Storms, people and property in coastal North Carolina

[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

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Cover: Hurricane Belle off the eastern United States, August 9, 1976.

Copies of this publication are available from:

UNC Sea Grant
105 1911 Building
North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Caroli na 27650

Ile ?00
COASTAL ZONE
INFORMATION CENTER

storms, People and Property
In Coastal North Carolina

by
Simon Baker
UNC Sea Grant College Program
and
Geography Department
East Carolina University

PropertY Of csC Libra&T

Edited by
Karen Jurgensen
UNC Sea Grant College Program

U DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
%IN C"
'V\ 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
CHARLESTON SC 29405-2413
Q"

Sea Grant Publication UNC-SG-78-15 August, 1978

This work was sponsored by the Office of Sea Grant,
NOAA, United States Department of Commerce, under grant
number 04-8-MOl-66 and the North Carolina Department of
Administration. The U.S. Government is authorized to
produce and distribute reprints for governmental purposes
notwithstanding any copyright that may appear hereon.

Foreword

Waves which once broke on uninhabited North
Carolina shores now break in the front yards of
cottages, motels and apartment buildings. The use
of land on the barrier islands has changed since
old-timers shunned the beach for wooded, sheltered
spots. But the pattern of the legendary storms
which strike the coast remains the same.

Inevitably, the storms of the future will
endanger more lives and property than they do now.
People will continue to live on the barrier islands
or visit them because of the beauty and recreational
opportunities found there. Does this mean that we
are creating an impossible situation where death
and destruction will be the price we pay for the
use of the islands? This need not be so if we
understand the nature of the barrier island envi-
ronment and act upon that understanding.

For one thing, it must be recognized that hurri-
canes are a regular feature along the North Carolina
coast. The recent quiet years after the intense
storm activity of the 1950s have created a false
sense of security about hurricanes. We must choose
the safest possible building sites, keeping in mind
the history of hurricanes on this part of the Atlantic
coast. Another important thing to be remembered is
that the coast regularly experiences extratropical
storms. These storms do not approach the violence
and high winds of hurricanes, but they often
create considerable damage because of their
longevity.

In locating permanent structures the dynamic
nature of the barrier islands must be taken into
account. These are sand islands which are shaped by
winds, currents and a rising sea level, as well as
the annual cycle of storms. Erosion on the islands
is not new, it is and has been an everyday occurrence
since the islands came into being. Buildings and
roads must be well back from the beaches and espe-
cially from those most changeable features of all,
the inlets. The structures themselves can be made
quite wind-resistant and can be elevated to avoid
damage from most flooding. With sensible precautions
it should be possible for people to live on the barrier
islands at a reduced level of risk. Given the nature

of the coastal environment, however, it is not
possible to discount all risk.

The purpose of this publication is to inform
the reader of the nature and frequency of storms
on North Carolina's coast and the dangers associated
with them. The preservation of life and the safety
of coastal dwellers are of the utmost importance.
Whenever instructions are issued by Civil Preparedness
or other governmental authorities to evacuate, they
should be complied with immediately. Should the
reader find himself in a position where he is unable
to leave his residence after a hurricane warning has
been issued, there are a number of actions he can
follow to insure his safety. This publication offers
practical tips which people living directly on the
coast and in low-lying areas further inland can follow
before, during and after storms to protect life and
property.

Contents

Foreword ......................................... i

Storms of Tropical Origin .......... ............. 1

Hurricanes: The Damaging Forces ................. 12

Northeasters: Storms of Extratropical Origin .... 27

Surviving It--Safely ............................. 33

What's Safe to Eat and Drink ..................... 39

Keeping a Roof Over Your Head .................... 45

Boating It ....................................... 51

On the Farr . ...................................... 53

Appendices

Civil Preparedness Information ................ 61

Disaster Fact Sheets .......................... 64

Definitions of Terms Associated with
Hurricanes ................................. 65

Wind Effects Over Water ....................... 68

Coastal Hurricanes of the Twentieth Century ... 70

Some Severe Twentieth Century Extratropical
Storms .................. .................. 74

Atlantic Hurricane Names ...................... 78

References ....................................... 79

Illustration Credits ............................. 82

Acknowledgments .................................. 83

Storms of Tropical Origin

Tropical cyclones--including hurricanes--like
many other natural phenomena, do not occur on a
regular basis. There may be periods of great storm
activity followed by quiet years. This has been
the recent hurricane history of the North Carolina
coast. The middle 1950s was a period of intense
activity with three hurricanes making landfall in
1955 alone (Figure 1). The period since then has
been relatively quiet, and there are many coastal
inhabitants and summer residents who have never
experienced a hurricane.

On the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coasts,
hurricane season lasts roughly from June through
November. August, September and October are the
months of maximum storm activity on the average.
Of course, variations occur from place to place.

By the time hurricanes reach the North Carolina
coast they have travelled great distances. Their
origins have been traced to the Gulf of Mexico, the
Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic to the east of southern
Florida, or farther out in the Atlantic to the east
of the Lesser Antilles. Some storns may originate
as far away as the Cape Verde Islands off the west
coast of Africa or even the Sahara Desert.

A hurricane and its lesser cousin the "tropical
storm" are tropical cyclones. When a tropical cyclone
has wind speeds of 39 to 73 miles per hour (34 to 63 knots)
and the circulation is in rotary fashion it is
classified as a "tropical storm." When the rotary
circulation of winds is very pronounced and wind
speed exceeds 74 miles per hour (64 knots) the tropi-
cal cyclone is described as a "hurricane."

The word "cyclone" is sometires confusing because
in parts of the United States (US) it is synonymous with
tornado. It does not have that meaning in this publi-
cation but is used in the general meteorological sense
(see Appendix III for a definition).
Hurricanes are round or spiral shaped and, on
the average, are about 100 miles in diameter. Within
this area the winds exceed 74 miles per hour while
outside of it, up to a diameter of 400 miles, the
winds may be above 40 miles per hour, or gale-force.
The whole cyclonic storm moves across the tropical
ocean with a forward speed of about 12 to 14 miles
an hour.

CONNIE
AUGUST 12, 1955

HAZEL
OCTOBER 15, 1954

IONE
SEPTEMBER 19, 1955
DIANE
AUGUST 17, 1955

EDENTON ......

ROCKY MOUNT

RALEIGH

WASHINGTON

*GOLDSBORO
AURORA*

FAYETTEVILLE NEW BERN

JACKSONVILLE
........ ........

Figurel. In less than 12 months, between October,
1954, and September, 1955, four hurricanes made landfall
on the North Carolina coast and passed through the state.
Shown here are the paths these storms followed. On the
average, hurricane force winds are felt 50 miles on each
side of the storm path and gale force winds up to 200
miles on each side. During this period of intense storm
activity,practically all parts of eastern North Carolina
experienced hurricane force winds.
2

The mature hurricane has at its core an eye or
relatively calm and sometimes cloud-free center
averaging 14 miles in diameter. Inwardly spiralling
winds form a thick wall of cloud as they are whirled
upward around the eye. Winds are at their strongest
here and may reach speeds of over 100 miles per hour.
Other thick walls of cloud form great spirals as
they converge on the center of the hurricane. (See
photograph on the front cover.) It is from these
clouds that the heavy precipitation falls, and any
given place in the path of a hurricane may experience
a total of frora 6 to 12 inches of rainfall with
occasional amounts exceeding 30 inches.

The amount of energy in a hurricane is difficult
to comprehend, but an estinate appearing in Hurricane,
the Greatest Storm on Earth* suggests that the heat
energy released in @@ne -day "is the equivalent of that
released by fusion of 400 20-megaton hydrogen bombs.
Put in-more comprehensible terms, one day's released
/ wind/ energy, converted to electricity, would supply
@Ehe U-nited States' electrical needs for more than
six months. "

These powerful storms have been striking the
islands of the Caribbean and Gulf and Atlantic coasts
of North America as far back as we have written records.
There is ample evidence in the lore of the pre-Columbian
inhabitants of these coasts that hurricanes were a
regular feature of their lives. Historical studies
have been conducted on the paths hurricanes follow
before reaching various parts of the US coastline. One
such study for the years 1886-1963 is illustrated by
Figure 2. From this map we can see that the incidence
of hurricanes varies from place to place along the coast.
Some sections of the coastline have had few hurricanes
make landfall while others, such as the Gulf, have had
more than their share. It is clear also that North
Carolina has been the recipient of many such storms.

Even on the North Carolina coast, storm activity
varies. For example, one study indicates that the
area between Cape Hatteras and a point southwest of
Jacksonville experiences a longer storm season than
the rest of the state's coast. And within that area,
the section between Capes Lookout and Hatteras experi-
ences more tropical cyclones than any other section of
the coast. This information comes from Atlantic Hurricane

References are listed on pages 79-81.

N. B.

ME. N.S

IJ
N.Y. MAS
N'
Z
PENN.

M
MD,
T
VA

N.C.

S. C.

ALA. GA.
miss,

TEX.

FLA.

M 128 626

ligure 2- Hurricanes crossing the Gulf of Mexico
and antic coasts, or passing near the mainland,
1886-1963.

Frequen ies Along the US Coastline, which is a detailed
study of 50-mile segments of the US Gulf of M)exico
and Atlantic coastlines for the 85-year period of
1886 to 1970. The study provides a more detailed look
at North Carolina's coast. The coast was divided
into 50-mile lengths because it was felt that this
size is the smallest segment for which a meaningful
summary could be made for the purpose of examining
hurricane events. The segments covering the North
Carolina coast are labeled A through F in this publi-
cation. The locations of the segments or sectors
can be seen in Figure 3 and the following maps.
Segment A lies partially in South Carolina and seg-
ment F is partially in Virginia. The remaining
segments B, C, D and E are entirely within North
Carolina and each one is approximately 50 miles
in length.

Only storms entering the coastal area from the
sea were tabulated in the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration study. Those storms which
passed offshore and did not touch land were not counted.
Also, it was assumed that hurricanes crossing the shore-
line in one segment affected the adjacent segments
which lay in the right semicircle of the storm where
high winds are normally experienced. This means that
a storm coming ashore in segment C was not only counted
there but also in segment D to its right. This method
of counting is only true for tropical cyclones of
hurricane intensity and higher. It is not true for
tropical cyclones of less than hurricane intensity,
that is, with winds of less than 74 miles per hour.

It should be noted that the information shown in
Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 is representative only of the
85 years of records which were studied. They help
us to understand what has transpired on our coast so
that we may have some indication of differences from
place to place and also have some indication of what
to expect in the future.

Length of the season of tropical cyclones varies
considerably along this coast. Figure 3 indicates
the earliest and latest occurrences of tropical cyclones
during the study period, and this is an indication
of length of season. Using these criteria, sectors
C and D--Cape Hatteras to approximately the vicinity
of Jacksonville--must be considered to experience
the longest seasons while sectors E and F to the
north of Cape Hatteras only experience brief periods
during @,,7hich they are subjected to tropical cyclones.
5

Figure 3. Earliest and latest occurrences of
tropical cyclones with maximum sustained winds of 40
miles per hour or higher. Dates indicate landfalls
made by storms in each sector for the period 1886-1970.

Virginia

ELIZABETH CITY

Sector boundary
Sector extends into EO
adjoining state
PLYMOUTH

WASHINGTON

NEW BERN

MOREHE CITY
JACKSONVILLE

% WILMINGTON
0@, 11@
%
SOUTHPORT
..... ......

Ficure 4. Number of tropical cyclones reaching
the North Carolina coast 1886-1970 by sectors.

TC H

Virginia
2 2

ELIZABETH CITY*.
Sector boundary
Sector extends into T
adjoining state -.,.MANT,
PLYMOUTH e
E
49
7 3
WASHINGTON

NEW BERN

D
MOREHEAD CITY
JACKSONVILLE e. 15

WILMINGTON
12
% B 4
91/1 \ SOUTHPORT
0/.%

5
TC 2 TC-ALL TROPICAL CYCLONES (40MPH OR HIGHER)
H H-ALL HURRICANES (74MPH OR HIGHER)
G" GH-GREAT HURRICANES (125MPH OR HIGHER)

Figure 5. Number of years between tropical cyclone
occurrences. Average for the period 1886-1970 by sectors.

TC H GH

Virginia
411 42 4 85
F
ELIZABETH CITY
Sector boundary

Sector extends into
MANT 0
adjoining state
PLYMOUTH
E
WASHINGTON 10 12 2

NEW BERN

D
JACKSONVILLE MOREH D CITY
5
9
lip
C 42

WILMINGTON
0<1e4 7
% B 21
SOUTHPORT
0/. %
I...... ....

7
1
TC 42 TC-ALL TROPICAL CYCLONES (40MPH OR HIGHER)
H H-ALL HURRICANES (74MPH OR HIGHER)
GH GH-GREAT HURRICANES (125MPH OR HIGHER)

Figure 6. The probability (percentage) that a
tropical cyclone, hurricane, or great hurricane will
occur in any one year in a sector of the coastline.

TC H GH

Virginia ,
2 2

ELIZABETH CITY
Sector boundary
Sector extends into -MANTE
adjoining state
PLYMOUTH

WASHINGTON 8 4

NEW BERN

JACKSONVILLE MOREHEAD CI Y
18

WILMINGTON
oe, 14
SOUTHPORT 5

A 76
2

13
6
TC 2 TC-ALL TROPICAL CYCLONES (40MPH OR HIGHER)
H H-ALL HURRICANES (74MPH OR HIGHER)
GH GH-GREAT HURRICANES (125MPH OR HIGHER)

Sectors A and B in the south appear to have seasons
of intermediate lengths.

The number of tropical cyclones of varying
intensity which has reached this coast is depicted
in Figure 4. In sector D--Cape Hatteras to Cape
Lookout--which has experienced the highest number
of tropical cyclones during the 85-year period,
nine of those cyclones were of hurricane intensity.
Of the nine hurricanes two were powerful enough,
with winds of 125 miles per hour or higher, to be
classified as great hurricanes. The study recognizes
this latter type of storm because "due to both
storr. surge inundation and wind stresses on struc-
tures, storms in this category can be expected to
bring major disasters to metropolitan areas with
heavy damage to structures and high potential for
loss of life." All of the sectors but C (Cape Lookout
to a point southwest of Jacksonville) have experienced
at least one great hurricane during the 85-year study
period. This does not mean that sector C is immune
from these violent hurricanes, only that none were
recorded during the study period.

Another way of looking at the record is from
the point of view of time between occurrences of
tropical cyclones. In Figure 5, average times between
the three types of storms occurring over the 85-year
study period have been calculated and are shown for
each sector. Thus, in sector C there is a blank for
great hurricanes because none occurred during that
time while in sector F the figure shown for such
storms is 85 years since only one occurred during
the study period. In sectors A, B, and D the time
is given as 42 years because two large storms occurred
in each one in a period of 85 years. Sector E shows
28 years between great hurricanes to account for the
three experienced.

Of more interest to coastal dwellers perhaps is
the number of years between occurrences of tropical
cyclones of all types. By far the most storm-ridden
sector is D, lying between Cape Lookout and Cape
Hatteras. On an average of every five years this
portion of our coast experienced some sort of tropical
cyclone. Sectors A and C experienced tropical cyclones
on an average of every seven years. At the other end
of the scale, the quietest part of our coast is sector
F which experienced only two tropical cyclones of any
type during the 85 years of the study, hence the
average time of 42 years between occurrences.

As shown in Figure 6, Sectors A, C and D are
those with the greatest probability of experiencing
tropical cyclones. Sectors D and E have the greatest
probability of experiencing hurricanes and sector
E the greatest probability of experiencing great
hurricanes. An 18 percent probability indicates 18
chances in a 100-year period or one storip. every five
to six years. This estimate of the mathematical
probabilities is based on the assumption that "the
statistical properties of the data sample represent
the properties of the entire population of events
(i.e., all coastline crossings)."

Hurricanes: The Damaging Forces

High winds are generally what people think of
when they think about hurricanes. Those who have
experienced these storms have vivid memories of the
winds. Those who have read about hurricanes or seen
them on film come away with a strong impression of
the wind and its power. Many people assume that
it is the force of the wind directly against trees
and buildings that is the main cause of destruction
by hurricanes.

In fact, along our coasts there are three conse-
quences of the passage of hurricanes which cause
destruction and death. Of these three, damage caused
by the direct action of wind is the least severe.
The most destructive force generated by a hurricane
is usually the storm surge. Next in destructive
power is flooding caused by the torrential rains
normally associated with hurricanes. The power of
moving water can be far more destructive than that
of moving air.

Storm Surge

There appears to be some confusion over storm
surges. The surge is sometimes less correctly called
a "storm tide," or a "hurricane tide," or even a
"tidal w ave" when the surge is being forced up a
river channel. The important thing to understand is
how storm surge comes into being: the storm surge is
a mound of water pushed up by winds ahead of a hurri-
cane advancing landward from a large body of water.
In the open ocean the surge may be hardly noticeable,
but when it approaches a shallow shore the effect is
dramatic. The mound of water may be 50 or more miles
wide as it crosses the coastline. Depending on the
conformation of the shore and bottom, the storm surge
may reach heights of 15 feet or more above the normal
(astronomical) tide level. Added to this are the
large wind-driven waves which usually top it off. The
greatest storm surge is most often experienced on the
right-hand side and close to the eye of the hurricane
as one faces in the direction of the forward motion of
the storm. Figures 7, 8 and 9 illustrate the relation-
ship between normal sea level, astronomical tide, and
the build-up of water as storm surge strikes a shore.
13

Storm Surge: The Most Deadly Killer

The three sets of drawings on these pages show
the formation and effects of the hurricane storm
surge. Many factors are involved in the formation
and propagation of a storm surge such as the strength
of the storm, bottom conditions where the surge comes
ashore, and the position of the storm center in rela-
tion to the shore. These diagrams, therefore, cannot
be representative of all surges for all coastal areas.
The surge diagramed here is typical of those produced
by a hurricane approaching the lower-Atlantic or Gulf
coastal areas.

Figure 7. It is
a normal day. The
sea rises and falls
predictably with
astronomical tidal
action. There are
the usual small
w
aves. A hurri-
cane has developed
and a Hurricane
011 6t. 124 18@ 241@ 301@ Watch is in effect
I @@ I for the area.
NORML TUWS

Figure 8. The
hurricane now
poses a serious
threat to this
beach area and the
Watch has been
changed to a Hurri-
cane Warning. The
410tASIM11 hurricane is 12
hours away. The
@z
tide is a little
C 2,@ 2,@ above normal; the
HURRrAM rLORGE ?N water moves further
up the beach. Swells
are beginning to
move in from the
deep ocean and break-
ing waves--some as
high as five to eight
feet--crash ashore
and run well up the
beach. The wind is
*Mean sea level 14 picking up.

~@7~' STORM ~T~I~!~"~E
ORMAL HIGH TIDE
MEAN ~S~-~~A LEVEL

H~q"~qR~qR~I~,~q@~qr~qA~qNE ~qS~q1~-~6q0~-~-~8qV~qA SURGE

0 hr 6~q1hr 12 hr 17 ft 18 hr 21 hr 27 hr 30 hr
HURRICANE STORM TIDE
(Normal tide and
Hurricane surge)

0
~qS

Figure 9. The hurricane is moving ashore close to
the beach area. It is time for high tide again. This ti~ve,
however, there is a 15~-foot surge added to the normal
2-f~oot astronomical tide creating a 17~-foot storm tide.
This great mound of water, topped by battering waves, is
moving slowly ashore along an area of coastline 50 to
100 miles wide. Winds are now over 130 miles an hour.
much oceanfront property will be unable to withstand this
combined assault of wind and water.

The combination of storm surge, battering waves, and
high tide is the hurricane's most deadly killer.

In coastal locations the combined flooding and
pounding by waves of the storm surge are the great
destroyers of life and property. The most recent
spectacular example of a high surge in the US was
Hurricane Camille which struck the Mississippi coast
in 1969. Winds of up to 175 knots created a storm
surge of 24.2 feet which swept ashore and was respon-
sible for more than $1 billion in damage in Louisiana
and Mississippi alone. The loss in lives along the
Gulf coast was 146 with 27 missing. Most of the dead
were drowned. In the US there have been other disasters
in which great loss of life was attributed to storm
surge:

--Hurricane Audrey, June, 1957, Louisiana,
380 dead
--New England Hurricane, September, 1938,
600 dead
--Florida hurricane, September, 1935, 400 dead
--Galveston hurricane, September, 1900, 6,000
dead

The lightly populated North Carolina coast has
never experienced or equaled the death and destruc-
tion of these storms. The closest the state has come
to anything like this was on October 15, 1954, when
Hurricane Hazel made landfall on the South Carolina
line in the vicinity of Calabash (Fiaure 1). The
combination of the storm surge and the wind-driven
waves riding on top of it resulted in severe damage
to structures and the coastline itself. For 20 miles
east of where the eye made landfall the storm surge
was nine to 12k feet above normal. Between 20 and 40
miles to the east the storm surge was from five to
nine feet above the normal tidal level. From 40 to
80 miles to the east the surge was from four to seven
feet higher than the usual tide level (Figures 10 and
11). The official report of the Raleigh National
Weather Bureau Office described the storm as follows:

Wind-driven tides devastated the imme-
diate ocean front from the South Carolina
line to Cape Lookout. All traces of civili-
zation on that portion of the immediate water-
front between the state line and Cape Fear
were practically annihilated. Grass-covered
dunes some 10 to 20 feet high along and behind
which beach houses had been built in a continu-
ous line five miles long simply disappeared,
dunes, houses and all. The paved roadway along
which the houses were built was partially washed
away, partially buried beneath several feet of

-~q0

~1~6qw~q, ~8qL~I

~q7~~1

Figure 10. Stor~n surge generated by Hurricane Hazel on October 15, 1954, wrecked
the Carolina Yacht Club on Wrightsville Beach.

Figure 11. Large boats carried ashore near Wrightsville Beach by Hurricane
HazelTs -Storm surge on October 15, 1954.

sand. The greater.part of the material
from which the houses had been built was
washed from one to two hundred yards back
into the edge of the low-lying woods which
cover the leeward side of the islands.
Some of this material is identifiable as
having been parts of houses, but the
greater portion of it is ground to unrec-
ognizable splinters and bits of masonry.
Of the 357 buildings which existed on
Long Beach, 352 were totally destroyed
and the other five damaged. Similar
conditions prevail on Holden Beach,
Ocean Isle, Robinson Beach and Colonial
Beach. In most cases it is impossible
to tell where the buildings stood. Where
grassy dunes stood, there is now only
flat, white, sandy beach.

In addition to the spectacular property damage
and dune destruction, 19 people were known to have
died in North Carolina. Most of the victims lost
their lives at or near the beach, and the storm surge
is believed to have been largely responsible. Another
200 people in various locations suffered injuries
during Hurricane Hazel.

Not only the beaches but also low-lying coastal
areas are affected by storm surge. Those low-lying
mainland areas bordering the sounds are important
for forestry and farming. During the hurricanes
of 1954 and 1955, storm surge was responsible for
moving salt water from -the sounds and bays onto
agricultural and forest lands. Most of the land
less than 10 feet above sea level suffered from the
intrusion of salt water or from flooding caused by
the heavy rains. This combined flooding was respon-
sible for extensive losses of corn, soybean, peanut,
cotton and tobacco crops (Figure 12). About 25 per-
cent of the area of the 22 coastal counties was
estimated to have been covered by fresh and salt water
during the 1954 and 1955 hurricanes.

Flood

After storm surge, the flooding caused by heavy
hurricane rains is the next most important danger to
human life. Even on a low-lying coast such as North
Carolina's the flooding caused by hurricane rains has

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Figure 12. Flooding caused by heavy rainfall
and h-urricane storm surge driven onto the mainland
frequently are major sources of damage to coastal
agriculture. Wind damage also can be destructive
to buildings and crops.

a considerable impact on cities, agriculture and
transportation. It is in hilly or mountainous areas
that such heavy rains are not only destructive of
property, but are also a danger to people. The entire
state of North Carolina is vulnerable and has, at
one time or another, felt the effects of hurricane
rains.

In fact, the interiors of the southeastern,
middle Atlantic and northeastern states are all
vulnerable to heavy hurricane rainfall which is
a great destroyer of property and life. Hurricane
Agnes, which struck in 1972, dramatically emphasizes
the fact that it is not coastal locations alone
which stand to suffer from the effects of hurricanes.

Agnes is the most destructive and costly tropical
cyclone ever to hit the US (Figure 13). Only a small
fraction of the damage was caused by storm surge and
winds. Heavy rains followed the passage of this storm
as it moved from the Florida Panhandle northeastward
across Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and
out to sea. It then turned back and passed over
New Jersey and Pennsylvania before dissipating. After
making its initial landfall on the Florida coast it
lost its hurricane strength winds and did not regain
these velocities during the entire passage of the
storm over land.

All along the path of Hurricane Agnes, flooding
occurred on small tributaries and major streams.
Buildings were swept away or inundated. Crops were
destroyed. Bridges and small dams were threatened.
Towns and cities were paralyzed as a result of the
flood waters. Agnes was responsible for a record
$3.09 billion in damage to property and a loss of
117 lives. More than $2.8 billion in damage and 72
deaths occurred in Pennsylvania and New York alone.
What is memorable about Hurricane Agnes is that more
than $3 billion of the total damage and almost all
of the deaths were caused by the torrential rains
that fell during the storm.

Wind

The-least destructive feature of a hurricane,
but perhaps the most awesome one, is its winds. Air
circulates inward toward the eye in a counterclock-
wise direction in the Northern Hemisphere. The winds

U.S. CLOUD COVER
21 JUNE 1912
TIME OF PHOTO 1800 GMT

40,

AlLi

Figure 13. Hurricane Agnes is the most destructive such storm of record. This
satellite view shows it as the winds had diminished to the strength of a tropical
storm. Inland flooding caused by heavy rainfall was responsible for more than
$3 billion damage and a heavy loss of life.

are drawn in toward this center of low atmospheric
pressure from surrounding areas of relatively higher
pressure. The movement of air around a storm center
has been described in Hurricane, the Greatest Storm
on Earth as follows:

At lower levels, where the hurricane
is most intense, winds on the rim of the
storm follow a wide pattern, like the
slower currents around the edge of a whirl-
pool; and, like those currents, these winds
accelerate as they approach the center of
the vortex. The outer band has light winds
at the rim of the storm, perhaps no more
than 30 miles per hour; within 30 miles of
the center, winds may have velocities
exceeding 150 miles per hour. The inner
band is the region of maximum wind velocity,
where the storm.'s worst winds are fedt, and
where ascending air is chimneyed upward,
releasing heat to drive the storm. In most
hurricanes, these winds reach 100 miles per
hour--and more than 200 miles per hour in
the most memorable ones.

Wind damage is likely to be greatest close to
where the eye of the hurricane has passed. Moving
away from the eye at right angles to the path, the
wind velocities tend to diminish and damage decreases
proportionately. Since hurricanes have a forward
motion the storms do not usually linger in any given
place for an extended period of time. While the winds
are blowing, however, they may exert great force on
structures in their path. Dunn and Miller report the
following wind and pressure relationships in their
book Atlantic Hurricanes:

WIND SPEED (mph) PRESSURE per SQUARE FOOT (pounds)
60 15
80 26
100 45
125 78
150 112

With forces such as these being exerted it is not difficult
to understand trees being blown over or windows and walls
caved in.

In addition to the direct force of the wind on a
structure, there is a negative force or suction set up
on its lee side. In the case of tall buildings the negative
23

force may exceed the positive force. Thus, the walls
of a building may be pulled outward causing the collapse
of the structure. Roofs frequently are damaged because
strong winds blowing over them may have the same aerody-
namic effect as air blowing over an airplane wing sur-
face and causing lift. improperly fastened roofs may
be lifted off entirely or in part during periods of
very high winds. Finally, there is a danger to life
and property caused by the debris picked up and carried
by the wind, The most common objects of various sizes
become deadly missiles under these circumstances.

Hurricane winds have caused a variety of damage
during storms on the North Carolina coast and adjoining
lands. Structural damage has not only occurred to beach
dwellings but also to farm buildings farther inland.
In both cases it must be assumed that the losses from
wind would have been reduced if the structures had been
constructed properly to withstand such forces. Crop
damage is caused largely by flooding but winds have had
a devastating effect on the corn crop in particular.
If a hurricane comes during the latter stages of the
growing season, the crop can be blown down (Figure 14).
Once on the ground and subjected to soaking rains the
corn may become mildewed and useless. Finally, the
forests of eastern North Carolina are subject to losses
because water-soaked soils resulting from hurricane
rains fail to hold tree roots as firmly as drier soils
and large numbers of trees may be blown down (Figure 15).

Figure 14. Mature corn in Beaufort County blown
down E-Y-H'urricane Donna on September 11, 1960.
24

.4.

Figure 15. Blown over trees are often the result
of strong hurricane winds in North Carolina's woodlands.
This damage was caused by Hurricane Donna in Beaufort
County.

In addition to the regular wind pattern around
the eye, tornadoes may sometimes accompany a hurri-
cane. This is not a well understood phenomenon nor
does it occur in all hurricanes. Studies have indi-
cated that tornadoes usually occur in the forward
semicircle of the storm or along,the advancing edge.
There is no particular time of day favorable to their
formation and instances of hurricane related tornadoes
have been recorded during all hours of the day and
night. While these tornadoes behave much as the more
common variety, they are different in that their paths
are shorter and more narrow. They are, nevertheless,
capable of causing considerable damage. In Hurricane
Agnes, for example, some 15 confirmed tornadoes were
spawned in Florida resulting in a total property loss
of $4.5 million.
- tv
X

Hurricanes are normal on the North Carolina coast.
All parts of the coast are subject to hurricanes even
though there may be many years between their occurrences.
In recent years property damage has increased as popu-
lation and construction have increased along the coast.
Not only have structures been destroyed by hurricanes

but crops in the mainland counties have regularly
. suffered damage too. The fact that the loss of life
has been kept low is a tribute to the warning system
developed by the National Weather Service. For a
listing of hurricanes which have hit North Carolina
since the turn of the century, see Appendix V.

Northeasters:
Storms of Extratropic@@l origin

During the winter and spring months, North
Carolina experiences a progression of extratropical
cyclones--Northeasters--generally moving from west
to east across the state. Most people who watch
television weather broadcasts are acquainted with
the succession of high and low pressure areas and
the cold and warm fronts separating them. These
are common events in North Carolina and are so
ordinary as to hardly excite any special connection
with serious problems of coastal erosion. And yet,
these cyclones, which have formed outside of the
tropics and are usually mild in comparison to hurri-
canes, do exert a force and are important in shaping
the North Carolina coast.

The significance of these northeast storms is
not their intensity but their duration. Unlike a
hurricane which may pass over a coastal location in
a fraction of a day, a Northeaster may blow from the
same direction and over long distances for several
days. At the very least, this can result in visible
beach erosion as the continuous wave energy is
dissipated on the shore. At its worst, a Northeaster
lasting several days and having gale force winds
may create a prolonged storm surge capable of causing
great damage. Figure 16 illustrates some of the kinds
of damage caused by such a northeast storm in 1973
on Hatteras Island just east of Buxton. During this
more intense than usual storm the surge over-topped
the island and spilled into the sound in a number of
places. The amount of wave action was sufficient to
wash out portions of the paved road running the length
of the island. In other locations sand was deposited
on the road. It is also clear that ocean levels were
raised to the extent that structures along the beach
were surrounded by breaking waves and were in Jeopardy.

An extratropical cyclone is a storm of the middle
latitudes. Winds of about 20 miles per hour circulate
in the Northern Hemisphere in a counterclockwise direction
spirally inward toward a large area of low atmospheric
pressure. The entire storm may move across the earth's
surface at 20 to 30 miles per hour and it may be as
large as 1,500 miles in diameter. Precipitation is
usually associated with the passage of such storms.
When a deep low is located close to the coastline on

410f
A@

0,orl 7,

Pik

Figure 16. Two days after the northeast storm
of February 9-10, 1973, the waters of the Atlantic
are still turbulent compared with the relatively
calm waters of Pamlico Sound on the left. The town
of Buxton lies to the left outside of this scene.
Route 12 has been washed out and is not open to
traffic (A). Overwash between the Atlantic and the
Sound is clearly visible in several places (B).
Buildings are standing in the surf (C), and there
is evidence that the surf has penetrated farther
inland (D).
28

land or offshore and is moving northward or north-
eastward, the wind along the middle and North Atlantic
coast blows from the northeast and may reach gale
force.

The passage of such low pressure storms is
usually followed by cells of higher atmospheric
pressure moving generally from west to east. In
the Northern Hemisphere the circulation of air around
a high is in a clockwise direction outward from the
center. occasionally the location of a high is such
that its winds may strike the coast from a northeasterly
direction. Precipitation is not associated with this
condition, but if the winds are strong and persistent
enough the event may be called a "dry Northeaster."

The significance of both types of northeast
wind producing systems is not in the damage caused
by the winds acting directly on structures or
vegetation. The winds are important but mainly
because they generate high waves and move them shore-
ward. It is the action of these waves on the shore
and structures close to it that is the chief cause
of concern. Studies (Bosserman and Dolan) of extra-
tropical cyclones on the Outer Banks between Nags
Head and Cape Hatteras identified 857 storms between
1942 and 1967 with winds strong enough to produce
waves sufficient to cause beach erosion. The minimum
wave height in deep water capable of causing such
erosion was 5.1 feet.

The most active months of the year for Northeasters
were December through April according to the study.
Each of these months had more than 90 erosion-causing
storms for the 25-year period. When averaged out on an
annual basis the number of storms per month was as follows:

January 4.3 July 0.8
February 4.4 August 1.2
March 4.9 September 2.2
April 3.8 October 2.6
May 2.0 November 3.0
June 1.5 December 3.6

Both high and low pressure wind generating systems are
included in the above list with about 75 percent of the
total being identified as extratropical cyclones. over
the 25-year study period winds generating wave heights
of over 5.1 feet in deep water occurred on the average
of every 10 days. A height of at least 11.1 feet occurred
every three months and one of 17.1 feet every three years.

Wave heights of over 23.1 feet occurred once in
25 years.

Probably the worst Northeaster in recent history
to strike North Carolina and the rest of the Atlantic
coast was the so-called "Ash Wednesday Storm" in
March, 1962. One report (Cooperman and Rosendal)
described it as follows:

A slow moving late winter coastal storm
combined with spring tides (maximum range)
wrought tremendous destruction to coastal
installations from southern New England to
Florida on March 6 to 9. This storm, which
consisted of a series of lows, has been
described as one of the most damaging extra-
tropical cyclones to hit the United States
coastline. Although gale force winds, and
at times hurricane force winds, accompanied
the storm, this is not unusual for a North
Atlantic winter extratropical cyclone. It
was the long fetch and the persistence of
these strong northeasterly winds which raised
the spring tides to near record levels. The
tidal flooding which attended this storm was
in many ways more disastrous than that which
accompanies hurricanes. The storm surge in
tropical cyclones generally recedes rapidly
after one or two high tides, but the surge
accompanying this storm occurred in many
locations on four and five successive high
tides. In addition to this, many places
reported run-up of waves 20 to 30 feet high.

After several days of continuously strong northeasterly
winds, the height of waves off the East coast was in excess
of 40 feet. Figure 17 shows the distribution of wave
heiahts over the entire Atlantic Ocean on March 8, 1962.
The movement of the seas generated by the storm winds is
also depicted and it can be seen clearly that the North
Carolina coast was being subjected to waves about 30 feet
high coming from the northeast. The impact of these
forces on our coast was described by Cooperman and Rosendal:

The most destructive effects of the
storm took place on Hatteras Island and
northward. On the entire stretch to the
Virginia line, a large percentage of the
protective sand dunes along the ocean
side of the elongated islands which
constitute the Outer Banks were washed

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SEX CONDITION ANALYSIS FORa1affALAdALZ,
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Figure 17. North Atlantic Ocean Sea Condition Analysis Chart of 00:00 GMT of
March 8, 1962. Isopleths are significant wave heights in feet. Note the 30-foot
wave heights off the Outer Banks.

flat. A 200 foot wide inlet was cut,
by waves and strong currents at the
change of the tides, across Hatteras
Island about two miles north of Buxton.
The highway along the shore was des-
troyed or underminded in many places
or covered with sand up to several
feet deep. Many cars were stranded
with only the rooftops appearing
above the sand. Most of the damage
to private property occurred in the
Kill Devil Hills-Kitty Ha,,,,7k-Nags
Head area north of Oregon Inlet where
many motels and summer homes suffered.

Preliminary damage figures are
estimated at $12 million wLch does
not include the devastation to the
land. itself. Two deaths were reported
in North Carolina.

The Ash Wednesday Storm was the most severe North-
easter of recent memory, but many other such storms
have occurred in the Twentieth Century. Appendix VI
is a listing of some of the most severe of these. it
is interesting to note that the storms may originate or
be located over land or water and that wind gusts often
exceed hurricane force. The effect of the wind on
structures is not nearly as important as the action of
the waves generated by the wind. These storm-generated
waves are listed time after time as having caused
considerable beach erosion. With the continued develop-
ment of beach front property it is likely that public
awareness of Northeaster storms as a source of danger
will grow.

Surviving It . . . Safely

As we have seen, storms on the Atlantic coast
are a potential threat to the people living there.
The lives of Atlantic coast residents from New England
to Florida are in danger at all seasons of the year
when hurricanes and violent Northeasters strike. Even
though such storms may seem to be few and far between
at any given location, they are a regular feature of
life and those living on or near the coast should be
prepared to cope with them. In the final analysis it
is up to the individual to know what to expect, how to
prepare for and how to survive such storms. At the very
least, one member of each coastal family should become
acquainted with the facts in order to serve as leader
during such emergencies.

In the earlier years of this century hurricanes and
severe Northeasters struck with little or no prior
warning being provided to the inhabitants. The science
of meteorology has made great strides, however, and our
understanding of these storms and their movements has
grown. Electronic communications also have become
increasingly sophisticated. Efficient radios and
television receivers are to be found everywhere. News
of threatening storms can be heard on home, automobile,
boat and pocket radios. The National Weather Service
has developed an extensive and integrated communications
network within the organization and with the public. The
development of radar, weather satellites and hurricane
hunter aircraft have vastly improved the ability to detect
and track hurricanes while they are still far at sea.
The outcome of these achievements has been a system which
provides timely warning and accurate information about
storms to people at home, work or play. The surprise
storm appears to be a thing of the past.

The Warnings

The National Hurricane Center in Miami, Florida,
gathers and interprets information about Atlantic
tropical weather distrubances from many different sources.
If a disturbance intensifies to tropical storm strength
and appears to be headed toward land, the Center will begin
to issue advisories. These may be picked up by the news
media and ade v-ailable to the public. Occasional
bulletins may also be issued to further amplify the routine

information provided by the advisories. As the storm
reaches hurricane strength and is headed toward the
United States coastline a hurricane watch may be issued
from the National Hurricane Center or one of several
other offices located in San Juan, New Orleans, Washing-
ton and Boston. Once the area of hurricane landfall
is more positively identified, and the storm is expected
to come ashore in 24 hours or less, a hurricane warning
is issued. Areas of the coast for which such a warning
has been issued may expect dangerous hurricane winds
or storm surge to strike. As the storm comes very
close to shore the nearest National Weather Service
office may issue local statements. These are designed
to provide specific informaFi-onabout the anticipated
affects of the storm for individual counties. Areas
to be evacuated are identified and information is
provided for the protection of life and property.

Radio and television are the important links between
the National Weather Service and the public in storm
situations. The entire warning system is designed to
keep people informed of impending danger so that no one
will be caught unawares. As a hurricane approaches the
coast, the local goverment may advise evacuation. This
information will normally reach the public over radio
or television. In some cases emergency workers may go
from door to door to be sure that people are warned.

Coastal dwellers should have at least one battery-
powered radio in every household in order to keep informed
in the event of a loss of power due to the storm. In
addition to the standard portable radios receiving AM
and FM broadcasts, there are now special weather radio
receivers on the market. These are designed to pick
up continuous weather broadcasts by National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration stations around the country.
There are three such stations currently in operation on
the North Carolina coast: Cape Hatteras, 162.55 MHz;
New Bern, 162.40 MHz; and Wilmington 162.55 MHz. These
stations broadcast weather information seven days a
week and 24 hours a day. Their range is about 40 miles.
Six new stations were scheduled to go into operation in
the Fall of 1978 near Fayetteville, the Research Triangle
area, Rocky Mount-Wilson-Tarboro, Charlotte, the Triad
area and Asheville.

Evacuation

In the event that a call for evacuation is issued
there are certain procedures to be followed until the

emergency is over. The following suggestions have
been published as a part of the county Evacuation Plans
(see Appendix I) prepared by local officials in coopera-
tion with the North Carolina Division of Civil Preparedness.

1. Shut off main gas valve and pull main
power switch before leaving home.

2. Head for the designated shelters or
evacuation points indicated for your
area, as directed on your Evacuation
Plan maps and by broadcasts during the
emergency. Follow routes indicated on
maps. Drive up to shelter entrance,
unload, and park car as police instruct.
/ In some cases buses will be provided./
If on foot, proceed to nearest loading
station and board buses. No fare will
be charged.

3. Take only clothing, food and special
medicine that is necessary; do not try
to bring household equipment. Evacuated
areas will be policed to prevent looting.

4. Follow instructions of shelter personnel,
and volunteer to help with any tasks needed
for efficient shelter operation.

5. Remain at the shelter until informed that
you may leave. People will not be allowed
back into evacuated areas until advised
by official public announcement.

Safety Rules

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) has published the following list of safety rules
indicating how people should respond to broadcast infor-
mation about a hurricane at all stages of the storm. The
emphasis is on action which individuals should take to
protect their lives and property. Most of these same
rules apply equally in situations along our coast when
severe northeast storms strike during the winter and spring
months.

1. Enter each hurricane season prepared. Every June
through November, recheck your supply of boards,
tools, batteries, nonperishable foods, and the

other equipment you will need when a hurricane
strikes your town.

2. When you hear the first tropical cyclone advisory,
listen for future messages; this will prepare you
for a hurricane emergency well in advance of the
issuance of watches and warnings.

3. When your area is covered by a hurricane watch,
continue normal activities, but stay tuned to
radio or television for all National Weather
Service advisories. Remember: a hurricane
watch means possible danger within 24 hours;
if the danger materializes, a hurricane warning
will be issued. Meanwhile, keep alert. Ignore
rumors.

4. When your area receives a hurricane warning:

Keep calm until the emergency has ended.

Plan your time before the storm arrives and
-Ta-
avoid the st-minute hurry which might leave
you marooned, or unprepared.

Leave low-lVinq areas that may be swept by high
tides or storm waves.

Leave mobile homes. They are extremely suscep-
E-ibleto High -winds and storm tides. Damage
can be minimized by securing mobile homes with
heavy cables anchored in concrete footing.

Moor your boat securely before the storm arrives,
or evacuate it to a designated safe area. When
your boat is moored, leave it, and don't return
once the wind and waves are up.

Board up windows or protect them with storm.
shutters or tape. Danger to small windows is
mainly from wind-driven debris. Larger windows
may be broken by wind pressure.

Secure outdoor objects that might be blown away
or uprooted. Garbage cans, garden tools, toys,
signs, porch furniture, and a number of other
harmless items become missiles of destruction
in hurricane winds. Anchor them or store them
inside before the storm strikes.

Store drinking water in clean bathtubs, jugs,
bottles, cooking utensiles; your town's water
supply may be contaminated by flooding or
damaged by hurricane floods.

Check your battery-powered equipment. Your radio
may be your only link with the rld outside the
hurricane, and emergency cooking facilities,
lights and flashlights will be essential if
utilities are interrupted.

Keep your car fueled. Service stations may be
inoperable for several days after the storm strikes,
due to flooding or interrupted electrical power.

stay at home, if it is sturdy and on high ground.
If it is not, move to a designated shelter, and
stay there until the storm is over.

Remain indoors during the hurricane. Travel is
extremely dangerous when winds and tides are
whipping through your area.

Monitor the storm's position through the National
Weather Service advisories.

Beware the e e of the hurricane. If the calm storm
center passes directly overhead, there will be a
lull in the wind lasting from a few minutes to half
an hour or more. Stay in a safe place unless
emergency repairs are absolutely necessary. But
remember, at the other side of the eye, the winds
rise very rapidly to hurricane force, and come from
the opposite direction.

5. When the hurricane has passed:

Avoid loose or dangling wires, and report them
immediately to your power company or the nearest
law enforcement officer.

Seek necessary medical care at Red Cross disaster
stations or hospitals.

Stay out of disaster areas. Unless you are qualified
help, your presence might hamper first-aid and
rescue work.

Drive carefully along debris-filled streets. Roads
may be undermined and may collapse under the weight
of a car. Slides along cuts are also a hazard,

Report broken sewer or water mains to the water
department.

Prevent fires. Lowered water pressure may make
firefighting difficult.

Check refrigerated food for spoilage if power
has been off during the storm.

Remember that hurricanes moving inland can cause
severe flooding. Stay away from river banks and streams.

What's Safe to Eat and Drink?

At the beginning of each hurricane season in May
or June, people living on the coast should prepare a
supply of emergency food. It should be large enough
to feed the members of the household for several days.
A variety of non-perishable canned foods not requiring
refrigeration is best for the purpose. Canned fruit
juices should be included in case the normal flow of
drinking water is interrupted. If the emergency food is
not used during the hurricane season, it can be used as
a part of the regular food supply during the winter.
At the start of the next storm season, a fresh suDplv
of emergency food should be stocked.

The following information about water and food during
an emergency is taken from the Disaster Handbook for
Extension Agents published by the Cooperative Exte-nsion
Service of the Pennsylvania State University.

Sources of Drinking Water

One of the most crucial needs is a supply of safe
water. Everyone needs at least two quarts of water or
other liquids daily (more in hot weather). Pure water
may be needed also for preparing food, brushing teeth,
and keeping clean.

When warned of a severe storm which could cause
flooding, or which could otherwise disrupt water services,
insure an adequate supply of safe water for your family
by filling large clean containers, pots, pans, sinks,
and bathtubs with water. Then shut off the main water
valve to protect the clean water already in your water
system, and close the valves on the water lines leaving
the house.

You may have emergency sources of water, such as
ice cubes, on hand. Soft drinks and fruit juices are
water substitutes. In addition, the water in water pipes
and toilet flush tanks (NOT THE BOWLS) is safe to drink
if the valve on the main water line was closed before
the flood.

To use the water still in the pipes, turn on the
faucet located in the highest point in the house-.-usually
in an upstairs bathroom. This lets air into the system.
Then draw water from the lowest faucet in the house.

The hot water heater or water pressure tank could
supply many gallons of safe water in an emergency.
Before using water from the water heater, switch off
the gas or electricity which heats the water. Leaving
the heating part on while the heater is empty could
cause an explosion or burn out the elements. After
turning off the gas or electricity, open the drain valve
at the bottom of the tank. Do not turn the water heater
on again until the water system is back in normal service.

Purifying Water

Unless you are absolutely certain your home water
supply is not contaminated by flood water, purify all
water before using it for drinking, food preparation,
brushing teeth or dishwashing. If the water contains
sediment or floating material, strain it through a cloth
before treating it. Water can be purified by boiling
or by chemical treatment.

Boiling

Boil water at a rolling boil for 10 minutes to kill
any disease-causing bacteria in the water. Add a pinch
of salt to each quart of boiled water to improve the taste.

Chemical Treatment

If water cannot be boiled, treat it chemically. Two
chemicals usually found in the home will purify water.

Household bleach is a good disinfectant for water.
However, check the label to be sure that hypochlorite
is the only active ingredient in the bleach. Do not
use any bleach which contains soap.

Percent chlorine Add per gallon of water

1% 40 drops
4 to 6% 8drops
7 to 10% 4 drops
Unknown 10 drops

Mix the bleach thoroughly into the water. Let it
stand for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight
chlorine odor. If it doesn't, repeat the dose and let
the water stand for an additional 15 minutes.

Household iodine from the medicine chest or
first aid kit also will purify water. The iodine
should be 2 percent United States Pharmocopeia (U.S.P.)
strength. Add 20 drops per gallon of clear water,
and 40 drops per gallon of cloudy water.

Water purification tablets also will purify water.
Follow manufacturer's directions. Water purification
tablets are available at drugstores.

Preparing Food During a Power Failure

During a power failure, cooking and eating habits
must change to fit the situation. You may have no
heat, no refrigeration, and limited water. In addition,
health risks from contaminated or spoiled food may
increase.

Conserve Fuel

Consider the amount of cooking time needed for
particular foods. If you have limited heat for cook-
ing, choose foods which cook quickly. Prepare casseroles
and one-dish meals or serve no-cook foods.

Alternative cooking methods include:
--Fireplace. many foods can be skewered, grilled
or wrapped in foil and cooked in the fireplace.
--Electric utensils. If gas is cut off, but you
still have electricity, use electric skillets,
hot plates or coffee makers to heat food.
--Candle warmers and other devices such as fondue
pots may be used if no other heat sources are
available. Use safety precautions with these
devices. Never use fuel-burning camp stoves or
charcoal burners inside your home, even in a
fireplace. Fumes from these stoves can be
deadly.

Do not cook frozen foods unless you have ample heat for
cooking. Most frozen foods require considerably more
cooking time and heat than canned goods. Also, if
power is off, it is best to leave the freezer door closed
to keep food from thawing.

Conserve Water

Save liquids from canned vegetables. Substitute
these for water in cooked dishes. Drain and save juices

from canned fruits. Substitute these for water in
salads and beverages.

Observe Health Precautions

Boil all water used in food preparation for at
least 10 minutes.

If you are without refrigeration, open only enough
food for one meal. Some foods can be kept a short
time without refrigeration. Cooked vegetables, meat
and meat dishes can be kept unrefrigerated from noon
until the evening meal. Do not keep these dishes over-
night without refrigeration.

Do not serve foods that spoil easily, such as
ground meats, creamed foods, hash, custards, meat pies
and any food containing mayonnaise. These are potential
sources of botulism poisoning.

If necessary, substitute canned and powdered milk
for fresh milk. Canned milk will keep safely for a
few hours after you open the can. If you are using
canned milk to feed a baby, however, open a fresh can
for each bottle. Use only boiled or disinfected water
to mix powdered milk. Use powdered milk immediately
after it is mixed.

If safe water or water disinfecting material is
not avialdble, use canned or bottled fruit juices
instead of water.

Prepare and eat foods in their original containers,
if possible. This will help if dishwashing facilities
are limited.

Contaminated Foods

Contaminated food may be a problem following any
storm involving flooding.

Flood waters may carry silt, raw sewage, oil,
or chemical wastes. Filth and disease bacteria in
flood water will contaminate food, making it unsafe
to eat.

Inspect any food left in the house after a flood.
Flood water may have covered it, dripped on it, or
seeped into it. Even though some foods (see below)

are protected by their containers, if you are in doubt
about the safety of a food, throw it out rather than
risk disease.

Use the following guidelines when deciding which
foods to discard and which to save.

Food to Discard

Do not attempt to save the following foods:
--Opened containers and packages which have come
in contact with flood waters;
--Unopened jars and bottles with paper seals such
as those containing mayonnaise or salad dressing;
--Containers of spices, seasonings, and flavorings;
--Flour, sugar and coffee in canisters;
--Paper, cloth, fiber or cardboard boxes, even
if the contents seem dry. This includes salt,
cereals, pasta products, rice and "sealed"
packages of crackers or cookies within a larger
paper box;
--Dented, bulging or leaking tin cans. Cans which
have been tossed about and are found far from
their noraml storage spot. Seams on these cans
may have been weakened or their seals broken,
causing contamination or spoilage;
--Jam or jelly sealed with paraffin;
--Containers with non-sealed, fitted lids, such as
cocoa or baking powder;
--Commercially bottled carbonated beverages, if the
cap is crusted with silt;
--Foil or cellophane packages;
--All fresh vegetables and fruits which do not have
a peel, shell or coating which can be removed before
use; leafy vegetables;
--Fresh meat, fish and poultry which have been in
contact with flood waters;
--Home canned foods, even if the jar seems tightly
sealed. (However, in some cases, tightly sealed
home canned foods may be safe, depending on the
flood conditions. If your supply of canned food
is extensive, contact a food preservation specialist,
who can advise you after learning specific facts
about flood conditions.)

Food to Keep

The following foods are safe if you wash and sanitize
containers before use; or wash, sanitize and peel fruits
or vegetables:
43

--Undamaged tin cans. For added safety boil
food before using. Be sure to wash and sanitize
container (see below) before opening the can.
--Potatoes. Wash, sanitize, dry, peel, and cook
before using.
--Citrus fruits. Wash well, sanitize, and peel
before using.
--Apples and other fruits which can be sanitized,
peeled and cooked before eating. Do not eat
raw fruit, even if it has been sanitized.

To Disinfect Cans and Commercial Glass Jars

All cans and commercial glass jars must be washed
and sanitized before they are opened.

Remove labels and wash in a strong detergent solution
with a scrub brush. Remove all silt.

Immerse scrubbed containers for 15 minutes in a
chlorine solution. Household bleaches contain from 2
percent to 6 percent chlorine. The amount of bleach to
add to water would depend on the percent chlorine it
contains:

Volume of bleach Volume of bleach
% chlorine to add to to add to
in bleach 1 quart water 1 gallon water

2% 3/4 tablespoon 2 tablespoons
4% 1 teaspoon 1 tablespoon
6% 1/2 teaspoon 3/4 tablespoon

Remove containers from solution, and air-dry before
opening. Re-label if possible. Use as soon as possible,
since containers may rust. Store containers where they
will not be re-contaminated.

To Disinfect Fruits and Vegetables

Wash in a strong detergent solution with a scrub
brush. Remove all silt. Soak in a chlorine solution
for 15 to 20 minutes. (See table above for strength of
chlorine.) Rinse thoroughly with safe drinking water.
Peel if possible, and cook thorouahly before eating.
Refer any specific questions to health authorities or
your county extension agent.

Keeping a Roof Over Your Head

One important way engineers have learned proper
construction methods of coastal dwellings is through
experience. They have examined buildings which sur-
vived hurricanes and analyzed their components and
types of construction. The buildings which were
destroyed also have been examined and their weaknesses
identified. Such studies have greatly contributed to
knowledge of sound construction capable of withstanding
the forces of wind and water unleashed by hurricanes
and other severe coastal storms.

Engineers of the Forest Service of the US Department
of Agriculture (USDA) conducted a survey of damage to
buildings in the path of Hurricane Camille. On the night
of August 17, 1969, this most violent hurricane ever to
strike the US mainland made landfall on the Mississippi
coast with winds up to 190 miles per hour. Severe wind
damage was experienced on the coast and inland over an
area 40 miles wide by 80 miles long. Hattiesburg,
Mississippi, located 73 miles from the coast experienced
winds of up to 100 miles per hour. The combination of
wind and storm surge caused devastation on the Mississippi
coast while further inland winds and rain were mainly
responsible for the damage to structures.

The examination of damage throughout the area where
the storm was at its most severe resulted in the collection
of many valuable observations dealing with materials
and construction methods. "Wood Structures Survive Hurricane
Camille's Winds," was subsequently published as USDA
Forest Service Research Paper FPL 123 in October, 1969,
just weeks after the hurricane. The summary of the find-
ings of the survey team was as follows:

Well-built conventional wood-frame con-
struction performed exceptionally well in
Hurricane Camille, except when subjected to
severe wave action. Wood-frame houses, in
particular, exhibited remarkable resistance
to the high winds. Apparently conventional
construction whose components are well attached
to each other is adequate to resist the wind
forces in hurricane zones.

However, conventional construction of
any type on solid foundations is not adequate
to resist the severe tide and wave actions
along coastlines during hurricanes. Much

of the damage to the coastal buildings
done by Hurricane Camille would probably
have been avoided if high pier type founda-
tions had been used to reduce the force of
water directly on the buildings. This
type of foundation also would have greatly
reduced property damage from flooding
further inland.

Damage to wood-frame homes from wind
appeared to be less for those homes with
hip roofs than with gable-end roofs.
Most hip roofs that were observed lost
fewer shingles and did not have the roof
sheathing and rake damage common to
houses with gable-type roofs.

Mobile homes were treated badly by
Hurricane Camille, as they were by previous
hurricanes. Mobile homes overturned by
the wind were generally complete losses.
Buildings of lightweight construction, as
mobile homes, should be adequately anchored
in hurricane or high wind zones. We believe
that much of the wind damage to mobile homes
could be,avoided by anchoring them to an
economical wood pier-type foundation.

Any person considering building in coastal areas
should pay special attention to the need for proper
fastening between the component parts and also the use
of pilings to raise the building above ground level.
An excellent source of information to the builder is
Research Paper, FPL 33, of the US Forest Service,
published in August, 1965, and entitled "Houses Can
Resist Hurricanes." It can be ordered from Forest
Service, USDA, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison,
Wisconsin. This publication contains clear illustrations
and descriptions of construction techniques which should
result in storm resistant structures. Figures 18 and 19
are just two of many appearing in the publication and
are included here as an indication of the detail provided.
In recent years a number of other pamphlets from various
sources have been published on the subject of construction
techniques to be used in building storm resistant structures.
The reader will find these listed in the references at
the end of this book. These publications also may provide
helpful in-formation for improving storm resistance in
existing buildings.

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Figure 19. Details of construction showing two
ways to make roofs more secure and wind resistant.

There are many mobile homes in use in the coastal
counties of North Carolina and, under hurricane and
other high wind conditions, they present special
problems. Their construction is lightweight and their
sides are usually flat and this makes them especially
vulnerable to being rolled over or moved around by
high winds. When this happens a mobile home may be
completely destroyed. But there are several ways of
protecting mobile homes against high winds. If there
is sufficient room on the lot, the mobile home may be
positioned so that its end will face the prevailing
winds and present minimum resistance to them. The
local office of the National Weather Service should be
able to provide information about prevailing winds,
and indicate if they are an important factor. A second
type of protection is provided by trees which form a
natural windbreak. The more dense the stand of trees
around the mobile home the greater the protection, even
though there may be sore danger from falling limbs.
Finally, and most importantly, is the proper anchoring
of mobile homes by means of tiedowns.

The use of tiedowns is becoming widespread and some
manufacturers are including built-in tiedown straps
underneath the skins of newer mobile homes. This
'rTER
AF
A @14
R-P

important safety device can be added to mobile homes of
any age. Figure 20 shows some of the details of how
this is done. This plate was taken from a Publication

Over-the-top Tiedown
JEW 33FIBI

Anchor
Frame Tie

Frame Tie - = .
Frame @Tie....,
T Type 3
ype 1 Ty e

These sketches illustrate various methods for connecting frame ties to the mobile home frame. Type2systemcan
resist greater horizontal forces than Type 1. Type 3 system involves placement of mobile home on concrete slab.
Anchors embedded in concrete slab are connected to ties.
L
I.'.. -@ra e.Tie
m
Type 1@

Additions or canopies also
need to be secured with Double wides do not require over-the-top
over-the-top tieclowns. tiedowns but are subject to the same frame
tie requirements presented on page 8.

Figure 20. Tiedown plans for several types of mobile homes.

all mobile home owners should have. The title is Protecting
Mobile Homes From Hiqh Winds, TR-75, published by the
Civil Preparedness Agency, Departipent of Defense,
in February, 1974. Copies may be obtained from local
Civil Preparedness officials or ordered from the Super-
intendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402. It should be ordered by the
Government Printing office stock number 008-030-00013-8.
The cost is 70 cents per copy.

Even though all precautions have been taken to
make a mobile home as wind resistant as possible, the
occupants should seek more solid shelter when warnings
of severe wind storms are issued.

Boating It

Boat owners who are on the coast as a hurricane
is approaching will receive ample warning through the
advisories and bulletins of the National Weather Service.
All boats, no matter what their size, should have some
sort of radio aboard even if it is only a small transistor
set capable of receiving commercial broadcasting stations.
In this way the boat owner can remain aware of general
weather conditions. At the first indication of possible
danger the boater should return to shore. Next, he should
decide what to do with the boat to ensure that it will
survive the storm undamaged.

There are a number of actions the boater can take.
Facilities and time permitting, large boats should be
put in dry storage. If the boat is trailerable it
should be pulled out of the water at a ramp and moved
out of the area at the same time the boater is moving
inland to a safer location.

Should a boat owner find himself without sufficient
time to get his boat out of the water, these suggestions
by Talbot F. Hamlin will help. They appeared in an
article entitled "When You Get Caught-Things That Will
Help in Squall or Hurricane" published in Yachting,
October, 1955.

1. Know a good hole and go there in time.

2. Be sure you have on board adequate anchors,
enough rode (at least one should be 250
feet or longer), and plenty of docking
lines of sufficient length and diameter.

3. Keep your gasoline tanks full and your
engine in good running condition at all
times. You don't know when a sudden
emergency may make it invaluable.

4. If you are at a pier, get on the lee
side, be careful of your docking lines,
and, in the case of hurricanes, judge
if the piles are high enough.

If not, leave the pier and anchor in the
safest place you can find (or, if you have
to, run free).

5. Get your engine running when emergency
threatens. Then leave it out of gear or put
it in gear, as conditions indicate.

6. Keep your mooring slack, but take care not
to override it. If you are using power when
at anchor, be careful not to have so much
slack in the anchor rode as to create a
danger of fouling it in your propeller.

7. Have plenty of chafing gear, and use it.

with these precautions a modern vessel can
face squalls and gales confidently with a good
promise of coming through undamaged, and with
crew tired, perhaps, but alive and well.

If a boat has been removed from the water on its
trailer but will not be hauled away there are some
precautions which might be followed. The boat should
be covered with a canvas so that it will not fill with
rain water. Whether it is covered or not, the plug should
be pulled to ensure that any water will drain from the
interior. Both boat and trailer may be secured with lines
to some substantial object to prevent movement by the wind.

In the case of a small boat which must be left out
of doors during a storm it is best to move it to high
ground and turn it bottom up. It should be secured to
solid objects or, if there are none at hand, metal rods
can be driven into the ground and the boat tied to them.

If the owner of a larger boat finds himself in a
crowded anchorage he may wish to utilize a three anchor
mooring system. This consists of three lightweight anchors
placed equidistant from each other around a center point
and 120 degrees apart. The anchors are bridled to a
common center. A chain and pennant from that center provide
a point to which the boat with a short rode can be tied
up. The boat is free to swing through a small circle
and, no matter what the direction of the wind, there will
always be one or two anchors to windward holding it. This
system has proven to be very effective under severe
weather conditions.

Above all, once a boat has been moored as securely as
possible, the boat owner should leave it and not attempt to
return to it until after the wind and waves have subsided.

On the Farm

The low-lying eastern counties of North Carolina
are predominantly rural. Hurricanes coming ashore
and moving inland-frequently have caused damage to farm
property and crops in this part of the state. The damage
may be caused by high winds or by flooding. In areas
close to the sound shores flooding may be the result
of storm surges in the sounds. Elsewhere, flooding may
be the result of heavy rainfall associated with the storms.

The following information for farmers is taken
from the Disaster Handbook for Extension Agents
published by the Cooperative Extension Service of
Pennsylvania State University.

Protecting Farm Buildings From Severe Winds

High winds can damage farm buildings. The following
procedures are recommended to help protect buildings during
severe windstorms.

--Securely close all doors and windows. Try to
determine whether the buffeting and force of
the wind will break fasteners or hinges. Nail
doors and windows shut, if necessary. If the
building is tight, open windows slightly on
the side away from the wind to help equalize
pressure.
--Nail plywood or boards over large windows and
windows with weak sashes.
--Brace large barn doors and weak walls. use
interior braces on the windward side, and
exterior braces on the side away from the wind.
If you are uncertain about the direction of
the wind, use both interior and exterior braces.
Place braces on the reinforced section of the
door or wall to distribute the bracing effect
over a larger area.
--Check that roof rafters are securely fastened to
wall studding. Use 2 inch by 2 inch metal plumber's
straps or 2 inch by 6 inch knee braces to secure
rafters, if necessary.
--Check metal roofing and siding for loose nails.
If nails don't tighten when hammered back in,
pull them out, use a #12 or #14 metal screw to
fill the hole, and renail 3 to 4 inches away;
eaves should be nailed every 5 inches.
53

--Do not use heavy machinery to anchor small
buildings. Replacing machinery could be more
expensive than replacing a building.

ProtectingLivestock During a Flood

Livestock not in a confined area usually can take
care of themselves during floods. Do not let them
become trapped in low-lying pens.

In broad, level flood plains where flood waters are
seldom deeper than 3 or 4 feet, construct mounds of soil
on which livestock can stay until flood waters recede.
Or carry bales of hay for hogs to climb on. Try to locate
these mounds where they will not be washed away by fast-
flowing water.

--Provide feed and water. Water is essential.
Thirsty animals will try to break out to get
to flood waters. If water is in short supply,
limit feed intake.
--If animals are housed with machinery, fasten
bales of straw in front of sharp edges and
protruding parts such as cutter bars or crank
handles. (Do not use hay, because animals
will eat it.) Try to cover wooden paddle
wheels on combines or choppers, since these
parts can be dangerous if partially broken.
--Block off narrow passageways where animals
would be unable to turn around. A few heavy
animals in a narrow dead end can be dangerous
both to themselves and the building.
--Be absolutely certain that herbicides, pesti-
cides, and treated seeds are not even remotely
accessible to livestock, and are stored where
flood water will not contaiminate livestock feed
or water.
--Turn off electricity at the main switch. Livestock
could damage electric fixtures, causing fires or
electrocutions.
--If there is a possibility that dairy barns may
become inundated, drive cattle out of the barn.
During rapid rise of water, cattle often refuse
to leave the barn and may drown if the water
rises high enough in the barn.

Preparingto Evacuate--What to Do on Your Farm

Insure family safety first. Be certain you have
enough time to get to higher ground before access is
cut off. If you have time before you receive an
evacuation order, the following precautions may help
protect farm buildings, livestock and equipment from
flood damage.

--Move machinery, feed, grain, pesticides and
herbicides to higher elevations.
--Construct mounds of soil for livestock, or
open gates so livestock can escape high water.
Small numbers of hogs can sometimes be saved
by bringing them bales of hay to climb on.
--Animals swim well. The greatest problem for
grazing animals will be fences and other
obstacles. Try to drive stock through water
free of obstructions. Long swims through
calm water are safer than short swims through
a swift current.
--Leave building doors and windows open at least
2 inches to equalize water pressure and help
prevent buildings from shifting.
--If possible, move motors and portable electric
equipment to a dry location.
--Disconnect electric power to all buildings
which may be flooded. If in doubt about how
to disconnect power, call your utility company.

Dairymen who anticipate extensive flooding should:
--Check with a veterinarian to be sure cattle are
properly immunized before being exposed to flood
waters;
--Check with the Department of Health concerning
approval of temporary milking facilities;
--Try to obtain standby equipment or services for
emergency milk pickup;
--When possible, move grain out of reach of flood
water.

Tie down lumber, logs, irrigation pipes,fuel tanks and
other loose equipment or material.

Prepare immovable power units and machinery for flooding:
--Seal radiator openings (tighten caps and plug
overflow);
--Remove air cleaners and carburetors; seal openings.
Use material strong enough to withstand water
pressure;
55

--Fill oil reservoirs. Plug breather pipes and
openings;
--Fill bearings with fresh lubricant;
--Protect open gears, sprockets, pulleys and
wearing and cutting edges of machinery with
lubricant or rust inhibitor;
--Drape polyethelene sheeting over bell ends
of motor. Tie securely with cord on cylindrical
part of motor housing, or fasten with a strong
rubber band.

Safety of Flooded Garden Produce

If flood waters have covered a garden, some produce
will be unsafe to eat. The safety of unharvested fruits
and vegetables will depend on:

--kind of produce;
--maturity of produce at the time of flooding;
--time of year flooding occurred;
--severity of flooding (depth of water and silt);
--duration of flooding;
--bacterial content of floodwater;
--likelihood of contamination from sewage or
other bacterial contaminants.

Immature Produce

In general, fruits and vegetables which were immature
at the time of flooding should be safe to eat by the
time they are ready for harvest. For additional safety,
disinfect produce (see below) and cook it before eating.

Mature Produce

Unless flooding was light and there is no danger
of bacterial contamination from floodwater, avoid using
fruits and vegetables that were ready for harvest at the
time of flooding, unless they can be disinfected, peeled
and thoroughly cooked. Some fruits and vegetables are
more susceptible than others to bacterial contamination.

--Leafy vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage,
mustard, kale, collards, spinach, swiss chard,
celery and fleshy vegetables and berry fruits
such as tomatoes, summer squash, strawberries
and peppers would be highly susceptible to
bacterial contamination. Silt and other

contaminants might be imbedded in the leaves,
petioles, stems or other natural openings of
fleshy structures, and could be difficult to
remove.
--Root, bulb and tuber crops such as beets,
carrots, radishes, turnips, onions and potatoes
would be less susceptible to bacterial contami-
nation. Disinfect these vegetables, peel and
cook them thoroughly before eating.
--Produce with a protected fruit or impervious
outer skin such as peas, melons, eggplant,
sweet corn or winter squash should be washed
and disinfected before the outer shell, skin
or husk is removed. Then shell, peel or husk
the produce, and cook it if possible.

Disinfecting Measures

Thoroughly wash and disinfect any produce before
eating.

--Wash in a strong detergent solution with a scrub
brush. Remove all silt.
--Immerse produce for 15 to 20 minutes in a chlorine
solution. Household bleaches contain from 2 percent
to 6 percent chlorine. The amount of bleach to
add to water depends on the percentage chlorine
it contains:

Volume of bleach Volume of bleach
% chlorine to add to to add to
in bleach one quart water one gallon water

2% 3/4 tablespoon 2 tablespoons
4% 1 teaspoon 1 tablespoon
6% 1/2 teaspoon 3/4 tablespoon

--Rinse thoroughly with safe drinking water.
--Peel, if possible, and cook thoroughly before eating.
Refer any specific questions to health authorities
or your county extension agent.

Disposing of Sewage and Garbage

Damaged sewage systems are health hazards. It is
important to get damaged septic tanks, cesspools, pits
and leaching systems into service as soon as possible.

If the area has been flooded, you should wait until
the water level recedes before using sewage system.

Trained personnel in local and state health
departments will help with these problems. They will
be able to advise you about cleaning, repairing and
relocating installations, if necessary. Problems
with water purity, waste disposal, or pest control
should also be referred to them.

Septic Tanks

Most septic tanks will not be damaged by a flood,
since they are below ground and completely covered.
However, if the tank has been damaged and is filled
with silt and debris, it must be cleaned. Use a
shovel or sewage pump to clean the tank.

Do not use the sewage system until water in the
disposal field is lower than water level around the
house.

If tile lines in the disposal field are filled
with silt from floodwater, install a new set of lateral
tile or perforated pipe in new trenches. Dig the new
trenches alongside the old tile lines. Install the
tile or pipe according to septic tank system installa-
tion specifications. The recommended normal grade is
from 2 to 4 inches per 100 feet. Do not use the sewage
system until new tiles are laid.

It may be necessary to wait a few days before
returning a septic tank system to normal use. It will
take some time for water to evaporate from saturated
soil, so that the tile field will be able to function
again. Septic tank starter materials such as yeast
enzymes or horse manure will not be needed.

Temporary Sanitation

Until sewage disposal systems are back in normal
working order, use any large container with a tight-
fitting lid for a temporary toilet. Line the container
with a plastic bag. After each use, add chlorine bleach
or disinfectant to stop odor and kill germs.

A chemical camper's toilet will be quite useful in
disaster situations.

Garbage

Try to remove garbage as soon as possible to prevent
rat infestations and other health problems. Some garbage
can be burned. Bury garbage that will not burn. Dig a
hole 4 or 5 feet deep, and cover garbage with at least
18 inches of soil.
58

Disposing of Animal Carcasses

Prompt and sanitary disposal of animal carcasses
is necessary to protect the living animals in an area
from disease. Search all pastures for dead animals
as soon as possible. Carcasses may have some commercial
value, so send them to a rendering plant if possible.
If rendering is impractical, dispose of the dead animals
on the premises. Use the following procedures:

--Immediately after finding a carcass, cover
it with crude oil or kerosene to keep away
dogs, buzzards and vermin.
--Fat swine are the only animal carcass that
will burn satisfactorily. Used railroad
ties can be used as starters.
--Bury other carcasses. Use power equipment
if it is available. Choose a site where
subsurface drainage will not reach water
supplies. Bury the carcasses at least
3 to 4 feet deep, so predatory animals
won't be able to reach them. If quicklime
is available, cover carcasses with it before
back filling. Quicklime will hasten
decomposition.

Appendix I

CIVIL PREPAREDNESS INFORMATION

In North Carolina the headquarters for the state-
wide Division of Civil Preparedness is located in the
Administration Building, 116 West Jones Street, Raleigh,
North Carolina 27611. The telephone number there is
919/733-3867. Questions about disasters, preparedness
and related subjects for all parts of the state can be
directed to this office.

This publication is concerned with the coastal
zone of North Carolina and the following list gives
the addresses and telephone numbers of local Civil
Preparedness Agencies in the 20 coastal counties.
Citizens should be able to obtain advice and specific
information such as local evacuation plans from the
county offices.

County or City Agency Telephone

Beaufort County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/946-2046
P.O. Box 124
Washington, NC 27889

Bertie County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/794-3876
P.O. Box 75
314 Belmont Street
Windsor, NC 27983

Brunswick County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/253-4376
Brunswick County Governmental Center
Bolivia, NC 28422

Camden County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/335-4077
Courthouse
Camden, NC 27921

Carteret County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/728-2091
P.O. Box 536, Courthouse Square
Morehead City, NC 28557

*Pine Knoll Shores Civil Preparedness Agency 919/726-8021
Town Hall, P.O. Box 757
Atlantic Beach, NC 28512

*Pine Knoll Shores is located in Carteret County.
61

County or City Agency Telephone

Chowan County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/482-3111
County Office Building
Edenton, NC 27932

Craven County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/638-6135
Drawer R
401 George Street
New Bern, NC 28560

Currituck County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/232-2836
Currituck, NC 27929

Dare County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/473-3481
P.O. Box 156, Courthouse
Manteo, NC 27954

Gates County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/357-1240
Courthouse
Gatesville, NC 27938

Hertford County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/358-1611
P.O. Box 424, Courthouse
Winton, NC 27986

Hyde County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/926-3451
P.O. Box 87
Swanquarter, NC 27885

New Hanover County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/763-7555
Box C-D, 115 Red Cross Street
Wilmington, NC 28401

Onslow (Jacksonville) County Civil 919/347-4270
Preparedness Agency
604 College Street
Agriculture Building
Jacksonville, NC 28540

Pamlico County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/745-3081
County Courthouse
Bayboro, NC 28515

Pasquotank (Elizabeth City) County Civil 919/335-4444
Preparedness Agency
1404 Parkview Drive
Elizabeth City, NC 27909

Pender County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/259-2629
P.O. Box 28, Courthouse
Burgaw, NC 28425
62

County or City Agency Telephone

Perquimans County Civil Preparedness 919/426-5564
Agency
P.O. Box 2
Hertford, NC 27944

Tyrrell County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/796-5611
P.O. Box 426
Columbia, NC 27925

Washington County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/793-2771
P.O. Box 176
Roper, NC 27970

Appendix II

DISASTER FACT SHEETS

The North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service
has prepared a series of fact sheets to inform farmers
and rural people about how to cope with natural disasters.
They are available to the public at county Agricultural
Extension Service offices or from the North Carolina
Agricultural Extension Service, North Carolina State
University, Raleigh, NC 27607. The titles of the Disaster
Fact Sheets are:

Natural Disaster Assistance Available From The
U.S. Department of Agriculture
Disinfection of Private Well Water Supplies After
A Natural Disaster
How To Settle An Insurance Claim
Hurricane And Flood Tips For Tobacco Farmers
Repairing Your House And Farm Buildings After The
Flood
How To Clean Your Freezer
Emergency Crop Flood Information
Reconditioning The Water System
Minimize Poultry Losses
After-The-Flood Tips for Homemakers
Care Of Storm-Damaged Trees And Shrubs
Care Of Household Utilities And Appliances
Income Tax Tips For Farm Operators
Tractor And Implement Cleaning
Guidelines For Restoring Fields Flooded By Salt
Water

Appendix III

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH HURRICANES

Advisory. A formal message from a Weather Service
Nu-rricane Warning Office giving warning information
along with details on tropical cyclone location,
intensity and movement and precautions that should
be taken. The advisory may contain information on
specific coastal warnings for which displays are made.

Bulletin. A public release from a Weather Service
ff_ui@_r_icane Warning Office, issued at times other than
those when advisories are required. The bulletin
is similar in form to the advisory except that the
bulletin includes additional general newsworthy
infornation. The bulletin routinely will include
a resume of all warnings in effect.

Cyclone. Any atmospheric system in which atmospheric
pressure diminishes progressively to a minimum value
at the center and toward which the winds blow spirally
inward from all sides, resulting in a lifting of air
and eventually in clouds and precipitation. Cyclones
are the lows of weather maps. Circulation in a cyclone
is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, clock-
wise in the Southern Hemisphere. The name does not
suggest any degree of intensity and is applied to
moderate as well as intense storms. Cyclones are
divided into tropical and extratropical groups, depending
upon characteristics of the surrounding air masses.
The hurricane is a tropical cyclone, and is the most
ideal vortex in the atmosphere.

Eye. (See Hurricane Center)

Gale Warning. A warning of sustained winds within the
range 39 to 54 miles per hour (34 to 47 knots).

Storm Warning. (Associated with Tropical Cyclones.) A
;W-arnin4@-6'r -sustained winds within the range of 55 to 73
miles per hour (48 to 63 knots) inclusive.

Hurricane. A warm core tropical cyclone in which
maximum sustained surface wind is 74 miles per hour
(64 knots) or greater.

Hurricane Center or Eye. The relatively calm area near
the center of the storm. In this area winds are light
and the sky often is only partly covered by clouds,
65

Hurricane "Season". The portion of the year having a
relatively high incidence of hurricanes. In the Atlantic,
Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico it is usually regarded as
the period from June through November.

Hurricane Warning. A warning that one or both of the
following dangerous effects of a hurricane are expected
in a specified coastal area in 24 hours or less: (a)
sustained winds 74 miles per hour (64 knots) or higher;
(b) dangerously high water or a combination of dangerously
high water and exceptionally high waves, even though winds
expected may be less than hurricane force.

Hurricane Watch. An.announcement for specific areas that
a hurricane or an incipient hurricane condition poses
a threat to coastal and inland communities. All people
in the indicated areas should take stock of their prepared-
ness requirements, keep abreast of the latest advisories
and bulletins and be ready for quick action in case a
warning is issued for their areas.

Local Statement. A public release prepared by a Weather
Service Office in or near a threatened area giving specific
details for its area of county responsibility on: (a)
weather conditions; (b) sections that should be evacuated;
(c) and other precautions necessary to protect life and
property.

Squall. A sudden increase of wind speed by at least 18
miles per hour (16 knots) and rising to 25 miles per hour
(22 knots) or more and lasting for at least one minute.

Tropical Cyclone. A non-frontal cyclone of synoptic
scale, developing over tropical or sub-tropical waters
and having a definite organized circulation.

Tropical Disturbance. A discrete system of apparently
organized convection, generally 100 to 300 miles in
diameter originating in the tropics or subtropics, having
a non-frontal migratory character and having maintained
its identity for 24 hours or more. It may or may not be
associated with a detectable perturbation in the wind
field. As such, it is the basic generic designation which,
in successive stages of intensification, may be subse-
quently classified as a tropical wave, depression, storm
or hurricane.

Tropical Wave. A trough or cyclonic curvature maximum in
the traa_e7-wind easterlies. The wave may reach maximum
amplitude in the lower middle troposphere, or may be the
reflection of an upper troposphere cold low or equator-
ward extension of a middle latitude trough.
66

Tropical Depression. A tropical cyclone in which
the maximum sustained surface wind is 38 miles per
hour (33 knots) or less.

Tropical Storm. A warm core tropical cyclone in which
the maxiiiu-msustained surface wind is in the range
of 39 to 73 miles per hour (34-63 knots) inclusive.

Storm Tide. An abnormal rise of the sea along a shore
primarily as the result of the winds of a storm. The
storm tide may occur in basins not normally affected
by the tide. It may also flood lowlands in coastal
sections that are normally dry.

Sustained Wind. The wind obtained by averaging the
observed value over a one-minute period.

APPENDIX IV

WIND EFFECTS OVER WATER
Probable
Wind force wave height
Knots Descriptive Sea Conditions (Beaufort) in ft.

0-1 Calm Sea smooth and mirror-like. 0 -

1-3 Light air Scale-like ripples without foam crests. 1 1/4

4-6 Light Small, short wavelets; crests have a 2 1/2
breeze glassy appearance and do not break..

7-10 Gentle Large wavelets; some crests begin to 3 2
breeze break; foam of glassy appearance.
Occasional white foam crests.
co 11-16 Moderate Small waves, becoming longer; fairly 4 4
frequent white foam crests.

17-21 Fresh Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced 5 6
long form; many white foam crests;
there may be some spray.

22-27 Strong Large waves begin to form; white foam 6 10
crests are more extensive everywhere;
there may be some spray.

28-33 Near gale Sea heaps up and white foam from break- 7 14
ing waves begins to be blown in streaks
along the direction of the wind; spin-
drift begins.

34-40 Gale Moderately high waves of greater length; 8 18
edges of' crests break into spindrift;
foam is blown in well-marked streaks
along the direction of the wind.

41-47 Strong High waves; dense streaks of foam along 9 23
gale the direction of the wind; crests of
waves begin to topple, tumble, and
roll over; spray may reduce visibility.

48-55 Storm Very high waves with long overhanging 10 29
crests. The resulting foam in great
patches is blown in dense white streaks
along the direction of the wind. On
the whole, the surface of the sea is
white in appearance. The tumbling of
the sea becomes heavy and shocklike.
Visibility is reduced.

56-63 Violent Exceptionally high waves that may obscure 11 37
storm small-and medium-sized ships. The sea
is completely covered with long white
patches of foam lying along the direc-
tion of the wind. Everywhere the edges
of the wave crests are blown into froth.
Visibility reduced.

64 and Hurricane The air is filled with foam and spray. 12 45
above Sea completely white with driving spray;
visibility very much reduced.

Appendix V

COASTAL HURRICANES OF THE 20TH CENTURY

The following list represents those tropical storms
which were of full hurricane strength at the time they
reached coastal North Carolina. The decayed stages of
hurricanes reaching this area are not listed. Storms
passing close enough off shore to affect land areas
are included even though they did not make landfall.

1901 July 11: Made landfall near Oregon Inlet. No
record of damage.

1903 September 15: Passed off shore but affected the
northern Outer Banks.

1904 Se tember 14: I-lade landfall between Charleston,
South Carol na, and the North Carolina state line.
Damage to crops in eastern and central North Carolina
from wind and rain.

1904 November 13: Passed off shore near Cape Hatteras.
Three wrecked schooners. Several persons drowned on land
and at sea.

1906 September 17: blade landfall near Myrtle Beach,
SoutH Carolina. Property damage at Wrightsville Beach.

1908 July 30: Passed up the coast close to Cape Hatteras.
Heavy Fain-fall caused flooding in the eastern counties.
Considerable property damage at Wrightsville Beach.

1913 September 3: Made landfall between Hatteras and
Beaufort. Storm surge in Pamlico Sound washed away
railroad bridges at Washington and New Bern. Wind and
rain caused severe damage to crops as far west as Durham.

1920 September 22: Made landfall between Wilmington
and Morehead City. One person killed and many injured
in Pitt County.

1924 August 25: Passed off shore just east of Hatteras.
Two people drowned and Ocracoke partially flooded.

1930 September 12: Passed off shore causing minor wind
'Ea-mage from Atlantic Beach to Hatteras.

1933 August 22-23 Made landfall at Cape Hatteras. High
tides and winds caused great damage in northeastern
counties estimated at $250,000.
70

1933 September 15-16: Made landfall west of Hatteras.
Storm surge in Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds caused 21
deaths and $3 million in damage. New Bern flooded.

1936 September 18: Passed up the coast slightly east
of Hatteras. Estimated damage of $55,000 to the northern
coast. Heavy damage to crops.

1938 September 21: Passed off shore on its way north
where it Ti@d--&-6'H-siderable damage and was called "The
Great New England Hurricane of 1938." No damage or
loss of life reported in North Carolina.

1944 August 1: Made landfall near Southport. Heavy
damage to structures at Carolina Beach. Considerable
crop damage in the southern coastal counties. Estimated
total damage was $2 million.

1944 September 14: Passed a short distance east of
Cape Hatteras moving northward. On the central and
northern coastal areas 108 buildings were destroyed
and more than 600 damaged. Estimated damage to crops
at $1 million. Heavy damage in Elizabeth City and
Nags Head. One person killed.

1949 August 24: Passed off shore at Cape Hatteras
directly over the Diamond Shoals Lightship. An estimated
$50,000 in property damage occurred, mostly in the
vicinity of Buxton. Two persons died.

1953 August 13: Hurricane Barbara made landfall between
Morehead City and Ocracoke. Estimated property damage
was $100,000 while the crop loss was $1 million. one
person died.

1954 August 30: Hurricane Carol passed just to the east
of Cape Hatteras. Widespread light damage came to an
estimated $250,000.

1954 September 10: Hurricane Edna passed about 60 miles
east of Cape Hatteras. Minor but widespread damage
was estimated at $75,000 for property and $40,000 for
crops.

1954 October 15: Hurricane Hazel made landfall right
on the South Carolina line. From that point northward
to Cape Lookout, the ocean front was ravaged by storm
surge. At Long Beach 352 of the existing 357 buildings
were totally destroyed. Nearby beaches suffered similar
damage. Miles of grass covered dunes disappeared. Flooding
occurred in Washington, New Bern and Elizabeth City. Heavy
wind damage experienced all over eastern North Carolina
71

and record amounts of rainfall were recorded. Nineteen
people, most of whom were in beach locations died. Total
property damage amounted to approximately $125 million.

1955 ugust 12: Hurricane Connie made landfall close
to Cape Lookout. Caused severe flooding in low-lying
coastal areas and around the sounds. Heavy beach
erosion also occurred. No deaths were reported. Hurricane
Diane followed in five days and made it impossible to
assess the damage caused by this storm.

1955 August 17: Hurricane Diane made landfall near
Carolina Beach and passed over Wilmington. Winds caused
crop damage as far west as Raleigh. Heavy flooding
occurred in Belhaven, Washington and New Bern. Crop
damage in the eastern counties caused by this storm
and Connie came to more than $28 million much of it
due to salt water flooding and rivers overflowing their
banks. No deaths were reported.

1955 September 19: Hurricane Ione made landfall near
Salter Path on Bogue Banks. In spite of high winds,
damage from this source was minor. Heavy rains falling
on already waterlogged sails were responsible for the
most damage. Storm surge was responsible for the
flooding of thousands of acres, and in New Bern 40
city blocks were inundated. Hundreds of homes were
washed away. Seven people died. Estimated damage
to crops and property was about $88 million.

1958 Septenber 27: Hurricane Helene passed off the coast
from WilmiiF4-tonto Cape Hatteras. Very high winds were
responsible for damage to crops and structures estimated
at $11 million.

1960 September 11: Hurricane Donna made landfall between
Wilmington and Morehead City and moved up the coast.
Heavy damage was experienced by coastal communities frorr
Wilmington to Nags Head. Beach erosion was considerable,
and the corn crop in the coastal counties suffered severe
wind damage. Eight people died, and damage was estimated
at several millions of dollars.

1964 September 1: Hurricane Cleo passed from western
North Carolina out to sea in the vicinity of Elizabeth
City. Heavy rains caused flooding and damage to crops
in the northeast.

1964 October 16: Hurricane Isbell made landfall near
Voreheiid -City and moved northward over the eastern counties.
Caused some flash flooding and damage to the peanut crop.
72

1968 October 20: Hurricane Gladys moved up the coast
and out to sea in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras. Damage
was light and the state benefited from two days of
moderate rainfall.

1971 September 30: Hurricane Ginger made landfall near
Morehead City and began to dissipate as it moved inland.
Tides were six feet or more above normalat Washington,
Aurora, New Bern and Cherry Point. Thousands of acres
of corn and soybeans in the eastern counties were affected.
Damage was estimated at $10 million.

L976 Augu@t 9: Hurricane Belle passed east of Cape
Hatteras on fts way north. Beaches were evacuated but
only scattered minor damage occurred.

Appendix VI

S014E SEVERE 20TH CENTURY EXTRATROPICAL STORMS

The following list of noteworthy storms has been
compiled because tropical storms are not the only
significant weather disturbances experienced on the
North Carolina coast. These non-tropical storms generally
occur during the winter and spring months of the year.
Since they are numerous and vary in strength and
destructiveness, only major storms are included in this
list. The compilation is based on a study of published
records of the National Weather Service and its prede-
cessor organizations from 1900 to the present. Information
was obtained from various issues of the Monthly Bulletin,
the Monthly Weather Review, Climatological Data of the
U.S. by Sections, Climatological Data and Storm Data.

1902 December 4-5: An inland storm caused dangerous
gales on the coast. Considerable waterfront damage
occurred at Southport, Wilmington, Beaufort and
Morehead City. Communications were interrupted because
of damage to telephone and telegraph lines. Some
wharves were blown or washed away, and several small
vessels were wrecked.

1903 February 16: An inland storm caused gale winds
throughout the state. Wilmington, New Bern and Washington
experienced damage. Land between Pamlico Sound and the
Atlantic Ocean was flooded. Seventeen persons died in
the sinking of the passenger steamer "Olive" in the
Chowan River.

1903 October 8-10: A severe storm formed off the North
Carolina coas:E_.Winds of 63 miles per hour were recorded
at Hatteras.

1910 Februar 24-25: A northeast storm off the coast
generated winds of 60 miles per hour at Hatteras.

1917 September 14-15: Heavy damage to property and crops
was caused by a storm moving inland over the southern coast
of North Carolina and then out to sea north of Hatteras.
Roads and small bridges were washed out by a rainfall
of four to eight inches.

1924 March 11: A storm moving northward along and near
the coast generated winds of 66 miles per hour at Hatteras.
These off shore winds caused unusually low water levels
at New Bern and other places on western Pamlico Sound.
74

1932 March 6: An inland storm brought gale winds to
the Atlantic and sound shores. Fishing nets, small
boats, wharves, bridges, roads, buildings and telephone
poles were damaged or destroyed. Dare County received
more than half of the damage, and on the Outer Banks
three new inlets were formed.

1932 November 28: More than $50,000 in damage was
caused on the south coast because of strong winds
and high tide.

1933 January 25-29: Gale winds were reported at Hatteras.
Coastal damage to roads and small craft reported.

1947 November 2-3: A northeast storm caused coastal
damage as a result of the combination of strong winds
and high tides. Morehead City and other coastal cities
experienced flooding and several boats were grounded
and destroyed.

1948 February 1: A northeast storm brought heavy snow
to the eastern part of the state. Some coastal cities
were practically iso".ated, and Wilmington reported more
than $1 million in damage. High tides and northeast
winds caused damage along the coast.

1954 I-lay 13: An inland storm which moved off the coast
of North Carolina generated winds causing over $100,000
damage to beaches. A 14,000-ton freighter was destroyed
as a result of this storm near Cape Hatteras.

195-6 January 8-12: Wind-driven water caused by a coastal
storm resulted in $50,000 property damage on the northern
Outer Banks. Five cottages were destroyed in the area
of Kitty Hawk. On Hatteras Island, a three-mile stretch
of highway pavement was washed out.

1956 October 16-18, 27-30: These two northeast storms
caused damage to beach highways, small craft and piers
as a result of high tides. In the second storm three
people were lost from fishing vessels.

1957 October 5-6: Winds reached 50 miles per hour along
the northern coast during this off shore storm. High tides
caused by prolonged easterly winds drove water over the
Outer Banks highway and caused considerable beach erosion.

.1958 October 19-23: A low pressure storm about 200 miles
east of Cape Hatteras created wind gusts to 70 miles
per hour from Cape Fear to the Virginia line. High tides
affected beaches and cut the road from Oregon Inlet to
Hatteras in several places. High water pushed into the
Neuse River causing some flooding in New Bern.
75

1962 March 5-8: This gigantic "Northeaster" known as
the Ash Wednesday Storm caused erosion on the coast
from Hatteras northward greater than in any previously
known storm. It opened an inlet 200 feet wide on
Hatteras Island and destroyed miles of protective
dunes. Miles of paved highways were either washed out
or buried in sand. Beach homes by the hundreds were
destroyed or damaged and hundreds of automobiles were
either buried in sand or submerged in water. Waves
more than 20 feet high on top of 10 foot tides were
responsible for most of the damage. At Nags Head wind
gusts near 70 miles per hour were recorded. Two people
were known to have died as a result of the storm.
Preliminary property damage estimates came to $12 million.

1962 June 29: An off shore low pressure storm caused
torreEt-ial rains in the central coastal counties.
Amounts varied from four to 17 inches in 24 hours.
Agricultural losses were high, particularly in the
tobacco crop. High tides and winds were responsible
for some beach erosion.

1962 November 25-December 5: A persistent low pressure
storm off the coast caused-very heavy beach erosion.
Beaches were cut back as much as 50 feet in some places
and sand dunes were damaged. Several buildings were
destroyed and many damaged.

1964 February 12: An off shore low pressure storm
generated rough seas which eroded the beach at Kill
Devil Hills.

1964 May 3: The southeast coast was affected by a
iow -pressure storm off shore. Gusts to 100 miles
per hour were reported. Some wind damage occurred but
beach erosion was slight.

1967 December 28: A coastal low pressure storm caused
moderate damage from Wilmington to Morehead City. Wind
gusts to 76 miles per hour were reported in Wilmington.

1968 May 26-27: A coastal low pressure storm caused heavy
rain and strong winds in the northern coastal area.
Widespread damage to boats and waterfront structures such
as docks and piers was reported.

1969 November 1-2: A low pressure coastal storm moving
northeastward was responsible for 60 wile per hour wind
gusts. Moderate beach erosion occurred.

1970 December 31: On the southern coast some beach
erosion and damage to piers was caused by a low pressure
storm moving northward. Gales and high seas were reported.

1972 May 22-27: The northern coast was affected by a
low pressure storm. Heavy beach erosion occurred and
winds up to 50 miles per hour were recorded on shore.

1973 February 9-10: High winds and seas along the coastwere
caused by a low pressure storm off shore. Heavy beach
erosion and property damage in various places resulted.

1973 March 22: A northeast storm blew up 10-12 foot
ie--asHighways were damaged along with some beach front
property.

1976 February 1-2: A severe wind storm affected the
northern cE-astparticularly from Ocracoke through
Manteo. Wind driven tides at the time covered two thirds
of Hatteras Island. Portions of Manteo were flooded.
Gusts of 70-90 miles per hour were reported at various Outer
Banks locations.

Appendix VII

ATLANTIC HURRICANE NP14ES

Starting in 1979 the names by which Atlantic
hurricanes are designated will be both male and female.
Previously they were all female. At the time of writing
the list of new names had been submitted to the World
Meteorological Organization for its expected final
approval. As in the previous lists, names beginning
with Q, U, X, Y and Z have been omitted because of their
scarcity.

1979 Ana, Bob, Claudette, David, Elena, Frederic,
Gloria, Henri, Isabel, Juan, Kate, Larry, Mindy,
Nicolas, Odette, Peter, Rose, Sam, Teresa, Victor,
Wanda

1980 Allen, Bonnie, Charley, Danielle, Earl, Frances,
Georges, Hermine, Ivan, Jeanne, Karl, Lisa,
Mitch, Nicole, Otto, Paula, Richard, Shary, Tomas,
Virginia, Walter

1981 Arlene, Bret, Carla, Dennis, Emily, Floyd, Gert,
Harvey, Irene, Jose, Katrina, Lenny, Maria, Nate,
Ophelia, Philippe, Rita, Stan, Tammy, Vince, Wilma

1982 Alberto, Beryl, Chris, Debby, Ernesto, Florence,
Gilbert, Helene, Isaac, Joan, Keith, Leslie, Michael,
Nadine, Oscar, Patty, Rafael, Sandy, Tony, Valerie,
William

1983 Alicia, Barry, Chantal, Dean, Erin, Felix, Gabrielle,
Hugo, Iris, Jerry, Karen, Luis, Marilyn, Noel,
Opal, Pablo, Roxanne, Sebastien, Tanya, Van, Wendy

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Illustration Credits

Cover - Hurricane Belle, August 9, 1976.
National Environmeni Satellite Service,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.

Figure 1 - Simon Baker, UNC Sea Grant College
Program.

Figure 2 - Forest Products Laboratory, Forest
Service, US Department of Agriculture.

Figures 3-6 - Simon Baker, UNC Sea Grant College
Program.

Figures 7-9 - National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.

Figures 10-11 - US Army Engineer District, Wilmington,
North Carolina.

Figure 12 - State of North Carolina, Long-Range
Hurricane Rehabilitation Project.

Figure 13 - National Environmental Satellite Service,
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.

Figures 14-15 - Agricultural Extension Service, North
Carolina State University.

Figure 16 - North Carolina Department of Transporta-
tion, aerial photograph M 1058, No. 15.

Figure 17 - US Department of Commerce, Weather
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Figures 18-19 - Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service,
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ment of Defense, Protecting Mobile Homes
From High Winds.

Acknowledgments

Information and assistance rendered by a nuirber
of people and organizations proved to be invaluable
in the preparation of this publication. Both the
National Hurricane Center, Miami, Florida, and the
Environmental Data Service, National Climatic Center,
Asheville, North Carolina, were very helpful in
responding to requests for published materials.

Thanks go to the following people who provided
a variety of information utilized in the preparation
of this publication: Kenneth M. Edwards, BM2, US
Coast Guard; Chester Gray, N.C. Department of Trans-
portation; William Harris, N.C. Division of Civil
Preparedness; John R. McClain, National Weather Service;
and Spencer M. Rogers, UNC Sea Grant College Program.

A special debt of gratitude is owed to Dr. Gerald
F. Watson, Department of Geosciences of North Carolina
State University for his comments on the final draft
of the publication. Other helpful comments were contri-
buted by John Clark and Donald Rynders of the National
Weather Service at Raleigh-Durham, Airport.

Finally, thanks are due to Daphne webster who served
as a research assistant in the initial part of this
project and to Patricia Van Hoy, Carolyn Sue Holleman
and Elaine J. Murray who typed the manuscript.

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