Proceedings of an International Conference on Artificial Reefs, Astroworld Hotel, March 20-22, 1974, Houston, Texas

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U. S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON, SC 29405-2413

Proceedings of an International

Conference on Artificial Reefs

Astroworld Hotel March 20 - 22, 1974 Houston, Texas

PGP~'-RTY OF TH
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NdTl--D SfATES GOVERN~jMENT

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COASTAL ZONE
INFORMATION CENTER
Propezrty of CSC Library

Sponsors:

s ~' Center for Marine Resources, Texas A&M University

C 14 National Marine Fisheries Service

"P e Texas Coastal and Marine Council

TAMU-SG-74-103 Edited by Laura Colunga and Richard Stone $4.00

Additional copies may be ordered from:

Center for Marine Resources
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas 77843

Make checks payable to Texas A&M University.

The artificial reef conference and this publication were partially supported by an institutional grant
04-3-158-18 made to Texas A&M University through the National Sea Grant Program, National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.

Table of Contents

KEYNOTE ADDRESS
Coastal Fish Management in Fluid Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 9

ARTIFICIAL REEFS AROUND THE WORLD
Artificial Reefs in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ... . . . . 17
Some Problems That May Be Faced in the Construction of an Artificial Reef . .. ... . 19
Historical Review of Artificial Reef Activities in Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
A Brief History of Artificial Reef Activities in the United States . ......... . . 24

THE SCIENTIFIC VIEW
Geological Considerations for Artificial Reef Site Locations .. . . . . . . . . . .. . 31
Comparative Study of the Sport Fishery Over Artificial and Natural Habitats off Murrells Inlet,
S.C....................................... 34
Florida's Fish Attractor Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
California's Artificial Reef Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 47
Comparative Observations on an Artificial Tire Reef and Natural Patch Reefs off Southwestern
Puerto Rico ................. . . .. . . . . .......49
New Artificial Reefs of Oahu ................. . . . . . . . . . . 51
Experiments Using Baled Urban Refuse as Artificial Reef Material . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Artificial Reefs as Experimental Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Midwater Structures for Enhancing Recreational Fishing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Progress of the Smith Mountain Reservoir Artificial Reef Project . . . . . . . . . . 68

BUILDING ARTIFICIAL REEFS
Building Artificial Reefs Through Inter-Governmental Effort With the Private Sector of the
Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Texas' Liberty Reef Program ........................... 78
Techniques for Fabrication and Utilization of Baled Automobile Tires in Artificial Reef
Construction ................ . . . . . .. . ....81
Artificial Reefs in Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Oil Structures as Artificial Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 91
Habitat Improvement on the Continental Shelf of Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Alabama's Artificial Reef Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
North Carolina's Artificial Reef Program . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 103
Secondary Utilization of Areefs for Large Scale Habitat Anchorage. . . . . . . . . . . 105

THE ECONOMIC AND LEGAL VIEWS
The Regulatory Policies of the United States Environmental Protection Agency Concerning the
Construction of Artificial Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
The V. A. Fogg-- An Unplanned Artificial Reef . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Legal Considerations Involved in the Placement of Artificial Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . 121
52

Role of the Coast Guard in Artificial Reefs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
The Role of the Corps of Engineers in Permitting Artificial Reef Construction . . . . . ... 128
Ships and Reefs -- Are they Compatible? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
The Commercial Fisherman's View of Artificial Reefs. . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 132
Discarded Tires as Artificial Reef Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Texas' Artificial Reef Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 137

Conference Participants .............................. 143

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151

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Keynote Address

Coastal Fish Management in Fluid Circumstances

RICHARD H. STROUD

Executive Vice President, Sport Fishing Institute, 719 13th Street N W, Suite 503, Washington, D. C. 20005

There is little room for argument that we the southern Alaska sea terminus. It turned out in
meet together at this symposium on artificial reefs tests at the University of Alaska, that Prudoe Bay
in the fluid circumstances of truly revolutionary crude oil is highly toxic (relatively low concentra-
times. The revolution of which I speak is not one tions) to fingerling salmonids. Perhaps of greater
of guns and bombs; rather, it is one of ideas and immediate concern vis-a-vis coastal fisheries
social and economic change. This is fully as true would be the very extensive development, certain
of coastal fish management as it is of our many to come soon, of the large deposits of petroleum
human institutions. Indeed, it is the many changes under the Continental Shelf. Add to this the es-
in our human institutions that affect the coastal calated shipment of crude oil expected soon from
fisheries so profoundly. I need only mention en- foreign lands, and the problem of potential oil
croaching development in the coastal zone or the spills in the Coastal Zone becomes serious indeed.
current near-panic over the energy squeeze or the
approaching law-of-the sea conference (LOSC) to An estimated 2.1 million metric tons of oil
bring this fact into fairly clear focus. (0.1% of world production) already are being in-
troduced into the oceans annually through man-
The welfare of coastal fish stocks is an in- caused spills of all kinds.1 This quantity does not
creasing function of the unfortunate fact that the include the fallout of air-borne hydrocarbons on
estuarine portions of the coastal zone have special the sea surface, estimated to be about five-fold the
attractions to great numbers of people. There are volume of the direct influx.2 Unfortunately, most
many well-known reasons for this phenomenon, of the direct oil spills are concentrated well within
but the net result of coastal zone development to the coastal zone. It is precisely here where the
accommodate them is to reduce the natural pro- more soluble and more toxic fractions can adverse-
ductivity through dredging, filling and pollution. ly affect the finfish eggs, larvae and juveniles that
Nearly two-thirds of the fish harvested on the Con- are found seasonally concentrated near the surface.
tinental Shelf of North America are said to find Shellfish are especially vulnerable, not to mention
their origin in, or are critically dependent at some the devastation of oceanic and shore birds caught
life stage upon, the peculiar conditions found only in oil slicks.
in estuaries. Fortunately, a growing number of
citizens in the coastal states are becoming aware of Thus, in the supertanker, it would appear
the biological significance of estuaries. As a result, that well-protected tanker docking facilities lo-
a number of states (Massachusetts, Connecticut, cated well offshore may well create fewer environ-
Delaware, New Jersey, Florida, California, Wash- mental hazards than would conventional shore
ington) have passed legislation that either slows facilities. This view is predicated on the adoption
estuarine development or stops it altogether pend- of a number of specific safety precautions to pre-
ing improved planning. dude ship groundings, collisions, leakage, etc., and
the development of adequate contingency plans to
Suddenly, the Alaska pipeline has received cope with accidents. At the same time, maximum
Congressional approval in circumstances reflective stress should be placed on taking full advantage of
of unreasoned haste -- at potential loss of import- possibilities for incorporation of features for en-
ant environmental gains of the immediate past. hancement of both oil drilling and production
This is unfortunate if major spills occur, as is platforms and rigs and offshore port facilities in
widely feared, at many river crossings as well as at order to favor fisheries development and recreation-
9

al use. In this respect, much that will be discussed states is not seriously questioned by the feder-
at this conference should have significant applica- al government. The latter, however, asserts control
tion. (while lacking adequate implementing authority)
Plans for location and construction of floating over fisheries from 3 to 12 miles offshore. Presi-
nuclear power plants anchored up to three miles dent Truman in 1945 proclaimed the right of any
offshore, enclosed within massively-engineered pro- coastal nation to exercise control over the fisheries
tective breakwaters or placed on specially-designed resources adjacent to its shores and to set up con-
artificial islands, are no longer speculative. At servation zones for fisheries protection in the con-
least one offshore ocean site already has been tiguous high seas. The General Assembly of the
selected a few miles northeast of Atlantic City, United Nations in late 1972 overwhelmingly rec-
New Jersey, with electrical generation expected to ognized the sovereignty of coastal nations over
begin sometime in 1980. Engineering design for the living resources of the oceans lying above their
this floating nuclear power plant is sufficient to adjacent Continental Shelf areas.
withstand tornado-force wind speeds, maximum
hurricane-induced wave action and collision by the The National Marine Fisheries Service has
largest ships able to navigate site depth.3 identified clearly by its research that uncontrolled
foreign fishing pressure on our Continental Shelf
The advantages of ocean siting are manifold. areas is the principal factor in the depletion of
The disadvantages appear relatively small, at least many species. It is, therefore, evident that success-
when compared to land-based locations. The ful management of the coastal marine fisheries, in-
major ecological problem for marine life involves cluding the important recreational fisheries, is de-
the heating and continuous discharge of vast pendent substantially upon adequate control over
quantities of water required to be passed around foreign fishing pressure.
the reactor for cooling purposes. Careful ocean
siting should effectively minimize possible adverse Fish management efforts must be expanded
effects on fish populations. Massive discharges of
greatly if acceptable catch standards are to prevail
heated cooling water (without costly artificial cool- as marine anglers inc rease. The needed manage-
ing before discharge) could be highly destructive mn ange rea heee ang
ment cannot be provided, however, without a solid
in the confinement of estuaries, rivers or lakes. foundation of factual knowledge derived from a
substantial program of research on the biology of
Marine recreational fishing has grown by
a'great many of the common coastal zone fishes
leaps and bounds in recent years, and the demand a great mncas oe e
that are of such great significance to the recreation-
it reflects may be expected to increase rapidly far al fisheries. Two items of urgent need in this con-
al fisheries. Two items of urgent need in this con-
into the future. Habitual saltwater anglers were
i n t o the future. Habitual saltwater anglers were nection, are (1) to differentiate functionally among
estimated to number about 4.5 million in 1955, research efforts in order to identify mission-
research efforts in order to identify mission-
about 6.3 million in 1960, about 8.3 million in oriented types of research and discipline-oriented
1965 and about 9.5 million in 1970. Thus, they o inetypes of research, and (2) to differentiate between
more than doubled their numbers over the 15-year the appropriate respective roles of the state and
perid of1 95 thrugh 970 6.1 annul inre-the appropriate respective roles of the state and
period of 1955 through 1970 (6.1% annual incre- federal governments in the research area so as to
mental rate versus 1.7% for general population). identify priorities.
identify priorities.

Ownership of the fisheries resources of inland
waters of the emergent American land mass has As I see it, the federal government principally
long been established as a public trust, with cus- should conduct the longer-term, more discipline-
tody and responsibility for their beneficial manage- oriented kinds of research that will furnish the
ment exercised by the state governments on behalf stockpile of biological and statistical data and
of their citizens. Evidently, there is little legal methodology needed by the states in formulating
question that similar state custody and responsi- their fisheries management programs. The federal
bility over living marine resources also extends into program should feature studies that are beyond
the waters above the submerged Continental Shelf, the scope of state capabilities and will be useful on
at least as far as the outer boundary of the terri- a nationwide or regional basis, and avoid under-
torial seas. Consequently, it should be recognized taking studies of a localized nature that lack broad
that the principal responsibility for management interstate implications.
rests with the state governments rather than with
the federal government. Short-term problem-solving studies (trouble-
shooting), and routine evaluations of the effects of
Coastal jurisdiction over fisheries resources management projects (management investigations)
within the territorial seas (out to three miles) by should be left to the states. Management of inter-
10

national and high-seas fisheries or of interstate they are sought or harvested, are some such con-
coastal fisheries (in cooperation with state govern- siderations. It seems evident that a conservation
merits) is a legitimate area of federal activity. Typ- concept that seeks merely to produce a maximum
ical studies for which there is a great need in the yield of protein for direct or indirect nourishment
coastal marine fisheries generally will fall within of the physical human body alone will not accom-
the broad areas of life history, ecology, behavior modate adequately the purposes of the important
and population dynamics. recreational fisheries.

The need for increased fisheries research ef-
OPTIMUM VERSUS MAXIMUM SUSTAINED forts has become urgent in the superjacent waters
YIELDS of the Continental Shelf. Only in the past 20
years has technology become so sophisticated as to
Research and management programs designed threaten clearly the myth of inexhaustibility of
to serve the recreational fisheries interests must the fisheries of the seas. Experience since the mid-
reflect a basic fish management philosophy that point of this century has shown that depletion of
differs materially from that which has traditionally fish stocks has become commonplace. Well-known
underlain the commercial fisheries programs. The examples along the northwest Atlantic coast in-
latter has long featured the concept of maximum- clude haddock, menhaden and river herring, to
sustained yield, which looks toward a maximum mention but a prominent few.
yield of protein. The former features the some-
what different concept of optimum-sustained yield World fisheries experts expect that only small
-- in effect, maximum economic yield. annual increments in world fish harvest are pos-
sible above the present level, approximating 70
The concept of maximum-sustained yield is million or so tons. Further increases will be de-
tied closely to the principle of full utilization. pendent largely on utilization of presently un-
Again, this is interpreted traditionally in a narrow appealing marine forms, discovery of limited new
context of protein production for human con- stocks of desired species, and expanded cultivation
sumption, on the assumption of waste otherwise, at the edge of the sea. Increased efforts to harvest
To be applicable for broader use in connection presently exploited fish stocks may be expected to
with the needs of the recreational fisheries it must result in greater depletion of the fisheries and dra-
become recognized that use in ways other than matic reductions in total harvest.
human food may represent full utilization of fisher-
ies resources. Since the recent mid-sixties, wide-spread con-
cern has been generated by a rapid escalation in
Such other uses include sustenance as prey the massive fishing effort being exerted on U.S.
for predator species that have great socio-economic coastal fisheries by thegreat distant-water fishing
value in the recreational fisheries and direct use as fleets of some 19 foreign nations including the
objects of recreational enjoyment. Generally over- U.S.S.R., Poland, Japan, Korea, East Germany,
looked by traditional MSY/full utilization-advo- Norway, Canada, Cuba, etc. The effect has been
cates, moreover, is the fact that virtually all of the noticeable dwindling in those waters of the sup-
substantial catch in the recreational fisheries enters plies of many common marine species that are im-
the national diet. Such fish are estimated to ac- portant to recreational fishing as well as to the
count for at least one-third of the annual per domestic commercial fisheries. Looking to the
capita national consumption of fish. forthcoming (June 20 - August 29, 1974) Law of
the Sea Conference (LOSC) at Caracas, Venezuela,
The concept of optimum yield (cited, inciden- the Ocean Affairs Staff of the U.S. State Depart-
tally, in the 1958 Geneva Oceans Convention) best ment has developed a complicated proposal for
accommodates the elusive but highly important national and international jurisdiction over the
element of "quality" in sport fishing. Though not various marine fisheries resources.
universally defined or quantified, the concept of
"quality" obviously includes considerations of The official U.S. Government fisheries propos-
variety in angling experiences. The species caught, al -- the so-called "species approach" -- advocates
the sizes of the fish involved, the situations in (1) that preferential rights be granted to coastal
which they are found, and the method by which nations to harvest as much as they can of fish
11

stocks found along and off their coastlines (with flag harvest permitted inside the zone would, how-
other nations free to take what is left), and (2) ever, be governed by the constraints of rational
that coastal nations should have regulatory control optimum-yield management plans imposed and en-
over coastal fish stocks for as far offshore as the forced unilaterally by the U.S. throughout the
latter may swim, to the limits of their oceanic zone.
range, however near or far from shore that may
prove to be in each instance. An obvious drawback As with the "species approach" package, the
is that enforcement would be difficult in the ex- highly migratory pelagic species would be subject
treme and perhaps impossible from a practical to regulation by an appropriate international body.
point of view. This follows from the widely vary- As with the "species approach" package, again, an-
ing and intermingling species ranges and general adromous fishes would belong to the nations-of-
inability to fish selectively in the commercial fish- origin in whose estuaries and rivers they spawned.
eries for individual species. No harvest of anadromous species by any nation
would be permitted normally in ocean waters out-
Contrary to the government's LOSC posture, side the zone of national fisheries jurisdiction.
many elements of the American domestic comrn- However, under an extended jurisdictional fisheries
mercial fishing industry strongly favor a 200-mile regime, compliance failures could be severely pe-
seaward extension of U.S. national marine fisher- nalized by withdrawal of access to historic or
ies jurisdiction. This concept is much favored in underutilized fisheries within the zone.
principle by the recreational fisheries interests
also. In fact, both these large interest groups are Although the federal administration is failing
urging interim unilateral enactment of national to heed clear public opinion in the matter, the U.S.
legislation to bring it about now. The principal t edcerpbi pno ntemteteUS
legislation to bring it about now. The principal Congress is by no means deaf to it. By early 1974,
American interests opposed are the wealthy tuna at least a dozen extended fisheries jurisdiction bills
fishing interests, the Department of Defense and had been introduced in the Congress. The most
~the Department of State. important of these is commonly referred to as the
Magnuson-Studds Bill (S. 1988 in the Senate,
It is clearly evident from the proceedings of sponsored by Senator Warren G. Magnuson of
several LOSC preparatory conferences that much Washington; H.R. 8665 in the House of Represent-
of the world fails to understand the U.S. fisheries atives, sponsored by Congressman Gerry E. Studds
proposal for regulation by individual species. Or, of Massachusetts). This particular measure has the
understanding it, the world either fails to support very important provision that such extension shall
it or is strongly opposed to it. Meanwhile, the evi- apply as an interim measure. If and when general
dence is that the U.S. is refusing to recognize the agreement on fisheries is reached in international
signs. Worse, it is failing to think out its "fallback" LOS negotiations, and upon entrance into force of
strategy in sufficient detail and depth to preclude an effective international fisheries regulatory re-
a reasonably predictable eleventh-hour crisis of gime, the interim Act would terminate.
decision-making when its own proposal fails. In
contrast, proposals for an alternative U.S. position, The Magnuson-Studds measure has the great
based on some form of greatly extended fisheries
virtue of seeking to accommodate some of the
jurisdiction outside the territorial sea, are rapidly special needs of the anadromous fisheries. It has
proliferating. They find growing support in sport been suggested that a 200-mile limit by itself--
fisheries circles, domestic commercial fisheries
fisheries circles, domestic commercial fisheries lacking special arrangements for salmon fishing ab-
circles, conservation circles, scientific circles and stention by other nations in international waters
stention by other nations in international waters
in the general public.
beyond 200 miles -- would fail to protect the im-
portant U.S. stocks of Pacific salmon and steelhead
Extending fisheries jurisdiction to the outer trout from Japanese fishing during their extensive
edge of the Continental Shelf (depth of 200 meters) oceanic migrations. This simplistic view overlooks
or to 200 miles offshore has much to recommend the very significant fact that the Japanese presently
it as a constructive alternative to the ill-fated harvest vast quantities of other fish in "American"
"species approach." This is especially so for pro- coastal waters that could easily be denied them if
tection of the immensely valuable domestic fisher- they refused to cooperate. An outstanding ex-
ies (both recreational and commercial). Leading ample is their catch last year of 1.2 million tons
zonal advocates envision that other nations would of pollock from areas in the Bering Sea that would
be permitted to harvest any true surpluses of de- fall well inside a 200-mile line drawn off Alaska.
sired species that might remain after the needs of Thus, a 200-mile limit would, in fact, provide sub-
the domestic fisheries are satisfied. Any foreign- stantial new leverage (now entirely lacking) to the
12

Artificial Reefs

Around the World

SESSION CHAIRMAN: WILLIS H. CLARK, Center for Marine Resources,
Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas

Artificial Reefs in France

MICHEL BEGUERY

Scientific Attache, French Scientific Mission, Washington, D. C. 20006

The French experience in the field of artifi- feet. The oil was drained from the cars, but they
cial reefs is young and limited. It has been known were neither burned nor specially treated before
for a long time that old ships, junk cars, scrap tires being immersed. The construction of this first
and other waste materials, properly deposited in reef took place under somewhat bad conditions,
the ocean, will soon provide food and shelter for as the ship that was used could not carry more
fish. However, it was only in the late 1960's and than two cars at a time. This resulted in some of
under the influence of Japanese and American ex- the cars being scattered on the sea floor. Further-
periments that France developed an interest in arti- more, for financial reasons, scientists were not able
ficial reefs. to follow up on the experiment to any great ex-
tent. I would add that there was no inventory of
The construction of artificial reefs seemed to the site before immersion and only a few dives
be a practical way of restoring fish populations in were made thereafter.
certain areas and, at the same time, getting rid of
derelict cars; consequently, a number of experi- However, the results of this first reef experi-
mental reefs were set up along the coast of France. ment were nonetheless encouraging.
The first reef was constructed in 1968 and by the
end of 1973 four or five experiments were under- * After the first year, 80 percent of the reef
way. was covered and a greater number of fish and crus-
taceans were observed.
In order to give you an idea of French efforts
in this field, I will describe briefly three experi-
ments concerning artificial reefs. * After the second year, the reef was entirely
covered and a greater number of fish and crust-
aceans was observed.
THE PALAVAS LES FLOTS EXPERIMENT
(MEDITERRANEAN COAST) Apparently the junk cars provided the best
results. Their productivity was estimated at 10 to
The construction of an artifical reef in Palavas 14 pounds of fish per car including 8 to 10 pounds
was decided on by a private firm, the Compagnie of conger eels, 2 to 4 pounds of other fish and 2
Generale Transatlantique (known in the United pounds of crustaceans. The Compagnie Generale
States as the French Line, the company which Transatlantique was at one time planning to in-
operates the liner "France") in cooperation with crease productivity of the reef by putting lobster
the local government and with the help of CNEXO postlarvae produced by its hatchery in Brittany in
(the French National Center for Ocean Exploita- the cars. Unfortunately, for technical reasons, this
tion, a government agency). experiment never took place.

The local fishermen agreed to the construc- The reef of Palavas is now abandoned, but
tion of a reef in an area of no interest to them. C.G.T. is planning to build a giant reef in approxi-
This reef was made of approximately 150 derelict mately the same area by immersing 4,500 cars a
cars as well as concrete blocks, pipes and old tires. year. The reef could be located so as to prevent
The first materials were sunk in 1968, two miles off trawling in spawning areas. This project is still in
the Mediterranean Coast at a depth of about 60 the planning stage.

THE CONCARNEAU EXPERIMENT (ATLANTIC cachon basin including physical and chemical
COAST - BRITTANY) surveys, as well as studies on flora, fauna and cur-
rents has been done.
The artificial reef of Concarneau was designed
by a biologist at the Concarneau fisheries lab and
constructed by the local fisheries committee, This experiment started in August1972 when
scientists and industry people in a cooperative ef- 25 cars were sunk at a depth of 45 feet. The cars
fort. The reef was originally to be built in 1969, had a lozenge shape. Its surface was approximately
but the construction actually took place in June 200 m2 and it was located less than 100 yards from
of 1970. The reef was made of 99 concrete blocks, the shore in order to be reached more easily. All
1 m3 each, distributed in three horizontal rows and materials used to build this reef were donated and
two vertical layers. The upper blocks were special- transported to the site by private firms without
ly designed for fish and the lower ones for crusta- charge
ceans. The reef was 120 feet long, 14 feet wide
and 6 feet high, and cost about $20,000 to The first results seem very encouraging. The
assemble. reef is covered with organisms and attracts fish
and crustaceans, but counting them is very diffi-
A year after immersion, the evolution of the cult because of very bad visibility. In 1973 addi-
reef was studied by scientists. The results were tional cars were sunk and if the results of this small
satisfactory and the reef did attract some fauna reef are promising, several larger reefs could be con-
and flora. However, this particular experiment has structed along the Aquitine shore.
been discontinued because of the high costs in-
volved. In order to reduce expenses, the promot- To conclude, I would like to make a few re-
ers turned to cheaper and easier-to-handle materials marks that could explain why the development of
such as old tires. artificial reefs has been limited in France even
though oceanography is one of our priorities.

In 1973, 35 units made up of old tires were Scientists agree that artificial reefs can
sunk 25 to 30 feet deep. The tires were placed in attract and concentrate marine fauna and flora in
stacks of six, fastened together with rods and certain areas. However, from the results already
weighted with concrete. If the results of this reef obtained, scientists believe that natural marine
obtained, scientists believe that natural marine
are satisfactory, 200 new units will be immersed production does not increase because of reefs and
this fall or next year. they think that aquaculture is a better way to sup-
plement marine production.

THE ARCACHON EXPERIMENT (ATLANTIC Fishermen have nothing against artificial
COAST) reefs as long as their construction does not inter-
fere with traditional fishing zones. On the other
hand, they think that artificial reefs do not really
This experiment was performed in order to help professional fishing because their productivity
study the possibility of restoring marine fauna and is too low.
flora to the bottom of the Arcachon basin, which
has been overfished for decades. It is a pilot pro- However, it is generally considered in France
ject aimed at studying encrustation of fauna and that construction of artificial reefs is probably the
flora, sedimentation and corrosion of the reef and best way of improving the marine sport fishery and
the best possible structure of a reef. In fact, the conserving game fish resources. These probably
Arcachon experiment is the best scientifically de- will be the reasons for further construction of arti-
signed so far. A preliminary inventory of the Ar- ficial reefs in the near future.

Some Problems That May Be Faced in the

Construction of an Artificial Reef

ARTHUR E. DAMMANN

Director, Bureau of Fish and Wildlife, Departmen t of Conservation and Cultural A ffairs,
Government of the Virgin Islands, St. Thomas, U.S. VI. L00801

POLITICAL FACTORS projects it may be very difficult to determine actual
figures in terms of new dollars required if the state
A proposal for construction of an artificial intends to do the work rather than contract.
reef is often the result of the "suggestion" of a
governmental administrator who views it as a way
to dispose of several kinds of solid waste. Usually, AMNSRTO
no research or analyses of costs or other factors AMNSRTO
has been attempted. However, considerable popu- The administrator or "builder" eventually is
lar support and momentum may be attached to
the ropoal b thetim it iltes don tothecharged with the resolution of budgets, conflicting
th"rpslbyuh iei iltesdowntoth interests, sources of labor, material and equipment,
"builder." ~~~~~~~~~and perhaps even the scientific and engineering
Organizations of commercial and/or sport dsg ftere tef
fishermen may likewise initiate a campaign for the If various state agencies are asked to build the
construction of a reef. Again, this is frequently, if reef without supplementary budgets, the task of
not usually, done without any real understanding codntn fot qimn n esne
of the various factors involved. Finally, academic codntn fot qimn n esne
can be formidable even when each agency has a
institutions or research organizations may initiate vested interest in completing the reef. If federal
a proposal purely for research reasons. Such pro- permits and funding are involved, these require
posals may be well planned insofar as techniques vast amounts of time to prepare, submit and
and financial arrangements are concerned but may rcietencsayfnso emtadti
ignore the role that could be played by one or the efrtmsbecoorivaedwt the neesayfunsorpemts andthi
other, or both, sorts of fishermen. It should beefotmsbecrdnedwhteefrta
realized that in most cases benefit to fisheries is the local level.
the ultimate objective of reef construction.

CASE HISTORY
FINANCES
Several years ago the government of the Vir-
The financial considerations of building a reef gin Islands decided that a good way to dispose of
are perhaps the most poorly understood and under- the rapidly increasing supply of junk automobiles
estimated factors involved. Virtually all methods on these small islands would be to build an artifi-
and materials commonly available require many cial reef with them. The Caribbean Research I nsti-
man-hours and/or the use of heavy equipment, in- tute of the College of the Virgin Islands decided
cluding both shore-based and marine machines that if such a project were undertaken, scientific
that range from front end loaders, cranes, forklifts studies of the placing of the reefs and their growth
and electromagnets, to tugs, barges and helicopters. and maturation should be undertaken. Conse-
When construction materials are of such a nature quently, the sites were chosen so as to afford con-
as to dispense with the use of heavy equipment venience to the scientists, and the necessary ap-
and large boats, the substitution of many human plications for submerged lands permits were pre-
hands and smaller boats is required. All these pared and submitted to the U.S. Department of
methods cost money and under state-sponsored the Interior and the Army Corps of Engineers.
19

The permits were issued on February 23, change the sites to locations that were not only
1973. In the interim,.some re-organization and re- geologically and biologically suitable, but also
assignments within the governmental structure protected from severe weather so small boats
had placed authority and responsibility for con- could utilize them on a less restricted basis. This
struction and administration of the reefs in the submission occurred on May 9, 1973.
Bureau of Fish and Wildlife of the Virgin Islands
Department of Conservation and Cultural Affairs. After much correspondence, many telephone
Because of the inherent interests of the new admini- calls and some personal negotiations, it was dis-
stration, as well as budgetary considerations and covered that the Department of the Interior had
the fact that the only source of additional funds lost the amendment applications. Additional
was the federal Bureau of Sport Fisheries and copies were provided but, as of this date, which is
Wildlife, it was decided that the chosen sites some two years after the decision was made to con-
were not the ones most advantageous to the fisher- struct two reefs, we are still unable to apply to the
men of all three islands. U.S. Coast Guard for permits for the marking
buoys. In addition, the federal contracts regard-
Amendment applications were then submit- ing funding have to be amended annually because '
ted to the Department of the Interior in order to of the delays.

20~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Historical Review of Artificial Reef Activities

in Japan

TAKASHI INO

Japan Sea Park Society, Tokyo, Japan

In Japan, artificial fish reefs are called is written on a stone monument in the village. --
"tsukiiso" (literally, construction of reef) and it During the Kansei era, a large junk called Awayo-
is almost common-sense knowledge among fisher- shidamaru with the capacity for 1,000 koku
men that fish are attracted to tsukiiso and that a (4,962 bushels) of rice struck the sunken rocks
good catch of fish can be had in the area. How- while the vessel was enroute to Osaka with
ever, the exact date when a tsukiiso came to be a full load of unpolished rice. In the spring of the
used in Japan is still unknown. There are several following year during the bream fishing season,
written records suggesting that they were already fishermen of the village caught an extraordinarily
in use during the Kansei era (1789-1801). A fur- large amount of breams. -- Several decades later in
ther study would reveal, in all probability, that the the ninth year of the Meiji era (1876), the village
first practical application of tsukiiso dates further chief Chojiro Arinaga took a hint from the story
back. written on the stone monument; he sank straw
bags filled with parched rice bran and clay among
In the sixth year of the Kansei era (1795), a the rocks of Yoshida-iso hoping that breams would
fisherman called Shinzo Nishida of the Manzai be attracted to the rocks. The attempt was rewarded
Village, Tsuna Cou nty, the Province of Awaji by a good fish catch before long when a net was cast.
Village, Tsuna County, the Province of Awaji
(Awaji Island, south of Kobe), while fishing with
the use of a gochi-ami (a semi-surrounding seine In Kagawa Prefecture, facing the Inland Sea of
net for catching breams), fished by chance by a Japan, where baits have long been used to attract
sunken ship and caught several thousand koshodai, fishes, there are some early examples of practical
(yellow spotted grunt, Plectorhynchus cinctus, utilization of artificial shelters together with bait
(T. & S.)). When the sunken ship deteriorated in attraction. In the waterfront of the Hakoura
seven or eight years and fish stopped thronging Fishermen's Association in Kagawa Prefecture,
around it, fishermen of the Manzai Village and the even before establishment of the Association, the
neighboring Toshi Village made large wooden fishermen had started using baits to attract gray
frames mounted with sandbags and bamboo and mullet. In the hottest season of every year, they
wooden sticks and sank them on the sea bed in placed ground-bait -- small balls of red clay and
waters approximately 20 fathoms deep. This was rice bran weighing about 750 to 1,000 grams
in the first year of the Bunka era, 1804. About apiece -- at proper sites. In the summer of 1906
100 days later during the summer in the neighbor- (37th year of Meiji era), they sank three or four of
hood of the new artificial fish shelters, the fisher- these balls per location at five different locations
men netted a far greater number of fish than they where sand bags were used as anchors for towing
used to catch around the sunken ship. In the 10- nets.
year period that followed, they sank several hun-
dred such shelters. In the autumn of the same year, they had an
extraordinary good catch of tanago, surf perch
There is a reef called Yoshida-iso on the south- (Ditrema temminckii Bleeker) in the neighborhood
east beach of a small island off the coast of Uo- of these sand bags. Realizing the effects of artifi-
shima Village, Ochi County, Ehime Prefecture. cial shelters, that winter the fishermen sank 200
Approximately 175 feet below sea level at full- koku (2,000 cubic feet) of cracked stones loaded
tide, the Yoshida-iso rocks offered an ideal natural on two ships with the capacity for 100 koku
dwelling shelter for breams. The following story (1,000 cubic feet) each, and in the summer of
21

the following year they sank another 200 koku of structing straw bags and baskets made in a special
pebbles the size of chesthuts at the same places. way to allow smooth landing of nets.
An enormous number of tanago, as well as mebaru,
rock fish (Sebastes inermis Cuvier) were said to Judging from their origin, as we have seen so
have thronged around the shelter for four or five far, we may say that tsukiiso are supplementary
years, starting in the autumn of the 40th year of fishing facilities primarily designed to attract fish.
Meiji era (1907). At present, fishing with pole and line is the most
typical way of catching fish thronging around
Also what is interesting is that at about this artificial fish shelters, through in some areas the
time, fishermen at different areas started exchang- use of gill nets, gochi-ami and other similar nets is
ing knowledge about methods for attracting fishes. permitted and in other areas the use of long line
And, of course, stories about successful application and gill nets is allowed in addition to fishing with
of artificial fish shelters in some areas had spread pole and line.
to other areas.
Reef construction using such materials has
For example, Kikujiro Mori, director of the become popular, influenced largely by tradition
Hakoura Fishermen's Association mentioned above, and the experience of fishermen in various prefec-
heard by chance, from Fukuyuki Nagao and tures. Since 1916, even scrapped naval ships (de-
other fishermen from a fishermen's association, on stroyers, target ships, etc.) have been used in some
a survey tour to study bream nets, that fishermen districts.
in Aichi Prefecture found old anchors and scrap
iron very effective in attracting bream into their Since 1930, as part of its policy to promote
drag-nets. It is reported that Mori was so inspired the recovery of the depressed coastal fisheries, the
by the story that he sank about 60 or 70 scrap Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry granted sub-
iron structures (mostly old buckets from dredging sidies for public activities such as installing fish
ships) off the coast of Misaki before the spring nests or artificial fish shelters to increase the catch
fishing season in 1911 (44th year of Meiji era). of fin fish, lobster, sea cucumber, etc.
When the fishing season opened, as the story goes,
each and every haul of gochi-ami (a net for bream)
brought in a tremendous catch. Endowed with a In 1952, under a five-year plan, the Ministry
progressive spirit, Mori also experimented with the adopted a new national policy to assist in the con-
use of various baits to attract fish, putting into struction of reefs made of concrete blocks. Until
practice what he learned from Arinaga, the village 1954 all artificial reefs were called tsukiiso, but
chief of Uoshima. after 1954 an official terminology was established
dividing them into two categories -- artificial reefs
mainly for attracting fin fish, and tsukiiso for at-
...n .' C oy of tracting other organisms such as abalone, spiny
hand, introduction of artificial fish shelters is said, s
to date back to 1904-1905 (37th or 38th year of lobster, algae, etc. From 1958, construction of a
new type of reef, the so-called "large scale reef",
the Meiji era). At first, fish shelters were not in- new type of reef, the so-called large scale reef",
each 25,000 m3 in size, has been promoted. The
stalled collectively, but by individual fishermen
'who~~ .trd .t~ iamount of national expenditure provided by the
who t ried to increase their catch. There is even government for the improvement of coastal fishing
today a collection of sunken rocks on the beach grounds during the period from 1952 to 1961 and
grounds during the period from 1952 to 1961 and
of the village called "Saemon no sono" (Garden of from 1962 to 1970 is shown in Table 1. The
Saemon) in memory of one such enterprising fish- amount of subsidy since 192 was initially one
erman who installed a tsukiiso there. It was from amount of subsidyth e total construct ion cost. This rate was
third of the total construction cost. This rate was
around 1907 (40th year of Meiji era) that the vil- later increased to 50 percent for ordinary artifi-
lage's fishermen started installing artifical fish
shelters on a collective rather than individual basis. cial reefs and to 60 percent for large-scale reefs.
Each year since then they have been sinking a
small ship loaded with stones. By 1966, the number of ordinary artificial
reefs totaled 721,065 (each reef being equal to
In Miyazaki Prefecture, on the other hand, in 1 m3 blocks) and of the larger reefs 328,217 (each
localities where beach seines are used, special fish reef being equal to 1.5 m3 blocks). Between 1962
shelters were constructed. When they were first and 1970 the equivalent of 920,000 m3 of ordi-
introduced, these shelters were made of concrete nary reef blocks were installed in 3,427 localities
and wood branches, but thanks to various improve- and 1,320,000 m3 of large scale blocks were placed
ments made in subsequent years they are now con- in 439 localities.
22

Table 1
Governmental Expenditure for Improvement of Coastal Fishing Grounds in Japan

Name of Project 1952-1961 1962-1970

Tsukiiso (Placing stones, construction of concrete 573,191 000 yen 1,766,248000 yen
surface etc.)

Improvement of culture grounds 52,382 - -

Artificial reef (after 1954) 441,984 2,176,742

Large scale reef (after 1958) 197,890 4,232,685

Expansion of Nori (laver) farms (after 1957) 54,497 348,138

Facility for collecting Nori (laver) spore 49,323 216,366
(after 1955)

Collection of scallop spat 85,752 - -

Investigation and supervision for these 33,680 212,170
projects (after 1959)

Total 1,488,699 8,952,349

At the prefectural or fishermen's cooperative garding such matters as reasons that induce fish to
association level, many other materials such as con- inhabit reefs, materials and structure of reefs and
crete pipes, concrete boxes, steel meshes, steel planning and arrangement of reefs on the sea
pipes, earthen pipes, moulded waste plastic, plastic bottom.
films, used drums, used car tires, old bus bodies,
old railway wagons, scrapped street cars, etc., are
utilized. REFERENCES

Installation of artificial fish reefs is recog-
nized in many districts as a very important pro- Fisheries Bureau. Nihon Suisan Hosaishi ("History
ject for the development of coastal fisheries. Areas of Japanese Fishery") Suisansha, 1921.
where artificial reefs have been installed are offer-
ing good grounds for hook and line fishing or purse Kyoshi Iwasaki. "Jinko-gyosho no Rekishi to
seining and, since they constitute barriers, they Mirai" ("History of Artificial Fish Reefs and
play an important role in preventing overfishing its Future") Ocean Age. V (3) (1973),
by modern effective methods like trawling. At the pp. 13-20.
same time, they are recognized as providing not
only a nursery area for various species of young Yasuo Ohshima. "Tsukiiso, the Artificial Fish
fish, but also a habitat for various benthonic or- Shelter." Aauaculture Science Series No. 4,
ganisms such as abalone, topshell, lobster, seaweed, Fisheries Agency, 1954.
etc.
Yoshinori Ogawa. "Problems of Artificial Reefs
The Fisheries Agency, under a special corn- for Propagation of Fish in Shallow Water,
mittee composed of scientists, experts and adminis- Propagation of Marine Resources of the
trators is now reviewing these activities to make Pacific Ocean." Collected papers of First
them more efficient. The committee is expected lanan-USSR loint Svmposium. (December
to publish a report shortly based on its study re- 1972, Tokyo and Shimizu), pp. 83-91.

A Brief History of Artificial Reef Activities

in the United States

RICHARD B. STONE
Chief, A rtificial Reef Task Group, National Marine Fisheries Service, Beau fort, North Carolina 28516

The first reference I could find to artificial Fire Island Inlet made of butter tubs half filled
reef construction in the United States occurs in with cement with a four-inch diameter stake from
Ichthyology of South Carolina by John Holbrook, two to three feet long sticking up from the center
published in Charleston, S. C. in 1 860. The author of the tub. These reefs provided productive fishing
quotes from a publication by the Hon. William for about 30 years and were rebuilt during 1946
Elliott of Beaufort, S. C., entitled "Carolina Sports, and 1947 by the Bay Shore Tuna Club.
by Land and Water." The quote, which follows,
is in a section discussing fishing for sheepsheadThCotntaSelofheUidSaes
(Archosargus probatocephalus):particularly off the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, has
extensivejareas of sand or mud with little hard,
"They were formerly taken in con- irregular substrate. As recreational fishing grew,
siderable numbers among our vari- fishermen quickly learned to avoid these relatively
ous inlets, into which large trees barren areas and concentrate their bottom fishing
had fallen to which the barnacles effort on rocks, ledges, coral reefs, wrecks and other4
soon became attached; but as the areas of irregular bottom. However, off many of
lands have been cleared for the the coastal states the rough bottom, fishing grounds
cultivation of sea-island cotton, nearshore were scarce and anglers had to go 20 to
the trees have disappeared, and with 40 miles offshore to find extensive areas of
them the fish; and it has been found outcroppings and the associated concentrations of
necessary to renew their feeding f ish es.
grounds by artificial means. Logs of
oak or pine are formed into a
sort of hut without a roof, five or Offshore artificial reef construction began in
six feet high; it is floored, and then earnest in 1 935 with the sinking of four vessels
floated to the place desired, and and tons of other material on the Cape May-Wild-
sunk in eight feet of water, by cast- wood, New Jersy Fishing Preserve by the Cape
ing stones or live oak timber within; May-Wildwood Party Boat Association. The reef was
as soon as the barnacles are formed, located about I10 miles southeast of Cape May
which will happen in a few weeks, Inlet in 65 feet of water. The Pennsylvania-
the fish will begin to resort to the Reading Railroad offered a "fisherman's special"
ground." a one-day round trip fare from Philadelphia to
Cape May of only $1.25. In their brochure "Good
The next recorded reef construction effort Fishing," they described the reef as follows:
occurred about 191 6 and was well organized by
the Boatmen's Association of Great South Bay,
New York. Many of these individuals made their "When completed the preserve will
living by taking out recreational fishermen. These resemble a vast underwater forestI
early boats lacked sophisticated sounding devices of trees and pilings standing on end
and the speed that a captain would need to take his as though growing and completely
clients to offshore fishing grounds, so they built covered with marine growth, worms,
fishing grounds within Great South Bay. The mussels and other forms of sea life.
Association constructed a series of reefs near Interspersed will be the ghostly hulls
24

of sunken ships and barges, proving Texas Parks and Wildlife Department soon followed
an ideal feeding and resting place for Alabama by developing both estuarine and ocean
millions of fish." artificial reefs to help develop and improve
sport fishing in Texas.
The initial success and publicity that the Cape
May Preserve received prompted the Atlantic City
Chamber of Commerce to build an artificial reef From the mid-1950's into the 1960's, as suc-
a0 miles southeast of Atl dantic City du ring the cessful reef building efforts were publicized, num-
10 miles southeast of Atlantic City during the
spring of 1936 and the Brielle, New Jersey Chamber erous fishing clubs tried building small reefs to
of Commerce to start a reef off Manasquan Inlet improve fishing conditions in their areas. Many
in 1937. of these efforts, attempted without technical
assistance from state or federal agencies, were poor-
ly organized and, because of their depencence on
There was little reef construction during the volunteer labor and donations, often ended
1940's, other than the rebuilding of the Great South abruptly.
Bay reefs by the Bay Shore Tuna Club. Not only did
the Bay Shore Tuna Club do an excellent job in Growing demands on sport fish resources,
rebuilding six reefs, they also kept records of the the interest in using artificial reefs to improve
numbers and species of fishes caught for one fish- sport fishing and a lack of knowledge of how these
ing season before construction and the fishing reefs should be constructed for maximum benefit
season following the completion of the work. The to both fishermen and the resource prompted
following is a segment of a letter from the con- state and federal agencies to begin research on
servation chairman of the Bay Shore Tuna Club to artificial reefs. The Division of Fish and Game of
the superintendent, New York Bureau of Marine the Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Re-
Fisheries: sources initiated scientific studies on artificial reefs
in 1957 to determine the effect of these man-made
"Within two months from the laying reefs on the standing crop of fishes. A 16-fold
of the habitats, fishing territories increase by weight of fishes occupying one site
previously known as good became after the addition of concrete shelters encouraged
excellent. Poor areas which had been Hawaiian biologists to begin constructing a
abandoned by bass, blackfish or series of artificial reefs using primarily car bodies
weakfish, showed signs of amazing and damaged concrete pipe (Kanayama and Onizuka,
improvements. After steady fishing 1973). They also continued their studies of fish
of these emplacements, statistics densities at these sites.
show that the number of fish
specimens caught during 1947 The California Department of Fish and Game
season, as compared with 1946 began their evaluation of artificial reefs in 1958
available results, increased as follows: (Carlisle, Turner and Ebert, 1964). Their research,
sea bass -- 25 times; blackfish --2%/2 which is continuing, has provided useful informa-
times; and weakfish --double." tion on the practicality of man-made reefs in Cali-
fornia waters, the effectiveness and cost of reef
Offshore reef building efforts, dormant for materials and the benefit to fishermen (Turner,
over 10 years, began again in 1950 with con- Ebert and Given, 1969).
struction of McAllister Grounds off Long Beach,
New York with debris from Manhattan building Randall (1963) built and began studying a
demolition. This was followed in 1953 by the concrete block reef at Lameshur Bay, Saint Johns,
Schaefer "Beer Case Reef," Fire Island Inlet, N.Y., Virgin Islands, in 1960. Twenty-eight months
built of 14,000 concrete-filled Schaefer beer cases. later he found the standing crop of fishes on the
artificial reef was 11 times greater than on an
An ambitious program, the first reef building adjacent natural reef. Based on these findings, he
effort recorded for the Gulf of Mexico, was initi- recommended artificial reefs for enhancement of
ated by the Alabama Department of Conservation sport and commercial fishing around the Virgin
and cooperating sportsmen's groups in 1954. Islands (Unger, 1966).
Their objective was development of a series of
artificial snapper banks along the 10 fathom contour.
Anglers began catching red snapper, grouper, shark, Although a number of other states and ter-
spadefish and sea bass within six months after ritories began reef evaluation studies soon after
their first drop of 250 automobile bodies. The these initial efforts, there was little scientific infor-
25

mation available for the Atlantic coast when we well as using the shelter reefs provide. Reefs also
began our research on artificial reefs in 1966. may be used as landmarks or visual reference
points for fishes. These landmarks provide a
Our objectives were to establish a series of spatial reference for fishes in a rather featureless
research reefs along the Atlantic Coast and to de- environment (Klima and Wickham, 1971).
termine how these reefs could best be used to help
develop and conserve recreational fishery resources. We evaluated a number of different non-toxic
Specifically we wanted to answer as many of the scrap materials on our research reefs including car
questions as possible that state agencies and other bodies, building rubble, concrete culverts, ships
reef building organizations would have when they and barges and tires. We used car bodies on our
started to build reefs, such as what types of ma- first research reef since they were an obvious solid
terial could be used, how much would it cost to waste that was not being used at that time.
build a reef, what type of reef would be most ef- Car bodies initially provide good habitat since they
fective and how could these reefs be used to man- rapidly become covered with encrusting organisms
age the resource? and provide numerous crevices for shelter. How-
ever, we do not recommend car bodies since they
We built ten reefs and provided technical are expensive to prepare and handle and last only
assistance to states and other groups on many more. three to six years on most open ocean reef sites.
However, we have concentrated most of our re- (Stone, 1972)
search efforts on two reefs. One is a cooperative
effort with the South Carolina Wildlife Resources Building rubble and concrete culvert reefs
Department on a reef off Murrells Inlet, S. C. will last indefinitely. However, this material also
and the other is a cooperative study with the is difficult to handle. The rubble tends to settle
National Park Service comparing a small tire reef and provide less effective substrate than the
in Biscayne National Monument with a similar culvert.
size, adjacent patch reef.
Ships and barges can be used as the high pro-
We conducted pre-construction surveys to de- file nucleus of a new reef or as effective additions
termine the species and numbers of fishes living on to existing reefs. Several states now are in the
the reef sites before building our research reefs. process of acquiring and installing surplus Liberty
Once the reefs were constructed, we continued Ships available to states through public law 92-402.
our surveys and also used trapping and tagging to Most of the Liberty Ships available through this
gather information on species composition, relative law now have been requested (Parker, et al. in press).
abundance and movement of fishes on and be-
tween reefs.
Based on our findings and those of other re-
Within days after our reefs were installed, searchers, we define artificial reefs as man-made
fishes began to appear. Adult fishes were first or natural objects intentionally placed in selected
to arrive on some reefs, while juveniles were first areas of the marine environment to duplicate those
at other sites, depending on the time of year and conditions that cause concentrations of fishes and
geographic location. Initially, these fishes are invertebrates on natural reefs and rough bottom
attracted to the shelter reef material provides. areas. By increasing the amount of reef habitat,
Some fishes, such as grunts, feed on grass beds and artificial reefs provide the potential for increasing
sand bottom at night but use reefs for shelter during the stock sizes of fishes. We believe artificial reefs
the day. Reef materials also provide sheltered areas can be an effective management tool that states or
of calm water or favorable currents by damping or other management agencies can use to develop
deflecting currents. Fishes use these areas to con- fisheries which benefit both anglers and the
serve energy. We have observed this repeatedly on economy of coastal communities (Buchanan, 1974)
the artificial reef off Singer Island, Florida where the and conserve the resource by increasing habitat.
strong current of the Gulf Stream is over the reef
much of the time. Many fishes are crowded
inside the shelter when the current is strong, but In the last 10 years, many state agencies have
scattered around or above the material when the developed effective reef construction programs.
current is weak (Stone, Buchanan and Steimle, 1974). North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia have
excellent state programs while Alabama, Texas,
California and Hawaii are continuing their effective
Many fishes feed on algae or encrusting and efforts. New York hopes to renew their reef build-
motile invertebrates associated with the reef as ing efforts this year. There are over 200 artificial
26

reefs off the coasts of the United States, many of Klima, E. F., and D. A. Wickham. "Attraction
which were built by private organizations, but of Coastal Pelagic Fishes with Artificial
most with state or federal guidance. Structures." Transactions of the American Fish-
ery Sociy, Vol. 100, No. I (1971), 86-99.
Although we have gained much knowledge
about artificial reefs in the last 15 years, there is Parker, R. O., Jr., R. B. Stone, C. C. Buchanan,
still more information that is needed to enable us and F. W. Steimle, Jr. "How to Build Marine
to realize the full potential of artificial reefs in Artificial Reefs." In Press. National Marine
the management of our fishery resources. We at Fisheries Service, Fishery Facts.
the federal level hope to work with the states to
answer questions such as: How large should an Randall, J. E. "An Analysis of the Fish Popula-
artificial reef be to sustain a certain amount of tions of Artificial and Natural Reefs in the
fishing pressure? We are prepared to provide Virgin Islands." Caribbean Iournal of Science,
whatever assistance we can to agencies interested Vol. 3 (1963), 31-47.
in reef construction or research.
Stone, R. B. "General Introduction to Artificial
REFERENCES
Reefs." Proceedings of Sport Fishing Seminar.
Buchanan, C. C. "Effects of an Artificial Habitat November 18-19, 1971. Jekyll Island, Georgia.
on the Marine Sport Fishery and Economy of Coastal Plains Center, Seminar Series 1, 1972.
Murrells Inlet, South Carolina." Marine Fish-
eries Review, Vol. 25, No. 9 (1973), 15-22. ,C. C, Buchanan, and F. W. Steimle,
Jr. "Scrap Tires as Artificial Reefs." Environ-
Carlisle, J. G., Jr., C. H. Turner, and E. E. Ebert. mental Protection Agency, Summary Report
"Artificial Habitat in the Marine Envirnoment." SW-119, 1974.
California Department of Fish and Game, Fish
B ullIeti n, Vol. 1 24 (I1964).
Turner, C. H., E. E. Ebert, and R. R. Given. "Man-
made Reef Ecology." California Department
Holbrook, J. E. Ichthvoloyv of South Carolina. of Fish and Gament
2d ed. Chaleston,-S.C], 1 860.of Fish and Game, Fish Bulletin 146, 1969.
2d ed. Charleston, S. C., 1860.

Kanayama, R. K. and E. W. Onizuka. "Artificial Unger, I. "Artificial Reefs - A Review." Adapted
Reefs in Hawaii." Hawaii Fish and Game, by E. C. Bolster. American Littoral Society,
Report 73-10 (1973). Special Publication 4, 1966.

I;
'4

I
p
28

The Scientific View

SESSION CHAIRMAN: JOHN E. RANDALL, Bernice P. Bishop Museum,
Honolulu, Hawaii

N 4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~3O IN.~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Geological Considerations for Artificial Reef

Site Locations

WAYNE M. AHR

Assistant Professor, Geology Department, Texas A &M University,
College Station, Texas 77843

Artificial reefs are man-made structures Substrate Character
which may be composed of a number of differ-
ent kinds of materials and placed on the seabed Substrate character may be the most impor-
to enhance the biological potential of the reef tant factor in site location because the substrate
site. Primary benefits from artificial reefs may (seabed) is the foundation upon which the artifi-
include increased sport fishing, recreational diving cial reef will be constructed. Moreover, the geo-
and research on reef ecology. logic character of the substrate is highly sensitive
to the oceanic environment in which the sedi-
In March 1973, a workshop was held in ments are deposited. A muddy substrate, for
Corpus Christi, Texas to outline the benefits and example, may reflect an environment in which
problems associated with an artificial reef pro- winnowing of the sediments by currents is negli-
gram for Texas. The workshop concerned it- gible or one in which ambient turbidity is very
self primarily with offshore artificial reefs which high. In either case, reef organisms would not
may be constructed from World War II surplus flourish.
Liberty Ships. Participants discussed the re- In general, a soft, muddy seabed is unac-
quirements for siting these reefs. Certain areas ceptable as a reef site because (1) the reef would
along the Texas coast were to be selected and, sink into the mud, (2) sedentary reef orga-
later, specific reef sites chosen within the areas. nisms and reef fish do not like muddy water and
Criteria for selecting areas are outlined in (3) the benefits of underwater study and scuba
publications by the Texas Coastal and Marine diving would be lost in a turbid environment.
Council. This paper focuses on the issue of site
selection and, specifically, the geological criteria The areas selected by the Marine Council
which must be considered. are, depending on the seabed map one uses, in
generally suitable geological regions. According
to Curray (1960), Areas S-1 and S-2 are in
GEOLOGIC FACTORS IN SITE SELECTION muddy sand or muddy shell zones; S-3 is on the
fringe of a muddy area but still has sandy and
The Texas Coastal and Marine Council has shelly parts; area S-4 is in a muddy zone. This
muddy zone may or may not be soft and in-
chosen four primary areas as potential locations
for artificial reefs. Specific reef sites still await competent. Muds become hard and compact with
selection. time. The Pleistocene Beaumont Clay, for
example, is quite stiff and would make a suitable
Each reef site within an area should be con- foundation for a Liberty Ship reef. In contrast,
sidered for the following important geological the modern muds of the major river deltas in
attributes: the Gulf of Mexico are soft and unsuitable for
reef sites because they have not had time to
become compacted and de-watered.

� Substrate character The map by John Grady (1970) shows that
* Pre-existing bottom obstructions areas S-3 and S-4 are in muddy zones, area S-1
* Sub-bottom characteristics is in a sandy zone and S-2 is in a mixed sand-
* Average water turbidity silt-clay zone. The 1969-70 Whico Oil/Gas
� Oil and gas seeps Marine Gulf Coast Atlas also shows that areas S-1
31

through S-4 are in muddy-bottom areas. It is place very slowly and presents little hazard to
important that the consistency--the "stiffness"-- an artificial reef. The time required for sub-
of the sediment at each site within an area be stantial seafloor deformation is usually many
determined before a Liberty Ship is placed there. years. For example, salt diapir movement or
growth-fault movement may be only a
William Bryant, oceanographer and specialist fraction of an inch per year and the motion is
on geotechnical properties of marine sediments, generally not rapid or jerky.
notes that an average non-sandy gulf sediment
may have a shear strength of 50 pounds per
square foot, whereas the highly compact and Average Water Turbidity
stiff Beaumont Clay may have a shear strength
if 2,000 pounds per foot (personal communica- Water clarity is a prime requisite for reef de-
of 2,000 pounds per foot (personal communica- vlpetbcuemn efdelr edt
tion). The Beaumont Clay could easily support velopment because many reef dwellers need to
an artificial reef butot Cymuds would allow a yphotosynthesize in sunlit water and the sedentary
heavy structure to sink to a depth where the mud reef organisms are filter-feeders that do not thrive
heavy structure to sink to a depth where the mud inmdywtr Atfcalefsutehne
in muddy water. Artificial reefs must enhance
has adequate "strength" to support it (mud
becomes stiffer with increasing depth of burial). the biological potential of a site and they must
Sandy bottoms have a great load-bearing capacity, then be visible in order to fulfill their partial pur-
but because they are not cohesive, they tend to pose as a place for underwater study and recrea-
be mobile and may drift. A large ship may be-
come buried or may shift locations on a pure Sites should be selected in areas where Gulf
Sites should be selected in areas where Gulf
sand bottom, especially during storms. currents are not abnormally swift to mini-
mize the chance of encountering resuspended
Pre-existing Bottom Obstructions marine muds. The sites should be away from
Pre-existing Bottom Obstructions
river-sediment plumes and semipermanent Gulf
Pre-existing bottom obstructions are impor- currents which carry consistently large quantities
tant in the selection of an-artificial reef site be- of terrigenous detritus.
cause of the following facts:
Oil and Gas Seeps
They are avoided by trawlers (shrimpers Oil and Gas Seeps
and bottom fishermen).
They provide some cover for reef and Natural oil and gas seeps have been detected
bank organisms and therefore are in the Gulf of Mexico (Geyer and Sweet, 1974).
natural "nuclei" on which to develop These seeps may not be detrimental to the ma-
larger artificial reefs. rine communities at-large, but it is doubtful that
They may provide support for the reef sedentary filter feeders and delicate epiphytes
structure and prevent its becoming would thrive on a structure placed on or in the
dislodged during storm surges. path of an oil or gas seep.

Many existing bottom snags have been Detection of the seeps is not difficult and
mapped by Gary Graham of the Texas Agricul- can best be accomplished in conjunction with a
tural Extension Service and his maps are available local geophysical survey.
through the Texas A&M University Sea Grant
Program. Graham's snags are not sufficiently
identified as to the kind of obstruction--wreck,
reef, hole, etc.--and these identifications should be PRIORITIES FOR SITE SELECTION
made prior to final site selections.
A well-planned program for site selection
will involve a synthesis of existing geological
Sub-bottom Characteristics data in the five areas mentioned above and on-
site studies to obtain answers to specific scientif-
The geological characteristics of site loca- ic questions.
tions may include shallow subsurface structures
such as faults or diapirs. These structures can be Sources of information for the initial syn-
detected by geophysical (seismic) investigations thesis may include the offshore petroleum
prior to final site selection. Most structural operators, the major universities'in Texas and
deformation along the Texas Gulf Coast takes various research agencies in the state. The infor-
32

mation available should include the following terest in either the scientific data from the sites
items: or helping to establish a reef which may aid their
business are logical candidates for tradeoffs.
� Wave forecasts
� Storm-surge forecasts Potential participants include (1) the charter
� General water circulation patterns boat industry (detailed bathymetry), (2) the oil
� General bathymetry industry (detailed sub-bottom profiling, among
� General geology others), (3) consulting engineering firms (geo-
technical properties of sediments) and (4) geo-
On-site studies should be planned as part of scientists from Texas' universities (photography,
ongoing research efforts, if possible, to minimize observations by divers, currents, turbidity, etc.).
cost and startup time. Then, the studies and services
could include the following items:
REFERENCES
� Direct observation of the terrain by divers
� Sediment coring for engineering analysis Curray, Joseph R. "Sediments and History of
� Detailed bathymetric mapping of the pro- Holocene Transgression, Continental Shelf,
posed site and its surroundings Northwest Gulf of Mexico." Recent
� High-resolution, sub-bottom profiling with Sediments, Northwest Gulf of Mexico.
digital recording capability Edited by F. P. Shepard et al. American
� Measurement of water turbidity by Association Petroleum Geologists, 1960.
divers
� Emplacement of a temporary buoy Geyer, Richard, and William Sweet. "Natural
Hydrocarbon Seepage in the Gulf of
Mexico." Transactions of the Gulf Coast
POTENTIAL TRADEOFFS ON SITE STUDIES Geology Society, XXIII (1974), pp. 158-169.

It would be advantageous to have the coop- Grady, John. "Distribution of Sediment Types
eration of industry and universities in the site in- Northern Gulf of Mexico." (map), National
vestigation process. Those who have a direct in- Marine Fisheries Service, 1970.

Comparative Study of the Sport Fishery Over

Artificial and Natural Habitats off Murrells

Inlet, S. C.

CHESTER C. BUCHANAN
Fishery Biologist, National Marine Fisheries Service, Atlantic Estuarine Fisheries Center,
Beaufort, North Carolina 28516

Paradise Artificial Reef off Murrells Inlet, shore of the Inlet, was begun in 1963 and covers
South Carolina is one of many artificial reefs built .01 square miles or about seven acres (Figure 1). It
or being expanded off the southeast coast of the is composed of several thousand car tires and four
United States. The impact of these reefs on local vessels and is marked by four buoys. The majority
sport fisheries is relatively unknown. The purpose of the private boat anglers concentrated their fish-
of this study was to determine if Paradise Artificial ing effort within a 13.5 mile radius of Murrells In-
Reef had any effect on the species composition let and were the only users of the reef. Natural
of private boat catches, the number and success of habitat within the survey area (13.5 miles radius
anglers and the amount of business in nearby com- of the Inlet) consists of about 264 square miles of
munities from June through September, 1972-1973. sandy bottom and 22 square miles of rocky bottom.

Paradise Artificial Reef, located three miles off-
FISHING EFFORT

NAUTICAL MILE- In order to estimate fishing effort, we counted
fT T 1 2 SWASM ,,.the number of private boats leaving the Inlet during
1I. stratified random sampling periods and expanded
YRTLE EACH" , the sample counts to obtain estimates of the num-
..' A ber of angler-hours. From these counts, we estimat-
ed that private boat anglers spent over 21,000
angler-hours in the survey area during the summer
..L'OR?':'Et ,": ,of 1972 and nearly 38,000 during the summer of
'o...,,,.@ -1973 (Table 1). About 47 percent of the bottom

i 'PARADISE ARTIFICIAL REEF
SURFACE BOTTOM
TOTAL
. . FISHING FISHING
PA g": o j2,632 (23%) 4,5| ,6 3 (47%)
ROCK
972 AND 8,810 (77%) 5,134 (53%) 13,944
SAND I

'I
/e NORTH, , ,, . .':._TOTAL 11,442 9,687 21,12 9

REEF 2,779 (11%) 8,909 (70%) 11,688
-t's. .o . ROCK 505 (2%) 2,927 (23%) 3,432 I
(' ; ::*. SAND 21,983 (87%) 891 (7%) 22,874
TOTAL 25,267 12,727 37,994
Figure 1.
ANGLER - HOURS
Paradise Artificial Reef and rocky bottom (shaded
area) within the survey area (dotted line). Table 1.
34

fishing and 23 percent of the surface fishing in sandy and rocky areas was pooled in 1972. Bot-
1972 was over the reef while, in 1973, 70 percent tom fishing intensity in 1972 over the reef was
of the bottom fishing and 11 percent of the surface nearly 26,000 times that over natural habitat, and
fishing was over the reef. Private boat anglers ex- surface fishing intensity over the reef was nearly
pended nearly 14,000 more angler-hours seeking 8,000 times that over natural habitat.
pelagic fishes in 1973 than they did in 1972.
Sandy bottom received nearly all of this increase
while the reef received about the same number of FISHING SUCCESS AND CATCH COMPOSITION
angler-hours as in 1972. Private boat anglers also
expended over 3,000 more angler-hours for demer- We collected information to estimate fishing
sal species in 1 973 than in 1972. The reef received success (catch per angler-hour) and catch composi-
nearly twice as many angler-hours in 1973 as in tion from private boat anglers by mailed question-
1972, while natural habitat received less effort. naires in 1972 and interviews at docksides in 1973.
We estimated that in 1972, private boat anglers
Private boat anglers fished more intensively caught nearly 13,000 fishes while surface fishing
over the reef than over sand or rock habitats, even and 34,000 while bottom fishing, representing 28
though the reef made up less than .01 percent of species (Table 3). In 1973 they caught nearly
the survey area (Table 2). The number of angler- 46,000 fishes while seeking pelagic species and
hours spent surface fishing per square mile of habi- 38,000 while seeking demersal species, represent-
tat (fishing intensity) over the reef in 1973 was al- ing 30 species. Ninety-nine percent of the bottom
most 13,000 times that spent over sand. Bottom catch came from the reef and rocky habitat.
fishing intensity over the reef in 1973 was almost
7,000 times the intensity over rock and 222,000 Spanish mackerel (Scomberomorus maculatus)
times that over sand. dominated the surface catch from each habitat
type in both summers. Sea basses (Centropristis
We cannot compare estimates of fishing in- spp.), grunts (Pomadasyidae) and porgies (Sparidae)
tensity between years because information from dominated the bottom catch in both summers.
Since the data from 1972 were pooled, species
S F FH composition of the catch from natural habitat is
I SQUARE FISHING INTENSITY1 not comparable between summers. Sea basses,
MILES 1972 1973 I grunts, porgies and flounders (Paralichthys spp.) in
1973 composed over 83 percent of the catch from
SAND 264 84 the reef and rocky bottom and zero percent from
31 sandy bottom (Figure 2). Sea basses dominated
ROCK 22 21 (40 percent) the catch from rocky bottom while
grunts and porgies dominated (47 percent) the

REEF .01 258,400 272,800
SURFACE BOTTOMTOA
FISHING FISHING

REEF 4,802 (38%) 14,165(42%)
BOTTOM FISHING ROCK
, 1972 AND 7,972 (62%) 19,927 (58%) 27,899
SAND I
SAND 264 4 TOTAL 12,774 34,092 46,866
18---
ROCK 22 132 REEF 360 (1%) 21,226 (56%) 21,586
ROCK 270 (1%) 16,533 (43%) 16,803
REEF .01460,000 887,500 17
SAND 44,766 (98%) 294 (1%) 45,060
TOTAL 45,396 38,053

CATCH
Table 2.
Table 3.
Fishing intensity, number of angler-hours per
square mile, for private boat anglers over the artifi- Number of fish caught off Murrells Inlet by type
cial reef, rocky bottom and sandy bottom off of bottom and method of fishing, June - September,
Murrells Inlet, S.C. June - September, 1972 - 1973. 1972 - 1973.

catch from the reef. Flounders represented nearly in 1972.
29 percent of the catch from the reef and less than
1 percent from rocky bottom. No game fishes Success while surface fishing over each habi-
were caught over sandy habitat while bottom tat type varied between summers (Table 4). Pri-
fishing. vate boat anglers in 1973 had their highest catch
rates (catch per unit of effort) over sandy bottom,
Sea basses, flounders, grunts and porgies were whereas in 1972 their catch rates did not differ be-
caught over the reef during both summers, al- tween habitats. Success over the Reef in 1972 was
though not in the same proportions (Figure 3). higher than that over the Reef in 1973. (Mann-
The percentage of grunts and porgies differed by Whitney U test; U = 247; P <.007).
only 2 percent. Sea basses decreased nearly 10 per-
cent and flounders increased by 20 percent in Certain pelagic gamefishes such as king mack-
1973. Increases in 1973 of both effort with live erel (Scomberomorus cavalla) and little tunny
bait and abundance of flounders probably contri- (Euthvnnus alletteratus) are attracted to an artifi-
buted to the increased catch of flounders. Al- cial reef by the presence of baitfish (i.e., scads, her-
though we did not separate fishing effort by bait rings), while other pelagic gamefishes, such as dol-
categories in 1972, we suspect that less than 25 phin (Corvnhaena hinnurus), cobia (Rachvcentron
percent of the fishing effort was with live bait. canadum), and great barracuda (SDhvraena barra-
During underwater surveys of the reef, we observed cuda) are attracted by the structure. Although no
that flounders were more abundant in 1973 than studies have been conducted to determine why
Spanish mackerel frequent artificial reefs, we be-
lieve they are attracted to the baitfishes. During
~o100o- GRUNTS AND PORGIES our underwater surveys of Paradise Artificial Reef
1 * FLOUNDERS in 1972, we often observed schools of scads (De-
< 80- k\ OTHERS capterus spp.) and Spanish mackerel. Only occa-
sionally in 1973 did we observe similar schools of
60- these fishes. The possible reduced abundance of
0
o\' T baitfishes on the reef in 1973 may indirectly have
V 40 - caused the fishing success for pelagic gamefishes
over the reef to be low compared to sandy bottom.

_0 k\A _ We found no difference between fishing suc-
ROEEF l ROCK | SAND cess for demersal species over the reef in 1972 and
that over natural habitat (Table 4). In 1973, how-
Figure 2. ever, success over the reef was greater than that
Catch, in percent, of major species groups by over sand and less than that over rock. The failure
private boat anglers while bottom fishing off to detect a similar difference in 1972 may have
Murrells Inlet by type of bottom, J une - Septem- been due to a masking effect caused by combining
ber, 1973. data from highly successful fishing over rocky bot-
tom with data from relatively unsuccessful fishing
SEA BASSES
03 GRUNTS AND PORGIES 1972 SURFACE FISHING 1973
CATCH PER MANN-WHITNEY CATCH PER MANN-WHITNEY
HABITAT ANGLER- U TEST ATl 5% LEVEL HABITAT ANGLER- U TEST AT 5% LEVEL
* FLOUNDERS H OUR OF CONFIDENCE HOUR OF CONFIDENCE
SAND
80- OTHERS vs. INSUFFICIENT DATA
IJ 80~~~~-U~~ ~~ j OTHERROCK ROCK
AND 0.9 SAND 1.9
U SAND VS. DIFFERENCE
, 60 - vs. NO DIFFERENCE REEF 0.1
O REEF l.8 ROCK
z 40 ffi REVS. INSUFFICIENT DATA
40 - REEF
BOTTOM FISHING
0 X2 | SAND 0.3
_ 20* o vs. DIFFERENCE
ROCK ROCK 5.7
AND 3.9 SAND 0.3
-SAND VS. DIFFERENCE
~~~o i~~~~~~~~vs. NO DIFFERENCE REEF 2.4
REEF ,O II RE 24
1972 | 1973 REEF 3.0 ROCK | 5.7 | DIFFERENCE
Figure 3. REEF 2.4
Catch, in percent, of major species groups by pri- Table 4.
vate boat anglers while bottom fishing on Paradise Catch per angler-hour by habitat and method of
Artificial Reef, June - September, 1972 - 1973. fishing, June - September, 1972 - 1973.

over sandy bottom. of this concept will permit refined management
The low catch rates while bottom fishing on procedures.
the reef probably resulted from the fact that fish-
ing intensity on the reef was several thousand
times greater than that on rocky bottom. High
fishing intensity increases the rate of stock reduc-
At the end of summer in 1972, we requested
tion and angler competition. This will result in information from non-resident anglers who partici-
information from non-resident anglers who partici-
reduced catch rates. Replenishment of the reef's
pated in the fishing survey concerning their expen-
stock by immigration from surrounding areas will
ditures and non-fishing activities in the Murrells
cushion the effect of fishing intensity, but immigra- Group a : a nglers who wo uld not returr to
Group I: anglers who would not return to
tion is limited by the size and behavior of peripher- the Murrells Inlet-Myrtle Beach
al stocks. Catch rates on Paradise Artificial Reef area if Paradise Artificial Reef
area if Paradise Artificial Reef
probably will remain lower than those over rocky did not exist.
habitat unless fishing intensity on the reef is re-
duced or the size of the reef is increased relative to Group II: anglers who fished over the reef
fishing effort, but would return even if it did
not exist.
In order to manage an artificial reef for maxi-
mum or optimum sustained yield we must know
the relation to one another of fishing success and
effort, reef size and profile, and the amount of
each kind of natural habitat in the surrounding
area. Insufficient information is available to de- cent (Group III) had fished over the reef
fine this relation. A theoretical relation of fishing (Table 5). Of those who had fished over the reef,
success, reef size and fishing effort is presented in 82 percent said they would return if it were absent
Figure 4. In general, success should not increase (Group ), and 18 percent said they would not re
turn (Group I). Anglers in Group I represented
as the reef size increases if effort increases propor- the n et increase in the number of anglers due to
tionally with reef size, because fishing intensity
will remain constant. Accordingly, if effort varies
disproportionally with reef size, success should We estimated that non-resident private boat
vary indirectly with fishing intensity. This is the anglers spent $36,000 in the area during the 1972
portion of Figure 4 within which Paradise Artifi- summer; Group I spent $3,132 (8.7 percent),
cial Reef fits. Success should increase with in- Group II, $28,800 (80.0 percent) and Group lIl,
creased reef size once effort becomes constant be- $4,068 (11.3 percent). This money was spent
cause fishing intensity is decreasing (Point A). The mostly for gasoline, oil, bait, tackle, food, launch-
reef size at point A is the minimum necessary to ing fees and lodging. We did not include in our
support the maximum effort at a given level of suc- estimate money spent for taxes, maintenance cost
cess. Beyond point A, success should continue to and related expenses for seasonal homes.
increase with reef size until the gear efficiency
limitations are reached (Point B). Any increase in GROUPS
reef size beyond point B should not improve the I TT mI
catch per unit of effort. The size of the reef at -
AVERAGE NUMBER IN PARTY 5.7 5.4 5.6
point B is the ideal for a fishing reef. Verification AVERAGE DISTANCE TRAVELED 121 105 93
AVERAGE TRIPS/YEAR 5.6 13.8 11.8
Idea Reef Size AVERAGE DAYS/TRIP 2.5 5.2 2.5
Ideal Reef Size O
B v LODGING
Minimum /
Reef Size PRIVATE 47% 67% 89%
z Reef S-iz A -_
A z RENTAL 53% 33% 11%
-, J -- - --f- -1t AVERAGE COST/TRIP $54 $44 $37
Z / :- AVERAGE COST/DAY $21 $9 $15
/ ESTIMATE OF EXPENDITURES
/ u DURING SUMMER $3,132 $28,800 $4,068
(--) ( -) PERCENT 8.7% 80.0% 11.3%
SURFACE AREA OF REEF
Table 5.
Figure 4. Characteristics of non-resident anglers fishing out
Theoretical relation of fishing success, reef size of Murrells, S.C. in privately owned and operated
and fishing effort. boats, June - September, 1972.

CONCLUSIONS portion of the total surface fishing effort. In 1972,
we found no difference in success among habitats,
Paradise Artificial Reef and rocky bottom whereas private boat anglers in 1973 had their
were essential to the private boat anglers seeking greatest success over sandy bottom. The fluctua-
demersal fishes off Murrells Inlet. During both tion in success over tile reef between summers may
summers, anglers expended most of their effort have resulted from the presence or absence of bait-
and caught most of their fish over the reef and fishes.
rocky bottom. Each summer, the reef received
nearly 50 percent or more of the effort. Although Paradise Artificial Reef attracted anglers and
effort in the survey area increased by 32 percent had a positive effect upon the economy of the Mur-
between 1972 and 1973, the effort on the reef in- rells Inlet-Myrtle Beach area. Nearly 16 percent of
creased by nearly 100 percent. Even with this tre- the private boat anglers active during the summer
mendous increase in effort, anglers experienced were attracted to this area because of the reef.
similar success on the reef during both summers. The money spent by the additional anglers amount-
Private boat anglers caught the same species from ed to nearly 10 percent of the money spent by all
the reef as from rocky bottom, but in different private boat anglers.
proportions and at different catch rates. Success
over rocky bottom in 1973 was nearly twice as This study reveals only the number of each
great as that over the reef. The reef covered con- species that private boat anglers caught, the num-
siderably less surface area than rocky bottom and ber and success of these anglers and distribution of
received fishing intensity several thousand times fishing effort among the habitats. It is not an evalu-
that over rocky bottom. Sandy bottom received ation of the effectiveness of the reef in providing a
only a small portion of the effort and yielded fishery similar in quality to that over rocky bottom
catches of nongame fishes. because of the tremendous differences in habitat
size and fishing intensity between habitats. Con-
Neither Paradise Artificial Reef nor rocky trolled fishing over habitats of equal size is neces-
bottom were important to the angler seeking pel- sary to determine the maximum angler benefit
agic species. Both habitats received only a small that can be obtained with artificial reefs.

Florida's Fish Attractor Program

JOSEPH E. CRUMPTON*
ROBERT L. WILBUR

Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission, P. O. Box 1903, Eustis, Florida 32726

The origin of fish attractor usage in fresh- Many of these attractors have been designed
water is uncertain, but the Michigan Conservation for small, sterile or non-productive lakes. More re-
Department was probably the first conservation cently fish attractors have been found to enhance
agency to experiment with attractors. In the early catches in highly eutrophic lakes with typical low
1930's they placed brush shelters in several lakes, game fish production. Attractors, however, have
and, although their primary goal was enhancement probably had their greatest success in moderately
of lake habitat, they noted with interest the attrac- productive waters with limited cover.
tion of many varieties of fish to these shelters
(Hazzard, 1937). Following this initial finding,
Rodeheffer (1939, 1940 and 1945) worked ex-
tensively with various kinds of brush shelters in TYPES OF ATTRACTORS
Douglas Lake, Michigan.

Fish attractors were used for the first time in Historically, brush is probably the oldest ma-
Florida in the mid-1 950's when several hundred terial used for fish attractors. In Florida, old citrus
Christmas tree s were sunk in Lake Tsala Apopka.hunde
trees and scrub oak have been found to outlast the
Christmas trees were sunk in Lake Tsala Apopka. softerpines by far. Scrub oak used in Lake Toho-
It was not until the mid-1960's however, that re- softerpines by far. Scrub oak used in Lake Toho-
newed interest stimulated the building of a 1,000 pekaliga was virtually as resilient after five years in
automobile tire attractor in Lake Minneola, an the water as it was the day it was cut, according to
orange brush attractor in Lake Palatlakaha, and ex- Wilbur (1973). Design variations for brush are end-
periments with cement blocks, soybean cake and less. Tall brush structures should prove to be
pelletized cattle feed in Lake Juliana. Methods for more effective in deep water by enabling fish -to
evaluating the effectiveness of these attractors con- seek out the water strata they prefer.
sisted primarily of interviews with fish camp opera-
tors and fishermen and observations by scuba
divers. The results of these evaluations, although Old automobile tires have become popular
promising, were inconclusive. recently due to their low cost, availability and ease
of handling. They can be bundled easily with
Recognizing the need for management tools either nylon rope or plastic banding, or they can
and the potential value of fish attractors, a study be placed individually at attractor sites. Weighting
to determine the effectiveness of fish attractors with cement blocks or with cement poured into
was proposed by the Florida Game and Fresh the tire cavity is done generally to facilitate rapid
Water Fish Commission and initiated in 1969. sinking and maintain bottom position. Holes can
Vitrified clay pipes and a combination of brush be drilled to allow escapement of trapped air.
and cement blocks were the two attractor types Like brush shelters, imagination is the key ingre-
selected for this 5-year evaluation in Lake Toho- dient for successful design.
pekaliga (Wilbur and May, 1970). Positive pre-
liminary findings from this study launched a state-
wide program of fish attractor construction using Rubble and cement block rejects have been
a wide range of materials and evaluation methods. used in Florida. Their weight to surface area ratio
however, does not make these rocky materials an
ideal material for attractors. However, where
*presentor weight poses no particular problem, such ma-
39

TABLE 1

Data pertaining to fish attractor installation in Florida lakes from 1965 to 1973

Meters Water
Attractor Types No. Sites Date Water Body Acres County Offshore Depth(M) Trophic Level

Old Car Tires 1 12-72 L. Wire 21 Polk 15 2.5 Mesotrophic
1 8-73 L. Agnes 386 Polk 35 3 Mesotrophic
1 7-72 Crooked L. 5,536 Polk 45 3 Oligotrophic
1 7-73 L. Tarpon 2,534 Pinellas 100 4 Mesotrophic
1 2-73 Compass L. 600 Jackson 10-25 2-3 Oligotrophic
5 8-73 L. Osborne 360 Palm Bch. 5 3
1 7-72 Wildcat L. 232 Lake 25 4 Oligotrophic
2 11-72 L. Dias 711 Volusia 50 4 Mesotrophic
2 11-73 L. Minneola 1,888 Lake 100 5 Mesotrophic
1 7-73 L. Lotta 45 Orange 25 3 Eutrophic
2 12-72 Georges L. 816 Putnam 225 4 Mesotrophic
1 4-70 Perch L. 30 Clay 60 8 Oligotrophic
1 7-73 Lowery L. 1,263 Clay 50 3 Oligotrophic
1 4-73 Magnolia L. 205 Clay 200 6 Oligotrophic

Brush Attractor 3 7-73 Red Beach 335 Highlands 300 5 Mesotrophic
6 8-73 L. Juliana 926 Polk 8-40 3-5 Mesotrophic
3 Starr L. Polk 1'0-75 4-6 Mesotrophic
1 7-73 L. Tarpon 2,534 Pinellas 85 4 Mesotrophic
2 8-73 Crooked L. 5,538 Polk 100-800 4-6 Oligotrophic
1 9-71 Smith L. 358 Marion 125 3 Mesotrophic

Clay Pipe 1 5-73 Watertown L. 46 Columbia 10 2 Mesotrophic
1 6-73 L. Helene 62 Polk 35 4 Oligotrophic
6 7-70 L. Tohopekaliga 22,000 Osceola 100-1000 3-4 Eutrophic

Stake Beds 1 15-73 Sante Fe L. 5,836 Alachua 25 4 Oligotrophic
1 6-73 L. Harris 18,000 Lake 400 4 Eutrophic

Hay Bales 12-73 Bear L. 107 Santa Rosa 5-15 2-3 Oligotrophic
6-73 Koen L. 110 Lafayette 25 1-3 Oligotrophic

Soybean Cakes & - 1965 L. Juliana 926 Polk Mesotrophic
Pelletized Foods 1 1973 L. Tohopekaliga 22,000 Osceola 100 4 Eutrophic

Brush & Rubble 6 7-70 L. Tohopekaliga 22,000 Osceola 100-1000 3-4 Eutrophic

Brush & Clay Pipe 1 4-73 Koon L. 110 Lafayette 85 2 Oligotrophic

PVC Pipe 1 7-73 L. Tarpon 2,534 Pinellas 225 4 Mesotrophic

Old Rowboats 1 5-73 Newman's L. 7,427 Alachua 1000 4 Eutrophic

terials will concentrate fish effectively (Wilbur, EVALUATION RESULTS
1973).
Unfortunately, time and funds did not per-
Vitrified clay pipes and PVC pipes have been mit evaluation of all the attractors constructed.
used in several Florida lakes. Pipes often are bundl- However, cursory evaluations were undertaken on
ed in groups to give the attractor height, but indi- about half of those installed.
vidual pipes also can be dropped (Wilbur and May,
1970).

Petit (1973) discussed the use of stake beds Visual Observation and Word-of-Mouth
in Tennessee which consisted of four or five foot
shafts of one by two inch lumber nailed upright o n e of the easiest and least involved methods
to a rectangular four by six foot base. Although of evaluation. Densities via time period counts
they may effectively concentrate crappie (Pomoxis), at the attractor and control site provide a quick
stake beds are relatively expensive to make and
stake beds are relatively expensive to make and and reliable indication as to the concentrat-
are not easily handled.
ing effectiveness of the attractor. Use of this meth-
Ol~d car bodies have been used as fish attrac- od, however, was frequently precluded due to low
tors in Kentucky (Charles, 1967). Their weight visibility in many of the lakes selected for fish at-
and bulk make handling difficult, and they should tractors. Fourteen fish attractors have been check-
be steam-cleaned and stripped of upholstery prior ed periodically by underwater observation, and
to sinking. only three of these have failed to produce more
fish than control areas. In most cases, the attrac-
Old rowboats, although of very limited sup- tor concentrations far exceed concentrations noted
ply, can easily be pulled out to the desired drop- anywhere else in the lakes. Of the three failures,
spot before making holes in their hulls and sinking one was a tire attractor, one a stake bed and one a
them. pipe attractor. The 11 successes included tires,
orange brush and cement block attractors.
In sterile lakes of northwest Florida, hay has
been found to greatly stimulate growth of zoo- Observations of the number of boats or fisher-
plankton, and fish species of all kinds gather a-g an attractor also has been used to pro-
round the hay to feed. men using an attractor also has been used to pro-
vide an indication of its success. Where this is fol-
Soybean cakes and pelletized fish foods will lowed up with fisherman or fish camp operator in-
terviews, the information is frequently all that is
concentrate many fish which gather to feed direct-
necessary to determine how well an attractor may
ly on the food. In combination with the other at-
tractors above, such foods will often greatly en- be operating. Fifteen attractor sites have been
evaluated in this way and in most instances fisher-
hance utilization of attractors.
men expressed confidence in the worth of the
attractor.
All of the above fish attractor materials, with
the exception of physical stimuli and car bodies
have been used in Florida lakes (Table 1). To date, Fish Population Samples
there are 66 fish attractors operative in 28 lakes
throughout the state. Automobile tires have been Electro-fishing, spot rotenone, trammel nets
used most often, and at present, there are 21 tire and fish traps are but a few fish sampling methods
attractors constructed in 14 lakes. Brush attrac- which could be used to check attractor coloniza-
tors using either orange limbs or scrub oak have tion. Although trammel nets and electro-fishing
been installed at 13 locations in eight lakes. These were used to test the colonization of the 12 fish
attractors generally cover a much larger area of attractors in Lake Tohopekaliga, population sampl-
the bottom than do the other attractors. ing of attractors has not been used elsewhere in
Florida either due to heavy fisherman usage or be-
Most of the lakes selected for attractor place- cause the biologist-in-charge did not want to tam-
ment are small (400 acres or less) and are near ur- per with the population.
ban centers or military installations. Many attrac-
tors have been located close to shore or a fishing Six sites were selected in Lake Tohopekaliga
pier to provide fishing for the public without boats and a brush, pipe, and control area was situated at
or boat access. Fish attractors are marked with a each site. Each area was shocked with a 220-volt
buoy supporting a sign describing the fish attractor alternating current Milwaukee generator for 30
constructed below. seconds on two days in each quarterly sample. Re-
41

suits of quarterly electro-fishing samples of the differences were not significant in paired t-testing.
1 2 attractors demonstrate brush attractors in this Significantly higher catch rates of largemouth bass
lake attracted more fish than did pipe attractors (Micropterus salmoides) were realized at attractors.
of similar size and that both attractors were more Bream and crappie catch rates might have been
productive than control areas (Table 2). Bluegill higher had not limitations of the computer pro-
(Lepomis nacrochirus), and white catfish (Ictalurus gram required that control fishing effort be lumped
catus) were the most abundant species in these with effort expended at the attractors. In spite of
samples. this, catch rates for these species were nearly signi-
ficant at the 5 percent level.
Creel Surveys Stake beds described by Petit (1973) pro-
duced up to six times greater catch rates of crappie
Since the purpose of investigating fish attrac- than did other areas of this Tennessee lake. Con-
tors in Lake Tohopekaliga was to determine wheth- sequently, stake beds were installed off the end of
er they could be used to increase the harvest of a fishing pier-bridge in Lake Harris, Florida during
sport fish, a creel survey to compare lake and at- the summer of 1973. The following winter, when
tractor catch rates was necessary. The creel design crappie fishing effort is usually maximum, a night
called for five sample days every two weeks with creel survey was conducted employing creel pro-
one or two weekend days included. The 22,000- cedures similar to those used on Lake Tohopeka-
acre lake was divided into six areas with a control liga. Whereas 0.83 crappie/hour were caught else-
area, and brush and pipe attractor in each area. where on the bridge, at the stake beds only 0.55
The roving census interviews were conducted be- crappie/hour were realized. Whether this poor
tween the hours of 6 a.m. to noon or noon utilization was the result of the stake beds not at-
to 6 p.m., the sampling frequency within the a.m. tracting crappie, or due to the fact that crappie
or p.m. periods to be determined by fishing pres- were seeking out other areas at that time could not
sure variations. Results of this creel investigation be determined.
between the fall quarter 1970 and the winter
quarter of 1972-73 are shown in Table 3. Although Expert Angler Evaluations
catch rates of black crappie (Pomoxis nigromacu-
latus) and bream species (Lepomis) were higher at Rupp (1961) suggested that to measure the
attractor locations than elsewhere in the lake, the fishing potential of a water body inefficient anglers

TABLE 2

Electro-fishing results from control sites, and pipe and brush
attractors in Lake Tohopekaliga between February 1971 and May 1973.

FEB. MAY AUG. NOV. FEB.. MAY AUG. NOV. FEB. MAY
SPECIES SITE 1971 1971 1971 1971 1972 1972 1972 1972 1973 1973 TOTAL

control -- 1 --- --- --- 2
Largemouth pipe 19 9 2 21 1. 2 6 --- --- 3 63
bass brush 35 21 18 12 6 7 7 4 4 4 118

control 1 2 3 --- -- --- 1 --- --- --- 7
Bluegill pipe 34 42 101 45 22 17 14 --- 1 53 329
brush 487 83 243 375 142 33 --- 7 24 92 1486 A4

control --- --- 1 --- --- --- --- --- --- 1 2
Redear pipe --- --- --- --- 3 1 --- --- --- 3 7
brush 2 1 2 1 2 1 --- --- --- 2 11

control --- --- --- --- --- 2 --- --- --- --- 2
Black pipe --- 7 --- --- --- 1 --- --- --- 1 9 4
crappie brush 2 5 3 1 --- --- --- --- --- 2 13

FEB. MAY AUG. NOV. FEB. MAY AUG. NOV. FEB. MAY
SPECIES SITE 1971 1971 1971 1971 1972 1972 1972 1972 1973 1973 TOTAL

control
Warmouth pipe 4 2 4 --- --- --- --- --- --- 2 12
brush 7 14 7 --- 2 3 1 --- --- 20 54

control
Chain pipe 2 --- --- -- - --- - -- -- - - -- - - 2
pickerel brush 3 --- --- --- --- --- --- -- - --- --- 3

control
Florida pipe --- 1 --- --- --- --- --- --- 1
gar brush -- --- --- -- - 2 --- -- - - 2

control --- 4 --- --- --- --- 15 3 --- - 22
White pipe --- --- 552 252 --- 119 1098 30 --- 1 2050
catfish brush --- 5 225 30 144 1955 225 --- 1 2614

control
Brown pipe --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 40 --- --- 40
bullhead brush - --1 --- --- --- 30 --- 2 33

control
Golden pipe 3 --- - 2 --- 2 --- --- 9
shiner brush --- --- --- --- 2 --- --- 2 4

control 2 --- --- --- 11 1 1 1 --- --- 16
Gizzard pipe 3 71 1 6 11 2 3 4 4 2 107
shad brush 3 --- 1 3 13 2 --- --- 1 --- 23

control
Longnose pipe --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 2 2
gar brush -1 1

control
Bowfin pipe
brush 1 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 1

should be excluded from any data and that only although catch rates using minnows and plastic
the catch of proficient anglers should be measured. worms were not as high as catch rates with earth-
Taking this concept a bit further, the use of a worms, both types of bait produced far greater
single expert fisherman or small group of fisher- catches at pipe and brush attractors than at con-
men has been used in Florida to determine fishing trol sites. Whereas a total of only 59 fish were
potential of attractors in comparison to potential caught at control sites, 474 fish were taken from
at control sites or other areas of the lake. the pipe attractors and 703 fish over brush attrac-
tors (Table 4). Quarterly catch rates with earth-
The fish attractors in Lake Tohopekaliga were worms at brush attractors varied from 0.0 fish/
fished by an experienced fisherman five days every hour to 5.9 fish/hour and averaged 1.15 fish/hour.
two weeks. The six hours of a fishing day were Quarterly catch rates at pipe attractors varied from
equally divided between the control areas and the 0.0 to 4.65 and averaged 0.89 fish/hour. These
pipe and brush attractors. Fishing was done either figures are probably on the conservative side of
in the morning or afternoon, and various tackle what the attractors could have produced, in that
and baits were tested. Results of continuous fish- fishing was done regardless of bad weather and fish-
ing between July 1970 and May 1973 show that ing effort followed a fixed schedule.

TABLE 3

Fishing success estimates in Lake Tohopekaliga and at
attractors between fall 1970 and winter 1972-73.

BREAM/HOUR BASS/HOUR CRAPPIE/HOUR
LAKE ATTRACTOR LAKE ATTRACTOR LAKE ATTRACTOR

Fall 1970 2.2 6.8 0.2 0.4 1.4 3.2
Winter 70-71 1.7 NE 0.3 0.6 1.2 NE
Spring 1971 2.1 4.5 0.6 0.7 1.4 2.7
Summer 1971 2.3 NE 0.4 0.4 NE NE
Fall 1971 3.0 NE 0.3 0.4 0.7 NE
Winter 71-72 2.6 3.1 0.3 NE 0.5 1.0
Spring 1972 1.8 1.0 0.3 NE 0.1 NE
Summer 1972 2.1 2.9 0.3 0.7 1.4 NE
Fall 1972 2.2 1.7 0.4 NE 1.2 NE
Winter 72-73 2.2 NE 0.3 NE 0.6 NE

Mean 2.2 3.3 0.3 0.5 0.9 2.3

Paired t1 1.410 3.051* 3.172

1only calculated where paired date occurred.
NE no estimate due to insufficient fishing effort.
*statistically significant at 0.05 confidence level.

TABLE 4
Comparison of harvested fish numbers caught by an experienced
fisherman at control and attractor sites in Lake Tohopekaliga
between July 1970 and May 1973.

BAIT CONTROL PIPE BRUSH

Earthworms 45 425 550
Minnows and plastic worms 14 49 153

Totals 59 474 703

TABLE 5
Results of short-term-experienced fisherman evaluations of
fish attractors in seven Florida lakes.

CATCH RATES AT:

WATER ATTRACTOR HOURS CONTROL LAKE
BODY TYPE FISHED (SPECIFIC AREA) (GENERAL) ATTRACTOR

L. Lowery Tires 30 < 0.07 -- 0.13
Perch Pond Tires 40 -- 0.33 3.13
L. Magnolia Tires 30 -- 0.13 2.47
Wildcat L. Tires 11 0.09 -- 3.09
L. Dias Tires 15 0.24 0.08 3.20
L. Stella Tires 15 --< 0.07 0.20
L. Stella Brush 15 -- 0.07 0.60
Smith L. Brush 9 <0.10 -- 2.00

Similar fishing studies were carried out for a REFERENCES
short term evaluation of attractors in seven other
lakes. Fishing effort in these studies was more
flexible, but like the Lake Tohopekaliga study, Charles, J.R. The Dewev Lake (Reservoirl Fishery
fishing time was always equally divided between During the First Seven Years of I mDoundment.
the attractor and control or other areas of the lake. (Federal Aid Project F-22-R). Kentucky
Bait and tackle were always the same for both at- Fisheries Bulletin, No. 47, 1967.
tractor and control sites within a given fishing
period. Hazzard, A.S. "Results of Stream and Lake Im-
provement in Michigan." Transactions of the
Results of these studies in Table 5 show that Second North American Wildlife Conference,
all attractors demonstrated significantly higher 1937.
catch rates than did controls. Minnows and earth-
worms were the baits most commonly used and Petit, G.D. "Stake beds as crappie concentrators."
were responsible for catches consisting primarily Proceedings of the 26th Annual Conference,
of largemouth bass, bluegill, and black crappie. South East Game and Fish Commission (In
Press), 1973.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Rodeheffer, I.A. "Experiments in the Use of
Brush Shelters by Fish in Michigan Lakes."
Regional fishery biologists with the Florida Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science,
Game and Fresh Water Fish Commission Norman Arts and Letters, Vol. 24, 1938.
Young, Thomas Vaughn, Robert Schneider, Phillip
Chapman and Cobia Goforth are thanked for sup- . "The Use'of Brush Shelters by
plying much information on construction and Fish in Douglas Lake, Michigan." Papers of
evaluation of fish attractors in their respective the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and
regions. Letters, Vol. 25, 1939.

Creel clerk and experienced fisherman Roy . "Fish Populations In and
Land was responsible for accurate and dependable Around Brush Shelters of Different Sizes
data collection from the attractors in Lake Toho- Placed at Varying Depths and Distances Apart
pekaliga. ;n Douglas Lake, Michigan. Papers of the

Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Let-
ters, Vol. 30, 1944.

Rupp, R. S. "Measurement of Potential Fishing
Quality." Transactions of the American Fish-
eries Society, 1961.

Wilbur, R.L. Habitat Manipulation: Fish Attrac-
tor Evaluation. Florida Federal Aid Program
F-26 (progress report), 1970.

1 Developed by Donald W. Haynes, Institute
of Statistics, North Carolina State University,
Raleigh, North Carolina.

California's Artificial Reef Experiences

JOHN M. DUFFY

Associate Marine Biologist, California Department of Fish and Game, Marine Resources Region,
350 Golden Shore, Long Beach, California 90802

California's man-made reef studies, financed Fish population studies on these replicate
through Dingell-Johnson (D-J) Federal Aid to Fish reefs showed that some adult fish (particularly
Restoration Funds, began in 1958. Increased embiotocid perches and serranid basses) appear
fishing pressure from California's expanding popu- within hours of reef construction. These families
lation and a decline in giant kelp (Macrocystis) were dominant on the reefs during the first two
beds prompted the study of potential new habi- years after construction. As the reef "matured"
tat. Old automobile bodies and wooden street other families (gobies, cottids, rockfish) increased
cars were the first materials used. These first in importance until a "natural" equilibrium was
reefs emphasized the study of fish, fish popula- reached.
tions and giant kelp development. While these
reefs added some productive habitat for Califor-
nia fishermen, they served more importantly as During the four years of study, Department
study sites for Department of Fish and Game biologists spent more than 480 man-hours on
biologists. California Fish Bulletin 124, "Artifi- nearly 200 survey dives. They observed a total of
cial Habitat in the Marine Environment" by John 78 species of fish during this time. As might be
G. Carlisle, Jr., the late Charles H. Turner and expected, the average number of fish observed
Earl E. Ebert details the study and its results. during a dive at each of the three locations in
Santa Monica Bay was different. The average on
the reef at the north end of the Bay was about
As a result of their first efforts, Department 1,000 fish, while the reef at the south end averaged
biologists, in 1960, developed a program to deter- 800. The reef in the center of the Bay averaged
mine the best materials to use for reef construc- only 740 fish per observation. Thus the effectiveness
tion in southern California. Chosen for compari- of any given reef material can vary considerably
son were automobile bodies, a street car, concrete due to natural environmental conditions.
fish shelters and quarry rock. Three replicate
reefs were constructed in areas of Santa Monica The fish also showed differential preference
Bay which would be readily accessible to small by material. We built each reef with approximately
boat fishermen at the conclusion of our studies. 4,400 cubic feet of each material, using one street
car, 14 automobile bodies, 44 concrete fish shelters
In addition to fish population studies, our and 333 tons of quarry rocks. The street car av-
biologists made detailed studies of reef micro- eraged 826 fish, while the quarry rock attracted
fauna, using wooden test blocks and quadrat an average of 870. The concrete shelters were most
sampling techniques. These invertebrate studies attractive to fish, an average of over 1,000 individuals
defined several community development phases being recorded per dive.
during the reef's first years of life. A barnacle-
hydroid phase was followed by mollusk-poly- Cost and ease of handling considerations caused
chaete, ascidian-sponge and encrusting ectoproct us to select quarry rock as the material of choice
stages during the first year. Subsequent years in southern California reef construction. In 1963,
saw the development of aggregrate anenomes, the cost of 1,000 tons of quarry rock delivered and
gorgonian corals and stoney corals. From these dumped in Santa Monica Bay was $6,000. The bottom
observations Department biologists concluded dump barges loaded at Santa Catalina Island have
that true animal succession occurred on these merely to pass over the reef site and open the hopper
reefs. doors to allow the rock to fall to the sea floor. A
47

comparable volume of fish shelters (I132) cost Since the replicate reefs were built in Santa
$9,900 (in 1960) delivered dlockside to Long Beach. Monica Bay, the street car and automobile bodies
Handling and tugboat costs added about $2,100 have disintegrated. We are currently planning a
to this for a total of $1 2,000. Current prices for a project to rebuild the reefs using tires and at the
barge load of quarry rock (1,000 tons) range from same time conduct detailed studies on invertebrate
$8,000- to $1 0,000 depending on tonnage ordered. succession and fish population dynamics. We
would like to be able to make direct comparisons
The Department has only recently begun to to-the earlier work done with quarry rock, concrete
work with tires as reef materials. The first tire reef shelters, autos and street cars.
in California was built by students at Humboldt
State University in Humboldt Bay. A second reef
has been constructed under the Santa Cruz Muni- REFERENCES
cipal Pier in northern Monterey Bay. A third reef,
experimental in nature, is under construction off Carlisle, John G., Jr.; Charles H. Turner; and Earl
Ventura, California. E. Ebert. Artificial Habitat in the Marine
The fsh poulatins atthe Hmbold BayEnvironment. California Fish and Game,
The fih popuationsat theHumbolt BayFish Bulletin, 1964.
reef have been well studied, but to date only casual
observations have been made on the fish popula- Prince, Eric D. and Thomas R. Lambert. 1972.
tions of the Santa Cruz and Ventura projects. "Reefs from tires?" Outdoor California.4
Studies of invertebrate succession have been done 1972, pp. 7-9.
on the Humboldt Bay reef, and some preliminary
observations indicate that both barnacles and hy- Turner, Charles H.; Earl E. Ebert; and Robert R.
droids have readily settled out and grown on the Given. -Man-Made Reef Ecolo~-v. California
Santa Cruz and Ventura tires. Fish and Game, Fish Bulletin, 1969.

Comparative Observations on an Artificial Tire

Reef and Natural Patch Reefs

off Southwestern Puerto Rico

DAVID E. FAST*
FRANCISCO A. PAGAN
Department of Marine Sciences, University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708

The Department of Marine Sciences, Univer- current. Further criteria included choosing an area
sity of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez, Puerto Rico has that was as barren of resident fish as possible, had
been studying artificial reefs for over two years. sufficient visibility to allow for comprehensive visual
This work was originated with one main purpose in observations and had nearby natural patch reefs to
mind. It was selected as part of a thesis research permit comparative species recording and biomass
by the senior author to fulfill a partial requirement estimates. The area which fulfilled all these require-
leading to the degree of master of science with ments was located by using a depth recording
specialization in the marine sciences. In December fathometer and scuba (Self-Contained Underwater
of 1971, an artificial reef system of used vehicle Breathing Apparatus) surveys. Scientists from the
tires was constructed in 21.5 meters of water on fields of marine geology, physical oceanography
the southwest coast of Puerto Rico, 2.5 nautical and marine botany assisted in the evaluation of
miles south of Magueyes Island, La Parguera, P.R., sites prior to the final selection.
site of the Department of Marine Sciences research
facilities. The specific objectives of the research Used vehicle tires were selected as the reef
were to determine: construction material because they were readily
available, small in size and easily handled by one
the sequence of species of fish entering the person. Vehicle tires do not desintegrate in the
artificial reef over an 18-month period marine environment, they provide a good substrate
the population densities of all species of for the growth of algae and invertebrates and they
fish found on the artificial reef provide many crevices in which fish can seek shel-
ter from predators. A total of 504 tires were pre-
the trophic level of food preference of the trfo rdtr.Attlo 0 ie eepe
the trophic level of food preference of the pared for placement by drilling a one-quarter-inch
species of fish entering the artificial reef air escapement hole through one side of the tire
if movement of fish occurs between the and placing a 20-pound cylindrical concrete plug
artificial and the natural reefs in the area between the sidewalls on the opposite side. The
i the biomass of fish per surface area on the tires were transported to the offshore site by boat.
artificial reef and on a natural reef of com- They were consolidated into four separate reef sec-
parable area tions on the ocean floor. The largest reef section,
the toalsecespesntoterifcdesignated as artificial reef I (ARI) covered an area
the total species present on the artificial of 84 square meters and was composed of 328 tires.
sreef as compared with those species ob- Artificial reef II (ARII) consisted of 52 tires and
served or collected on the adjacent natural covered 18 square meters. ARIII had 77 tires
reefs ~~~~~~~~~covered 18 square meters. ARIII had 77 tires
reefs
covering 45 square meters, and the final reef ARIV,
had 47 tires on an area of approximately 18 square
meters.
METHODS AND MATERIALS meters.

We chose the area for constructing the artificial
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
reef by adhering to the general criteria of having
a minimum low water depth of about 20 meters,
Three methods of data collection were em-
a stable bottom substrate and a minimal bottom
a stable bottom substrate and a minimal bottom ployed during the study: visual observations, trap-
*presentor ping and tagging and terminal collection stations.
49

Using scuba, we made a total of 87 hours of visual ficial reef. No fish tagged on the artificial reef were
observations on the artificial reefs during the 18 observed on the natural reefs. Thus, there was move-
months of the study. The species of fish and num- ment from the natural to the artificial reef, but no
ber of fish per species were recorded on plastic movement from the artificial reef to the natural
slates during each observation period. Individuals reefs.
from a total of 56 species comprising 23 families of
fish were recorded by this method. Species inva- At the end of 18 months, terminal collection
sion of the artificial reef was rapid at first, then stations were made on the two small artificial reefs
tapered off slowly until the final observed number ARIII and ARIV, and on a natural patch reef of
of 56 species was recorded. These 56 species all comparable area. Rotenone fish poison was used
had been recorded by the end of the first year of and the fish were collected, identified and weighed.
study. No additional species were observed until The results of these terminal collection stations
after the termination of the study. are presented in Table 1. As can be seen from these
results, the artificial reef had a higher biomass of
We also made visual observations on the nearby fish per square meter than did the natural reef.
natural reefs. Many natural reefs in the area were
surveyed to obtain a list of species found on them. From the three methods of collecting data a
With these data, we compared the species present composite of the total species of fish observed,
on artificial and natural reefs. A total of 74 trapped and poisoned was made for both the arti-
species of fish were observed on the natural reefs. ficial and the natural reefs. It was found that a
Thus, at the end of one year the artificial reef had total of 70 species of fish were recorded from the
75 percent of the number of species found inhabiting artificial reef and 92 species from the natural reefs.
the natural reefs.
CONCLUSIONS
Visual observations also were used in record- It can be concluded from the results of this
ing the numbers of fish per species. It was observ- study that the artificial reef colonized rapidly at
ed that the number of fish per species on the arti- first then leveled off in both species and numbers
ficial reef increased throughout the study, but at a of fish per species as the "carrying capacity" of
decreasing rate. Thus the fish populations grew the reef was approached. There was no noted
rapidly at first then leveled off as the "carrying trophic level succession of food preference by the
capacity" of the reef was approached. fish observed on the artificial reef. Movement of
fish did occur from the natural reefs to the artifi-
Of the 56 species observed and recorded on cial reef, but was not observed in the opposite di-
the artificial reef, there were 37 species of carni- rection. The biomass of the fish present on the
vores (66 percent), 14 species of omnivores (25 artificial reef was found to be nearly eight times
percent), and five species of herbivores (9 percent). that of the natural reef. The artificial reef had
There was no observed trophic level succession. fewer species than the natural reefs.
Of the first 10 species to appear on the reef, eight
were carnivores, one was an omnivore and one was FUTUREPLANS
a herbivore. Herbivores and omnivores did not
preceed carnivores in colonizing the reef. The two artificial reefs not poisoned in this
study (ARI and ARII) are still being observed in
Trapping and tagging studies were conducted to continuing studies of colonization by species and
make population calculations and to observe if numbers of fish. In addition, new reefs of differ.
there was movement of fish between the artificial ent configurations and in different areas are being
and natural reefs. Color coded anchor tags were observed to determine optimum design and loca-
used - - yellow tags on the artificial reef and blue tion for maximum fish production. Also, guide-
tags on the natural reefs. Several fish marked with lines are being developed for construction of fu-
blue tags (natural reefs) were observed on the arti- ture artificial reefs in Puerto Rico.
TABLE 1

Area No. of Fish No. Species Total Wt. Wt./Sq. M.

Artificial 63 sq. m. 305 42 13,732g. 217.97g.

Natural 72 Sq. M. 149 40 1,964 g. 27.29 g.

New Artificial Reefs of Oahu

CHARLES D. FEIN
MAURY MORGANSTEIN

Institute of Geophysics, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822

Since 1963, three artificial reefs have been con- Bay. A group headed by John Maciolek at the
structed in the shallow coastal waters around Oahu, University of Hawaii has conducted studies under
Hawaii. The three sites chosen for the experimental contract to the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and
emplacement of these reefs are at Polai Bay on the Wildlife. Similarly, a group headed by Carla S.
Waianae coast, Maunalua Bay, and at Kualoa on the Myamoto of the Marine Options Program at the
windward shore (Figure 1). University has conducted studies for the National
Science Foundation. These workers have spent
Reef construction during the first years utilized considerable time amassing data on the physical
auto bodies and parts. The shoals constructed later and biological aspects of the reef environment, and
consisted largely of concrete pipe. The most recent much of the background information presented
construction, during 1972, was initiated as part of here represents the work of these groups.
a junked car cleanup program conducted on Oahu.
a* juncr cIn addition to these investigations, the Department
of Land and Natural Resources, Division of Fish and
vestigations have been conducted to determine the Game of the State of Hawaii has requested that the
newer artificial reefs be monitored for possible re-
influence of these new artificial reefs on fish pop- newer artificial s be monitored for possible re-
ulation, total biomass and water pollution. While lease of toxic metals into the marine environment.
ulation, total biomass and water pollution. While
these studies have provided necessary preliminary We have been carrying out that program for the past
data on environmental aspects of Oahu's artificial
reefs, no comprehensive investigation of all locations
has been initiated to establish environmental effects in using man-made reefs is to enhance the abundance
during the years following emplacement.
of fishes in fish-poor areas. In Hawaii, increase in
The artificial reef which has received the most fish population has been accompanied by several
attention is the Waianae Artificial Shoal at Pokai interesting chemical developments associated with
artificial reef construction. In order to place these
chemical developments in perspective, the observed
physical and biological environment of the reefs will
be summarized briefly.

":: i) \ S \ ; The Pokai Bay reef, the only one for which a
X * . <body of data exists, has an average bottom water
KUALOA temperature of 27� C, and the variation in this
2~..1 ; ' : '~,ARTIFIGAL REEF parameter is slight. Salinity appears to be relatively
rP oKI ~e� ~'~ ,!OA stable as well, and measurements of solar radiation
ARTIFICIAL_ show a two to three month lag with respect to
MAiLE POINT , bottom temperature variations. Transparency is
J . A very variable, and as tidal currents change, waters
if . . ?~~ +become clear or turbid.

21 MILE ' ARTIFICAL IREEF J The Pokai Bay reef is constructed in part of
damaged concrete pipe. Pipe is concentrated over
Figure 1 an area about 200 meters by 150 meters, and

scattered over a considerably larger area. A Itinerant fishes are most often the large predators,
separate smaller site for the pipe was established many of which arrive early in reef construction.
nearby several years ago, principally for the study Examples are the surgeon fishes and the Mu, which
of fish population. are both relatively large carnivores. Smaller resident
fishes increase in population during the months
The concrete pipe has been shown by Maciolek's succeeding reef construction. Examples are the
group (1 974) to provide an initial fresh surface for redfishes and goatfishes, small carnivores and herb-
attached organisms. On the top surfaces, diatoms, ivores actually living within the pipe structures.
green algae, blue-green algae, brown algae and red
algae develop rapidly. These are grazed almost It is obvious that the primary goal of increasing
immediately by fishes, urchins and other herbivores. the fish population utilizing artificial reefs has been
Other invertebrates soon follow, and corals and successful. While the reef cost versus production
mollusks become common within weeks of con- for human consumption has not been evaluated,
struction. an examination of the total biomass at the Pokai
Bay site during 1973 shows more than a two-fold
A large number of sedentary and motile in- increase in an area where auto bodies were added
vertebrates also live on the interior surface of the to the pipe construction, compared to an area of
pipes. Tunicates, sponges and bryozoans are common, natural substrate nearby.
along with coelenterates and mollusks. These or-
ganisms do not require the same amount of light While the increase in fish population has been
as the top surface algae, and therefore are more encouraging, the dumping of auto bodies to create
common on the interior surfaces of the pipes. new reefs at Maunalua Bay and Kualoa, as well
as at Pokai Bay has raised serious questions as to
The fish community has developed rapidly on the possibility of pollution in the form of toxic
the Pokai Bay artificial reef. During a one and a half metal release into seawater, and other chemical
year survey by the marine fisheries group at reactions in the shallow water environment.
the University of Hawaii, both the number of total
biomass of the fish community increased by eight Water quality investigations have therefore been
and four times respectively, compared to pre- instituted during the past two years to assess the
reef substrate (Figures 2, 3). Fish population has potential pollution problem. Preliminary results
been found to vary in response to various factors. indicate that levels of Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Cr, Cd, and Pb
More fishes are observed early and late in the day, are well within normal seawater values (Figure 4).
according to feeding habits. Population also is higher Samples taken at monthly intervals have shown no
around smaller pipes, especially those which are change in trace metal concentration.
grouped or nested. Turbid water at the reef site has
a higher fish population. In addition to the water quality study, chemical
reactions within the metallic autd structures, and
Fish on the Waianae Shoal have also been clas- between the metal reef materials and the substrate
sified as resident or itinerant membersof the com- have been investigated on a preliminary basis. While
munity, depending on whether they can be found biological activity around auto bodies and concrete
at the same location during successive surveys. pipes have been observed to be similar, chemical

8o J, ,N ' &o N I; Io Io-J
8

2 1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

0 60 120 18O 240 300360 420480 540 60 120 180 240 300 360 420480 540
0ays Days

Figure 2 Figure 3
52

reactions in these two environments are distinctly are reducing due to the high concentration of
different. organic matter and the presence of anerobic and
iron fixing bacteria. As a consequence, car body
The introduction of foreign metallic debris into fragments brought to the beach mechanically and
the marine coastal zone represents a dramatic en- buried react with gases produced by bacteria in
vironmental shock which has both short and long the relatively acid substrate. Divalent iron reacts
term implications. We have investigated some of the in the presence of hydrogen sulfide to form a-
short term changes during water quality monitoring, morphous black precipitates of iron sulfide -
and we are looking now toward the long term stab- Fe(HS)2 to FeS (Figures 5, 6). With aging
ilization of metallic artificial reefs and their effect (growth in particle size) these precipitates tend
upon the onshore and offshore zones. Chemical to crystallize and can be recognized as hydro-
dynamics suggest that artificial reefs composed of trallite, marcasite and pyrite. In addition to the
auto bodies are not in equilibrium with the environ- sulfides, iron II hydroxide is formed from
ments of the marine coastal zone, and therefore, they ferrous salts during neutralization by a hydroxide
have a limited resident time. This time can be de- in the absence of oxygen. This precipitate is
fined as that period necessary for a car body to white colored and is often observed as a banded
change its chemical and physical form to a more layer between the amorphous black iron sulfide
stable product in its new environment. growths.

The chemical stabilization reactions take place In the oxidizing and highly circulated reefal
in two geographic environments, the shallow marine environment, goethite and hematite are formed
reefal zone and the beach zone below the storm from the car bodies. Generally, yellow amorphous
berm. Within this coastal zone, there are both re- iron hydroxide is precipitated directly on the
ducing and oxidizing micro-environments which surface of the car as typical "rust". This
control the chemical reactions. material reorganized to form crystallized goethite

In general, reactions among dissolved and solid
materials below the sediment surface at the beach

TOXIC METAL ANALYSES
Literature
Nov. 1972 Sept. 1973 Values

Co 2 PPB 2 PPB 0.1 -5 PPB
Cu 3 PPB 1 PPB 1 - 5 PPB
Fe 10 PPB 12 PPB 0.1 - 20 PPB
Mn 2PPB 5PPB 0.1 - 15 PPBI
C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~r %>
Cr 1 PPB - 1 PPB 0.05- 0.1 PPB ,-,1
Cd - I1PPB < 1 PPB 0.3 PPB I4:"
Pb <IPPB - 1 PPB 0.05- 1 PPB
Figure 6
Figure 4

We, 10 5 1

I! ]

.... CM$ , ; H. tG. CMS.
Figure 5 Figure 7
53

and hematite (Figure 7). The problem of stability as abrasive forces during mechanical
of goethite versus hematite has been discussed by breakdown
Garrels (1959), Berner (1969), Bischoff (1969), � The rate of oxidation, reduction, hydration
Langmuir (1971) and others. Langmuir (1971) and dehydration as well as the adsorption
suggests that since goethite crystals generally are catalysis of manganese, copper, nickel
smaller than 0.1 microns, they are unstable etc. on iron oxyhydroxide surfaces
relative to coarse-grained hematite. However,
goethite can precipitate at low temperatures and The percentage of surface area covered by
pressures, whereas hematite generally forms by organic activity, such as biocarbonate
dehydration or by long term aging of amorphous secretors.
material. Calculations by Langmuir (1971) suggest
that goethite can dehydrate to form hematite. As might be expected, the artificial reefs are not
However, the rehydration of hematite appears to chemically or mechanically stable. Small portions
~be kinetically unlikely. of the car bodies are broken from the reef and act
as clastic particles in the coastal zone. These parti-
The ferric oxyhydroxides which form from the cles find their way to the beach environment
car bodies are highly supersaturated with respect principally during quiet seas when most of the
to hematite and goethite. The kinetic calculations beaches have a convex profile. These oxidized
and particle sizes of these minerals do suggest that goethite and hematite coated particles eventually
during long term exposure, hematite will survive are buried in the beach and undergo reduction,
as the stable product in the marine coastal zone forming amorphous iron sulfide coatings. During
In addition to hematite, the ferric oxyhydroxides the "winter seas" when beach profiles change to
react with calcium carbonate sands on the beach principally concave, and portions of the beach
and offshore sediments to form small concentrations are removed to the offshore environment, the
of siderite (FeCO3). corodoliths are again oxidized (Figure 8).

Siderite along with goethite and hematite act This seasonal transport history produces
as cementing media in the carbonate sands and ...
on the surface of the car parts to form "corro-
doliths" (a term first used by R. M. Garrels).

Returning to the problem of residence time
and the factors influencing the stability of metallic
artificial reefs, we find six major factors affect
the reef stability. The factors are the following:

� Thickness of the metal
� The surface area of the car bodies
� The length of exposure to either an ox-
idizing or reducing environment
Figure 9
The strength of currents and breaking waves

Figure 8 Figure 10
54

cyclic banding of iron oxyhydroxides and sulfides of readsorbtion on the oxidized car body sur-
combined with entrapped carbonate clastics faces (Figure 13). Thus, the auto bodies may act
in the corrodoliths. Large corrodoliths, principally as a pollutant control mechanism regulating the
transported by storms, remain on the beach and chemical balance in the reefal zone. Future
become monuments to man's anthropological studies in this area may provide information which
history. These corrodoliths can be viewed as short can be useful to the development of ferroman-
term visual pollutants, since they will eventually ganese filters. These may be utilized as adsorber
undergo mechanical abrasion and will be incorpor- oxidation catalysts for the removal of trace metals
ated as sand size particles in the coastal environment. from automobile and industrial waste gases. We
Similar corrodoliths are formed at the reef, ex- view this possibility as a sound ecological mechanism
cept that the iron oxyhydroxide surface of these for recycling old car bodies.
particles and larger reefal material act as metal
scavengers, via surface catalysis, incorporating
manganese, copper, nickel and a host of other
elements in their structures. Ferromanganese REFERENCES
oxide coatings are exhibited in nodules containing
Champion spark plug seeds (Figure 9, C02 cartridges, Berner, R. A. "Goethite Stability and the Origin of
nails (Figures 10,11), bottle tops (Figure 12), and Red Beds." Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta,
assorted auto parts which have lost their identity. Vol. 33 (1969), 267-273.
In rare cases there are traces of oligonite (MnCO3) and Bischoff, J. L. "Geothite-Hematite Stability Re-
kutnohorite CaMn(CO3)2 in these corrodoliths. lations With Relevance to Sea Water and the
Red Sea Brine System." Hot Brines and Recent
There had been some concern when the dumping Heavv Metal DeDosits in the Red Sea. Edited by
of car bodies was proposed, due to a possibility E. T. Degens and D. A. Rose. New York:
that toxic elements may have leached out of Springer-Verlag, Inc., 1969.
the auto bodies and concentrated in solution Garrels, R. M. "Rates of Geochemical Reactions
around the reefs. As was previously mentioned, no at Low Temperatures and Pressures." Researches
such concentrations of toxic elements were ob- in Geochemistry 1. Edited by P. H. Abelson.
served during our studies. Any leaching of elements New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1959.
such as copper essentially would be undetected
Langmuir, D. "Particle Size Effect on the Reaction
in the water column, due to the probability Goethite Hematite + Water." American lournal
of Science. 271 (1971), 147-156.
"Ecology of the Pokai Bay Artificial Reef Oahu."
Terminal Report, University of Hawaii, headed
by John Maciolek, Contract research for U. S.
Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Region I,
Contract No. 14-16-001-3346, 1974.
"Report for National Science Foundation." Student-
originated-studies Grant No. Gr-10773, Student
Project Director Carla S. Miyamoto.

Figure 11

O 5 O
H.I.G. i CMS. I S
Figure 12 Figure 13
55

Experiments Using Baled Urban Refuse

as Artificial Reef Material

THEODORE C. LODER
Assistant Professor of Oceanography, Department of Earth Sciences, University of New Hampshire,
Durham, New Hampshire 03824
GILBERT T. ROWE
C. H. CLIFFORD
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Water Street, Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543
Man has been constructing artificial reefs and usually been in shallow water. In 1971, Bogost (1973)
underwater structures designed to attract fish pop- placed solid waste bales in several salt water lagoons
ulations for many years. One of the earliest U. S. in Hawaii and monitored the chemistry of the water.
artificial fishing reef seems to have been built during A year later Pratt monitored the biological and
the 1930's off the New Jersey coast and was con- chemical changes in shredded compacted waste
structed of waste materials commonly used today material in the laboratory (Pratt, et al., 1973).
(Stroud and Massmann, 1966). Today there are
hundreds of artificial reefs constructed on all In the experiments we are reporting, baled solid
coasts of the United States and around the world. waste materials have been emplaced in shallow
Most of these reefs have been constructed of solid marine water (15 m) since the summer of 1971.
waste materials including old ships, junk cars, This depth was chosen because of proximity to land,
scrap tires, and concrete pipe and building rubble providing relatively easy access to divers for sub-
(Stone, 1972; Steimle and Stone, 1973). stantial diver observation and sample collection
time. In addition, this depth is well within the photic
The type of materials presently used for reefs zone, providing enough light for the growth of algae
represents a small percentage of the total solid that might attach to the bales. One study was con-
waste material generated each year. The disposal of ducted off the coast of New Hampshire near Apple-
domestic refuse is becoming an increasingly com- dore Island in the Isle of Shoals using experimental
plex problem each year as land fill sites become cylindrical bales (about 40 kg each) composed of
more difficult to find and as air pollution problems shredded solid waste materials. In a second study,
increase with incineration. New York City alone bales of shredded compacted urban refuse (about
produces greater than 107 tons of garbage per 1,200-1,500 kg each) were placed in Woods Hole
year. Some ocean dumping of refuse has occurred Harbor.
in recent years although no major amounts
are being dumped at present, since New York City METHODS AND RESULTS
and San Diego stopped dumping loose garbage in
the late 1960's. Ocean dumping of compacted and
baled solid waste has been suggested by Dunlea The University of New Hampshire mini-bales
(1967), Devanney, et al. (1970), and NIPCC (1970), (UNH bales) were sized so that they could be con-
while incorporation of waste material in tectonic structed in the lab of material of known composition
sink areas has been suggested by Bostrom and and easily emplaced by divers later. Dampened
Sherif (1970). Actual tests of baled solid waste shredded solid waste materials (Table 1) were com-
as reef materials were first started by Stone (1968) pacted in batches in a splittable steel cylinder under
and Pearce (1972) while effects of pressure on a final maximum pressure of 70,000 Ibs. (about
baled refuse were reported by Blumenberg (1971). 530 psi). Due to baler limitations, the metal and
a le reof thre problems of deep glass content was increased somewhat over the
national average to make a bale with the required
ocean dumping of compacted solid waste was
roean dumping of compacted solid waste was density (Table 1). Five of the ten bales were made
reported by Little (1973). without food wastes to determine their effect on
attraction or repulsion of organisms and on rates
Although most papers discussing ocean dumping of degradation. The completed bales were about
of compacted solid waste suggest dumping in deep 33 cm in diameter and 45 to 55 cm in length with
water, the few tests that have been conducted have a density of about 71 lbs/cu. ft.
56

The bale was strapped tightly with one-half inch lized physically and will probably hold together
polypropylene strapping and metal clips, and even after all strap clips corrode. A bale was cut
wrapped in one-quarter inch polypropylene mesh. and carried to the surface for biological examina-
The mesh was chosen as wrapping material because tion and the half left on the bottom with all straps
it prevented loss of the materials, yet allowed inter- cut has remained a discrete bale with very little
action of the waste materials with both organisms loss of material.
and water. Plastic tubes were placed in the bales to
allow divers to later sample the interior water of
the bales for bacteriological and chemical samples.
The bale construction is described in more detail
Interior bale water samples were taken by
by Loder, eta[. (1973).
divers with 50 ml syringes, which were then
The ten waste bales and six control bales (con- stored on ice until analyzed. An initial drop in
crete cylinders, 33 cm in diameter, 50 cm long) the dissolved oxygen from 6 to 2 mi/i occurred
within hours after immersion, but it took several
were placed in about 15 m of water at a site about within hours after immersion, but it took several
0.1 km west of Appledore Island, Isle of Shoals in months for total depletion. Initially, the pH
a pattern of both individual and grouped bales. dropped below 7, then rose to an average of about
8.8 after two months for food waste bales and less
Bottom topography at the site is relatively flat and 8.8 after fo months and le
featureless with sediments composed of a gravelly, for non-foo d bales. After several months the
calcareous sand. Nearby (about 5-15 m) is a rocky interiors contained hydrogen sulfide and other
outcrop area rich in both fauna and flora. The gases. These chemical changes, including nutrients,
outcrop area rich in both fauna and flora. The
waste bales were initially tied to the bottom with are described in detail by Loder, et al. (1973).
rope and stakes to prevent movement and loss such
as reported by Stone (1968). However, the ropes
as reported by Stone (968). However, the ropes is of concern if we are to estimate the ecological
were removed a year later because of their incon-
venience to divers. There has been no movement impact of solid waste materials. Estimates of
of the bales since then, even though currents of oxygen consumption by solid waste materials
greater than 0.5 kn have been measured on the submerged in running seawater for several months
bottom during storms. range from 23 to 90 ml 02 / m2 / hr. depending
on temperature, age of materials and extent of
The site was monitored about once a month dur- bacterial coverage (Pratt, et al., 1973). Estimates
ing the first year and every several months since of the total oxygen consumption of a UNH mini
bale and its biological community after one year
then. Photographs of each bale, organism counts bale and its biological community after one year
and samples for chemical analysis were taken dur- of submersion were made by placing a plexiglass
ing each visit by SCUBA divers. box over a bale and determining the oxygen de-
pletion rate. At 8 C to 11 C these rates were
PHYSICAL CHANGES found to be 10 to 17 ml/m2/hr. (Loder, unpub-
lished data). These lower rates of oxygen con-
The bales showed little or no physical changes sumption may be due to the nature of the solid
throughout the study period except for slight waste and input of oxygen by algae attached on
swelling (estimated to be about 10 percent). The the bales.
metal clips holding the strapping have become cor-
roded, and some have failed. The bales have stabi- BIOLOGICAL CHANGES
Table 1.
Composition of experimental UNH bales and average The biological changes may be divided into
residential solid waste (R.S.W.) several catagories including bacterial mats on the
Non- Food R.S.W. bales, infauna in the bales, attached organisms on
Non- Food R.S.W.
food N(%) (%) (%)* the bales, and motile organisms both on and around
the bales. White bacterial mats appear on the outer
Paper 43.3 23.3 43.8 surface of the bales after the bale goes anoxic and
Textiles 2. 2 2.2 hydrogen sulfide is produced. The amount of bale
Textiles 2.2 2.2 2.7
Glass 20.0 20.0 9.0 covered by the bacterial mats varies seasonally and
Metal 30.1 30.1 9.1 is probably a function of water temperature. These
Food Wastes - 20.0 18.2 mats are composed of sulfur oxidizing bacteria
Garden Wastes 7.9 such as Beggiatoa and Thiothrix, and are described
Rocks and Dirt -- -- 3.7 in more detail by Pratt, et al., 1973; Loder, et. al.,
Plastics -- -- 3.1 1973; and Burton (unpublished data, 1974).
*Compiled by the Council on Environmental Quality (1970) Infauna organisms colonized the bales and after
57

13 months were found within 2-3 cm of the bale 1974).
surface at a density of about 45 organisms per
100 cm2. The most prevelent organism was the In summary of the UNH bale study, we found
In summary of the UNH bale study, we found
boring isopod, Limnoria lignorium, while also that baled solid waste will attract both fauna and
common were several species of polychaetes and
bine svalvpces, poychaetes (and 1974flora soon after emplacement, but it takes a period
bivalves, Hiatella sp. (Gundlach, 1974). of greater than one-half year for the bales to be
attractive to a number of different organisms. This
Within a month after bale emplacement, algae time eriod ma be longer if commercial size bales
were growing directly on the bale mesh. After about are g
ten months, all meshed bales and controls had are used. The effect of the mesh covering the bales
in our experiment was a important factor in deter-
good growths of a number of species of algae, the mining the amount and types of fauna and flora
most prevelent of which were Ptilota and Agarum. that attached to the bale exterior.
that attached to the bale exterior.
All of these algae attached to the mesh, and there
did not appear to be much difference between food But how do these experiments with small, lab-
But how do these experiments with small, lab-
and non-food bales. The mesh appears to enhance oratory-built bales compare with what a city might
growth since no algae have attached to several tightly dump in the ocean? To answer this, experiments
wrapped bundles of newspaper placed on the bottom were conducted with seven 1,350 kg bales in the
in the same area. The materials released by the bale Woods Hole, Massachusetts harbor. The results, as
do not appear to have any effect on the growth of with the UNH study, are somewhat variable be-
the attached algae; in fact, there were more algae tween bales, but overall are surprisingly similar to
species on the waste bales than on the meshed con- the UNH study. Chemical and microbial reactions
crete control bales (Gundlach, 1974). are similar, but fewer large algae are present, pro-
bably because of greater water turbidity. The
Motile invertebrates and fishes were observedbbybeasofgatrwerubit.Th
Motile invertebrates and fishes were observed invertebrates and fishes are similar to those found
around the bales soon after emplacement. These on the UNH bales.
organisms included lobsters, crabs, rock eels, eel-
pouts, starfish and sea urchins. They migrated into This preliminary work demonstrates that bales
the bale site from the nearby rocky outcrop area. of city refuse, produced by a process of shredding
The number of organisms reached a maximum and compaction, can be put in the ocean to form
about a month after emplacement with fewer a structure Which is at least semipermanent. Whether
organisms found around the food waste bales or not it can compete with car bodies or tires is
than the non-food and control bales. Lobsters as yet unknown.
and crabs utilized either the grouped bales as
shelter or dug burrows beneath the bales. Lobsters
THE REFUSE REEF
were found only around the non-food and THE REFUSE REEF
AND PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
control bales during the first five months, after AND PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY
which they were found around all bale types An important but unresolved question plaguing
(Gundlach and Loder, 1974). Unoccupied crab- the participants of this conference is whether a reef
or lobster-dug burrows often were used by stimulates productivity, or simply moves popula-
juvenile eelpout or rock eels. We did not observe tions to different locations. This is difficult to
any organisms utilizing the bales as a food source. assess because a reef builder is interested in the
terminal components of the food chain and second-
The food waste bales appeared to be less de- ary productivity is difficult to measure, especially
sirable as shelter during the first five months of the on a short term. The basis for all production, it
study, indicating that these bales may initially must be remembered, is photosynthesis by plants,
release compounds which reduce normal thigmo- producing organic matter from sunlight and in-
tropic behavior. Motile organisms were not observed organic nutrients. Therefore, if the reef is not near
on these food waste bales during this initial period. the surface, absence of light will be limiting and
The number of motile organisms on the bales in- if nutrients are not easily renewed, they, too, will
creased rapidly after 7 to 8 months, partly as be limiting.
a result of colonization by a large number of
juvenile sea urchins. These urchins were found A reef of tires or car bodies cannot add nutrients
both above and below the mesh and many became to a natural system. They may accelerate mixing
trapped beneath the mesh as they grew. The processes to move bottom-produced nutrients up-
grouped bales of each type had greater numbers wards, and provide attachment sites for benthic
of organisms than the individual bales (Gundlach, plants, but they cannot, by any natural process,
58

supply nutrients for photosynthesis. A refuse reef, Devanney, J. W.; Livanos, V.; and Patell, J.
however, if properly constructed, could do so. If Economic Aspects of Solid Waste Disposal
the refuse bales contain food wastes, and most At Sea. M.I.T. Report No. MITSG 71-2, 1970.
refuse is from 5 to 20 percent food wastes, the
heterotrophic bacteria and invertebrate community
metabolism near the bales' surfaces should supply Dunlea, J. V. Jr. "Method of Bulk Rubbish Disposal."
as much as 1 00.g-at ammonia per square meter U.S. Patent No. 3,330,088, July11, 1967.
surface area of bales per hour. A benthic alga on
the bales could use this to flourish and support Gundlach, E. R. "Biological Effects of Marine Em-
Gundlach, E. R. "Biological Effects of Marine Em-
large populations of invertebrates and fishes, placed Compacted Solid Waste Bales." unpub-
something ti r e s and cars cannotdo. 'placed Compacted Solid Waste Bales. unpub-
something tires and cars cannot do. lished master's thesis, University of New Hamp-
shire, 1974.
Bale construction strategy may become impor-
tant if no garbage is available, and paper, which com-
poses about 50 percent of common domestic refuse, Epibenthos and Nekton to Baled Solid Waste
is broken down readily. In this case, nitrogen may Emplacement in a Shallow Marine Environment."
(Paper in preparation), 1974.
not be available and it would have to be scavenged
by denitrifying bacteria from the surrounding Little, A. D. Prospects for Ocean Disposal of
waters. This would, at least theoretically, act to Municipal Refuse: A Technical Literature
diminish productivity. We have found that the Review. Final Report to the New England
Woods Hole bales both with and without garbage Regional Commission, 1973.
have added rather than removed nitrogen to the
water. This may change as the bales age. Loder, T. C.; F. E. Anderson; and T. C. Shevenell.
Sea Monitoring of Emplaced Baled Solid Waste.
University of New Hampshire Sea Grant Report
CONCLUSIONS UNH SG-118, 1973.

Solid waste refuse, from an economic stand- National Industrial Pollution Control Council. A Sub-
point and its durability in the marine environ- Council Report to NIPCC. Deep Ocean Dumping
ment, is a potential source of reef material,
depending on refuse preparation. of Baled Refuse,1971.
Research to date does not indicate that solid Pearce, J. B. "Biological Survey of Submerged
refuse is an ecological hazard when properly
processed. Refuse." Marine Pollution Bulletin, 111(10),
Monitoring of a baled refuse reef always (1972),157-159.
would be necessary to assess the ecological
impact. Smith, David D. and Robert P. Brown. Ocean
Disposal of Barze-delivered Licuid and Solid
Wastes from U. S. Coastal Cities. U. S. Environ-
REFERENCES mental Protection Agency (SW-19c), 1971.

Blumenberg, W. F. Simulated Deep Sea Pressure Steimle, F. and R. B. Stone. Bibliography on
Tests on Baled Municipal Refuse. Test and Artificial Reefs. Wilmington, N. C.: Coastal
Evaluation Report No. 780-1. Enclosure (1) Plains Center For Marine Development Services,
to Navel Ship Research and Development Center, Publ. 73-2, 1973.
1971.
Stone, R. B. "Artificial Reefs of Waste Material for
Bogost, M. S. "Hawaii's Experiment with Ocean Habitat Improvement." Marine Pollution Bulletin,
Disposal of Baled Wastes." Marine Technology III (1972), 27-28.
Society Iournal, VII(1), (1973), 34-37.
.Summarv Cruise Report for R. V.
Bostrom, R. C. and Sherif, M. A. "Disposal of Waste Challenge for October 1 6. 17, 25 and November
Material in Tectonic Sinks." Nature. 228, 1970, 25, 1968. Sandy Hook Marine Lab, Highlands,
pp. 154-156. N. J., 1968.

Council on Environmental Quality. Report to the Stroud, R. H. and W. H. Massmann. "Earliest
President. Ocean Dumping. a National Policy. Fishing Reef." Sport Fishing Institute Bulletin,
U.S.G.P.O., 1970. 174 (1966), 5-6.
59

Artificial Reefs as Experimental Tools

RON S. NOLAN

Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, La Jolla, California 92037

Many species of fishes associated with small coral on sand regions between small, natural patch reefs
patch reefs in the lagoons of Indo-Pacific atolls show in the lagoon of Enewetak Atoll, Marshall Islands
high correlation with and dependence upon hard, (Figure 2). The reef design used has the advantage
high-profile substrates. These structures function of providing precisely controlled amounts of shel-
both to provide shelter from roving inter-reef ter as well as ease of construction and installation.
piscivores and as attachment sites for benthic algae.
Natural patch reefs occur in a great variety of sizes ARTIFICIAL REEF DESIGN
and shapes from simple, isolated Pocillipora and AND CONSTRUCTION
Acropora heads to massive pinnacles with high
coral diversity (Figure 1). Studies currently in pro- Reef modules were constructed of 7.6 cm
gress indicate that fish abundance and diversity are (3 inch) I. D. plastic perforated drain pipe im-
generally related to overall reef size and amount of bedded in cement. Each module consists of 3 m
shelter available. Some species of damselfishes long pipes inserted into each face of a concrete
(family Pomacentridae) are associated with specific cube 26 cm long on each side. This gives the mod-
coral types. The shelter seeking response of the ule a "jack" shape reminiscent of the children's
Caribbean damsel, Chromis cvanea, to predators game. Twenty modules were stacked together
or disturbance has been well documented (Hart- to form a reef with a mean height and width
line, et al., 1972). In this species the distance of of 1.6 m. These reefs provide a great range in
individuals away from their resident coral head shelter grain size from small spaces inside the
reflects the nearness of potential predators. tubes to the larger interstices at the base and
Chromis caerulea in the Marshall Islands remains within the reef.
closer to shelter when subjected to strong current
flow, or the presence of the many jacks, groupers, Modules were formed by pouring cement
snappers and sharks that patrol these reefs. into 1 cubic foot cardboard boxes in which the
pipes had been inserted through pre-cut holes.
The modules can conveniently be cast in number
Patch reefs are significant refugia from predators by packing the pipe-box units together as they are
and strong currents during the night as well as the supported by two parallel boards (Figure 3).
day. Many schooling herbivores, which often Modules retained their integrity even when 30
constitute a considerable proportion of the fish
to 40 percent of their volume consisted of filler
biomass, forage over reef or rubble areas during (e.g. beer bottles). The cardboard forms disin-
the day and at night seek shelter in reef caves and tegrate within a month, freeing bare concrete
crevices. Conversely, some species are found deep surfaces which are rapidly colonized by algae
within the water column or over bare sand areas and invertebrates.
(Hobson, 1968, 1972). Randall (1963) was able to
markedly increase fish populations by constructing At Enewetak the modules were easily trans-
a concrete block reef in the Virgin Islands. His study ported by small skiff, dumped overboard and
has been followed by many practical efforts to arranged into a reef with the help of a single assist-
increase standing stocks by the provision of artifi- ant. If a large "sports" type reef of this design
cial shelter (Steimle and Stone, 1973). To gain was executed, the modules might be assembled
insight into the relative importance of shelter as and cast on board barge deck utilizing ready mixed
opposed to food in limiting populations of reef concrete. Installation of a high profile reef would
fishes, standardized artificial reefs were installed result merely from dumping the jacks overboard.
60

The feasibility and practicality of such large reefs ranged from 41 to 57 kilos on land (roughly 14
would be determined by the economics of art- to 19 kilos in water). Total weight of a 20 module
ificial reef construction. Auto body reefs may reef that occupied 4.1 m3 was 980 kilos (323 kilos
improve the esthetics of suburban landscapes, in water).
but show little promise as reef building materials
due to their limited longevity and high cost of Module costs were moderately expensive as a
preparation and transport (Stone, 1972). Stacked result of using high quality plastic pipe. Cost per
tire reefs of varying configuration do meet the module in 1973 was $5.17 ($103.40 per 20 unit
requirements of economy, shelter and durability reef) not including labor or transportation. A
and are increasingly being used along Atlantic less expensive substitute for the plastic pipe would
coastal regions (Stone et al., 1974). lower the costs considerably. Plastic pipe has the
attributes of being rapidly colonized by benthic
A comparison of the surface area of the Enewetak organisms (Figure 4) and fishes, and of being
experimental reefs and a hypothetical concrete pipe extremely resilient. Enewetak jack reefs have
reef similar in size to ones in use at Pokai Bay, withstood large typhoon generated wave surge
Hawaii is made in Table 1. It is apparent that the on a number of occasions with little dispersion.
modular design provides over six times the available Nearby natural reefs, however, suffered extensive
surface of a bare, single pipe. Weight per module damage to fragile AcroDora heads.

Figure 1

Figure 2 Figure 3
61

EXPERIMENTAL CAPABILITIES were deep within the head by simply removing
the coral unit from the reef. The use of these de-
The standardized components of this reef de- tachable minihabitats has permitted a regime of
sign permit an investigator to build replicate reefs experimentation designed to determine how
of known shelter parameters (surface area, volume). species interactions act to shape community
To successfully mimic a small, natural Enewetak structure.
patch reef of 27 m3 a 40 module reef was necessary.
Pomacentrus pavo is a pomacentrid that nu- The artificial reefs also serve as substrates for
merically dominated the artificial reef communities. blooms of benthic algae; Hormothmanion and
This species normally seeks shelter in cracks or Calothrix rapidly colonize the cement and plastic
crevices at the base of natural reefs. Chromis surfaces and are browsed frequently by parrotfishes
caerulea, however, has more precise shelter re- and surgeonfishes. It is interesting to note that these
quirements and most frequently occurs in small algae are important nitrogen fixers (Bill Wiebe and
Pocillipora heads of fine grain shelter. When dead Robert Johannes of the University of Georgia, per-
Pocillipora heads were cemented into small couplers sonal communication). Midwater feeding
(normally used to hook sections of the plastic Pomacentrus pavo and Chromis caerulea ingest
pipe together) and added to the artificial reefs, C.
caerulea juveniles soon settled out from the
plankton and were able to successfully invade the
fish community (Figure 5). Their populations
could be transplanted easily at night when the fish

Table 1

Comparative surface areas of Eniwetok modular
reef and a hypothetical concrete pipe reef

ENEWETAK MODULAR REEF
Each module consists of three 3-meter pipes with
I. D. of 7.6 cubic inches and one concrete cube
30.5 cm in length.
Figure 4
PIPE SURFACE AREA

Inside 1.71 m2
Outside 2.25 m2

CONCRETE BLOCK SURFACE AREA
(not including area occupied by pipe
cross section) 0.53 m2,
Total module surface area 4.49 m2

20 module reef with dimensions
1.6 x 1.6 x 1.6 m and occupying
a volume of 4.1 m3 89.80 m2

CONCRETE PIPE REEF

Single pipe with dimensions of above completed
module reef

PIPE SURFACE AREA

Inside 5.53 m2
Outside 8.04 m2_

Total reef surface area 13.57 m2 Figure 5
62

much energy in the form of algal filaments, detritus Isaacs and Richard Rosenblatt of Scripps Institu-
and zooplankton that continuously flow over the tion of Oceanography and Professor Joseph
small reefs along the windward side of the atoll Connell of University of California at Santa
(Gerber and Marshall, 1973). Groupers, jacks and Barbara who have guided me through this
other predators feed opportunistically on any endeavor. Dr. Philip Helfrich, Director of the
damselfish that exceeds its escape distance from Enewetak Marine Lab, has been a welcome ally
shelter. in this study. Dr. J.E. Randall kindly read the
manuscript and made helpful suggestions.
The small size of the artificial reefs allow them Special thanks to the "Enewetak Artificial
to be surrounded by predator exclusion cages Reef Construction Company" who mixed by
(Figure 6). These consist of a reinforcing rod hand the ten tons of concrete now resting
frame onto which a nylon net one and one- on the bottom of Enewetak Lagoon.
quarter inch stretch mesh, is sewn. The net is
secured at the base by a chain around the perimeter.
These experiments are designed to investigate a REFERENCES
phenomenon documented by Dayton (1971)
for the rocky intertidal of the north Pacific Dayton,. P. K. "Competition, Disturbance and Com-
coast. He found that predation pressure from sea munity Organization: The Provision and Sub-
stars prevented the competitively dominant sequent Utilization of Space in a Rocky Inter-
mussel from excluding other benthic organisms - tidal Community." Ecological Monograph 41
in effect maintaining species diversity. (1971), 351-389.
The exclusion of inter-reef piscivores from the Gerber, R. and N. Marshall. "Utilization of Detritus
reef would be expected to result in a decrease in by the Lagoon Pelagic Community at Enewetak
species diversity. Atoll." Unpublished M.S. thesis, Graduate School
of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island,
Small reefs of this construction may find 1973.
practical application in Hawaii. In recent years the
*ommercial .ollection of sHartline, A., P. Hartline, A. Szmant and A. Flechsig.
commercial collection of small reef fishes has "Escape Response in a Poacentrid Reef Fish,
become of economic significance to aquarium Chromis cyaneus." Results of the Tektite Program:
suppliers; in fact, there is concern among en- Ecology of Coral Reef Fishes. Los Angeles
vironmentalists that this resource may some day
become over-exploited. Dr. Leighton Taylor of 14 1972 pp 93-97
the Hawaii Cooperative Fishery Unit has suggested
that small reefs might be installed to encourage Hobson, E. S. Predatory behavior of Some Shore
Fishes in the Gulf of California. U. S. Fish and
the settlement of reef fish larvae from the plankton Fishes in the Gulf of California. U. S. Fish and
(personal communication). These fishes might Wildlife Service Research Report 73,1968.
subsequently be collected and raised to market size .Activitv of Hawaiian Reef Fishes
in aquaria. This would free regions of shelter During the Evening and Morning Transitions
for further larval recruitment. The modular Between Daylight and Darkness. Fishery Bulletin
design would be well suited for reef construction 70 (1972), 715-740.
by individual collectors.
by individual collectors. Longley, W. H. "Life on a Coral Reef."
My gratitude to Professors Paul Dayton, John National Geographic Magazine, Vol. 51,
No. 1,1927, pp. 61-83.
,and S. F. Hildebrand. Systematic
Catalogue of the Fishes of Tortugas. Florida.
Washington: Carnegie Institute, 1941.
Randall, J. E. "An Analysis of the Fish Pop-
ulations of Artificial and Natural Reefs in
the Virgin Islands." Caribbean I ournal of
Science, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1963, pp. 31-47.
Steimle, F. and R. B. Stone. Bibliography on
Artificial Reefs. Coastal Plains Center for
Marine Development Series, Publication
73-2, 1973.
Figure 6 Stone, R. "General Introduction to Artificial Reefs."
63

Proceedings of the Snort Fishinz Seminar. , C Buchanan and F. Stelmle, Jr. Scrap
Coastal Plains Center for Marine Development Tires as Artificial Reefs. U. S. Environmental
Services, Seminar Series No. 1,1972 Protection Agency Publication (SW-119), 1974.

P~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
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64~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4

Midwater Structures for Enhancing

Recreational Fishing

LARRY H. OGREN

Fishery Biologist, Gulf Coast Fisheries Center, National Marine Fisheries Service,
Panama City Laboratory, Panama City, Florida 32401

Little mention has been made at this conference fishes to floating structures? What is the adaptive
about artificial structures located at mid water advantage for fishes commonly associated with this
depths. Yet this method of attracting fishes offers habitat? How can this information be applied to
many advantages over bottom reefs and may solve improve or develop new fish harvesting methods?
some of the real problems that we have discussed Several hypotheses have been proposed explaining
(labor, transportation costs and potential hazards the various relationships between fishes and the ob-
to navigation). Requisite biological and environ- jects. The effect of structure configuration and
mental conditions must be present, as in all reef deployment on the attraction of fishes also has
site locations, for this method to be successful. been tested (see References).

Resourceful anglers are aware of the variety of Edward Klima and Donald Wickham (NMFS)
pelagic fishes that can be caught around drifting have developed the technique of using moored
objects at sea. Only a few, however, actively search structures to attract coastal pelagic fishes. The
and fish these floating objects. For most it is prob- number of bait fish attracted to their artificial
ably a fortuitous encounter, and their fishing success structures was impressive, and the rapid rate of re-
around these objects is also unpredictable. Some cruitment to these small objects was equally sur-
anglers devote most of their fishing effort trolling prising (see References).
along debris and sargasso weed lines. These are the
big game fishermen whose knowledge of oceanic These experiments were conducted in the north-
conditions and seasonal distribution of pelagic eastern Gulf of Mexico. It is a unique area of the
fishes has improved their strategy. Gulf where oceanic waters impinge upon the beaches.
Schools of herrings, anchovies and scads occur
Not all recreational fishermen can afford to in the nearshore zone. In turn, migratory game fish,
pursue large game fish offshore. Closer inshore, a especially the mackerals and jacks, pursue this
crude but effective fishing technique is employed bait in coastal and inshore areas and also into the
in which small pieces of floatable material such as bays. The bait sometimes retreats behind the bars
boards or cardboard'are scattered on the surface. where some protection is afforded them. Offshore,
Hopefully, a few pelagic fishes will be attracted to they form "hard" schools in defense, against
this debris when the usual trolling methods are attacks by predators, In this featureless environ-
unproductive. Because of the low profile of these ment, the prey species are attracted to almost any
objects, many become lost from view or simply suitable floating object or bottom disconformity.
abandoned after a day's fishing (another source of It is a good place to experiment with mid water
pollution of the littoral zone). The flat shape and structures. The requisites here are clear water and
buoyancy of this material results in a low under- attractable fish.
water profile as well, limiting the visual range of the
structure to fishes. Better techniques are available Donald Wickham and John Watson suggested
to the coastal fisherman. that we collaborate to evaluate the effectiveness of
midwater structures in attracting game fish
Marine biologists have been interested in the (Figure 1 ). Results from this experimental fishing
behavior of fishes associated with drifting objects showed that significantly greater catches of game
for some time. They have examined questions such species (king mackerel, little tunny and dolphin)
as: What are the mechanisms involved in attracting were made around the structures than in control
65

these results and general statements about seasonal
distribution (see References).

How does the concept of midwater structure
design and deployment differ from conventional
artificial reef construction and management methods?
The obvious difference is in the choice of species
to be attracted. The primary target species for mid-
water structures are pelagic fishes versus demersal
species for bottom reefs. Another difference is the
temporary nature of the midwater structure as op-
posed to the development of a benthic community
on a conventional artificial reef. Relatively few or-
ganisms will be associated with the former, where-
as many kinds of invertebrates and fishes will oc-
cupy the latter. As a tool for fishery management,
midwater structures have the advantage of affecting
fewer target species. You have more control over
your methods by manipulating only a small seg-
ment of the coastal fish population. In addition,
a pre-existing habitat and its associated fauna will
not be permanently altered or displaced.

Pelagic fishes are more wide ranging in their habits
than demersal species. Nocturnal movements of
bait away from the structures may attract more
John Watson inspects a midwater structure moored off Panama predatory game fish to the site when they re
City, Florida. Round scad (Decapterus punctatus), an important
bait fish in this area, were attracted to this object shortly after it at daylight. This possibility was supported by the
was deployed. repeatedly good catches made by charter boats.
areas. It is important to note that these results were
obtained at a time when conventional trolling Midwater structures are advantageous because of
methods by charter boatmen were unproductive, their simple construction and portability. They are
By deploying the structures at various depths, we readily deployed and moved about. Problems with
determined that more king mackerel were attracted labor and expensive transportation costs to the reef
around the structures in shallower waters than those site arenegligible when compared to bottom reef con-
placed in deeper waters. This was probably due to struction. They also offer less threat to a deep draft
the greater abundance of bait inshore during the
warmer months (Figure 2). As water temperatures
drop, the schools of coastal pelagic fishes move With restrictions placed on boat owners in terms
offshore or southward. Robert Hastings, Michael of either rising fuel costs or shortages, judiciously
Mabry and I have described the fish fauna associa- placed midwater structures can reduce the time
ted with two U.S. Navy research platforms located spent searching for fish. This is especially advanta-
off Panama City. Our observations give support to geous to the inexperienced fisherman.
Midwater structures can enhance the fishing ex-
perience in other ways. An abundant supply of live
bait is usually present around the structure. An
angler could easily capture several by snagging them,
then bait a suitable rig and drift-fish in the same area.
You can imagine the fight a king mackerel would
give when caught in this manner as compared to
trolling for them. Fly fishing, with its limited cast-
ing range, also would be exciting - especially if
"school" dolphin are present.

Figure 2. To our knowledge, widespread application of '
A school of round scad, Decapterus punctatus, "hardened" below midwater structures by sport fishermen has not oc-
a U.S. Navy research platform off Panama City, Florida. curred. Those who are dependent upon fishing for a
66

living probably are reluctant to share their labors REFERENCES
and rights to these objects with competitors.
As in the case of bottom artificial reefs, good or- Selected references on the association of fishes with
ganization and cooperative efforts between inter- surface and upper water column objects: Pacific.
ested groups will be necessary for this fishery meth-
od to expand. Gooding, Reginald M., and John J. Magnuson.
"Ecological Significance of a Drifting Object to
The few fishermen who have adopted this meth- Pelagic Fishes." Pacific Science, Vol. 21, No. 4
od are well pleased with their results. A captain (1966), 486-497.
operating in the northeastern Gulf of Mexico has Hunter, John R., and Charles T. Mitchell. "Associa-
been fishing midwater structures of his own design tion of Fishes with Flotsam in the Offshore
for several seasons. He uses 1 x 2 inch wooden Waters of Central America." Fishery Bulletin,
strips, 12 to 14 feet long for each structure. The Vol. 66, No.1 (1967), 13-29.
slat is tied by a line to a heavy weight. The length "Field Experiments on the Attract-
of the line determines the depth each slat is
suspended below the surface (usually six feet). A ion of Pelatic Fish to Floating Objects." I. Cons
small piece of styrofoam is nailed to the top of the P erm. it. Explor. Mer, Vol.31, No.3 (1968),
slat to prevent it from sinking in a current or when
it becomes waterlogged. About six slats are placed Mitchell, Charles T., and John R. Hunter. "Fishes
overboard per trolling site. Associated with Drifting Kelp, Macrocystis
pyrifera, off the Coast of Southern California
Another enterprising individual is hoping to and Northern Baja California." California Fish
develop a market for live round scad, locally called and Game, Vol. 56, No. 4 (1970), 288-297.
"cigar minnows," for the mackerel fishery. He has
constructed a trawler-type hull out of ferro cement Selected references on the association of fishes
from which to fish. A large live well has been built with surface and upper water column objects:
to hold the bait. He may use midwater structures Gulf of Mexico.
to "harden up" the bait in order to catch them with
a purse seine, then anchor in the vicinity of the pass Hastings, Robert W., Larry H. Ogren, and Michael T.
and sell his catch to passing fishermen. Mabry. "The Ecology of the Fish Fauna Associated
with Offshore Platforms in the Northeastern
More research is needed to determine the effec- Gulf of Mexico." unpublished manuscript, 1973.
tiveness of midwater structures in other coastal areas.
Kilma, Edward F., and Donald A. Wickham. "At-
Additional quantitative data is necessary to support
traction of Coastal Pelagic Fishes with Artificial
the subjective statements made from numerous, but tractions of the American Fish-
incidental, field observations. Biologists might con-
sider using this method to increase the efficiency of eries Society Vol.100, No.1 (1971),86-89.
in situ life history studies. We are presently planning Wickham, Donald A., and John W. Watson, Jr., and
to study the biology, ecology, and migrations of Larry H. Ogren. "The Efficacy of Midwater Art-
coastal pelagic game fish. These structures might pro- ificial Structures for Attracting Pelagic Sport
vide us with a dependable source of fish for tagging Fish." Transactions of the American Fisheries
purposes. If they are visited regularly throughout ciety Vol. 102, No. 3 (197), 563-572.
the season, information on seasonal distribution also , and Gary M. Russell. "Evaluation
can be obtained. Improvements are necessary to in- of Mid-water Artificial Structures for Attracting
crease the structures' longevity at sea and their value Coastal Pelagic Fishes." Fishery Bulletin, Vol.
as research tools. 72, No. 1 (1974), 181-191.

Progress of the Smith Mountain Reservoir Artificial

Reef Project

ERIC D. PRINCE*
PAUL BROUHA

Department of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060

Rocky outcrops, ledges and submerged islands metropolitan region of Virginia. The reservoir sup-
all are good examples of bottom structure occur- ports a sport fishery of considerable magnitude, as
ring naturally in freshwater lentic environments. many as 330,000 angler visits per year. Habitat
The amount of naturally occurring cover is often improvement in Smith Mountain Reservoir on an
insufficient to furnish adequate shelter for cover- experimental basis seemed warranted because of the
seeking fish species (Hubbs and Eschmeyer, 1938). general lack of shelter in shallow water areas (a re-
Providing additional artificial cover, therefore, re- suit of clearcutting prior to impoundment) and
mains a realistic management technique. In this increasing fishing pressure.
paper we consider only those bottom structures
that are built by man. Research was initiated in April, 1973 to evalu-
ate the use of artificial reefs in Smith Mountain
lFor our purposes, an artificial reef may be de- Reservoir, Virginia. Objectives of the project are
scribed as any collection of rigid structures placed to assess artificial reefs in terms of: (1) construc-
close together in an aquatic environment to im- tion costs; (2) preference of fishes for materials
prove fish habitat. The terms "fish attractors" or and locations; (3) sequence of occupation, per-
"fish hides" are often used to refer to freshwater manence of station, and feeding habits of reef
artificial reefs (Crumpton, 1972; Davis, 1969). fishes; and (4) contribution of reef fishes to angler
"Artificial reef" is a more descriptive term since harvest.
reefs may serve as spawning habitat, shelter and a
source of food, as well as simply attracting fish.
Although researchers have concentrated most of
their efforts in marine waters (Steimle and Stone,
1973), the application of artificial reefs as a fresh-
water fisheries management technique shows con- Twelve experimental areas were randomly as-
siderable potential. signed as either reef or control sites. Four reefs
were constructed of scrap automobile tires tied into
Some of the earliest research on freshwater pyramid units (Figure 2) and four of discarded
habitat improvement by means of artificial struc- Christmas trees (Figure 3). The remaining four sites
tures was published by Hubbs and Eschmeyer were designated control areas. Two tire reefs and
(1938) and Rodeheffer (1938, 1940, 1944). Re- two tree reefs were constructed on point locations
suits from these and later studies confirm that arti- and two of each type in cove locations (Figure 1).
ficial structures can attract large numbers of fish. Of the four control sites, two were on points and
Lack of data on how reefs affect freshwater fish two in coves (Figure 1). All reef structures were
populations and prohibitively high construction situated along the 7-12 foot depth contour. Over
costs have, however, curtailed the utilization of 3,600 tires and 400 trees were used in construction
artificial reefs as a freshwater fisheries management of the reefs. Research on these twelve experimental
technique. areas involved determining preferred reef materials
and locations, as indicated by game fish population

nearly 20,000 acres (8,100 ha) and is located with-
in 45 miles (72 km) of Roanoke, the second largest In addition t the first 12 randomly selected
reef areas, a larger multi-component tire reef was
*Presentor constructed at a carefully selected location (Fig-

ROANOKE
:"::!'.;..}6.:. '";"'~RIVVER a IER - -

BLACKArER X ~ \ .. ) : :D--.. :

--CONTROL SIT.
....... MULTI -COMPONENT REE: :: :.

TIRE REEF ..

' TREE REEF
SCALE
_i:.:..I o ~~~~0 1/2 MILE

Figure 1.
Location of artificial reefs in
Smith Mountain Reservoir, Virginia.

Figure 2.
Pyramid tire unit.
ure 1). This reef consists of triangle tire units
(Figure 4) along the 4-5 foot depth contour,
pyramid tire units (Figure 2) along the 7-10 foot
depth contour and high profile tire units (Figure
5) placed along the 15-20 foot depth contour. The
reef is approximately 150 yards long and extends
from the tip of a point into the adjacent cove Figure 3.
(Figure 1). More than 3,400 tires were used in Christmas tree unit.

constructing this reef. Research on this large We observed the following fish species utiliz-
reef involves determining the sequence of occupation, ing the reefs for shelter during summer months:
permanence of station and feeding habits of bluegill, redbreast and pumpkinseed sunfish; large-
fishes associated with the reef. mouth bass; smallmouth bass; and white and chan-
nel catfish. Bluegill were the most abundant fish
species observed during surveys from June through
Sampling methods employed to collect data November, 1973. White and channel catfish, and
at experimental sites include: underwater scuba largemouth and smallmouth bass were commonly
transects, gill nets, hook and line, electro-fishing observed, but their numbers fluctuated periodically.
and fish traps. Scuba surveys indicated that the occupation pat-
tern of fish species associated with the reef is sea-
Over 7,000 tires, 400 Christmas trees and 650 sonal. Reduced numbers of fish were observed
man-hours of labor were used to construct the arti- around the reefs during the colder months of
ficial reefs. More than 50 percent of this labor was December, 1973 and January and February, 1974.
donated by Bass Anglers Sportsmen Society Gizzard shad and sunfishes have been observed
(B.A.S.S.) members and other interested indivi- grazing directly on the periphyton attached to reef
duals. Some of the construction materials (such as substrate. Periphyton was evident on reef substrate
polypropylene rope) and equipment also were do- within three weeks after reef installation.
nated by these and other groups. Reef construc-
tion expenses (excluding donations) totaled
$1,270.87. Reef installation was completed in
mid-October, 1973. Instructions on how to build
these and other artificial reef units are given in
Brouha and Prince (1974).

UNDERWATER OBSERVATIONS

Initial underwater observations (within one
week after reef installation) indicated that young
fish occupied the reefs almost immediately and
were followed later by adults. Scuba surveys indi-
cated that at least 12 species of fish were associated
with the artificial reefs (Table 1).

Figure 4. Figure 5.
Triangle tire unit. High profile tire unit.
70

CONCLUSION Hubbs, C.L., and R.W. Eschmeyer. The Improve-
ment of Lakes for Fishing - A Method of Fish
Management. Michigan Department of Con-
We are encouraged by the active participation servation, Institute of Fisheries Research Bul-
and continuing interest of segments of the corn- letin. No. 2, 1938.
munity in the project, as well as by the results of
our studies to date. The successful completion of Rodeheffer, I.A. "Experiments in the Use of
the project should help assess the value of artifi- Brush Shelters by Fish in Michigan Lakes."
cial reefs as a freshwater fisheries management Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science,
technique. Arts and Letters, Vol. 24, 1939.

REFERENCES "Fish Populations In and
Around Brush Shelters of Different Sizes
Brouha, P., and E.D. Prince. How to Build a Fresh- Placed at Varying Depths and Distances
water Artificial Reef. Virginia Polytechnic Apart in Douglas Lake, Michigan." Papers
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts
Virginia. Sea Grant Extension Publication, and Letters, Vol. 25, 1939.
No. 73-03. 1974.
"Fish Populations In and
Crumpton, J. "Fish Attractors." Florida Wildlife, Around Brush Shelters of Different Sizes
1972, pp. 14-15. Placed at Varying Depths and Distances
Apart in Douglas Lake, Michigan." Papers
Davis, J. R. "Fish Hides." Wildlife of North Caro- of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts
lina, 1969, pp. 18-19. and Letters, Vol. 30, Part II (1943), 1945.

TABLE 1

Fishes observed during SCUBA surveys of the artificial reefs
in Smith Mountain Reservoir, Virginia, June-November, 1973.

Scientific Name Common Name Occurrence

Lepomis macrochirus Bluegill sunfish common
Lepomis auritus Redbreast sunfish common
Lepomis 2ibbosus Pumpkinseed sunfish occasional
Micronterus salmoides Largemouth bass common
Micropterus dolomieui Smallmouth bass common
Morone saxatilis Striped bass rare
Stizostedion vitreum Walleye occasional
Ictalurus punctatus Channel catfish common
Ictalurus catus White catfish common
Pomixis annularis White crappie rare
CvPrinus carpio Carp occasional
Dororsoma cepedianum Gizzard shad occasional
71

Steimle, F.W., and R.B. Stone (editors). Bibliog-
raDhv on Artificial Reefs. Coastal Plains
Center for Marine Development Services,
Wilmington, North Carolina, Publication 73-2,
1973.

72.

::% " ';.S

Building Artificial Reefs

SESSION CHAIRMAN: JOHN S. GOTTSCHALK, International Association
of Game, Fish and Conservation Commissioners, Washington, D. C.

Building Artificial Reefs Through

Inter-Governmental Effort With the Private Sector

of the Economy

GREGORY S. MCINTOSH

Broward Artificial Reef, Inc., 1220 N.E. 8th Avenue, Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33304

It is indeed a pleasure to be here today and department might undertake a study to answer
to pass along some thoughts and ideas on the tech- these problems. Money was raised, two students
nique the Broward Artificial Reef, Inc. is using to were funded and the project got underway using
construct an artificial reef off the coast of Fort pre-formed concrete modules as a substrate.
Lauderdale.
For two years things went smoothly. The
Late in 1966, Virgil Osborne, a local fishing American Broadcasting Corporation came to the
boat captain, became concerned with the decrease area and photographed a concrete aero-jack drop.
of fish being brought in by charter and private Later in the year, ABC's Wide World of Sports
boats. Catches of bottom feeders such as snapper aired the film and more contributions rolled in.
and grouper, as well as the more migratory species, And then it happened - - the public lost interest and
sailfish, marlin and kingfish were on the wane. the money stopped.
Divers reported pollution was killing our natural
reefs and spearfishermen were on the increase. At this point the directors and officers ex-
amined the situation critically. What was the
After lengthy discussions with private indivi- group doing to effect such a calamatous situation?
duals and fishing groups, Osborne decided the com- The answer was nothing and that was the point.
munity should build an artificial reef. Stories of Jacks were costing $11 per unit on the bottom.
dumped automobiles, refrigerators and other refuse Money was being solicited from the same sources
were circulated. However, all these efforts seemed and the volunteer labor force had dwindled to
fragmented and expensive and locations were close- eight or nine individuals. BARINC had temporari-
ly-guarded secrets. What was needed then was a ly come to a full halt.
county project utilizing as many individuals, groups
and corporations as possible. It was at this point that the reef group investi-
gated the efforts of Stone, et al. and the federal
The next task was to determine the best struc- government. Here lay the solution to acquiring a
ture to accomplish this purpose. A club, an organi- cheap substrate, but how to raise the money to
zation or a corporation? Osborne wisely elected process and dispose of tires? Local industry was
the corporate route, but chartered as a non-profit, incapable and unwilling to underwrite such an ex-
tax-exempt corporation, providing a vehicle where- tensive program and contributed funds were not
by funds might be raised and donations received, sufficient to defray operating expenses, let alone
affording definite tax advantages to contributors. salaries.
Early in 1967 the Broward Artificial Reef, Inc.
(BARINC) was incorporated and chartered under One alternative remained, the tire manufac-
the laws of the State of Florida and a board of turers themselves. BARINC contacted three major
directors and officers were appointed. tire companies. One responded with a form letter,
one failed to respond and the Goodyear Tire and
Now that the mechanism was established the Rubber Company responded requesting more in-
question arose, where to build a reef and out of formation. Corporate records and scientific re-
what? One of the directors, Dr. Raymond F. ports were immediately dispatched to Akron; a
McAllister of Florida Atlantic University suggesteft corporate representative visited Fort Lauderdale
that perhaps a group of graduate students from his and negotiations followed whereby Goodyear do-
75

nated a tire bundling machine to the group. Good- The Broward County Pollution Control
year not only provided the hardware, but the tech- Board
nical expertise to train personnel in the operation The Broward County Department of Parks
and maintennce of theequipment.The Broward County Department of Parks
and maintenance of the equipment. and Beaches

What personnel? Clearly, if this were to be a The Broward County Department of Trans-
continuing project, permanent employees were a portation
necessity. In 1971 the Broward County Pollution The Broward County Port Authority
Control Board unanimously passed a resolution en- The City of Fort Lauderdale
dorsing the reef project and recommending that it
be considered a county purpose. This was done and numerous local corporations who donated
subsequently and the City of Fort Lauderdale fol- time material and equipment to the cause.
time, material and equipment to the cause.
lowed suit. The county provided three employees
from the Department of Parks and Beaches to
from the Department of Parks and Beaches to To put all this into perspective, I would like
operate and maintain the equipment. Port Ever- to recap what transpired and then talk a little
to recap what transpired and then talk a little
glades Authority leased five acres of land to about benefits and economics.
BARINC for $1 per year. The project gained mo-
mentum. The year was 1971.
mentum. The year was 1971. 1) An individual, concerned with changes
in the environment, founded a tax free
Early in 1972 the Broward Artificial Reef,
Inc. and the County Administrator coordinated corporation to build a county reef.
personnel and equipment and the reef moved into 2) Monies were raised and professional ex-
Phase II. In April of that year we conducted our pertise enlisted to locate a site and
first drop. In concert with Goodyear's public re- select a substrate, and the project was
lations department, BARINC held a breakfast with initiated.
speakers from the National Oceanic and Atmos- 3) The project faltered due to material
pheric Administration, the State Department of and associated costs and due to the lack
Transportation representing the Governor's office of a permanent, scheduled labor force.
and local elected officials whose agencies actively 4) Re-examination of goals and objectives
supported the project. Over 100 small boats car-inat f gal and
indicated fresh capital, equipment and
ried single tire units to the reef site. The United personnel were required if the project
personnel were required if the project
States Naval Reserve, on board the USS Thrush were to continue.
carried compacted modules and at a signal from
the Goodyear Blimp thousands of tires splashed 5) Industry, along with federal, state and
to the bottom. local government joined together and
salvaged a viable project.
6) The project is continuing with inputs
What has been stated so far appears relatively
from each of these groups.
simple and devoid of difficulties. Do not be misled.
Innumerable numbers of man-hours went into
meetings, planning and workshop sessions. A par- Perhaps the two most critical items mentioned
tial listing of agencies and organizations contacted above are three and five, namely, the ability to re-
includes: examine priorities and effect a solution and to
bring local government into the picture.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration The latter deserves consideration here, for
without government cooperation, the project
The United States Navy - Naval Ordinance would have failed.
Laboratory Test Facility
The United States Naval Reserve Broward County is not unique in having tre-
The United States Army Corps of Engineers mendous difficulty in disposing of tires. Existing
incinerators are incapable of burning them in an
The Environmental Protection Agency environmentally safe fashion and county dumps
The Florida Department of Natural Resources seemed to catch fire mysteriously three or four
The Florida State Board of Conservation times a year. Therefore, the local Pollution Con-
trol Board adopted a resolution which became the
The Florida Department of Pollution Control
vehicle for the County Commission to deem the
The Broward County Commission tire reef a county purpose. In effect, they were
76

disposing of tires. Tires, which were an esthetic Actual cost $55,188 or 20 cents per tire
pollutant ashore could be recycled, so to speak, to Fictional cost $107,550 or 40 cents per tire
build a fishing reef at sea. Although revenue was
lost at county dumps, additional benefits accrued. What the Broward Artificial Reef group has
Citizens participated in clean-up campaigns and done is not necessarily unique. Hopefully, other
brought tires to the processing site, allowing the
groups around the world will adopt and modify
county's mosquito control trucks to concentrate the scheme to suit their requirements. Let them
their efforts at one location. Air quality improved, be encouraged and not let the initial wave of ac-
eliminating costly fines by pollution control complishment wallow in the trough of apathy
officials. when the cause appears defeated.

More significantly, the county has benefitted
very substantially by the fact that compacted tire ACTUAL COST
modules will be utilized to repair existing fringing
reefs damaged by the construction of a new sewer COUNTY to Date
outfall line. The contractor intends to rebuild Salaries
these reefs with 15,000 modules, or approximately $26,885
202,000 tires. If the County were not to use tires,
an alternate substrate would cost a considerable
amount. It is interesting to note that both the En- (barge & tug) $ 9,522
vironmental Protection Agency and the United
States Corps of Engineers approve of the proposal.

Since April 1972, the Broward Artificial Reef, BARINC to Date
Inc. has placed approximately 270,000 tires on $18,780 $ 18.780
the reef site. Although this does not represent a
very large number of units compared with supply,
additional equipment is on site and a total of
FICTIONAL COST
eight employees are in the process of reorganizing
the operation. It is intended that the reef will pro- COUNTY to Date
cess between 400,000 and 500,000 tires a year and $36,407
charge a fee which will allow the reef project to be P.E.A. Lease
self-supporting and self-liquidating.
5 acres @ $45,000 acre
* Here ends the reading of the narrative and we XI10% X 2 = $45,000
are at the bottom line. What has all this cost? The Capital Equipment $ 7,300
intricacies of financing are too complex to describe $88,707 $ 88,707
here; however, I shall quote two figures. The first
represents actual out-of-pocket expenses. That is,
exactly what it has cost to build the reef. The $18,780 $ 18,780
second represents what it might have cost if we $107,487 40 cents
were to have paid our "fair share."

Texas' Liberty Reef Program

JOE C. MOSELEY

Executive Director, Texas Coastal and Marine Council, P.O. Box 13407, Austin, Texas 78711

The sinking of surplus World War II Liberty fishes which, in turn, attract larger fishes sought
Ships off the Texas coast for recreational by anglers.
purposes could greatly enhance existing fishing
opportunities. The federal government has recently Obviously then, an area surrounding a large
made surplus W.W. II Liberty Ships available to the sunken vessel or other bottom obstruction is
states for use as offshore artificial reefs. If more conducive to fishing than the flat Gulf
properly cleaned and partially stripped to eliminate bottom.
undesirable materials and safety hazards, the 440-
foot ships could be a unique and beneficial re- Two schools of scientific opinion exist con-
source for Texas saltwater fishermen and divers. ch l of atifici es on-
cerning the value of artificial reefs. Some scien-
The ships must be located for easy access while tists maintain that such reefs significantly increase
not threatening navigation. Proper marking with the biological productivity of a large area. Others
the biological productivity of a large area. Others
lighted buoys must be provided to enable fishermen contend that such reefs serve only to concentrate
contend that such reefs serve only to concentrate
to locate the reefs and allow shrimp trawlers to existing populations into a small area which is
existing populations into a small area which is
avoid them. Artificial reef ventures in Texas and readily accessible to fishermen.
readily accessible to fishermen.
elsewhere have demonstrated that they can im-
prove fishing opportunities without interfering
Whichever is correct, the fact remains that
with other uses of the sea or causing environmental icee i coct, c a
artificial reef programs, if properly conducted, can
damage. Efforts to convert 12 Liberty Ships irnto
greatly enhance fishing and provide desirable
four artificial reefs are currently underway along sites for divers.
the Texas coast. ~~~~~~~~sites for divers.
the Texas coast.
TEXAS' PROGRAM

WHY ARTIFICIAL REEFS
~WHY ARTI FICIAL RE ~EFS Under the terms of PL 92-402 the Secretary
of Commerce will provide Liberty ships to the states
Artificial reefs are constructed from materials
which man has discarded. More than 150 artificial upon approval of application made by the Governor
or his designee. Included in this application must
reefs have been constructed in U.S. coastal waters be an environmental impact statement showing pro-
since the first automobile body reef was built off posed locations and details for cleaning and partial
the coast of Alabama in 1953. More than a dozen
the coast of Alabama in 1953. More than a dozen salvaging. The application must also include an EPA
have been built at various locations along the Texas erication a s inea EP
certification, a Corps of Engineers (USCE) permit
coast in both the bays and offshore since 1955. for construction in navigable waters, and a Coast
Thouh thre hve ben sme idiviual roblmsfor construction in navigable waters,. and a Coast
Though there have been some individual problems, Guard permit for a buoy.
most reef building efforts have generated substantial
followings among saltwater anglers and divers. The state of Texas made one false start before
it got its Liberty Reef program underway.
The scientific basis for why artificial reefs Initial contact came in the form of a telegram
improve fishing is easily understandable. The reefs from the Secretary of Commerce to the Governor's
provide a hard, exposed substrate of increased Office in September 1972. After referring the
surface area for barnacles and other sedentary "offer" to the appropriate state agency for comment,
marine forms to attach themselves. Additionally, the state said "no thanks." Oddly enough, at the
the many crannies provide hiding places for small same time, the Legislature sitting in a special session
78

during October 1972 passed two resolutions urging Obviously, it is necessary to locate them a safe
the construction of these reefs. Business as usual -- distance from established shipping fairways and
little or no communication between the executive/ anchorages. Also, the U. S. Corps of Engineers re-
administrative and legislative branches! quires that there be a minimum of 50 feet clearance
between the top of a reef and the water surface.
At a Texas Coastal and Marine Council public Since these ships, when partially cut down, would
hearing on fisheries resources in February 1973, be about 30 feet high, they must be sunk in at
Tom Johnson, an "independent driller" (dentist -- least 80 feet of water.
not oil man!) from Corpus Christi showed up
with a petition containing several thousand Accessibility to the reef by small boat owners
signatures urging the Council to get the state is vital. About 30 miles beyond the jettied passes
involved in a Liberty Ship reef program. Needless is considered a reasonably safe distance for such
to say this petition got the attention of the boats to venture. Therefore, reefs should be within
Council members -- especially the elected of- this distance.
ficial members. The Council directed the staff
to find out just what was involved and report back
as soon as possible. Approximately 100-110 feet is considered the
maximum safe depth for amateur divers to go. Thus,
reefs should be located in water depths of not more
It quickly became apparent that the planning than 110 feet.
and construction of these Liberty Reefs was an
involved process with many complex considerations.
For example: Although no specific studies have been conduct-
ed along the Texas coast, assorted data and related
Site Location - How do you select reef sites experiences indicate that water depths of about
that satisfy all the conditons of accessibility, 100 feet should be desirable to enhance the marine
navigation clearance, non-interference with offshore ecosystem. Much of the Gulf near shore has a soft
oil and gas operations and shrimping, legal issues, bottom in which reefs would sink into the sediment,
diving safety, sound bottom condition, favorable so it is mandatory that the reefs be located on firm
currents, etc., and still satisfy all the Chambers of bottoms.
Commerce along the coast? (See later section
on Site Location) Numerous obstructions, both natural and man-
Institutional - A Liberty Reef built beyond induced, exist on the Gulf bottom and pose constant
the 12-mile limit constitutes an unprecedented threats to shrimpers' trawls. Artificial reefs, suitably
offshore construction venture on the continental marked, located near these obstructions could in-
shelf, and there is no clear legal rule out there con- dicate clearly the location of presently unmarked
cerning structural measures for fisheries enhance- obstructions.
ment.
Preparation and Construction - Liberty Ultimate decisions on specific reef locations
Reefs are like icebergs - there's an awful lot of cannot be made until more details of the project
painstaking work to be done from a mechanical are determined, including the number of ships
standpoint of cleaning, moving, emplacement, etc. available, amount and sources of funding, timing,
These details must be thought through carefully and the degree to which the ship will be cut down, and
planned meticulously. Without proper attention to what agency will be responsible for the reefs.
such details, the entire effort could easily become However, enough is known already to make it clear
a disaster. that a series of deepwater Liberty Reefs could be
Marking - Arrangements must be made for built along the Texas coast accessible from dif-
the long-term marking of the reefs. Adequate mark- ferent areas.
ing is required for two main purposes: (a) to
enable shrimpers to avoid the reefs and (b) to help Regardless of the locations of Liberty Reefs,
fishermen locate the sites. Big buoys are required: it will be mandatory that they be well marked with
we are proposing lighted buoys 30 feet by 6 feet, a lighted buoy, radar reflector and whistle or bell.
weighing 2-plus tons -- and costing in the vicinity Provisions must be made to maintain the buoys
of $600 - $700 per month. properly. This must include relocation and remark-
ing if the original buoys are lost in a hurricane.
SITE LOCATION Costs for maintaining such buoys vary depending
on the specific case, but estimates generally
Many factors must be considered in determining approximate $6,000 - $7,000 per buoy an-
the best locations for Liberty Reefs. nually.
79

The first step, once a general region has been will be chosen by a competitive process in corn-
selected, is to eliminate the areas in which a reef pliance with state procedures.
cannot be located, such as those discussed above.
By the time these areas have been eliminated due
to possible conflicting uses or safety precautions, Currently we are continuing with the mechanics
the number of possible reef sites has been sub- of permitting and construction. I will be glad to pro-
stantially reduced. To select a specific site it vide further information on this project - just con-
becomes necessary to locate firm bottom tact the Council. Hopefully, by the time these
conditions, identify known obstructions and deter- proceedings are published, the Liberty Reefs will
mine several candidate sites. After selection of be completed.
candidates, it will be necessary to do some on-site
investigations including bottom coring, biological OTHER REEF MATERIALS
sampling and current measurements before a final
decision can be made. Hearings also will be neces- Icranydntsgetta iet hp
s~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Icrainy dnto sugetsuli nt ontheattLiertyShp
sary t o get pubic inpu on thematter.are the only feasible reef construction materials.
CURRENT STATUS In fact, the worsening shortage of scrap, coupled
with its skyrocketing cost someday may preclude
To summarize briefly the current status of the the use of Liberty Ships as artificial reefs.
Texas Liberty Reef Program, as of March 1974,
I'd like to make the following points: Many other excellent materials exist. All it
takes is imagination, energy, and an interested
We have our EPA certification, and hope to user group, and a reef can usually be built. The
get the permit as soon as we resolve a point raised Texas Coastal and Marine Council and TAMU's
by one federal agency. The Department of Interior's Center for Marine Resources did a joint study on
Bureau of Land Management has expressed concern potential reefs for Texas. (Available from the
that under certain hurricane conditions bottom Texas Coastal and Marine Council, Box 13407,
currents of 8-10 knots might move the reefs long Austin, Texas; or the Center for Marine Resources,
distances and possibly damage oil and gas platforms. Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.)
Once he UCE prmitis obaine, wemust This effort revealed a wide spectrum of possibilities.
get a coast guard permit -- and then we submit our I'd like to leave you with one closing thought:
formal application for the dozen ships. If you are going to build a reef you must admit
that you are in the junk business. Do this - and then
A salvage/preparation services contractor HUSTLE.

Techniques for Fabrication and Utilization

of Baled Automobile Tires

in Artificial Reef Construction

DEWITT 0. MYATT III

Artificial Reef Coordinator, South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department,
P. O. Box 12559, 317 Ft. Johnson Road, Charleston, South Carolina 29412

The Saltwater Sport Fish Section of the
South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources De-
partment has used baled automobile tires as com-
ponents of its artificial fishing reefs for two and
one-half years. This experience with baled tires
has led to the design and production of a machine k
that assembles tires into units ready for sinking at
a reef site. We have also developed methods to
handle the units produced by this machine.

Various applications of the bales both singly
and in clusters result in excellent low1 and
medium2 profile habitat which greatly increase
the capacity and productivity of South Carolina's
six artificial reefs.

BACKGROUND

South Carolinians wear out three million
truck and automobile tires every year. These worn-
out tires may become eyesores, refuges for vermin
and dangerous fire hazards. Since they are not
biodegradable, can not be burned in conventional
incinerators without causing substantial air pol-
lution, are unsuitable for landfill and, aside from
recapping, cannot be economically recycled, these
tires present a serious disposal problem.
The "Tire Krusher"
An adequate supply of scrapped automobile
Anlo equate suppyoscappeauinto a bale approximately 50 cm (18 inches) high
tires for artificial reef construction exists in an9cm3 inches) in d meter. Eche
Charleston, South Carolina, where a major auto- and 90 cm (32 inches) in diameter. Each bale
weighs 77 to 91 kg (170 to 200 pounds) and is
mobile tire recapper operates. Approximately
180,000 tire casings unsuitable for recapping are held together by four 9.5 mm (3/8 inch) Signode
available at this time; the factory rejects from 250 "Apex" steel bands.
to 500 additional casings each day.
The "Tire Krusher" was built to our specifica-
tions by the Gender Machine Works of Portland,
TECHNIQUES Oregon and is being leased to the South Carolina
Wildlife and Marine Resources Department by that
An hydraulically actuated "Tire Krusher" is organization. One of its significant features is a
employed to compress nine tires simultaneously tire cutting accessory which cuts deep slits across
81

the tread of each tire at four equally spaced loca- plete with their full load of tires. A landing craft
tions. The cuts are essential to eliminate the posi- in "good" condition can carry 5,000 baled tires.
tive buoyancy of the tires.
The "Apex" bands on the bales break within
We have found that a 15.3 m3 (20 yds3) in- 90 to 120 days after sinking and the tires expand
dustrial trash container is ideally suited for handl- against the stainless steel cable that holds the clus-
ing baled tires over short distances on land. The ters together. This creates a circular reef with
cut and banded bales are removed from the "Tire most of the tires standing on their treads, thus pro-
Krusher" and rolled into open-topped industrial viding a habitat of medium profile and allowing
trash containers which are usually referred to as horizontal penetration by marine animals into the
dumpsters. The dumpsters are at ground level and interior of the tires.
can be loaded quickly and easily by hand. As the
bales are loaded, they are strung into 12 bale clus- Another medium profile unit can be fabri-
ters by inserting 6.4 mm (1/4 inch) stainless steel cated by looping a 1.5 meter (5-foot) segment of
cable through the center of two rows (of six bales) polypropylene rope through a bale. When the
and splicing the ends together. Two dumpsters bands corrode, the unit assumes a fan-shaped array
are kept near the "Tire Krusher"; when one is on the ocean bottom. This unit anchors itself in
filled a disposal service sends a truck to carry it to position by the nature of its asymmetrical shape
the waterfront where the tires can be loaded on and the entrapment of sand particles in the tires.
marine transport. While one dumpster is in transit, Construction Cost
the other is loaded, thereby eliminating accumu-
lation of bales near the machine and the necessity A three-man crew can bale and load an aver-
of attempting to load and move large numbers of
age of 80 units per eight-hour work day with a re-
suiting cost of $48 for labor. The cost for material
tractor-trailer vans proved to be inefficient, requir- is $3.20 per day and the cost for renting the ma-
ing our labor force to suspend baling activities chine is $46.75 per work day for the first year.
and deuihchine is $46.75 per work day for the first year.
and devote a full eight hour work day to load 150 This rent will be reduced by 92 percent to $3.90
bales. In contrast, an 85-bale dumpster is loaded ast .
per work day the following year. Our cost for
the tires are baled. When full, the container can producing 80 bales is thus a total of $97.95 per
be picked up and on its way to the waterfront with- work day or 13.6 cents per tire at present. This
in ten minutes. There, bales are loaded aboard barges cost will decrease to about 7.7 cents per tire in
or surplus landing craft 12 at a time by crane. The subsequent years due to the reduced machine
stainless steel cable eliminates the need to sling rental fee. The cost for dumpster service is $35
the bales, thereby speeding the loading operation. per trip. This is paid by the tire recapping firm.
The stainless steel cable is scrap obtained from the
U.S. Navy at no cost. The cost for loading tire
units aboard barges or surplus vessels and sinking
the units at the reef site depends on the low bid
submitted by marine contractors on a competitive
basis. Successful bids in the past have ranged from
13.2 to 25 cents per tire depending on the distance
the units must be hauled. Thus, total cost per
tire to bale and transport waste tires to artificial
reef sites ranges from about 26.8 to 38.6 cents.

Unit Stability

Since the bales are not ballasted, there was
serious doubt as to whether they would remain at
reef sites after sinking. To clear up those doubts,
different types of baled tire units were sunk in
8.8 meters (29 feet) of water, 4.6 kilometers (2.5
Twenty cubic yard industrial trash containers) or "dumpsters", are nautical miles) off Murrells Inlet, South Carolina.
used to haul baled tires for short distances.
The location of each study unit was marked by
At the reef site the barges are anchored and driving a 1 meter (3 -foot) long iron pin into the
unloaded by pulling clusters overboard with a tug. sand nearby. Periodic observations made by scuba
If surplus landing craft are used, they are sunk com- divers revealed that these experimental units have
82

remained in the same position for two yeals. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Bales that were sunk without a corrosion-resistant
retaining device broke open within 120 days and I would like to thank the staffs of Office of
all the tires can be observed lying flat on the bot- Marine Conservation and Management and the Salt-
tom within a 2 meter (7-foot) radius of the pin. water Sport Fish section for their help in develop-
Despite these observations, we do not reciom- ing this program and in preparing this paper. Mr.
mend sinking baled tires without the non-corro- William Ripley gave invaluable assistance in the
sive bands and ballast unless further tests at the diving aspects of the project. Thanks are also due
reef site indicate that they will not move. the Wholesale Tire Company and the Charleston
County Board of Health for their cooperation in
To insure that the units stay in the desired lo-
our endeavor. I am also grateful to Dr. Paul A.
cations in areas where stability is in doubt, an Sandifer for his editorial review and helpful com-
anchor may be attached via the corrosion-resistant ments on this paper
cable. When the units are sunk with a steel boat
hull or landing craft, cables are strung through the MANUFACTURERS CITED
units and attached to the hull. Units delivered to
the reef by barge are secured to sections of con- "Tire Krusher"
crete culvert by stainless steel cables and sunk. Bunch Tire Baler Incorporated
Baled tire units cabled with stainless steel or at- 4728 South West Macodom
tached to an anchor with plastic material are Portland, Oregon 29721
much less likely to break apart than tire units held Mr. Gene Bunch
together with steel reinforcing rods or other fer- Phone: 503-248-0252
rous materials.
Signode 3/8 inch "Apex" bands
DISCUSSION Signode Corporation
The ocean floor off the coast of South Caro- Strapping Division
lina, like most of the Atlantic Continental Shelf, 2600 North Western Avenue
consists of sand and broken shell. In such topo- Chicago, Illinois 60647
graphically simple areas there is an apparent de-
mand by many organisms for habitat (Stone, 20 cubic yard Dumpster
1974). This is evidenced by the early occupation L&M Environmental Sales
of our tire units by several species. In fact, scuba P.O. Box 5876
divers have observed black sea bass (Centropristis Greenville, South Carolina 29606
striata), octopi (Octopus sp.) and crabs (Portunidae) Mr. William Martin
occupying the tire units within 24 hours after Phone: 803-242-4770
they were sunk.
Our observations indicate that black sea bass REFERENCE
(Centronristis striata), sheepshead (Archosargus
orobatocenhalus), spadefish (Chaetodipterus Stone, R.B. "Artificial Reefs." Sea Frontiers,
faber) and small grouper (Mycteroperca sp.) are 1974, pp. 25-33.
particularly attracted to the type of habitat pro-
vided by expanded tire bales. Low profile units
such as single tires lying flat on the bottom appear 1
to be attractive to grunts (Pomadasyidae) and
to b ,es pattractive to grunts omadasidae). anddefined as material which provides relief on the
ocean bottom of less than one foot in height. A
CONCLUSION common example of low profile material is a single
automobile or truck tire vented, ballasted and sunk
Our experience with baled automobile tires so that it lies on its side.
indicates that these units lend themselves to tech-
niques that offer great potential for alleviating 2Medium profile artificial reef material is
solid waste problems on land, while providing a material which provides relief on the ocean bottom
means for improving marine habitat for recreation- greater than one foot but less than six feet in
al pursuits. height.

Artificial Reefs in Australia

MICHAEL J. SANDERS

Fisheries and Wildlife Division, Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research,
Brown Street, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia 3084

The construction of artificial reefs in Australia from their dumps. Timber barges used for trans-
began in the early 1 960's and was a result largely porting the materials were provided at a nominal
of favorable publicity given to reef building which rental.
had taken place in Japan and the U.S.A.
On the oldest parts of the reef, extensive
The first reef was established in 1965 when growths of soft corals, gorgonian fans and certain
over 400 tons of concrete pipes were placed off- forms of sponges have occurred. These communi-
shore from Carrum in Port Phillip Bay, Victoria. ties cover the original substrate to a depth of up
Shortly afterwards in 1966 a car body and 250 car to one-half meter in a dense mat, and large fish
tires were placed in Lake Macquarie in New South populations now are associated with the reef.
Wales. Today there are 21 artificial reefs, located Local divers estimate that over 70 species now
between Hervey Bay in Queensland and Rottnest are present and this is a pleasing contrast to the
Island in Western Australia. pre-reef figure of 15 species (Thompson, 1973).

The general opinion is that the car bodies, the
THE HERVEY BAY REEF motor-car tires and the barges have been the most
successful of the materials placed on the reef. The
The most important reef building activity in specially designed "fish boxes" were difficult to
Queensland was at Hervey Bay. There, in 1968, 50 handle and these along with the concrete pieces
car bodies, 1,800 car tires, 80 tons of concrete ana do not appear to have attracted many fish. It is
three concrete "fish boxes" were dropped into 18 interesting to note that although in the early con-
meters of water in a blind channel north of Woody structions the tires were bound in groups of
Island. Since then many loads of similar material, five or six they were subsequently placed indivi-
each of about 150 tons, including three barges dually with apparently satisfactory results.
about 50 meters in length, have been dropped at
the site. The reef now covers an area of about 32 Soon after the establishment of the reef, a
hectares. ban on spearfishing was imposed; however, this
has been the only limitation on the taking of fish
The idea of establishing a reef in Hervey Bay from the area. There has been a considerable
was first conceived by the Maryborough Skindivers amount of angling pressure applied to the reef
Club which, together with the Queensland Littoral fish population by both small charter boat opera-
Society, subsequently conducted a detailed feasi- tors and local anglers. A tentative estimate for
bility study to locate suitable sites. After selecting 1973 was 200 man-hours per week with an average
the site, the Skindivers Club launched a public ap- catch rate of 0.5 fish per man-hour (Ridge, per-
peal for support which ultimately led to the forma- sonal communication). The major effort was
tion of the Hervey Bay Artificial Reef Committee. centered over the older components of the reef.
The target species were snapper (Chrysophrys
auratus), tusk fish (Choerodon sp.), and sweetlip
The Committee obtained substantial support (Lethrinus sp.).
from anglers and businessmen. Financial assistance
came in many forms, including a levy of $2 each
on all local boat owners and a charge on motor-car The concensus among fishermen in Hervey
wreckers of $1 for each motor-car body taken Bay is that the reef has been an outstanding success
84

LOCATIONS OF AUSTRALIAN ARTIFICIAL REEFS

Herve/'
Bun aberg aye/ raser

/ | ~~~NORTHERN <Mar boroughs

TERRITORY
/ \ ~~~~~QUEENSLAND
Hervey
AUSTRALIA Bay
oreton is'
AU SOTRAL ' South-arner
port a

/~R~~~ALINA
Wl~alla.4 NEW SOUTH Coal
WALES L."ake Point Reef eia

Ree F 0 PortL ~Reef otord i lIoc

Reel Re l * eide ayef eefru
e e
Porf=h ~t/
BayWa.l.n
TASMANIA

Wer ribe mana

inproviding improved angling in terms of both to- A motor-car tire reef covering half a hectare
tal catch and variety of species, and the intention has been establishedort Broadwater atrdioc

is to build on to the reef as funds and manpower a depth of about 10 meters in an area having mud otmsbetdtitto.I as
e local organizations, such as Apex and Lions,p ef
Po r t L ~~~~Ree

Ree For~~b the inIdree del ide is c t water

OTHER QUEENSLAND REEFS is generally too murky for diving.
A reef has been established near Comboyuro

Point, inshore of Moreton Island in approximately
25 meters of water. This was organized by the THE LAKE MACQUARIE REEF
Queensland Littoral Society and started in 1969
~m~ana

when providing improved anglingd a numb terms of car bothdies were laid The first reef covestablished in Lake Macqu hectare
tal catch and variety of specar bodies and tires were added was cobeen establisructed inby Sothe Newcastle Underoadwater Re-at
is to build on to the reef as funds and manpoweriod 1970 to 1972. search Grof aboup in 1966. It consismetersd ofin a motor-carea having a
~~~~~permit. mud~~body and about 250 tires and wasto situated on. It was
barren sandy bottom a local skin-diving group whicepth waof assbout eight
ed by local organizations, such as Apex and Lions,

~~~~bThe Comboyuro Pointhe reef is closed to spearfi- meters. Despite the partial collapse of the reef due
OTHER QUEENSLAND REEFS is generally too murky for diving.

A reef has been established near Comboyuro
Point, inshore of Moreton Island in approximately
25 meters of water. This was organized by theTHLAEACUREEF
Queensland Littoral Society and started in 1969 Tefrtre salse nLk aqai

fishing, buta becausrge anof good visibility, it is fre to disintegration of the motor-car bodies were laid the
at the site. More car bodies and tires were addedwacosrtebyheNcsleUdwtrR-
to th reefin th perid 1 90 to 972.search Group in 1966. I t consisted of a motor-car
body and about 250 tires and was situated on a
barren sandy bottom at a depth of about eight
The Comboyuro Point reef is closed to spear- meters. Despite the partial collapse of the reef due
fishing, but, because of good visibility, it is fre- to disintegration of the motor-car body and the
quented by sport-divers. The reef is subjected to wire holding the bundles of tires, it has been re-
considerable angling pressure. ported that the reef attracted an abundance of

Lowering a 3 cubic meter open steel frame onto the Lowering a 1.5 cubic meter open concrete and
Mordialloc reef site in Port Phillip Bay. steel cube onto the Mordialloc reef site.
(Photo by courtesy of Henry Bource Productions PIL).

fish (Malcolm and Mathews, 1970). THE PORT PHILLIP BAY REEFS

Following this effort, the Newcastle Under- The laying of Victoria's first reef was corn-
water Research Group collaborated with the State menced in October 1965 when 331 concrete pipes
Fisheries Branch in 1969 in conducting a survey (412 tons) were placed in 20 meters of water
of the lake for suitable additional sites. Four lo- eight kilometers off the Melbourne bayside suburb
calities of different environmental character were of Carrum. Several additions, including a concrete
selected and a reef of 650 tires was placed at each. cabin cruiser sunk in September 1967 and a 52
meter timber hulk containing about 40 tons of
The first of these reefs was established at Coal concrete ballast sunk in November 1971, have since
Point in October 1969 about half a kilometer been made.
from the site of the 1966 reef. The remaining
three reefs were constructed in early 1970 off Although it was intended to lay the reef in a
Wangi, near Pelican Point, and in Warners Bay. horseshoe pattern, poor weather conditions at the
time of building made this difficult, with the re-
Each reef was carefully positioned by divers suit that the pipes were dropped rather randomly
so as to form a horseshoe-shaped, two-tiered struc- over about four hectares. The very fine silty nature
ture, the inner diameter of the horseshoe being of the seabed caused another problem. The large
about 15 meters. The tires were tied in groups of pipes, many of them up to 2.5 meters long and 1.8
nine and five with vinlon rope and assembled with meters in diameter, hit the bottom with sufficient
two groups of nine on the bottom supporting one momentum to partially and, in some cases, com-
of five on top. Holes were cut through the tread pletely bury themselves, and it is thought that the
of each tire to facilitate sinking. pipes have continued to sink.

A number of underwater surveys conducted As with most of the Australian reefs, building
at the sites have shown that the reefs have remained the Carrum reef was very much a cooperative ef-
iritact and have been colonized by a range of at- fort. The Victorian Fisheries and Wildlife Depart-
taching organisms, the dominant species being the ment played the major administrative role and pro-
mussel Mvtilus planulatus. During a one hour dive vided the $9,600 required for chartering a vessel
at the Pelican Point reef in September 1972 it was to transport the pipes and unload them at the reef
reported (Anon., 1973) that 16 fish species were site. The Self Contained Divers Federation assist-
identified and that the greatest concentrations had ed in choosing a suitable site and have subsequently
been around one particular group of tires which had monitored the colonization of the reef by periodic
been slightly misplaced so that there was no clear diving surveys. The National Museum also played
line of sight through it. an important role, particularly in sorting and classi-
fying the samples removed from the reef.
Also, two small reefs consisting primarily of
tires have been constructed at two localities in New Apart from short tufts of brown algae, the
South Wales by amateur underwater groups (Mal- dominant organisms to colonize the reef have been
colm and Mathews, 1970). the Bay oyster (Ostrea angasi) and the mussel
86

(Mvtilus planulatus). A number of fish species' tralia is in 10 meters of water, four kilometers off
have been recorded by divers but, because visibility Adelaide's Henley beach. It was laid during 1970
is usually poor, it is unlikely that a complete and consists of 15,000 motor tires put down over
species list has been obtained. Snapper is the prime a period of two months at two locations about
target of anglers who fish over the reef and snap- 500 meters apart.
per has been taken in good quantities along with
ling (Genvwterus blacodes) and bearded rock cod Construction of the reef was organized by an
(Phvsiculus barbatus). Artificial Reef Committee whose membership
included representatives from the South Australian
Further reef building, the most important of Department of Fisheries and Fauna Conservation,
which involved the establishment of three multi- the Piscatorial Council of South Australia, the
component reefs during mid-1 973, has taken place Underwater Divers Federation and the bayside
in Port Phillip Bay. These reefs were constructed Municipal Councils.
by Esso (Australia) Ltd. on behalf of the Fisheries
and Wildlife Division (renamed during 1973). The The committee's decision to use car tires was
company was at the time involved in laying an based primarily on the low cost and ready availabi-
ethane pipeline across the Bay and the men, yes- lity of this material. Coincident with the project
sels and equipment on hand were used to construct getting underway, the Adelaide Councils banned
the reefs. the burning of tires at refuse dumps and this re-
sulted in an embarrassingly large number of tires
The sites chosen were off Mordialloc, Dro- being offered for disposal.
mana and Werribee in about ten meters of water
on a flat sandy bottom. The material placed at The major problem encountered by the Con-
each site consisted of 1,000 motor-car tires suit- mittee was the enlistment of sufficient volunteers
ably slashed and bound into groups of about eight to prepare the tires for dumping, despite an ex-
tires, 100 cubic meter of quarry rock, four open tensive publicity campaign.
steel frames (3 metera) and three open concrete
and steel cubes (1.5 meter3). Each of the four The tires were slit across the tread to enable
components were grouped separately, about 60 them to sink quickly when submerged, and laced
meters apart. In the near future it is intended that together in bundles of eight with polypropylene
700 concrete pipes up to 2.5 meters long and 2 strapping and plastic buckles. A variety of tools
meters in diameter will be placed at each site, and including special knives, punches, axes and power
strips of plastic sheet will be attached to the reef chain saws were used to cut the tires; however,
to simulate long strands of seaweed. the most effective proved to be the bushman bow
saw.
Except for the quarry rock which was dump-
ed using a bottom-opening barge, the various reef For the first tire drop a bottom opening hop-
components were carefully lowered to the bottom per barge was used. This proved unsatisfactory,
and positioned with the assistance of divers. however, as the tires jammed in the hold when the
doors on the bottom of the barge were opened and
A comparison of the effectiveness of these had to be freed by divers. Once on the seabed the
materials in establishing reefs will be undertaken bundles were checked by the divers to ensure an
to provide information for the construction of even coverage of the bottom, and those around
large, production reefs. Although the reefs have the periphery of the reef were tied together to re-
been visited by divers and good quantities of fish strict any subsequent movement. There was no
have been observed, insufficient time has lapsed attempt to build up the height of the reef by plac-
for a sound assessment to be made of these ma- ing the bundles on top of each other as had been
terials. done with the Lake Macquarie reefs.

The most recent reef building in Port Phillip For the two subsequent drops, a grab hopper
Bay occurred in August 1 973 when 2,000 motor- dredge, which scooped the bundles of tires from
car tires were placed in 10 meters of water offshore its hold and dropped them over the side was used.
from Portarlington by the Barwon Grove Skin-
divers Club. Before the reef was built, an assessment was
made of the probability of the tires being disturbed
THE HENLEY REEF during heavy storms. It was estimated that only
about once in ten years would the seas become suf-
The first reef to be established in South Aus- ficiently rough to dislodge the newly-laid reef and
87

that after the reef had been consolidated the Henley reef, the labor for cutting and binding the
chances of dispersion would be remote. Unfor- tires was arranged through a private firm of con-
tunately, however, in the winter of 1971 Adelaide's tractors and financed by a Metropolitan Unemploy-
beaches were lashed by the most severe storms for ment Relief Scheme.
thirty years and the storms, together with the fray-
ing of the polypropylene lashings, partially dis- The site chosen for the reef was near the
persed the reef and covered the tires with sand edge of a natural calcareous reef of low relief. The
eroded from the beaches. original 7,000 tires were in fact inadvertantly drop-
ped on the edge of this natural reef, but the 18,000
Before these storms, it had been noted that tires in the second drop were spread over the ad-
weed growth and colonization by fish had occurred jacent sand.
rapidly on the reef. Snapper, red mullet (Upen-
eichthvs norosus), old wife (Enonlosus armatus), Colonization of the reef has occurred; tube
leatherjackets (Aluteridae family), boarfish worms (Galeolaria sp.) and small tufts of algae are
(Histiopteridae family), and common and rough present on most of the tires. A number of diving
bullseye (Pemoheris klunzingeri and Liopempheris surveys have been conducted during which 17
multiradiata) and others had been seen on the reef species of fish were noted.
within six months of its construction. The reef
has been visited a number of times since 1971 and An interesting feature of the reef's construc-
the latest reports indicate that the tires are being tion was the use of a helicopter (Bell type 47G 3B13)
uncovered as the sand over the reef is being eroded to place the original 7,000 tires. The helicopter
away and the reef recolonized. was used to transport 35 tires at a time from the
beachfront to the reef site over a period of five
days. The total cost of hiring the helicopter was
THE GLENELG REEF $2,984, equivalent to $15 per trip of 41 cents per
tire.
The second of South Australia's reefs was
commenced in March 1973 when 7.,000 motor- The second drop of 18,000 tires was accom-
car tires were laid in 18 meters of water 5 kilo- plished using a barge hired from the Department
meters off the Adelaide suburb of Glenelg. An of Marine and Harbors. The total cost of building
additional 18,000 tires were put down in January the reef, including labor and material plus the cost
1974 to complete the reef. of hiring the helicopter and barge, was about
$11,000.
Construction of this reef was supervised by
the Department of Fisheries.* In contrast to the
volunteer labor force used in constructing the
With the assistance and supervision of the De-
*Previously the Department of Fisheries and partment of Fisheries, a number of additional reefs
Fauna Conservation. have been built in other areas of South Australia.

Old Wife Enoplosus armatus on the Henley reef. Common bullseye Liopempheris multiradiata
(Photo by courtesy of the South Australian Department of on the Henley reef.
Fisheries).

In October 1971, 5,000 tires were laid off CONCLUSION
Whyalla about two kilometers from a small motor-
car body reef previously established by a local fish- There is an increasing number of requests for
erman. This has been monitored subsequently by more artificial reefs to be constructed in Australia,
the Whyalla Spearfishing Club and good numbers particularly in those localities where the intensity
of fish have been reported on the reef. of fishing by recreational fishermen is high.

One thousand four hundred motor tires The government agencies have responded to
grouped in bundles of eight were placed in six this pressure by establishing guidelines to ensure
meters of water four kilometers offshore from that this activity is properly rationalized. All pros-
Black Point near Port Vincent. pective reef builders are required to obtain the ap-
proval of the relevant port authority as well as the
fisheries department. A written application which
Approximately 2,000 tires were laid 1 .5 kilo- includes a description of the location, the reef ma-
meters offshore from Tumby Bay jetty near Port terial, depth of the reef and its configuration and
Lincoln in January 1972 and in June of the same safeguards against dispersion of the reef, etc.,
year the Kingston Lions Club constructed a reef must be submitted. It is usually mandatory for a
from 700 tires in six meters of water about three government official to be in attendance during con-
kilometers off the Kingston boat ramp at Thread- struction of the reef.
golds Beach.
When granting approval, care is taken to in-
form the builders that they cannot regard the reef
An interesting feature of the construction of as their private property, but must allow it to be
the Kingston Reef was that the tires were not frequented by anyone who knows its location.
dumped but slid down a rope pulled taut be-
tween the boat and a heavy chain laid along about In a few states, proliferation of reef construc-
105 meters of seabed. The tires subsequently tion is being discouraged, at least until valid assess-
were secured by means of the chain, and another ments of the existing reefs have been made. This
30 tires, secured by iron rails, were laid within 100 is a little incongruous, however, as nowhere in the
me~~~~~~~~~~~~i tleicnruos, howeer asnoher min thef
meters of the main reef. country has a research program been designed to
provide the type of assessment which is necessary.
The present research is directed toward the prep-
THE ROTTNEST REEF aration of species lists and the determination of
the rates of colonization of the different reef ma-
The only artificial reef established in Western terials. It would be more appropriate to assess a
Australia was put down in 1971 off Rottnest reef's success in terms of its enhancement of the
Island. It consists of 80 motor tires anchored by area for recreational activities such as angling,
steel cables to a flat sandy bottom. The tires spearfishing and sport-diving. For angling and
were dropped by the Underwater Explorers Club spearfishing, research should aim at a comparison
of Western Australia in the hope that they would of the number and size of sport-fish taken from
provide home-sites for the rock lobster (Panulirus the fishing grounds (including adjacent natural
loneiPes cvgnus). There are plans to place a fur- reef areas from which fish may be attracted) per
ther 100 tires on the reef although as yet its suc- unit time before and after construction of the
cess in providing lobster habitat is not known. reef. For sport-diving, an assessment of the in-
crease in the number and variety of fish species
seen and the improvement in the aesthetic quality
A further interesting development in Western of the aquatic environment is the type of research
Australia is a study by the C.S.I.R.O. Division of required.
Oceanography of the use of concrete shelters as
home sites for juvenile rock lobster (Chittlebor-
ough, 1973). Fifty-two of these shelters were ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
placed in 4.5 meters of water, two kilometers off
Cliff Head in December 1971, and a similar num- The author gratefully acknowledges the in-
ber were laid nearby in February 1972. Although formation and assistance provided by the directors
tagged juvenile lobsters were placed on the reefs, and staff of the following organizations:
none were observed by divers four weeks after
seeding. The success or otherwise of this type of Department of Fisheries, Adelaide, South
structure is being studied further. Australia

Department of Fisheries and Fauna, Perth, "Underwater Survey made of Artificial Reef."
Western Australia The Fisherman. Summer, 1973.
Depam tment of Primary Industries, Brisbane,
QuDepatment of Primary Industries, Brisbane, "South Australia's Artificial Reefs." South Aus-
Queensland
tralian Department of Fisheries News Sheet,
1973.

Chittleborough, R.G. "Western Rock Lobster -
REFERENCES Juveniles." Proceeding of the 14th meeting
of the Western Fisheries Research Committee,
1973.
"Artificial Reefs Boost Fish Catch." The Fisher-
man, June, 1966. Malcome, W.B. and Mathews, J. "Artificial Reefs."
The Fisherman, March, 1970.
"Another Artificial Reef Sunk in Lake Macquarie."
The Fisherman, June, 1970. Thompson, G.T. "Artificial Reef- Hervey Bay."
Victoria's Resources, June-August, 1973.
"Artificial Reefs." The Fisherman, Spring 1970.
Winstanley, R.H. "Recent Developments on Arti-
"Used Tyres for Artificial Reefs." F.I.N.S., March, ficial Reefs in Port Phillip Bay." Fur Feathers
1972. and Fins, November-December, 1972.

Oil Structures as Artificial Reefs

EUGENE A. SHINN

Staff Marine Specialist, Shell Oil Co., One Shell Plaza, Houston, Texas 77001

There are approximately 1,700 artificial reefs Louisiana. This is evident by the hundreds of small
in the northern Gulf of Mexico, of which about boats that often venture more than 30 miles from
575 are of major size, costing between one and five shore on weekends to fish these reefs. Not only
million dollars each (Figure 1). They have revolu- have these artificial reefs revolutionized small-boat
tionized fishing in the Gulf of Mexico, especially in sport fishing, but they have also spawned a sizable

h; sS. ALAt GEORGIA
' LOUISIANA \
TEXAS J _ �
TEXBS>~~~ *.; 4' ; RTIFICIAL
-0 : ;i0000 0 at ;:*;;0Xt -i' a< 0: :t " *REEFS \
'~=-, -""*j i . " , ~ , FLOB ;0RIDA , ID

GRAND ISLE MIDDLE
o , FLOWER OIL RIGS SPEAR FISHING
RODEO
UNITED ' GARDENS D G ROND
STATES : , t

MEXICO 3 = ,
X/ GULF OF MEXICO

,.tFt.FLA, KEYS6

:(fCUBA

'I\~~ d SCALE
100 MILES

Figure 1
91

charter and "head-boat" (boats carrying large Platforms have a high profile. There is agree-
numbers of fishermen at a fixed cost per head) in- ment among artificial reef researchers that a
dustry, concentrated in Empire and Venice, Lou- high profile is desirable. It is especially de-
isiana. At times, even commercial snapper fisher- sirable in the northern Gulf because of a per-
men utilize these reefs. sistent, 20-30-foot thick, murky layer that
lies on the bottom of most of the Continen-
Whereas construction of conventional artifi- tal Shelf in this area (Figure 2). It has been
cial reefs usually requires formation of sport fish- shown that this murky layer reduces light
ing committees, and two to three years of negotia- penetration to such an extent that algae can-
tions to obtain various permits, the 1,700 reefs not exist over much of the bottom (Griffin,
discussed here cost sport fishermen neither time 1973). The effectiveness of a low-profile reef
nor money. in this area would, therefore, be reduced
(Figure 3). Very little-algae, which is nec-
The reader now is probably aware that these essary for browsing herbivorous fish, could
reefs actually are offshore oil and gas production grow on such reefs. Oil platforms, on the
platforms. Admittedly, they were not constructed other hand, extend the full range from clear,
for fishermen; but it did not take long for fisher- sunlit shallows to the murky cold depths.
men to discover them. Their popularity as fishing
sites has grown progressively since the late 1940's.
Only recently however, have we begun to under-
stand why platforms attract and produce such
large quantities of fish.

This paper will discuss various factors such as
high profile and unimpeded water flow, that make
platforms such efficient artificial reefs. In addition,
the paper will discuss some ways to: (1) enhance
these reefs; (2) suggest how obsolete platforms
might be used for reef construction; and (3) make ~> ,
fishermen aware that, in compliance with govern-
ment regulations, all platforms eventually will be
removed from the sea.

ADVANTAGES OF OIL
PLATFORMS AS REEFS Figure 3
V FAUNIAL
Offshore oil platforms are easy to find since ZONAiON
they extend more than 40 feet above water
level and are equipped with lights and horns. :

DISTRIBUTION OF TURBID LAYER
NORTHERN GULF OF MEXICO

N ,

100 MILES I

Figure 2 Figure 4
92

Many are in more than 200 feet of water; one most invariably found in the upper zone
such platform spans the entire range down to along with barracuda and sheephead. Red
a depth of 375 feet. Diving observations by snapper, which on natural reefs in this area
me and others have shown a noticeable faunal are generally below the 200-foot contour,
zonation with variable indistinct boundaries often swim to within 20 feet of the surface
(Figure 4). Spadefish, for example, are al- under oil platforms. Their upward limit ap-

Figure 5

pears to be controlled by a seasonally varia- browsing on the encrusting organisms that inhabit
ble thermocline. In many areas, the water these surfaces.
above the thermocline is more turbid than
below, but seldom as murky as the bottom In addition to high profile, most reef research-
layer. Large groupers, including blacks, war- ers agree that surface area and unimpeded flow' of
saws and jewfish, are basically bottom-dwell- water are preferred. Schooling fish, for example,
ers, but spend much of their time in the mid- will not occupy the holds of sunken ships if these
water range beneath platforms. Speckled holds have restricted access to the exterior, prob-
trout, sand trout, and flounders, however, ably due to reduced current, light, food and dis-
are restricted to the bottom. solved oxygen. The attractiveness of oil platforms
to fish probably could be enhanced further by in-
* Platforms offer little resistance to water flow, creasing surface area. Figures 8 and 9 illustrate
an attribute thought to be desirable by most two ideas for increasing surface area by adding
artificial reef researchers. tires. Addition of about 6,000 tires would approx-
imately double the surface area available for al-
* Platforms offer a large surface area for the gae production and fish habitation under a typical
attachment of encrusting organisms. A typical platform.
platform in 1 00 feet of water, as shown sche-
matically in Figure 4, has approximately two There are, however, reasons against adding
acres of hard surface exposed to the water tires to every oil platform. Besides considerable
column. This surface area compares favorably engineering and structural problems, existing Outer
with the surface area of about 6,000 tires (in- Continental Shelf regulations require that plat-
cluding the interior surface of each tire). forms be removed 15 feet below the sediment level
when oil or gas production is terminated. The site
Figures 5-7 are typical views of fish beneath must then be dragged clear of anything that could
oil platforms. Many species of fish can be observed catch a fisherman's net. Cost of salvage is, there-
fore, extraordinarily high; and the removal of
6,000 tires would drive costs even higher. Since
this salvage cost is borne by the platform owner,
there is obviously little incentive to add material
that would escalate removal costs. Salvage costs

II I I

Figure 6 Figure 7
94

for typical offshore platforms range from one-half for large-scale reefs built nearby or between plat-
to two million dollars. The cost of salvaging future forms, as suggested in Figure 1 0.
platforms planned for 500 to 1,000 feet of water
could be several million dollars. Alternatively, salvaged platforms could be
placed on their side in artificial reef sites composed
Gulf of Mexico fishermen should be advised of liberty ships, tires, autos, pipes and other non-
that all offshore platforms will be removed even- polluting solid materials to provide additional high
tually; and, unless a significant number of artifi- profile material and surface area (Figure 11 ). There
cial reefs are established, fishing success will return probably exists an economic incentive for barging
to the level prior to offshore drilling. Such pre- salvaged platform components to established reef
drilling conditions probably will not sustain the sites since a significant percentage of salvage cost
tremendous fishing pressure that has developed is incurred on shore, where welders cut the scrap
over the past 20 years. into small pieces for recycling. Presently, labor
costs greatly exceed the value of the metal, mak-
It is thought, therefore, that some obsolete ing salvage and recycling an uneconomic venture.
platforms, especially those in convenient areas, This could change if scrap prices rise significantly
should be left in place as artificial fishing reefs or and labor costs remain fixed. However, it seems
sanctuaries for fishery-management purposes. likely that federal or state agencies that wish to
Some platforms could serve as permanent markers add platform components to existing reefs might
obtain them free of charge, including towing costs,
by contacting the oil companies that operate off-
shore. They should, however, have all necessary
permits in hand before making a request.
K

Figure 8
Figure 10

Figure 9 Figure 11
95

PRODUCTIVITY VS. CONCENTRATION men, i.e., they do not require lighted buoys
as do conventional reefs since they already
One significant issue remains unresolved. Do aregulagtedinompincewt os.ur
artificial reefs, whether composed of tires, cars, rgltos
buses, trolley cars, train cars, culverts, logs or oil
platforms, either in place or lying on the bottom, *Disassembled oil platform parts would make
simpy atractexising ishpopuatios, o do heyexcellent reef-building materials because:
increase productivity? Stone has some evidence a hycudpoiehg rfl;b hyd
indicating increased productivity around tire reefs, not impede water flow; and c. they may be
but no one has enough proof to demonstrate that provided to various agencies free of charge
when available.
this is true of oil platforms. It should be clear,
however, that oil platforms are essentially the same
as any other artificial reef composed of ships, *The fishing public should be aware that this
tires, etc. Therefore, if artificial reefs do increase form of fishing reef eventually will be re-
productivity, then certainly oil platforms do this moved from the Gulf of Mexico and, there-
as well. Even the most casual observer can see the fore, some platforms should be considered
similarity between platform cross-members, etc., natural resources and preserved for fishing
and the open-space structures employed in Japan and sanctuary purposes.
that are described by Ino. Future studies hopefully
will shed more light on this question.RE RNC

CONCLUSIONS Griffin, George M. and Bruce J. Ripy. "Horizontal
and Vertical Distribution of Turbidity on the
Working oil platforms are effective artificial Louisiana Shelf South of Timbalier Bay, Au-
reefs because: a. they have high profile, ex- gust, 1 972, Through J uly, 1 973," oral pre-
tending from the surface to the bottom; sentation, Gulf Universities Research Con-
b. they do not significantly impede water sortium Workshop, Tampa, Florida, November,
flow; and c. they are found easily by fisher- 1973.

Habitat Improvement on the Continental Shelf

of Georgia

LARRY D. SMITH

Biologist, Georgia Department of Natural Resources, Game and Fish Division, Coastal Fisheries Section,
P.O. Box 1676, Brunswick, Georgia 31520

An abundance of reef dwelling fishes may be vessels for reef material is rather elementary and
found some 80 nautical miles off the Georgia coast will not be discussed here. Designing a module
at the edge of the continental shelf. The scope of using automobile tires requires considerably more
current reef activities however, involves the crea- engineering and ingenuity.
tion of fishery habitat at locations sufficiently
near shore to make a portion of our rich bottom
fishery accessible to a greater number of sport The module design with which the Depart-
fishermen. ment of Natural Resources started its offshore arti-
ficial reef program and is continuing to use is the
Prior to 1971, various materials such as auto- multi-tire unit developed by the National Marine
mobile bodies, refrigerators, stoves, etc. had been Fisheries Service at Highlands, New Jersey. The
used to create fish habitats at several locations basic design is a column of eight automobile tires
along the Georgia coast. Very little evidence re- with the bottom tire filled with concrete for bal-
mains today of these early efforts by local interest last. Steel reinforcing rods are anchored into the
groups. Lack of technology was the single most concrete and hold the module together. This par-
significant factor contributing to the failure of ticular design affords excellent habitat for reef
these attempts. dwelling organisms.

As the concept of habitat improvement in the Prevalence of strong currents and bottom
oceans gained popularity and with the development surge off the Georgia coast necessitated some modi-
of technology associated with artificial reef con- fications of the NMFS design. In order to insure
struction, the Georgia Department of Natural Re- the integrity of the unit under these conditions, a
sources saw an opportunity to improve Georgia's third steel rod was added to the NMFS unit.
offshore fishing. Heavier steel rods (1/2 inch diameter) with a 90
degree bend on the end set into concrete also were
In the summer of 1971 the Department of employed. These modifications produced a more
Natural Resources placed 13,000 scrap automo- rigid unit and minimized the possibility of the rods
bile tires on the ocean floor 13.5 nautical miles pulling out of the concrete under conditions of
east of Cumberland Island, Georgia to augment stress.
habitat created by the World War II sinking of a
Dutch refrigerator ship. Since that time, the De- The NMFS prototype called for the drilling
partment of Natural Resources has completed of holes in the sidewall of the tires to accommo-
three additional artificial reefs utilizing two salv- date the steel rods and allow air to escape. Each
aged vessels and approximately 102,400 scrap auto- individual tire was threaded onto the rods. Con-
mobile tires. Reefs have been created at distances struction of this type of module was a very slow
of 8.2, 9.0, 13.5 and 23.0 nautical miles offshore and costly process. Further modification of the
in depths of 40, 50, 55 and 75 feet, respectively. NMFS unit reduced the time necessary to assemble
each unit. By using heavier, preformed steel rods
and allowing these to pass through the center of
TECHNIQUES OF ASSEMBLING AUTOMOBILE each tire, the need for drilling of the tires was
TIRES INTO FUNCTIONAL MODULES eliminated. It has been found that provision for
the escape of air from this unit during sinking is
The preparation and subsequent sinking of unnecessary if the unit is properly ballasted.

An assembly line technique utilizing pre- partment of Natural Resources personnel can con-
formed steel rods and a press has proved to be the tinually survey (depth recorder) the accretion of
most efficient means of assembling the modules. materials and reposition the markers as an area ap-
Ease of handling of this type of module made it proaches the desired density of modules. This tech-
very attractive to the Department of Natural Re- nique has produced the greatest amount of high
sources from the standpoint of getting the unit quality fishery habitat with a given number of
loaded and overboard. This particular module may modules. It has been determined that the desired
be moved by hand or heavy equipment. The De- density of modules occurs when depth recorder
partment of Natural Resources has determined survey indicates close clumping of modules over a
that the most effective means of loading involves large area with no more than six feet of vertical re-
the use of a dockside crane. The most functional lief indicated.
technique for unloading appears to be by hand.
We have further ascertained with respect to the
Many governmental agencies and local inter- configuration of components within a given
est groups have initiated artificial reef construction reef that low profile material such as automobile
programs by assembling and installing the materials tire modules primarily contribute individual niches
themselves. The state of Georgia has taken another for smaller organisms. Large masses of material,
approach in which contracts are negotiated with such as a large mound of tires or a vessel, provide
marine oriented firms to assemble and place the not only a mass which serves to interrupt current
modules on the ocean floor. The Department of patterns but also visual stimulus to many fishes,
Natural Resources, of course, inspects all phases of particularly the pelagic species.
the operation to insure compliance with reef con-
struction specifications. While this approach is
slightly more expensive, it has been very popular DEVELOPMENT OF ADDITIONAL MODULE
in Georgia. Current cost to the state of Georgia DESIGNS USING SCRAP TRUCK TIRES
to build and place one module on the ocean floor
is $11. The Georgia Department of Natural Resources
has designed and installed modules composed of
scrap truck tires. These tires are much larger and
TECHNIQUES OF PLACEMENT OF heavier than passenger car tires and, by the nature
MATERIALS ON THE OCEAN FLOOR of their structure after recycling, afford more de-
sirable habitat than that created by passenger car
Many artificial reefs have been created in re- tires.
cent years using a wide variety of techniques. The
following discussion is an account of Georgia's suc- The integrity of individual modules is main-
desses and failures. tamined through the use of nylon bands and clips.
All modules were tested in areas exhibiting relative-
Early efforts involved the offloading by hand ly heavy bottom surge. One unit was placed in 50
of modules from a slowly moving vessel. The end feet of water with no ballast. Within 30 days the
result was that units were sparsely distributed over unit had moved off the reefand could no longer
a large area. These produced very poor fishery be located. Another unit also was installed with
habitat and were virtually impossible for sport no ballast at the same location. Sixty days later,
fisherman to locate. the unit was in the vicinity of the reef but had
moved considerably. At this point the unit had
The other extreme involved the anchoring of not yet sanded-in to a degree which would make
a large barge and unloading of the modules as the it immovable.
barge tethered on an anchor line. The end product
was a massive heap of modules in a small area. Test results have shown that both of the pre-
While this technique afforded excellent habitat viously discussed designs must be ballasted when
and was relatively easy for sport fishermen to lo- used in areas with bottom surges such as those pre-
cate, a great number of modules on the bottom of vailing along the coast of Georgia.
the pile were wasted by not being readily available
for colonization by fish and invertebrates. These conclusions prompted some modifica-
tion of our placement techniques. Eight of the
Most recently, reefs have been created by modules were threaded onto a cable 50 feet long
holding a large barge between two markers for off- with 125 pounds of scrap iron at each end. One
loading with the tow vessel. In this manner, De- of these strings was recently placed in 40 feet of
98

water and stability of this configuration is cur- three steel nun buoy. The buoys now used in
rently being monitored. Final results of these ex- Georgia were constructed by the Department of
periments will be available at a later date. Natural Resources at a cost of approximately $300
per buoy. The finished product also may be ob-
Tires used in these experiments were supplied tained from a number of local firms.
through the courtesy of Al Mitchell, Mitchell In-
dustrial Tire Co., Inc. Chattanooga, Tenn. 37407. While the Georgia buoy systems have been in
While the Georgia buoy systems have been in
use for just nine months, we can begin to speculate
MARKING OF ARTIFICIAL REEFS on a sound maintenance schedule. It appears that
maintenance of the buoy (scraping, painting, etc.)
Georgia Department of Natural Resources has will be required every two to four years. Mooring
attempted to mark offshore areas for fisherman use chain should be serviced annually. This includes
for several years. Most of the buoy systems utiliz- replacement of worn fittings and links of chain.
ed have been totally unsatisfactory. Recently,
however, a system has been developed which
shows great promise as one which will endure the By and large, the Department of Natural Re-
seas and surge prevalent along the Georgia coast. sources has been very pleased with the utility of
this design. Publication of our recommendations is
The buoy design is similar to the USCG class anticipated in the near future.

Alabama's Artificial Reef Program

WAYNE E. SWINGLE

Chief Marine Biologist, Marine Resources Division, Alabama Department of Conservation
and Natural Resources, P.O. Box 188, Dauphin Island, Alabama 36528

The saltwater angler in Alabama is lucky be- HISTORY OF REEF CONSTRUCTION
cause he has a variety of species of fish and types
of fishing from which to choose and generally the The Marine Resources Division of the Ala-
fishing is very good. The fishing techniques and bama Department of Conservation and Natural
fish vary from the pole-and-line fisherman on the Resources was the first state organization to con-
bank who fishes for croaker, spot and mullet, to struct fishing reefs in the Gulf of Mexico. In 1953
the fighting chair enthusiast who battles marlin the Orange Beach Fisherman's Association ap-
and other billfish off the 1 00-fathom curve. proached the Division with a plan for building arti-
ficial snapper banks. In the fall of that year, 250
automobile bodies were placed off Baldwin County
Nature has provided Alabama fishermen with along the 60-foot contour. Fishermen began to
good estuarine fishing, offshore trolling, and abun- take snapper within six months.
dant shrimp, crabs and other shellfish. The one
thing that Nature has failed to provide for the Because of the success of these reefs the De-
Because of the success of these reefs the De-
Alabama angler is an abundance of submerged partment placed an additional 1,500 used car bodies
reefs, the haunts of bottomfish such as red snapper offshore in 1957. These were placed in small groups
and grouper. Only two small natural reef areas ex- on the 60-foot contour extending across the greater
ist off the Alabama coast. part of Baldwin and Mobile counties. These reefs cost
the state $71,409, or less than $41 per car body for
Fish are attracted to a reef because it pro- purchase and placement. These car bodies have
vides a place of refuge from larger predators and deteriorated, but provided good fishing for a
also because the food supply is increased by the period of three to seven years.
vertebrate organisms that live in the reef. These
organisms attract smaller fish that serve as food for The placing of car bodies in the western tier
larger fish. However, many fish are attracted simp- off Mobile County was a mistake as many were
ly because the reef provides a point of reference movy s o m tds an re
in a bottom habitat that often is as barren as a moved by storm tides and caused great difficulty
desert. These fish are known as thigmotropic to commercial shrimp fishermen. After that time
reef placement was closely coordinated with the
(attracted to an object by a touch stimulus). seafood industry.
seafood industry.

The Marine Resources Division (formerly the In July, 1959, the Department and the Mo-
Seafoods Division) of the Alabama Department of bile County Wildlife and Conservation Association
Conservation and Natural Resources has been con- sank a 300-foot drydock 12 miles off the Mobile
structing artificial reefs to compensate for the lack County coast. The drydock was placed near a
of natural reefs off Alabama's coast and in its barge which was sunk during World War II. The
bays. The offshore reefs have been constructed in drydock produced excellent fishing and is still a
60 to 90 feet of water. These reefs attract snapper, productive reef. The gradual deterioration of the car
grouper, triggerfish and other species. The reef sites bodies resulted in very heavy fishing pressure on
also are excellent trolling locations for king mackeral, the drydock reef and fishing success declined.
amberjack and ling. The inshore reefs in Mobile Bay
are built for small-boat fishermen and attract white In November, 1962, 300 tons of imperfect
trout, ground mullet and speckled trout. concrete roadway culverts ranging in diameter
100

from 2 to 6 feet and in lengths up to 10 feet were reef. Snapper moved in on the reefs within weeks,
sunk off Perdido Pass. Five individual, closely- probably from the culverts located nearby.
spaced reefs were created. Snapper fishing was ex-
cellent and fishing continues to be good on these
reefs. In 1970 an additional 600 tons of culverts LIBERTY SHIPS
were added to this reef and a new reef was created off
Ft. Morgan peninsula by sinking 600 tons of culverts. On January 22, 1971 Alabama Congressman
These reefs were financed by Dingell-Johnson funds William Dickinson introduced HR650 to authorize
through the Department's Game and Fish Division. the transfer of Liberty ships to the state for artifi-
Both areas were buoyed and produced very good cial reefs. The act was passed and was signed into
snapper fishing. In December, 1972, approximately law as P.L. 92-402 on August 22, 1972. Under
2,000 tons of culverts were added to the Ft. Morgan this act, five ships were transferred to the State of
peninsula reef, dropped in a one-half-mile line. Each Alabama in December, 1973. The ships presently
culvert produces good catches for one boat. are being salvaged prior to sinking. Each ship will
be cut down to the 15-foot water line to allow,
In 1964, six experimental reefs were placed them to be sunk closer to shore. The value of the
In 194, sx exprimetal refs ere pacedsalvageable material (all non-ferrous metals and 76
three to five miles southeast of Fort Morgan. The salvageable material (all non-ferrous metals and 76
thre to ive ilessouteastof Frt Mrgan Thepercent of ferrous metals) will pay for sinking the
reefs were designed to test the effectiveness of one- percent of ferrous metals) will pay for sinking the
and ten-culvert groups in three different depths vessels. In addition, the salvage value produced
additional revenue in the amount of $25,000 for
(30, 40, and 50 feet) against control areas at each the Division's reef program. Two of the reefs will
depth. Unfortunately, these reefs failed to provide
good snapper fishing because they were located too be placed off Mobile County near the drydock
and three will go off Baldwin County.
close to the mouth of Mobile Bay where they were and three will go off Baldwin County.
subject to flows of turbid water during much of
the year. The reefs did produce good fishing for The State of Alabama has filed for transfer
silver seatrout. The failure to attract large numbers of an additional five ships. If these are transferred,
of snapper led to the decision to construct reefs all go off Baldwin County in waters where there
within the bays, since good seatrout fishing could is no commercial fishing.
be produced in the bays where better protection was
provided for the small-boat fisherman. The first five ships will be sunk before the
end of 1974. If the additional ships are obtained,
The Marine Resources Division began its in- it is planned to sink them during 1974 and 1975.
The MrineResouces ivisin bean it in-All ships will be buoyed and will have a minimum
shore reef program in 1971. Two 3-acre reefs have All ships will be buoyed and will have a minimum
been constructed of concrete rubble. The placed of 63 feet of water over the hulls. Each of the
approximately 2,000 tons of rubble on each reef ships should provide fishing for a minimum of
site. One of the reefs provided a good fishery while 100 years.
the other was rather poor. The difference was at-
tributed to the size of the reef material. The tires
are tied four to a bundle and weighted by old chain. FUTURE PROGRAM
Each bundle is constructed so that the tires stand The Division will sink an additional seven
on their treads with the hole in the vertical plane and barges and boats off-shore during 1974. These consist
form a cross when viewed from above. This prevents of old wooden tug boats and steel barges of up to
the tires from being moved by wave action. The 250 feet in length.
reef material should become encrusted with oysters
within four years. Six additional inshore reefs will Over the next several years the Division plans
be constructed of tires during 1974 and 1975. The to continue to sink vessels, culvert, etc. All previous
Division is presently stockpiling materials for these work with the reefs has been done on a very meager
reefs. budget and with a great deal of help from individuals
and corporations which donated the materials and
In December, 1972, a 60-foot steel pushboat helped to place them offshore. The Division will
was sunk off Fort Morgan penisula. This boat has sponsor a marine sportfishing license measure which
not been buoyed or, to our knowledge, fished. The has a good chance of being enacted by the Legislature.
Division will buoy it two years from the date it If this bill passes, funds will be available to intensify
was sunk to compare catch statistics to those from greatly the scope of the program.
reefs which are subjected to fishing pressure as
soon as they are sunk. Two additional 175-foot Presently, some areas have been leased for oil ex-
barges were sunk in early 1974 near the culvert ploration which will increase the fishing opportunity

101

off the Alabama coast greatly. Buffalo Towing Company; Otto M. Liscomb Com-
pany; Charles Adams; Russel Steiner; Captain
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Armand Annan; Bill Childers; Captain Leon Es-
feller; the Orange Beach Fisherman's Association;
The Marine Resources Division would like to Mobile County Wildlife and Conservation Associa-
express its appreciation for the services and reef tion; Century Step Company; Mobile District
materials donated by the following: Radcliff Ma- U.S. Coast Guard; and the U.S. Navy Coastal
terials Company, Inc.; Horton Pipe Company; Systems Laboratory.

102 ' ~:

North Carolina's Artificial Reef Program

JIM TYLER

Reef Coordinator and Publications Editor, North Carolina Division of Commercial and
Sports Fisheries, P.O. Box 769, Morehead City, North Carolina 28557

Within the next six months, North Carolina for access areas and boat ramps, and for boating
will have the most ambitious on-going artificial safety programs and enforcement of boat safety
reef program I am aware of. We had hoped to be regulations.
further along in our program by the time of this
conference, but we are not. Therefore, I can only
outline our plans and, in the future, if your various Other states, and possibly non-governmental
programs take a turn in the direction ours is going councils, should consider this funding source. Even
you can contact us to see how we are doing. if our funding were to be eventually cut back badly
or disappear in six years, it would remain substan-
We have been lucky to be able to use the tial long enough for us to get a very good start and
groundwork laid down by others. And, besides get to the stage where we could illustrate solidly
beginning by being able to profit from the best what can be done. Then we would perpetuate
ventures, we have a good sum of money the next the program with the cooperation of local govern-
six years earmarked for reef work. This year we ments such as Gregory Mcintosh outlined earlier in
will have approximately $200,000 for our program. the Fort Lauderdale situation.
In addition to funds, our agency already has much
of the equipment needed, such as a self-propelled Also, trying to profit from what we have seen
110 foot barge, a big truck, a tractor and sea-going in other reef operations, we have one person head'
vessels. ing up biological and monitoring phases and an-
other individual heading up construction and trans-
portation phases. Also, we want to communicate
Only two months ago, however, the picture
the success of the reefs to fishermen, and a statis-
was even brighter and we were assured of $250,000 tically sound creel census program is as important
tically sound creel census program is as important
or more annually. Short months ago we thought to us, perhaps more so, than reports of divers
to us, perhaps more so, than reports of divers
our funding base was solid. It is, however, based
about all the fish down there.
on the sale of gasoline Our agency is to receive
one-eighth ol one percent of the state motor fuel tax.
We plan at least 13 ocean reefs and six estu-
This amount was made available in 1973 by the
arine reefs. The ocean reefs are spread along a 320
North Carolina State Legislature to be used exclu-
mile coastline. The estuarine reefs will be in 60-
sively for artificial reefs. The reasoning comes
from unrebated state tax on fuels used by boats. mile-long Pamlico Sound.
Someone asked the right people why boat taxes
should go to highway use. A person can file for In the ocean, depths of reef sites will range
from 3I to 72 feet. Distances from shore will be
a return of taxes he paid on motor boat fuels, but
one and one-fourth to three miles. We are keeping
many people do not file these claims. The story one and one-fourth to three miles. We are keeping
the reefs within the three mile state limit so we
goes that someone figured the amount of unrebated the reefs within the three mile state limit so we
taxes due to boaters equaled about one-fourth of can have some control. And, too, access by small
one~ pecetofthaxs.Si16tershatr boaters figured heavily in selecting sites for pro-
one percent of the taxes. So in 1967 the freshwater
posed reefs. If at all possible, we want the small
agency began to receive half of it, or one-eighth of
boater to be able to get out on the reefs many days
one percent. Then, in 1973, another one-eighth was
of each year. Of course bottom type, currents,
designated for salt water use.
surge, commercial use, etc. also were considered.
We were able to keep away from areas of high in-
The freshwater agency has used their funds tensity commercial fishing use in all areas except
103

one. And in that area we were able to select a cent. We have two small experimental tire reefs in
site that the commercial fishermen were willing to Pamlico Sound, one in the northern sector and one
accept. in the southern. The old standard concrete-in-the-
bottom tire and five tires on top with reinforcing
Our proposed reefs can be subjected to com- rods binding method is used. Units have been over-
parative studies, such as depth differences and the board since last April. We are monitoring monthly
success of reefs adjacent to natural rock compared succession with detachable 25 square centimeter
to barren-area reefs. Most of North Carolina's pieces of rubber.
close-to-shore bottoms are sand and sand/silt. In
the southern sector we do have a few small low pro- Scrap tires will be our main component.
file marl outcrops with associated, or subtropical Basically, we are using South Carolina's tire con-
communities of sponges and soft corals and en- struction method as outlined earlier this afternoon
crusting organisms. by Dewitt Myatt. We will sink our first Liberty
Ship within the next month. Two more are defi-
nitely coming to North Carolina, with a possibility
In the estuaries, water depth at the reef sites of two others. We plan composite ocean reefs
is 10-12 feet. Salinity at one site dips to one percent with other old boats and ships and chunks of con-
and at other sites never goes below 10 percent. It crete, when available. We will probably stick with
appears that mean salinities will be less than 15 per- tires exclusively in the estuaries.

,)"g~~~~~~~~~~~,

104o ;? !d
1 04

Secondary Utilization of Areefs for Large Scale

Habitat Anchorage

EDGAR WERNER

Assistant Professor and Director, Ocean Resources Utilization Program, Inter American
University of Puerto Rico, P.O. Box 1293, Hato Rey, Puerto Rico 00919

It is apparent that the rapidly increasing de- sources of the target populations it seems likely
mand for protein products from the sea on the one that Areefs will be built at a greater rate in the
hand, and the decreasing fisheries yield on the future. In many places it may be the entire ocean-
other, are creating a problem which calls for a ographic effort which an underdeveloped country
rapid and effective solution, however novel or prag- or area can support. Where this is the case, it is
matic it may be. If then, for the purposes of this particularly important to examine Areef design and
discussion, the problem area is confined to the har- construction from the point of view of determin-
vesting of marine invertebrates and certain fishes ing what additional purposes an Areef can serve
it can readily be seen that the extensive employ- with little or no additional cost or effort.
ment and use of Areefs (artificial reefs) offers a
technologically feasible and perhaps economical- Certainly, if the Areef is part of an ocean re-
ly viable system for open sea mariculture. source development program then the primary pur-
pose of the Areef will be as a mariculture substrate
While the basic methodology is centuries old system rather than mere enhancement of a parti-
and the work done in recent years by Turner (1), cularly bare offshore fishing ground. Considered
Carlisle (2), Stone (3) and others has upgraded and from this point of view, the Areef becomes large
mechanized the techniques and quantified the re- enough and the economic reasons good enough to
suits, utilization of Areefs for purposes other than make it feasible to put to use one of its basic and
simple enhancement of sport fishing areas is not possibly heretofor overlooked characteristics
a matter of current consideration. A study of the which is, of course, its massive anchoring capabili-
Areef literature and particularly the extensive and ties. The nature of a mariculture Areef of any
well organized bibliography of Steimle and Stone (4) reasonable economic scale is such that habitats of
shows that the vast majority of builders had a single varying sizes and degrees of complexity will have
primary purpose which motivated the construction to be integral parts of the Areef mariculture
of their particular Areefs. This is, of course, con- system. The mass of the Areef appears to provide
sistent with the fact that the sponsoring agencies the solution to the buoyancy factor which limits
for Areef construction were fishing clubs, conser- extensive use of large habitats. It seems then, that
vation groups or recreational organizations. It is it will be worthwhile to discuss further the utiliza-
unlikely that any of these groups would have more tion of Areefs as habitat anchorages.
than a passing interest in marine resources develop-
ment per se.
AREEFS-HABITAT SYSTEMS

Ocean resource utilization programs, especial- Both habitats and Areefs have moved rapidly
ly in developing countries or areas, however, do through the experimental or feasibility study stages
have a much wider interest in Areefs. As has been and are now at the point where their integration
pointed out in a previous paper (5) an Areef pro- into pragmatically oriented marine resource devel-
ject is very effective also as a teaching tool to illus- opment programs as tools is possible and necessary.
trate the various ecological and environmental as- In the case of Areefs, sufficient numbers, types
pects of marine resource development and utiliza- and sizes have been built to prove their utility and
tion. Because of the ease with which the level of systematize their design and construction. Habitats
complexity of Areef construction can be matched also have been built in sufficient variety and used
to the technological capabilities and financial re- often enough to make it evident that man can live
105

comfortably at various depths for long periods of of keeping the habitat in place. The importance
time. of this factor must not be underestimated; acci-
dental surfacing of a habitat is extremely danger-
Let us then look at the habitat and Areef ous and in the case of a saturation dive, the sudden
from the point of view of a production system. decompression can be fatal.
Consider a mariculture system in which a large
Areef is constructed which has the optimum design The significance of the buoyancy/working
and pattern for spiny lobster culture, for example area relationship can be seen readily from Table 1.
- - a farm or hatchery for benthic marine forms, if Very obviously the limiting factor in habitat usage
you will. To be economically feasible, the Areef is going to be the tremendous amount of buoyancy
will have to cover a large area and possibly be di- which is inherent in the structure of the device.
vided into sections to provide for sequential har- In the smaller habitat sizes an appreciable part of
vesting. In this type of operation, small habitats the buoyancy can be offset in the design through
properly spaced around the Areef sections will be the use of high density materials. Since the pres-
required as fulltime observation stations to monitor sure differential between the habitat atmosphere
the work areas and, probably, guard the develop- and the ambient water pressure is relatively small,
ing "crop." Since Areef poaching on even limited the material of which the habitat is constructed
experimental installations seems to be a growing need not possess the high tensile strength of pres-
problem in any kind of mariculture, guard stations sure containers and it is entirely feasible to con-
are an obvious requirement in any commercial off- struct a small habitat of high density concrete, re-
shore project. The habitat also is required as a inforced with steel if desired. A project (6) at our
way station for the Areef workers - - a place for installation which now is in the preliminary draft-
rest, air replenishment and food. Consider also ing stages, for example, is for a rectangular habitat
that the concept of saturation diving is entering of reinforced concrete.
into most of the plans for sea floor development
projects. Habitats then also become living quarters
for the individuals involved in the Areef operations. Specifications are:

It becomes necessary to consider the final de- Material - Reinforced Concrete -
velopment of a fully integrated Areef-Habitat 8 in. wall
System. This is the case where the location of the (base 12 in. thickness)
Areef makes transportation and transfer difficult Work Area - 8 ft. x 12 ft. =
and costly on a small per unit basis and where 96 ft.2 - Height 6.5 ft.
climatic conditions make rapid spoilage of harvest-
ed products very likely without extensive refrigera- Volume (total) - 625 ft.3 - Positive
tion systems. The obvious answer is the transfer Buoyancy 40,000 lbs.
of the canning or packaging operation to the har- 44,600 lbs.
Material Weight - 44,600 lbs.
vesting area, i.e., the Areef. This then implies the Mr Wg
(544 ft.3 Concrete)
direct loading of the finished products to the final
shipper in economical lots. At this point we are Net Negative Buoyancy - 4,600 lbs.
no longer talking about small habitats, but large
high buoyancy installations into which many other
factors enter which are well beyond the scope and
intent of this paper. We will consider this last case
only from the point of view of buoyancy problems A structure such as this, with a negative buoy-
and anchorage and with a reference to the Liberty ancy of close to 5,000 pounds will present a very
Ship Areef in the final part of this paper. stable configuration and should be relatively easy
to fabricate, transfer (in section) and emplace.
This appears, however, to be the maximum practi-
BUOYANCY-WEIGHT RELATIONSHIPS cal size for a habitat which is self-anchored, due to
material and design considerations which are be-
The limiting factor in the utilization of habi- yond the scope of this discussion.
tats appears to be the rapid increase in buoyancy
which results from only a small change in usable
working area. At no time, in any habitat or way ANCHORAGES
station large enough to hold a diver, is the buoy-
ancy problem negligible, and some provision Not withstanding the tremendous advances
always must be made for a secure and safe method which have been made in development of anchor-
106

TABLE I
Relationship between floor area and buoyancy of different size Habitats.

(1) Net weight of habitat material not included
(2) Anchorage calculated with 50% safety factor
(3) Tektite has additional water ballast tanks

HABITAT SHAPE SIZE FLOOR AREA VOLUME BUOYANCY ANCHORAGE
(ft2) (ft3) (1) lbs. (2) lbs.

Way Station upright 4' dia. 12 72 4,464 6,696
(1 man- cylinder 6' hgt.
temporary)

(2 man) cylinder 6' hgt. 108 648 40,176 60,264
Overnight upright 12' dia.

Tektite 2 double 12' dia. 434 3888 141,056 201,000(3)
(30 days) upright 18' hgt. (3 decks
cylinder (each) total)
(3 work
areas)

Areef Work rectangle 50' L 2000 16,000 992,000 1,488,000
Habitat 40' W
(proposed) 8' H

ages and moorings for supertankers and offshore anchors which has been utilized in current opera-
installations, anchoring of habitats does not appear tional habitats has been the construction of a cage
as a reasonable solution. It must be remembered or base which was then filled with concrete rubble,
that the forces of moored vessels are generally iron scrap or cast iron ingots. With the current
tangential to the anchorage, whereas the force of labor costs and increasingly higher prices of raw
buoyancy is directly upward and this is a factor materials, even scrap in the quantities required for
which tends to decrease the holding power con- a reasonably large habitat becomes prohibitive in
siderably. Only a deadweight or a well buried this application.
anchor would function at high efficiency with a
buoyant object. For purposes of comparison,
various anchor systems are shown in Table 2. AREEF ANCHORAGE

Referring to approximate buoyancy values If we now consider the Areef in the light of
given in Table 1, it appears that direct anchorage its methods of construction and the material used
of habitats is restricted to relatively small units it becomes clear that we have at hand the anchor-
(a one-man way station or a two-man overnight age required to support virtually any habitat we
type) using the appropriate anchors shown in might want to use. Only one qualification need be
Table 2. Logistic problems of transporting and de- made: habitat size and Areef size must remain in
ploying the anchoring system far exceed the rela- some proportion which will assure sufficient mass
tively simple matter of moving a small habitat into to neutralize the habitat buoyancy. Let us attempt
place. It would appear also that cost considera- to derive some relationship which can be used in
tions will essentially eliminate the standard large design of an Areef-Habitat combination. Table 3
anchors from the minimal budgets associated with can be used to arrive at the buoyancy-weight rela-
habitat experiments. The only other alternative to tionship which is inherent in the Areef structure.
107

TABLE 2

Holding power of Anchors. Adapted from R.O. Ogg
"Anchors" in Handbook of Ocean and Underwater Engineering,
MacGraw Hill, 1969

TYPE SIZE LBS. HOLDING POWER CONCRETE BLOCK NOTES
(Lbs.) HOLDING POWER
(Lbs.)

Mushroom 1,000 2,000 500 Holding power based on
Mushroom 5,000 10,000 2,500 use of optimum chain
length, size, and correct
Stockless 1,000 3,000 500 mooring angle.
Stockless 40,000 80,000 20,500

Kedge 750 2,500 375 Concrete block holding
power based on dead-
Northill 100 2,600 50 weight+ drag on bottom

Lightweight 100 2,700 Mud 50
Lightweight 100 19,000 Sand 50
Lightweight 500 4,800 Mud 250
Lightweight 500 34,000 Sand 250
Lightweight 20,000 42,000 Mud 10,000
Lightweight 20,000 280,000 Sand 10,000

Without regard to the particular shape of the securing the habitat to the Areef and distributing
Areef, we now can assign a habitat buoyancy value the buoyancy strains throughout the mass of the
to the Areef components: Areef are specific and possibly difficult engineering
CASE 1: A temporary or way station habitat has problems. A mariculture Areef of this size can pro-
a buoyance value of 6,696 pounds. This vide a buoyancy value of well over 1,000,000
can be accomplished by the use of 10 pounds, which is more than adequate to hold the
average automobile chassis which in turn proposed Areef work habitat listed in Table 1.
results in an Areef volume of 1,500 ft.3
or a mass of junk cars which measures The interest up to this point has been to indi-
10 x 15 x 10 feet high. Since this cate the possibilities for habitat anchorage which
is a very small reef, nothing more are implicit in the design characteristics of Areefs.
than a way station habitat will be Further, the intention is to draw some general rela-
required. tionship which could be utilized in the process of
laying out the Areef parameters to accomodate the
CASE 2: Increase of the Areef size to approxi- habitat function as well.
mately 10 times the initial construction
allows the use of an overnight habitat
for two men by providing buoyancy THE LIBERTY SHIP AREEF-HABITAT
value of 60,000 pounds.
It would serve the purpose of this paper badly
These are still relatively small Areefs and if to continue consideration of additional specific
large scale invertebrate mariculture is contemplated cases of Habitat-Areef combinations. Each investi-
along with the on-site packaging operation then we gator has a unique situation and will adjust specific
are considering the emplacement of an Areef com- parameter to fit his own materials and problems.
posed of 2,000 vehicles or equivalent scrap ma- The mathematics and mechanics of these projects
terial. The area involved is approximately the size are simple to comprehend; they may possibly be
of a football field and obviously the method of difficult to implement, at least at first.
108

TABLE 3
Weight relationship of Areef materials.
(1) Weight submerged
(2) Habitat buoyancy plus
50% safety factor

MATERIAL VOLUME FT3 WEIGHT LBS. (1) DENSITY LBS./FT.3 ANCHORAGE (2) VALUE

Vehicle 12 600 50 300
Engine

Vehicle 150 1200 80 600
Chassis

Vehicle 12 1200 100 600
Baled

Concrete 1 86 86 45
Rubble

Concrete 32 2752 86 1325
Caison (4x6)

Concrete Block 1 166 166 83
(Heavy-Weight)

roughly 200 percent of the buoyancy of
There is some value, however, in the brief
consideration of one Areef-Habitat combination the habitat ship.
which appears conceptually to be the upper size
limit to this type of construction. It is proposed
that three surplus World War 11 Liberty Ships be lus to further investigation rather than a specific
usedto povid a vry lrge caleHabiat-Aeefplan. Certainly the data has been skewed in favor
used to provide a very large scale Habitat-Areef
combination. The essential plan is to fill the holds of a wide safety margin. It is a conceptual propos-
al which extends the ideas developed in this paper
them and use them as the anchorage for a third
empty liberty ship which will be turned over and engineering problems in a project of this magni-
used as a factory habitat. The basic data is as tude are formidable but, I believe, soluble. Pos-
follows: sibly, after a few more years experience in emplace-
ment of Areefs and construction and extensive use
Displacement (buoyancy) - 14,000 tons of habitats, we will be in a position, and may have
the need, to attempt the construction of a Liberty
per ship ~~~~~~~~Ship Areef-Habitat.
Dead weight (submerged) - 4,000 tons
p er ship It would be presumptious to suggest that the
aim of this paper has been to present anything new
Density of 50 lbs. ft.3 = 23,400,000 lbs. or radically different. All of us involved in Areef
per ship construction, have, I am sure, made the observa-
That is 1 0,700 tons per ship
tions relating to the weight utility of this material.
� Total anchorage available - 14,700 tons It is hoped only that the contribution of this paper
per ship or 29,400 for the two ships or has been to pull together and correlate some of the
109

data on Areefs and habitats in such a way that it Marine Development Services, Publication No.
will be useful to future planners of Areefs who 73-2, 1973.
may also become involved in ocean resource de-
velopment programs. 5. Werner, E. and F. Guell, "A Review and Appli-
cation of Discussion of Artificial Reefs as an
Integral Part of An Ocean Resource Utiliza-
tion Program." Proceedings of the Second
REFERENCES CITED International Ocean Develonment Conference.
Tokyo, Japan, 1972.
1. Turner, C.E., et al. Man-made Reef Ecology.
Fish Bulletin No. 146, Office of Procurement, 6. , and Terry R. Johnson. "Prelim-
Documents Section, Sacramento, California. inary Studies on Development of a Reinforced
Concrete Habitat." (Paper in preparation).
2. Carlisle, J.G., et al. Artificial Habitat in the
Marine Environment. Fisheries Bulletin No. OTHER REFERENCES
124, California Department of Fish and
Game. Myers, John, et al. Handbook of Ocean and Under-
water Engineering. McGraw-Hill, 1969.
3. Stone, R. B., et al. "Old Tires Make New Fishing
Reefs," Bulletin of the American Littoral Penzias, W. and M.W. Goodman. Man Beneath the
Society, VI (1970), 23-28. Sea. Wiley Interscience, 1973.

4. Steimle, F. W., Jr., and R. B. Stone. Bibliography Souders, Mott. The Enzineer's Companion. John
on Artificial Reefs. Coastal Plains Center for Wiley and Sons, 1967.

tE_
4~ ~ 4

The Economic

and Legal Views

SESSION CHAIRMAN: R. N. CONOLLY, Stewart & Stevenson Services,
Inc., Corpus Christi, Texas

I
i
I

112

The Regulatory Policies of the United States

Environmental Protection Agency Concerning

the Construction of Artificial Reefs

JONATHAN E. AMSON

Chief, Biology Section, Hazardous Materials and Toxic Substances Branch, Environmental Protection Agency,
401 M Street S W, Washington, D. C. 20460

The legislative and regulatory responsibilities (a) The Administrator is authorized,
of the United States Environmental Protection after public hearings, to permit the dis-
Agency with regard to the construction of artifi- charge of a specific pollutant or pollu-
cial reefs are both distinctly defined and subject tants under controlled conditions
to legislative interpretation. On one hand, under associated with an approved aquaculture
Public Law 92-532, the Marine Protection, Re- project under Federal or State super-
search, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972, Section 3 (c) vision.
of the law, in defining what is allowed to be dis-
posed of in ocean waters, states that
(b) The Administrator shall by regula-
"Material" means matter of any kind or tion, not later than January 1, 1974,
description, including, but not limited establish any procedures and guidelines
to ... wreck or discarded equipment, he deems necessary to carry out this
rock, ... excavation debris,... and section.
other waste;....
As can be seen, artificial reefs are not identi-
Thus, the substances from which artificial fled as such within the language of Section 318,
reefs are constructed are clearly included within (nor specifically within any other section of 92-
the definition of "material." Yet, Section 3 (f) of 500), and inclusion of these structures within the
that same law, in defining what the act of disposal spirit of the language of Section 318 is an inter-
is to include, states that pretive one.

"Dumping" ... does not mean the con-
struction of any fixed structure or arti- OTHER APPLICABLE SECTIONS OF LAW
ficial island nor the intentional placement
of any device in ocean waters or on or It is Section 3(c) of P.L. 92-532 and Section
in the submerged land beneath such 318 of P.L. 92-500 that will be addressed in the
waters, for a purpose other than dis- major portion of this paper; however, there are
posal .... other sections of Federal law that affect the con-
struction of artificial reefs, and it is instructive to
Th us, clearly, the intentional placement of touch upon these briefly. First, Section 401 of
material in ocean waters (defined as those waters 92-500 requires an applicant for a Federal permit
lying seaward of the base line of the Territorial [who proposes] to conduct any activity which
Sea), for purposes other than deliberate disposal, may result in any discharge into navigable waters
(such as for the construction of artificial reefs), is to obtain certification from the State in which
not to be included in the regulations of the Ocean the discharge originates. As will be seen from a
Dumping Act. reading of the law, a "discharge" as defined in this
manner means discharge of a pollutant, and the
On the other hand, under Public Law 92-500, definition of "pollutant" includes those materials
the massive and landmark 1972 Amendments to from which artificial reefs are constructed. How-
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Section ever, as also will be seen from a reading of the law,
318 of the law (entitled "Aquaculture") states the requirements of Section 401 are included
that within certain portions of Section 318.
113

Second, Section 402 of 92-500 (entitled in any navigable water of the United States, except
"National Pollutant Discharge Elimination Sys- on plans recommended by the Chief of Engineers
tem") requires a permit for the discharge of any [of the United States Army] ." Thus, any proposed
pollutant "except as provided in Section 318 ... construction of an artificial reef which affects
of this Act." Thus, Section 318 is identified as a transportation on the navigable waters of the
more specific and applicable case of NPDES that United States also requires a permit from the Corps
takes precedence over the more general permit of Engineers of the Department of Defense.
system of Section 402.
Fifth, Section 307(c)(3) of Public Law 92-
Third, Section 3(a) of Public Law 92-402 583, the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972,
states that requires an applicant for a. Federal permit [who
proposes]
Any State may apply to the Secretary of
Commerce for Liberty Ships which, but . . to conduct an activity affecting land
for the operation of this Act, would be or water uses in the coastal zone of that
designated by the Secretary for scrap- State [to] provide .. a certification
ping if the State intends to sink such that the proposed activity complies with
ships for use as an offshore artificial the state's approved [coastal zone man-
reef for the conservation of marine life. agement] program ...

Section 3(b), which follows immediately, re- Thus, any proposed construction of an artifi-
quires the application form submitted by any State cial reef must meet individual state requirements
to include in their approved coastal zone management pro-
cedures.
... a certificate from the Administrator,
Environmental Protection Agency, that
the proposed use of the particular vessel THE OCEAN DUMPING ACT
or vessels requested by the State will be
compatible with water quality standards Having touched briefly on other sections of
and other appropriate environmental Federal law that affect the construction of artifi-
protection requirements. cial reefs, it is desirable to return to the two sec-
tions of law that were referred to in the opening
In order to carry out its responsibilities under portion of this paper. Although dumping for the
P.L. 92-402, EPA has developed procedures to re- purposes of constructing artificial reefs is specifi-
view and certify artificial reef projects for com- cally excluded from the regulations of the Ocean
patibility with water quality standards and other Dumping Act, it is relevant to note that the Marine
appropriate environmental safeguards. In develop- Protection Branch of the Oil and Special Materials
ing the procedures, EPA kept in mind the policies Control Division, which has the responsibility with-
set forth in the Federal Water Pollution Control in EPA for administering Title I of P.L. 92-532, is
Act Amendments of 1972. Accordingly, certifica- concerned about several factors regarding the con-
tion under P.L. 92-402 is granted only for "clean" struction of artificial reefs.
ships; that is, those from which all oil and hazard-
ous materials have been removed.
The first is that at the present time there are
Thus, although the EPA has an environmental- no restrictions on construction of artificial reefs,
ly protective certifying role under P.L. 92-402, the and the placement of these reefs, from a naviga-
major responsibility for the Act belongs to the tional point of view, has been quite poor. When
Secretary of Commerce (specifically, the Assistant the Chief of Engineers approves, from a navigation-
Secretary for Maritime Affairs), and it is expected al viewpoint, an application for construction of an
that such responsibilities will be discussed in other artificial reef, it is assumed that the reef will be
papers in these Proceedings. placed as nearly as possible to the proposed loca-
tion in the application. This has not always been
Fourth, under Section 10 of the River and the case. In at least one instance in recent months,
Harbor Act of 1899, "the creation of any ob- it has been reported to EPA that the dumping has
struction ... to the navigable capacity of any of taken place as much as five miles from where the
the waters of the United States is prohibited," and application stated it would occur, thus raising the
further, "it is unlawful to build any ... structure possibility of serious navigational hazards.
114

The second factor arises from the basic prob- example of projects which are intended
lem of assuring that materials to be disposed of in to be permitted under Federal or State
ocean environments will be as free from pollution supervision and approval.
as possible. There are only minimal restrictions at
the present time regarding these materials. The Further, the language of the version as adopt-
Marine Protection Branch currently is in the pro- ed includes the phrase "the discharge of a specific
cess of issuing permits to the United States Navy pollutant or pollutants." (For the full text of the
to dispose of 6 to 10 ships per year for use as tar- section, see the introductory portion of this paper).
get vessels. In those permits, two of the conditions Under Section 502(6) of the Act (entitled "General
of the permit are that first, all fuel tanks and lines Definitions") the definition of the term "pollutant"
must be emptied to the lowest point of suction, includes ". . . solid waste ... wrecked and discarded
then flushed with water and again pumped to the equipment, [and] rock . . ." Thus, it would appear
lowest point of suction, leaving fuel tanks and lines that inclusion of the construction of artificial reefs
essentially free of petroleum and other pollutants; is clearly within the language of that section of law
and second, all readily detachable material capable as written, and Section 318 may be interpreted to
of creating debris or contributing to chemical pol- include such structures.
lution must be removed from the hulls.
At the present time, the regulations to estab-
lish any procedures and guidelines as required by
Thus, it is the belief of the EPA that any ma- Section 318(b), are in a draft proposed rulemaking
terials used in the construction of an artificial reef format. It is to be emphasized that these proposed
(other than Liberty Ships from the Reserve Fleet rules are in a draft state and are subject to change.
obtained from the Secretary of Commerce), should The document currently is being circulated for
at least comply with the following factors: they comment on its technical accuracy and policy im-
must meet the cleanliness requirements that are plications and should not at this stage be construed
part of the conditions of the permit for oceanic to represent Agency policy. It is expected that
Naval disposal of target vessels; they must have publication will occur in the Federal Register as
been certified by the appropriate state or federal Proposed Rulemaking within the next six weeks,
agency that the deposit of materials is for the pur- following which time there will be 30 days for
pose of enhancing fisheries; and they must be con- public comment. At the conclusion of that period,
sistent with all other published ocean disposal consideration for modification of the proposed
criteria of P.L. 92-532. rules will be given, and then within a nominal
period of time (usually 30 to 60 days), the final
regulations will be issued.
THE PROPOSED AQUACULTURE
REGULATIONS Nevertheless, it is possible to discuss the draft
proposed rulemaking in a cursory manner at this
Finally, let us examine that section of the law time. The introductory section discusses the legis-
that ultimately will affect most directly the con- lative authority for this section of the Act, and
struction of artificial reefs, Section 318 of the makes the point that the legislative history of
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended. Section 318 makes it clear that Congress intended
In doing so, it is instructive to recall the legislative authorized discharges under Section 318 should
history of this section of P.L. 92-500. In the Sen- not contribute to water pollution outside the
ate bill (S. 2770) that led ultimately to 92-500, the designated project area. Further, the Administra-
language dealing with aquaculture was identified tor's authority to permit discharges under Section
as Section 303; in the House bill (H.R. 11896) the 318 is subject to a requirement for public hearings.
language was identified as Section 318, but it was The Agency believes that the requirement of a
added as an amendment to the original House bill. public hearing will be satisfied if an opportunity
However, the language in both Congressional ver- for a public hearing is provided by the regulations.
sions was identical, and the Conference Committee Thus no public hearing would be required if no
adopted the language as written. The report of the member of the public were to request one.
House Public Works Committee, in reporting out
H.R. 11896, contained no modifying language; In Subpart A - General, certain terms are spe-
however, the report of the Senate Public Works cifically defined. Included in these definitions are
Committee, in reporting out S. 2770, stated that
the term "discharge of pollutants as-
Such projects as the building of artificial sociated with an aquaculture project"
reefs by use of inert bulk solids [is] an means the addition or discharge of a
115

specific pollutant(s) in a controlled sets the application fee for a permit at $1,000 to
manner to an aquaculture project to cover the cost of processing the application and
enhance the growth or propagation of project surveillance. However, agencies or instru-
the species under culture. mentalities of federal, state or local governments
will not be required to pay the fee.
� the term "aquaculture project" means
a confined water area which is managed In addition in this subpart, the time require-
and uses discharges of a pollutant(s) ments for permit applications are established, as
into the project area for the mainten- well as the requirements for information to be in-
ance, propagation and/or production cluded in a permit application.
of harvestable freshwater, estuarine or
marine plant or animal species. Finally, in Subpart B, the rulemaking states
that no permit shall be granted until a state certifi-
� the term "to confine" means to uti- cation has been obtained that discharges from the
lize a method or plan of operation (in- designated project area would meet the require-
cluding, but not limited to, physical ments of Section 401 of the Act if the designated
confinement) which on the basis of project area were a point source. In addition, the
reliable scientific evidence, is expected proposed rulemaking establishes procedures for
to insure that specific individual or- action after receipt of permit applications that
ganisms comprising an aquaculture lack state certification. Further, the rulemaking
crop will enjoy growth attributable to states that an application shall be accompanied by
the discharge of pollutants permitted a statement from the state fish and wildlife agency
under this part, and suffer harvesting as to whether the project will be in compliance
within a defined geographic area. with State wildlife regulations.

�wthe term "designated project area"i
the term "designated project area" In Subpart C - Criteria, Terms, and Conditions
means those portions of the navigable of Permits, the proposed rulemaking lists the re-
waters within which the applicant for quirements for permit issuance. It states that there
a permit pursuant to this part proposes will be a permit application denial if, in the judge-
to confine the cultivated species. ment of the Chief of Engineers, there would be a
substantial impairment of navigation by the aqua-
Continuing, the proposed rulemaking defines culture project; that any permit issuance must con-
that the regulations in this part apply to those form with guidelines established under Section
aquaculture facilities which are designed to utilize 403(c) of the Act; that "any modifications caused
pollutants for the maintenance, growth and propa- by the construction or creation of a reef, barrier
gation of freshwater, estuarine and marine organ- or containment structure shall not alter the tidal
isms and to develop new aquaculture crops within regimen of an estuary or interfere with migrations
the United States and its territories. Further, the of unconfined aquatic species;" and that any per-
regulations in this part do not apply to those aqua- mit issuance must conform with standards estab-
culture facilities such as fish hatcheries, fish farms lished under Section 307(a) of the Act.
and similar projects which do not utilize discharges
of wastes from a separate industrial or municipal Further, the rules establish that permits will
point source for the maintenance, propagation and/ be valid for five years, after which renewal applica-
or production of harvestable freshwater, estuarine tion must be made. In addition, any permit shall
or marine organisms. be subject to such monitoring requirements as may
be reasonably required by the Regional Admini-
In Subpart A, the rulemaking delegates the strator, and that the Regional Administrator shall
authority to issue and condition permits or to require periodic reporting (at a frequency of not
deny applications for permits to each of the Re- less than once per year) of monitoring results ob-
gional Administrators of the EPA. tained pursuant to the permit's monitoring re-
quirements.
In Subpart B - Processing of Permits, the pro- quirements.
posed rules state that an applicant for a permit
may obtain the required application forms from Finally, in Subpart D - Notice and Public Par-
the Regional Administrator. These forms must be ticipation, the proposed rulemaking establishes
filed with the Regional Administrator of the EPA procedures for circulation of public notices, re-
region that includes the state in which the aqua- quired contents of public notices, required con-
culture project will operate. This subpart further tents of public notices of public hearings, and
116

time frames and procedures for calling public United States Environmental Protection Agency
hearings. with regard to the construction of artificial reefs
are, by necessity, both broad-based and narrowly
CONCLUSIONS precise. It is by no means a simple task to estab-
lish' regulations in this involved field and also to
From this brief review, it can be seen that the follow closely the complex Congressional mandates.
legislative and regulatory responsibilities of the We welcome public comment on our actions.

117

The V. A. Fogg -- An Unplanned Artificial Reef

EDWARD L. BECKMAN

Professor of Marine Physiology, Texas A &M University, Moody College of Marine Sciences
and Maritime Resources, Department of Marine Sciences, Building 37 7,
Fort Crockett, Galveston, Texas 77550

CAPTAIN LOUIS SCHAEFER
Aqua Safari, Houston, Texas

On February 1, 1972, a stroke of fate created The hull of the Fogg was built of one-inch
an artificial reef for Texans 43 nautical miles south thick plates. The force of the initial explosion was
of the shore of Galveston and 33 nautical miles sufficient to shear the hull from the deck and split
southeast of Freeport. It is ideally located, con- the hull plates in many places. The demolition
structed to last many decades, is not a hazard to charges opened up many more compartments in
navigation, was built at no cost to the government the superstructure so there is easy access into
and has proved to be an ideal fishing spot for both the tanks and superstructure compartments for
line fishermen and scuba divers. This artificial reef fish life. Since the heavy steel plates offer long-
could well be looked upon as a model for the plan- term resistance to corrosion, the life of this reef
ned development of other reefs. can be expected to be much greater than 40 years.

The geographic location of this artificial reef
On that fateful day, the V.A. Fogg, a 572-foot is most favorable, not only because it is well out of
jumbo tanker, cleared the port of Freeport, Texas the sea lanes, but also because it is close to ade-
bound for the Port of Houston. She was scheduled quate ports. The Fogg reef is easily accessible to
to proceed some 50 miles out into the Gulf, purge charter fishing and diving boats from both Free-
her emptied tanks of benzene residuals and then port and Galveston. The shorter distance from
deliver her remaining cargo of toluene to Houston. Freeport to the reef makes it more popular with
Enroute to her at-sea cleaning station, at position, Freeport skippers. Nonetheless, in good fishing
Lat. 280 -35' - 54" N. and Long. 94 -49'-03" W., weather, as many as 20 small boats from these
she was ripped open by a tremendous explosion and ports have been counted over the Fogg reef.
immediately sank, to become an artificial reef as
well as a monument to the 39 men who perished The reason for the popularity of fishing at
with her (Figure 1). this reef relates to the biological productivity of
the surrounding waters.
It was 12 days after the Fogg disappeared be-
fore she was found resting on the bottom in 100 Capt. Louis Schaefer, skipper of the 65 foot
feet of water with only the top of her radar mast offshore fishing and diving charter boat Aqua
visible above the surface. Since she was obviously Safari, made his first trip to the Fogg with a group
a hazard to navigation, the owners were obligated of divers within two weeks after she was sunk.
to remove that portiorl of the vessel which was Capt. Schaefer is both an accomplished diver and
more than 60 feet above the ocean bed. This was underwater photographer. Over the past two
accomplished by explosive demolition, which ef- years, he has photographically recorded changes
fectively transformed those parts of the ship which and additions to reef flora and fauna. On his first
were hazardous to navigation into additional dive to the Fogg, he saw no fish. Within a few
pieces of reef. weeks he recorded the appearance of warsaw
118

:
30:'

Figure 1
Chart of Gulf of Mexico showing location of
Fogg reef

groupers. Within the first few months after the cago and Jersey City, N.J. He has made more
ship sank, red snapper, hard tailed jacks, spade than 100 trips to the V.A. Fogg since she was con-
fish and the ever present barracuda appeared. verted into a reef, and has carried some 3,000
Growth of the fouling organisms occurred more divers and fishermen. Now, diving clubs from many
slowly, and became increasingly apparent after inland cities of Texas and elsewhere book months
three months. Now, after two years, many forms ahead for their chance to visit the Fogg with Capt.
of reef life have arrived and taken up residence in Schaefer.
and around this new habitat. This observation is
substantiated in part by the jewfish shown in
Figure 2 and by the flora and fauna visible in This artificial reef has come to mean many
the underwater photographs, Figures 3, 4, and 5. things to many people: (1 ) a safe and exciting
place to dive, (2) an excellent place to fish where
"big ones" can be found all year around, (3) a
Reef fishing and wreck diving have always source of support for local fishing and diving in-
presented a challenge to fishermen and divers dustries and, not to be overlooked, (4) a favorable
alike. Capt. Schaefer has made "reef diving" a ecological environment for the development of a
reality for fishermen and divers from all over marine community of significant size and popula-
Texas as well as from such distant places as Chi- tion.
119
I~~~~5 90 � 85�80
Figure 1~~~~~~~s
Chart ofGulf of e xic shwnoaino
ilac i~~~~~~~~~Fg ree

grues ihntefrtfe otsatrt e cg n Jese it, NJ ehs aemr
ship sank, red snapper, hard tailed jacks, spade han 100 trips to the V.A. Fogg since she was con

"big nes" an befoun all ear aound,( llQ

E�~I Figure 2
Divers showing large jewfish
caught at Fogg reef

Figure 3
Underwater view of radar mast of V.A. Fogg
through water surface - before demolition

Figure 4
Underwater view of sheared deck plates

Figure 5
Underwater view of reef, diver and
flora and fauna

120 7

Legal Considerations Involved in the Placement

of Artificial Reefs

HERBERT L. BLATT

Chief Counsel for Living Resources, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
Office of General Counsel, Washington, D. C 20235

This morning I would like to present to you a the reef, but for the placing of any fixed and float-
short discussion of the legal considerations involved ing aids to navigation in conjunction with the reef.
in the placement of artificial reefs. Recent legisla- Any such aids to navigation must, of course, also
tion, such as the Coastal Zone Management Act of conform to U.S. Coast Guard requirements con-
1972, will have the effect of increasing federal and cerning marking, lighting, etc. Corps of Engineers
state regulation of activities in the waters and on regulations indicate that the Corps generally will
the submerged lands off our coasts. In order to not issue a Section 10 permit until the necessary
help clarify the legal requirements for those inter- state or local authorization has been received.
ested in placing artificial reefs, I will briefly out-
line the legal procedures presently required for the As we understand it, before issuing a Section
placement of artificial reefs as we at NOAA see it. Ipr underte Nt oaE ion
10 permit under the National Environmental
Then, I will attempt to relate the impact on these
procedures of two important relcent piecttes of Policy Act of 1969, the Corps is required to assess
proceures f tw impotant ecen piecs ofthe potential environmental impact of the project.
federal legislation which are now beginning to be the potential environmental impact of the project.
If the Corps decides that allowing placement of a
implemented: The Coastal Zone Management Act
impleented TheCoastl Zon Mangemen Act reef may amount to a "major federal action signi-
of 1972 and Title Ill of the Marine Protection, Re- reef may amount t o a "major federal action signi-
search and Sanctuaries Act of 1972. These acts ficantly affecting the quality of the human en-
virnmet,"then the Corps will require the permit
are of particular concern to me as an attorney in vironment," then the Corps will require the permit
the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- applicant to furnish his analysis of the environment-
al impacts of the proposed action. The corps will
tion, since it is our agency which has the responsi- al impacts of the proposed action. The corps will
bility for administering these two laws. Finally, I then decide whether an environmental impact
bility for administering ~statement need be prepared by them to be for-
will touch on some of the international legal prob- s tatement need be prepared by them to be for-
lems associated with the placement of artificial warded to the Council on Environmental Quality
and other interested federal agencies for review
reefs.
and comment. It is at this point that NOAA be-
The first step in the procedure for placement comes involved in considering the environmental
of an artificial reef is authorization by the appro- impact of the application. The National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration is deeply involved
priate state or local agency, if state or local law so n threi ni on ipa sae
requires. State or local authorization is required in the review of such environmental impact state-
when the reef is to be placed within waters subject ments as a function of our responsibility and ex-
to state jurisdiction: that is, generally, within the pertise in the area of marine resources. In addition,
to state jurisdiction: that is, generally, within the NA a emr ietyivle ne h
territorial sea. NOAA may be more directly involved under the
provisions of the Fish and Wildlife Coordination
Act. Under this Act, NOAA's comments are not
A basic federal requirement for the placement limited to the environmental impacts. It also may
of an artificial reef is that a permit be granted by make specific recommendations to mitigate dam-
the Corps of Engineers pursuant to Section 10 of ages to the affected fisheries resources.
the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899. I will defer
to the Corps for a detailed explanation of this act. NOAA recently acquired another responsibi-
However, I will point out that Section 10 makes lity for comment on artificial reef projects. The
unlawful the obstruction or alteration of any navi- so-called "Ocean Dumping Act," Title I of the
gable water of the United States. A permit there- Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act
under is required, not only for the placement of of 1972 and regulations promulgated in connection
121

with it, specifically exclude from the requirement shelf (as defined in the Convention of the Contin-
for an ocean dumping permit the placement or de- ental Shelf), of other coastal waters where the
posit of materials for the purpose of enhancing tide ebbs and flows, or of the Great Lakes and
fisheries, provided certain conditions are met. The their connecting waters, which he determines
Environmental Protection Agency, which admini- necessary for the purpose of preserving or restor-
sters the Ocean Dumping Act, requires, among ing such areas for their conservation, recreational,
other things, concurrence from NOAA that the ecological or esthetic values.
proposed placement or deposit of materials actual-
ly is for the purpose of enhancing fisheries. After designating such an area, NOAA will
issue regulations to control any activities within
There is a separate and additional authoriza- the area. Activities in the sanctuary authorized
tion procedure which must be followed by states under other authorities will be valid only if NOAA
that apply to the Maritime Administration for sur- certifies that the activities are consistent with the
plus Liberty Ships for sinking as artificial reefs. purposes of Title III of the Act and can be carried
Public Law 92-402 (16 U.S.C. 1220-1220c) sets out within the regulations for the sanctuary.
up the application procedure, which includes the
securing of a certification from the Environmental NOAA anticipates that this law will be an in-
Protection Agency that the proposed use of the valuable instrument for the protection of unique
ship requested by the state will be compatible with natural underwater resources, such as perhaps, the
"water quality standards and other appropriate en- few coral reef formations found near the United
vironmental protection requirements," (S1220(b)). States' coasts. Once a marine sanctuary is estab-
The problem of possible water pollution from re- lished, any activities proposed for that area which
sidues of oil and toxic cargoes in a ship is thereby may affect the sanctuary will be closely scrutinized
directly addressed by the Act. and regulated. Certainly, placement of artificial
reefs would be an activity which would come under
close investigation as to its effect on the sanctuary.
Fulfilling all of the requirements for an appli- No Section 10 permit issued by the Corps of En-
cation for a Liberty Ship under P.L. 92-402 does gineers for placement of a reef would be valid in
not, however, relieve a state from the requirements such a case unless NOAA certified to the Corps
of any other applicable federal law. Thus, the that the reef placement is consistent with the pur-
state is still required to secure a Section 10 permit poses of Title III of the Act and can be carried out
from the Corps of Engineers, and an environmental within the regulations promulgated for the sanctu-
impact statement will most likely have to be pre- ary concerned. Corps of Engineers regulations in-
pared with the assistance of the state. dicate that no Section 10 permit will be issued by
them for activities in a marine sanctuary unless
I have described the basic legal procedures for such a certificate is received.
placement of an artificial reef by private citizens
or a state. The question I now shall address is: The Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972
what effect will Title III of the Marine Protection, also is administered by NOAA. Its scope is much
Research and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 and the broader than that of Title I I I of the Marine Protec-
Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 have on tion, Research and Sanctuaries Act, and its effect
these procedures? is only beginning to be felt. The basic concept of
the Act is expressed by Congress in Section 301:
First, Title IIl of the Marine Protection, Re- "To encourage the states to exercise their full
search and Sanctuaries Act of 1972. A moment authority over the lands and waters in the coastal
ago I mentioned the "Ocean Dumping Act," which zone by assisting the states, in cooperation with
is Title I of this Act and is administered by the En- federal and local governments and other vitally
vironmental Protection Agency. Title III of this affected interests, in developing land and water
Act, however, is administered by NOAA and in- use programs for the coastal zone, including uni-
volves the subject of "marine sanctuaries." fled policies, criteria, standards, methods and pro-
cesses for dealing with land and water use decisions
Section 302 of Title III authorizes the Sec- of more than local significance."
retary of Commerce (this authority has been dele-
gated to the administrator of NOAA), after consul- The "coastal zone," as defined in the Act, ex-
tation with other interested federal agencies and tends seaward to the outer limit of the territorial
with the approval of the President, to designate as sea and inland "to the extent necessary to control
marine sanctuaries those areas of the ocean waters shorelands, the uses of which have a direct and
as far seaward as the outer edge of the continental significant impact on the coastal waters."
122

Four sections of the Act demand our special any application to place an artificial reef in or
attention: Sections 305, 306, 307 and 312. Sec- close to such estuarine sanctuaries would be care-
tion 305 authorizes grants to coastal states to fully reviewed by the state involved. NOAA anti-
assist in development of their management pro- cipates close coordination between this estuarine
grams. Subsection (b) requires each management sanctuary program and the marine sanctuary pro-
program to contain certain elements, among which gram previously mentioned.
are three of some interest with respect to artificial
reef construction: I will, in conclusion, touch on a few of the
international legal problems related to artificial
A definition of what shall constitute per- reefs.
missible land and water uses within the
coastal zone There are three areas of possible location for
an artificial reef. The location of a reef may be:
� An inventory and designation of areas of (1) within the territorial sea, (2) between 3 and 12
particular concern within the coastal zone nautical miles, that is, in the continguous zone, or
(3) beyond 12 nautical miles, out to the edge of
Broad guidelines on priority of uses in par- the continental shelf.
ticular areas, including specifically those
uses of lowest priority Within the limit of the territorial sea, with
certain exceptions, the coastal state is sovereign.
Placement or maintenance of artificial reefs could Thus, generally, within the limits of the territorial
be affected by the details of a state management sea, the coastal state may make whatever use of
plan based on such categories. the seabed or water column it desires, subject only
to the right of innocent passage of foreign vessels,
A management program developed under to certain other rules of international law or to in-
Section 305 is approved under Section 306, which ternational agreements.
also authorizes grants to assist in the administration
of the management program. Construction of an artificial reef is, in this
area, clearly within the competence of the coastal
Section 307, however, is the provision of state. The coastal state is, however, required to
greatest direct significance to the creation of arti- give publicity to any dangers to navigation within
ficial reefs. Section 307(c)(3) requires that after its territorial sea of which it has knowledge.
final approval of a state's management program,
any applicant for a federal license or permit to con- More difficult questions of an international
duct an activity affecting land or water uses in the legal nature arise where a reef is both (A) placed
coastal zone of that state shall furnish a certifica- beyond the limits of the territorial sea and (B) not
tion that the proposed activity complies with the necessary for the exploration and exploitation of
state's approved program and that such activity continental shelf natural resources as permitted
will be conducted in a manner consistent with by the Convention of the Continental Shelf (done
the program. April 29, 1958, 15 U.S.T. 471 (1964), in force
June 10, 1964). The same problems would attach
Generally, no permit may be granted by a to the construction of an artificial reef on the con-
federal agency until the state concerned has con- tinental shelf within the contiguous zone as would
curred with the applicant's certification, or has attach beyond the contiguous zone, although with-
waived its right to do so. The applicant for a in the contiguous zone the coastal state would have
Corps of Engineers permit for placement of an exclusive rights to both sedentary and free-swim-
artificial reef must provide the required certifica- ming species.
tion if he desires to place a reef in the waters of a
state with an approved management program The Convention of the Continental Shelf in
under the Coastal Zone Management Act. Articles 2 and 5 confers on coastal states exclusive
sovereign rights "for the purpose of exploring [the
Finally, in Section 312 of the Act, NOAA is continental shelf] and exploiting its natural re-
authorized to make grants to coastal states to aid sources," including the right to "construct and
in the costs of acquisition, development and op- maintain or operate on the continental shelf instal-
eration of estuarine sanctuaries for research pur- lations and other devices necessary for its explora-
poses. Land and water uses in such sanctuaries tion and the exploitation of its natural resources"
would be regulated closely by the states. Naturally, [Arts. 2(1,2) and 5(2)].
123

The term "natural resources" is specifically reef could be considered a "reasonable use" of the
defined in the convention as consisting of: "the high seas under general principles of international
mineral and other nonliving resources of the sea- law. That such a use is "reasonable" is a question
bed and subsoil together with living organisms be- of fact which would require a consideration of,
longing to sedentary species [such as certain inter alia interference with navigation, submarine
species of crabs] ...." cable and pipe laying, fishing and the conduct of
marine scientific research.
While the U.S. under this convention might
exclude foreigners from placing an artificial reef Let me observe, however, that an expansion
on our shelf because of its interference with our in the breadth of its territorial sea to 12 miles by
exclusive right to seabed resources, it is not clear the United States could occur as a result of the
whether this convention confers a right on the recognition of such a maximum breadth by the
U.S. to place such a structure on the shelf. upcoming Third United Nations Conference on
the Law of the Sea, scheduled to hold substantive
It might be argued that an artificial reef is a sessions in Caracas this summer. Moreover, that
device used for the exploitation of the natural re- conference may well recognize broad coastal
sources of the seabed, although the purpose of a state jurisdiction over not only the resources of
reef may be more to attract free-swimming species the continental shelf, but also over the living re-
of fish than sedentary species. sources in the water column above and over off-
shore installations affecting the coastal states econ-
Even if justification under the terms of the omic interests, including super ports, off-shore
Convention could not be derived from such an in- nuclear power plants and artificial reefs. Such a
terpretation of the terms "exploitation of its result would presumably moot some of the inter-
natural resources," construction of an artificial national problems I have mentioned.

124

Role of the Coast Guard in Artificial Reefs

FREDRICK F. BURGESS JR.

District Legal Officer, Legal Office, Eighth Coast Guard District, Custom House,
New Orleans, Louisiana 70130

The Coast Guard's primary role in regard to Guard and, second, those established and maintained
artificial reefs deals with the proper marking there- by other parties after having been authorized by the
of. The marking role of the Coast Guard stems Coast Guard as well as other agencies requiring ap-
from authority contained in the provisions of Title proval.
14 U.S. Code S (Section) 81 thru 87 and 43 U.S.
Code (USC) � 1333. These statutes give the Coast
Guard the prime responsibility for the aids to
States, under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands
navigation system of the United States. By aids to Act, 43 USC 1333, the Coast Guard has
navigation is meant any device external to a vessel authority to require marking by lights or other
or aircraft intended to assist a navigator to de-
warning devices on islands and fixed structures or
termine his position or safe course or to warn him
on waters adjacent thereto if those islands and
of dangers or obstructions to navigation.
of dangers or obstructions to navigationstructures are erected for the purpose of ex-
ploring for, developing, removing and transporting
Under the authority granted in 14 USC � 81,
resources therefrom. The present Coast Guard
the Coast Guard establishes and maintains aids to
regulations contained in 33 Code of Federal
navigation for commerce and the armed forces. g
the arhas authority Regulations (CFR) Part 67 prescribe obstruction
Under 14 USC 85, the Coast Guard lights and fog signals to be operated as privately
to prescribe and enforce necessary rules and regu- maintained maritime aids under the circumstances
lations relative to lights and signals on fixed struc-
specified in the statute. Included in the regulations
tures in or over the navigable waters of the United
States, that is, within three miles of the coast. are the marking of spoil banks as a result of op-
erations connected with the mentioned purposes.
Under 14 USC 86, the owner of any sunken Examples of these latter operations would be
vessel or other obstruction in navigable waters is laying of pipes and dredging of channels in
responsible for appropriate marking thereof. connection with resource removal structures.
connection with resource removal structures.
The marking and warning devices required by the
Title 14 USC � 83, a most important statute, Coast Guard under these regulations are privately
prohibits the establishment, erection or mainten- established and maintained but only after having
ance of any aid to navigation without the Coast been authorized by the Coast Guard.
Guard's authority. A violator of this statute is
subject to a fine of $100 per offense per day. As to artificial reefs which have as their
14 USC � 84 makes it unlawful for any person or
public body to remove, change the location of, ob- purpose the enhancement of swimming fish
population, there is some question as to whether
struct or willfully damage, make fast to or interfere populat ion, the re is some q uestion as to whether
the structure is included within the purposes
with any aid to navigation either established by the
Coast Guard or any aid established under authority which give rise to the exercise of dependent
g ran ted by the Coast Guard in 14 USC � 83. authorit Coast Guard authority to prescribe lights and other
granted by the Coast Guard in 14 USC � 83.
This statute contains a fine of $500 per offense warning devices. While the Coast Guard's
authority to require marking of Outer Continental
per day. Shelf artificial islands or structures appears to be
circumscribed by the requirement that the purpose
Within navigable waters of the United States, be the development, removal, etc. of natural
we thus have two categories of aids to navigation: resources from the sea bed or subsoil, as
first, those established and maintained by the Coast Mr. Clark will describe, the Corps of Engineers
125

authority relative to the prevention of obstruction The vertical clearance over the reef
in navigable waters, which was extended to the � The physical size of the reef and the
Outer Continental Shelf by 43 USC � 1333 (f), bottom area covered
is not so limited. Thus, the placement of any � The proximity to shipping lanes or fairways
artificial island or structure in either the navigable � The proximity to other existing reefs
waters of the United States or on seabed of the � Conditions at the site.
Outer Continental Shelf can be done only under a
permit from the Army Corps of Engineers. In Because of the variation in conditions, the
deciding whether to issue the permit, the Corps of exact type of marking required cannot be predicted.
Engineers considers, among other factors, the effect
of the erection of a structure or artificial island on Normally, if there is over 85 feet of vertical
navigation. The Coast Guard is given an op- clearance, the Coast Guard will not require mark-
portunity to comment on the application. If the ing of the reef. However, each project must be
Corps grants the permit, the permit itself will considered on its own merits to determine the
contain a condition that the applicant install and possible need for marking.
maintain, at his own expense, such lights and signals
as may be prescribed by the Coast Guard. In some Because a large number of artificial reefs are
cases the Corps has specified that a buoy mark located within the limits of the Eighth Coast
a reef and that the buoy must be lighted in a man- Guard District which covers the bulk of the Gulf
ner approved by the Coast Guard. of Mexico, I will try to assist those of you from
this area by giving you some general guide-
How does a person go about finding out lines for marking reefs within our District. There
whether he must mark his submerged artificial may be some variations in other Coast Guard
reef and the manner in which it should be marked? Districts. The general guidelines are:
Districts. The general guidelines are:
The applicant must communicate with the a. If a light is required, it will generally
Commander of the Coast Guard District in which be a quick flashing white light if there is less than
the reef is located. The description of the limits of 85 feet of clearance. If the clearance is greater
the Coast Guard Districts are contained in 33 CFR than 85 feet over the reef and circumstances are
Part 3. The applicant should provide the information such that a light is required it will normally be a
contained in 33 CFR � 66.01-5 to the District slow flashing light. The light must be at a height
Commander. Included are: of 8 feet above the water surface unless otherwise
The proposed position of an aid shown specified by the District Commander.
on a chart along with a description of the reef b. Buoys must be colored accordingly to the
The name and address of the person who lateral system when returning from sea, if the buoy
will maintain the aid and who will be paying for is to be passed on the starboard hand, it will be
that maintenance red - if to be left on the port hand, it will be black.
If a buoy is to be used, the shape, color, It can also be red and black banded horizontally
number or letter, depth of water and height above meaning it can be left on either side. The topmost
water color denotes the preferred side on which it should
If a lighted buoy is to be used, the color, be left. The projected area is to be at least 6 square
characteristic, height above water and description feet centered at least 5 feet above water.
of illuminating apparatus c. If the buoy is in close proximity to
If a fog signal is to be used, the type and heavily trafficked areas, a radar reflecting buoy or
character. a fog signal may be required.

The district Commander ordinarily will re- Once permission is granted to establish a buoy,
view the information provided by the applicant and the position of the buoy is published in the Light
forward a CG 2554 Form to be signed and returned List for the use of mariners. It is most important
by the applicant. Any additional needed informa- that the buoy be maintained on this position.
tion will be requested. If the type of marking is not Should there be a vessel grounding on the artificial
known by the applicant; or if the proposed marking reef and the buoy is off station, the owner of the
is not acceptable, the District Commander will reef may be liable for substantial damages. If the buoy
give advice as to the appropriate marking. should get off station or be lost, this information
must be given to the Coast Guard so that a Notice
The number of aids and type of marking will, to Mariners can be issued to advise mariners of the
of course, depend on a number of factors. Included change. Since the reef material is subject to being
among these are: moved by currents and/or storms, the reef owner
126

should periodically check to insure that the ob- exploitation, by virtue of the standard condition in
struction has not been moved from its charted the Corps permit, the Coast Guard can require the
position. same type of marking on the Outer Continental
Shelf as in navigable waters. There is pending
When a buoy has been established with the legislation in Congress which would remove the
approval of the Coast Guard pursuant to a con- resource development condition which limits
dition imposed by the Corps of Engineers, the Coast Guard Authority under the Outer Con-
Coast Guard will not ordinarily approve dis- tinental Shelf Lands Act.
continuance of that buoy. Any discontinuance will
be coordinated with the Corps of Engineers. If the When whatever marking required by the Coast
Corps of Engineers has established a specific con- Guard is approved, the owner of the artificial reef,
dition that the artificial reef be marked, the Corps at his own expense, must establish anid maintain
of Engineers must agree to the deletion of that the buoy or other marking in proper condition
particular condition. Obviously, the Coast Guard and on position.
will make its views known to the Corps of
Engineers.
In planning for any artificial reef, I suggest
In summary, while the independent that early contact be made with your Coast
authority of the Coast Guard to require marking Guard District Office so that the marking require-
structures on the Outer Continental Shelf is ments can be learned and this cost factor considered
limited to seabed or subsoil development and in deciding whether the reef should be built.

127

The Role of the Corps of Engineers in Permitting

Artificial Reef Construction

CURTIS L. CLARK

Assistant Chief, Regulatory Functions Branch, Civil Works Office, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Forrestal Building, Washington, D. C. 20314

The basic authority of the Secretary of the Briefly stated, our regulations provide that
Army (acting through the Corps of Engineers) to the decision as to whether or not to issue a permit
prohibit the obstruction or alteration of any navi- for an artificial reef will be based on an evaluation
gable water of the United States stems from Sec- of the probable impact of the proposed reef on
tion 10 of the River and Harbor Act of March 3, the public interest. The benefits which reasonably
1899 (33 U.S.C. 403). The authority of the Sec- may be expected to accrue from the placing of a
retary of the Army to prevent such obstructions reef will be balanced against the reasonably fore-
was extended to artificial islands and fixed struc- seeable detriments. The decision of whether or
tures located on the Outer Continental Shelf (be- not to authorize an artificial reef, and if so, the
yond territorial waters) by Section 4 of the Outer conditions under which it will be allowed, are
Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1953 (67 Stat. 463, therefore determined by the outcome of a general
43 U.S.C. 1333 (f)). The Corps responsibility un- balancing process. That decision will reflect the
der these Acts is discharged through its Regulatory national concern for both protection and utiliza-
Permit Program; hence, the requirement for a Corps tion of important resources. All factors which
permit prior to the commencement of construction may be relevant to the proposal will be considered;
of an artificial reef regardless of whether the reef among those are conservation, economics, esthetics,
is to be located within territorial waters or on the general environmental concerns, historic values,
Outer Continental Shelf. land use classification, navigation, recreation,
water quality and, in general, the needs and wel-
For years, the Corps' only concern under the fare of the people. No permit will be granted un-
Section 10 Permit Program was navigation. How- less its issuance is found to be in the public interest.
ever, commencing in 1968, the Corps adopted its
public interest criteria in evaluating applications The Corps of Engineers is a highly decentral-
for permits. Draft regulations prescribing the poli- ized agency and applications for permits are pro-
cies and procedures that the Corps follows in pro- cessed by our various District Offices. When an
cessing and evaluating permit applications for arti- for a permit is received, supported by
ficial reefs were published in the Federal Register the information considered necessary for evalua-
on May 10, 1973 for public review and comment. tion, the District Engineer will issue a public notice
Final regulations, which incorporate many of the to appropriate state agencies, to concerned federal
comments received, are expected to be published agencies, to local, regional and national shipping
in the very near future. and other concerned business and conservation
organizations and to any other interested parties.
While Section 10 of the River and Harbor Act The issuance of a public notice triggers full public
of 1899 continues to be the Corps' basic authority involvement in the review and evaluation of an ap-
in permitting artificial reefs, the requirements of plication for a permit to construct an artificial
such recent legislation as the National Environ- reef.
mental Policy Act of 1969 (PL 91-190), The Fed-
eral Water Pollution Control Act (PL 92-500, 86 In addition, the expertise of a variety of in-
Stat. 816), The Marine Protection, Research and terested federal agencies is brought to bear on an
Sanctuaries Act of 1972 and the Coastal Zone application for a permit. Included in the list of
Management Act of 1972 are fully integrated into Federal officials receiving a Public Notice of an
the Corps regulations. artificial reef application are the field representa-
128

tives of the Secretary of the Interior, the Regional In addition to the general criteria to protect
Director of the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and navigation, it is also the Corps' policy that if the
Wildlife, the Regional Administrator of the En- construction is to be in navigable waters of the
vironmental Protection Agency, the Regional United States, approval must be obtained from
Director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric pertinent state and local authorities before a Corps
Administration, the District Commander of the permit will be issued.
U.S. Coast Guard and the Deputy Assistant Secre-
tary of Defense (Installations and Housing) Wash-
ington, D.C. Notice also is sent to the Atlantic The above are criteria designed to protect navi-
Estuarine Fisheries Center of the National Marine gation; however, the permit will be subject to any
Fisheries Service at Beaufort, North Carolina for other special condition considered necessary to pro-
evaluation and comment. tect the general public interest. In summary, I
have attempted to outline briefly the pertinent
All comments received in response to the federal laws administered by the Corps of Engin-
public notice become part of the record and are eers that pertain to artificial reefs. I also have at-
fully evaluated and given every consideration in tempted to impress upon you that the Corps of En-
reaching a decision to issue or deny a permit. gineers coordinates each application for a permit
for the construction of an artificial reef with all in-
While each application is now evaluated from terested federal, state and local agencies as well as
the standpoint of the public interest, certain gener- conservation and navigation groups and the general
al criteria from a navigational standpoint have de- public. The Corps uses the data developed by such
veloped over the years by virtue of the Corps' con- coordination to make a decision to issue or deny
tinued interest in navigation. The general criteria a permit from the standpoint of the public interest.
are as follows: While artificial reefs are generally accepted as an
enhancement to fish propagation, they do pose
No artificial reefs will be authorized in concern to general navigation and shipping inter-
natural or improved channels and fairways in gener- ests. The site should be carefully selected to avoid
al use by navigation. navigation fairways.

The depths of water over proposed artifi-
cial reefs shall not be less than 50 feet below the Lastly, the evaluation of an application to de-
plane of mean low water where depths in the vicini- termine if the permit should be issued or denied is
ty generally exceed this depth. often a lengthy process, especially if an environ-
mental impact statement is required by 1 02(2)c of
If deposition of material is authorized in the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, or
areas limited by large shoals, depth of water over if a public meeting is necessary to develop addition-
the material below the plane of mean low water al data upon which to make a decision. We strong-
shall not be generally less than the least depth of ly recommend applications be submitted at the
water over such shoal. earliest possible time in order to avoid costly de-
lays. Under no circumstance should capital ex-
The materials used in constructing artificial penditures be made prior to obtaining a Corps
reefs shall be restricted to heavy non-floatable ma- permit.
terial. However, it should be recognized that metal
may not meet with the approval of the United
States Navy. The Corps of Engineers does not take its re-
sponsibility of evaluating an application for artifi-
Permits for the construction of artificial cial reefs lightly. We feel our permit processing
reefs shall include a condition for the reefs to be procedures provide for full public participation in
marked as required by the U.S. Coast Guard with the processing of an application for a permit, there-
costs of installation and maintenance to be borne by insuring that only those projects that are truly
by the permittee. in the public interest will go forward.

129

Ships and Reefs-- Are They Compatible?

PAUL M. HAMMER

Coordinator of Operations, American Institute of Merchant Shipping, 1625 K Street, NW,
Suite 1000, Washington, D. C. 20006

A SHIP OPERATOR'S VIEW International ramifications are even more complex.
OF CURRENT PROBLEMS
MARITIME INDUSTRY VIEWS
Artificial reefs are man-made submerged ON ARTIFICIAL CRITERIA
hazards to navigation, hidden from the eye and
radar. As such, they can endanger the safety of Every proposal must ultimately be reviewed
ships, their crews, their cargoes, and those utilizing on individual merits and criteria. However, certain
artificial reefs. The manifold liabilities are obvious. general standards for locating, sizing and marking
In principle, standardized maritime opposition to reefs would be in order as guidance to those con-
reef proposals could be justified. This approach is templating a permit request. From the viewpoint
not considered desirable if, as a Conference result, of deep-draft ship operators, the following are ma-
the domestic and international situation can be jor factors in safe location and use of artificial reefs:
improved .
improved. Ship traffic density and familiarity with the
waters.
Domestic permit procedures are understood,
Domestic permit procedures are understood, Types of transiting vessels, and their cargoes.
and AIMS participates. However, frustration is the
end result of attempts to make meaningful inputs Vessel size - length, beam, draft - and maneu-
during proposal review, permit issuance and reef vering characteristics.
installation. For example, many permit requests � Prevailing and extreme weather/sea conditions,
seem to be from somewhat elusive groups; propo- especially as they affect visibility.
sals are quite often submitted, revised, withdrawn, Water depth and related bottom contour.
and resubmitted with little order, thereby frustrat-
ing attempts on the part of government/industry to * Location in relation to known historic traffic
follow developments in a logical fashion. Also, patterns, safety fairways/sea lanes, anchorages,
some government screening of permit requests for sea buoys, pilot stations, and other deep-
detail/accuracy/validity/intentions prior to invok- draft maneuvering areas.
ing public process would seem to be in order. On � Easy access to reefs by pleasure craft with
one day a single District Engineer issued seven minimum use of deep-draft channels/lanes.
different public notices covering 12 proposed *Type of fishing craft and activity on the reef.
reefs of all types - making a total of something
like 27 proposed reefs in process in that District, Adequate reef marking - day and night - for
with 30 days for comment. There are 1 6 District proper radar and other navigational identifi-
Engineers who become involved with offshore cation.
reef proposals. Being on notice mailing lists does � Avoidance of small craft jamming of critical
not insure receipt, and 7 -10 day mail transit time VHF radiotelephone channels dedicated pri-
is not uncommon, leaving little time for interested marily to navigational, safety, distress and
parties to review and respond. One reef was in- calling usage such as channels 13, 16 and 22.
stalled four miles from the permit location - and
this does not appear uncommon - indicating the Careful analysis of these factors in relationship
need for tighter construction controls. The ship- to the proposed reef will result in knowledgeable
ping industry could, we believe, be helpful if selection of minimum distances to provide adequate
offered a coordinated mechanism for doing so. isolation of the reef, minimum water depth/clear-
130

ance over the artificial obstruction, and maximum It is recommended that artificial reef propo-
safety for all involved. nents be required to:
Be more definitive in their proposals by in-
BETTER COORDINATED SYSTEM ~~~~cluding full details on location, marking, siz-
BETTR COORDINGARTIFIIA SYSEEM ing, usage, control over sinking construction,
PROPOSANLSNGSENTIFCAL REFoperational controls and other information
pertinent to proper evaluation.
Having in mind the constraints implicit in Carefully select sites and be prepared to pur-
working under an 1 899 Act, the Corps of Engineers sue permits in a logical and reasonable fashion.
has done an admirable job in attempting to protect Insure that materials/hulls for reef construc-
all interests to date. The complexity and multipli- tion are properly cleaned and certified by a
* ~~city of reef proposals requires a central coordinat- recognized authority, especially in relation to
ing agency to insure meaningful participation by oil/hazardous materials, to avoid possible
* ~~all government, industry, and public interests, both liabilities on passing vessels.
* ~~domestic and international. Under a number of
Conventions, laws and regulations at least five It is recommended that the pertinent govern-
government agencies - Corps of Engineers, U. S. ment agencies jointly develop a standard set of
Coast Guard, Environmental Protection Agency, permit request details and artificial reef criteria
National Marine Fisheries Service, National Ocean which must be met by reef proponents if their
Survey - have involvement. Time is not as critical request is to be processed. Such uniformity
in reef permit consideration as in some other per- would be of benefit to all parties, including the
mit activity, and for this reason provision of a proponents. AIMS stands ready to assist by provid-
coordinated review mechanism is reasonable. ing practical inputs toward reasonable criteria.
As the U. S. member of the International Chamber
of Shipping, and a full participant in all matters
A regularly scheduled annual or semi-annual before IMCO, AIMS can coordinate maritime indlus-
meeting of representatives of all legitimate interest- try participation in an improved system it is hoped
ed parties to review and recommend on permit re- will result from this Conference. Under today's
quests covering areas involving deep-draft shipping conditions, the compatibility of ships and reefs is
would be most helpful. Since NMFS has specifically doubtful. We sincerely hope the above thoughts
established an artificial reef office, perhaps a logi- contribute in some small way toward a more
cal home already exists for coordinating functions. compatible tomorrow.

1 31

The Commercial Fisherman's View

of Artificial Reefs

ROBERT G. MAUERMANN

Executive Director, Texas Shrimp Association, 910 East Levee St., Brownsville, Texas 78520

Ladies and Gentlemen, I am flattered at an in- My third and greatest interest in artificial
vitation to appear before this distinguished group reefs is as a representative of one of the several
this afternoon. However, I must confess that I am other users of the Gulf and its estuaries, America's
no expert in the legal ramifications of locating, most valuable fishery, with landings in Texas ports
constructing and maintaining artificial reefs. in 1973 of 51.4 million pounds worth $87.5 mil-
I'll leave that to my good friends Herb Blatt, Gary lion at the dock. Artificial reefs are not going to
Knight and other international lawyers. With your benefit this industry in any way, that I can see. On
permission, I will confine my remarks to the the contrary, unless they are placed in areas already
project at hand; the creation of artificial reefs by denied to shrimp fishing because of a bottom ob-
sinking surplus Liberty Ships in the Gulf of Mexico. struction, either natural or manmade, they could
create a serious hazard to Gulf shrimp trawling.
My interests in artificial reefs stem from three
sources. First, as a biologist, I recognize that very However, if the Liberty Ship hulls are placed
few techniques designed to increase the availability on the locations finally selected by the Texas
of wildlife species have been as successful as art- Coastal and Marine Council we do not see this as
ificial reefs. In fact, many of the techniques used a problem to our industry. Marking the reefs with
by game managers and biologists to increase the lighted bouys and maintaining such bouys is quite
availability and abundance of wildlife are either another matter and this problem has not yet been
too expensive or too temporary to be practical. solved.
This is, however, not the case with artificial reefs.
Some years ago an artificial reef made of car
bodies was established off Port Aransas by the Texas
rock formations, drilling rigs and old wrecks are Game and Fish Commission in cooperation with
the living quarters for a host of marine species. the Charter Boat Operators Association of Port
The placement of Liberty Ship hulls on the Gulf Aransas. The car bodies later broke up and were
bottom is very much like adding a wing to an apart- distributed over a wide area in the Gulf. Many of
these car bodies or parts of them found their way
ment house in Houston. We are simply making room these car bodies or parts of them found their way
for more residents. Biologists have debated whether into the trawls of shrimp fishermen in prime fishing
or not such management techniques actually in- grounds. These shrimp fishermen are naturally
concerned and suspicious when we talk about add-
crease the desired species or merely concentrate concerned and suspicious when we talk about add-
those already present in the Gulf. Fishermen could ing additional underwater obstructions to an already
cluttered Gulf bottom. And they also have good
care less. They know they catch the kind of fish cluttered Gulf bottom. And they also have good
they want when they fish over the various kinds reason to be concerned about the maintenance of
of outcro pp ings on the floor of the Gulf. bouys on artificial reefs. The bouy which marked
the Port Aransas Reef has been missing for about
ten months. (The Texas Parks and Wildlife Depart-
My second interest in artificial reefs is that of ment has the responsibility of maintaining this
a sport fisherman. New reefs or the expansion of bouy.) Their track record is not very good in this
existing reefs are going to increase our opportunities area, in my opinion.
to catch game fish in the Gulf. No question about
that! Whether I can catch more of them or not is Through the efforts of the Texas Coastal and
another question. Marine Council the surplus Liberty Ships were
132

made available by the federal government to the To determine the legality of spending state
state for use as artificial reefs. The Texas Parks funds outside the state of Texas, the Parks and
and Wildlife Department was then designated as Wildlife Department asked for an Attorney
the agency responsible for maintenance. The General's opinion. The opinion was yes, the
Parks and Wildlife Department, probably because Department could spend funds on the project
the program did not originate in their shop, provided funds were available for this purpose.
showed very little enthusiasm but did agree to However, the Department's legal council has in-
budget $3,500 per year for maintenance out of dicated recently that current operating funds could
current operating expenses. Recognizing that not be used on the maintenance programs.
$3,500 would not cover the costs involved, it
was proposed that "local interests" would match This, of course, is only one legal opinion and
these funds to make up the necessary balance. not necessarily the final one. In any event, all of us
would like to see the project succeed, but to do so,
We consider this approach entirely unsatis- a realistic method of financing will have to be de-
factory. To my knowledge the "local interests" veloped. Probably the best method would be to
have not even been identified, so how can we have make certain that adequate funds are budgeted
any kind of assurance that such financial support by the Parks and Wildlife Department and ap-
will be continuous, if it is, indeed, made available propriated by the Legislature to permit the Depart-
in the first place? ment to enter into a contract with a private
firm to maintain the bouys. An unmarked reef
that sports fishermen can't find will be of limited
The Texas Shrimp Association and various benefit to them and could well become a hazard
sportsman's organizations supported the Parks to shrimp trawlers.
and Wildlife Department's request to the 63rd
Legislature for an increase in all license costs to I would recommend to you Texans who
provide more funds for such projects. We therefore are interested in completing this project that
feel very strongly that the Texas Parks and Wild- you make certain that the agency responsible
life Department should assume full financial for the maintenance of the bouys marking the
responsibility for the project and not impose on reef locations be adequately funded to carry out
local interests. The "local interests", whoever this responsibility. I have told the leaders of my
they are, are already paying their share in the form industry that this will be done. I hope you will
of substantial increases in license costs. Further, not let me down.
I expect that federal aid funds under the Dingle
Johnson Aid to Fisheries Act would be available Thank you, Mr. Chairman, for your in-
to further reduce the cost to the state. vitation to visit with you today.

133

Discarded Tires as Artificial Reef Material

THOMAS F. MINTER

Vice President of Domestic Production, The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co., Akron, Ohio 44316

It is a privilege to share the rostrom with the fibers and the metals remain. Naturally, then, the
distinguished speakers on this program and to ad- first thought is reuse or recycling of tires. Many
dress a distinguished audience representing many tires are recapped to prolong their life. This may
countries. I am sure that your sessions have been postpone consignment to the scrap heap but the
most enlightening, and I am convinced you are time will come when the tire must be removed
making an auspicious start in sharing experience from service for safety's sake.
and knowledge about artificial reefs -- a most im-
portant field. At present, a certain amount of reclaimed rubber
is used in the manufacture of new tires. However,
It is fitting and appropriate that this meeting is the properties of rubber after it has been reclaimed
being held here in the Lone Star State. Texans have are different from new rubber. As a result, its uses
always maintained they think and act big, and are are limited. The industry is hopeful that advances
action-oriented. And that fits right in with the in rubber technology will enable us to come closer
temperament and outlook of artificial reef builders. to total recycling. We anticipate that some day we
may recover not only a better quality rubber but
One thing that attracted us at Goodyear to also the polyester cord material and metals from
artificial reef projects was the innovative approach the bead and tread.
of the people who have promoted and built
artificial reefs. We have found them to be people And right now, it is possible to obtain a key
with ideas and vision and receptive to new ideas. ingredient in rubber compounding from discarded
That appealed to us. tires. Carbon black, normally produced by the
incomplete combustion of oil, may be soon pro-
duced by utilizing scrap rubber in the process.
In addition, the proposals to use discarded Goodyear has participated in this research. Al-
tires as reef building material fit right in with our though it is possible to obtain carbon black from
research projects aimed at making scrap tires a old tires, until recently it wasn't practical from an
resource, rather than a liability. When Dick Stone economic standpoint. This situation is changing
economic standpoint. This situation is changing
dropped in to talk about reefs with some of our
dropped in to talk about reefs with some of our rapidly because of the shortages of oil. The rubber
people about four years ago, he struck a responsive industry also is experimenting with a distillation
industry also is experimenting with a distillation
chord. Goodyear research and development people
chord. Goodyear research and development people process to convert scrap tires into reusable chemi-
were and are pursuing various means of utilizing cals.
tires that had outlived their highway usefulness.
Our concern is conservation. We have created a
product with some remarkably durable properties. An artificial turf made of ground-up tires and
We are seeking means to keep from squandering mixed with an adhesive shows promise as a ground
the wealth that remains in old tires. As you've cover in playgrounds and around swimming pools.
been told, I'm sure, the United States alone has It can be decorative, too, inasmuch as it may be
some 200 million worn-out tires that must be produced in a variety of colors. Ground up tires
disposed of each year. also have proved their usefulness as an asphalt
additive for a variety of paving uses.
When a tire is bald and no longer roadworthy,
it still has most of the bulk that it had when it was One of the great potentials of old tires, we
new. Most of the rubber and virtually all of the believe, is to use them as an energy source. In
134

fact, Goodyear soon will be using scrap tires as what we set out to do. Our primary purpose was
fuel to help produce new tires. A smokeless, to learn if artificial reefs are one of the practical
odorless furnace at our Jackson, Mich., plant ways to alleviate the scrap tire disposal problem.
will burn tires to generate steam.
Secondly, we wanted to help develop the organi-
Rubber has a BTU value that is approximately zations, procedures and technology for building
50 percent greater than coal. Our tire-fired boiler rubber reefs.
J will burn them with great efficiency, leaving only
a small amount of sterile, inert residue that we Finally, we hoped to reach a position from
easily can dispose of in landfills. Moreover, we which we could share the lessons of the pilot pro-
anticipate recovering metals, primarily zinc, from jects with other groups interested in constructing
the ashes. artificial reefs.

The Jackson furnace will consume about 3,000 We have cooperated extensively in terms of
Wequipmen coeated etecnsicaly asistnc wthdferento
tires per day ... more than a million per year. Ob- equipment and technical assistance with different
types of organizations in four major pilot projec~ts,
viously, in certain locations, furnaces such as these types of organizations in four major pilot projects,
all located in southern~ Florida. The proximity of
will help conserve dwindling supplies of other fuels all located in southern Florida. The proximity of
At the same time, they will help solve the waste the four projects was a great convenience to our
disposal problem created by discarded tires. But technical personnel assigned to them. At Fort
using tires for fuel is economically practical only Lauderdale, certainly one of the most successful
refauidinepordale, crainlywe, owe ofethn work-ucssu
in areas where discarded tires can be obtained in reef building programs anywhere, we began work-
rebuling wihtennprofigrams Atfcanywheref, w eaok
sufficient quantity with reasonable transportation ing with the non-profit Broward Artificial Reef,
costs.
costs. Inc., a broad-based community organization. You
already have heard about this project from our
In addition to being a source of energy, worn-out good friend Greg McIntosh, a man who really gets
tires have high energy absorbing capacity. This things done. You know that the enterprise of
characteristic has enabled us to use tires in impact Barinc proved the practicability of the Osborne
attenuator systems or crash barriers following the Reef. Barinc demonstrated the ecological advantages
publication of the results of recent tests by the of this method of scrap tire disposal which, at the
Texas Transportation Institute at Texas A&M same time, has regenerated game fishing off the
*University. Fort Lauderdale coast. The job was so well done
that the county became a partner. The result is
The energy absorbing capacity of tires has that this reef is one of the largest and fastest
another promising application that should be of growing artificial reefs in this hemisphere.
special interest to you. In cooperation with the
University of Rhode Island, we are currently
Across the state at Marco Island, Goodyear has
experimenting with scrap tires in floating break- been providing worn-out tires and technical assist-
been providing worn-out tires and technical assist-
waters. Tires are linked by cable in various con-
ance to the Deltona Corporation in carefully con-
figurations in a manner similar to the crash trolled experiments in reef building. Deltona,
I- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~trolled experiments in reef building. Deltona,
barriers. From what we've observed to date,
barriers. From what we've observed to date, developer of a planned community on the island,
floating scrap tire breakwaters appear to offer an
effctivg dcrap e banowar mpeatho offro undertook the reef project as a part of its effort to
effective, durable and low cost method of pro- maintain and restore the wildlife and other natural
tecting small boat marinas and other shore
facilities. In addition to the floating breakwaters, resources of the Everglades region.
designs for full depth structures made of dis-
carded tires are being considered for breakwaters,
desigs forfull epth tructres mde ofdis-The reef sites are plotted at different depths and
cretiseawalls, bulkheads or revetments. various configurations of tire bundles are being used
seawalls, bulkheads or revetments.
in an effort to determine the most productive
In varying degrees, all of the projects and construction methods. Other materials also are being
In~~~~~~~~~~~~ue varyn compreeaoftive purposets.an
experiments I have mentioned promise to help used fr comparative purposes.
us attain the objective of turning scrap tires from
a liability to an asset. None of them, however, The Marco Island project is under the direction
has yet proved as effective and productive as of the Marco Applied Marine Ecology Station,
artificial reefs. staffed with marine biologists and other natural
scientists. As a result, the reef is under continual
Our expectations for the pilot projects in scientific observation. The progress of the aquatic
which Goodyear has been involved are more than community development has been charted at
realized. In only two years we have accomplished every state. More than 90 species of fish have been
135

counted at the first reef located in about 20 feet to this report and to other data on the avail-
of water. We believe that the body of scientific ability of tires.
knowledge from the Marco Island Reef will be
valuable there and elsewhere.
valuable there and elsewhere. In this regard, the RMA currently is negotiating
More recently, our company has been co- with the nation's major railroads for more favorable
operating with reef builders at Naples and Fort rates on the transportation of scrap tires to reuse
Myers, Florida. At Naples, the project is spear- facilities, including reefs. If successful, we should
headed by the cruise club, a group composed be able to make greater use of this resource that
primarily of some very vigorous retirees. And we are just beginning to tap.
at Fort Myers, by way of an age contrast, the
project has been initiated and led by the Junior In summary, Goodyear believes that it has
In summary, Goodyear believes that it has
Chamber of Commerce. achieved its initial goals in regard to artificial reefs.
Through our participation in the four pilot projects
Obviously, there is no single best way in the United States and as supplier of worn-out
to organize a reef project. It can be done as tires to reef projects in several countries, we have
a public or as a private enterprise. It can be learned that artificial reefs are practical from the
promoted by citizens of all ages and of varied standpoint of providing an ecologically sound
circumstances. The constant factors in all of method of scrap tire disposal.Tires on the ocean
the groups with which we have worked are a
ithe g oroups with which we have worked are a gfloor have proved to be durable and non-pollut-
spiri 'Lor cooperation and a dedication to getting ing ... and excellent material for reef construction.
the job done, regardless of the obstacles and set-
Moreover, the cost factors are favorable in compar-
backs. And there have been plenty of them. ison with other methods of scrap tire utilization.
The organizational structures tend to evolve The 1971 study made for the RMA projected
from the nature of the community. The common capital investment requirements and operating
characteristics are the concerned and informed costs for artificial reef building that made reefs
citizens who make them go. Their efforts, among the most attractive alternatives for tire re-
I'm happy to note, are attracting ever wider use. Our experience has borne this out.
recognition and assistance from governments
Secondly, we believe that we have participated
at the local, state and national level. These arti- in developing organizational procedures for reef
ficial reefs are showcase projects, demonstrating
building that may be adapted by other communities.
that ecological problems can be tackled effect-
At the same time, our engineers have developed
ively by cooperative community efforts.
machinery and methods for ventilating and bundling
scrap tires that have proved most satisfactory.
The one limitation on the potential use of
scrap tires in reefs, as for other uses, is the Finally, we have reached the position of being
availability of discarded tires. Costs can be able to share our experiences in a variety of reef
burdensome if the tires must be transported a building projects. To this end, we have prepared a
considerable distance to the reef staging area. kit entitled "Building a Tire Reef" that we hope
This is a factor that must be considered in the will be a useful guide to groups that are considering
initial planning of a reef. Tire recapping plants reef projects. Copies of this kit are available to you
and retail outlets normally are willing to con- at the Goodyear exhibit here at the conference.
tribute tires that cannot be recapped. But the We would welcome your reaction to it.
cost of getting the tires to the reef can be a
major item. Additionally, we are prepared to furnish, without
charge, detailed plans for building the compacter and
Some very useful data on the location of punch that have been designed by our engineers.
scrap tires in the United States in relation to These plans will be furnished on'request to organi-
the potential reuse facilities, including arti- zations that have the necessary approvals for reef
ficial reefs, have been compiled by the Rubber construction and are ready to proceed.
Manufacturers Association. These data are
contained in the report "Nationwide Net- Goodyear has expended a substantial budget for
work for Reuse of Scrap Tires" prepared in capital expenses in reef projects. And we consider
1971 for the Rubber Sub-Council of the it money well spent. Now, however, we believe that
National Industrial Pollution Control Council. we can best serve the interests of the greatest number
Communities that are considering artificial of communities by sharing the experience we have
reef projects would be well advised to refer gained and by providing plans when requested.
136
/

Texas' Artificial Reef Program

PERRY J SHEPARD

Head, Industrial Economics Research Division, Texas A &M University,
College Station, Texas 77843

Artificial reef building in Texas waters has In recent years scuba diving has become a real
been in progress for about 15 years. While some attraction to many water sports enthusiasts. Part
oyster reefs were created in Galveston Bay prior of this attraction: has been due to the creation of
to this time, the first three offshore reefs, additional underwater exploration sites -- artificial
constructed of old automobile bodies, were reefs. The adventuresome spirit of the scuba diver
built in 1958 by the Texas Parks and Wildlife has placed him in the forefront of those with an
Department. They were located 10 miles offshore interest in underwater reefs. While some divers are
from Freeport, seven miles off Port Aransas and interested in spear-fishing, others are interested in
six miles off Port Isabel, all in 60 feet of water. observing, exploring and photographing the under-
water sights, including both the reef structure and
In 1962 and 1963, new reefs were built off the marine life surrounding it.
Galveston and Port Aransas of concrete and clay
pipes of various sizes. This material produced near-
ly permanent reefs of sufficient bulk to attract MATERIALS
fish, yet prevented easy shifting by water- currents.
In 1968, several, steel barges were added to the Port One of the fundamental specifications of a
Aransas reef with a second new reef of steel reef is that it must provide surface area for the en-
barges built farther offshore. The Galveston reef crustation of small marine organisms. Cracks,
is located approximately 10' miles offshore in crevices and other hiding places for shelter and pro-
60 feet of water and has a 50-foot clearance from tection of smaller fish also are necessary.
water surface.
Tires
Inside Texas bays, several: reefs have been
built. Although most of these reefs are built of Automobile tires are the most widely used
oyster shell, they attract fish in the same manner material for artificial reef construction at the pres-
as reefs built of other materials. Most of them
have a low profile of one to two feet and are in ent. They work well, are available in great quanti-
ave a low proighte of one to tenwo feet ofand are ties, are relatively inexpensive, last indefinitely and
eight to ten feet of water. do not pollute.
do not poll~u~te.

In add'itiorn to the Texas P'ark~s and' Wil'd~ife Used tires are in great abundance all along the
Department, the Sportsmen's Clubs of Texas, I'nc., Texas Gulf coast. Disposal of used tires has be-
Boating Trade Association of Metropolitan Hous- come a major problem. A check in 1973 with the
ton and other fishi~ng and diving groups have been City of Houston, and Harris County authorities in-
responsible for constructing other nearshore and' dicated no specific policy with regard to tire dis-
bay reefs. posal except that they cannot be burned' within the
city or county nor can; they be carried to the city
or county solid waste disposal; areas. Most tire
Sport fishing is by far the major reason for dealers pay from 1,0 to 15, cents per tire to have
the accelerated. interest in artificial reefs. Where them hauled away.
rocky coasts, coral reefs and jagged banks are not
found, artificial structures have been placed i-n There are more than three million used tires
many areas to increase the fish population. available annually along the Texas Gulf coast with
137

nearly two million in the Houston-Galveston area. Houston and unloading in Galveston or West Bay
There is little or no cost in obtaining the tires. would be about $3,200. For offshore sites, this
They must, however, be stabilized in some way to cost would increase about five times. Costs would
keep them from floating away from the reef site be approximately the same for transporting other
and becoming a shipping or trawling hazard. similar materials. It is possible, however, that a
portion of this cost might be eliminated by a
Preparation costs vary with the different con- company donating the use of a barge and tug
figurations used. Some configurations use reinforc- for a project of this kind. This has been done on
ing rods running through several tires and ballasted occassions.
by completely filling the base tire with concrete.
One cubic yard of concrete fills 16 or 17 base tires. Unless the concrete pipe and other similar ma-
The ballast tire weighs about 240 pounds when dry. terial are available near the coast, transportation
The unit can then be rolled onto a barge for the costs might prohibit its use as reef material.
trip to the reef site. The cost of building this con-
figuration in 1968 was $2.87 per unit or about 35 Automobile Bodies
to 40 cents per tire.
Discarded automobile bodies make an
Compressing tires into tight, small bundles excellent artificial reef, but with limitations.
helps to keep them in position after being placed They must be tied together tor stability against
on the reef site and provides more area for the rough waves, especially in shallow water and hur-
protection of fish as well as for encrusting organ- ricane-prone areas. They do not last long in sea
isms to attach themselves. water and must be replaced after three to five
years. They are easily scattered if the tying cable
Current cost figures for constructing a 12-tire pulls loose or when it rusts away. The scattered
configuration with concrete for use at a site off car bodies can get caught in shrimpers' nets and
the coast of Florida is $6 or about 50 cents per cause considerable damage and loss to the shrimper.
tire. This includes the use of a compacting ma-
chine to compress the tires, tying with nylon The old car bodies used for reefs by the Texas
tape and transporting by barge about three miles Parks and Wildlife Department during the late
offshore. The initial cost of the compactor is 1950's cost about $20 each. Additional expenses
around $8,500. were incurred for cleanup, assembly and transport-
ing to reef site. The car bodies were prepared by
Concrete Pipe burning all the non-ferrous material and three to
five were tied together in bundles with a steel
Broken concrete pipe, concrete blocks and cable. The bundles were pulled off the barge,
concrete rubble have been used with very good rather than lifted with a crane, and dropped on the
success as artificial reef material. Damaged con- seabed. Evidently in this operation some of the
crete pipe is available in large quantities in most of cables either broke or pulled loose from the car
the larger cities along the Texas coast at a cost bodies. High winds and rough waves were then
covering transportation only. able to move some of the single car bodies away
from the reef site.
Limitations in using concrete pipe, blocks and
rubble include the necessity of using handling
equipment to load the material on a barge at the Oil Well Platforms
dock and also to unload at the reef site.
Offshore oil well platforms are scattered
throughout the Gulf along the Texas and Louisiana
A desirable feature in preparing concrete pipe coasts. While in use for oil production, these struc-
is the tying together of several pieces of pipe with tures also provide excellent habitats for fish. When
cable or cement. This helps to secure the pipe the wells cease to flow, removal of platforms is an
after it is placed on the ocean floor and prevents expensive operation. It vjas estimated that this
scattering by water movements. This does, how- cost in 1969 was approximately $1 million for a
ever, give added expense to preparation and handl- typical production platform. Due to inflation and
ing. other higher costs, current and future expenses un-
doubtedly would be greater. After the platform
It is estimated that the cost for transporting legs are cut off approximately 14 feet beneath the
a 120 x 40 foot barge load of concrete pipe con- mud line, the platform then must be hauled to
sisting of 378 pieces of 36 inch x 6 foot pipe from shore and salvaged. The cost of labor (in 1973) in-
138

volved in dismantling the platform in dry dock was SOCIO-ECONOMIC BENEFITS
greater than the salvage value of the material.
Some of the major oil companies have indicated An artificial reef program must promise to
they might be willing to remove an abandoned stimulate significantly a particular area economical-
platform, haul it to a reef site and dump it near ly in order to make its construction worthwhile.
the existing reef materials to be used as additional To determine the net benefits, various costs (ma-
reef material at no cost to the state. terials, transportation, installation, marking reefs
with buoys and maintenance of buoys and reefs)
As of January 1, 1973, there were 2,751 ac- must be compared to benefits derived from in-
tive multiwell platforms, single well platforms and creased fishing activity. Some general estimates of
other platforms in the Louisiana/Texas Gulf. costs have been given previously. Additional re-
While it is obvious that many of these are not venues and industrial expansion resulting'from the
ready for abandonment, experience shows that fishing industry, recreation and tourism and other
several are abandoned each year. supporting activities will encourage additional em-
ployment, generating more income.
Two possibilities of using active oil well plat-
forms in conjunction with an artificial reef should The main purpose of artificial reefs is to in-
be explored further. In one method, automobile crease fishing productivity. It becomes essential,
tires are strung on cables extending downward therefore, to determine the portion of increased
and enclosed within the legs of the platform. productivity attributable to a reef, since the re-
Obviously, the cables should be plastic or mainder of economic activity will depend solely
some other non-corroding material, on increased fishing production. Once a producti-
vity increase has been firmly established and infor-
Another use of active platforms is to band mation has been disseminated adequately, tourists
tirsnogtherueo activ placetforms betee twobn
tires together and place them between two and fishermen will be attracted to form the basis
separate platforms. Some of the usual procedures for industrial expansion, employment and revenues.
for stablizing tires at a reef site should be used.
The idea for using platforms in this way originated
with Gene Shinn of Shell Oil Company. A proposed method for calculating rising fish-
ing activities is to interview a predetermined sample
Certain legal problems may arise with the use of fishermen on site before and after reef installa-
of active offshore platforms that would need to tion. A concurrent count of fishermen and related
be resolved. Above all, caution should be used by fishing activities will be estimated to reveal the in-
visitors to the platform reef when oil company per- flux of new fishermen due to a reef's installation.
sonnel are working. Industrial growth can be measured in the form of
newly-located industries, changes in sales volume,
value added, employment, income and revenues
during a given time period. Further indicators in-
Other Materials clude construction of new recreational and related
facilities; increased number of boats docked in
There are other, less desirable materials that local harbors; increased expenditures on charters,
should be mentioned. Some solid by-product ma- admission fees, food, lodging, gas and oil, bait, ice
terials such as slag, dredge-spoil and gypsum are and tackle; and increased numbers of cars arriving
available in abundance at low or no cost but are and parking within an area. Maintenance and re-
unsuitable for use alone due to their nature. pair expenditures provide further evidence of rising
port and shipping activities.
In a close, tight-fitting material, there are no
voids left for shelter for fish nor voids for marine Stone, Buchanan and Parker of the National
life to attach itself in abundance. This type of Marine Fisheries Service and Hart obtained data
material usually is unstable and subject to current from two separate studies in Morehead City, North
movements. It also has a tendency to increase the Carolina and Murrells Inlet, South Carolina which
turbidity of the water which discourages many indicated some additional economic impact on the
fish from being attracted to it. two areas.

Development of artificial seaweed has been From an evaluation of the Murrells Inlet arti-
attempted recently by different research groups. ficial reef project, quantitative visual estimates of
Anchoring and containing the seaweed in one area fish abundance were made. Based on visual ob-
have been extremely difficult in most experiments. servations, it was found that the new fish popula-
139

tion increased 300 to 1,800 times a few months program are multiple and can be identified most
after reef construction. effectively by a survey and personal interviews
with the citizens of a community. Increased in-
Charter boats, head boats, fishing piers and come injected into a region by tourists may en-
rented slips and boat storage space accounted for hance the area's economic base. Increased com-
just under $2.7 million of spending by non-resi- munity wealth may increase the tax base thereby
dents of Morehead City, North Carolina. Of this permitting better community development, such
total, about $1.4 million remained in the county as improved housing, education and public facili-
economy in the form of direct and indirect contri- ties, and make the community more attractive to
butions to the personal income of county residents. additional tourist groups and industries. The tre-
mendous recreational potential evolving from such
a reef program will provide individuals with a ver-
Social benefits derived from an artificial reef satile number of options for use of his free time.

J
.

140

List of Participants

Author Index

141

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A

AIV

4
142

Participants

Rob E. Abbott 134 Braniff Herb Blatt
T-2-C Hensel Apts. San Antonio, Texas 78216 Chief Counsel for Living Marine Resources
College Station, Texas 77840
College Station, Texas H7740 National Oceanic & A tmospheric
James H. Baker Administration
Winton Adams Southwest Research Institute Office of General Counsel
Tideland Signal Corp. 3600 Yoakum Blvd.
P.O. Box 52450 Housthington, TexasD.C. 20235
Houston, Texas 75052 John R. Botzum
CPGeorge T. Barnes Ocean Science News
Roland C. Agregaard, President Cinder Products Corp. 1056 National Press Bldg.
Mississippi Gulf Fishing Banks, Inc. 399 Kilvert St. Washington, D.C. 20004
120 W. Water St. Warwick, Rhode Island 02886
Biloxi, Mississippi 39530
Ervin L. Bramhall
Edward Beckman
Agricultural Extension
Wayne M. Ahr Professor of Marine Physiology University of California
Assistant Professor University of California
Assistant Professor Texas A&M University, 684 Buena Vista Street
Geology Dept. Moody College of Marine Sciences and Ventura, California 93001
Texas A &M University Maritime Resources
College Station, Texas 77843 Dept. of Marine Sciences Paul Brouha
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett Dept. of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences
David V. Aldrich Galveston, Texas 77550 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
Texas A &M University Marine Lab
Dept. of Marine Sciences Charles A. Bedinger acksburg, Virginia 24060t
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett Southwest Research Institute
Galveston, Texas 77550 3600 S. Yoakum
Houston, Texas 77006 Chester C. Buchanan
Jonathan E. Amson Fishery Biologist
Chief, Biology Section Michel /.M. Beguery National Marine Fisheries Service
Hazardous Material and Toxic Substance Scientific Attache Atlantic Estuarine Fisheries Center
Branch French Scientific Mission Beaufort, North Carolina 28516
Environmental Protection Agency Washington, D.C. 20006
401 M. St., S. W. Raymond M. Buckley
Washington, D.C. 20460 E. William Behrens Washington Dept. of Fisheries
University of Texas Room 115, General Administration Bldg.
Roger D. Anderson Marine Science Institute Olympia, Washington 98504
Sea Grant Program Port Aransas, Texas 78373
Texas A &M University Gene W. Bunch, President
College Station, Texas 77843 Richard L. Benefield Bunch Tire Bailers, Inc.
Texas Parks & Wildlife Dept. 4728 S. W. Macadam A ve.
Deli S. Armstrong Box 8 Portland, Oregon 97201
Bunch Tire Bailers, Inc. Seabrook, Texas 77586
4728 S. W. Macadam A ve.
Portland, Oregon 97201 9
David Bennett Sea Grant Program
Texas A &M University Marine Lab Texas A &M University
Jack S. Armstrong Dept. of Marine Sciences College Station, Texas 77843
Bunch Tire Bailers, Inc. Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett
4728 S. W. Macadam A ye. Galveston, Texas 77550 Billy R. Burchfield
Portland, Oregon 97201
City of Clearwater
John P. Bennington 25 Causeway Blvd.
Ulda . Bailey W-31 Hensel Apts. Clearwater Beach, Florida 33515
Bailey's Fishing Camp College Station, Texas 77840
P.O. Box 51
Matagorda, Texas 77457 Fredrick F. Burgess, Jr.
T. Mark Blakemore District Legal Officer
Sea Grant Program Legal Office, 8th Coast Guard District
William H. Bailey Texas A &M University Custom House
Texas Parks & Wildlife Dept. College Station, Texas 77843 New Orleans, Louisiana 70130

143

Harol Dale Burleson Moody College of Marine Sciences & Christopher M. Dewees
307 Tatum Maritime Resources 190 Briggs Hall
Bryan, Texas 77801 P.O. Box 1675 University of California
Galveston, Texas 77550 Davis, California 95616
Mark A. Burrough
Texas A &M University Marine Lab Arthur B. Clifton Allen Dixon
Dept. of Marine Sciences MIT Sea Grant Program 103 Davis St.
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett 77 Massachusetts A ve. Bryan, Texas 77801
Galveston, Texas 77550 Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
Random DuBois
Hal H. Bybee Douglas Colle 1010-A Foster
Continental Oil Co. 4309 Maywood College Station, Texas 77840
P.O. Box 2197 Bryan, Texas 77801
Houston, Texas 77001 John M. Duffy
Roland Collins Associate Marine Biologist
Richard D. Candle The Marine Biomedical Institute California Dept. of Fish and Game
Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. 200 University Blvd. Marine Resources Region
142 Goodyear Blvd. Galveston, Texas 77550 350 Golden Shore
Akron, Ohio 44316 Long Beach, California 90802
Laura Colunga
Frank E. CaNton, President Sea Grant Program Tim Early
National Coalition for Marine Conservation Texas A &M University Governor's State University
2515 Habersham Street College Station, Texas 77843 Park Forest South, Illinois 60466
Savannah, Georgia 31403
Richard N. Conolly Larry R. Eby
OffsCynthia Lynn Carpenter Vice President, Branches and Dealers Flots, Inc.
Offshore Power Systems, Inc. 1403 Chelsea A ve.
8000 Arlington Expressway P.O. Box 4975 Vancouver, Washington 98664
Jacksonville, Florida 32216 .
Corpus Christi, Texas 78408
Norman W. Edmund, President
Margaret D. Cashman Edmund Scientific Co.
Ocean Industry-Gulf Publishing Co. Joe E. Crumpton
3301 Allen Parkway Florida Game & Fresh Water Fish Comm. 99 E. Glouc ester Pike
P.O. Box 2608 P.O. Box 1903 Barrigton, New ersey 08007
Houston, Texas 77001 Eustis, Florida 32726 Muhammad Eidman
John Chambers EHarold F. Cumiford 4302 College Main
Governor's State University Environmental Protection Agency Bryan, Texas 77801
Park Forest South, Illinois 60466 6608David E. Fast
Houston, Texas 77036 DavidE. Fast
Dept. of Marine Sciences
Mark E. Chandler University of Puerto Rico
Environmental Protection Agency David M. Cupka Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708
1600 Patterson Street S.C. Wildlife & Marine Resources Dept.
Dallas, Texas 75201 P.O. Box 12559 Charles Fein
Charleston, South Carolina 29412 Institute of Geophysics
Cathleen L. Chase University of Hawaii
1401 Highway 30, Apt. 448 Arthur E. Dammann Honolulu, Hawaii 96822
College Station, Texas 77840 Director, Bureau of Fish and Wildlife
Dept. of Conservation and Cultural Affairs Bonnie C. Fergus
David M. Chase Government of the Virgin Islands Texas A &M University Marine Lab
1401 Highway 30, Apt. 448 St. Thomas, U.S. V.I. 00801 Dept. of Marine Sciences
College Station, Texas 77840 Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett
R t C tJohn E. Darovec Galveston, Texas 77550
Robert M. Christian Florida Dept. of Natural Resources
304 County Courthouse Larson Bldg. Frank Finchum
Galveston, Texas 77550 Tallahassee, Florida 32304 Chamber of Commerce

Kyung Suk Chung E. Colin Davis Port Arthur, Texas 77640
Kyung Suk Chung E. Colin Davis
Texas A &M University Marine Lab Manager of Public Affairs and Public Daniel E. Fitzgerald
Dept, of Marine Sciences Relations Atlantic Richfield Co.
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. 515 South Flower St., AP 447
Galveston, Texas 77550 G.P.O. Box 3885 LosAngeles, California 90071
Sydney 2001, Australia
Curtis Clark Paul L. Fore
Assistant Chief, Regulatory Functions Gary E. Davis U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Branch Everglades National Park Gulf Breeze, Florida 32561
Civil Works Office, U.S. Army Corps of P.O. Box 279
Engineers Homestead, Florida 33030
~~~~~~~~~~~~Forrestal Bldg. ~A lien A. Forshage
Forfestal Bldg.
Washington, D.C. 20314 Jackson Davis Texas Parks & Wildlife Dept.
Virginia Institute of Marine Science 3016 South Main
Willis H. Clark Gloucester Point, Virginia 23062 Fort Worth, Texas 76110
Sea Grant Program
Texas A &M University Paul K. Dayton David M. French
College Station, Texas 77843 Scripps Institute of Oceanography Texas Transportation Institute
P.O. Box 1529 Texas A &M University
William H. Clayton, Provost La Jolla, California 92037 College Station, Texas 77843

144

Billy Edward Fuls 1333 West Loop South, Suite 1080 Rennie S. Holt
Texas A &l University, Biology Dept. Houston, Texas 77027 2402 Elvinta
Kingsville, Texas 78363 Baytown, Texas 77520
Joel F. Gustafson, President
Robert B. Gamble Resources & Ecology Projects Scott A. Holt
Texas Parks & Wildlife Dept. 35 Morningsun A ve. 402-B College Main
P.O. Box 11445 Mill Valley, California 94941 College Station, Texas 77840
Fort Worth, Texas 76110
Shery Hale Glenn T. Hower
Donald P. Garrett Sea Grant Program Florida Institute of Technology
Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife Texas A &M University 720 S. Indian River Drive
3126 Mar Ann College Station, Texas 77843 Jensen Beach, Florida 33457
La Marque, Texas 77568
John F. Hall Arthur K. Hurme
Dr. Robert Y. George Bureau of Sport Fisheries & Wildlife Coastal Engineering Research Center
Institute of Marine Bio-Medical Research 17 Executive Park Drive, N.E. Kingman Blvd.
University of North Carolina Atlanta, Georgia 30329 Ft. Belvoir, Virginia 22060
Wilmington, North Carolina 28401
Royce Hall Tom Ilffe
Raymond Germany Kennedy Space Center The Marine Biomedical Institute
505 Middle Landing Orlando, Florida 32815 200 University Blvd.
Minden, Louisiana 71055 Galveston, Texas 77550
Paul M. Hammer
David A. Gettleson Coordinator of Operations Takashi Ino
509 Nagle, Apt. 6 American Institute of Merchant Shipping Japan Sea Park Society
College Station, Texas 77840 1625 K Street, N. W., Suite 1000 Tokyo, Japan
Washington, D.C. 20006
Kirby D. Gholson Bill Jackson
Texas Parks & Wildlife Dept. Richard M. Hammer 1408 Dominik
134 Braniff 2012 Rockwood Drive College Station, Texas 77840
San Antonio, Texas 78216 Bryan, Texas 77801
Kathi Jensen
Charles P. Giammona Jennie Hanson Sea Grant Program
201 W. Loop 2818 No. I Texas Coastal & Marine Council Texas A &M University
College Station, Texas 77840 P.O. Box 13407 College Station, Texas 77843
Austin, Texas 78711
Jeffrey H. Giles Jon Jockusch
Texas A &M University Marine Lab Joe A. Hanson Texas A &M University Marine Lab
Dept. of Marine Sciences Oceanic Foundation Dept. of Marine Sciences
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett Makapuu Point Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett
Galveston, Texas 77550 Waimanalo, Hawaii 96795 Galveston, Texas 77550

Julius Goldberg Elwood K. Harry Charles M. Johnson
Groves Chamber of Commerce International Game Fish Assoc. P.O. Box 6564
Lincoln A ve. 3000 E. Las Olas Blvd. College Station, Texas 77843
Groves, Texas 77619 Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33316
William T. Johnson
Larry E. Goldman Russell A. Haynes William . Johnson
Mississippi Marine Resources Council San Antonio River A uthority sa Enterpristi, Texas 784
P.O. Box 497 430 Three Americas Bldg.
Long Beach, Mississippi 39560 San Antonio, Texas 78205 Linda R. Johnston
Texas Coastal & Marine Council
Florida Atlantic University Gary Y. Hendrix P.O. Box 13407
Flor6301 Summi t Bdatla ivd. National Park Service Austin, Texas 78711
6301 Summit Blvd.
West Palm Beach, Florida 33406 Box 279, Everglades National Park
Homestead, Florida 33030 Del A. Kidd
Ray C. Gossum National Marine Fisheries Service
Division of Reserve Fleetrr P.O. Box 1246
U.S. Maritime Admin. Texas ay Gulf Fishermen Assoc. Gloucester, Massachusetts 01930
Texas Bay & Gulf Fishermen's Assoc.
Washington, D.C. 20235 P.O. Box 325
Pt. Bolivar, Texas 77650 obert R. Kifer
John S. Gottschalk Pt Bolvar, Texas 77650 Rockwall Bldg., 11400 Rockville Pike (CE-2)
Executive Vice President Rockville, Maryland 20852
Intr. Association of Game, Fish and Terry Hershey
Conservation Commissioners Texas Coastal & Marine Council R. Barry King
1709 New York A ve., N. W. Harris County Pollution Control
Washington, D.C. 20006 Austin, Texas 7871 107 N, Munger, P.O. Box 6031
Pasadena, Texas 77506
Gary L. Graham William L. High
Marine Fisheries Specialist National Marine Fisheries Service Tadeusz Kowalski
Texas A &M University 2725 Montlake Blvd. E. University of Rhode Island
County Extension Office Seattle, Washington 98112 Ocean Engineering Department
Angleton, Texas 77515 Kingston, Rhode Island 02881
Dorothy M. Hogg
Robert C. Graham 708 Academy Shih-Chieh Kuan, Director
Ecology & Environment, Inc. Bryan, Texas 77801 Institute of Marine Science

145

College of Chinese Culture University Street Bldg. 31 1, Fort Crockett
Hwa Kang, Yang Ming Shan Galveston, Texas 77550 Galveston, Texas 77550
Taiwan, Republic of China
Michael Ludwig John Miloy
Robin j. Kuckyr National Marine Fisheries Service Research Economist
Gulf South Research Institute 212 Rogers A ve. Texas A &M University
104 Nita Street Milford, Connecticut 06460 P.O. Box 83 FE
New Iberia, Louisiana 70560 College Station, Texas 77843
Austin R. Magill
Thomas R. Lambert National Marine Fisheries Service Thomas F. Minter
Pacific Gas & Electric Co. 3300 Whitehaven St. N. W. Vice President of Domestic Production
3400 Crow Canyon Rd. Washington, D.C. 20235 The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.
San Ramon, California 94583 Akron, Ohio 44316
Daniel R. Malone, President
Willard Lane Marine Pollution Control, Inc. Charles T. Mitchell, President
P.O. Box 769 P.O. Box 709 Marine Biological Consultants, Inc.
North Carolina Division of Fisheries Texas City, Texas 77590 947 Newhall St.
Morehead City, North Carolina 28557 Costa Mesa, California 92627
J. Allen Martin
Dana W. Larson Sea Grant Program Lester S. Miyajima
Exxon Texas A &M University 433 S. Lanai
P.O. Box 2180 College Station, Texas 77843 Kahului, Hawaii 96732
Houston, Texas 77002
Heywood H. Mathews Edgar Mooney
Addison L. Lawrence St. Petersburg junio r College Artificial Reef Committee of New Jersey
U niversity of Houston109 Maple wood Ae. 56 Bowne A ve., P.O. Box 88
3801 Cullen Blvd. Freehold, New Jersey 07728
Houston, Texas 77004 Clearwater, Florida 33515
Houston, Texas 77004
Ernie Moore
Robert Mauermann
Charles K. Lawrence Robert Miuermonn City of Galveston
Chamber of Commerce Executive823-25th Street
Texas Shrimp Association
Galveston, Texas 77550Levee St. Galveston, Texas 77550

Henry J. LeBlanc, Sr. Brownsville, Texas 78520 Maury Morganstein
Sportsmen's Clubs of Texas Dept. of Oceanography
2915-5th Street Sam J. Mavar University of Hawaii
Port Arthur, Texas 77640 Mavar Shrimp, Boat, Builders, Operators 2525 Correa Rd.
217 Holley St. Honolulu, Hawaii 96882
Howard Lee Biloxi, Mississippi 39530
Texas Coastal & Marine Council Joseph C. Moseley
P.O. Box 13407 Martha McCullough Executive Director
Austin, Texas 78711 Ichthyological Associates Texas Coastal & Marine Council
West Brook Lane P.O. Box 13407
Norman R. Lee Absecon, New Jersey 08203 Austin, Texas 78711
Sportsmen for Political A ction
170 Houston, Ist Savings Bldg. A. Oliver McEachern Barnard C. Muir
Houston, Texas 77007 Pinellas County Commissioner Delaware Artificial Reef Association
Pinellas County, Florida 1612 Bay Ave.
Ray Lemmon 315 Haven St. Lewes, Delaware 19958
11101 Elbeck Clearwater, Florida 33516
Houston, Texas 77035 Henry Lloyd Mullins
James A. McGee Texas A &M University Marine Lab
John Ganson Lindenberg East Carolina University Dept. of Marine Sciences
Mass. Division of Fisheries & Game Box 2727 Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett
Field Headquarters Greenville, North Carolina 27834 Galveston, Texas 77550
Westboro, Massachusetts 01778
Gregory S. Mcintosh T. William Musser
Donald R. Linder Broward Artificial Reef, Inc. Deputy Chief Ocean Disposal Program
708 1/2 W. Nazro 1220 NE 8th A ve. Environmental Protection Agency
Baytown, Texas 77520 Fort Lauderdale, Florida 33304 Washington, D.C. 20460

Nancy Lippincott Lovie McMullen Dewitt O. Myatt, III
Texas A &M University Marine Lab U.S. Bureau of Land Management Artificial Reef Coordinator
Dept. of Marine Sciences Suite 3100-Plaza Tower South Carolina Wildlife & Marine
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett 1001 Howard A ve. Resources Dept.
Galveston, Texas 77550 New Orleans, Louisiana 70113 P.O. Box 12559, 317 Ft. Johnson Rd.
Charleston, South Carolina 29412
Theodore C. Loder William J. Melton
Assistant Professor of Oceanography Texas Parks and Wildlife Eugene L. Nakamura
Dept. of Earth Sciences 16th and Colorado National Marine Fisheries Service
University of New Hampshire Austin, Texas 78751 P.O. Box 4218
Durham, New Hampshire 03824 Panama City, Florida 32401
Deana S. Miller
Judith Ann Love Texas A &M University Marine Lab Don Nanninga
Marine Biomedical Institute Dept. of Marine Sciences The Marine Biomedical Institute

146

200 University Blvd. P.O. Drawer AG 1628 N. Federal Highway
Galveston, Texas 77550 Ocean Springs, Mississippi 39564 Ft. Lauderdale, Florida 33305

Robert H. Newding Virginia M. Pierce Cecil Reid
Texas A &M University Marine Lab Texas A &M University Marine Lab Texas Coastal & Marine Council
Dept. of Marine Sciences Dept. of Marine Sciences P.O. Box 13407
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett Austin, Texas 78711
Galveston, Texas 77550 Galveston, Texas 77550
Rollin D. Reimer
Richard L. Noble Roderick M. Pinkett Wildlife & Fisheries Dept.
1215 Boswell Texas A &M University Marine Lab Texas A &M University
College Station, Texas 77840 Dept. of Marine Sciences College Station, Texas 77843
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett
Ron S. Nolan Galveston, Texas 77550 Dennis D. Renfro
Scripps Institution of Oceanography Texas A &M University Marine Lab
University of California John R. Piskura Dept. of Marine Sciences
La Jolla, California 92037 Roy F. Weston, Inc. Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett
6116 Windswept, Suite 204 Galveston, Texas 77550
John T. Ogle Houston, Texas 77027
Texas A &M University Marine Lab Carol Jean Rhodes
Dept. of Marine Sciences David R. Pollard Sea Grant Program
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett N.S. W. State Fisheries Texas A&M University
Galveston, Texas 77550 Fisheries House, 211 Kent St. College Station, Texas 77843
Sydney, N.S. W., Australia 2000
Larry Ogren Bob Richards
Fishery Biologist Premsukh Poonai Governor's Office
Gulf Coast Fisheries Center Bethume-Cookman College Austin, Texas 78711
National Marine Fisheries Service 640 Second A ve.
Panama City Laboratory Daytona Beach, Florida 32015 William Ripley, Jr.
Panama City, Florida 32401 S.C. Marine Resources Div.
Cheryl A. Price Charleston, South Carolina 29472
Kenneth W. Osborn Rt. 4, Box 762
National Marine Fisheries Service Bryan, Texas 77801 Bert N. Rodgers
5416 Richenbacher A ve. No. 201 U.S. Dept. Interior-BLM
Alexandria, Virginia 22304 Eric David Prince Suite 3200, The Plaza Tower
Research Assistant 1001 Howard A ve.
Hal R. Osburn Dept. of Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences New Orleans, Louisiana 70113
P.O. Box 745 Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
College Station, Texas 77843 University Philip M. Roedel
Blacksburg, Virginia 24060 Department of Commerce, NOAA
Steven Osvald 6070 Executive Blvd., Room 918
Corps of Engineers Donald M. Quarberg Rockville, Maryland 20852
P.O. Box 889 2614 Bayou A ve.
Savannah, Georgia 31402 Baytown, Texas 77520 Gilbert T. Rowe
Associate Scientist
Dr. F.A. Pagan Nancy N. Rabalais Woods Hole Oceanographic Inst.
Acting Director Texas A&l University Water Street
Dept. of Marine Sciences P.O. Box 158 Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543
University of Puerto Rico Kingsville, Texas 78363
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico 00708 J. Robert Rowley
John E. Randall The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.
John G. Pallo Ichthyologist 1345 Tenneco Bldg.
National Tire Dealers Association Bernice P. Bishop Museum Houston, Texas 77002
1343 L St. N. W. Honolulu, Hawaii 96818
Washington, D.C. 20005 H. ]. Saenger
Marcus C. Raney Tideland Signal Corp.
Nick C. Parker Sportsmen's Clubs of Texas, Inc. P.O. Box 52450
628 Normal 306 Center Way Houston, Texas 75052
Memphis, Texas 79245 Lake Jackson, Texas 77566
Michael Sanders
Pete Parker Fisheries & Wildlife Div.
National Marine Fisheries Service Bernardj. Rapp
National Marine Fish eries Service hamber of Commerce Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental
Beaufort, North Carolina 28516 Galveston Chamber of Commerce Research
315 Tremont
Brown Street
Patrick R. Parrish Galveston, Texas 77550 Heidelberg
Bionomics - EGOG, Inc. Victoria
790 Main St. Carl R. Rasor Australia 3084
Wareham, Massachusetts 02571 Texas Ag. Exten. Service
Courthouse Rm. 326
Willis E. Pequegnat Bay City, Texas 77414 Florida Dept. Nat. Res
Professor of Oceanography Larson Bldg.
Oceanography Dept. Ralph Rayburn Tallahassee, Florida 32301
Texas A &M University Orr's Mobile Park, Box No. 8
College Station, Texas 77843 Bryan, Texas 77801 Edward P. Sawyer
Lykes Bros. Steamship Co.
J. Allison Perry Bill Raymond 300 Poydras St.
Gulf Coast Research Laboratory Ocean Research/D.E. Britt Assoc. New Orleans, Louisiana 70130

147

William Francis Schaaf, President Frank V. Smith State of Washington
Southeast Packing Company Islip Dept. of Environmental Control Anacortes, Washington 98221
22nd & Wharf, P.O. Box 1226 577 Main St.
Galveston, Texas 77550 Islip, New York 11751 Joe T. Surovik
Texas Agr. Ext. Service
Gloria Schaefer Gregory B. Smith P.O. Box 42
Aqua Safari FDNR Marine Research Lab Port Lavaca, Texas 77640
Houston, Texas I00 Eighth Ave. S.E.
St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 Wayne Swingle
Capt. Louis Schaefer Chief Marine Biologist
Aqua Safari Larry D. Smith Marine Resources Division
Houston, Texas Biologist Alabama Dept. of Conservation & Natural
Georgia Dept. of Natural Resources Resources
William Scott Schafer Game and Fish Division P.O. Box 188
Texas A &M University Marine Lab Coastal Fisheries Section Dauphin Island, Alabama 36528
Dept. of Marine Sciences P.O. Box 1676
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett Brunswick, Georgia 31520 C.H. Taylor
Galveston, Texas 77550 The Ocean Corp.
Lyle Smith Exxon Bldg. Rm. 2695
Frederick B. Schoenberger Governor's State University Houston, Texas 77002
NASA, Kennedy Space Center, Florida Park Forest South, Illinois 60466
476 Bridgetown Ct. David L. Thomas
Satellite Beach, Florida 32937 J. Adger Smyth Ichthyological Associates
Marine Science Institute, University of West Brook Lane
A,R. Schwartz, Senator South Florida Absecon, New Jersey 08201
Simpson, Morgan & Burnwell, Attorneys 830 First St. South
at Law St. Petersburg, Florida 33701 Ronald F. Thomas
619 8th Ave. N. Post, Buckley, Schuh & Jernigan, Inc.
Texas City, Texas 77590 Floyd C. Springer 7500 N. W. 52nd St.
Sea Reefs, Inc. Miami, Florida 33166
Joe E. Seward P.O. Box 2682
Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant Consortium Los Angeles, California 90028 HQward A. Tolley
P.O. Drawer A G Goodyear
Ocean Springs, Mississippi 39564 Jess L. Stark 1144 E. Market St.
Starks Machine & Manf. Co. Akron, Ohio 44316
Douglas F. Seymour, President 12051 Stroud
Lee County Reef, Inc. Houston, Texas 77072 Edward L. Towle
Rt. 8, Box 174 Island Resources Foundation, Inc.
Bokeelia, Florida 33922 Frank W. Steimle Lagoon Marina, Red Hook
Sandy Hook Laboratory St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands 00801
Howard H. Seymour Ft. Handcock
University of Delaware Highlands, New Jersey 07732 Maretta F. Tubb
P.O. Box 286 Ocean Industry Magazine-Gulf Publishing Co.
Lewes, Delaware 19958 Linda L. Stephens 3301 Allen Parkway - P.O. Box 2608
Marine Biomedical Institute Houston, Texas 77001
John L. Seymour 200 University Blvd.
Dept. of Management Galveston, Texas 77550 Philip E. Turk
Texas A &M University Texas A &M University Marine Lab
College Station, Texas 77843 Robert C. Stephenson, Director Dept. of Marine Sciences
Sea Grant Program Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett
Tommy L. Sheddan Texas A &M University Galveston, Texas 77550
TVA College Station, Texas 77843
Forest, Fisheries & Wildlife Dev. Jim Tyler
Norris, Tennessee 37828 James R. Stewart Reef Coordinator and Publications Editor
Scripps Institution of Oceanography North Carolina Division of Commercial
Daniel J. Sheehy Box 1529 & Sports Fisheries
Marine Experiment Station La Jolla, California 92037 P.O. Box 769
University of Rhode Island Morehead City, North Carolina 2855 7
Kingston, Rhode Island 02881 Richard B. Stone
Chief
Perry J Shepard Artificial Reef Task Group Beth A. Van Etten
Head National Marine Fisheries Service Florida Institute of Technology
720 S. Indian River Drive
Industrial Economics Research Division Beaufort, North Carolina 28516 720 S. Indian Rve r Drive
~~~~~~~~~Texas ~A &M University Jensen Beach, Florida 33457
Texas A &M University
College Station, Texas 77843 Kirk Strawn
Dept. of Wildlife & Fisheries Science James R. Walker
Moffatt & Nichol Engineers
James F. Shinholser Texas A &M University Hon olulu, Hawallii
Pinellas County College Station, Texas 77843
14845-49th St. N. Charles K. Walters
Clearwater, Florida 33520 Executive Vice President Fish Commission of Oregon
uSpo rt Fishing Institute 307 State Office Building
Sport Fishing Institute
Eugene A. Shinn 719 Thirteenth Street, N. W., Suite 503
Staff Marine Specialist Washington, D.C. 20005 Portland, Oregon 97201
Shell Oil Co.
One Shell Plaza William C. Summers, Director Williamilliam . Wardle
Houston, Texas 77001 Shannon Point Marine Center Texas A &M University Marine Lab

148

Dept. of Marine Sciences Charles R. Whitfield Maida Yolen
Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett Southern Resources Wheeler Industries, Inc.
Galveston, Texas 77550 P.O. Box 334 1028 Connecticut A ve., N. W.
Niceville, Florida 32578 Washington, D.C. 20036
Ann Weeks
NOAA-NMFS
NOAA BuidiNMFS Robert L. Wilbur James Zischke
Page Building Florida Game & Fresh Water Fish Commission St. Olaf College
Washington, D.C. 20235 P.O. Box 1903 Northfield, Minnesota 55057
Eustis, Florida 32726
Edgar Werner
Assistant Professor and Director Joseph D. Zotter
Ocean Resources Utilization Program Roy T. Williamson Texas A &M University Marine Lab
Inter American University of Puerto Rico Santa Cruz Angling & Hunting Club Dept. of Marine Sciences
P.O. Box 1293 1440 El Dorado A ve. Bldg. 311, Fort Crockett
Hato Rey, Puerto Rico 00919 Santa Cruz, California 95062 Galveston, Texas 77550

Norman C. Whitehorn Benjamin F. Witt D. Duane Zussy
Industrial Economics Research Division Wheeler Industries, Inc. Pinellas County, Florida
Texas A &M University 1028 Connecticut A ve., N. W. 315 Haven
College Station, Texas 77843 Washington, D.C. 20036 Clearwater, Florida 33516

::' ' ;"149

150

Author Index

Ahr, Wayne M ..... 31
Amson, Jonathan E. 113
Beckman, Edward .... 118
Beguery, Michel J.M. . . . 17
Blatt, Herb . . . . . . . 121
Brouha, Paul ...... 68
Buchanan, Chester C. 34
Burgess, Fredrick F. 125
Clark, Curtis . . . . . . 128
Clifford, C. H ...... 56
Crumpton, Joseph E. . . . 39
Dammann, Arthur E. . . . 19
Duffy, John M ..... 47
Fast, D. E ....... 49
Fein, Charles ..... 51
Hammer, Paul M .. . . . . 130
Ino, Takashi . . . . . . 21
Loder, Theodore C. 56
Mauermann, Robert 132
Mcintosh, Gregary S. . . . 75
Minter, Thomas F . . . . 134
Morganstein, Maury . 51
Moseley, Joseph C. .78
Myatt, Dewitt 0..... 81
Nolan, Ron S ...... 60
Ogren, Larry ....... 65
Pagan, F. A.. . . . . . . 49
Prince, Eric David . . . . . 68
Rowe, Gilbert T.. . . . . 56
Sanders, Michael . . . . . 84
Schaefer, Louis . . . . . 118
Shepard, Perry J . . . . . 137
Shinn, Eugene A ...... 91
Smith, Larry D ..... 97
Stone, Richard ...... 24
Stroud, Richard H.... 9
Swingle, Wayne . . . . . 100
Tyler, Jim . . . . . . . 103
Werner, Edgar . . . . . . 105
Wilber, Robert L...... 39

152