<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1" ?>
<doc callnum="GC57.2 .N6 no.78-15">
<metadata>
	<titleStmt>
		<mainTitle nfc="0"><title>Storms, people and property in coastal North Carolina</title>/<respStmt>by Simon Baker and Geography Department, East Carolina University ; edited by Karen Jurgensen.</respStmt></mainTitle>
	</titleStmt>
	<authorStmt>
		<persAuthor mainEntry="y"><name type="surname">Baker, Simon.</name></persAuthor>
		<persAuthor><name type="surname">Jurgensen, Karen.</name></persAuthor>
		<corpAuthor><name>University of North Carolina Sea Grant Program.</name></corpAuthor>
		<corpAuthor><name>East Carolina University.</name><subName>Geography Department.</subName></corpAuthor>
	</authorStmt>
	<imprint><pubPlace>Raleigh, N.C.</pubPlace>:<pubName>UNC Sea Grant, North Carolina State University</pubName>,<pubDate>1978.</pubDate></imprint>
	<classStmt>
		<locClass>
			<subject cat="top">Storms</subject>
			<subject cat="geo">North Carolina.</subject>
		</locClass>
		<locClass>
			<subject cat="top">Cyclones</subject>
			<subject cat="geo">North Carolina.</subject>
		</locClass>
		<locClass>
			<subject cat="geo">North Carolina</subject>
			<subject cat="gen">Hurricanes.</subject>
		</locClass>
		<locClass>
			<subject cat="corp">UNC Sea Grant College Program.</subject>
		</locClass>
	</classStmt>
</metadata>

<text xml:space="preserve">
<pb n="1" />

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<pb n="2" />

                             Cover:   Hurricane Belle off the eastern United States, August 9, 1976.

                               Copies of this publication are available from:

                                              UNC Sea Grant
                                              105 1911 Building
                                              North Carolina State University
                                              Raleigh, North Caroli na 27650
<pb n="3" />

                                                                                 Ile ?00
                                              COASTAL ZONE
                                              INFORMATION CENTER

                                   storms, People and Property
                                      In Coastal North Carolina

                                                     by
                                                 Simon Baker
                                       UNC Sea Grant College Program
                                                    and
                                            Geography Department
                                           East Carolina University

                                            PropertY Of csC Libra&amp;T

                                                 Edited by
                                              Karen Jurgensen
                                       UNC Sea Grant College Program

                                                 U    DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA
                                                 COASTAL SERVICES CENTER
                          %IN    C"
                          'V\                    2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE
                                                 CHARLESTON    SC 29405-2413
                      Q"

                     Sea Grant Publication UNC-SG-78-15                 August, 1978
<pb n="4" />

                               This work was sponsored by the Office of Sea Grant,
                          NOAA, United States Department of Commerce, under grant
                          number 04-8-MOl-66 and the North Carolina Department of
                          Administration. The U.S. Government is authorized to
                          produce and distribute reprints for governmental purposes
                          notwithstanding any copyright that may appear hereon.
<pb n="5" />

                                            Foreword

                            Waves which once broke on uninhabited North
                       Carolina shores now break in the front yards of
                       cottages, motels and apartment buildings. The use
                       of land on the barrier islands has changed since
                       old-timers shunned the beach for wooded, sheltered
                       spots. But the pattern of the legendary storms
                       which strike the coast remains the same.

                            Inevitably, the storms of the future will
                       endanger more lives and property than they do now.
                       People will continue to live on the barrier islands
                       or visit them because of the beauty and recreational
                       opportunities found there. Does this mean that we
                       are creating an impossible situation where death
                       and destruction will be the price we pay for the
                       use of the islands? This need not be so if we
                       understand the nature of the barrier island envi-
                       ronment and act upon that understanding.

                            For one thing, it must be recognized that hurri-
                       canes are a regular feature along the North Carolina
                       coast. The recent quiet years after the intense
                       storm activity of the 1950s have created a false
                       sense of security about hurricanes. We must choose
                       the safest possible building sites, keeping in mind
                       the history of hurricanes on this part of the Atlantic
                       coast. Another important thing to be remembered is
                       that the coast regularly experiences extratropical
                       storms. These storms do not approach the violence
                       and high winds of hurricanes, but they often
                       create considerable damage because of their
                       longevity.

                            In locating permanent structures the dynamic
                       nature of the barrier islands must be taken into
                       account. These are sand islands which are shaped by
                       winds, currents and a rising sea level, as well as
                       the annual cycle of storms. Erosion on the islands
                       is not new, it is and has been an everyday occurrence
                       since the islands came into being. Buildings and
                       roads must be well back from the beaches and espe-
                       cially from those most changeable features of all,
                       the inlets. The structures themselves can be made
                       quite wind-resistant and can be elevated to avoid
                       damage from most flooding. With sensible precautions
                       it should be possible for people to live on the barrier
                       islands at a reduced level of risk. Given the nature
<pb n="6" />

                            of the coastal environment, however, it is not
                            possible to discount all risk.

                                 The purpose of this publication is to inform
                            the reader of the nature and frequency of storms
                            on North Carolina's coast and the dangers associated
                            with them. The preservation of life and the safety
                            of coastal dwellers are of the utmost importance.
                            Whenever instructions are issued by Civil Preparedness
                            or other governmental authorities to evacuate, they
                            should be complied with immediately. Should the
                            reader find himself in a position where he is unable
                            to leave his residence after a hurricane warning has
                            been issued, there are a number of actions he can
                            follow to insure his safety. This publication offers
                            practical tips which people living directly on the
                            coast and in low-lying areas further inland can follow
                            before, during and after storms to protect life and
                            property.
<pb n="7" />

                                               Contents

                          Foreword  .........................................    i

                          Storms of Tropical Origin  .......... .............    1

                          Hurricanes: The Damaging Forces    ................. 12

                          Northeasters: Storms of Extratropical Origin     .... 27

                          Surviving It--Safely   ............................. 33

                          What's Safe to Eat and Drink   ..................... 39

                          Keeping a Roof Over Your Head   .................... 45

                          Boating It  .......................................  51

                          On the Farr . ...................................... 53

                          Appendices

                             Civil Preparedness Information    ................ 61

                             Disaster Fact Sheets   .......................... 64

                             Definitions of Terms Associated with
                                Hurricanes   ................................. 65

                             Wind Effects Over Water   ....................... 68

                             Coastal Hurricanes of the Twentieth Century    ... 70

                             Some Severe Twentieth Century Extratropical
                                Storms  .................. ..................  74

                             Atlantic Hurricane Names   ...................... 78

                          References   ....................................... 79

                          Illustration Credits   ............................. 82

                          Acknowledgments   .................................. 83
<pb n="8" />

                                    Storms of Tropical Origin

                            Tropical cyclones--including hurricanes--like
                       many other natural phenomena, do not occur on a
                       regular basis. There may be periods of great storm
                       activity followed by quiet years. This has been
                       the recent hurricane history of the North Carolina
                       coast. The middle 1950s was a period of intense
                       activity with three hurricanes making landfall in
                       1955 alone (Figure 1). The period since then has
                       been relatively quiet, and there are many coastal
                       inhabitants and summer residents who have never
                       experienced a hurricane.

                            On the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coasts,
                       hurricane season lasts roughly from June through
                       November. August, September and October are the
                       months of maximum storm activity on the average.
                       Of course, variations occur from place to place.

                            By the time hurricanes reach the North Carolina
                       coast they have travelled great distances. Their
                       origins have been traced to the Gulf of Mexico, the
                       Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic to the east of southern
                       Florida, or farther out in the Atlantic to the east
                       of the Lesser Antilles. Some storns may originate
                       as far away as the Cape Verde Islands off the west
                       coast of Africa or even the Sahara Desert.

                            A hurricane and its lesser cousin the "tropical
                       storm" are tropical cyclones. When a tropical cyclone
                       has wind speeds of 39 to 73 miles per hour (34 to 63 knots)
                       and the circulation is in rotary fashion it is
                       classified as a "tropical storm." When the rotary
                       circulation of winds is very pronounced and wind
                       speed exceeds 74 miles per hour (64 knots) the tropi-
                       cal cyclone is described as a "hurricane."

                           The word "cyclone" is sometires confusing because
                       in parts of the United States (US) it is synonymous with
                       tornado. It does not have that meaning in this publi-
                       cation but is used in the general meteorological sense
                       (see Appendix III for a definition).
                           Hurricanes are round or spiral shaped and, on
                       the average, are about 100 miles in diameter. Within
                       this area the winds exceed 74 miles per hour while
                       outside of it, up to a diameter of 400 miles, the
                       winds may be above 40 miles per hour, or gale-force.
                       The whole cyclonic storm moves across the tropical
                       ocean with a forward speed of about 12 to 14 miles
                       an hour.
<pb n="9" />

                                                                                                                                      CONNIE
                                                                                                                                      AUGUST 12, 1955

                                                                            HAZEL
                                                                            OCTOBER 15, 1954

                                                                                                                                       IONE
                                                                                                                                       SEPTEMBER 19, 1955
                                               DIANE
                                               AUGUST 17, 1955

                                                                                                           EDENTON          ......

                                                                                       ROCKY MOUNT

                                                                  RALEIGH

                                                                                              WASHINGTON

                                                                                *GOLDSBORO
                                                                                                     AURORA*

                                                     FAYETTEVILLE                             NEW BERN

                                                                                 JACKSONVILLE
                                                                                                        ........ ........

                                                          Figurel. In less than 12 months, between October,
                                                 1954, and September, 1955, four hurricanes made landfall
                                                 on the North Carolina coast and passed through the state.
                                                 Shown here are the paths these storms followed. On the
                                                 average, hurricane force winds are felt 50 miles on each
                                                 side of the storm path and gale force winds up to 200
                                                 miles on each side. During this period of intense storm
                                                 activity,practically all parts of eastern North Carolina
                                                 experienced hurricane force winds.
                                                                                                2
<pb n="10" />

                           The mature hurricane has at its core an eye or
                       relatively calm and sometimes cloud-free center
                       averaging 14 miles in diameter. Inwardly spiralling
                       winds form a thick wall of cloud as they are whirled
                       upward around the eye. Winds are at their strongest
                       here and may reach speeds of over 100 miles per hour.
                       Other thick walls of cloud form great spirals as
                       they converge on the center of the hurricane. (See
                       photograph on the front cover.) It is from these
                       clouds that the heavy precipitation falls, and any
                       given place in the path of a hurricane may experience
                       a total of frora 6 to 12 inches of rainfall with
                       occasional amounts exceeding 30 inches.

                           The amount of energy in a hurricane is difficult
                       to comprehend, but an estinate appearing in Hurricane,
                       the Greatest Storm on Earth* suggests that the heat
                       energy released in @@ne -day "is the equivalent of that
                       released by fusion of 400 20-megaton hydrogen bombs.
                       Put in-more comprehensible terms, one day's released
                       / wind/ energy, converted to electricity, would supply
                       @Ehe U-nited States' electrical needs for more than
                       six months. "

                           These powerful storms have been striking the
                       islands of the Caribbean and Gulf and Atlantic coasts
                       of North America as far back as we have written records.
                       There is ample evidence in the lore of the pre-Columbian
                       inhabitants of these coasts that hurricanes were a
                       regular feature of their lives. Historical studies
                       have been conducted on the paths hurricanes follow
                       before reaching various parts of the US coastline. One
                       such study for the years 1886-1963 is illustrated by
                       Figure 2. From this map we can see that the incidence
                       of hurricanes varies from place to place along the coast.
                       Some sections of the coastline have had few hurricanes
                       make landfall while others, such as the Gulf, have had
                       more than their share. It is clear also that North
                       Carolina has been the recipient of many such storms.

                           Even on the North Carolina coast, storm activity
                       varies. For example, one study indicates that the
                       area between Cape Hatteras and a point southwest of
                       Jacksonville experiences a longer storm season than
                       the rest of the state's coast. And within that area,
                       the section between Capes Lookout and Hatteras experi-
                       ences more tropical cyclones than any other section of
                       the coast. This information comes from Atlantic Hurricane

                         References are listed on pages 79-81.

                                               3
<pb n="11" />

                                                                                                                                  N. B.

                                                                                                                             ME.          N.S

                                                                                                                     VT

                                                                                                                      IJ
                                                                                                                N.Y.     MAS
                                                                                                                           N'
                                                                                                                   Z
                                                                                                           PENN.

                                                                                                               M
                                                                                                               MD,
                                                                                                           T
                                                                                                              VA

                                                                                                             N.C.

                                                                                                         S. C.

                                                                                     ALA.        GA.
                                                                           miss,

                                                    TEX.

                                                                                                             FLA.

                                             M 128 626

                                                         ligure 2- Hurricanes crossing the Gulf of Mexico
                                                and         antic coasts, or passing near the mainland,
                                                1886-1963.

                                                                                            4
<pb n="12" />

                        Frequen ies Along the US Coastline, which is a detailed
                        study of 50-mile segments of the US Gulf of M)exico
                        and Atlantic coastlines for the 85-year period of
                        1886 to 1970. The study provides a more detailed look
                        at North Carolina's coast. The coast was divided
                        into 50-mile lengths because it was felt that this
                        size is the smallest segment for which a meaningful
                        summary could be made for the purpose of examining
                        hurricane events. The segments covering the North
                        Carolina coast are labeled A through F in this publi-
                        cation. The locations of the segments or sectors
                        can be seen in Figure 3 and the following maps.
                        Segment A lies partially in South Carolina and seg-
                        ment F is partially in Virginia. The remaining
                        segments B, C, D and E are entirely within North
                        Carolina and each one is approximately 50 miles
                        in length.

                             Only storms entering the coastal area from the
                        sea were tabulated in the National Oceanic and
                        Atmospheric Administration study. Those storms which
                        passed offshore and did not touch land were not counted.
                        Also, it was assumed that hurricanes crossing the shore-
                        line in one segment affected the adjacent segments
                        which lay in the right semicircle of the storm where
                        high winds are normally experienced. This means that
                        a storm coming ashore in segment C was not only counted
                        there but also in segment D to its right. This method
                        of counting is only true for tropical cyclones of
                        hurricane intensity and higher. It is not true for
                        tropical cyclones of less than hurricane intensity,
                        that is, with winds of less than 74 miles per hour.

                             It should be noted that the information shown in
                        Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 is representative only of the
                        85 years of records which were studied. They help
                        us to understand what has transpired on our coast so
                        that we may have some indication of differences from
                        place to place and also have some indication of what
                        to expect in the future.

                             Length of the season of tropical cyclones varies
                        considerably along this coast. Figure 3 indicates
                        the earliest and latest occurrences of tropical cyclones
                        during the study period, and this is an indication
                        of length of season. Using these criteria, sectors
                        C and D--Cape Hatteras to approximately the vicinity
                        of Jacksonville--must be considered to experience
                        the longest seasons while sectors E and F to the
                        north of Cape Hatteras only experience brief periods
                        during @,,7hich they are subjected to tropical cyclones.
                                                   5
<pb n="13" />

                                        Figure 3. Earliest and latest occurrences of
                                 tropical cyclones with maximum sustained winds of 40
                                 miles per hour or higher. Dates indicate landfalls
                                 made by storms in each sector for the period 1886-1970.

                                                                                           L@

                                                                          Virginia

                                                                 ELIZABETH CITY

                                        Sector boundary
                                        Sector extends into                         EO
                                        adjoining state
                                                             PLYMOUTH

                                                       WASHINGTON

                                                         NEW BERN

                                                            MOREHE CITY
                                                JACKSONVILLE

                                 %       WILMINGTON
                               0@, 11@
                                   %
                                          SOUTHPORT
                                            ..... ......

                                         C

                                                                 6
<pb n="14" />

                                          Ficure 4. Number of tropical cyclones reaching
                                   the North Carolina coast 1886-1970 by sectors.

                                                                                               TC H

                                                                                Virginia
                                                                                                   2 2

                                                                      ELIZABETH CITY*.
                                          Sector boundary
                                          Sector extends into                              T
                                          adjoining state                               -.,.MANT,
                                                                  PLYMOUTH e
                                                                                                    E
                                                                                 49
                                                                                                           7 3
                                                           WASHINGTON

                                                             NEW BERN

                                                                                        D
                                                                MOREHEAD CITY
                                                   JACKSONVILLE e.                           15

                                           WILMINGTON
                                                                           12
                                    %                     B                  4
                                  91/1 \   SOUTHPORT
                                   0/.%

                                                             6

                                                               2

                                             5
                                TC            2      TC-ALL TROPICAL CYCLONES (40MPH OR HIGHER)
                                   H                 H-ALL HURRICANES (74MPH OR HIGHER)
                                   G"                GH-GREAT HURRICANES (125MPH OR HIGHER)

                                                                       7
<pb n="15" />

                                           Figure 5. Number of years between tropical cyclone
                                    occurrences. Average for the period 1886-1970 by sectors.

                                                                                                   TC H  GH

                                                                                     Virginia
                                                                                                 411   42 4 85
                                                                                                  F
                                                                           ELIZABETH CITY
                                               Sector boundary

                                               Sector extends into
                                                                                             MANT 0
                                              adjoining state
                                                                       PLYMOUTH
                                                                                                        E
                                                                WASHINGTON                                  10 12 2

                                                                  NEW BERN

                                                                                             D
                                                        JACKSONVILLE MOREH D CITY
                                                                                                  5
                                                                                                    9
                                       lip
                                                                           C                         42

                                                WILMINGTON
                                    0&lt;1e4                                        7
                                         %                     B                  21
                                                SOUTHPORT
                                         0/. %
                                                  I...... ....

                                                A

                                                                   42

                                                 7

                                     TC            42     TC-ALL TROPICAL CYCLONES (40MPH OR HIGHER)
                                       H                  H-ALL HURRICANES (74MPH OR HIGHER)
                                        GH                GH-GREAT HURRICANES (125MPH OR HIGHER)

                                                                       8
<pb n="16" />

                                        Figure 6. The probability (percentage) that a
                                  tropical cyclone, hurricane, or great hurricane will
                                  occur in any one year in a sector of the coastline.

                                                                                          TC H GH

                                                                            Virginia ,
                                                                                              2 2

                                                                  ELIZABETH CITY
                                       Sector boundary
                                       Sector extends into                         -MANTE
                                       adjoining state
                                                               PLYMOUTH

                                                        WASHINGTON                                   8 4

                                                          NEW BERN

                                                JACKSONVILLE MOREHEAD CI Y
                                                                                        18

                                         WILMINGTON
                             oe,                                        14
                                         SOUTHPORT                       5

                                         A                 76
                                                             2

                                          13
                                            6
                                 TC          2       TC-ALL TROPICAL CYCLONES (40MPH OR HIGHER)
                                  H                   H-ALL HURRICANES (74MPH OR HIGHER)
                                  GH                 GH-GREAT HURRICANES (125MPH OR HIGHER)

                                                                   9
<pb n="17" />

                           Sectors A and B in the south appear to have seasons
                           of intermediate lengths.

                                The number of tropical cyclones of varying
                           intensity which has reached this coast is depicted
                           in Figure 4. In sector D--Cape Hatteras to Cape
                           Lookout--which has experienced the highest number
                           of tropical cyclones during the 85-year period,
                           nine of those cyclones were of hurricane intensity.
                           Of the nine hurricanes two were powerful enough,
                           with winds of 125 miles per hour or higher, to be
                           classified as great hurricanes. The study recognizes
                           this latter type of storm because "due to both
                           storr. surge inundation and wind stresses on struc-
                           tures, storms in this category can be expected to
                           bring major disasters to metropolitan areas with
                           heavy damage to structures and high potential for
                           loss of life." All of the sectors but C (Cape Lookout
                           to a point southwest of Jacksonville) have experienced
                           at least one great hurricane during the 85-year study
                           period. This does not mean that sector C is immune
                           from these violent hurricanes, only that none were
                           recorded during the study period.

                                Another way of looking at the record is from
                           the point of view of time between occurrences of
                           tropical cyclones. In Figure 5, average times between
                           the three types of storms occurring over the 85-year
                           study period have been calculated and are shown for
                           each sector. Thus, in sector C there is a blank for
                           great hurricanes because none occurred during that
                           time while in sector F the figure shown for such
                           storms is 85 years since only one occurred during
                           the study period. In sectors A, B, and D the time
                           is given as 42 years because two large storms occurred
                           in each one in a period of 85 years. Sector E shows
                           28 years between great hurricanes to account for the
                           three experienced.

                                Of more interest to coastal dwellers perhaps is
                           the number of years between occurrences of tropical
                           cyclones of all types. By far the most storm-ridden
                           sector is D, lying between Cape Lookout and Cape
                           Hatteras. On an average of every five years this
                           portion of our coast experienced some sort of tropical
                           cyclone. Sectors A and C experienced tropical cyclones
                           on an average of every seven years. At the other end
                           of the scale, the quietest part of our coast is sector
                           F which experienced only two tropical cyclones of any
                           type during the 85 years of the study, hence the
                           average time of 42 years between occurrences.

                                                    10
<pb n="18" />

                             As shown in Figure 6, Sectors A, C and D are
                         those with the greatest probability of experiencing
                         tropical cyclones. Sectors D and E have the greatest
                         probability of experiencing hurricanes and sector
                         E the greatest probability of experiencing great
                         hurricanes. An 18 percent probability indicates 18
                         chances in a 100-year period or one storip. every five
                         to six years. This estimate of the mathematical
                         probabilities is based on the assumption that "the
                         statistical properties of the data sample represent
                         the properties of the entire population of events
                         (i.e., all coastline crossings)."
<pb n="19" />

                                 Hurricanes: The Damaging Forces

                             High winds are generally what people think of
                        when they think about hurricanes. Those who have
                        experienced these storms have vivid memories of the
                        winds. Those who have read about hurricanes or seen
                        them on film come away with a strong impression of
                        the wind and its power. Many people  assume that
                        it is the force of the wind directly against trees
                        and buildings that is the main cause of destruction
                        by hurricanes.

                             In fact, along our coasts there are three conse-
                        quences of the passage of hurricanes which cause
                        destruction and death. Of these three, damage caused
                        by the direct action of wind is the least severe.
                        The most destructive force generated by a hurricane
                        is usually the storm surge. Next in destructive
                        power is flooding caused by the torrential rains
                        normally associated with hurricanes. The power of
                        moving water can be far more destructive than that
                        of moving air.

                        Storm Surge

                             There appears to be some confusion over storm
                        surges. The surge is sometimes less correctly called
                        a "storm tide," or a "hurricane tide," or even a
                        "tidal w ave" when the surge is being forced up a
                        river channel. The important thing to understand is
                        how storm surge comes into being: the storm surge is
                        a mound of water pushed up by winds ahead of a hurri-
                        cane advancing landward from a large body of water.
                        In the open ocean the surge may be hardly noticeable,
                        but when it approaches a shallow shore the effect is
                        dramatic. The mound of water may be 50 or more miles
                        wide as it crosses the coastline. Depending on the
                        conformation of the shore and bottom, the storm surge
                        may reach heights of 15 feet or more above the normal
                        (astronomical) tide level. Added to this are the
                        large wind-driven waves which usually top it off. The
                        greatest storm surge is most often experienced on the
                        right-hand side and close to the eye of the hurricane
                        as one faces in the direction of the forward motion of
                        the storm. Figures 7, 8 and 9 illustrate the relation-
                        ship between normal sea level, astronomical tide, and
                        the build-up of water as storm surge strikes a shore.
                                                 13
<pb n="20" />

                                 Storm Surge: The Most Deadly Killer

                               The three sets of drawings on these pages show
                          the formation and effects of the hurricane storm
                          surge. Many factors are involved in the formation
                          and propagation of a storm surge such as the strength
                          of the storm, bottom conditions where the surge comes
                          ashore, and the position of the storm center in rela-
                          tion to the shore. These diagrams, therefore, cannot
                          be representative of all surges for all coastal areas.
                          The surge diagramed here is typical of those produced
                          by a hurricane approaching  the lower-Atlantic or Gulf
                          coastal areas.

                                                          Figure 7. It is
                                                          a normal day. The
                                                          sea rises and falls
                                                          predictably with
                                                          astronomical tidal
                                                          action. There are
                                                          the usual small
                                                          w
                                                           aves. A hurri-
                                                          cane has developed
                                                          and a Hurricane
                             011   6t. 124  18@ 241@ 301@ Watch is in effect
                                       @@ I               for the area.
                              NORML TUWS

                                                          Figure 8.  The
                                                          hurricane now
                                                          poses a serious
                                                          threat to this
                                                          beach area and the
                                                          Watch has been
                                                          changed to a Hurri-
                                                          cane Warning.   The
                               410tASIM11                 hurricane is 12
                                                          hours away.  The
                                          @z
                                                          tide is a little
                             C                2,@ 2,@     above normal; the
                               HURRrAM rLORGE   ?N        water moves further
                                                          up the beach. Swells
                                                          are beginning to
                                                          move in from the
                                                          deep ocean and break-
                                                          ing waves--some as
                                                          high as five to eight
                                                          feet--crash ashore
                                                          and run well up the
                                                          beach. The wind is
                         *Mean sea level           14     picking up.
<pb n="21" />

 0

                                                                                                                    @7 ' STORM  T I ! " E
                                                                                                                ORMAL HIGH TIDE
                                           MEAN  S -  A LEVEL

                                          H q" qR qR I , q@ qr qA qNE  qS q1 - 6q0 - - 8qV qA SURGE

                                     0 hr              6 q1hr             12 hr    17 ft   18 hr    21 hr            27 hr    30 hr
                                          HURRICANE STORM TIDE
                                          (Normal tide and
                                                     Hurricane surge)

                                                                                                    0
                                                                                                               qS

                                            Figure 9. The hurricane is moving ashore close to
                                    the beach area. It is time for high tide again. This ti ve,
                                    however, there is a 15 -foot surge added to the normal
                                    2-f oot astronomical tide creating a 17 -foot storm tide.
                                    This great mound of water, topped by battering waves, is
                                    moving slowly ashore along an area of coastline 50 to
                                    100 miles wide. Winds are now over 130 miles an hour.
                                    much oceanfront property will be unable to withstand this
                                    combined assault of wind and water.

                                            The combination of storm surge, battering waves, and
                                    high tide is the hurricane's most deadly killer.

                                                                          15
<pb n="22" />

                                   In coastal locations the combined flooding and
                             pounding by waves of the storm surge are the great
                             destroyers of life and property. The most recent
                             spectacular example of a high surge in the US was
                             Hurricane Camille which struck the Mississippi coast
                             in 1969. Winds of up to 175 knots created a storm
                             surge of 24.2 feet which swept ashore and was respon-
                             sible for more than $1 billion in damage in Louisiana
                             and Mississippi alone. The loss in lives along the
                             Gulf coast was 146 with 27 missing. Most of the dead
                             were drowned. In the US there have been other disasters
                             in which great loss of life was attributed to storm
                             surge:

                                   --Hurricane Audrey, June, 1957, Louisiana,
                                     380 dead
                                   --New England Hurricane, September, 1938,
                                    600 dead
                                   --Florida hurricane, September, 1935, 400 dead
                                   --Galveston hurricane, September, 1900, 6,000
                                    dead

                                   The lightly populated North Carolina coast has
                             never experienced or equaled the death and destruc-
                             tion of these storms. The closest the state has come
                             to anything like this was on October 15, 1954, when
                             Hurricane Hazel made landfall on the South Carolina
                             line in the vicinity of Calabash (Fiaure 1). The
                             combination of the storm surge and the wind-driven
                             waves riding on top of it resulted in severe damage
                             to structures and the coastline itself. For 20 miles
                             east of where the eye made landfall the storm surge
                             was nine to 12k feet above normal. Between 20 and 40
                             miles to the east the storm surge was from five to
                             nine feet above the normal tidal level. From 40 to
                             80 miles to the east the surge was from four to seven
                             feet higher than the usual tide level (Figures 10 and
                             11). The official report of the Raleigh National
                             Weather Bureau Office described the storm as follows:

                                       Wind-driven tides devastated the imme-
                                   diate ocean front from the South Carolina
                                   line to Cape Lookout. All traces of civili-
                                   zation on that portion of the immediate water-
                                   front between the state line and Cape Fear
                                   were practically annihilated. Grass-covered
                                   dunes some 10 to 20 feet high along and behind
                                   which beach houses had been built in a continu-
                                   ous line five miles long simply disappeared,
                                   dunes, houses and all. The paved roadway along
                                   which the houses were built was partially washed
                                   away, partially buried beneath several feet of

                                                        16
<pb n="23" />

 0

                                                         4

                                                                              - q0

                                                                                   1 6qw q,  8qL I

                                                q7  1

                   Figure 10.  Stor n surge generated by Hurricane  Hazel on October 15, 1954, wrecked
              the Carolina Yacht Club on Wrightsville Beach.
<pb n="24" />

           00

                                                      77

                Figure 11. Large boats carried   ashore near Wrightsville Beach by Hurricane
           HazelTs -Storm surge on October 15, 1954.
<pb n="25" />

                            sand. The greater.part of the material
                            from which the houses had been built was
                            washed from one to two hundred yards back
                            into the edge of the low-lying woods which
                            cover the leeward side of the islands.
                            Some of this material is identifiable as
                            having been parts of houses, but the
                            greater portion of it is ground to unrec-
                            ognizable splinters and bits of masonry.
                            Of the 357 buildings which existed on
                            Long Beach, 352 were totally destroyed
                            and the other five damaged. Similar
                            conditions prevail on Holden Beach,
                            Ocean Isle, Robinson Beach and Colonial
                            Beach. In most cases it is impossible
                            to tell where the buildings stood. Where
                            grassy dunes stood, there is now only
                            flat, white, sandy beach.

                            In addition to the spectacular property damage
                       and dune destruction, 19 people were known to have
                       died in North Carolina. Most of the victims lost
                       their lives at or near the beach, and the storm surge
                       is believed to have been largely responsible. Another
                       200 people in various locations suffered injuries
                       during Hurricane Hazel.

                            Not only the beaches but also low-lying coastal
                       areas are affected by storm surge. Those low-lying
                       mainland areas bordering the sounds are important
                       for forestry and farming. During the hurricanes
                       of 1954 and 1955, storm surge was responsible for
                       moving salt water from -the sounds and bays onto
                       agricultural and forest lands. Most of the land
                       less than 10 feet above sea level suffered from the
                       intrusion of salt water or from flooding caused by
                       the heavy rains. This combined flooding was respon-
                       sible for extensive losses of corn, soybean, peanut,
                       cotton and tobacco crops (Figure 12). About 25 per-
                       cent of the area of the 22 coastal counties was
                       estimated to have been covered by fresh and salt water
                       during the 1954 and 1955 hurricanes.

                       Flood

                            After storm surge, the flooding caused by heavy
                       hurricane rains is the next most important danger to
                       human life. Even on a low-lying coast such as North
                       Carolina's the flooding caused by hurricane rains has

                                                 19
<pb n="26" />

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                                                                       Figure 12. Flooding caused by heavy rainfall
                                                             and h-urricane storm surge                           driven onto the mainland
                                                             frequently are major sources of damage to coastal
                                                             agriculture. Wind damage also can be destructive
                                                             to buildings and crops.

                                                                                                                20
<pb n="27" />

                         a considerable impact on cities, agriculture and
                         transportation. It is in hilly or mountainous areas
                         that such heavy rains are not only destructive of
                         property, but are also a danger to people. The entire
                         state of North Carolina is vulnerable and has, at
                         one time or another, felt the effects of hurricane
                         rains.

                               In fact, the interiors of the southeastern,
                         middle Atlantic and northeastern states are all
                         vulnerable to heavy hurricane rainfall which is
                         a great destroyer of property and life. Hurricane
                         Agnes, which struck in 1972, dramatically emphasizes
                         the fact that it is not coastal locations alone
                         which stand to suffer from the effects of hurricanes.

                               Agnes is the most destructive and costly tropical
                         cyclone ever to hit the US (Figure 13). Only a small
                         fraction of the damage was caused by storm surge and
                         winds. Heavy rains followed the passage of this storm
                         as it moved from the Florida Panhandle northeastward
                         across Georgia, South Carolina, North Carolina and
                         out to sea. It then turned back and passed over
                         New Jersey and Pennsylvania before dissipating. After
                         making its initial landfall on the Florida coast it
                         lost its hurricane strength winds and did not regain
                         these velocities during the entire passage of the
                         storm over land.

                               All along the path of Hurricane Agnes, flooding
                         occurred on small tributaries and major streams.
                         Buildings were swept away or inundated. Crops were
                         destroyed. Bridges and small dams were threatened.
                         Towns and cities were paralyzed as a result of the
                         flood waters. Agnes was responsible for a record
                         $3.09 billion in damage to property and a loss of
                         117 lives. More than $2.8 billion in damage and 72
                         deaths occurred in Pennsylvania and New York alone.
                         What is memorable about Hurricane Agnes is that more
                         than $3 billion of the total damage and almost all
                         of the deaths were caused by the torrential rains
                         that fell during the storm.

                         Wind

                               The-least destructive feature of a hurricane,
                         but perhaps the most awesome one, is its winds. Air
                         circulates inward toward the eye in a counterclock-
                         wise direction in the Northern Hemisphere. The winds

                                                    21
<pb n="28" />

                                           U.S. CLOUD COVER
                                                21 JUNE 1912
                                           TIME OF PHOTO 1800 GMT

                                 40,

           tQ

                                                                                          AlLi

                   Figure 13.  Hurricane Agnes is the most destructive such storm of record. This
              satellite view shows it as the winds had diminished to the strength of a tropical
              storm. Inland flooding caused by heavy rainfall was responsible for more than
              $3 billion damage and a heavy loss of life.
<pb n="29" />

                      are drawn in toward this center of low atmospheric
                      pressure from surrounding areas of relatively higher
                      pressure. The movement of air around a storm center
                      has been described in Hurricane, the Greatest Storm
                      on Earth as follows:

                                At lower levels, where the hurricane
                           is most intense, winds on the rim of the
                           storm follow a wide pattern, like the
                           slower currents around the edge of a whirl-
                           pool; and, like those currents, these winds
                           accelerate as they approach the center of
                           the vortex. The outer band has light winds
                           at the rim of the storm, perhaps no more
                           than 30 miles per hour; within 30 miles of
                           the center, winds may have velocities
                           exceeding 150 miles per hour. The inner
                           band is the region of maximum wind velocity,
                           where the storm.'s worst winds are fedt, and
                           where ascending air is chimneyed upward,
                           releasing heat to drive the storm. In most
                           hurricanes, these winds reach 100 miles per
                           hour--and more than 200 miles per hour in
                           the most memorable ones.

                           Wind damage is likely to be greatest close to
                      where the eye of the hurricane has passed. Moving
                      away from the eye at right angles to the path, the
                      wind velocities tend to diminish and damage decreases
                      proportionately. Since hurricanes have a forward
                      motion the storms do not usually linger in any given
                      place for an extended period of time. While the winds
                      are blowing, however, they may exert great force on
                      structures in their path. Dunn and Miller report the
                      following wind and pressure relationships in their
                      book Atlantic Hurricanes:

                          WIND SPEED (mph)       PRESSURE per SQUARE FOOT (pounds)
                                  60                             15
                                   80                            26
                                100                              45
                                125                              78
                                150                              112

                      With forces such as these being exerted it is not difficult
                      to understand trees being blown over or windows and walls
                      caved in.

                           In addition to the direct force of the wind on a
                      structure, there is a negative force or suction set up
                      on its lee side. In the case of tall buildings the negative
                                               23
<pb n="30" />

                           force may exceed the positive force. Thus, the walls
                           of a building may be pulled outward causing the collapse
                           of the structure. Roofs frequently are damaged because
                           strong winds blowing over them may have the same aerody-
                           namic effect as air blowing over an airplane wing sur-
                           face and causing lift. improperly fastened roofs may
                           be lifted off entirely or in part during periods of
                           very high winds. Finally, there is a danger to life
                           and property caused by the debris picked up and carried
                           by the wind, The most common objects of various sizes
                           become deadly missiles under these circumstances.

                                Hurricane winds have caused a variety of damage
                           during storms on the North Carolina coast and adjoining
                           lands. Structural damage has not only occurred to beach
                           dwellings but also to farm buildings farther inland.
                           In both cases it must be assumed that the losses from
                           wind would have been reduced if the structures had been
                           constructed properly to withstand such forces. Crop
                           damage is caused largely by flooding but winds have had
                           a devastating effect on the corn crop in particular.
                           If a hurricane comes during the latter stages of the
                           growing season, the crop can be blown down (Figure 14).
                           Once on the ground and subjected to soaking rains the
                           corn may become mildewed and useless. Finally, the
                           forests of eastern North Carolina are subject to losses
                           because water-soaked soils resulting from hurricane
                           rains fail to hold tree roots as firmly as drier soils
                           and large numbers of trees may be blown down (Figure 15).

                               Figure 14. Mature corn in Beaufort County blown
                           down E-Y-H'urricane Donna on September 11, 1960.
                                                    24
<pb n="31" />

                                              .4.

                                                                     4

                             Figure 15.  Blown over trees are often  the  result
                        of strong hurricane winds in North Carolina's woodlands.
                        This damage was caused by Hurricane Donna in Beaufort
                        County.

                             In addition to the regular wind pattern around
                        the eye, tornadoes may sometimes accompany a hurri-
                        cane. This is not a well understood phenomenon nor
                        does it occur in all hurricanes. Studies have indi-
                        cated that tornadoes usually occur in the forward
                        semicircle of the storm or along,the advancing edge.
                        There is no particular time of day favorable to their
                        formation and instances of hurricane related tornadoes
                        have been recorded during all hours of the day and
                        night. While these tornadoes behave much as the more
                        common variety, they are different in that their paths
                        are shorter and more narrow. They are, nevertheless,
                        capable of causing considerable damage. In Hurricane
                        Agnes, for example, some 15 confirmed tornadoes were
                        spawned in Florida resulting in a total property loss
                        of $4.5 million.
                                                                        - tv
                                                                       X

                             Hurricanes are normal on the North Carolina coast.
                        All parts of the coast are subject to hurricanes even
                        though there may be many years between their occurrences.
                        In recent years property damage has increased as popu-
                        lation and construction have increased along the coast.
                        Not only have structures been destroyed by hurricanes

                                                  25
<pb n="32" />

                            but crops in the mainland counties have regularly
                          . suffered damage too. The fact that the loss of life
                            has been kept low is a tribute to the warning system
                            developed by the National Weather Service. For a
                            listing of hurricanes which have hit North Carolina
                            since the turn of the century, see Appendix V.

                                                     26
<pb n="33" />

                                         Northeasters:
                                Storms of Extratropic@@l origin

                           During the winter and spring months, North
                      Carolina experiences a progression of extratropical
                      cyclones--Northeasters--generally moving from west
                      to east across the state. Most people who watch
                      television weather broadcasts are acquainted with
                      the succession of high and low pressure areas and
                      the cold and warm fronts separating them. These
                      are common events in North Carolina and are so
                      ordinary as to hardly excite any special connection
                      with serious problems of coastal erosion. And yet,
                      these cyclones, which have formed outside of the
                      tropics and are usually mild in comparison to hurri-
                      canes, do exert a force and are important in shaping
                      the North Carolina coast.

                           The significance of these northeast storms is
                      not their intensity but their duration. Unlike a
                      hurricane which may pass over a coastal location in
                      a fraction of a day, a Northeaster may blow from the
                      same direction and over long distances for several
                      days. At the very least, this can result in visible
                      beach erosion as the continuous wave energy is
                      dissipated on the shore. At its worst, a Northeaster
                      lasting several days and having gale force winds
                      may create a prolonged storm surge capable of causing
                      great damage. Figure 16 illustrates some of the kinds
                      of damage caused by such a northeast storm in 1973
                      on Hatteras Island just east of Buxton. During this
                      more intense than usual storm the surge over-topped
                      the island and spilled into the sound in a number of
                      places. The amount of wave action was sufficient to
                      wash out portions of the paved road running the length
                      of the island. In other locations sand was deposited
                      on the road. It is also clear that ocean levels were
                      raised to the extent that structures along the beach
                      were surrounded by breaking waves and were in Jeopardy.

                           An extratropical cyclone is a storm of the middle
                      latitudes. Winds of about 20 miles per hour circulate
                      in the Northern Hemisphere in a counterclockwise direction
                      spirally inward toward a large area of low atmospheric
                      pressure. The entire storm may move across the earth's
                      surface at 20 to 30 miles per hour and it may be as
                      large as 1,500 miles in diameter. Precipitation is
                      usually associated with the passage of such storms.
                      When a deep low is located close to the coastline on

                                              27
<pb n="34" />

                                                                       410f
                                                                    A@

                                               0,orl 7,

                                                4@

                             Pik

                                  W

                                  Figure 16. Two days  after the northeast storm
                             of February 9-10, 1973, the waters of the Atlantic
                             are still turbulent compared with the relatively
                             calm waters of Pamlico Sound on the left. The town
                             of Buxton lies to the left outside of this scene.
                             Route 12 has been washed out and is not open to
                             traffic (A). Overwash between the Atlantic and the
                             Sound is clearly visible in several places (B).
                             Buildings are standing in the surf (C), and there
                             is evidence that the surf has penetrated farther
                             inland (D).
                                                      28
<pb n="35" />

                       land or offshore and is moving northward or north-
                       eastward, the wind along the middle and North Atlantic
                       coast blows from the northeast and may reach gale
                       force.

                             The passage of such low pressure storms is
                       usually followed by cells of higher atmospheric
                       pressure moving generally from west to east. In
                       the Northern Hemisphere the circulation of air around
                       a high is in a clockwise direction outward from the
                       center. occasionally the location of a high is such
                       that its winds may strike the coast from a northeasterly
                       direction. Precipitation is not associated with this
                       condition, but if the winds are strong and persistent
                       enough the event may be called a "dry Northeaster."

                             The significance of both types of northeast
                       wind producing systems is not in the damage caused
                       by the winds acting directly on structures or
                       vegetation. The winds are important but mainly
                       because they generate high waves and move them shore-
                       ward. It is the action of these waves on the shore
                       and structures close to it that is the chief cause
                       of concern. Studies (Bosserman and Dolan) of extra-
                       tropical cyclones on the Outer Banks between Nags
                       Head and Cape Hatteras identified 857 storms between
                       1942 and 1967 with winds strong enough to produce
                       waves sufficient to cause beach erosion. The minimum
                       wave height in deep water capable of causing such
                       erosion was 5.1 feet.

                             The most active months of the year for Northeasters
                       were December through April according to the study.
                       Each of these months had more than 90 erosion-causing
                       storms for the 25-year period. When averaged out on an
                       annual basis the number of storms per month     was as follows:

                             January   4.3                 July        0.8
                             February  4.4                 August      1.2
                             March     4.9                 September   2.2
                             April     3.8                 October     2.6
                             May       2.0                 November    3.0
                             June      1.5                 December    3.6

                       Both high  and low pressure wind  generating systems are
                       included in  the above list with  about 75 percent of the
                       total being  identified as extratropical cyclones. over
                       the 25-year  study period winds generating wave heights
                       of over 5.1  feet in deep water occurred on the average
                       of every 10  days. A height of   at least 11.1 feet occurred
                       every three  months and one of 17.1 feet every three years.

                                                  29
<pb n="36" />

                          Wave heights of over 23.1 feet occurred once in
                          25 years.

                               Probably the worst Northeaster in recent history
                          to strike North Carolina and the rest of the Atlantic
                          coast was the so-called "Ash Wednesday Storm" in
                          March, 1962. One report (Cooperman and Rosendal)
                          described it as follows:

                                    A slow moving late winter coastal storm
                               combined with spring tides (maximum range)
                               wrought tremendous destruction to coastal
                               installations from southern New England to
                               Florida on March 6 to 9. This storm, which
                               consisted of a series of lows, has been
                               described as one of the most damaging extra-
                               tropical cyclones to hit the United States
                               coastline. Although gale force winds, and
                               at times hurricane force winds, accompanied
                               the storm, this is not unusual for a North
                               Atlantic winter extratropical cyclone. It
                               was the long fetch and the persistence of
                               these strong northeasterly winds which raised
                               the spring tides to near record levels. The
                               tidal flooding which attended this storm was
                               in many ways more disastrous than that which
                               accompanies hurricanes. The storm surge in
                               tropical cyclones generally recedes rapidly
                               after one or two high tides, but the surge
                               accompanying this storm occurred in many
                               locations on four and five successive high
                               tides. In addition to this, many places
                               reported run-up of waves 20 to 30 feet high.

                               After several days of continuously strong northeasterly
                          winds, the height of waves off the East coast was in excess
                          of 40 feet. Figure 17 shows the distribution of wave
                          heiahts over the entire Atlantic Ocean on March 8, 1962.
                          The movement of the seas generated by the storm winds is
                          also depicted and it can be seen clearly that the North
                          Carolina coast was being subjected to waves about 30 feet
                          high coming from the northeast. The impact of these
                          forces on our coast was described by Cooperman and Rosendal:

                                    The most destructive effects of the
                               storm took place on Hatteras Island and
                               northward. On the entire stretch to the
                               Virginia line, a large percentage of the
                               protective sand dunes along the ocean
                               side of the elongated islands which
                               constitute the Outer Banks were washed

                                                   30
<pb n="37" />

                            WP NIR 4Z7 POS 0,4-&amp; j@                                                 ajD. 40. 30. epl-lv
                            FM FLEWEACEN SUITLAND
                            TO ALL SHIPS AND STATIONS INTERCEPTING
                              THIS BROADCAST
                            SEX CONDITION ANALYSIS FORa1affALAdALZ,
                                  LEGEND
                              9- HEIGHT CONTOURS IN FEET OF HIGHESTV                                    +
                                  1/3 OF SEAS. (MULTIPLY By 9/5 FOR
                                  H
                                  WEST SINGLE SEA),

                                  DIRECTION SEAS ARE MOVING                                       40o
                                  DIRECTION CONFUSED
                             A / A
                             Ba 8 :S PERIOD IN SECONDS(
                                   S "EIGHT IN FEET OBSERVE@
                                          ONTS
                            -t4-WA WEATHER FIR
                                                   @to                 x
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                                                                                                                                 0
                           /to
                          Figure 17. North Atlantic Ocean Sea Condition Analysis Chart of 00:00 GMT of
                   March 8, 1962.        Isopleths are significant wave heights in feet. Note the 30-foot
                   wave heights off the Outer Banks.
<pb n="38" />

                                flat. A 200 foot wide inlet was cut,
                                by waves and strong currents at the
                                change of the tides, across Hatteras
                                Island about two miles north of Buxton.
                                The highway along the shore was des-
                                troyed or underminded in many places
                                or covered with sand up to several
                                feet deep. Many cars were stranded
                                with only the rooftops appearing
                                above the sand. Most of the damage
                                to private property occurred in the
                                Kill Devil Hills-Kitty Ha,,,,7k-Nags
                                Head area north of Oregon Inlet where
                                many motels and summer homes suffered.

                                     Preliminary damage figures are
                                estimated at $12 million wLch does
                                not include the devastation to the
                                land. itself. Two deaths were reported
                                in North Carolina.

                                The Ash Wednesday Storm was the most severe North-
                           easter of recent memory, but many other such storms
                           have occurred in the Twentieth Century. Appendix VI
                           is a listing of some of the most severe of these. it
                           is interesting to note that the storms may originate or
                           be located over land or water and that wind gusts often
                           exceed hurricane force. The effect of the wind on
                           structures is not nearly as important as the action of
                           the waves generated by the wind. These storm-generated
                           waves are listed time after time as having caused
                           considerable beach erosion. With the continued develop-
                           ment of beach front property it is likely that public
                           awareness of Northeaster storms as a source of danger
                           will grow.

                                                    32
<pb n="39" />

                                   Surviving It . . . Safely

                           As we have seen, storms on the Atlantic coast
                      are a potential threat to the people living there.
                      The lives of Atlantic coast residents from New England
                      to Florida are in danger at all seasons of the year
                      when hurricanes and violent Northeasters strike. Even
                      though such storms may seem to be few and far between
                      at any given location, they are a regular feature of
                      life and those living on or near the coast should be
                      prepared to cope with them. In the final analysis it
                      is up to the individual to know what to expect, how to
                      prepare for and how to survive such storms. At the very
                      least, one member of each coastal family should become
                      acquainted with the facts in order to serve as leader
                      during such emergencies.

                           In the earlier years of this century hurricanes and
                      severe Northeasters struck with little or no prior
                      warning being provided to the inhabitants. The science
                      of meteorology has made great strides, however, and our
                      understanding of these storms and their movements has
                      grown. Electronic communications also have become
                      increasingly sophisticated. Efficient radios and
                      television receivers are to be found everywhere. News
                      of threatening storms can be heard on home, automobile,
                      boat and pocket radios. The National Weather Service
                      has developed an extensive and integrated communications
                      network within the organization and with the public. The
                      development of radar, weather satellites and hurricane
                      hunter aircraft have vastly improved the ability to detect
                      and track hurricanes while they are still far at sea.
                      The outcome of these achievements has been a system which
                      provides timely warning and accurate information about
                      storms to people at home, work or play. The surprise
                      storm appears to be a thing of the past.

                      The Warnings

                           The National Hurricane Center in Miami, Florida,
                      gathers and interprets information about Atlantic
                      tropical weather distrubances from many different sources.
                      If a disturbance intensifies to tropical storm strength
                      and appears to be headed toward land, the Center will begin
                      to issue advisories. These may be picked up by the news
                      media and ade v-ailable to the public. Occasional
                      bulletins may also be issued to further amplify the routine

                                                33
<pb n="40" />

                          information provided by the advisories. As the storm
                          reaches hurricane strength and is headed toward the
                          United States coastline a hurricane watch may be issued
                          from the National Hurricane Center or one of several
                          other offices located in San Juan, New Orleans, Washing-
                          ton and Boston. Once the area of hurricane landfall
                          is more positively identified, and the storm is expected
                          to come ashore in 24 hours or less, a hurricane warning
                          is issued. Areas of the coast for which such a warning
                          has been issued may expect dangerous hurricane winds
                          or storm surge to strike. As the storm comes very
                          close to shore the nearest National Weather Service
                          office may issue local statements. These are designed
                          to provide specific informaFi-onabout the anticipated
                          affects of the storm for individual counties. Areas
                          to be evacuated are identified and information is
                          provided for the protection of life and property.

                              Radio and television are the important links between
                          the National Weather Service and the public in storm
                          situations. The entire warning system is designed to
                          keep people informed of impending danger so that no one
                          will be caught unawares. As a hurricane approaches the
                          coast, the local goverment may advise evacuation. This
                          information will normally reach the public over radio
                          or television. In some cases emergency workers may go
                          from door to door to be sure that people are warned.

                              Coastal dwellers should have at least one battery-
                          powered radio in every household in order to keep informed
                          in the event of a loss of power due to the storm. In
                          addition to the standard portable radios receiving AM
                          and FM broadcasts, there are now special weather radio
                          receivers on the market. These are designed to pick
                          up continuous weather broadcasts by National Oceanic and
                          Atmospheric Administration stations around the country.
                          There are three such stations currently in operation on
                          the North Carolina coast: Cape Hatteras, 162.55 MHz;
                          New Bern, 162.40 MHz; and Wilmington 162.55 MHz. These
                          stations broadcast weather information seven days a
                          week and 24 hours a day. Their range is about 40 miles.
                          Six new stations were scheduled to go into operation in
                          the Fall of 1978 near Fayetteville, the Research Triangle
                          area, Rocky Mount-Wilson-Tarboro, Charlotte, the Triad
                          area and Asheville.

                          Evacuation

                              In the event that a call for evacuation is issued
                          there are certain procedures to be followed until the

                                                  34
<pb n="41" />

                       emergency is over. The following suggestions have
                       been published as a part of the county Evacuation Plans
                       (see Appendix I) prepared by local officials in coopera-
                       tion with the North Carolina Division of Civil Preparedness.

                            1.  Shut off main gas valve and pull main
                                power switch before leaving home.

                            2.  Head for the designated shelters or
                                evacuation points indicated for your
                                area, as directed on your Evacuation
                                Plan maps and by broadcasts during the
                                emergency. Follow routes indicated on
                                maps. Drive up to shelter entrance,
                                unload, and park car as police instruct.
                                / In some cases buses will be provided./
                                If on foot, proceed to nearest loading
                                station and board buses. No fare will
                                be charged.

                            3.  Take only clothing, food and special
                                medicine that is necessary; do not try
                                to bring household equipment. Evacuated
                                areas will be policed to prevent looting.

                            4.  Follow instructions of shelter personnel,
                                and volunteer to help with any tasks needed
                                for efficient shelter operation.

                            5.  Remain at the shelter until informed that
                                you may leave. People will not be allowed
                                back into evacuated areas until advised
                                by official public announcement.

                       Safety Rules

                            The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                       (NOAA) has published the following list of safety rules
                       indicating how people should respond to broadcast infor-
                       mation about a hurricane at all stages of the storm. The
                       emphasis is on action which individuals should take to
                       protect their lives and property. Most of these same
                       rules apply equally in situations along our coast when
                       severe northeast storms strike during the winter and spring
                       months.

                       1. Enter each hurricane season prepared. Every June
                             through November, recheck your supply of boards,
                             tools, batteries, nonperishable foods, and the

                                                 35
<pb n="42" />

                                  other equipment you will need when a hurricane
                                  strikes your town.

                           2.   When you hear the first tropical cyclone advisory,
                                  listen for future messages; this will prepare you
                                  for a hurricane emergency well in advance of the
                                  issuance of watches and warnings.

                           3.   When your area is covered by a hurricane watch,
                                  continue normal activities, but stay tuned to
                                  radio or television for all National Weather
                                  Service advisories. Remember: a hurricane
                                  watch means possible danger within 24 hours;
                                  if the danger materializes, a hurricane warning
                                  will be issued. Meanwhile, keep alert. Ignore
                                  rumors.

                           4.   When your area receives a hurricane warning:

                                  Keep calm until the emergency has ended.

                                  Plan your time before the storm arrives and
                                           -Ta-
                                  avoid the   st-minute hurry which might leave
                                  you marooned, or unprepared.

                                  Leave low-lVinq areas that may be swept by high
                                  tides or storm waves.

                                  Leave mobile homes. They are extremely suscep-
                                  E-ibleto High -winds and storm tides. Damage
                                  can be minimized by securing mobile homes with
                                  heavy cables anchored in concrete footing.

                                  Moor your boat securely before the storm arrives,
                                  or evacuate it to a designated safe area. When
                                  your boat is moored, leave it, and don't return
                                  once the wind and waves are up.

                                  Board up windows or protect them with storm.
                                  shutters or tape. Danger to small windows is
                                  mainly from wind-driven debris. Larger windows
                                  may be broken by wind pressure.

                                  Secure outdoor objects that might be blown away
                                  or uprooted. Garbage cans, garden tools, toys,
                                  signs, porch furniture, and a number of other
                                  harmless items become missiles of destruction
                                  in hurricane winds. Anchor them or store them
                                  inside before the storm strikes.

                                                     36
<pb n="43" />

                              Store drinking water in clean bathtubs, jugs,
                              bottles, cooking utensiles; your town's water
                              supply may be contaminated by flooding or
                              damaged by hurricane floods.

                              Check your battery-powered equipment. Your radio
                              may be your only link with the   rld outside the
                              hurricane, and emergency cooking facilities,
                              lights and flashlights will be essential if
                              utilities are interrupted.

                              Keep your car fueled. Service stations may be
                              inoperable for several days after the storm strikes,
                              due to flooding or interrupted electrical power.

                              stay at home, if it is sturdy and on high ground.
                              If it is not, move to a designated shelter, and
                              stay there until the storm is over.

                              Remain indoors during the hurricane. Travel is
                              extremely dangerous when winds and tides are
                              whipping through your area.

                              Monitor the storm's position through the National
                              Weather Service advisories.

                              Beware the e e of the hurricane. If the calm storm
                              center passes directly overhead, there will be a
                              lull in the wind lasting from a few minutes to half
                              an hour or more. Stay in a safe place unless
                              emergency repairs are absolutely necessary. But
                              remember, at the other side of the eye, the winds
                              rise very rapidly to hurricane force, and come from
                              the opposite direction.

                       5.   When the hurricane has passed:

                              Avoid loose or dangling wires, and report them
                              immediately to your power company or the nearest
                              law enforcement officer.

                              Seek necessary medical care at Red Cross disaster
                              stations or hospitals.

                              Stay out of disaster areas. Unless you are qualified
                                 help, your presence might hamper first-aid and
                              rescue work.

                              Drive carefully along debris-filled streets. Roads
                              may be undermined and may collapse under the weight
                              of a car. Slides along cuts are also a hazard,

                                                37
<pb n="44" />

                                 Report broken sewer or water mains to the water
                                 department.

                                 Prevent fires. Lowered water pressure may make
                                 firefighting difficult.

                                 Check refrigerated food for spoilage if power
                                 has been off during the storm.

                              Remember that hurricanes moving inland can cause
                         severe flooding. Stay away from river banks and streams.

                                                  38
<pb n="45" />

                                  What's Safe to Eat and Drink?

                            At the beginning of each hurricane season in May
                       or June, people living on the coast should prepare a
                       supply of emergency food. It should be large enough
                       to feed the members of the household for several days.
                       A variety of non-perishable canned foods not requiring
                       refrigeration is best for the purpose. Canned fruit
                       juices should be included in case the normal flow of
                       drinking water is interrupted. If the emergency food is
                       not used during the hurricane season, it can be used as
                       a part of the regular food supply during the winter.
                       At the start of the next storm season, a fresh suDplv
                       of emergency food should be stocked.

                            The following information about water and food during
                       an emergency is taken from the Disaster Handbook for
                       Extension Agents published by the Cooperative Exte-nsion
                       Service of the Pennsylvania State University.

                       Sources of Drinking Water

                            One of the most crucial needs is a supply of safe
                       water. Everyone needs at least two quarts of water or
                       other liquids daily (more in hot weather). Pure water
                       may be needed also for preparing food, brushing teeth,
                       and keeping clean.

                            When warned of a severe storm which could cause
                       flooding, or which could otherwise disrupt water services,
                       insure an adequate supply of safe water for your family
                       by filling large clean containers, pots, pans, sinks,
                       and bathtubs with water. Then shut off the main water
                       valve to protect the clean water already in your water
                       system, and close the valves on the water lines leaving
                       the house.

                            You may have emergency sources of water, such as
                       ice cubes, on hand. Soft drinks and fruit juices are
                       water substitutes. In addition, the water in water pipes
                       and toilet flush tanks (NOT THE BOWLS) is safe to drink
                       if the valve on the main water line was closed before
                       the flood.

                            To use the water still in the pipes, turn on the
                       faucet located in the highest point in the house-.-usually
                       in an upstairs bathroom. This lets air into the system.
                       Then draw water from the lowest faucet in the house.

                                                39
<pb n="46" />

                                The hot water heater or water pressure tank could
                           supply many gallons of safe water in an emergency.
                           Before using water from the water heater, switch off
                           the gas or electricity which heats the water. Leaving
                           the heating part on while the heater is empty could
                           cause an explosion or burn out the elements. After
                           turning off the gas or electricity, open the drain valve
                           at the bottom of the tank. Do not turn the water heater
                           on again until the water system is back in normal service.

                           Purifying Water

                                Unless you are absolutely certain your home water
                           supply is not contaminated by flood water, purify all
                           water before using it for drinking, food preparation,
                           brushing teeth or dishwashing. If the water contains
                           sediment or floating material, strain it through a cloth
                           before treating it. Water can be purified by boiling
                           or by chemical treatment.

                                                  Boiling

                                Boil water at a rolling boil for 10 minutes to kill
                           any disease-causing bacteria in the water. Add a pinch
                           of salt to each quart of boiled water to improve the taste.

                                           Chemical Treatment

                                If water cannot be boiled, treat it chemically. Two
                           chemicals usually found in the home will purify water.

                                Household bleach is a good disinfectant for water.
                           However, check the label to be sure that hypochlorite
                           is the only active ingredient in the bleach. Do not
                           use any bleach which contains soap.

                                   Percent chlorine       Add per gallon of water

                                       1%                          40 drops
                                       4 to 6%                      8drops
                                       7 to 10%                    4 drops
                                       Unknown                    10 drops

                                Mix the bleach thoroughly into the   water. Let it
                           stand for 30 minutes. The water should    have a slight
                           chlorine odor. If it doesn't, repeat the dose and let
                           the water stand for an additional 15 minutes.

                                                     40
<pb n="47" />

                           Household iodine from the medicine chest or
                      first aid kit also will purify water. The iodine
                      should be 2 percent United States Pharmocopeia (U.S.P.)
                      strength. Add 20 drops per gallon of clear water,
                      and 40 drops per gallon of cloudy water.

                           Water purification tablets also will purify water.
                      Follow manufacturer's directions. Water purification
                      tablets are available at drugstores.

                      Preparing Food During a Power Failure

                           During a power failure, cooking and eating habits
                      must change to fit the situation. You may have no
                      heat, no refrigeration, and limited water. In addition,
                      health risks from contaminated or spoiled food may
                      increase.

                                         Conserve Fuel

                           Consider the amount of cooking time needed for
                      particular foods. If you have limited heat for cook-
                      ing, choose foods which cook quickly. Prepare casseroles
                      and one-dish meals or serve no-cook foods.

                           Alternative cooking methods include:
                           --Fireplace. many foods can be skewered, grilled
                             or wrapped in foil and cooked in the fireplace.
                           --Electric utensils. If gas is cut off, but you
                             still have electricity, use electric skillets,
                             hot plates or coffee makers to heat food.
                           --Candle warmers and other devices such as fondue
                             pots may be used if no other heat sources are
                             available. Use safety precautions with these
                             devices. Never use fuel-burning camp stoves or
                             charcoal burners inside your home, even in a
                             fireplace. Fumes from these stoves can be
                             deadly.

                           Do not cook frozen foods unless you have ample heat for
                      cooking. Most frozen foods require considerably more
                      cooking time and heat than canned goods. Also, if
                      power is off, it is best to leave the freezer door closed
                      to keep food from thawing.

                                        Conserve Water

                           Save liquids from canned vegetables. Substitute
                      these for water in cooked dishes. Drain and save juices

                                               41
<pb n="48" />

                         from canned fruits. Substitute these for water in
                         salads and beverages.

                                     Observe Health Precautions

                              Boil all water used in food preparation for at
                         least 10 minutes.

                              If you are without refrigeration, open only enough
                         food for one meal. Some foods can be kept a short
                         time without refrigeration. Cooked vegetables, meat
                         and meat dishes can be kept unrefrigerated from noon
                         until the evening meal. Do not keep these dishes over-
                         night without refrigeration.

                              Do not serve foods that spoil easily, such as
                         ground meats, creamed foods, hash, custards, meat pies
                         and any food containing mayonnaise. These are potential
                         sources of botulism poisoning.

                              If necessary, substitute canned and powdered milk
                         for fresh milk. Canned milk will keep safely for a
                         few hours after you open the can. If you are using
                         canned milk to feed a baby, however, open a fresh can
                         for each bottle. Use only boiled or disinfected water
                         to mix powdered milk. Use powdered milk immediately
                         after it is mixed.

                              If safe water or water disinfecting material is
                         not avialdble, use canned or bottled fruit juices
                         instead of water.

                              Prepare and eat foods in their original containers,
                         if possible. This will help if dishwashing facilities
                         are limited.

                         Contaminated Foods

                              Contaminated food may be a problem following any
                         storm involving flooding.

                              Flood waters may carry silt, raw sewage, oil,
                         or chemical wastes. Filth and disease bacteria in
                         flood water will contaminate food, making it unsafe
                         to eat.

                              Inspect any food left in the house after a flood.
                         Flood water may have covered it, dripped on it, or
                         seeped into it. Even though some foods (see below)

                                                  42
<pb n="49" />

                      are protected by their containers, if you are in doubt
                      about the safety of a food, throw it out rather than
                      risk disease.

                           Use the following guidelines when deciding which
                      foods to discard and which to save.

                                        Food to Discard

                           Do not attempt to save the following foods:
                           --Opened containers and packages which have come
                             in contact with flood waters;
                           --Unopened jars and bottles with paper seals such
                             as those containing mayonnaise or salad dressing;
                           --Containers of spices, seasonings, and flavorings;
                           --Flour, sugar and coffee in canisters;
                           --Paper, cloth, fiber or cardboard boxes, even
                             if the contents seem dry. This includes salt,
                             cereals, pasta products, rice and "sealed"
                             packages of crackers or cookies within a larger
                             paper box;
                           --Dented, bulging or leaking tin cans. Cans which
                             have been tossed about and are found far from
                             their noraml storage spot. Seams on these cans
                             may have been weakened or their seals broken,
                             causing contamination or spoilage;
                           --Jam or jelly sealed with paraffin;
                           --Containers with non-sealed, fitted lids, such as
                             cocoa or baking powder;
                           --Commercially bottled carbonated beverages, if the
                             cap is crusted with silt;
                           --Foil or cellophane packages;
                           --All fresh vegetables and fruits which do not have
                             a peel, shell or coating which can be removed before
                             use; leafy vegetables;
                           --Fresh meat, fish and poultry which have been in
                             contact with flood waters;
                           --Home canned foods, even if the jar seems tightly
                             sealed. (However, in some cases, tightly sealed
                             home canned foods may be safe, depending on the
                             flood conditions. If your supply of canned food
                             is extensive, contact a food preservation specialist,
                             who can advise you after learning specific facts
                             about flood conditions.)

                                         Food to Keep

                           The following foods are safe if you wash and sanitize
                      containers before use; or wash, sanitize and peel fruits
                      or vegetables:
                                               43
<pb n="50" />

                                --Undamaged tin cans. For added safety boil
                                  food before using. Be sure to wash and sanitize
                                  container (see below) before opening the can.
                                --Potatoes. Wash, sanitize, dry, peel, and cook
                                  before using.
                                --Citrus fruits. Wash well, sanitize, and peel
                                  before using.
                                --Apples and other fruits which can be sanitized,
                                  peeled and cooked before eating. Do not eat
                                  raw fruit, even if it has been sanitized.

                               To Disinfect Cans and Commercial Glass Jars

                                All cans and commercial glass jars must be washed
                          and sanitized before they are opened.

                                Remove labels and wash in a strong detergent solution
                          with a scrub brush. Remove all silt.

                                Immerse scrubbed containers for 15 minutes in a
                          chlorine solution. Household bleaches contain from 2
                          percent to 6 percent chlorine. The amount of bleach to
                          add to water would depend on the percent chlorine it
                          contains:

                                              Volume of bleach       Volume of bleach
                               % chlorine        to add to             to add to
                                in bleach       1 quart water         1 gallon water

                                   2%            3/4 tablespoon          2 tablespoons
                                   4%              1 teaspoon            1 tablespoon
                                   6%            1/2 teaspoon          3/4 tablespoon

                                Remove containers from solution, and   air-dry before
                          opening. Re-label if possible. Use as soon as possible,
                          since containers may rust. Store containers where they
                          will not be re-contaminated.

                                   To Disinfect Fruits and Vegetables

                                Wash in a strong detergent solution with a scrub
                          brush. Remove all silt. Soak in a chlorine solution
                          for 15 to 20 minutes. (See table above for strength of
                          chlorine.) Rinse thoroughly with safe drinking water.
                          Peel if possible, and cook thorouahly before eating.
                          Refer any specific questions to health authorities or
                          your county extension agent.

                                                     44
<pb n="51" />

                                  Keeping a Roof Over Your Head

                            One important way engineers have learned proper
                      construction methods of coastal dwellings is through
                      experience. They have examined buildings which sur-
                      vived hurricanes and analyzed their components and
                      types of construction. The buildings which were
                      destroyed also have been examined and their weaknesses
                      identified. Such studies have greatly contributed to
                      knowledge of sound construction capable of withstanding
                      the forces of wind and water unleashed by hurricanes
                      and other severe coastal storms.

                            Engineers of the Forest Service of the US Department
                      of Agriculture (USDA) conducted a survey of damage to
                      buildings in the path of Hurricane Camille. On the night
                      of August 17, 1969, this most violent hurricane ever to
                      strike the US mainland made landfall on the Mississippi
                      coast with winds up to 190 miles per hour. Severe wind
                      damage was experienced on the coast and inland over an
                      area 40 miles wide by 80 miles long. Hattiesburg,
                      Mississippi, located 73 miles from the coast experienced
                      winds of up to 100 miles per hour. The combination of
                      wind and storm surge caused devastation on the Mississippi
                      coast while further inland winds and rain were mainly
                      responsible for the damage to structures.

                            The examination of damage throughout the area where
                      the storm was at its most severe resulted in the collection
                      of many valuable observations dealing with materials
                      and construction methods. "Wood Structures Survive Hurricane
                      Camille's Winds," was subsequently published as USDA
                      Forest Service Research Paper FPL 123 in October, 1969,
                      just  weeks after the hurricane. The summary of the find-
                      ings  of the survey team was as follows:

                                 Well-built conventional wood-frame con-
                            struction performed exceptionally well in
                            Hurricane Camille, except when subjected to
                            severe wave action. Wood-frame houses, in
                            particular, exhibited remarkable resistance
                            to the high winds. Apparently conventional
                            construction whose components are well attached
                            to each other is adequate to resist the wind
                            forces in hurricane zones.

                                 However, conventional construction of
                            any type on solid foundations is not adequate
                            to resist the severe tide and wave actions
                            along coastlines during hurricanes. Much

                                                 45
<pb n="52" />

                                of the damage to the coastal buildings
                                done by Hurricane Camille would probably
                                have been avoided if high pier type founda-
                                tions had been used to reduce the force of
                                water directly on the buildings. This
                                type of foundation also would have greatly
                                reduced property damage from flooding
                                further inland.

                                     Damage to wood-frame homes from wind
                                appeared to be less for those homes with
                                hip roofs than with gable-end roofs.
                                Most hip roofs that were observed lost
                                fewer shingles and did not have the roof
                                sheathing and rake damage common to
                                houses with gable-type roofs.

                                    Mobile homes were treated badly by
                                Hurricane Camille, as they were by previous
                                hurricanes. Mobile homes overturned by
                                the wind were generally complete losses.
                                Buildings of lightweight construction, as
                                mobile homes, should be adequately anchored
                                in hurricane or high wind zones. We believe
                                that much of the wind damage to mobile homes
                                could be,avoided by anchoring them to an
                                economical wood pier-type foundation.

                                Any person considering building in coastal areas
                           should pay special attention to the need for proper
                           fastening between the component parts and also the use
                           of pilings to raise the building above ground level.
                           An excellent source of information to the builder is
                           Research Paper, FPL 33, of the US Forest Service,
                           published in August, 1965, and entitled "Houses Can
                           Resist Hurricanes." It can be ordered from Forest
                           Service, USDA, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison,
                           Wisconsin. This publication contains clear illustrations
                           and descriptions of construction techniques which should
                           result in storm resistant structures. Figures 18 and 19
                           are just two of many appearing in the publication and
                           are included here as an indication of the detail provided.
                           In recent years a number of other pamphlets from various
                           sources have been published on the subject of construction
                           techniques to be used in building storm resistant structures.
                           The reader will find these listed in the references at
                           the end of this book. These publications also may provide
                           helpful in-formation for improving storm resistance in
                           existing buildings.

                                                    46
<pb n="53" />

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<pb n="54" />

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                                 Figure 19. Details of construction showing two
                            ways to make roofs more secure and wind resistant.

                                 There are many mobile homes in use in the coastal
                            counties of North Carolina and, under hurricane and
                            other high wind conditions, they present special
                            problems. Their construction is lightweight and their
                            sides are usually flat and this makes them especially
                            vulnerable to being rolled over or moved around by
                            high winds. When this happens a mobile home may be
                            completely destroyed. But there are several ways of
                            protecting mobile homes against high winds. If there
                            is sufficient room on the lot, the mobile home may be
                            positioned so that its end will face the prevailing
                            winds and present minimum resistance to them. The
                            local office of the National Weather Service should be
                            able to provide information about prevailing winds,
                            and indicate if they are an important factor. A second
                            type of protection is provided by trees which form a
                            natural windbreak. The more dense the stand of trees
                            around the mobile home the greater the protection, even
                            though there may be sore danger from falling limbs.
                            Finally, and most importantly, is the proper anchoring
                            of mobile homes by means of tiedowns.

                                 The use of tiedowns is becoming widespread and some
                            manufacturers are including built-in tiedown straps
                            underneath the skins of newer mobile homes. This
                               'rTER
                                                              AF
                                                        A @14
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                            important safety device can be added to mobile homes of
                            any age. Figure 20 shows some of the details of how
                            this is done. This plate was taken from a Publication

                                                     48
<pb n="55" />

                                                                                                                  Over-the-top Tiedown
                                                                          JEW                                       33FIBI

                                                                                                                                      Anchor
                                                                                                       Frame Tie

                                     Frame Tie                                                                  -    =                 .
                                                                           Frame @Tie....,
                                      T                                                                                 Type 3
                                        ype 1                                  Ty e

                              These sketches illustrate various methods for connecting frame ties to the mobile home frame. Type2systemcan
                              resist greater horizontal forces than Type 1. Type 3 system involves placement of mobile home on concrete slab.
                              Anchors embedded in concrete slab are connected to ties.
                                                                                                                       L
                              I.'.. -@ra e.Tie
                                        m
                                      Type  1@

                                                     Additions or canopies also
                                                     need to be secured with                   Double wides do not require over-the-top
                                                     over-the-top tieclowns.                   tiedowns but are subject to the same frame
                                                                                               tie requirements presented on page 8.

                                Figure 20. Tiedown plans for several types of mobile homes.
<pb n="56" />

                           all mobile home owners should have. The title is Protecting
                           Mobile Homes From Hiqh Winds, TR-75, published by the
                           Civil Preparedness Agency, Departipent of Defense,
                           in February, 1974. Copies may be obtained from local
                           Civil Preparedness officials or ordered from the Super-
                           intendent of Documents, US Government Printing Office,
                           Washington, D.C. 20402. It should be ordered by the
                           Government Printing office stock number 008-030-00013-8.
                           The cost is 70 cents per copy.

                                Even though all precautions have been taken to
                           make a mobile home as wind resistant as possible, the
                           occupants should seek more solid shelter when warnings
                           of severe wind storms are issued.

                                                     50
<pb n="57" />

                                          Boating It

                           Boat owners who are on the coast as a hurricane
                      is approaching will receive ample warning through the
                      advisories and bulletins of the National Weather Service.
                      All boats, no matter what their size, should have some
                      sort of radio aboard even if it is only a small transistor
                      set capable of receiving commercial broadcasting stations.
                      In this way the boat owner can remain aware of general
                      weather conditions. At the first indication of possible
                      danger the boater should return to shore. Next, he should
                      decide what to do with the boat to ensure that it will
                      survive the storm undamaged.

                           There are a number of actions the boater can take.
                      Facilities and time permitting, large boats should be
                      put in dry storage. If the boat is trailerable it
                      should be pulled out of the water at a ramp and moved
                      out of the area at the same time the boater is moving
                      inland to a safer location.

                           Should a boat owner find himself without sufficient
                      time to get his boat out of the water, these suggestions
                      by Talbot F. Hamlin will help. They appeared in an
                      article entitled "When You Get Caught-Things That Will
                      Help in Squall or Hurricane" published in Yachting,
                      October,  1955.

                           1.   Know a good hole and go there in time.

                           2.   Be sure you have on board adequate anchors,
                                enough rode (at least one should be 250
                                feet or longer), and plenty of docking
                                lines of sufficient length and diameter.

                           3.   Keep your gasoline tanks full and your
                                engine in good running condition at all
                                times. You don't know when a sudden
                                emergency may make it invaluable.

                           4.   If you are at a pier, get on the lee
                                side, be careful of your docking lines,
                                and, in the case of hurricanes, judge
                                if the piles are high enough.

                                                 51
<pb n="58" />

                                    If not, leave the pier and anchor in the
                                    safest place you can find (or, if you have
                                    to, run free).

                                5.  Get your engine running when emergency
                                    threatens. Then leave it out of gear or put
                                    it in gear, as conditions indicate.

                                6.  Keep your mooring slack, but take care not
                                    to override it. If you are using power when
                                    at anchor, be careful not to have so much
                                    slack in the anchor rode as to create a
                                    danger of fouling it in your propeller.

                                7. Have plenty of chafing gear, and use it.

                                     with these precautions a modern vessel can
                                face squalls and gales confidently with a good
                                promise of coming through undamaged, and with
                                crew tired, perhaps, but alive and well.

                                If a boat has been removed from the water on its
                           trailer but will not be hauled away there are some
                           precautions which might be followed. The boat should
                           be covered with a canvas so that it will not fill with
                           rain water. Whether it is covered or not, the plug should
                           be pulled to ensure that any water will drain from the
                           interior. Both boat and trailer may be secured with lines
                           to some substantial object to prevent movement by the wind.

                                In the case of a small boat which must be left out
                           of doors during a storm it is best to move it to high
                           ground and turn it bottom up. It should be secured to
                           solid objects or, if there are none at hand, metal rods
                           can be driven into the ground and the boat tied to them.

                                If the owner of a larger boat finds himself in a
                           crowded anchorage he may wish to utilize a three anchor
                           mooring system. This consists of three lightweight anchors
                           placed equidistant from each other around a center point
                           and 120 degrees apart. The anchors are bridled to a
                           common center. A chain and pennant from that center provide
                           a point to which the boat with a short rode can be tied
                           up. The boat is free to swing through a small circle
                           and, no matter what the direction of the wind, there will
                           always be one or two anchors to windward holding it. This
                           system has proven to be very effective under severe
                           weather conditions.

                                Above all, once a boat has been moored as securely as
                           possible, the boat owner should leave it and not attempt to
                           return to it until after the wind and waves have subsided.

                                                    52
<pb n="59" />

                                          On the Farm

                           The low-lying eastern counties of North Carolina
                      are predominantly rural. Hurricanes coming ashore
                      and moving inland-frequently have caused damage to farm
                      property and crops in this part of the state. The damage
                      may be caused by high winds or by flooding. In areas
                      close to the sound shores flooding may be the result
                      of storm surges in the sounds. Elsewhere, flooding may
                      be the result of heavy rainfall associated with the storms.

                           The following information for farmers is taken
                      from the Disaster Handbook for Extension Agents
                      published by the Cooperative Extension Service of
                      Pennsylvania State University.

                      Protecting Farm Buildings From Severe Winds

                           High winds can damage farm buildings. The following
                      procedures are recommended to help protect buildings during
                      severe windstorms.

                           --Securely close all doors and windows. Try to
                             determine whether the buffeting and force of
                             the wind will break fasteners or hinges. Nail
                             doors and windows shut, if necessary. If the
                             building is tight, open windows slightly on
                             the side away from the wind to help equalize
                             pressure.
                           --Nail plywood or boards over large windows and
                             windows with weak sashes.
                           --Brace large barn doors and weak walls. use
                             interior braces on the windward side, and
                             exterior braces on the side away from the wind.
                             If you are uncertain about the direction of
                             the wind, use both interior and exterior braces.
                             Place braces on the reinforced section of the
                             door or wall to distribute the bracing effect
                             over a larger area.
                           --Check that roof rafters are securely fastened to
                             wall studding. Use 2 inch by 2 inch metal plumber's
                             straps or 2 inch by 6 inch knee braces to secure
                             rafters, if necessary.
                           --Check metal roofing and siding for loose nails.
                             If nails don't tighten when hammered back in,
                             pull them out, use a #12 or #14 metal screw to
                             fill the hole, and renail 3 to 4 inches away;
                             eaves should be nailed every 5 inches.
                                               53
<pb n="60" />

                               --Do not use heavy machinery to anchor small
                                 buildings. Replacing machinery could be more
                                 expensive than replacing a building.

                          ProtectingLivestock During a Flood

                               Livestock not in a confined area usually can take
                          care of themselves during floods. Do not let them
                          become trapped in low-lying pens.

                               In broad, level flood plains where flood waters are
                          seldom deeper than 3 or 4 feet, construct mounds of soil
                          on which livestock can stay until flood waters recede.
                          Or carry bales of hay for hogs to climb on. Try to locate
                          these mounds where they will not be washed away by fast-
                          flowing water.

                               --Provide feed and water. Water is essential.
                                 Thirsty animals will try to break out to get
                                 to flood waters. If water is in short supply,
                                 limit feed intake.
                               --If animals are housed with machinery, fasten
                                 bales of straw in front of sharp edges and
                                 protruding parts such as cutter bars or crank
                                 handles. (Do not use hay, because animals
                                 will eat it.) Try to cover wooden paddle
                                 wheels on combines or choppers, since these
                                 parts can be dangerous if partially broken.
                               --Block off narrow passageways where animals
                                 would be unable to turn around. A few heavy
                                 animals in a narrow dead end can be dangerous
                                 both to themselves and the building.
                               --Be absolutely certain that herbicides, pesti-
                                 cides, and treated seeds are not even remotely
                                 accessible to livestock, and are stored where
                                 flood water will not contaiminate livestock feed
                                 or water.
                               --Turn off electricity at the main switch. Livestock
                                 could damage electric fixtures, causing fires or
                                 electrocutions.
                               --If there is a possibility that dairy barns may
                                 become inundated, drive cattle out of the barn.
                                 During rapid rise of water, cattle often refuse
                                 to leave the barn and may drown if the water
                                 rises high enough in the barn.

                                                   54
<pb n="61" />

                     Preparingto Evacuate--What to Do on Your Farm

                          Insure family safety first. Be certain you have
                     enough time to get to higher ground before access is
                     cut off. If you have time before you receive an
                     evacuation order, the following precautions may help
                     protect farm buildings, livestock and equipment from
                     flood damage.

                          --Move machinery, feed, grain, pesticides and
                            herbicides to higher elevations.
                          --Construct mounds of soil for livestock, or
                            open gates so livestock can escape high water.
                            Small numbers of hogs can sometimes be saved
                            by bringing them bales of hay to climb on.
                          --Animals swim well. The greatest problem for
                            grazing animals will be fences and other
                            obstacles. Try to drive stock through water
                            free of obstructions. Long swims through
                            calm water are safer than short swims through
                            a swift current.
                          --Leave building doors and windows open at least
                            2 inches to equalize water pressure and help
                            prevent buildings from shifting.
                          --If possible, move motors and portable electric
                            equipment to a dry location.
                          --Disconnect electric power to all buildings
                            which may be flooded. If in doubt about how
                            to disconnect power, call your utility company.

                     Dairymen who anticipate extensive flooding should:
                          --Check with a veterinarian to be sure cattle are
                            properly immunized before being exposed to flood
                            waters;
                          --Check with the Department of Health concerning
                            approval of temporary milking facilities;
                          --Try to obtain standby equipment or services for
                            emergency milk pickup;
                          --When possible, move grain out of reach of flood
                            water.

                     Tie down lumber, logs, irrigation pipes,fuel tanks and
                     other loose equipment or material.

                     Prepare immovable power units and machinery for flooding:
                          --Seal radiator openings (tighten caps and plug
                            overflow);
                          --Remove air cleaners and carburetors; seal openings.
                            Use material strong enough to withstand water
                            pressure;
                                              55
<pb n="62" />

                                --Fill oil reservoirs. Plug breather pipes and
                                  openings;
                                --Fill bearings with fresh lubricant;
                                --Protect open gears, sprockets, pulleys and
                                  wearing and cutting edges of machinery with
                                  lubricant or rust inhibitor;
                                --Drape polyethelene sheeting over bell ends
                                  of motor. Tie securely with cord on cylindrical
                                  part of motor housing, or fasten with a strong
                                  rubber band.

                           Safety of Flooded Garden Produce

                                If flood waters have covered a garden, some produce
                           will be unsafe to eat. The safety of unharvested fruits
                           and vegetables will depend on:

                                --kind of produce;
                                --maturity of produce at the time of flooding;
                                --time of year flooding occurred;
                                --severity of flooding (depth of water and silt);
                                --duration of flooding;
                                --bacterial content of floodwater;
                                --likelihood of contamination from sewage or
                                  other bacterial contaminants.

                                            Immature Produce

                                In general, fruits and vegetables which were immature
                           at the time of flooding should be safe to eat by the
                           time they are ready for harvest. For additional safety,
                           disinfect produce (see below) and cook it before eating.

                                             Mature Produce

                                Unless flooding was light and there is no danger
                           of bacterial contamination from floodwater, avoid using
                           fruits and vegetables that were ready for harvest at the
                           time of flooding, unless they can be disinfected, peeled
                           and thoroughly cooked. Some fruits and vegetables are
                           more susceptible than others to bacterial contamination.

                                --Leafy vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage,
                                  mustard, kale, collards, spinach, swiss chard,
                                  celery and fleshy vegetables and berry fruits
                                  such as tomatoes, summer squash, strawberries
                                  and peppers would be highly susceptible to
                                  bacterial contamination. Silt and other

                                                   56
<pb n="63" />

                              contaminants might be imbedded in the leaves,
                              petioles, stems or other natural openings of
                              fleshy structures, and could be difficult to
                              remove.
                            --Root, bulb and tuber crops such as beets,
                              carrots, radishes, turnips, onions and potatoes
                              would be less susceptible to bacterial contami-
                              nation. Disinfect these vegetables, peel and
                              cook them thoroughly before eating.
                            --Produce with a protected fruit or impervious
                              outer skin such as peas, melons, eggplant,
                              sweet corn or winter squash should be washed
                              and disinfected before the outer shell, skin
                              or husk is removed. Then shell, peel or husk
                              the produce, and cook it if possible.

                                       Disinfecting Measures

                            Thoroughly wash and disinfect any produce before
                       eating.

                            --Wash in a strong detergent solution with a scrub
                              brush. Remove all silt.
                            --Immerse produce for 15 to 20 minutes in a chlorine
                              solution. Household bleaches contain from 2 percent
                              to 6 percent  chlorine. The amount of bleach to
                              add to water  depends on the percentage chlorine
                              it contains:

                                            Volume of bleach      Volume of bleach
                            % chlorine        to add to             to add to
                            in bleach       one quart water       one gallon water

                               2%           3/4 tablespoon          2 tablespoons
                               4%             1 teaspoon            1 tablespoon
                               6%           1/2 teaspoon          3/4 tablespoon

                            --Rinse thoroughly with safe drinking water.
                            --Peel, if possible, and cook thoroughly before eating.
                              Refer any specific questions to health authorities
                              or your county extension agent.

                       Disposing of Sewage and Garbage

                            Damaged sewage systems are health hazards. It is
                       important to get damaged septic tanks, cesspools, pits
                       and leaching systems into service as soon as possible.

                            If the area has been flooded, you should wait until
                       the water level recedes before using sewage system.

                                                 57
<pb n="64" />

                                 Trained personnel in local and state health
                            departments will help with these problems. They will
                            be able to advise you about cleaning, repairing and
                            relocating installations, if necessary. Problems
                            with water purity, waste disposal, or pest control
                            should also be referred to them.

                                                Septic Tanks

                                 Most septic tanks will not be damaged by a flood,
                            since they are below ground and completely covered.
                            However, if the tank has been damaged and is filled
                            with silt and debris, it must be cleaned. Use a
                            shovel or sewage pump to clean the tank.

                                 Do not use the sewage system until water in the
                            disposal field is lower than water level around the
                            house.

                                 If tile lines in the disposal field are filled
                            with silt from floodwater, install a new set of lateral
                            tile or perforated pipe in new trenches. Dig the new
                            trenches alongside the old tile lines. Install the
                            tile or pipe according to septic tank system installa-
                            tion specifications. The recommended normal grade is
                            from 2 to 4 inches per 100 feet. Do not use the sewage
                            system until new tiles are laid.

                                 It may be necessary to wait a few days before
                            returning a septic tank system to normal use. It will
                            take some time for water to evaporate from saturated
                            soil, so that the tile field will be able to function
                            again. Septic tank starter materials such as yeast
                            enzymes or horse manure will not be needed.

                                           Temporary Sanitation

                                 Until sewage disposal systems are back in normal
                            working order, use any large container with a tight-
                            fitting lid for a temporary toilet. Line the container
                            with a plastic bag. After each use, add chlorine bleach
                            or disinfectant to stop odor and kill germs.

                                 A chemical camper's toilet will be quite useful in
                            disaster situations.

                                                   Garbage

                                 Try to remove garbage as soon as possible to prevent
                            rat infestations and other health problems. Some garbage
                            can be burned. Bury garbage that will not burn. Dig a
                            hole 4 or 5 feet deep, and cover garbage with at least
                            18 inches of soil.
                                                      58
<pb n="65" />

                      Disposing of Animal Carcasses

                           Prompt and sanitary disposal of animal carcasses
                      is necessary to protect the living animals in an area
                      from disease. Search all pastures for dead animals
                      as soon as possible. Carcasses may have some commercial
                      value, so send them to a rendering plant if possible.
                      If rendering is impractical, dispose of the dead animals
                      on the premises. Use the following procedures:

                           --Immediately after finding a carcass, cover
                             it with crude oil or kerosene to keep away
                             dogs, buzzards and vermin.
                           --Fat swine are the only animal carcass that
                             will burn satisfactorily. Used railroad
                             ties can be used as starters.
                           --Bury other carcasses. Use power equipment
                             if it is available. Choose a site where
                             subsurface drainage will not reach water
                             supplies. Bury the carcasses at least
                             3 to 4 feet deep, so predatory animals
                             won't be able to reach them. If quicklime
                             is available, cover carcasses with it before
                             back filling. Quicklime will hasten
                             decomposition.

                                                59
<pb n="66" />

                                           Appendix I

                                 CIVIL PREPAREDNESS INFORMATION

                            In North Carolina the headquarters for the state-
                       wide Division of Civil Preparedness is located in the
                       Administration Building, 116 West Jones Street, Raleigh,
                       North Carolina 27611. The telephone number there is
                       919/733-3867. Questions about disasters, preparedness
                       and related subjects for all parts of the state can be
                       directed to this office.

                            This publication is concerned with the coastal
                       zone of North Carolina and the following list gives
                       the addresses and telephone numbers of local Civil
                       Preparedness Agencies in the 20 coastal counties.
                       Citizens should be able to obtain advice and specific
                       information such as local evacuation plans from the
                       county offices.

                       County or City Agency                         Telephone

                       Beaufort County Civil Preparedness Agency     919/946-2046
                       P.O. Box 124
                       Washington, NC   27889

                       Bertie County Civil Preparedness Agency       919/794-3876
                       P.O. Box 75
                       314 Belmont Street
                       Windsor, NC   27983

                       Brunswick County Civil Preparedness Agency    919/253-4376
                       Brunswick County Governmental Center
                       Bolivia, NC   28422

                       Camden County Civil Preparedness Agency       919/335-4077
                       Courthouse
                       Camden, NC   27921

                       Carteret County Civil Preparedness Agency     919/728-2091
                       P.O. Box 536, Courthouse Square
                       Morehead City, NC   28557

                      *Pine Knoll Shores Civil Preparedness Agency 919/726-8021
                       Town Hall, P.O. Box 757
                       Atlantic Beach, NC    28512

                      *Pine Knoll Shores is located in Carteret County.
                                                 61
<pb n="67" />

                            County or City Agency                            Telephone

                            Chowan County Civil Preparedness Agency          919/482-3111
                            County Office Building
                            Edenton, NC    27932

                            Craven County  Civil Preparedness Agency         919/638-6135
                            Drawer R
                            401 George Street
                            New Bern, NC     28560

                            Currituck County Civil Preparedness Agency       919/232-2836
                            Currituck, NC     27929

                            Dare County Civil Preparedness Agency            919/473-3481
                            P.O. Box 156, Courthouse
                            Manteo, NC    27954

                            Gates County Civil Preparedness Agency           919/357-1240
                            Courthouse
                            Gatesville, NC      27938

                            Hertford County Civil Preparedness Agency        919/358-1611
                            P.O. Box 424, Courthouse
                            Winton, NC    27986

                            Hyde County Civil Preparedness Agency            919/926-3451
                            P.O. Box 87
                            Swanquarter, NC     27885

                            New Hanover County Civil Preparedness Agency     919/763-7555
                            Box C-D, 115 Red Cross Street
                            Wilmington, NC     28401

                            Onslow (Jacksonville) County Civil               919/347-4270
                               Preparedness Agency
                            604 College Street
                            Agriculture Building
                            Jacksonville, NC     28540

                            Pamlico County Civil Preparedness Agency         919/745-3081
                            County Courthouse
                            Bayboro, NC    28515

                            Pasquotank (Elizabeth City) County Civil         919/335-4444
                               Preparedness Agency
                            1404 Parkview Drive
                            Elizabeth City, NC     27909

                            Pender County Civil Preparedness Agency          919/259-2629
                            P.O. Box 28, Courthouse
                            Burgaw, NC    28425
                                                       62
<pb n="68" />

                      County or City Agency                        Telephone

                      Perquimans County Civil Preparedness         919/426-5564
                        Agency
                      P.O. Box 2
                      Hertford, NC   27944

                      Tyrrell County Civil Preparedness Agency      919/796-5611
                      P.O. Box 426
                      Columbia, NC   27925

                      Washington County Civil Preparedness Agency 919/793-2771
                      P.O. Box 176
                      Roper, NC   27970

                                              63
<pb n="69" />

                                              Appendix II

                                         DISASTER FACT SHEETS

                               The North Carolina Agricultural Extension Service
                          has prepared a series of fact sheets to inform farmers
                          and rural people about how to cope with natural disasters.
                          They are available to the public at county Agricultural
                          Extension Service offices or from the North Carolina
                          Agricultural Extension Service, North Carolina State
                          University, Raleigh, NC 27607. The titles of the Disaster
                          Fact Sheets are:

                               Natural Disaster Assistance Available From The
                                 U.S. Department of Agriculture
                               Disinfection of Private Well Water Supplies After
                                 A Natural Disaster
                               How To Settle An Insurance Claim
                               Hurricane And Flood Tips For Tobacco Farmers
                               Repairing Your House And Farm Buildings After The
                                 Flood
                               How To Clean Your Freezer
                               Emergency Crop Flood Information
                               Reconditioning The Water System
                               Minimize Poultry Losses
                               After-The-Flood Tips for Homemakers
                               Care Of Storm-Damaged Trees And Shrubs
                               Care Of Household Utilities And Appliances
                               Income Tax Tips For Farm Operators
                               Tractor And Implement Cleaning
                               Guidelines For Restoring Fields Flooded By Salt
                                 Water

                                                   64
<pb n="70" />

                                            Appendix III

                         DEFINITIONS OF TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH HURRICANES

                       Advisory. A formal message from a Weather Service
                       Nu-rricane Warning Office giving warning information
                       along with details on tropical cyclone location,
                       intensity and movement and precautions that should
                       be taken. The advisory may contain information on
                       specific coastal warnings for which displays are made.

                       Bulletin. A public release from a Weather Service
                       ff_ui@_r_icane Warning Office, issued at times other than
                       those when advisories are required. The bulletin
                       is similar in form to the advisory except that the
                       bulletin includes additional general newsworthy
                       infornation. The bulletin routinely will include
                       a resume of all warnings in effect.

                       Cyclone. Any atmospheric system in which atmospheric
                       pressure diminishes progressively to a minimum value
                       at the center and toward which the winds blow spirally
                       inward from all sides, resulting in a lifting of air
                       and eventually in clouds and precipitation. Cyclones
                       are the lows of weather maps. Circulation in a cyclone
                       is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, clock-
                       wise in the Southern Hemisphere. The name does not
                       suggest any degree of intensity and is applied to
                       moderate as well as intense storms. Cyclones are
                       divided into tropical and extratropical groups, depending
                       upon characteristics of the surrounding air masses.
                       The hurricane is a tropical cyclone, and is the most
                       ideal vortex in the atmosphere.

                       Eye. (See Hurricane Center)

                       Gale Warning. A warning of sustained winds within the
                       range 39 to 54 miles per hour (34 to 47 knots).

                       Storm Warning. (Associated with Tropical Cyclones.) A
                       ;W-arnin4@-6'r -sustained winds within the range of 55 to 73
                       miles per hour (48 to 63 knots) inclusive.

                       Hurricane. A warm core tropical cyclone in which
                       maximum sustained surface wind is 74 miles per hour
                       (64 knots) or greater.

                       Hurricane Center or Eye. The relatively calm area near
                       the center of the storm. In this area winds are light
                       and the sky often is only partly covered by clouds,
                                                  65
<pb n="71" />

                          Hurricane "Season". The portion of the year having a
                          relatively high incidence of hurricanes. In the Atlantic,
                          Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico it is usually regarded as
                          the period from June through November.

                          Hurricane Warning. A warning that one or both of the
                          following dangerous effects of a hurricane are expected
                          in a specified coastal area in 24 hours or less: (a)
                          sustained winds 74 miles per hour (64 knots) or higher;
                          (b) dangerously high water or a combination of dangerously
                          high water and exceptionally high waves, even though winds
                          expected may be less than hurricane force.

                          Hurricane Watch. An.announcement for specific areas that
                          a hurricane or an incipient hurricane condition poses
                          a threat to coastal and inland communities. All people
                          in the indicated areas should take stock of their prepared-
                          ness requirements, keep abreast of the latest advisories
                          and bulletins and be ready for quick action in case a
                          warning is issued for their areas.

                          Local Statement. A public release prepared by a Weather
                          Service Office in or near a threatened area giving specific
                          details for its area of county responsibility on: (a)
                          weather conditions; (b) sections that should be evacuated;
                          (c) and other precautions necessary to protect life and
                          property.

                          Squall. A sudden increase of wind speed by at least 18
                          miles per hour (16 knots) and rising to 25 miles per hour
                          (22 knots) or more and lasting for at least one minute.

                          Tropical Cyclone. A non-frontal cyclone of synoptic
                          scale, developing over tropical or sub-tropical waters
                          and having a definite organized circulation.

                          Tropical Disturbance. A discrete system of apparently
                          organized convection, generally 100 to 300 miles in
                          diameter originating in the tropics or subtropics, having
                          a non-frontal migratory character and having maintained
                          its identity for 24 hours or more. It may or may not be
                          associated with a detectable perturbation in the wind
                          field. As such, it is the basic generic designation which,
                          in successive stages of intensification, may be subse-
                          quently classified as a tropical wave, depression, storm
                          or hurricane.

                          Tropical Wave. A trough or cyclonic curvature maximum in
                          the traa_e7-wind easterlies. The wave may reach maximum
                          amplitude in the lower middle troposphere, or may be the
                          reflection of an upper troposphere cold low or equator-
                          ward extension of a middle latitude trough.
                                                    66
<pb n="72" />

                        Tropical Depression. A tropical cyclone in which
                        the maximum sustained surface wind is 38 miles per
                        hour (33 knots) or less.

                        Tropical Storm. A warm core tropical cyclone in which
                        the maxiiiu-msustained surface wind is in the range
                        of 39 to 73 miles per hour (34-63 knots) inclusive.

                        Storm Tide. An abnormal rise of the sea along a shore
                        primarily as the result of the winds of a storm. The
                        storm tide may occur in basins not normally affected
                        by the tide. It may also flood lowlands in coastal
                        sections that are normally dry.

                        Sustained Wind. The wind obtained by averaging the
                        observed value over a one-minute period.

                                                 67
<pb n="73" />

                                                        APPENDIX IV

                                                 WIND EFFECTS OVER WATER
                                                                                                      Probable
                                                                                       Wind force     wave height
               Knots    Descriptive                   Sea Conditions                   (Beaufort)     in ft.

               0-1       Calm            Sea smooth and mirror-like.                          0              -

               1-3       Light air       Scale-like ripples without foam crests.              1            1/4

               4-6       Light           Small, short wavelets; crests have a                 2            1/2
                           breeze          glassy appearance and do not break..

               7-10      Gentle          Large wavelets; some crests begin to                 3              2
                           breeze          break; foam of glassy appearance.
                                           Occasional white foam crests.
         co    11-16     Moderate        Small waves, becoming longer; fairly                 4              4
                                           frequent white foam crests.

               17-21     Fresh           Moderate waves, taking a more pronounced             5              6
                                           long form; many white foam crests;
                                           there may be some spray.

               22-27     Strong          Large waves begin to form; white foam                6              10
                                           crests are more extensive everywhere;
                                           there may be some spray.

               28-33     Near gale       Sea heaps up and white foam from break-              7              14
                                           ing waves begins to be blown in streaks
                                           along the direction of the wind; spin-
                                           drift begins.

               34-40     Gale            Moderately high waves of greater length;             8              18
                                           edges of' crests break into spindrift;
                                           foam is blown in well-marked streaks
                                           along the direction of the wind.
<pb n="74" />

                41-47      Strong         High waves; dense streaks of foam along              9             23
                             gale            the direction of the wind; crests of
                                             waves begin to topple, tumble, and
                                             roll over; spray may reduce visibility.

                48-55      Storm          Very high waves with long overhanging               10             29
                                             crests. The resulting foam in great
                                             patches is blown in dense white streaks
                                             along the direction of the wind. On
                                             the whole, the surface of the sea is
                                             white in appearance. The tumbling of
                                             the sea becomes heavy and shocklike.
                                             Visibility is reduced.

                56-63      Violent        Exceptionally high waves that may obscure           11             37
                             storm           small-and medium-sized ships. The sea
                                             is completely covered with long white
                                             patches of foam lying along the direc-
                                             tion of the wind. Everywhere the edges
                                             of the wave crests are blown into froth.
                                             Visibility reduced.

                64 and     Hurricane      The air is filled with foam and spray.              12             45
                 above                       Sea completely white with driving spray;
                                             visibility very much reduced.
<pb n="75" />

                                               Appendix V

                                 COASTAL HURRICANES OF THE 20TH CENTURY

                               The following list represents those tropical storms
                          which were of full hurricane strength at the time they
                          reached coastal North Carolina. The decayed stages of
                          hurricanes reaching this area are not listed. Storms
                          passing close enough off shore to affect land areas
                          are included even though they did not make landfall.

                          1901 July 11: Made landfall near Oregon Inlet. No
                          record of damage.

                          1903 September 15: Passed off shore but affected the
                          northern Outer Banks.

                          1904 Se tember 14: I-lade landfall between Charleston,
                          South Carol na, and the North Carolina state line.
                          Damage to crops in eastern and central North Carolina
                          from wind and rain.

                          1904 November 13: Passed off shore near Cape Hatteras.
                          Three wrecked schooners. Several persons drowned on land
                          and at sea.

                          1906 September 17: blade landfall near Myrtle Beach,
                          SoutH Carolina. Property damage at Wrightsville Beach.

                          1908 July 30: Passed up the coast close to Cape Hatteras.
                          Heavy Fain-fall caused flooding in the eastern counties.
                          Considerable property damage at Wrightsville Beach.

                          1913 September 3: Made landfall between Hatteras and
                          Beaufort. Storm surge in Pamlico Sound washed away
                          railroad bridges at Washington and New Bern. Wind and
                          rain caused severe damage to crops as far west as Durham.

                          1920 September 22: Made landfall between Wilmington
                          and Morehead City. One person killed and many injured
                          in Pitt County.

                          1924 August 25: Passed off shore just east of Hatteras.
                          Two people drowned and Ocracoke partially flooded.

                          1930 September 12: Passed off shore causing minor wind
                          'Ea-mage from Atlantic Beach to Hatteras.

                          1933 August 22-23    Made landfall at Cape Hatteras. High
                          tides and winds caused great damage in northeastern
                          counties estimated at $250,000.
                                                    70
<pb n="76" />

                      1933 September 15-16: Made landfall west of Hatteras.
                      Storm surge in Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds caused 21
                      deaths and $3 million in damage. New Bern flooded.

                      1936 September 18: Passed up the coast slightly east
                      of Hatteras. Estimated damage of $55,000 to the northern
                      coast. Heavy damage to crops.

                      1938 September 21: Passed off shore on its way north
                      where it Ti@d--&amp;-6'H-siderable damage and was called "The
                      Great New England Hurricane of 1938." No damage or
                      loss of life reported in North Carolina.

                      1944 August 1: Made landfall near Southport. Heavy
                      damage to structures at Carolina Beach. Considerable
                      crop damage in the southern coastal counties. Estimated
                      total damage was $2 million.

                      1944 September 14: Passed a short distance east of
                      Cape Hatteras moving northward. On the central and
                      northern coastal areas 108 buildings were destroyed
                      and more than 600 damaged. Estimated damage to crops
                      at $1 million. Heavy damage in Elizabeth City and
                      Nags Head. One person killed.

                      1949 August 24: Passed off shore at Cape Hatteras
                      directly over the Diamond Shoals Lightship. An estimated
                      $50,000 in property damage occurred, mostly in the
                      vicinity of Buxton. Two persons died.

                      1953 August 13: Hurricane Barbara made landfall between
                      Morehead City and Ocracoke. Estimated property damage
                      was $100,000 while the crop loss was $1 million. one
                      person died.

                      1954 August 30: Hurricane Carol passed just to the east
                      of Cape Hatteras. Widespread light damage came to an
                      estimated $250,000.

                      1954 September 10: Hurricane Edna passed about 60 miles
                      east of Cape Hatteras. Minor but widespread damage
                      was estimated at $75,000 for property and $40,000 for
                      crops.

                      1954 October 15: Hurricane Hazel made landfall right
                      on the South Carolina line. From that point northward
                      to Cape Lookout, the ocean front was ravaged by storm
                      surge. At Long Beach 352 of the existing 357 buildings
                      were totally destroyed. Nearby beaches suffered similar
                      damage. Miles of grass covered dunes disappeared. Flooding
                      occurred in Washington, New Bern and Elizabeth City. Heavy
                      wind damage experienced all over eastern North Carolina
                                               71
<pb n="77" />

                          and record amounts of rainfall were recorded. Nineteen
                          people, most of whom were in beach locations died. Total
                          property damage amounted to approximately $125 million.

                          1955 ugust 12: Hurricane Connie made landfall close
                          to Cape Lookout. Caused severe flooding in low-lying
                          coastal areas and around the sounds. Heavy beach
                          erosion also occurred. No deaths were reported. Hurricane
                          Diane followed in five days and made it impossible to
                          assess the damage caused by this storm.

                          1955 August 17: Hurricane Diane made landfall near
                          Carolina Beach and passed over Wilmington. Winds caused
                          crop damage as far west as Raleigh. Heavy flooding
                          occurred in Belhaven, Washington and New Bern. Crop
                          damage in the eastern counties caused by this storm
                          and Connie came to more than $28 million much of it
                          due to salt water flooding and rivers overflowing their
                          banks. No deaths were reported.

                          1955 September 19: Hurricane Ione made landfall near
                          Salter Path on Bogue Banks. In spite of high winds,
                          damage from this source was minor. Heavy rains falling
                          on already waterlogged sails were responsible for the
                          most damage. Storm surge was responsible for the
                          flooding of thousands of acres, and in New Bern 40
                          city blocks were inundated. Hundreds of homes were
                          washed away. Seven people died. Estimated damage
                          to crops and property was about $88 million.

                          1958 Septenber 27: Hurricane Helene passed off the coast
                          from WilmiiF4-tonto Cape Hatteras. Very high winds were
                          responsible for damage to crops and structures estimated
                          at $11 million.

                          1960 September 11: Hurricane Donna made landfall between
                          Wilmington and Morehead City and moved up the coast.
                          Heavy damage was experienced by coastal communities frorr
                          Wilmington to Nags Head. Beach erosion was considerable,
                          and the corn crop in the coastal counties suffered severe
                          wind damage. Eight people died, and damage was estimated
                          at several millions of dollars.

                          1964 September 1: Hurricane Cleo passed from western
                          North Carolina out to sea in the vicinity of Elizabeth
                          City. Heavy rains caused flooding and damage to crops
                          in the northeast.

                          1964 October 16: Hurricane Isbell made landfall near
                          Voreheiid -City and moved northward over the eastern counties.
                          Caused some flash flooding and damage to the peanut crop.
                                                   72
<pb n="78" />

                    1968 October 20: Hurricane Gladys moved up the coast
                    and out to sea in the vicinity of Cape Hatteras. Damage
                    was light and the state benefited from two days of
                    moderate rainfall.

                    1971 September 30: Hurricane Ginger made landfall near
                    Morehead City and began to dissipate as it moved inland.
                    Tides were six feet or more above normalat Washington,
                    Aurora, New Bern and Cherry Point. Thousands of acres
                    of corn and soybeans in the eastern counties were affected.
                    Damage was estimated at $10 million.

                    L976 Augu@t 9: Hurricane Belle passed east of Cape
                    Hatteras on fts way north. Beaches were evacuated but
                    only scattered minor damage occurred.

                                             73
<pb n="79" />

                                                Appendix VI

                               S014E SEVERE 20TH CENTURY EXTRATROPICAL STORMS

                                 The following list of noteworthy storms has been
                            compiled because tropical storms are not the only
                            significant weather disturbances experienced on the
                            North Carolina coast. These non-tropical storms generally
                            occur during the winter and spring months of the year.
                            Since they are numerous and vary in strength and
                            destructiveness, only major storms are included in this
                            list. The compilation is based on a study of published
                            records of the National Weather Service and its prede-
                            cessor organizations from 1900 to the present.    Information
                            was obtained from various issues of the Monthly   Bulletin,
                            the Monthly Weather Review, Climatological Data   of the
                            U.S. by Sections, Climatological Data and Storm   Data.

                            1902 December 4-5: An inland storm caused dangerous
                            gales on the coast. Considerable waterfront damage
                            occurred at Southport, Wilmington, Beaufort and
                            Morehead City. Communications were interrupted because
                            of damage to telephone and telegraph lines. Some
                            wharves were blown or washed away, and several small
                            vessels were wrecked.

                            1903 February 16: An inland storm caused gale winds
                            throughout the state. Wilmington, New Bern and Washington
                            experienced damage. Land between Pamlico Sound and the
                            Atlantic Ocean was flooded. Seventeen persons died in
                            the sinking of the passenger steamer "Olive" in the
                            Chowan River.

                            1903 October 8-10: A severe storm formed off the North
                            Carolina coas:E_.Winds of 63 miles per hour were recorded
                            at Hatteras.

                            1910 Februar 24-25: A northeast storm off the coast
                            generated winds of 60 miles per hour at Hatteras.

                            1917 September 14-15: Heavy damage to property and crops
                            was caused by a storm moving inland over the southern coast
                            of North Carolina and then out to sea north of Hatteras.
                            Roads and small bridges were washed out by a rainfall
                            of four to eight inches.

                            1924 March 11: A storm moving northward along and near
                            the coast generated winds of 66 miles per hour at Hatteras.
                            These off shore winds caused unusually low water levels
                            at New Bern and other places on western Pamlico Sound.
                                                      74
<pb n="80" />

                     1932 March 6: An inland storm brought gale winds to
                     the Atlantic and sound shores. Fishing nets, small
                     boats, wharves, bridges, roads, buildings and telephone
                     poles were damaged or destroyed. Dare County received
                     more than half of the damage, and on the Outer Banks
                     three new inlets were formed.

                     1932 November 28: More than $50,000 in damage was
                     caused on the south coast because of strong winds
                     and high tide.

                     1933 January 25-29: Gale winds were reported at Hatteras.
                     Coastal damage to roads and small craft reported.

                     1947 November 2-3: A northeast storm caused coastal
                     damage as a result of the combination of strong winds
                     and high tides. Morehead City and other coastal cities
                     experienced flooding and several boats were grounded
                     and destroyed.

                     1948 February 1: A northeast storm brought heavy snow
                     to the eastern part of the state. Some coastal cities
                     were practically iso".ated, and Wilmington reported more
                     than $1 million in damage. High tides and northeast
                     winds caused damage along the coast.

                     1954 I-lay 13: An inland storm which moved off the coast
                     of North Carolina generated winds causing over $100,000
                     damage to beaches. A 14,000-ton freighter was destroyed
                     as a result of this storm near Cape Hatteras.

                     195-6 January 8-12: Wind-driven water caused by a coastal
                     storm resulted in $50,000 property damage on the northern
                     Outer Banks. Five cottages were destroyed in the area
                     of Kitty Hawk. On Hatteras Island, a three-mile stretch
                     of highway pavement was washed out.

                     1956 October 16-18, 27-30: These two northeast storms
                     caused damage to beach highways, small craft and piers
                     as a result of high tides. In the second storm three
                     people were lost from fishing vessels.

                     1957 October 5-6: Winds reached 50 miles per hour along
                     the northern coast during this off shore storm. High tides
                     caused by prolonged easterly winds drove water over the
                     Outer Banks highway and caused considerable beach erosion.

                     .1958 October 19-23: A low pressure storm about 200 miles
                     east of Cape Hatteras created wind gusts to 70 miles
                     per hour from Cape Fear to the Virginia line. High tides
                     affected beaches and cut the road from Oregon Inlet to
                     Hatteras in several places. High water pushed into the
                     Neuse River causing some flooding in New Bern.
                                                75
<pb n="81" />

                            1962 March 5-8: This gigantic "Northeaster" known as
                            the Ash Wednesday Storm caused erosion on the coast
                            from Hatteras northward greater than in any previously
                            known storm. It opened an inlet 200 feet wide on
                            Hatteras Island and destroyed miles of protective
                            dunes. Miles of paved highways were either washed out
                            or buried in sand. Beach homes by the hundreds were
                            destroyed or damaged and hundreds of automobiles were
                            either buried in sand or submerged in water. Waves
                            more than 20 feet high on top of 10 foot tides were
                            responsible for most of the damage. At Nags Head wind
                            gusts near 70 miles per hour were recorded. Two people
                            were known to have died as a result of the storm.
                            Preliminary property damage estimates came to $12 million.

                            1962 June 29: An off shore low pressure storm caused
                            torreEt-ial rains in the central coastal counties.
                            Amounts varied from four to 17 inches in 24 hours.
                            Agricultural losses were high, particularly in the
                            tobacco crop. High tides and winds were responsible
                            for some beach erosion.

                            1962 November 25-December 5: A persistent low pressure
                            storm off the coast caused-very heavy beach erosion.
                            Beaches were cut back as much as 50 feet in some places
                            and sand dunes were damaged. Several buildings were
                            destroyed and many damaged.

                            1964 February 12: An off shore low pressure storm
                            generated rough seas which eroded the beach at Kill
                            Devil Hills.

                            1964 May 3: The southeast coast was affected by a
                            iow -pressure storm off shore. Gusts to 100 miles
                            per hour were reported. Some wind damage occurred but
                            beach erosion was slight.

                            1967 December 28: A coastal low pressure storm caused
                            moderate damage from Wilmington to Morehead City. Wind
                            gusts to 76 miles per hour were reported in Wilmington.

                            1968 May 26-27: A coastal low pressure storm caused heavy
                            rain and strong winds in the northern coastal area.
                            Widespread damage to boats and waterfront structures such
                            as docks and piers was reported.

                            1969 November 1-2: A low pressure coastal storm moving
                            northeastward was responsible for 60 wile per hour wind
                            gusts. Moderate beach erosion occurred.

                                                     76
<pb n="82" />

                     1970 December 31: On the southern coast some beach
                     erosion and damage to piers was caused by a low pressure
                     storm moving northward. Gales and high seas were reported.

                     1972 May 22-27: The northern coast was affected by a
                     low pressure storm. Heavy beach erosion occurred and
                     winds up to 50 miles per hour were recorded on shore.

                     1973 February 9-10:  High winds and seas along the coastwere
                     caused by a low pressure storm off shore. Heavy beach
                     erosion and property damage in various places resulted.

                     1973 March 22: A northeast storm blew up 10-12 foot
                     ie--asHighways were damaged along with some beach front
                     property.

                     1976 February 1-2: A severe wind storm affected the
                     northern cE-astparticularly from Ocracoke through
                     Manteo. Wind driven tides at the time covered two thirds
                     of Hatteras Island. Portions of Manteo were flooded.
                     Gusts of 70-90 miles per hour were reported at various Outer
                     Banks locations.

                                              77
<pb n="83" />

                                                  Appendix VII

                                           ATLANTIC HURRICANE NP14ES

                                   Starting in 1979 the names by which Atlantic
                             hurricanes are designated will be both male and female.
                             Previously they were all female. At the time of writing
                             the list of new names had been submitted to the World
                             Meteorological Organization for its expected final
                             approval. As in the previous lists, names beginning
                             with Q, U, X, Y and Z have been omitted because of their
                             scarcity.

                             1979     Ana, Bob, Claudette, David, Elena, Frederic,
                                      Gloria, Henri, Isabel, Juan, Kate, Larry, Mindy,
                                      Nicolas, Odette, Peter, Rose, Sam, Teresa, Victor,
                                      Wanda

                             1980     Allen, Bonnie, Charley, Danielle, Earl, Frances,
                                      Georges, Hermine, Ivan, Jeanne, Karl, Lisa,
                                      Mitch, Nicole, Otto, Paula, Richard, Shary, Tomas,
                                      Virginia, Walter

                             1981     Arlene, Bret, Carla, Dennis, Emily, Floyd, Gert,
                                      Harvey, Irene, Jose, Katrina, Lenny, Maria, Nate,
                                      Ophelia, Philippe, Rita, Stan, Tammy, Vince, Wilma

                             1982     Alberto, Beryl, Chris, Debby, Ernesto, Florence,
                                      Gilbert, Helene, Isaac, Joan, Keith, Leslie, Michael,
                                      Nadine, Oscar, Patty, Rafael, Sandy, Tony, Valerie,
                                      William

                             1983     Alicia, Barry, Chantal, Dean, Erin, Felix, Gabrielle,
                                      Hugo, Iris, Jerry, Karen, Luis, Marilyn, Noel,
                                      Opal, Pablo, Roxanne, Sebastien, Tanya, Van, Wendy

                                                        78
<pb n="84" />

                                             References

                       Anderson, L. 0. and Walton R. Smith. Houses Can Resist
                          Hurricanes, U.S. Forest Service Research Paper FPL
                          '@_3.U.S. Department of Agriculture, August, 19657.

                       Baker, Simon. The Citizen's Guide to North Carolina's
                          Shifting Inlets, UNC-SG-77-08. UNC Sea Grant College
                          Program, Raleigh, NC, 1977.

                       Bosserman, Kenton and Robert Dolan. The Frequencyand
                          Magnitude of Extratropical Storms Along the Outer Banks
                                               'fe-
                          of North Carolina,     chnical Report 68-4. Coastal
                          Research Associates, Charlottesville, VA, 1968.

                       Carney, C. B. and A. V. Hardy. North Carolina Hurricanes.
                          U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science
                          Services Administration, Washington, D.C., 1967.

                       Collier, C. A. Construction Guidelines to Minimize
                          Hurricane Damage to Shore Area Homes. Florida Depart-
                          ment of Ka-tura.-I-Re@sources, Tallahassee, 1976.

                       Cooperman, A. I. and H. E. Rosendal. "Great Atlantic
                          Coast Storm, 1962," Weather Bureau's Climatological
                          Data, National Supmary, Vol. 13, 1962.

                       Cry, George W. Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic
                          Ocean: Tracks and Frequencies of HurFlFa-nes @in-d
                          Tro i-E-ai Storms, 1871-1963, T@i_chFi-cal Paper No. 55.
                          U.S. Department of Commerce, Weather Bureau, Washington,
                          D.C., 1965.

                       DeAngelis, Richard M. "North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones,
                          1969," ESSA's Climatological Data, National Summary,
                          Vol. 20, 1969.

                       DeAngelis, Richard M. "North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones,
                          1972," NOAA's Climatological Data, National Summary,
                          Vol. 23, 1972.

                       Dunn, Gordon E. and Banner I. Miller. Atlantic Hurricanes.
                          Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, LA, 1960.

                       FHA Pole House Construction. American Wood Preservers
                          Instit te, McLean, VA,

                       Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society,
                          Boston, MA, 1959.
                                                   79
<pb n="85" />

                           Hamlin, T. F. "When You Get Caught; Things That Will
                              Help in Squall or Hurricane," Yachting, Vol. 98,
                              October, 1955.

                           Harris, D. L. Technical Paper No. 48, Characteristics
                              of the Hurricane Storm Surge. U.S. Department of
                                mmerce, Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1963.

                           Hill, E. L. et al. "Tornadoes Associated with Cyclones
                              of Tropical Origin--Practical Features." Journal
                              of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 5, December, 1966.

                           How to Build Storm Resistant Structures. National
                              Forest Products Association, WaElh-ington, D.C.

                           Hurricane Information and Atlantic Tracking Chart. U.S.
                              Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                              Administration, Washington, D.C., 1971.

                           Hurricane Safety Rules. U.S. Deparment of Commerce, National
                              Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington,
                              D.C., 1970.

                           Hurricane, The Greatest Storm on Earth. U.S. Department
                              of Commerce, National Oceanic an    tmospheric
                              Administration, Washington, D.C., 1971.

                           Information For Buyers and Owners of Coastal Property in
                              North Carolina. Center for -Marine and Coastal Studies
                              and UNC Sea Grant College Program, N.C. State University,
                              Raleigh, NC.

                           MacNab, Cynthia, Editor. Disaster Handbook for Extension
                              Agents. Cooperative Extension SeFvIceThe Pennsylvania
                              State University, University Park, PA.

                           Ogg, R. D. Anchors and Anchoring. Danforth Division of
                              the Eastern Company, Portland, ME, 1977.

                           Pilkey, Jr., Orrin H. et al. How to Live With an Island:
                              A Fandbook to Bogue Banks, North Carolina. North
                              Carolina Department of Natural anj -Economic Resources,
                              Raleigh, NC, 1975.

                           Protecting Mobile Homes From High Winds, TR-75. Department
                              of Defense, Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Washington,
                              D.C., February, 1974.

                           Riggs, Stanley R. "Barrier Islands--Natural Storm Dependent
                              Systems" published in Barrier Islands and Beaches.
                              Technical Proceedings of the 1976 Barrier 1-sland Work-
                              shop, Annapolis, MD, May, 1976.

                                                     80
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                     Simpson, R. H. and M. B. Lawrence. NOAA Technical
                         Memorandum NWS SR-58, Atlantic Hurricane Frequencies
                         Along the U.S. Coastline. U.S. Department of Commerce,
                         National Oceanic ai@d -Atmospheric Administration,
                         National Weather Service, Fort Worth, TX, June, 1971.

                     Smith, Walton R. "Wood Against the March Northeaster,"
                         Forest Products Journal, Vol. 12, 1962.

                     Some Devastating North Atlantic Hurricanes of the 20th
                         Century. U.S. Department of Comnerce, National
                         Uc-eanic and Atmospheric Administration, Washington,
                         D.C., 1974.

                     State of North Carolina Long-Range Hurricane Rehabilita-
                         tion Project. North Carolina Council of Civil Defense,
                         Raleigh, NC, December, 1955.

                     Survival in a Hurricane. U.S. Department of Commerce,
                         National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
                         Washington, D.C., 1970.

                     Tannehill, I. R. The Hurricane. U.S. Department of
                         Commerce, Weather Bureau, Washington, D.C., 1956.

                     The Homeport Story: An Imaginary City Gets Ready for a
                         Hurricane. U.S. Department of Commerce, National
                         Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National
                         Weather Service, Washington, D.C., 1971.

                     Walton, Jr., Todd L. Hurricane-Resistant Construction
                         for Homes, SUSF-SG-76-005. Florida Sea Grant Program,
                         Gainesville, FL.

                     Zornig, H. F. and G. E. Sherwood. Wood Structures Survive
                         Hurricane Camille's Winds, U.S. Forest Service Research
                         Paper FPL 123. U.S. Department ofAgriculture, October,
                         1969.

                                               81
<pb n="87" />

                                           Illustration Credits

                            Cover         - Hurricane Belle, August 9, 1976.
                                            National Environmeni Satellite Service,
                                            National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                                            Administration.

                            Figure    1   - Simon Baker, UNC Sea Grant College
                                            Program.

                            Figure    2   - Forest Products Laboratory, Forest
                                            Service, US Department of Agriculture.

                            Figures   3-6 - Simon Baker, UNC Sea Grant College
                                            Program.

                            Figures   7-9 - National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                                            Administration.

                            Figures 10-11 - US Army Engineer District, Wilmington,
                                            North Carolina.

                            Figure 12     - State of North Carolina, Long-Range
                                            Hurricane Rehabilitation Project.

                            Figure 13     - National Environmental Satellite Service,
                                            National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                                            Administration.

                            Figures 14-15 - Agricultural Extension Service, North
                                            Carolina State University.

                            Figure 16     - North Carolina Department of Transporta-
                                            tion, aerial photograph M 1058, No. 15.

                            Figure 17     - US Department of Commerce, Weather
                                            Bureau's Climatological Data, National
                                            Summary, Vol. 13, 1962.

                            Figures 18-19 - Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service,
                                            US Department of Agriculture.
                            Figure 20     - Defense Civil Preparedness Agency, Depart-
                                            ment of Defense, Protecting Mobile Homes
                                            From High Winds.

                                                      82
<pb n="88" />

                                          Acknowledgments

                             Information and assistance rendered by a nuirber
                        of people and organizations proved to be invaluable
                        in the preparation of this publication. Both the
                        National Hurricane Center, Miami, Florida, and the
                        Environmental Data Service, National Climatic Center,
                        Asheville, North Carolina, were very helpful in
                        responding to requests for published materials.

                             Thanks go to the following people who provided
                        a variety of information utilized in the preparation
                        of this publication: Kenneth M. Edwards, BM2, US
                        Coast Guard; Chester Gray, N.C. Department of Trans-
                        portation; William Harris, N.C. Division of Civil
                        Preparedness; John R. McClain, National Weather Service;
                        and Spencer M. Rogers, UNC Sea Grant College Program.

                             A special debt of gratitude is owed to Dr. Gerald
                        F. Watson, Department of Geosciences of North Carolina
                        State University for his comments on the final draft
                        of the publication. Other helpful comments were contri-
                        buted by John Clark and Donald Rynders of the National
                        Weather Service at Raleigh-Durham, Airport.

                             Finally, thanks are due to Daphne webster who served
                        as a research assistant in the initial part of this
                        project and to Patricia Van Hoy, Carolyn Sue Holleman
                        and Elaine J. Murray who typed the manuscript.
<pb n="89" />

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