zone- LU with emphasis on variations with dis- U, tance from the accreting plate boundary (i.e., the Mid-Atlantic Ridge). Detailed geological and geophysical stud- CM 190 ies, to include interdisciplinary surveys on a rifted ridge crest, a nonrifted ridge 40 crest, a large equatorial transform fault and a fractured plate. Comprehensive geological and geophysi- cal surveys, particularly short-line seis- 1200 110, 1001 90, 80, 700 mic refraction and dredging to obtain a complete set of rock samples from 72'N Figure 19 Nazca Plate to 36'N. Also suggested are reconnais- sance surveys in the South Atlantic, just south of the highly fractured equatorial The East Pacific Rise extends northward region. into the Gulf of California where high heat Bottom stations and instruments to re- flow values and swarms of microseisms have cord seismic signals from natural or man- been recorded. Scientists from the Scripps made sources, water currents, tempera- Institution of Oceanography and the Univer- ture, magnetic and electric variations, sity of Mexico are making a detailed study of chemical concentrations in seawater, the associated rift valley because of its anal- pressure and other variables. The report ogy to the Red Sea rift valley, where heavy notes that many such instruments, while metals have been detected in the hot brines. within the state of the art, nevertheless need to be developed. Mid-Atlantic Ridge Island stations and studies, including Better understanding of the geological pro- seismograph stations on islands on or cesses operating along mid-ocean ridges is the near the ridge crest to define details of basis for a study of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. seismic activity on ridge crests and in Despite numerous individual studies of this fracture zones, deep drilling (3-to-4 km) feature, knowledge is really quite limited, and into the axial zone, continued geodetic nothing is known at scales smaller than ap- measurements on Iceland and the deploy- proximately 20-50 km. ment of hydrophones in the Sofar Chan- nel from a variety of island stations as Prior to undertaking a major study of the a means of locating microseisms. Mid-Atlantic Ridge, IDOE supported a Na- Scientific exploration of the ocean floor will tional Academy . of Sciences workshop to enter a new phase with the Mid-Atlantic examine major questions concerning the pro- cesses operating along the crest. Scientists from Canada, France, Iceland, the Nether- 2 Understanding the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, A Compre- lands, the United Kingdom and several U.S. hensive Program, National Academy of Sciences, institutions met at Princeton in January 1972. Washington, D. C., 1972. 33 Ridge Study. Present knowledge, based on ples. In addition to the United Kingdom, studies from surface ships, is analogous to France and the United States, Canada, Iceland geophysical surveys on land made from alti- and Portugal plan to participate. tudes of 5,000 m. Submersible craft will en- Other studies of processes operating along able scientists to make first-hand observations the Mid-Atlantic Ridge are now being planned. of the active zones, collect samples and pre- They will emphasize the genesis of metals cisely emplace instruments. French and U.S. during formation of the crust and their subse- submersibles and the United Kingdom's deep- quent conversion into ore deposits of potential towed vehicle Gloria will be used in the area economic interest. southwest of the Azores (Figure 20). Preliminary surveys are now being carried out to select the tectonically most active MANGANESE NODULES points in the rift valley of the ridge. The techniques include detailed depth soundings, The third major investigation concerns the seismic reflection profiles, ocean-bottom seis- origin and distribution of concretions com- micity data, heat flow data and sediment sam- monly referred to as manganese nodules. 4e, ilf W nV W fz V 73-539@`-, 7 7 -72 xv Figure 20 @ Courtesy of National Geographic society 34 Polymetallic nodules is a more descriptive Recommendations term for these formations since, in addition to Recommendations-The report and recom- high percentages of iron and manganese, the mendations, to be used as guidelines for future nodules sometimes contain copper, nickel and research, should be valuable to all groups cobalt in economically attractive amounts. interested in studying the mineral potential Until recently the nodules, which occur ex- of the ocean. IDOE is especially interested in tensively on the abyssal plains of the ocean, those aspects which relate to the origin and were regarded merely as a geological curiosity. distribution of the nodules, for example: Manganese Nodule Workshop * Sources of and reasons for compositional In order to assess the present state of knowl- variations, modes and rates of growth of edge and to plan future studies, the Lamont- nodules and crusts and the significance of Doherty Geological Observatory under IDOE their stratigraphic records; auspices held a workshop/conference in the * Environmental factors, including param- winter of 1972, The workshop covered scien- eters by which minor element composi- tific, technological, economic and environmen- tion may be predicted, relationships be- tal aspects of manganese nodule deposits. tween deposits and associated life forms Since most deposits lie beyond the limits of and the environmental impacts of large- any present claims to national sovereignty, scale mining and processing; some attention was given to international legal * Concentrated studies of specific deposit considerations. Thirty papers were presented, regimes, including at least one Pacific site and the workshop results have recently been that is important both scientifically and published.' economically; Although the workshop helped to clarify the * Investigatory and assessment methods understanding of the major aspects of the by in-situ observations, sampling, analy- subject, it also focused attention on a number sis and data management; of problems and gaps in present knowledge. There was general agreement that the substan- Information and data necessary to the tial amounts of information in core labs and planning and management of this re- data banks should be inventoried and pub- source at the industrial, national and lished. Reports on the North Pacific deposits international levels. and the chemical and physical properties of In general the report urges that future re- ocean sediments have already been published search be characterized by a sharper focus (Figure 21 a, 21b, 21 c '). A coordinating off ice than has been the case in the past, with em- was set up at Lamont to administer a multi- phasis on the testing of specifically stated faceted definition study being done by ten in- hypotheses. It also recommends that the full- vestigators from Columbia University and ten est possible use be made of existing nodule more from as many other institutions. The re- specimens and that existing centralized nodule sults of the definition study and recommenda- information sources be continually maintained tions for future research have been published." and updated. 3 David R. Horn, ed., Papers from a Conference on Ferromanganese Deposits on the Ocean Floor, Arden House, Harriman, N. Y. and Lamont-Doherty Geologi- cal Observatory, Columbia University, January 20-22, 1972, New York, 1972. 4 D. R. Horn, B. M. Horn, and M. N. Delach, Ferro- manganese Deposits of the North Pacific, Technical Report Number 1, Lamont-Doherty Geological Ob- servatory, Columbia University, New York, 1972. Inter-University Program of Research on Ferroman- ganese Deposits of the Ocean Floor, Phase I Report, April 1973. Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory, Columbia University, New York, 1973. 35 FE RROMANGANESE DEPOSITS PACIFIC OCEAN K NORTH AMERICA COPPER CONTENT INWEIGHTPE ENT 0 Q, !j,p, "j. FOR"ll v N, M X4 W -Z V, .6 W. m phlf,, F -2. "Up"r, m X Z", 4m - I I KY 'yffiq @7 w" AND m,;c@H IDOF 73-1252 Figure 21a FERROMANGApff. PACIFIC OCEAN NORTH AM ER ICA NICKEL CONTENT IN WEIGHT PERCENT 0 0 . . 00 Ob 0 a@ AUSTRALIA ft AD f 0 -F-Tw. IDOE 73-2251 .. .... .... -1-73 Figure 21b 36 NT 7,7--:@, 7'@% IC, Tp .CENT 'eel FERROMANG 'ESE ......... Z- PACIFIC OCEAN NORTH AMERICA 4, MANGANESE CONTEN'T,4 IN WEIGHT PERCENT--, '4"', X) 20,3a A/ - - o 0, 1@ 1@, 4 -jw 0 In IV 40 - -z, 0 v IN R AUSTRALIA p 4, Ul- A- p" ff Q,, eil A J ji q 1-73 Figure 21c 37 Chapter 5 LIVING RESOURCES predicting trends and changes in these rela- MISSION: tionships. The first such project is the Coastal Knowledge necessary for the intelligent use Upwelling Ecosystems Analysis (CUEA). The and management of living marine resources primary objective of CUEA is to understand will come increasingly from interdisciplinary the coastal upwelling ecosystem so that re- study of the mechanisms which produce and sponses of the system to change may be sustain marine life. The goal of the Living predicted from monitoring a few key bio- Resources Program, which in 1971 became the logical, oceanographic and/or meteorological fourth IDOE program area, is improved under- variables. standing of the processes and relationships that exist between the biological aspects of Concept marine organisms and the chemical, physical and geological environment in which they live. The upwelling phenomenon is significant because an estimated 50% of the world's fish The ocean can provide a large amount of supply comes from major upwelling areas. food, but the quantities which can be har- Upwelling usually occurs along the continen- vested on a sustained basis are limited. Thus, tal west coasts at low to mid-latitudes. When the optimal use of renewable marine re- favorable winds exist, blowing toward the sources depends on knowledge of the natural equator, the earth's rotation produces an off- productivity of the seas, regional differences, shore, or Eckman, drift of the upper ocean efficiencies of energy transfer from photo- layers along the coast (Figure 22). This drift, synthetic plants to harvested species and the in turn, produces an upwelling of colder, population dynamics and maximum sustain- deeper waters near the coast, often a narrow able yield of different species. Until more is band 10 to 15 krn wide. The rich nutrients understood about the influence of tempera- of the upwelled deeper water cause a rapid ture, currents, pollutants and weather on growth in the plankton population, upon marine life, sensible decisions about the man- which, in turn, fish feed. Upwelling is the key agement of these resources will not be to the extremely high fish concentrations possible. found off of Africa, South America and other major coastal upwelling areas (Figure 23). Determination of the upwelling system vari- ables hinges on joint physical and biological oceanographic investigations. The framework PROGRAM: within which these investigations are to take place is a general ecosystems model (Figure COASTAL UPWELLING 24). Data collection and experiments are ECOSYSTEMS ANALYSIS (CUEA) guided by distinctive sub-models which make up the more general systems model. Each Currently, the Living Resources Program is CUEA program scientist, as part of his own re- concentrating on marine ecosystems analysis. search effort, will contribute to building one or Scientists from a variety of disciplines and more of these sub-models which will be tested institutions are trying to unravel the interrela- and modified continually to conform to new tionships of marine organisms and their envi- data obtained at sea. This elaboration of the ronments, and to generate models capable of sub-models as new data are obtained will help 39 @W, A V! Z ij o"n 4 t4 J.@r q, -v @,, -P. y M "J'JORN IJARV, !MAIN,UPWELL@kW BOUN j,g@ .. - ,@I Ul- W f',q F 1, @F? JN 0, Figure 22 GREENLAND IWO ASIA ASIA EUROPE NORTH AMERICA ATLANTIC OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN AFRICA SOUTH INDIAN AMERICA INDIAN OCEAN AUSTRALIA OCEAN COASTAL AREAS-About 50% of Global Commercial Harvest UPWELLING AREAS-About 50% of Global Commercial Harvest Less than 1% of Global Commercial Harvest Figure 23 Distribution of the world's fisheries. The richness and importance of the global coastal areas are highlighted by a small number of intensely productive areas caused by upwelling. 40 ki X Meteorolo -7T Zooplankton %A t M11 TIM. RU UpperOcean Dynamics Nekton ft Vell cities M E circulation sp MI HPULUM i kIR11% Co4tio_n'ing V ME lip M4 Typo Py fl, 1 5% L Figure 24 Conceptual model of the upwelling ecosystem, suggesting the relationship between the biological and physical parts of the system. refine the field study design and generate Procedures and Equipment increasingly accurate predictions about the The general field work design begins with behavior of the upwelling system. locating the strongest upwelling areas. Auto- The biological goals of the program are mated shipboard equipment makes it possible parallel to those of the physical oceanographic to collect water continuously at 3 rn and program components-i.e., to understand the throughout the upper levels of the water col- production processes and their temporal and umn to 100 m. While the ship follows a spatial scales. The approach is the same as zig-zag course in the upwelling area, the sur- that of the program in general. First, the im- face water can be sampled, and the variables portant biological variables in time and space of interest determined. This surface mapping must be defined-especially those of the can be done at night, and regular oceano- nutrients and phytoplankton. Naturally, there graphic or productivity stations can be occu- is interest in the fields of organisms at higher pied during the day to provide water for the trophic levels, but the prediction of fish popu- biological processes experiments. During sur- lations, for example, is not an initial project face mapping, water enters a sea chest where goal. The prediction of the fields of phyto- in situ determinations of temperature and plankton is, however, a fundamental aspect salinity are made. The water then flows to of the biological system and is an early goal the ship's lab where nutrient and fluorescent of the project. Second, experiments must be determinations are done. The measurements carried out to determine the nature of the are recorded by a shipboard computer, and dominant processes and their rates. Third, the surface maps of the variables can be produced first two aspects must be combined in a bio- as graphic output. logical systems model, Finally, the physical and biological models must be combined in a Intensive onboard experimentation and im- total ecological systems model. plantment of the oceanographic buoy arrays 41 follows the choice of the appropriate upwell- The fish can operate at any depth down to ing site. Contour maps are produced from 100 meters (the bottom of the euphotic zone the data which describe the field of the vari- in the eutrophic regions) and is controlled ables measured. Multivariant analyses are from the ship by manual or automated sig- also possible from these data, but up until now nals. The maximum towing speed is 14 knots, a severe limitation to understanding the total and the normal speed is 10 knots. Data from field was imposed because the data were only the towed fish make it possible to describe the two-dimensional. vertical, as well as the horizontal, fields of measured variables. The vertical field descrip- The Underway Pumping System-The proj- tion would otherwise have to be interpreted ect now has an improved pumping system from bottle casts, which supply fewer data. which enables continuous sampling in the CUEA Computing System-The study of vertical dimension as well as from the surface ecosystem dynamics requires a highly respon- water (Figure 25). The pumping system con- sive technological capability. Typical of the sists of a towed body (fish) complete with commitment of the CUEA program to respon- pump and sensors, jacketed conducting cable sive and flexible technology is the shipboard and hose, and a launch and retrieval reel. computing system (Figure 26), the Interactive The sensors read salinity, temperature and Real-Time Information System (IRIS), which depth. The pump provides water for ship- represents an innovative advance in oceano- board analysis of nutrients and fluorescence. graphic research. qq- :f "M C 12 11 A Uil "n U TOWEP,@' UNDERWAY @NN IV PURPING-', SYSTEM (TU Figure 25 The Towed Underway Pumping System JUPS) will provide continuous data in real time from any depth up to 100 meters with the ship underway at up to 12 knots. Together with the continuous surface sampling system, TUPS will allow CUEA scientists to define the three-dimensional fields of important variables such as temperatures, chlorophyll and the nutrients. 42 3r# W, 1 M@ pq; WN S ell- 0 2@ J Figure 26 The CUEA shipboard computing system. 'Schematic view of the CUEA Van based modular computer and graphics system. This Interactive Real-Time Information System (IRIS) is transportable and will be installed in a van Which can be placed. on the deck of the ship. The central computer is connected to a peripheral processor in the ship's lab by means of a single cable. In the lab, the peripheral processor samples data in real- time, for example the under-way nutrients, and provides a facility for the investigators to interact at graphic terminals with the data contained in the central computer. IRIS provides the scientist at sea with as field experiments. To perform these two func- clear a representation as possible of surround- tions, IRIS is configured with dual proces- ing oceanic conditions. It acquires data in sors-two Digital Equipment Corporation real-time from an instrument array, constructs PDP-11/45 computers-communicating over a an image of the real-time environmental con- high-speed link. One processor, the major ditions from these data and graphically pre- storage devices and peripherals are mounted sents the image. The scientist is able to on the deck in a sea-transport van (Figure 27). manipulate the graphic images, perform sta- The second processor, mounted in the ship's tistical or analytical calculations on the data laboratory area, functions as a data acquisi- and store the results in a personal disk file. tion facility and as a handler for the interac- The instrument array includes sensors for tive graphics terminals, Data acquired by the continuous collection of data on nutrient inboard processor is transmitted to the van- chemistry, other water properties and relevant based processor for entry into the data bank. meteorological measurements. Data such as The inboard processor also uses these data to reversing-thermometer readings, and others construct a real-time representation of envi- which require high-precision analyses but are ronmental conditions for investigators at not amenable to continuous in situ measure- terminals by- the inboard processor. IRIS, ment are placed directly into the IRIS from transportable in a single van, provides a highly remote terminals. All these data and those sophisticated information system for the collected by sophisticated stand-alone instru- CUEA program. ments, such as recording current meters and acoustic biomass assessment systems, are Experiments stored in the IRIS data files. The foundation for the CUEA program has IRIS provides both an information center been established by the work of more than and a data-acquisition system for the CUEA twenty physical and biological oceanograph- 43 ----------- W "Ira, Y 0 i5 4 A R @Y_jm 'F,"o 3 Figure 27 Cutaway view of a sea-transport van and peripheral lab area installation CUEA shipboard computing system. ers from fourteen organizations. Four pre- Early analysis of data collected during paratory field. experiments, MESCAL-I and -11 MESCAL-I indicates that prediction of phyto- and CUE-I and 41 (Figure 28), precede the plankton levels and nutrient fields is possible. major combined biological and physical ocean- MESCAL-II, which took place in the same ographic effort (JOINT-I) planned off north- area during March and April 1973, further re- west Africa for 1974. fined the phytoplankton-nutrients field model MESCAL-MESCAL-1 was conducted pri- and integrated biological variables into the marily as a biological cruise off Baja Cali- field work. fornia in March '1972. It was designed to CUE-Upwelling off the Oregon coast is obtain time series measurements on environ- driven by seasonal north winds and occurs mental variables such as temperature, nitro- annually from May to September. During the gen, chlorophyll and silicon, and to examine summer of 1972, the first Coastal Upwelling associated biological processes in the devel- Experiment (CUE-I) was carried out in this opmental stages of an upwelling system. Dur- area. The goals were to define the time and ing MESCAL-1, scientists observed a feature space scales of the upwelling process, to test which appears typical of upwelling areas over theoretical hypotheses and models and to test complex topography. The feature, called a experimental hardware and techniques for plume, appears as a surface tongue of water- future studies of upwelling ecosystems (Fig- in this case, a tongue of low-temperature, ure 29). CUE-1 marked the first time that ade- nutrient-rich water. It is hypothesized that quate experimental data were available to test the biological activity associated with upwell- the theoretical calculations and models. Al- ing plumes is a key factor in upwelling- system though the results generally agreed with the dynamics. models, additional information appears neces- 44 sary to deal with bottom contours and off- shore upwelling frontal dynamics. The CUE-I data collection effort was im- CUE pressive. Continuous current measurements were made from three types of buoy arrays set up by Oregon State University, the Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory [NOAA) and the General Dynamics Corporation. Each buoy supported a current meter Iarray and instru- ments to measure wind, temperature, salinity gg, and other parameters. Surface and subsurface drogues were used to track short-term current variations, and several'shoreside meteorologi- cal stations monitored the wind field just on- 'W" shore. An aircraft, supplied by the National "MAI Center for Atmospheric Research, was used > "A' for rapid remote measurements of sea-surface temperature, color and flight-level winds. ME L Earth satellite photographs and other weather summaries for the CUE-1 area were collected and evaluated within the experimental model. Figure 28 Geographical location of MESCAL and CUE experiments. u 7""g vg7 P -y 1@- a@' ""q -v"' @v rr' @@r 'Tr,- -mg -g"'r- N ;7 -4 '@Q j'y P@2' n t W wy A""@ 'z -I @L'@ 2 13 1 "q q, 'N jf"@ p, tj 0@, @4 E q V _V nJ, Qb@ R i'- - v @;4 N'TA", pd, U5 a 0 a CN Y Yh n q In @0_Vq g IF @p r W AUV H -y N W 01 R Y AN g@ k@@ 2, U;@ H _n' W, Figure 29 CUE-1 instrument array. Some of the advanced technological development used in the 1972 physical-meteorological experiment off the Oregon Coast are shown above. From the left are: two point subsurface mooring of temperature, pressure & current meters with surface meteorological buoy, acoustically tracked. Neutrally buoyant Vertical Current Meter, subsurface mooring for Unattended Profiling Current Meter (also recording tempera- ture pressure and salinity), surface drogue, Salinity-temperature-Depth recorder, telemetering buoy with temperature & pressure sensors. The National Center for Atmospheric Research aircraft on remote sensing flight is shown at top left. 45 Three ships, the Yaquina and Cayuse (Oregon erative Investigations of the Northern Part of State University) and the Oceanographer the Eastern Central Atlantic (CINECA) pro- (NOAA), made over 1700 automated salinity, gram. More than twenty cruises by oceano- temperature and density measurements of the graphic and fisheries research vessels of eight water column. More than 2000 current-meter countries have been conducted in the CINECA days of circulation data were obtained. In- region to date, and an intensive multi-ship tense computer processing of these data con- effort is taking place in 1973. The 1973 pro- tinued into early 1973. gram, the first of two related CINECA phases, Results of CUE-I have shown the time- is primarily devoted to a detailed physical, motion scales of the coastal upwelling proc- chemical and biological assessment of the dy- ess. In addition to the seasonal scale of namics of the Canary Current and the coastal coastal upwelling, there are usually two or upwelling system. A possible link between three short-term events per month which those systems will also be investigated dur- appear to profoundly affect the local upwell- ing transects from the coast to 550 km off- ing circulation. The events, caused by a shore. United States scientists from the' short-term shift to southerly winds (in the CUEA project have taken part in seven coop- Northern Hemisphere), seem to stop the up- erative cruises in this area and will lead the welling circulation and to stratify the coastal second major CINECA phase on upwelling waters horizontally within a matter of a process studies during 1974. The JOINT-I few inertial periods. The upwelling starts experiment will be a major attempt to under- again with the resumption of the prevailing stand each component of upwelling develop- northerlies. ment: the offshore movement of surface water; surface water replacement by nutrient- When the circulation observed during CUE-I rich waters from deeper, cooler layers; the turned out to be more complicated than antici- growth of plants which feed on these nutri- pated, researchers decided to locate CUE-II ents; the growth of microscopic animals which north of the CUE-I location in an area of feed on the plants; and, finally, the influx and smoother bottom contours. Emphasis was on growth of fish which feed on these smaller increasing the data base and testing physical organisms. Present plans call for participation theories derived from CUE-I. CUE-II also pro- in JOINT-I by the United States, France, Spain vided an opportunity for a pilot test of IRIS and the Federal Republic of Germany. At to be mounted on the University of Washing- least six ships are expected to contribute, ton's R/V Thomas B. Thompson. Data from including three from the U.S. and three from CUE-I and -11 should provide the descriptive other participants. Largely as a result of this and theoretical basis for the JOINT-1 experi- broad international participation, JOINT-I will ment, scheduled to take place off the north- be the first field experiment on a big enough west African coast in early 1974 (Figure 30). scale to produce the data necessary for a JOINT-I-This experiment will be the first working model of a complete upwelling eco- full-scale integrated experiment to be con- system. Additional JOINT experiments are ducted on a marine ecosystem. The selection planned for subsequent years to further refine of the northwest coast of Africa is based on theory and modelling and to test the models the presence of a powerful upwelling system on different upwelling ecosystems in different in that region and the extensive scientific parts of the world. JOINT-II, for example, is foundation provided by the Intergovernmental proposed for 1975 in the Peruvian upwelling Oceanographic Commission-sponsored Coop- region. 46 SPAIN ALGERIA MOROCCO CANARY ISLANDS C I *Opp N E SPANISH SAHARA C MAURITANIA AFRICA A SENEGAL JOINT I GAMBIA GUINEA LIBERIA GHANA IVORY COAST Figure 30 Location of the JOINT-1 experiment. 47 Chapter 6 INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION The success of the global IDOE program and research on plate tectonics and metallo- depends in large part on the extent to which genesis. The Federal Republic of Germany, many nations contribute their expertise and France, the United Kingdom, India, Italy capabilities. The U.S. National Science Foun- and Japan have participated extensively in dation has taken a leading role in working to GEOSECS with ships, personnel and labora- develop scientifically sound cooperative pro- tory facilities. grams offering opportunities for many nations During the first year of the Eastern South to share both program responsibilities and re- Atlantic Continental Margin survey, partici- sults. The strength of existing projects stems pants came from Argentina, Brazil, the Re- from the participation of scientists from many public of the Congo, the United Kingdom, the countries. The Foundation has sought to fos- Federal Republic of Germany, France, Gabon, ter this development in three ways: scientist- Ghana, Jamaica, Liberia, Nigeria, Portugal, to-scientist cooperation, intergovernmental Sierra Leone, South Africa, Spain and the coordination and international scientific con- United States. The Western South Atlantic ferences. continental margin survey is also underway with very active international scientific SCIENTIST-TO-SCIENTIST participation. COOPERATION Scientists from three U.S. laboratories, five Latin American countries and the Pan Ameri- Convinced that scientific soundness is a can Institute of Geography and History are prerequisite to viable international research cooperating in the Nazca lithospheric plate projects, the U.S. IDOE Office contacted indi- project off the west coast of South America. vidual scientists from a number of countries Latin American scientists participated in all during late 1969 and 1970, and invited them the initial cruises, and four worked in the to assist in the planning of specific projects- United States on the data reduction and analy- a practice followed to this day. These spe- sis. The planning for the 1973 research phase cialists not only helped considerably.in the was a cooperative effort, as were the cruises planning, but subsequently encouraged par- themselves. ticipation by many foreign oceanographic in- stitutions. By 1971 institutions in six foreign countries had committed resources, and scien- tists from nine other countries were taking INTERGOVERNMENTAL part in various IDOE programs. A year later institutions in fifteen foreign countries had COORDINATION committed resources, and scientists from an In addition to encouraging participation by additional fifteen countries were participating individual foreign institutions and research- individually. By 1973, 41 countries were active ers, the United States has pressed for exten- participants in one or more U.S. IDOE projects sive internationalization of the IDOE through (Table 3). the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Com- Specific examples of cooperative efforts de- mission (IOC) of the United Nations Educa- veloped through scientist-to-scientist coopera- tional, Scientific; and Cultural Organization tion are the Geochernical Oceans Section (UNESCO). The IOC, established in 1960, Study (GEOSECS), continental margin studies now has seventy-four members (Table 4). 49 @d 0 CD 0 CD 0 CD 0 @r m 0 m 0 o @r m 0 m CD o cl) cr 'd CL n Cl) ID P'. P: 0 m H cr w 0 m rn 0 ocqD CD. P) m 0 0 CD P@ ri w 0 t:y- 0 0 0 0 CD C) rL P) CD CD > 0 El 0 P, P) P) CD P, 00 CD .2 0 m 1114 - n 0 0 ,41 - M M 0 Z 03 CD w 03 rj, 0 0 00 9L 0 0 CL CL co rL W 0 GEOS MODI NOR CLIND SE Atl Res SE Atl NAZC Mid-A Rid Manga CUEA Sw A Transf CEPE 0 % - 74 Q, R VA, mm".1 NO Q -57 Al VA ON-,, A WA., AP "E 5 -U ir F Z M_-] @,r ot r The Seventh Session of the IOC in 1971 Food and Agriculture Organization, Interna- established the Global Investigation of Pollu- tional Atomic Energy Agency, Intergovern- tion in the Marine Environment (GIPME) as mental Maritime Consultative Organization, a major element of the IDOE, and the IOC U.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Or- Executive Council subsequently established ganization, and the World Meteorological the International Coordination Group for Organization. The first meeting was held in GIPME. The group is to draw on a variety April 1973, in the United Kingdom. The Envi- of recommendations, such as those of the joint ronmental Quality Program of the U.S. IDOE Working Party on CIPME and those from the is the national focal point for United States Stockholm Conference on. the Human Envi- participation in GIPME. ronment, to prepare a comprehensive plan for implementation of GIPME. This plan is to In summary, the IOC has recognized the include specific recommendations for long- IDOE as the acceleration phase of its long- term coordination and establishment of proj- term program; it has adopted a series of pro- ect priorities. The Coordination Group con- grams to be implemented under the IDOE; Isists of representatives from Brazil, France, and it has established a formal mechanism for the Federal Republic of Germany, Japan, the the coordination of GIPME. The United States Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the has actively participated in supporting these United States, as well as six scientific experts developments as well as in encouraging other -one from each of the following specialized IOC member states to sponsor these or simi- organizations of the United Nations system: lar projects. 51 INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCES To promote collaborative planning of IDOE programs. Before support is provided for a programs, the U.S. Office for the IDOE is workshop, the Scientific Committee on providing a two-year planning grant to the Oceanic Research of the International Council IOC. The funds will be used to support work- of Scientific Unions will assist by offering shops comprised of scientists who will re- advice and recommendations for appropriate view existing eff orts and develop new IDOE participants. 52 GOALS AND DETERMINATIONS The full and general realization that our tors-both natural and man-made-on the planetary environment has limits is an event biomass give us a standard against which we of recent times. Indeed, as a factor of consid- can measure and evaluate releases of pol- erable national and international concern, it lutants, thus providing us with sound bases for has emerged only within the last five years. avoiding major adverse impacts and for intel- These limits manifest themselves in many ligent, balanced regulation. Through the study ways. Some are dramatic, such as the energy of marine ecosystems, we develop knowledge crisis. Some are more subtle, such as the which not only permits fisheries harvest man- gradual accumulation of man-made pollutants agement within the limits of maximum sus- in the farthest reaches of the world ocean. tainable yield and, therefore, assurance of They also show themselves in the onset of continuing supplies, but also ecosystem en- domestic conflicts over the uses to which spe- hancement and simulation-e.g., expansion of cific national resources shall be put-to mine natural stocks and the creation of whole new or maintain pristine beauty, to clear-cut or let stocks through mariculture. These are the the forests stand, to dump untreated waste or kinds of questions to which IDOE's Environ- pay more for everything we do or use. They mental Quality and Living Resources programs are evident, too, in conflicts among nations seek answers which, in turn, serve the needs over access to such resources and the emer- both of science and of men and nations. gence of politics as an increasing factor in de- Knowing more about the patterns of energy cisions that previously were mainly economic. transfer within the ocean, within the atmos- Global limits may be viewed from two basic phere and between the two already enables perspectives: (1) What the environment can us to make more accurate weather predictions do for us in the sense of providing the re- over longer periods of time and over broader sources necessary for human existence; areas. This is important not only to protec- growth and development; and (2) what we can tion of life and property, but it is also impor- safely do to the environment without endan- tant to the more efficient use of resources, gering,our survival, derogating the quality of both human and material. If the farmer knows life and reducing our future options. In the the next growing season will be cold or hot, first respect we are concerned with a global dry or wet, early or late, he can plan and demand for food, fuels and minerals that is plant accordingly, and a whole new dimen- rising faster than the discovery and proof of sion can be added to the technology of mod- resources. In the second respect we are con- ern agriculture, with concomitant increases cerned not only with quality of life and future of both nutritional and economic yield. To options, but also with the continued viability whatever extent the construction industry of the natural plant and animal cycles from knows the weather in the next few days, which mankind derives its food. weeks or months, greater economic efficiency It is through increased knowledge of the is again realized. Similar benefits accrue to planetary environment that (1) the limits the fuels industry, states and municipalities, themselves can be pushed back through the resort areas, transportation companies, indeed, discovery of new sources of raw materials, to every individual and segment of the econ- fuels and food; and (2) more efficient use can omy. Thus, while investigators of the MODE, be made of those resources available to us at NORPAX and CLIMAP programs are pursuing any given point in time. It is to the develop- lines of purely scientific inquiry, they are also ment of just this kind of knowledge that the developing knowledge of immediate practical International Decade of Ocean Exploration is benefit to the whole of human society. dedicated. Recent rapid and exciting strides in marine The establishment of oceanic environmental geology-the whole field of plate tectonics, baselines and the effects of environmental fac- seafloor spreading and continental drift-have 53 already pointed the way to more efficient ex- very few years of actual scientific confirma- ploration by the petroleum industry. Similar tion. Through IDOE's broad international benefits are now becoming available to the participation, concerted multi-disciplinary ef- hard minerals industry. The ways in which forts addressed to single major scientific prob- the lithospheric plates of the earth's crust lems and the availability of modern computer form, move, collide, disappear and interact are and numerical modeling technology, such telling us for the first time how the important short-term pay-offs are being realized or an- mineral deposits we find ashore arecreated. ticipated for every major IDOE program. In- Knowing this mechanism-the processes and deed, if there is a problem in the realization time scales involved-not only expedites the of practical benefits from these programs (e.g., landside search for new mineral resources, Seabed Assessment), it is that currently the but it is beginning to describe the mineral pace of oceanographic discovery with the resources of an area three times that of the potential to serve critical current needs is out- continental land masses on .which, to date, pacing the technological capability to exploit. we have primarily relied for such resources. And, the natural pressure of the marketplace That'area, of course, is the ocean floor, the are beginning to solve that problem. description and dynamic understanding of IDOE-supported oceanographic research which is the main objective of the IDOE seeks a level of understanding of natural pro- Seabed Assessment program. cesses that is functional rather than merely One of the more intriguing aspects of this descriptive, that is quantitative as well as line of inquiry is the evolving evidence that qualitative. We have already pretty well de- the earth's hard mineral resources are con- scribed the planet; now we strive to know stantly being renewed-not only through the how it works. We seek better to define its rift valleys that characterize most of the limits and to realize the fullest compatability 46,000 nautical miles of mid-oceanic ridges, between man, his needs and expectations and but also along the island arc and other vol- his environment and its resources. canic regions where lithospheric plates col- The demands of most IDOE programs ex- lide. No suggestion is made or even implied ceed the practical capabilities not only of in- that the rate of such hard minerals creation dividual institutions but often of individual in any way matches the rate at which modern nations. A sharing of effort among many industry is drawing them down. The possibil- institutions and nations is essential to bring ity, if not the probability, exists, however, that together sufficient financial and other material rich deposits will be found beneath the deep resources. Since no single nation can rea- ocean floor -all the way from the rift/ridge sonably undertake the development of such structures that produce them to the continental knowledge entirely on its own, it is only logi- boundaries. If this is so, planetary limits are cal that there should be a common effort to still not removed, but they may be much ex- fulfill critical common needs. This is the panded. Once again the quest for scientific rationale behind the cooperative aspects of knowledge produces an effect of universal, IDOE. very practical importance. It is the goal of the IDOE to produce the The temporal benefits that soon may accrue knowledge that will provide the factual bases from the discovery of manganese nodules by to enable man to optimize his compatability H.M.S. Challenger will have taken 100 years with his environment, to maximize the con- or more to be realized. The time scale from tinued availability of food, fuels and raw basic scientific discovery in marine research materials and to minimize future sources of to practical utilization today is greatly fore- conflict both within and among nations. The shortened, and the pragmatic benefits of plate least cost and shortest route to this goal is tectonics research are being realized within through the development of a truly energetic decades of initial hypotheses and within a common assault on common problems. 54 APPENDIX 55 Table 3 U-S, IDOE PARTICIPANTS ACADEMIC University of Alaska Brown University California Institute of Technology University of California San Diego University of California Berkley University of California Los Angeles Columbia University University of Connecticut Duke University Harvard University University of Hawaii University of Georgia (Skidaway) Johns Hopkins University Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory Massachusetts Institute of Technology University of Miami Nova University Oregon State University Puerto Rico Nuclear Center Queens College Rice University Univexsity of Rhode Island University of Southern California Texas A & M University University of-Texas Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Yale University GOVERNMENTAL Atomic Energy Commission National Bureau of Standards Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratories (NOAA) Pacific Oceanographic Laboratory [NOAA) National Marine Fisheries Service (NOAA) Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (NOAA) Environmental Data Service (NOAA) National Oceanographic Instrumentation Center (NOAA) NON-PROFIT AND INDUSTRY American National Standards Institute Battelle Northwest National Academy of Sciences National Academy of Engineering General Dynamics-Electronics Division 56 LaboratoneO, . ........ . ............ Industr 1 51yc .:,Universities 7 1 iscellaneous 10% . ............ 1. ....... .. bi anpow cy.:: -:Contract 57 National Scien*pe Foundation Washington, D.C. 20550 Postage and Fees National Science Fo Officia) Business PENALTY FOR PRIVATE USE, $300 THIR Bul q-g Tzz:;D EZ::=l NSF 73-25