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The Estuary Book Maine Coastal Program Maine State Planning Office GC512 State House Station 38 .M2R84 Augusta, Maine 04333 1991 January 1991 C.1 The Estuary Book A Guide to Promoting Understanding and Regional Management of Maine's Estuaries and Embayments Maine Coastal Program Maine State Planning Office State House Station 38 Augusta, Maine 04333 January 1991 Acknowledgements The Estuary Book was produced by the Maine Coastal Program of the Maine State Planning Office with funding provided by the Federal Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management under Section 306 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972. Maine Coastal Program State House Station 38, 184 State Street, Augusta, ME 04333 Telephone: (207)289-3261 Fax: (207)289-5756 Director: David Keeley Prepared by: Jenny Ruffing, Maine Coastal Program Artwork by: Anne Talgenhorst Representatives of the following organizations are gratefully acknowledged for their help in reviewing this guide: Eastern Mid-Coast Regional Planning Commission Maine Aquaculture Association Maine Association of Conservation Commissions Maine Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Resources (Soil and Water Conservation Commission) Maine Department of Economic and Community Development (Office of Comprehensive Planning) Maine Department of Environmental Protection (Marine Program & Non-Point Source Pollution Program) Maine Department of Marine Resources (Anadromous Fish Division & Marine Science Bureau) Maine Department of Conservation, Maine Geological Survey Maine State Planning Office Town of Brunswick Planning Office University of Maine Cooperative Extension (Rockland Office). The author acknowledges the North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development, Division of Coastal Management for permission to use material from A Guide to Protecting Coastal Waters Through Local Planning, Raleigh, North Carolina, 1986, in the preparation of this guide. Table of Contents 1 Introduction 3 Chapter One - Maine Estuaries: Resources & Values Maine Nearshore Embayments Origins of the Present Day Coastline The Maine Coast Estuary Basics Estuarine Communities Recommended Reading for More Information 17 Chapter Two - The Consequence of Development Estuarine Use & Pollution in Maine, a brief history Estuarine Use & Pollution Today Natural Resources Water Quality Types of Pollution Quality of Life & Coastal Culture 29 Chapter Three - Estuary Planning & Management The Need for Estuary Planning Estuary Planning & Comprehensive Planning Planning Basics Inventories & Issue Identification Policy Development Implementing Estuary Management Regulatory Measures Nonregulatory Measures How to Keep the Ball Rolling... Institutional Arrangements Citizen Involvement & Information Enforcement in the Estuary The Town of Brunswick, A Case Study What Planning Can't Do Recommended Reading for More Information 46 Cited References 47 Appendix - Sources for Information am C" CP 5- US of Comriorce NOTU'- CUL--i Servicas Center Library 2234 South Hobson Avenue C:3 Charleston, SC 29405-2413 Introduction The coast of Maine is a beautiful mosaic of estuarine environments: salt marshes and mudflats, tidal rivers and creeks, bays and coves. Twice a day the tide creeps in, rolling over mudflats and lapping at the marsh edge. Slowly the seaward current reverses and the waters push inland, over the marsh grasses to wash the shore. The saltwaters of the sea mingle withfreshwaters of brooks, streams, and rivers. After the estuary isfull, the tide slacks and ebbs, draining wetlands and tidal creeks, pulling waters warmed by the mudflats out to sea. Diggersfollow the tide out, turning over the mudfor clams and worms, until the turn of the tide brings them home. T@. Estuaries are among the most precious resources of our coast. As productive environments where fresh and salt waters meet, estuaries provide valuable habitat for an abundance of marine life, birds, and other creatures as well as pathways to inland waters for migratory fish. The vistas of undisturbed marsh and clean tidewaters are treasured scenic resources and visually define a quality of life cherished by coastal residents and visitors to Maine. Oyster and clam shell heaps, the last remaining traces of settle- ment by ancient peoples, line the banks of many Maine estuaries and attest to the long attraction of estuaries as places to live and find food. In recent times, human activities along the shores of Maine estuaries have left a more damaging legacy than decomposing shells. For generations, coastal residents disposed of untreated sewage in estuary waters and located dumps in coastal wetlands without concern. Chamels and harbors were dredged to provide safe passage and anchorages for boats and ships, and the dredge spoils placed on marshes or other sensitive sites. Industries once were allowed to discharge harmful wastewaters without treatment into Maine estuar- ies. The natural bounty of the Gulf of Maine has accommodated the excesses of human activities to an extent; our coastal waters remain relatively clean compared to more industrialized parts of the country. Recently, however, signs of environmental damage have become apparent. Widespread closures of shellfish areas due to bacterial pollution, declines in fish landings, and evidence of toxic compounds in estuary and bay sediments have raised concern that our coastal waters need the same level of management and protec- tion that we give our freshwater rivers and lakes. The Maine Coastal Program is a cooperative effort by federal, state and local governments to manage the resources of the Maine coast, including estuaries. In December of 1989, the Maine Coastal Program initiated an Estuary Project to focus on the management needs of these productive coastal systems. While investigating the problems of Maine estuaries and developing a state strategy for estuarine management, the project identified a need for informa- tional materials on Maine estuaries and on the environmental problems associated with estuarine resource use. Profiles describing nineteen Maine estuaries were prepared and published as the Estuary Profile Series. The Estuary Book was created to pull together basic information on estuarine systems and coastal pollution as well as to provide ideas for communities and citizens concerned with the future of our estuaries. The objective of The Estuary Book is to provide information about estuaries, the impact of uses on the environmental health of an estuary and what Wi communities and concerned individuals can do to successfully manage and protect their local estuarine resources. Much of the in- formation presented here pertains to other embayments along the Maine coast which may not be true estuaries. This book has three chapters. The first chapter describes natural features of estuaries in Maine and the importance of these special environments. The second chapter details the sources and effects of water pollution and habitat alteration on estuarine re- sources. The final chapter examines how land use planning can be used to protect and improve coastal water quality and natural resources. Regulatory and nonregulaiory tools that promote wise stewardship of estuarine resources are reviewed. Sources for more information are summarized in the Appendix. Great Blue Heron (Ardea herodias) 2 Chapter One Maine Estuaries: Resources & Values What is an Estuary? "An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water which hasfree access to the ocean and within which seawater is measurably diluted by freshwaterfrom land drainage" (Pritchard, 1967). By this classic definition, the entire Gulf of Maine (see map below), limited by Cape Cod to the southwest, Georges Bank offshore and the Bay of Fundy to the northeast, may be considered an estuary since Gulf waters are somewhat isolated from the Atlantic Ocean waters by uplands and submerged banks offshore, receive a tremendous volume of freshwater run-off from land, and exchange water freely with the North Atlantic through the Northeast Channel. Moving closer to shore, a pattern of rugged headlands and islands defines bays of all sizes along the Maine coast. The Estuary Boundary Casco Bay and other large bays along the Maine coast have For thepurposes ofthis guide, the estuary waters diluted by freshwater discharge from rivers and streams. boundary includes the waters inland to Casco Bay, bounded by Cape Elizabeth and Small Point headlands, the head of tide and seaward to an imagi- is often called an estuary. The salinity within Casco Bay varies nary line drawn across the mouth of the slightly with changes in the amount of freshwater flowing into the embayment and all contiguous wetlands bay, however, the bay is basically a marine habitat. (fresh and salt marsh) as well as shore- lands Within the extreme high water mark The Fore, Presumpscot, Cousins, and Royal Rivers are the or the 100-yearflood boundary, which- major estuarine embayments that contribute to the estuarine charac- ever is greater. ter of Casco Bay. Middle and Maquoit Bays and the Harraseeket and An estuary, as defined by scientists, New Meadows Rivers are embayments within Casco Bay that includes all waters measureably diluted receive freshwater from land run-off, small streams and brooks. by saltwater, which may be below the These coastal features are called neutral embayments because they head of tide and extendfar offshore be- receive low volumes of freshwater. Although not true estuaries, salt yond headlands at the mouth of the estu- ary. marshes, migratory fish streams, and other ecosystems associated with estuaries often fringe the edges of neutral embayments. Estuaries are the focus of this handbook. Neutral embayments will be included since these productive coastal systems are facing similiar water quality and resource management problems. This chapter will discuss the characteristics and importance of the nearshore embayments at the interface of land and sea. Maine Nearshore Embayments Maine nearshore embayments fail into two very general categ- ories: estuaries and neutral embayments. Estuaries have at least one major freshwater source that measureably dilutes the sea waters. Estuaries can have considerable freshwater inflow--the Kennebec, St. Croix, Penobscot, and Machias Rivers; or very little--the Dam- ariscotta and Medomak Rivers. The freshwater sources of many small and medium sized river estuaries of the mid and eastern Maine coast originate in ponds or lakes, often within 40 miles from the head of tide. In Maine, estuaries occupy coastal river valleys flooded or drowned by sea level rise. When sand and gravel are deposited by longshore and river currents across the mouth of coastal rivers or streams, bar-built estuaries are formed. The Webhannet River (Wells Harbor), Saco River, Kennebunk River, and Mousam River estuaries are examples of bar-built estuaries. Bar-built estuaries are protected by barrier beaches and are often associated with expansive marshes. Bar-built estuaries usually drain at low tide, leaving only a small Outline of the Machias River estuary, channel of freshwater flowing over the flats. These bar-built systems a &owned river valley estuary. are dynamic environments, eroding an 'd building as sand flows be- tween offshore deposits and beaches and sand bars. 4 Neutral embayments lack a major freshwater river and appear more as arms of the sea with high salinities that change very little during a tidal cycle. Neutral embayments usually have several small freshwater brooks, streams and seeps diluting the bay water. Most neutral embayments are wide and shallow, exposing expanses of productive mud flat and salt marsh at low tide. In Maine, many coastal embayments are called 'rivers', for example--the New Mead- ows River, Bagaduce River, Jordan River and Skillings River, when actually, they are neutral embaymcnts with small streams and brooks providing the source of freshwater. The narrow embayment of Somes Sound on Mt. Desert Island is considered Maine's only fjord. Fjords are deep estuaries created Outline of the Webhannet River by the flooding of a glacial valley and marked by a glacial deposit or estuary, a bar-built estuary. terminal moraine at the seaward limit. Although small streams feed into Somes Sound, the fjord lacks a major freshwater source. Local indentations of the coastline are commonly called coves or inlets. Minor in size compared to other coastal features, coves are locally significant as locations for sheltered harbors. Where the embayment entrance is wide and freshwater influx minor, wave action and marine environments dominate. When the embayment entrance is restricted, freshwater flow from streams or from border- ing marshlands may form an estuary. These small estuaries are important resources for coastal communities and provide valuable fish and wildlife habitat. Outline of the Bagaduce River, a neutral embayment. Origins of the Present Day Coastline The estuaries and neutral embayments of the Maine coast were created as changes in sea level flooded the coast after the last period of glaciation. Approximately 20,000 years ago, massive ice sheets moved south and east from Hudson Bay to northern New England, scouring the land bare of soil as they advanced. The rocks and soils collected in glacial deposits. Today, these deposits are mined for gravel and sand. As the earth warmed and the glaciers melted, the ocean pushed inland, flooding river valleys and lowlands. Glaciomarine sediments were deposited in the ocean at the seaward margin of the glaciers. These fine- grained blue clays, characteristic of many Maine estuaries, are called the Presumpscot Formation. With the removal of the weight of the glaciers, the Maine coast began to rebound. Consequently, the seas retreated rapidly approximately 12,500 years ago. When the land had risen to its original elevation, the sea again began to creep inland, as a general warming trend melted glaciers around the world. The sea continues to drown our coastline. At this time, sea level is rising at a rate of about one foot (30 cm.) a century along the Maine coast. Warming trends in global climate may accelerate this rate and sea level is pro- jected to rise by three feet over the next one hundred years in some areas. The actual rate of sea level change varies along the coast because of local geologic conditions. In northeastern Maine and in southwestern Maine, a gradual sinking of the land contributes to variations in sea level rise (Kelley et al., 1989). 5 The Maine Coast Each estuary and neutral embayment of the Maine coast occu- R./Passamaquoddy Bay pies an unique setting reflecting the local geology, topography, and I climate. Geologists have divided the coast into four sections or compartments that correspond to bedrock features and coastal Dennys R./Cobscook Bay NE morphology: southwest (SW), south-central (SQ, north-central (NQ, and northeast (NE) (after Kelley, 1987). Machias R./Machias Bay The southwest (SW) section extends about 42 miles from Clhiandler R. Kittery north to Cape Elizabeth. Along this section of coast, rocky capes separate arc-shaped bays bordered by sandy beaches. Old Orchard Beach on Saco Bay is the largest sand beach in this region. Pleasant R. From the Piscataqua River north, major estuaries in this area include Narraguagus R. York River, Webhannet River (Wells Harbor), Mousam River, Ken- nebunk River, Saco River, Scarborough River, and Spurwink River. NC Many of these estuaries have broad expanses of salt marshes that are Frenchman Bay protected by sandy barrier beaches or spits. The south-central (SC) section extends from Cape Elizabeth to Union R. Port Clyde for approximately 55 miles. This area of the mid-coast, including Casco Bay, is marked by southwest to northeast striking bedrock peninsulas separating long narrow embayments. Casco Bay is located at the southern end of this region and includes estuaries on C@' the Fore River, Presumpscot River, Royal River, and Cousins River. Penobscot R./Penobscot Bay The lower Kennebec River is the largest estuary in this section. Maquoit and Middle Bays and the New Meadows and Harraseeket Rivers are typical neutral embayments in this region; they are important shellfish growing areas. St. George R. To the northeast of the Kennebe 'c River, the Sheepscot, Dam- ariscotta, Medomak, and St. George Rivers form major estuaries Madomak R./Muscongus Bay characterized by productive salt marshes and mud flats. The south- iI)amariscotta R. central section of the coast includes a great variety of coastal land- SC scapes and environmental conditions which permit a wide diversity of aquatic plants and animals to flourish (Adamus, 1978). Kennebec R heepscot R./Sheepscot Bay Penobscot Bay east to Machias Bay defines the north-central S (NQ section of the coast, an indented shoreline with granite out- crops and many islands. The Penobscot Estuary/Bay complex is the Royal R. Casco Bay largest along this stretch of coast. Other estuaries (from west to cast) include the Passagassawakeag, Union, Narraguagus, Pleasant, Chandler, and Machias Rivers. Morgan Bay, Bagaduce River, Skillings River, Taunton Bay/Hog Bay, Mason Bay, and Little Scarborough R. Saco Bay Kennebec Bay are representative of the variety and extent of neutral Saco R. embayments located in this region. Kennebunk R. SW The northeastern (NE) section from Machias Bay east to the Webhannet R. Canadian border has erosion-resistant volcanic cliffs on the outer coastline (the Cutler Coast). Behind the cliffs lie well-protected York R. estuaries at the head of Passamaquoddy Bay and Cobscook Bay. The Piscataqua R. St. Croix River estuary opens into Oak Bay/Passamaquoddy Bay Location of coastal compartments along the Canadian border. To the south, the Orange River, Dennys on the Maine coast. River and Pemamaquan River estuaries form inner Cobscook Bay. 6 Estuaries are areas where salt and fresh waters meet. The Estuary Basics interaction of these waters determines the currents and the distribu- tion of plants and animals. Estuaries are complex systems with special assemblages of biological communities and environmental conditions. Estuaries share some of the same animal and plant com- munities as neutral embayments but the chemical and physical influence of the strong freshwater influx into the estuarine system creates conditions unique to estuaries. The following four points summarize principle characteristics of these natural systems of the Maine coast. 1. Estuaries have three subsystems - the riverine, estuarine and marine. The boundaries of the subsystems are determined by water salinity. Salinity is a measure of the amount of dissolved salts in water. Freshwater (the riverine subsystem) generally has a salinity less than 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt) and full strength seawater (the marine subsystem) has a salinity of 30 to 35 ppt. The estuarine sub- sytem has varying salinities from 0.5 ppt to 30 ppt. The boundaries of each subsystem are not fixed and change with both the tide and with the seasonal floods of freshwater from snow melt and spring rains. The Riverine The riverine subsystem provides a pathway to inland waters for smelt, salmon, alewives, and other migratory fish which need need freshwater to spawn. In Maine, darns across many coastal rivers cut off the freshwater riverine section of the estuary and the natural upriver range of tide. In some rivers, the influence of the tide extends far inland beyond the presence of saltwater. Of the 19 miles of tidewater on the Kennebec River estuary; the upper 10 miles between Bowdoinham and Augusta is tidal freshwater. Merrymeeting Bay is a tidal bay formed by the confluence of the Kennebec River estuary with the Androscoggin River and four smaller rivers. Merrymeeting Bay is the largest and most important tidal freshwater habitat in Maine. Many coastal creeks and rivers have tidal freshwater marshes and waters at the upper reaches of tide. The Estuarine In the estuarine subsystem salinities range from 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand. Animals and plants adapted to this envirorunent can tolerate a range of salinities and temperatures. Few species can with- stand the extreme fluctuations in salinity at the head of the estuary where saltwater first mixes with freshwater. Cat-tail (Typha spp.), common plant In the warmer upper reaches of a few estuaries are horseshoe found at the edge of fresh tidal marshes crabs and other species commonly found south of cold Maine 7 waters. The American oyster reaches the northern natural extent of range along the U.S. coast in the upper Sheepscot River estuary. Many species of shellfish and fish rely on the sheltered envi- ronment of estuaries and embayments as nurseries. Oceanic fish, including schools of herring and menhaden (pogies) visit estuarine waters to feed in summer months. Other fish such as the short-nose sturgeon, tom cod, nine-spined stickleback, mummichog, and species of flounder spend their entire life cycle in estuarine waters. The Marine In neutral embayments and at the seaward edge of estuaries, the marine subsystem dominates. The marine environment tends to be more stable than the other subsystems with less flux in salinity and temperature. The shores and waters resemble areas of the exposed outer coast, but are more sheltered environments. Mussel bars, kelp beds and rockweed-covered shores are features of the marine sub- system. 11. The flow of freshwater into Maine estuaries varies greatly with the season. During the spring run-off season, from late February to May, Maine rivers normally swell from 10 to 30 times their average size. A smaller peak occurs in November or December. These seasonal variations are illus- trated in the chart below. The influx of freshwater into Maine estuaries is so great during this period that it causes offshore surface waters in the Gulf of Maine to move in a huge counterclockwise spiral. The circulation gyre continues even after the spring floods end, maintained by gravity and tidal currents, and distributes rich nutrient- laden waters throughout the Gulf. The influx of freshwater changes the distribution of salinities and circulation in Maine's estuaries. Neutral embayments may also develop salinity gradients during periods of high run-off. Marshes at the estuary edge act to soak up floodwaters, moderating the fluctuations in water flow. The flood of waters from the land also adds huge amounts of nutrients to estuarine and neutral embayment waters and triggers the algal blooms of late spring. Seasonal floods, from spring freshets and fall storms, wash tremendous amounts of silt and muds into estuaries and to a lesser extent, into neutral embayments. 6W - Mean Daily Discharges by Month for Three Maine Coastal Rivers 500 - from October 1987 through September 1989 (in cubic feet per second). 400 Sheepscot River 300 - @Royal River Dennys River 2W - 100 - 0 Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Ma. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Au& Sep. Source Water Resources Data, Maine Water Year 1988, U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Data Report ME 88-1. 8 Ill. Mixing between the fresh and saltwater layers and estuarine water circulation depends on the shape of the estuary, the volume of river flow, the height of tide and winds. Freshwater is lighter than saltwater. This is why freshwater ice forms even on the saltiest coastal waters in the winter. (Freshwater also freezes at a higher temperature than saltwater.) Since saltwater is heavier than freshwater, incoming tidewaters tend to travel up the estuary along the bottom of the estuarine channel while the lighter river water flows seaward on the surface. This two-layer circulation creates a gradient in water salinity between the bottom and surface waters and may be a seasonal feature that occurs only when the river discharge is high or in limited sections of the estuary. The same estuary in mid-summer may have very little freshwater river flow, and if tidal currents are stronger than river currents, more mixing will occur between the two layers. Winds and changes in water temperature also increase mixing between the bottom and surface waters. The Maine estuaries receiving the greatest volume of freshwa- ter, the Penobscot, Kennebec, and St. Croix Rivers, and some smaller estuaries including the Piscataqua, Royal, and Passagas- sawakeag Rivers, have long smooth salinity gradients with a two- layer circulation pattern (Larsen & Doggett, 1979). Not all estuaries have a gradient of salinities. In some estuaries, the salinity of the estuary varies or flucwates from fresh to salty over the course of the tide, completely mixing the water. Many shallow bar-built estuaries have fluctuating salinities. If the volume of seawater brought in by the rise in tide is much greater than the volume of freshwater flowing into the estuary basin, the salinitiy of the water will change dramatically over the tidal cycle. Aquatic life in these estuaries must adjust to extreme salinity conditions. The Saco, Mousam, Kennebunk, Harrington, and Pleasant Rivers experience major salinity changes over a tidal cycle, from fresh to full strength seawater. The York, Sheepscot, and St. George Rivers have high ocean-like salinities at the seaward sections and fluctuating salinities in the upper sections (Larsen & Doggett, 1979). The mixing and circulation in an estuary determines where sediments erode and accumulate as well as where pollutants collect in the estuarine basin. Information of this kind is necessary to evaluate the ecological impact of pollution discharges and dredging and harbor development projects. The circulation and salinity pattern in an estuary also influences the distribution of estuarine and marine plants and animals. 9 IV. Estuaries coHect poUutants from the entire watershed. Estuaries accumulate pollutants and sediments from discharges and land use practices upstrearn as well as along the estuary shores. The entire estuary watershed influences estuarine water quality. Pollutants that enter the estuary are not washed quickly out to sea with the next tide. Many pollutants dissolve in freshwater and settle out in saltwater. The chemicals or contaminants attach to sediment particles, to each other, or to other compounds; they may sink to the bottom of the estuary, be moved by currents, dredging, or The Estuary Watershed fishing activities, or be absorbed into marine plant and animal tissue. The estuary watershed includes all lands Some pollutants remain suspended in the seawater and are that drain directly to the estuary aswell as eventually washed out to sea. The time it takes for all the water in an all the smaller watersheds of each river, estuary to be moved out to sea is called the flushing rate. Flushing stream, and brook flowing into the estuary. Since estuary watersheds also rates vary from days to weeks. The flushing rate of an estuary include, river watersheds, they are gener- determines how long pollutants that are dissolved or suspended in ally larger in area than neutral embay- estuarine water will remain in the estuary. The height of tide, size of ment watersheds. the estuary basin, and the volume of freshwater flow determines the The map below outlines the watershed flushing rate. In general, the higher the tidal range, the smaller the areas of the Chandler River estuary and estuary volume, and the higher the freshwater flow--the greater the the adjacent Mason Bay neutral volume of water exchanged during each tide. embayment. Fla K P -D S L M A_R @d M@F'@IE I D G 1.k + + ct I L Z\ I vg M-A LU A JONES b. A _7 S-,h d) Map of the Mason Bay and Chandler River Watersheds Estuarine Every living thing in an estuary has a set of environmental Communities requirements which must be met in order to survive. These require- ments--temperature, light, salinity, water, air, and soils or substrate, differ among species. Groupings of environmental factors that support assemblages of plants and animals sharing similiar require- ments are called habitats. A community includes alf the animals, plants and other living organisms that lives within a defuled habitat. All the living organisms within a community are interdepend- ent. Some are predators and some prey, some depend on a certain seaweed for food or shelter, or any of a number of complex relation- ships. In the grand scheme of things, humans are a part of the estuarine community too. Whether harvesting food, building docks, or reseeding clam flats, the lives of coastal residents and users of the estuary are entwined with the other members of the estuarine community. Significant communities common to Maine estuaries, Salt Meadow Grass each representing a particular habitat, are discussed in the following (Spartina patens) section. Coastal Marshes Marshes are transitional areas between land and water. The salinity, frequency of flooding, and age of the marsh determines the types of plants and animals found there. Plants that tolerate fresh to slightly saline waters flourish in freshwater tidal marshes. Examples of freshwater marsh plants include cat-tails, wild rice, and arrow arum. Tidal fresh marshes are important fish and wildlife habitats. Glasswort Studies indicate that of all types of wetlands, coastal freshwater tidal (Salicornia spp.) marshes support the greatest numbers and species of birds. Often fresh marshes fringe the landward edge of salt marshes. Salt meadow hay (Spartina patens) is a short wiry grass com- mon to well-established high salt marshes that are irregularly flooded by high tides. Cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), a tall coarse grass of the low marsh, grows at the edge of tidal creeks and in areas with frequent tidal inundation. Cordgrass is the characteristic species of the narrow bands of marsh that fringe many Maine estuaries and bays. Salt pannes and tidal creeks are features of Maine coastal marshes. Salt pannes are pools of tidewater that collect on top of the marsh and are home to mosquito larvae, mummichog fish and other creatures. Tidal creeks are tributaries of river estuaries and often Sea Lavender extend far inland from the main channel of the estuary. (Lirnonium spp.) Marshes are important to the maintenance of a balanced coastal Plant species common to ecosystem. In the spring and fall, when coastal rivers swell from Maine's salt marshes. snow melt and rains, marsh grasses along rivers and tidal creeks slow the rush of waters, which allow sediment to settle and protects One acre ofsalt marsh can absorb 30,000 the shore from erosion. Spongy wetland soils absorb and gradually gallons of water. release waters thus moderating flood conditions and storm surges. The grasses and soils of coastal marshes trap pollutants, nutrients, and sediments from land run-off, thereby improving water quality. Each winter ice rafts and tides break up decaying marsh grasses and wash the plant bits into estuary waters. Decaying particles of marsh grasses, algae, seaweed, and other plants are the cornerstone of the estuarine food chain and contribute to the productivity of estuarine waters. Many commercial seafood species such as lobster, herring, menhaden (pogies), alewife, crab, oyster, and clam, rely on the rich food supply of estuaries during some part of their life cycle. Small fish seek shelter in marsh grasses at high tide from Great Blue Herons and other birds that stalk the shallows to feed. Bald Eagles and Ospreys also hunt in the marshes and occasionally nest in tall trees along the estuary shore. Intertidal Flats Mudflats are the most common intertidal estuarine environment in Maine. The muds and sands of intertidal flats support an abun- dance of fauna including Baltic clams, gem clams, periwinkles, amphipods and commercially important soft-shelled clams and marine worms. Green algae mats and clumps of seaweed and blue mussels are common features of intenidal flats. Intertidal flats along the Maine coast are vital feeding and gathering grounds for much of the North American shorebird population during migrations each fall. The birds feed on tiny worms and other invertebrates that burrow in the intertidal muds, doubling their weight within two weeks in preparation for an arduous flight back to South America. Estuary Bottom Submerged lands of the estuary bottom support many of the same invertebrates that live on the flats and other creatures that prefer to live below the range of tide. Salinity, depth of water, and sediment type are the main factors determining the distribution of 'P_ species. In more marine areas of the lower estuary, lobsters, Euro- pean oysters and crabs share the bottom with other benthic dwellers. A Mussels, clams, scallops, and oysters are filter feeders, filtering the estuarine waters and muds for food. Flounder, hake, cod, and other fish species also dwell near the bottom. Living in contact with the N bottom muds and sands, bottom dwellers are especially susceptible Blue Mussels to toxic pollutants that collect in the estuarine sediments. (Mytilus edulis) 12 Eelgrass Meadows Eelgrass (Zostera marina) meadows are important commu- nities of the estuary bottom. Eelgrass plays an essential role in the establishment of shellfish beds and provide nursery areas for many species of fish, shellfish, and crustaceans. Neither algae nor sea- weed, eelgrass is a flowering plant which blooms underwater in the spring and produces seeds in July and August. The long slender grass blades slow currents and allow suspended sediment to settle. Eelgrasses also act as nutrient buffers, taking up nutrients from the sediments and slowly releasing them when the leaves decay. Mussels and other shellfish larvae settle on the grasses to grow. Small flounder and other fish use the meadows as nursery areas. Migrating waterfowl flock to eelgrass areas to feed on the leaves and seeds. Eelgrass is a principal food source for brant geese, Canada geese and ducks. The significance of eelgrass to coastal ecology was first recog- nized in the 1930s when a disease (the eelgrass wasting disease) destroyed 90 percent of eelgrass along the East Coast. During these years, bay scallop landings dropped in Massachusetts, sub-tidal areas once covered in eelgrass eroded when celgrass beds that had anchored bottom areas disappeared, and populations of migrating American brant and other waterfowl declined. Eelgrass has rebounded in recent years, but new threats include harbor development and sediment pollution from land run-off. Boat traffic, the harvest of shellfish and fish with heavy drags, and the dredging of navigational channels, are all activities which rip up eelgrass meadows. Outbreaks of eelgrass wasting disease have been recently reported in Maquoit and Middle Bays and the Great Bay estuary on the Piscataqua River in New Hampshire. Run-off from lands draining into the estuary watershed can contribute heavy loads of soil, nutrients and herbicides which affect eelgrass meadows and other nearshore aquatic vegetation. Eelgrass needs light to thrive and will weaken if the water is murky with sediment or dense algal blooms for long periods. TTie dramatic die- off of eelgrass in Maquoit Bay and Middle Bay, has been attributed to a variety of factors including disease, mussel dragging, added nu- trients and sediments from land run-off, and resuspcnsion of sedi- ments from boat traffic and clam digging (Short, 1988). Eelgrass (Zostera rwrina) 13 Estuary Waters Plankton Suspended in the waters of the estuaries are plankton. Plankton include shellfish and fish larvae, phytoplankton (one-celled plants), zooplankton (microscopic animals) and bacteria. Plankton are food for the shellfish and fish of the estuary. Seasonal floods of freshwa- ter run-off from land each spring and late fall, bring quantities of nutrients to the estuary waters and trigger algae and phytoplankton blooms. Red tides are blooms of a species of plankton algae toxic to humans. When red tide plankton accumulates in shellfish at toxic levels, the Maine Department of Marine Resources closes areas and Plankton prohibits shellfish harvesting to protect public health. The cause of red tide blooms is not known; nutrient-loaded run-off from land may be linked t- the occurrences. Fish Many oceanic fish visit outer reaches of estuaries in the sum- mer and fall to feed. The cod spawning ground at the mouth of the Sheepscot River estuary is one of the few known spawning grounds for offshore fish in Maine estuaries. Flounder are known to spawn just outside the entrance to the Webhannet River estuary and other sandy estuaries on the southern coast.'Estuaries are suspected to play vital roles as nurseries for many species of fish, however, the de- pendence of offshore fish stocks on Maine estuaries for food, shelter, and spawning habitat is unknown. Fish that swim from the saltwater to spawn in the freshwater are called anadromous and fish that journey from inland waters to spawn in the sea are called catadrornous. Maine estuaries support one catadromous species, American eel, and eleven anadromous species--Atlantic salmon, rainbow smelt, Atlantic sturgeon, blueback herring, searun brook trout, sea lamprey, American shad, striped bass, shortnose sturgeon, alewife, and searun brown trout (introduced from Europe in the 1800s). The shortnose sturgeon is on the federal endangered species list and is found in the Kennebec, Sheepscot and Penobscot Estuaries. We often underestimate the economic and ecologic contribu- tion of estuarine migratory fish in Maine. Maine is unique among eastern states in the diversity and abundance of native anadromous fish. The last remaining wild runs of Atlantic sea-run salmon in the eastern United States occur in the Sheepscot, Penobscot, Narra- guagus, Pleasant, Machias and Dermys Rivers each spring. Smelt, T alewives and other anadromous fish are harvested commercially in many areas along the coast. The abundance of the anadromous Alewife in eelgrass. fisheries is limited by man-made dams which block passage to spawning grounds. 14 The value of anadromous fish is more than the economic value In recent years, the coastal communities of the harvest. For instance, alewives are an essential source for of Damariscotta and Boothbay Harbor lobster bait in early spring before other bait becomes available. have stocked alewives in order to reduce Juvenile alewives feed on zooplankton and help maintain the water the zooplankton population in ponds that quality of inland freshwater lakes. The fry are also important food supply the municipal drinking water sys- term. Large amounts of zooplankton are for birds and larger fish. Anadromous fish, with their connections to undesirable because they taint the water both fresh and salt waters, epitomize the interdependence of the and clogfilters at treatment stations. marine and inland environments of the coastal watershed. Estuary waters provide ice-free habitats for loons, black ducks and other waterfowl in the winter after inland lakes freeze over. Harbor seals occasionally visit estuaries during the summer. In more remote areas, seal haul outs and bird nesting islands are found. Estuary Edges Shorelands, Banks, Bluffs, and Beaches The shores, banks, bluffs and uplands are vital parts of the estuarine ecosystem. The uplands and edges along the estuary buffer and sustain other habitats in the estuary. Vegetation along the edge of the estuary helps to naturally stabilize the shore and provide a buffer, filtering land run-off before it reaches the estuary waters. In sandy estuaries, sand flows inshore and offshore, between inshore sand beaches and bars and offshore sand deposits. In muddy estuaries, eroding bluffs and banks supply sediment to adjacent marshes and mudflats. Interference in the natural cycles of erosion and deposition can lead to sediment 'starvation.' For example, if banks or shorelines are stabilized artificially with seawalls or riprap, adjacent marshes and flats may erode during storms or strong tides and eventually disappear. The slumping of banks along the estuary contributes to the growth of marshes and mudflats. 'JII 15 The importance of buffers, Wildlife and birds use the banks and shores to gain access to an example-- the estuary edge. A number of mammals, such as shrews, otters, and When the Rachel Carson Wildlife Refuge raccoons, live just above the reach of tide and forage in the intertidal was founded in southern Maine in the area. Ecologists believe these edge environments, known as early 1970s, only the wetlands of Scar- ecotones, are key elements in maintaining the diversity and integrity borough Marsh were acquired to protect of the coastal landscape. habitatfor migratory birds. As residential development crept up to the The slow rise in sea level along the Maine coast may gradually edge of the marsh, the refuge managers erode soft bluffs and other edge environments. The marshes and flats realized that an upland buffer was essen- may migrate inland where the lay of the land permits if bluffs and tial to preserve the wildlife values of the banks are available to supply sediment to these depositional systems. estuarine habitats. Today, aquisition of Coastal planners are concerned that the'hardening' of the coastline adjacent uplands is a managemntpriority by parking lots, roads, seawalls, and other development will not for the refuge. allow the future expansion landward of marshes and flats flooded by rising sea level. Recommended Reading for More information An Ecological Characterization of Coastal Maine. S. Fefer and P. Schettig, editors, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-8-/29, Newton Comer, MA, 1980. A six volume comprehensive description of Maine coast environments from Cape Elizabeth north to Passamaquoddy Bay. "Charting Our Course",An Activity Guidefor Grades 6-12 on Water Quality in the Gulf of Maine. Maine State Planning Office, Maine Coastal Program, Augusta, ME, 1989. Available from the Maine State Planning Office. Living with the Coast of Maine. Joseph T. Kelley, A. Kelley and 0. Pilkey, Jr., sponsored by Maine Audobon, Duke University Press, Durham, NC., 1989. This book describes the geologic processes at work shaping the coast of Maine. Coastal hazards and guidelines for safe con- struction on the shore are reviewed. Secrets of a Salt Marsh. John 0. Snow, Guy Gannet Publishing Co., Portland, ME, 1980. Observations on the fauna and flora of Scarborough Marsh, Maine. The Gulf of Maine. Spencer Appolonio, Courier of Maine Books, Rockland, ME, 1979. A handbook on the geology and natural history of the Gulf of Maine. Available from the Courier Gazette in Rockland. The Maine Coast--A Nature Lover's Guide. Dorcas Miller, East Woods Press, Charlotte, NC, 1979. An introduction to coastal ecosystems and areas of interest open to the public. 16 Chapter Two The Consequence of Development Over the past twenty years, coastal Maine has experienced tremendous population growth. Some coastal towns have doubled in size; all have felt the impact of rising land values and demand for more services. As people discover the beauty and opportunities of the Maine coast, estuarine environments face stress from resource development and water pollution. This chapter explores the uses of estuaries and the impacts of human use on estuarine ecology. Estuary Use & Pollution in Maine, a historical perspective. In the late 1700s farmers diked and drained large salt marshes along the estuaries of the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy to create hay fields and pasture. Remnants of dikes are found in Scar- borough Marsh and along the Machias River estuary. Maine salt marshes are not intensively used for agriculture today, but in some areas grasses are collected for garden mulch and seaside lavender gathered for the dried flower trade. In the early 1800s, towns developed at the head of major Maine estuaries. Augusta, Calais and Saco were located on tidal falls which supplied energy for manufacturing. Later, dams were built to generate hydroelectric power. The rivers w6re'used to float logs and other raw material from the interior of the state to industries along the coast. Tidewater ice, known as "white gold"; was a valuable commodity shipped as far as the West Indies before the invention of refrigeration. Located at the crossroads of inland and coastal water transportation routes, Maine estuary towns such as Portland, Bath, Wiscasset, Waldoboro, Thomaston, Belfast, Ellsworth, and Machias, became centers of maritime trade and shipbuilding. From the last half of the nineteenth century to the 1960s, manufacturers dumped industrial wastes into Maine estuaries. They assumed that pollution disposed of in coastal rivers was quickly diluted and washed out to sea. Decades of industrial discharges and other pollutants had catastrophic consequences for fish, shellfish, and other aquatic life in Maine estuaries. Wood sludge from paper mills smothered most life on the bottom of the Presumpscot, Ken- nebec, Penobscot, and St. Croix Estuaries before federal clean water legislation in the 1970s required pollution control measures. Shoals of sawdust linger today off the shores of historic saw mill locations in the upper Damariscotta, Machias, and St. Croix Estuaries and in other areas along the Maine coast. 17 The Androscoggin River, which empties into Merryineeting Bay on the Kennebec/Androscoggin Estuary, was once considered One of the largest spills along the Maine one of the nation's 10 dirtiest rivers. By 1940, sulphite-process pulp coast ocurred in November 1963, when and paper mills discharged hundreds of tons of black wastewater in the tanker Northern Gu6Fran aground on to the Androscoggin River each day. Thousands of fish died and dis- West Cod Ledge in Casco Bay. Approxi- solved oxygen levels dropped to near zero in the river and Merry- mately one million gallons of crude oil meeting Bay. In the summer of 1941 hydrogen sulfide gas from the spilled and drifted east to strand on 400 foul river peeled paint off houses in Lewiston and sent noxious miles of shore in the Muscongus Bay and odors from Berlin, New Hampshire to Brunswick, Maine. The Pemaquid Peninsula area. public outcry that ensued galvanized the cleanup of the Androscog- Over 600,000 pounds of lobsters held in gin and focused attention on the pollution problems of Maine rivers. lobster pounds and over 180,000 bushels of soft-shell clams were contaminated by During the past forty years, five major oil spills (100,000 the oil spill (Card et al., 1981). gallons or more) and approximately 23 large oil spills (1,000 gallons or more), have leaked from tankers, pipelines, and terminals on the Maine coast. Oil spills have damaged intertidal flats and contami- nated sediments in the Piscataqua River estuary, Casco Bay, Mus- congus Bay, Penobscot Bay, and Long Cove in Searsport. Estuary Use & Pollution Today Water quality has certainly improved in recent years, yet threats to the environmental health of Maine's estuaries have not disappeared. Industrial wastewater discharges are cleaner and more regulated than in the past and many towns have constructed munici- pal treatment plants to handle residential wastewater. Although Maine salt marshes are no longer ditched and drained to control mosquitos or create farmland as in the past, present day highway and bridge construction projects often damage estuarine habitats by altering marshlands or estuarine drainage. The evidence of environmental damage in Maine estuaries of concern now is subtle and usually not as obvious as oil-soaked seabirds or clouds of foul gasses. Toxic compounds that contaminate estuarine sediment, water, and living resources are detected only through complicated analysis and the harmful effects are difficult to pinpoint. The burgeoning coastal population has concentrated development along the uplands of Maine estuaries, increased the volume of municipal wastewater discharged into coastal rivers, strengthened demand for seafood and other marine resources, crowded harbors with recreational boats, and in general, intensified the use of these fragile ecosystems. This intensified use influences the environmental health of Maine estuaries. The chart on the opposite page briefly describes some of the consequences of human activities on the estuarine ecosystem. The activities are grouped into four broad categories of human uses of estuarine resources and uplands--waste disposal, marina and port development, food source, and land use. 18 The Effect of Development on Estuarine Ecology Waste Disposal Manufacturing (paper & textile mills, tanneries etc.): Even when regulated and treated, waste- streams can include heavy metals (mercury,copper, lead, arsenic ... ), polyriuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); dioxin, and organic sludge. Power Plants: Cooling water from power plants adds heat to estuary waters. Nuclear power plants contribute low levels of radionuclides to the estuarine environment from liquid discharges to estuary waters. Municipal Sewage: Treatment plants discharge treated wastewater containing bacteria, nutrients, road residues, household toxics, chlorine, heavy metals and other substances including wastes from commercial businesses tied into the sewage system. Storm Outfalls: Combined sewer overflows (CSO) and storm drain outfalls; add road residues, sedi- ment, bacteria, and trash to estuary waters. If a municipal sewage plant malfunctions or is flooded by storm waters, raw sewage may be discharged into the estuary. Overboard Discharges: Some residential wastewater is treated with sand filtration and chlorination before disposal into tidal waters as an overboard discharge. Over 3,000 of these overboard discharges remain on the Maine Coast and add bacteria, chlorine, and nutrients to coastal waters. New overboard dis- charges are forbidden by state law. An unknown number of illegal straight pipes discharge sewage directly into Maine tidewaters. Marina & Port Development Dredging and Dredge Spoil Disposal: Dredging to maintain navigational channels or anchorages and disposal of dredge spoils results in redistribution of pollutants in bottom sediments, increased turbidity of es- tuarine waters and destruction of bottom habitats. Harbor, Port and Marina Development: Boat traffic may add bacteria, chlorine, and formaldehyde from marine toilets to nearshore waters, as well as marine trash, small oil and fuel spills, and toxic bottom paints and chemicals from boat and ship maintenance activities. Boat traffic can potentially harm submerged aquatic vegetation, introduce foreign plants and animals, and cause noise Pollution. Food Source Traditional Fisheries: A by-product of fishing is the addition of lost traps, nets and other gear as well as trash into nearshore waters. Harvesting techniques such as bottom-dragging disturbs natural estuarine bottom habitats. The repeated digging of mud flats for clams and worms changes the texture of the intertidal mudflat habitat and increases turbidity of tidal waters. Selective harvesting of particular species may change natural cycles of abundance. Aquaculture: The feeding and raising of fish in aquaculture pens adds nutrients to estuarine waters and may alter the natural ecology under the pens. Introduction of non-native shellfish seed and fish smolt to Maine waters may unintentionally spread foreign species and diseases. Land Use Roads: Road run-off contains polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), lead, zinc, and oil from automotive traffic as well as nutrients and bacteria from land drainage. Road construction across estuaries or tidal creeks can alter tidal flow, destroy wetland habitats and block passage for migratory fish. Residential Development: Waterfront residential development often involves shoreline alteration with stabilization measures or dock construction. Lawn and garden fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes, and nutrients and bacteria from malfunctioning septic systems, are all associated with run-off from residential areas. Clearing and paving land for lawns, driveways, parking lots, and roadways increases the rate of flow and volume of land run-off into coastal waters. A riculture: Runoff from agricultural lands often contains nutrients from fertilizers or animal manure, pesticilles, and eroded topsoil. Mining: Drainage from mining operations may include heavy metals and eroded soil. Forestry Practices: Forestry operations involving large clearcuts or the use of skidders on slopes and streams within a coastal watershed may increase erosion of topsoil and the volume of surface water run-off. These practices increase sediment loads and water temperature in freshwater tributaries of estuaries and coastal waters. Timber management with herbicides within the estuary watershed may result in the accumu- lation of toxic herbicide residues in estuarine waters and sediments. 19 The Impact of Among the natural resources of an estuary are living resources (marine life and wildlife), estuarine habitats and communities Human Use on (marshes, mudflats, and eelgrass meadows), and geologic features Natural Resources (sand beaches, bluffs, gravel deposits). Human impact on the natural resources of an estuary may be minor, such as the placing of a moor- ing or major, such as dredging to improve navigation. Often small alterations to the estuarine shoreline appear to effect only the immediate area. These minor changes may add together over time to slowly change the ecology of an estuary and the character of the estuarine landscape. Common changes to the estuarine landscape over one year may include construction of several small private docks, new placement of moorings, removal of trees and brush from shorefront lots, or the development of a waterfront residential subdivision. The total effect of incremental changes over a period of time is referred to as cumulative impact. Shoreland development changes natural rates of erosion and alters sediment supply to nearby marshes, mudflats,-and beaches. Construction of wharves, docks and seawalls, riprapping shorefront and clearing natural shoreline vegetation are activities which may modify the natural processes of erosion and deposition in the estu- anne environment. Dredging operations are necessary to maintain harbors and anchorages, but the removal of bottom sediment may cause variations in erosion and deposition at the dredge site and and other areas of the estuary. Over time, enough incremental changes to estuarine habitats will significantly alter the natural estuarine ecology. Because the changes are gradual and over time, clear cause and effect relationships are difficult to determine. Commercial harvests of shellfish, fish, and worms in Maine estuaries and neutral embayments have declined over the years (see graph below). Many fish species, once harvested from Maine estuaries and harbors, are now rare. Years ago, sturgeon were fished from the Mousam River estuary and cod from the Scarborough River estuary. The precise cause of changes in the abundance and location of species is not always obvious. Habitat alteration, overfishing, water pollution, natural cycles of abundance, and climatic change all may influ- ence the decline in landings of species that are harvested in Maine estuaries and neutral embayments. Annual Maine Landings of Selected Species 8000 (1970-1988) (in 1 000's of pounds) 7000 6000 Sandworm 5000 Bloodworm 4000 Soft Shell Clam 3000 -El- Alewife 2000 1000 '70 '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 Source: Maine Dept. of Marine Resources Annual Data. 20 V Good water quality sustains life. At the hean of estuary plan- The Impact of ning is a concem for water quality. Water quality affects fish, shellfish, and other natural resources as well as the available uses of Human Use on the estuary by people. Protection of water quality within the estuary Water Quality watershed includes protection of freshwater resources used for drinking, farming, recreation, and manufacturing and saltwater resources used for aquaculture, recreation, and fishing. The connec- tions between land and water uses are strong, particularly for water dependent uses. Water dependent uses include activities which require access to saltwater. Marinas, fishing piers, fish packing plants, boat yards, and shellfish hatcheries are examples of develop- ments which need or prefer a shoreside location. The development and use of shorelands directly influences nearshore water quality. The Hydrologic Cycle The water quality of an estuary is affected by all the uses of the land and water in the estuary watershed. Water cycles through the environment. Water falls as rain or snow, runs from rivulets to streams to rivers to the ocean, sinks through the ground to replenish groundwater, or is drawn up to sustain plants and animals. Water vapor escaping as evaporation from lakes, ocean, and land, and as transpiration from plants, forms clouds. The clouds condense, the water falls as rain or snow and the cycle begins again. These movements (illustrated in the drawing below) are called the hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic cycle demonstrates how all water in the environ- ment is interrelated, whether it be freshwater, saltwater, or groundwater. Human use of the land and waters influ- ences the amount and type of soil, chemicals and other pollutants carried into rivers and estuaries. Precipitation Evaporation from estuary Transpiration, by plants [email protected] loi land stirlace Estuary- ------ zip- C ro@ndwater - Frest water 21 Estuarine Pollution Pollutants discharged directly from pipes into rivers and estuar- ies are called point sources of pollution. Point sources of pollution include all licensed discharges with federal NPDES (National Permit & Discharge Elimination System) and state discharge permits from industries, small companies, municipal sewer systems, aquaculture fish pens, and overboard discharges. Oil spills from tankers are also considered point source discharges. Some point sources, such as straight pipes discharging untreated residential sewage, are often overlooked and unlicensed. The Maine Department of Marine Resources is surveying these illegal systems. Non-point source pollution (NPS) refers to any pollution For more information on non-point source which is not a licensed discharge or does not have a localized or pollution contact: clearly identified source. Non-point source pollution is associated Non-Point Source Pollution Program, with land and water use and poses a serious threat to coastal water Maine Dept. of Environmental Protec- quality and estuarine ecology. The non-point source label is a mis- tion, State House Station 17, Augusta, nomer, since every pollutant has a source, however, the source of Maine 04333. NPS pollution is usually not as specific as point source pollution. Inadequate septic systems, stormwater run-off, clearcutting, con- struction, and boat pollution all contribute to non-point source pollution along the Maine coast. Urban development, agriculture, and forestry operations are the major categories of land-based non-point source pollution in Maine. Each activity influences coastal water quality because of alteration of the land and removal of natural vegetation. Urban NPS pollution includes stormwater run-off (nutrients, road oils, lead, sediments) and pollution associated with residential development. Drainage from agricultural lands may include nutrients from fertilizers and farm animals, pesticides, and soil. Large clearcuts and other forestry practices may increase temperature and turbidity of streams and creeks in the estuary watershed as well as add herbicides to estuarine waters. Intensified use of estuarine waters creates water-based NPS pollution. Marinas, harbor dredging projects and finfish aquaculture operations are examples of water-based activities that can impair estuarine water quality and natural resources if not planned correctly. The Groundwater - Estuary Connection Groundwater seeps into estuary water and estuary water percolates into veins of groundwater. The intrusion of saltwater into freshwater municipal and private wells is a common problem along the Maine coast. Some coastal communities are served by public drinking water systems that tap surface waters (ponds, rivers, or lakes), groundwater wells, or a combination of sources. Rural residents usually draw drinking water from individual wells. In areas of the coast, increased demand on groundwater resources for residential use pulls more water from the water table than the aquifer can replenish and saltwater is drawn in to compensate. Groundwater polluted by leaking underground fuel tanks, abandoned dumps, or failing septic systems, may seep into estuaries and Pollute coastal waters. 22 Water Classification The Maine Department of Environmental Protection manages estuarine and marine waters by designating allowable uses and levels of pollution with a water classification system. Estuarine and marine waters are classi- fied as SA, SB, or SC. Every three years the classification is updated and public hearings are held to review the proposed classification. During the public hearings, communities have the opportunity to comment on the water classification. The classification is based on bacteria, aquatic life, and dissolved oxygen standards. Class SA waters are the highest classification. All discharges are prohibited in Class SA waters. Class SA waters have high quality water, unique ecological resources and are often located next to coastal parks or other public lands. Ile estuarine and marine communities, and dissolved oxygen and bacteria content of SA waters must be as naturally occurs. "Class SA waters shall be of such quality that they are suitable for the designated uses of recreation in and on the water, fishing, aquaculture, propagation and harvesting of shellfish and navigation and as habitat for fish and other estu- arine and marine life." Class SB waters allow discharges which do not cause detrimental changes to the aquatic community, including finfish aquaculture and hydroelectric power generation. Most estuaries in Maine are currently designated SB. Class SB waters must have a dissolved oyxgen content at least 85% of saturation and bacteria concentration may not exceed levels recommended for shellfish growing areas. Enterococcus bacteria must not exceed specified levels between May 15th and September 30th. "Class SB waters shall be of such quality that they are suitable for the designated uses of recreation in and on the water, fishing, aquaculture, propagation and harvesting of shellfish, industrial processing, and cooling water supply, hydroelectric power generation and navigation and as habitat for fish and other estuarine and marine life." Class SC waters allow heavy industrial discharges as long as the water quality supports the fish and aquatic com- munities normally found in the area and allows swimming and fishing. The Penobscot Estuary, Portland Harbor, St. Croix Estuary and other industrialized coastal waters are classified as SC. Class SC waters must have an oxygen content of at least 75% of saturation and bacteria concentration may not exceed levels recommended for restricted shellfish growing areas. Enterococcus bacteria must not exceed specified levels between May 15th and September 30th. "Class SC waters shall be of such quality that they are suitable for the designated uses of recreation in and on the water, fishing, aquaculture, propagation and restricted harvesting of shellfish, industrial processing and cooling water supply, hydroelectric power generation and navigation and as habitat for fish and other estuarine and marine life." From: Water Classification Program, January 1989. Maine Revised Statutes Annotated Title 38, Article 4-A, Department of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Water Quality Control, Augusta, ME. Dissolved Oxygen Dissolved oxygen in the water is essential for all plants and animals living in an estuary. The amount of dissolved oxygen in water is used as an indicator of water quality and the level of life that the water can support. The maximum amount of dissolved oxygen (the saturation level) that can be dissolved in a given amount of water varies with the salinity and temperature of the water. The colder the water, the higher the saturation level of dissolved oxygen, and the more saline the water, the lower the saturation level. The surface water in an estuary is usually at or near oxygen saturation, while conditions near the bottom vary with the amount of verticle mixing in the water column, the presence of plants such as eelgrass and sea- weeds, and the demand for oxygen by shellfish, decomposing bacteria, fish, and other creatures. 23 Coastal Water Pollutants This section explores the effects of major water pollutant cate- gories on estuarine ecosystems. Bacteria Approximately one-third of the produc- Bacterial pollution from sewage treatment plants, boaters, tive shelyishflats in Maine were closed in malfunctioning septic systems, urban and agricultural run-off or 1990 because ofpossible bacterial pollu- household overboard discharges is usually a condition that disap- tion. pears once the source of bacteria is eliminated and does not perma- nently harm the estuarine environment. Bacterial pollution is a human health concern which reduces the availability of shellfish for harvesting and waters for recreational activities. Malfunctioning septic systems from residences along the shore are suspected of being a major source of bacterial pollution to Maine estuaries. The Maine Department of Marine Resources (MDMR) monitors bacteria levels in shellfish growing areas as part of the Shellfish Sanitation Program in order to protect public health. Chlorine A serious environmental consequence of sewage discharges from municipal treatment plants, licensed overboard discharges, and marine toilets is the trace of chlorine added to kill harmful viruses and other pathogens. Chlorine is used as an antifoulant for industrial intakes at power stations and to wash down boats. Chlorination can produce very hazardous chlorinated organic compounds such as dioxin. Chlorine is also highly toxic to aquatic life in minute quanti- ties. Traces of chlorine in estuary waters reduces and may deter migratory fish runs. The Maine Department of Environmental Pro- tection (MDEP) requires most coastal municipal and industrial treatment systems to dechlorinate chlorinated effluent or use altema- tive forms of disinfection. Nutrients Nutrients, in particular phosphorus and nitrogen, are necessary for the overall productivity of estuarine waters. Nitrogen is usually, although not always, the nutrient limiting phytoplankton growth in Maine estuaries, just as phosphorus limits growth in most freshwater lakes. Nutrients are a concern when excess amounts produce unde- sirable changes in the abundance of phytoplankton and other aquatic species. Population density and land use changes in the estuarine wa- tershed can increase nutrient loads to estuarine waters. Wastewater sewage treatment plants, urban run-off,- and agricultural activities are major land-based sources for nitogen and phosphorus in Maine estu- aries. Finfish fanning operations also add nitrogen from fish waste 24 and excess feed and can create water quality problems in estuaries that are not well flushed. The addition of nitrogen to nearshore waters from septic systems, sewage plants, fish pens, marine heads, or land run-off can cause nuisance blooms and upset the natural balance of nutrients. Red tides are common nuisance blooms along the Maine coast each summer. Occurrences of red tides are phenomena not yet understood and may be linked to iron as well as nitrogen availability. The loading of nutrients into nearshore embayment waters can Theone-cell microscopic algae thatproduces lead to a condition known as eutrophication. Excessive amounts of red tide(Gonyaulax tamarensis). Drawing nutrients cause phytoplankton to multiply or bloom in great quanti- is many times actual size. ties. When the phytoplankton sink and die, bacteria decompose the plankton and deplete the dissolved oxygen in the estuary. If dis- solved oxygen levels become too low, shellfish and other bottom In addition to nutrients, the availability of dwellers may die. A massive shellfish kill in Maquoit Bay in the fall light, iron, water temperature, and other of 1988 was caused by an unusual bloom of phytoplankton that chemical and physical factors limit the settled to the bottom and within 48 hours had smothered 80% of the growth ofphytoplankton in estuaries. soft-shelled clams, European oysters, and other shellfish in the bay. Heavy Metals Mercury, cadmium, chromium, copper, zinc, and lead are a few of the heavy metals found in industrial discharges in Maine. Trace metals also enter the marine environment from municipal sewage treatment discharges and road run-off. Since metals tend to accumu- late in marine and estuarine sediments, bottom dwelling animals in- cluding shellfish and ground fish, are most at risk. Human health is also affected by exposure to heavy metals. High concentrations of heavy metals may naturally occur in estuarine waters because of the geology within the watershed or result from industrial discharges and urban run-off. Elevated levels of heavy metals have been detected by Maine state and university scientists in sediments in Casco Bay, Boothbay Harbor, Muscongus Bay, St. George River, Blue Hill Bay, Penobscot Bay, Union River, Narraguagus River and the St. Croix River. Although the entire coast has not been sampled intensively, studies indicate that areas with a legacy of industrial discharges, coastal mining, or harbor activities, have some heavy metal contami- nation. In Boothbay Harbor, non-point source stormwater nm-off from parking lots, boatyards, and marinas is suspected to be the source of high lead levels found in harbor sediments. Mine drainage from the Callahan Mine on the shore of Cape Rosier in Blue Hill Bay has caused local shellfish to accumulate unnaturally high levels of copper. 25 Petroleum Derivatives Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other aromatic compounds are major concerns because of their mutagenic (change cell growth) and carcinogenic (cause cancer) properties. Sources of PAHs include oil from tanker spills, bilge water discharges, leaking underground gas storage tanks, discarded motor oil bottles, road run- off, sewage plants, rainfall, and creosote from wharf pilings. The presence of PAHs and other organic petroleum compounds can be predicted in areas of past oil spills, intense harbor activity, and municipal and industrial discharges. The discovery of PAH levels in Casco Bay higher than those found in Boston Harbor heightened a growing awareness that the marine environment in Maine is not as pristine as once believed (Larsen et al, 1983). Low levels of PAHs have also been found in sediments of Penobscot, Machias and Frenchmen Bays. Organochlorines and Other Synthetic Organic Compounds Organochlorines are stable compounds that accumulate in The bald eagle population, once threat- sediment and the fatty tissues of animals. Organochlorides (DDT), ened by'the effect of DDT on chick sur- polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and-dioxin are highly persistent vival, has rebounded in Maine. Canadian in the environment and harmful to animals. PCBs were once used in studies of marine mammals, however, electrical equipment and have not been manufactured in the U.S. for reveal that DDT still persists as an en- vironmental problem. over ten years, yet they continue to enter the environment from improper disposal or leaking shoreside'landfills. Low levels of PCBs in mussel tissue have been recorded by EPA in Casco Bay, Penob- scot Bay, Machias Bay, and Frenchman Bay. The presence of DDT and PCBs is not as predictable as that of other pollutants. Dioxin, however, is associated with a certain kind of paper mill discharge. Dioxin is a by-product of the kraft paper- making process which bleaches wood pulp with chlorine. The lignins (natural binddfg of W6W-fiber) from the wood and the chlorine combine to produce dioxin, a substance suspected to cause birth defects in humans. In March 1990, the Department of Environ- mental Protection released the results of a study which revealed the presence of dioxin in fish sampled from the Androscoggin, Ken- nebec, Penobscot, and Presumpscot Rivers. Paints, household chemicals, and hundreds of other chemicals in daily use find their way to the estuary waters via sewage plants, stonn sewers, and in regulated and nonregulated discharges. Chemi- cal toilets on boats often use formaldehyde, a very toxic substance often emptied directly into estuary waters with sanitary waste. The EPA estimates more than 70,000 chemicals are in industrial use and an additional thousand more are introduced each year; few have been studied to assess their effect on human and aquatic life. 26 Toxic by-products of manufacturing often slip into regulated discharges by accident or on purpose. Storms wash a myriad of chemical traces into Maine estuaries. The synergistic effects of these substances, how they react and interact, is a mystery. Biocides Biocides include a broad range of chemicals designed to kill Commercial application and sales ofpes- living organisms. Tributyltin (TBT), a biocide, is an antifouling ticides is licensed and regulated by the compound used in boat bottom paint. Although the use of tributyltin Board ofPesticide Control (Maine Dept. is now restricted, it is still in use and accumulates with other heavy of Agriculture, Food and Rural Re- metals in the sediments of harbor areas and centers of boat building sources). Residential use in Maine is un- activity. regulated. Pesticides are biocides designed to kill plants and insects. Traces of pesticides are difficult to detect in the marine environment because the compounds are designed to break down into other substances in relatively short periods of time. The toxic effect of these secondary products is unknown. Large quantities of biocides are used on roadways, power line right-of-ways, golf courses, timber lands, apple orchards, blueberry fields and on other crops. Herbicide application on forest lands in Maine is the heaviest in the nation. Studies have found levels of pesticides in the groundwater of agricultural areas in Maine (Neil et al., 1989), but the presence of pesticides other than DDT in Maine estuarine environments, has not been investigated. Temperature People can alter the temperature of coastal waters and streams with discharges of heated wastewater. Maine Yankee Atomic Power Plant and coal-fired plants along the coast use estuary water for cooling turbines. Major changes in the landscape, such as paving over large areas or extensive clearcutting, will also increase the temperature of surface run-off with potentially darnaging conse- quences for fish and other marine life. When the estuary volume and flushing rate is high, the effect of warm water may be minimal. But even a small increase in water temperature can alter the ability of fish and shellfish to reproduce and may decrease oxygen levels in the water. Sediments Plowed fields, construction sites, road ditches, natural erosion, and clearcuts are the principal sources of sediments that wash into the estuary with each storm. Soil washing into tidal creeks and coastal waters blocks the light needed by aquatic plants and in sufficient quantities, smothers shellfish beds and bottom communi- ties. Suspended sediments can damage gills and other sensitive fish 27 tissue. Dredging and bottom-dragging harvesting techniques also increase the turbidity of estuarine waters. Marine Trash Marine trash clutters miles of shoreline and threatens the health of estuarine animals. Fish, birds, and other wildlife ingest nonbiode- gradable plastics or are entangled by them. Pieces of gillnet and ghost lobster traps keep on fishing for months or years after they disappear from the fisherman's care. Marine trash enters the envi- ronment from combined sewer outfalls,. land run-off, livers, streams, recreational boaters, shore side visitors, and fishermen. In Maine, commercial fishermen and recreational boaters are respon- sible for much of the marine debris found on our shores. The 1989 Coast Week Cleanup in Maine covered 176 miles of shorefront and col- lected an average 102.6 pounds of debris per mile. (Data compiled by the Maine Coastal Program with assistancefrom the Centerfor Marine Conservation.) J Quality of Life and Coastal Culture Development and pollution of estuary waters and uplands changes the lives of those who live and work along the coast. Pollution of estuarine waters and the subsequent decline in fisheries affects many coastal resi- dents accustomed to making a living harvesting natural resources from coastal waters. Access to estuaries and other sections of the coast is becoming more restricted. Less than 10% of the Maine coast is in public ownership, yet more than 75% of the state's population lives within the coastal counties. A recent survey by the Maine State Planning Office revealed that almost 90% of clam and worm diggers cross private shorelands to get to flats. One- third of those surveyed had private property owners object to passage across their lands (Dawson, 1990). Years ago, saltwater farms stretched down to the estuary edge. Many families owned a fish house and dock on the shore for convenient access to the water and as a place to store and repair fishing gear. In recent years, land values have soared and many residents cannot afford or choose not to maintain the waterfront farms and shore lots that have been in the family for generations. The sale and subdivison of family farms and waterfront lands leads to an increase in residential and road development and all the environmental problems associated with urban land use. 28 Chapter Three Estuary Planning and Management What is Estuary Management? An estuary management program is designed to protect, sustain and improve the resources of an estuary watershed. Harbor manage- ment ordinances, land use and shoreland ordinances, and shellfish ordinances are among the regulatory tools used to manage estuaries. Volunteer water quality monitoring, community education, clam flat seeding and septic system pumping programs are a few examples of nonregulatory efforts underway in communities along the Maine coast. Ideally, estuary management involves all the communities bordering an estuary or within the same coastal watershed working together to define common goals and strategies to sustain the quality of coastal waters and other natural resources that they share. The Need for Estuary Planning As population and development pressures increase on the Maine coast, so does the need for protection and wise stewardship of estuaries and other coastal waters. Development concentrates at the edges of the coast, where water meets land in estuaries or other bays. State agencies have only limited authority to protect local resources by enforcing state environmental regulations. By thoughtful plan- ning, towns can encourage economic development of estuaries that sustain diverse and abundant natural resources. Establishing priority uses in the estuaries will contribute to a hcalthy-,and clean environment. Land use and resource planning offers local governments an Getting Started opportunity to play an active role in directing future changes to their Even if town government is not ready to town rather than reacting to controversial developments crisis by address estuaryplanning on a large scale, crisis. Problems and issues involving land and resource development estuary management efforts can be started differ from area to area and are best handled by residents who under- by individuals or community groups with stand the unique situation of their area and must live with the particular issues of concern-finding the outcome. sources of pollution causing a clam flat closure, improving anadromousfish runs, Land use plans are an expression of community vision. The protecting a coastal marsh, or mapping plans lay out scenarios describing the community in the ftiture-- estuary habitats. where development should occur and businesses should locate, and The important thing isjust to get started. which natural and cultural resources need to be protected. Planning provides an opportunity to anticipate and prrvent problems such as permanent closure of productive clam flats, shorefront erosion, or an over-built coastline. Prevention is always less expensive than re- mediation. 29 Estuary Planning & Comprehensive Planning Why are Comprehensive Plans An estuary plan can be part of a town comprehensive plan and Important? may lead to an ambitious regional effort involving many towns Comprehensive plans are sources of in- working together to balance the protection of natural resources formation about the community, its lands within the coastal watershed with appropriate land use activities and and resources and projections for the water uses. future. Comprehensive plans provide the Maine communities are required by the Comprehensive and backupfor legal challenges to ordinances Land Use Regulation Act of 1988 to develop growth management enacted by the town. Just asfederal laws programs that include a comprehensive plan and an implementation must be consistent with the U.S. Con- stitution, so must town ordinances be program to carry out the plan. Towns must include in their backed by a document expressing the comprehensive plans, programs for the regional management of priorities and intentions of the residents. shared resources that extend beyond municipal borders, for example --estuaries and coastal watersheds. Most coastal towns will address estuary and embayment issues in sections of the comprehensive plan that cover water quality, marine resources, and other natural resource areas. In addition, discussions of estuarine issues and resources should be incorporated into sections concerning the local and regional economy, public access to the coast, and recreational opportunities. Estuary planning should complement existing comprehensive plans and be included in future or updated comprehensive plans. Policies relating to water quality, natural resource conservation and land use within a plan can be used to develop local ordinances and programs that effectively manage estuarine resources and the resources of the coastal watershed. Working Together Home Rule & Responsibility of Estuaries are shared resources that require cooperative manage- Local Government. ment. Large estuaries often span political boundaries, as do many In Maine, as in many other New England other water resources such as freshwater lakes and groundwater states, all powers not expressly reserved aquifers. Estuary water quality, habitats and fisheries cannot be by the state legislature are allowed to be protected piecemeal. exercised by municipal governments. This If a town decides to protect a clam flat at one end of the estuary strong reliance on local control is called 'home rule'. and another town encourages marina development across the water, Authority for designing, implementing, the conservation action may be thwarted as oils and discharges from and enforcing most shoreland and other boat traffic pollute the flats or a shellfish closure prohibiting shell- land use regulations resides with local fish harvesting around the marina overlaps the conservation area. government. Because of the tradition of The comprehensive planning process provides an opportunity for home rule, towns have the prerogative to towns to work together on issues relating to water quality and protect andmanage resources within their resource protection. jurisdiction. 30 Even if towns have different schedules for completion of an The Office of Comprehensive Planning official Comprehensive Plan, they need to work together to plan (OCP) in the Maine Department of Com- the management of shared resources such as estuaries, ground munity and Economic Development water aquifers, and freshwater lakes. The regional nature of (MDECD) and local regional planning coastal watersheds requires communication and cooperation be- agencies provide assistance to towns de- tween towns as well as between state agencies with res nsibilities veloping comprehensive plans. (See Ap- po pendix for information.) in estuarine areas. In the lingo of planners, what is required for effective estuarine management is an "interlocal effort". Planning Basics The following reviews three stages in the development of an estuarine resource management plan and program. First, inventory the resources and identify the issues; then develop policies and rec- ommendations for implementation measures; and finally, develop and enact ordinances, regulations, and programs that address the issues of concern and provide for long-term management of estuar- ine resources. Grass-roots public involvement and education pro- grams are essential to ensure widespread support for the final plan and recommendations. Inventories & Issue Identification Inventories contain facts about natural resources, land use, and water use within the estuary watershed. Collecting information is an ongoing process. Inventories must be periodically revised with new data to reflect current trends and conditions so that policies and implementation measures can be updated. 'Me inventory section of a plan also examines the needs and concerns of the community, and the types of measures needed to address those needs and concerns. Surveys and public meetings are useful tools to identify issues of concern and priorities of residents. Asking the right questions is necessary in order to obtain the desired information. Windshield surveys are used to quickly identify nonpoint source pollution and general patterns of land use. Driving around, an observer can note areas of possible non-point source pollution by watching for recent con- struction, land-clearing activities, bare earth, or erosion gullies. Short surveys mailed to residents are useful to identify issues of concern and priorities for management. Ask questions and note trends Are clam flats closed due to bacterial pollution? is water quality getting better or worse? Are there more applications for shoreland building permits than there used to be? Are the shorelands of the estuary "hardened" with parking lots, riprap, seawalls and other modi- fications? Arethere old dumps atthe shores of the estuary or in nearby marshes and small wetlands? Where werethe old mills and industries located, what did they produce and discard? Are the estuary shores and inlets littered with plastictrash and otherdebris? Whathas been the overall effectof incremental development along the estuary and in the estuary watershed? 31 Examples of Information to This list is not complete, but indicates the kind of in- formation needed for an understanding of how an Collect and Map: estuary fits into the local ecology and economy. (Addresses of sources are listed in Appendix A). Estuary and estuary watershed unit boundaries. Research the location of historical industrial sites Source: Maine Geological Survey (MGS). and land use, including the location of forgotten Groundwater and surface water resources in the underground fuel tanks, town dumps or industrial estuary watershed. dumps. Sources: Topographic maps, MGS aquifer maps, regional Sources: Historical society records, town libraries, old planning agencies insurance maps. MDEP Water Classification for surface waters in the Non-point source pollution i.e., malfunctioning estuary watershed. septic systems, combined sewer overflows, storm- Sources: Topographic maps, regional planning water drainage outfalls, road drainage culverts and agencies, Maine Dept. of Environmental Protection ditches, clearcut areas, livestock yards. (MDEP). Sources: Town road maps and sewer district plans, local Major estuarine and marine habitats especially those water quality groups, MDMR area biologists. related to commercially harvested marine resources Coastal hazard areas, sand dunes, and flood plains. including salt and fresh marshes, freshwater tidal Sources: County emergency management agencies, MGS habitat, flats, submerged aquatic vegetation (eelgrass (sand dune maps), MDECD. meadows), migratory fish streams, shellfish and Existing and suitable areas for water dependent ac- marine worm beds, aquaculture lease sites. tivities including boatbuilding, harbors, fish buying Sources: Maine Coastal Marine Environment maps stations, lobster holding areas, moorings, weirs. availablefrom MGS; shel@(Iish maps availablefrom Maine Dept. of Marine Resources (MDMR) area biologists. Sources: Coastal water dependent use maps are avail- able from regional planning agencies or the Office of Major land uses in the estuary watershed--farmland, Comprehensive Planning (MDECD). conservation, tree growth, urban, rural residential. Sites ideal for shellfish or finfish aquaculture. Shoreland zones and other existing zoning districts. Sources: MDMR area biologists, Maine Aquaculture As- Sources: Regional planning agencies, soil and water con- sociation. servation districts offices, tax maps. Areas with significant botanical, archeological, Traditional paths to the shore, public access sites, wildlife, geological, or scenic resources. High value boat ramps. deer yards and wintering areas; waterfowl, shore- Sources: Old maps, public surveys, tax maps. bird, and wading bird nesting and feeding areas; Underground petroleum storage tanks, waterfront spawning and nursery areas for Atlantic salmon and gas tanks and oil distribution facilities. Bald Eagle nesting areas. Sources: A list can be obtainedfrom the QJfice of Oil and Sources: Heritage Program (Maine Dept. of Economic Hazardous Materials (MDEP) or county emergency man- and Community Development ), Critical Area Program agement agencies. (Maine State Planning Office), Maine Dept. ofInland Fish and Wildlife (MIFW) area biologists, surveys. Estuary profiles are available for nineteen Locations of present and past sources of pollution to Maine estuaries. The profiles are brief de- estuarine waters including licensed discharges. scriptions of selected estuaries. Maps are Source: The Water Quality Control Bureau (MDEP) will available for five estuaries. Estuary profiles provide computer printout of discharges by town and dis- and maps are available from the Maine State charge license limits--the amount and type ofpollutant Planning Office, regional planning agencies, allowed to be discharged. and University of Maine Cooperative Exten- sion offices. 32 Estuarine Management Issues Each estuary along the Maine coast is unique; issues of concern differ between areas. The following are only a few of the issues to be considered when designing an estuary management plan. Aquaculture When planning for sustainable economic development, towns should identify and protect existing and potential aquaculture development sites. Precautions must be taken to ensure that aquacul- ture operations are sited to minimize the effect on water quality. Aq- uaculture enterprises can provide year-round employment opportuni- ties, supplement incomes of traditional fishermen, and contribute to the local economy. Proposed aquaculture development often con- ceins harvesters fishing wild stock near the proposed lease site and riparian landowners. Plans to protect existing and potential aquacul- ture sites should address the concerns of all users of the estuary. Waterfront Development Large-scale waterfront development projects are often contro- versial in Maine as communities struggle to define and retain their identity. Conversion of shorefront business properties to condomini- ums or recreational marinas is often perceived as a threat to tradi- tional fishing-related uses of the waterfront. Harbor management plans and ordinances, which regulate water use pertaining to moor- ing and navigation channels, and shoreland zoning, which designates the type of land development within 250 ft. of tidal water, are key tools in managing urban waterfronts. Coastal Hazards and Sea Level Rise Unstable shore environments such as flood zones, bluffs and sand dune areas need additional restrictions on alteration and construction within buffer zones that exceed the minimum require- ments of state shoreland zoning and flood plain management regula- tions. A slow rise in sea level caused by global changes in climate will alter the shape of the coast in the near future. Long-term shore- land planning must allow room for marshes, dune fields and other coastal habitats to migrate inland as sea level rises. Setbacks for homes, businesses, and especially septic systems and wells should reflect projected sea level rise and natural rates of shore erosion. Clam Flat Closures Extensive closures of areas to the harvest of shellfish because of bacterial pollution may cause hardship in small coastal communi- ties especially when many residents depend on digging for all or part of their income. Bacterial pollution in Maine estuaries generally comes from a combination of sources such as septic systems, municpal sewage treatment plants, stormwater run-off, flocks of waterfowl, or livestock yards. Pollution from each of these sources can be prevented by a combination of regulations, inspections, public information, and publically funded improvements. 33 Public Access The State of Maine has a unique tradition of public access across private land. Fishermen and coastal residents have long enjoyed informal access to the coast and estuaries for fishing or recreation. Fishermen often haul boats and store gear out of the reach of tide on private beaches. As the coast becomes more devel- oped, free and open access to the coast is becoming limited. Paths down to the shore and shortcuts along the coves that people have used for years are often blocked off with 'No Trespassing' signs soon after the property is sold. Conservation easements, shorefront purchases and legal right-of-ways are tools towns can use to pre- serve traditional access to coastal waters. Who Owns the Estuary? The people of Maine own the lands below low tide and the estuary waters. In areas of extensive intertidal flats, private ownership extends for a distance of 1650 feet from the high water mark before public ownership begins. The Bureau of Public Lands in the Maine Department of Conservation and the Maine Department of Marine Resources manages and grants leases on submerged lands. in the intertidal zone, between the high and low water mark, the public has certain rights even if the shoreland is privately owned. These rights, established by the Colonial Ordinance enacted by the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the 1640s, include fishing, fowling and navigation aswell asskating, salticecutting, mooring boats and worm and shellfish digging. The use of private shorelands for sunbathing and other recreation was possibly limited by the 1987 Moody Beach decision which upheld the right of private shorefront owners along a beach in Wells, Maine to restrict access by the public. Policy Development Policies are based on analysis of the information gathered The following topics are in- during the inventory and issue identification effort. Policies are cluded in the coastal policies of clear, specific, and enforceable statements that direct future planning the State of Maine are within the decisions. Policies developed for Comprehensive Plans must be con- scope of estuary planning: sistent with the nine coastal management policies and ten growth 1. Port and Harbor Development management goals of the State of Maine. The policy section of a 2. Marine Resource Management plan usually includes overlay maps that specify the locations of 3. Shoreline Management and various land and water use categoties--for instance the location of Access conservation areas, high density development areas, water dependent 4. Hazard Area Development use zones, shoreland zoning areas, and NMEP water classifications. 5. State and Local Cooperative Management Policies are specific statements related to a general goal. For in- 6. Scenic and Natural Areas Pro- stance, if the goal is "to protect the marine resources", the policy tection may read:"The Town of will revise its shoreland zoning 7. Recreation and Tourism ordinance to establish a new resource protection district around the 8. Water Quality western side of Estuary". Policies recommend implemen- 9. Air Quality tation measures which are described in detail in an implementation program. 34 implementing Estuary Management Maine towns have limited direct jurisdiction over estuarine waters, but are able to regulate boating and shellfish harvesting ac- tivities. By preparing harbor management and comprehensive plans that address uses of the estuary, towns can influence the decisions of regulatory agencies at the state and federal level. The public may comment on applications for state leases of submerged lands, dredging projects, wetland alterations, discharge licenses and other activities that are regulated by the state. Organized public comment can directly affect these activities that are outside the direct jurisdic- tion of towns. The water classification designations described in Chapter Two can be used by towns to regulate permitted uses. Towns and resi- dents can influence the classification of surface waters during the public hearing and review period mandated every three years. For instance, an upgrade of a section of an estuary from Class SB to Class SA waters would require the removal of all discharges and prohibit future dredging projects. Upgrading Class SC waters to Class SB would require discharges to meet higher standards and eventually result in improved water quality. Most importantly, towns can directly influence coastal water use and quality by managing adjacent land use. Many users of estuary waters require shore access or water quality that permits certain uses of the waters and submerged lands. These water depend- ent uses include, but are not limited to, shellfish harvest, aquacul- ture, lobster holding, swimming, recreational boating, and fishing. By implementing zoning and other measures that direct land devel- opment along the shore and in the coastal watershed, towns can control the use of estuary waters and uplands within their jurisdic- tion. Implementation Measures Implementation measures are the ordinances and programs used to carry out the policy decisions made in a comprehensive plan. For years, Maine communities have used many tools to manage estuary resources. The tools include regulatory measures--zoning, subdivision, shellfish, and harbor ordinances and regulations, and nonregulatory programs--citizen water monitoring programs, coastal cleanups, stormwater management projects, capital improvements to sewage treatment plants, shellfish seeding efforts, and removal of obstructions to fish migration. Every community and region will find that a certain combina- tion of approaches best conserves estuarine resources while allowing sustainable growth and development. 35 Regulatory Measures Zoning Ordinances Zoning controls development by establishing standards such as minimum lot size or setbacks. Maine towns use a variety of zoning techniques to regulate development. Shoreland Zoning--Shoreland zoning is a state-wide program requiring local regulation of development within a minimum of 250 feet of tidal waters, Great Ponds, coastal and freshwater wetlands, and rivers and within 75 feet of certain streams. Municipal govern- ments must adopt and enforce local shoreland zoning ordinances that meet or exceed the minimum requirements issued by the Department of Environmental Protection. * Increase minimum setbacks established by the State in areas of natural hazards (sand dunes, steep banks, and bluffs), and flood plains. Purpose: To protect property and reduce erosion. * Establish conservation zones or resource protection districts along the shore and uplands bordering productive shellfish beds, spawning areas, eelgrass beds, tidal creeks, wetlands and other important estuarine habitats. Purpose: To protect and conserve water quality and natural resources. The Town of Yarmouth established a resource protection district (River Corridor) regulating filling activities and uses. The district includes the tidal marsh wetlands and areas within the 100-year floodplain of the Royal River, Cousins River and Pratts Brook or lands within 100 horizontal feetof the normal high water mark. This district is part of Yarmouth's shoreland zoning ordinance. Zone the waterfront to reserve area for water dependent uses. Purpose: To protect marine and fishing related activities from competing and incompatible uses. Guidelines for Commercial Fishing/ Maritime Use Zones are available from the Maine Depart- ment of Environmental Protection and the Office of Comprehensive Build-out studies are useful exercises. Planning. When designing ordinances, assume that Town-wide Zoning-- All coastal Maine communities have in eventually the area will be built up to the place minimum lot size and subdivision ordinances or rely on the limits of-existing regulations. minimums specified in the State Plumbing Code that apply to all For example, ifan area iszoned two acres areas within the town. Land use ordinances provide an opportunity minimum, imagine a probable future to enact measures that protect water quality within the coastal where the land will be subdivided entirely watershed and by extension, the estuary. into two acre parcels. Incentivesfor pro- Direct planning boards or conservation commissions to review tection of agricultural lands, conserva- tion easements or clustered housing with subdivision plans for waste disposal, road drainage, and effect on open space may need to be included to coastal wetlands and surface waters. Purpose: To encourage achieve the ideal landscape envisioned. impact assessment beyond the immediate confines of the project Regional planning councils and the Of- and protect water quality. fice of ConWrehensive Planning can as- * Prohibit the direct channeling of surface water runoff into adjacent sist with build-out studies. water bodies and require that design and construction standards be 36 met for storm drainage. Purpose: To protect water quality and reduce nonpoint source pollution. * Require developers to provide information about and to assess the local environmental impact of a proposed development beyond the requirement of the state subdivision law. Purpose: To encourage developers to assess the environmental values affected by the project and use best management practices to reduce impact on the environment. Overlay Zones--Overlay zones are mapped zones that apply regulations or requirements in addition to those of one or more underlying zoning districts. Overlay zones are a flexible tool that can be used to promote uses by imposing additional criteria without changing the existing permitted uses, densities and specifics of the base zones. The City of Portland created a waterfront overlay district to promote and protect activities related tothe fishing industry. The Town of York has a watershed protection overlay zone that establishes permitted and prohibited uses and performance standards for development. Best Management Practices Best Management Practices (BMPS) are design or construction standards that are recommended or required by ordinances or regulations to minimize the impact of development on the environment. Porous pavermnt, especially in------" n _4 Arin aVMss, reduces ran-off. R pa 9 cW0 Grass waterways or swales instead of curbs and gutters allow the infiltration of water into the ground. Strawbales and strewn straw a construction sites hold back sediment [email protected] density of developed areas t and help protect receiving waters. and maintenance ofnatural vegetation reduces effects of pollution an ground and surface waters Minimum or no tillage leaves a lay@ of plant ue on the ground that rcsid protects the soil from erosion yearround. nt urfarming reduces erosion and run-off. Conservation buffers along waterways protect strearnbanks and reduce soil crosion and ruri-off. cd iure storage and livestock containment reduce bacterial 4 contamination of waterways. n. RON Examples of Best management Practices 37 Harbor Management Ordinances Sources for model ordinances Intensified use in and around harbors has led to the need for (listed in Appendix) harbor management plans and ordinances. Assisted by the Maine Harbor & Land Use Ordinances Department of Economic and Community Development, several MDECD (Qjfice of Comprehensive Plan- Maine towns have developed plans to coordinate use of their har- ning) and regional planning agencies. bors. Integration of harbor plans into estuary plans is essential to Shoreland Ordinances evaluate the impact of harbor development on the natural resources MDEP (Land Bureau, Shoreland Zoning of the entire estuary. Coordinator) and Maine Association of Conservation Commissions. Health Regulations Watershed Protection & BMP's Health regulations can be used to reduce bacterial pollution of MDEP (Water Bureau, Nonpoint Source estuary waters. Pollution Program) and local Soil and Water Conservation Districts. *Require inspection of septic system before property transfer and Shellfish Ordinances upgrade if neccesary. Purpose: To upgrade in-ground septic sys- MDMR Shel@ish Program. tems. General *Create a sanitary wastewater management district. Put all the How to Prepare a Land Use Ordinance: A Manualfor Local Officials (1990), avail- septic systems within a specified district on a regular maintenance able from the Qfce of Comprehensive and inspection schedule. Purpose: To ensure that septic systems Planning. are maintained and provide maintence services at an affordable cost. Shellfish Programs & Ordinances At least forty-three towns in Maine have shellfish conservation ordinances which regulate the licensing of clam diggers and man- agement of shellfish flats. Among the measures towns have taken to protect their clam flats are designation of conservation areas, limit- ing the number of licenses overall and limiting the number of licenses granted to non-resident diggers, and seeding of clam flats. Regional biologists (MDMR) assist towns and shellfish conservation commissions with ordinances and conservation programs. The Brun- swick Shellfish Management Program is a model program of regionally based management of a shared natural resource. Recip- rocity agreements between the towns of Harpswell, West Bath, and Phippsburg coordinate the opening and closing of shellfish flats to prevent overharvesting of one area. Migratory Fish Regulations Twenty-eight towns manage alewife fisheries. The towns usually grant contracts to private parties to harvest the alewife run. Limits are set by the state and towns regarding the season and hours of harvesting operations. 38 Nonregulatory Marine Water Quality Task Force Measures A marine water quality task force brings together all the local agencies, municipal officials and concerned citizens to coordinate local water quality improvement efforts and promote understand- ing of marine quality issues. In the Machias River area, a task force coordinated by the county emergency management office is exam- ining the water quality problems of the Machias River estuary and inner Cobscook Bay. Water Quality Testing Program The Maine Department of Marine Resources (MDMR) and Technical training manuals and assis- the Maine Department of Environmental Protection (MDEP) are tance for volunteer water quality moni- responsible for testing estuarine waters for pollution. State agencies toring groups are available from local lack the resources to cover the approximately 3,500 miles of Maine offices of the University of Maine Coop- coastline. Volunteers can contribute to the collection of water erative Extension. quality information by gathering and testing water samples and in- vestigating the sources of pollution. Citizens along the Darnaris- cotta and St. George Rivers monitor water quality with the assis- tance of the University of Maine Cooperative Extension Program and the MDMR Shellfish Program. Shore Steward Program Estuary residents can form a Shore Steward group to watch For more infortntition write: over a stretch of shoreline. The Shore Steward Program is an effon Shore Steward Program, State Planning similar to neighborhood watch or Adopt-A-Stream programs, but is Office, State House Station #38, Augusta, focused on caretaking stretches of coastal shoreline. ME 04333. Household Toxic Material Reduction and Collection Program Although the amount of lawn fertilizers and herbicides, garden pesticides and household chemicals used by an individual may be minor, the total amount used by all the individuals within a coastal watershed, in addition to roadside and utility right-of-way herbicide spraying, is significant. Even trace amounts of pesticides are toxic to soft-shelled clams. Herbicides may destroy aquatic vegetation and fertilizers add excessive amounts of nutrients to estuarine waters. Distribution of information to homeowners on alternatives to toxic chemicals can reduce their use in the coastal watershed. Periodic municipal collections of household toxic chemicals will prevent improper disposal and possible contamination of water quality. Contact local University of Maine Cooperative Extension offices for assistance in establishing a community collection program. TVKF E9T1 39 Land Acquisition & Conservation For property tax assistance information, Faced with soaring property taxes some shorefront owners opt write: MaineResidents Property TaxPro- to subdivide or sell their land. Towns and local conservation groups gram, Bureau of Taxation, State Office and land trusts can work together to provide information on altema- Building, Augusta, Me 04333, tives to development or sale of shorefront property. The Maine or call 1-800452-1983. Residents Property Tax Program offers property tax relief to eligible For information on creative approaches residents. Donations of conservation easements, tree growth desig- to conserve land contact: Maine Coast nation and sale of development tights 'are also options available to Heritage Trust, The Nature Conservency, owners seeking to reduce property taxes or preserve the natural and local land trusts. character of their land. In response to development pressure, Some communities have researched historic rights-of-way and voters on Nantucket Island, Massa- rediscovered areas that allow public access to coastal waters. Water- chuesetts authorized in 1983, a two per- front Action Grants (administered by the Office of Comprehensive cent land transfer tax tofund a land bank Plaming) and other grant programs have been used by towns to established to purchase open space for purchase shorefront and other lands. use by island residents. Marine Resource Conservation & Improvement Programs For information on hatcheryprojects con- Often regulation of shellfish and fish harvesting is not enough tact: Hancock Co. Cooperative Exten- to protect the abundance of estuarine resources. Identification and sion, Boggy Brook Rd. RFD 5, Ellsworth, protection of significant estuary habitats, public outreach efforts, ME 04605_for Shore Harvester News and investigations of the sources of pollution to coastal waters are newsletter. Regional MDMR biologists will assist with resource inventories and all important for a successful natural resource program. conservation plans. Several towns in Maine have implemented reseeding programs to improve local clam flats. Near Jonesboro a group of ten towns co- operativcly operate a regional clam hatchery. Many communities are improving fishladders and removing obstructions that block passage by migratory fish to inland waters. 40 How To Keep the Ball Rolling............. Long-term estuary planning must be integrated into existing efforts and must enjoy the general support of the community. Fish, shellfish, conservation, comprehensive planning, and harbor com- mittees all contribute to management of the estuary and the coastal watershed. Institutional Arrangements Organizing estuary conservation efforts and keeping those efforts alive after completion of a comprehensive plan provides a true challenge to community leaders. Meshing estuary watershed conservation efforts with existing programs or institutions is one way to ensure continuity over time. Conservation commissions and soil and water conservation districts are examples of existing groups whose purpose is to conserve and manage natural resources. In- volvement in estuarine and coastal watershed issues is a natural extension of their original mandates. Conservation Commissions Conservation commissions are municipal boards created by the local government to identify and conserve the natural resources within a town. A conservation commission can review and coordi- nate town response to state permit applications, such as wetland alteration and dredging proposals, water classification hearings, or discharge permits, and can provide assistance to local planning boards. Usually conservation commissions serve in an advisory role to town government; they can be granted more powers at the discre- tion of the municipality. A local conservation commission can play an important role in organizing public outreach programs on estuar- ine resource and water quality issues and undertaking a resource in- ventory of the estuary watershed. At one time there were over 200 towns with conservation com- missions in Maine, but many disbanded over the years. More than To find out more about conservation 100 conservation commissions are still active in Maine and several commissions contact the Maine Associa- tion of Conservation Commissions, P.O. communities are planning to revive their old commissions. The Box 222, BeVast, ME 04915. Maine Association of Conservation Commissions (MACC) is a non- profit organization dedicated to providing support and information to local commissions in Maine. 41 Soil and Water Conservation Districts For more information on projects and Sixteen Soil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCD) in technical assistance contact the district or Maine are very active in water quality protection and soil conserva- State Soil and Water Conservation Com- tion. The districts are involved with soil mapping, floodplain studies, mission, State House Station #28, Augusta, small watershed protection efforts, erosion and non-point source Maine 04333. pollution control projects, septic and sewage sludge disposal, the small watershed program, and other resource protection and conser- vation programs. The districts also review resource alteration permits submitted to state agencies and make recommendations. Local SWCDs are assisted by the State Soil and Water Conservation Commission which is part of the Maine Department of Agriculture. Coastal Watershed Districts In early 1990, an act allowing for the creation of Coastal Water- shed Districts was passed by the Maine legislature. This legislation was an extension of the law that alloWs the creation of watershed districts to protect inland lakes. The purpose of coastal watershed districts is "to protect, restore and maintain water quality and aquatic resources of coastal harbors, bays, estuaries and other coastal waters and to manage and conserve the land and water resources of coastal watersheds within the jurisdiction of these districts." For more information on coastal water- The responsibilities of coastal watershed districts include shed districts contact the Maine Associa- initiating and coordinating research on aquatic resources and coastal tion of Conservation Commissions. environments; planning coastal restoration projects to improve water quality and to enhance aquatic resources within the district; working to coordinate ordinances and regulation within the watershed district; and adoption and implementation of coastal protection, management and restoration plans. A watershed approach to management of coastal resources is an approach advocated by coastal communities around the country. The creation of coastal watershed districts is an opportunity for Maine communities to regionally manage coastal land and water resources. The revised marine resource plan of the Town of Brunswick recom- mends the formation of a coastal wat6rshed district to address water quality problems in Maquoit Bay and Middle Bay. Historically, Maine communities have been reluctant to form regional watershed districts. Although many Maine communities have discussed creating lake watershed districts, only one group of communities has formally agreed to cooperatively manage their water resources. The Cobbossee Watershed District, organized in 197 1, is a joint effort by the City of Gardiner, and towns of Litch- field, Mt. Vernon, Manchester, Monmouth, Readfield, Richmond, Wayne and Winthrop; to protect and restore 28 lakes within the watershed. 42 Citizen Involvement and Information Successful estuary planning and management requires grass root public involvement. All the major users of the estuary should be invited to participate. This includes, but is not limited to--clammers, wormers, aquacultur- ists, municipal sewer plant operators, conservation groups, landowners, school groups, industry representatives, and other local business people. Public education on the impact of common activities on estuaiine ecology is often more effective than regulation. For instance, boat pumpout facilities are often underutilized by boaters because they are less convenient than pumping sewage overboard. Enforcement is almost impossible; education on the effect of overboard discharge is the often the best way to promote compliance. Enforcement in the Estuary The local Code Enforcement Officer is responsible for enforc- ing town ordinances including shoreland zoning. By sharing the For information on the Code Enforce- same Code Enforcement Officer, towns within a watershed can ment Officer Training Program or a copy promote fair enforcement of each town's regulations and ordinances. of A Handbook for Municipal Officials on Interlocal Code Enforcement,' con- The harbor master in an estuary has authority to assign moorings, tact: MDECD, Office of Comprehensive direct boat traffic, enforce boat discharge regulations, keep naviga- Planning, Augusta, Maine 04333. tion channels clear and control other activities affecting harbor waters. Marine Patrol (MDMR) and local shellfish wardens enforce shellfish and fish regulations on tidewater, and game wardens (MIFW) enforce fish and game rules on fresh water and uplands. Maine towns rarely fine violators of local ordinances; instead they usually require correction. Enforcement ultimately depends on citizcn cooperation. People who live or work on an estuary are usually the first to know of a water quality problem or shoreland zoning violation. Concerns should be reported to the town office and staff need to know who to contact next. The Town Of Brunswick- A Case Study Several years ago, a group of Brunswick residents became concerned that the clam resource of Brunswick tidal flats were threatened by pollution from land run-off. The residents formed the Bays Planning Committee and set out to revise the marine resource section of their comprehensive plan in order to protect the town clamming industry valued at over two million dollars a year in harvested value. In June 1989, the Town of Brunswick completed "The Maquoit & Middle Bays Comprehensive Plan Revision". To date, this document is the bestexampleof a local plan that provides for the longterm protection of estuarine 'and marine resources. The plan suggests bold and innovative programs--the creation of sanitary wastewater management districts and awatershed protection district, specific rec- ommendations to reduce non-point source pollution by limiting the percentage of a lot that can be covered with an impermeable surface, regulating shoreside fuel facilities and developing a Toxic Material Disposal Plan. With these measures the Town hopesto protect its soft-shell clam inclustryfrom land-based pollution. Maquoit and Middle Bays Comprehensive Plan Revision by Christopher Heinig of Intertide Corporation, South Harpswell, Maine, June 16,1989 for The Town of Brunswick Bays Planning Committee. 43 What Planning Can't Do Not all problems can be solved by planning and management at the municipal or local level. Individual actions will make the differ- ence. Boat owners need to dispose of trash properly and eliminate or reduce the use of chlorine in heads and for boat maintenance. Clam diggers and other harvesters must respect conservation closures and aquaculture leases. Property owners and developers need to be aware of the impact of their activities on the surrounding land and waterscape and investigate best management practices even if not required to do so by local regulations. Fundamental changes in the way individuals do things will have the most profound and long lasting effect on estuaries and the resources we treasure. Recommended Reading For More Information Coastal Management Techniques, A Handbookfor Local Officials, prepared by Land & Water Associates and Maine Tomorrow, Hallowell, ME, Maine Dept. of Economic and Community Develop- ment, Augusta, ME, October 1988. This excellent handbook discusses issues associated with devel opment along the coast and provides examples and explana- tions of management techniques used by Maine communities Available from MDECD, Office of Comprehensive Planning. Financing Marine and Estuarine Programs: A Guide to Resource, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, September 1988. A primer focusing on accessing revenues, managing the flow of funds and buiding institutions to oversee financial planning and management with case studies of creative financing by commu nities around the country. Available from EPA, Office of Marine and Estuarine Protection, Washington D.C. 20460. Guidelinesfor Maine's Growth Management Program, MDECD, Office of Comprehensive Planning, Augusta, UE, December 1988. Available from MDECD, Office of Comprehensive Planning. Managing Maine's Harbors and Waterfronts, Maine State Planning Office and Maine Department of Economic & Community Develop- ment, Office of Comprehensive Planning, Augusta, NIE, November 1989. Background materials on major water quality issues and natural resources including toxic and nutrient pollution, historical pol- lution, dredging, and writing harbor ordinances. Available from regional planning agencies and MDECD, Office of Comprehensive Planning. 44 Managing the Shoreline for Water Dependent Uses, A Handbook of Legal Tools, prepared for the New England/ New York Coastal Zone Task Force by the Marine Law Institute, University of Maine School of Law, Portland, ME, December 1988. A technical handbook describing legal tools used by New England communities including many in Maine, to manage land and water use along the coast. Available from the Maine State Planning Office. Natural Resources Handbook, A Planning Toolfor Maine Commu- nities, prepared for the Maine State Planning Office, by the Maine Association of Conservation Commisssions, July 1987. A handbook explaining how to conduct a natural resource and land use inventory, mapping the information and interpreting the results. Available from: Maine Association of Conservation Commissions or MDECD. Watershed: An Action Guide to Improving Maine Waters , Maine State Planning Office, Maine Department of Environmental Protec- tion, and University of Maine Cooperative Extension, Augusta, ME, April 1990. This guide describes actions an individual can do to improve water quality and reduce nonpoint source pollution. Available from local University of Maine Cooperative Extension offices. Snowy Egret (Egretta thula) 45 Cited References Adamus, P.R. 1978. The Natural Regions of Maine, by the Center for Natural Areas, South Gardiner, ME, for the Maine Critical Areas Program, Maine State Planning Office, Augusta, ME. Bartlett, Jr., W.P., W.B. Higgins, and W.J. Nichols, Jr. 1989. Water Resources Data, Maine, Water Year 1988, U.S. Geological Survey, Augusta, ME. Report ME-88-1. Card, D.J., R.A. Aho, and L. Gillespie 1981. Casco Bay Marine Resources Inventory. Prepared for Maine Dept. of Environmental Protection, Bureau of Oil and Hazardous Material, Maine Dept. of Marine Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, ME. Dawson, M. 1990. Coastal Public Access in Maine, Coastal Pro- gram, Maine State Planning Office, Augusta, ME. Fefer, S.I. and P.A. Schettig (editors) 1980. An Ecological Charac- terization of Coastal Maine (North and East of Cape Elizabeth), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Northeast Region, Newton Comer, MA. FWS/OBS-80/29. Heinig, C. 1989. Maquoit and Middle Bays, Comprehensive Plan Revision, June 16,1989, prepared for the Town of Brunswick, Inter- tide Corp., South Harpswell, ME. Kelley, J.T. 1987. An Inventory of Coastal Environments and Classification of Maine's Glaciated Shoreline, in Glaciated Coasts, Academic Press Inc., New York, NY, p. 151-175. Kelley, J.T., A. Kelley, and 0. Pilkey, Jr. 1989. Living with the Coast of Maine, sponsored by Maine Audobon, Duke University Press, Durham, NC. Larsen, P.F. and L.F. Doggett 1979. The Salinity and Temperature Distributions of Selected Maine Estuaries, Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, West Boothbay Harbor, ME. Larsen, P.F., D.F. Gadbois, A.C. Johnson and L.F. Doggett 1983. Distribution of polycyclic hydrocarbons in the surficial sediments of Casco Bay, Maine, Bulletin of Envirormiental Contamination and Toxicology 30: 530-535. Neil, C.D., J.S. Williams and T.K. Weddle 1989. Pilot Study- Pesticides in Ground Water Final Report, Maine Dept. of Conserva- tion, Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, ME Open File No. 89-2. North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community Development 1986. A Guide to Protecting Coastal Waters Through Local Planning, Division of Coastal Management, North Carolina Dept. of Natural Resources and Community Development, Raleigh, NC. Pritchard, D.W., 1967. What is an Estuary?: Physical viewpoint, in Lauff, G. H., ed., Estuaries. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Washington, DC, p.3-5. Short, F.T., 1988. "Eelgrass Distribution and Status in the Maquoit Bay and Middle Bay Areas of Brunswick, ME", (unpublished). 46 The agencies and organizations listed here are a partial listing Appendix of those that can provide information and assistance with estuary Sources for planning and resource management efforts. For further information consult 'Environmental Resources of Information Maine', a directory available from the Maine Department of Environmental Protection (call 289-2811 for copies) or 'Coast- Links, A Resource Guide to Maine's Coastal Organizations', a publication available from the Coastal Program (call 289-3261 for copies). Cooperative Extension Offices Regional Planning Councils University of Maine Cooperative Extension (UMCE) Capital Coastal Council of Governments 9 Coburn Hall, Orono, NIE 04469 (581-3181) 89 Western Ave., Augusta, ME 04330 (622-7146) Androscoggin/Sagadahoc Counties Cooperative Eastern Mid-Coast Planning Commission Extension 9 Water SL, Rockland, ME 04841 (594-2299) 277 Minot Ave. Auburn, ME 04210 (786-0376) Greater Portland Council of Governments Cumberland County Cooperative Extension 233 Oxford St., Portland, ME 04101 (774-9891) 96 Falmouth St., Portland, ME 04103 (780-4205) Hancock County Planning Commission Hancock County Cooperative Extension RFD 4, Box 22, Ellsworth, ME 04605 (667-713 1) Boggy Brook Rd., RFD 5, Ellsworth, ME 04605 Lincoln County Municipal Resource & Planning Office (667-8212) Lincoln County Courthouse, P.O. Box 249, Wiscasset, ME Kennebec County Cooperative Extension 04578 (882-6358) 290 Eastern Ave., Augusta, ME 04330 (622-7546) Penobscot Valley Council of Governments Knox/Lincoln Counties Cooperative Extension I Cumberland Place, Suite 300, P.O. Box 2579, Bangor, 375 Main St., Rockland, ME 04841 (594-2104) ME 04401 (942-6389) Penobscot County Cooperative Extension Southern Maine Regional Planning Commission Court House Annex, 105 Hammond St., Bangor, ME 04401 Box Q, 255 Maine Street, Sanford, ME 04073 (324-2952) (942-7396) Washington County Regional Planning Commission Waldo County Cooperative Extension 63 Main St. Machias, ME 04654 (255-8686) RFD, Box 64 1, Belfast, ME 04915 (342-597 1) Washington County Cooperative Extension Soil and Water Conservation Districts I I Water St., Machias, ME 04654 (255-3345) Cumberland County SWCD York County Cooperative Extension 1A Karen Dr., Westbrook, ME 04092 (871-9247) P.O. Box 347, Alfred, ME 04002 (324-2814) Hancock County SWCD 41 Main St., Ellsworth, ME 04605 (667-8663) Environmental Organizations Kennebec County SWCD Maine Aquaculture Association Federal Bldg. Rm. 408-C, Western Ave., Augusta, ME P.O. Box 535, Damariscotta, ME 04543 ( 563-8168) 04330 (622-8250) Maine Association of Conservation Commissions Knox-Lincoln Counties SWCD P.O. Box 222, Belfast, ME 04915 (338-5538) RR I, Box 15, Waldoboro, ME 04572 (832-4292) Maine Audubon Society Penobscot County SWCD Gilsland Farm, 118 U.S. Route 1, Falmouth, ME 04105 970 Illinois Ave., Bangor, ME 04401 (941-8973) (781-2330) Waldo County SWCD Maine Coast Heritage Trust 69 Northport Ave., Belfast, ME 04915 (338-2320) 167 Park Row, Brunswick, ME 04011 (729-7366) Washington County SWCD Natural Resources Council of Maine 49 Court SL, P.O. Box 121, Machias, ME 04654 271 State Stn, Augusta, ME 04330 (622-3101) (255-4659) The Nature Conservancy York County SWCD P.O. Box 338,122 Maine St. 160 Cottage St., Sanford, ME 04073 (324-7015) Topsham, ME 04086 (729-5181) 47 State Agencies Maine Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife Resources 284 State St. Station 41, Augusta, ME 04333 (289-3371) (Soil and Water Conservation Commission) Regional Offlees. Deering Building, AMHI Complex, Station 28, Augusta, Region A (Kittery to Phippsburg), RR 1, 328 Shaker Rd., ME 04333 (289-3871) Gray, ME 04039 (289-3849, 1-800-322-1333) Maine Department of Conservation (Phil Bozenhard) (Bureau of Public Lands, Land Use Regulation Region B (Georgetown to Searsport), 8 Federal St., Commission, Maine Geological Survey) Augusta, ME 04330 (289-2536, 1-800-322-3606) Harlow Building, AMIR Complex, Station 22, Augusta, ME (Eugene Dumont) 04333 (289-4900) Region C (Penobscot to Eastport), 68 Water St., Machias, Maine Department of Economic and Community ME 04654 (255-3266) (Tom Schaeffer) Development Maine Department of Marine Resources (Office of Comprehensive Land Use Planning, Heritage Stevens Complex (Hallowell) Station 21, Augusta, ME Program) 04333 (289-2291) Capitol Center, 219 Capitol St., Station 130, Augusta, ME Regional Biologists: 04333 (289-6800) (New Hampshire Border to Kennebec River) Box 12, Maine Department of Environmental Protection Dixon Rd., Ogunquit, ME, 03907 (646-3322) (Bureau of Land Quality Control, Bureau of Water Quality (Brad Sterl) Control, Bureau of Oil and Hazardous Materials Control) (Kennebec River to Union River) East Shore Rd., Ray Building, AMIR Complex, Station 17, Augusta ME Brigham's Cove, West Bath, NIE 04530 (443-6559) 04333.(289-7688) (Donald Card) Regional Offices: (Union River to Canadian Border) RR I Box 172, South Portland: DEP 312 Canco Rd.,So. Portland, NIE Gouldsboro, ME 04607 (422-3167) (Jay McGowan) & P.O. 04103 (879-6300) Box 37, East Machias, ME 04630 (David Clifford) Bangor: DEP 106 Hogan Road, Bangor, ME 04401 Maine State Planning Office (941-4570) (Critical Areas Program, Ecological Reserves, Land for Presque Isle: DEP 1235 Central Parkway Dr., Presque Isle, Maine's Future, Maine Coastal Program, Shore Stewards) NIE 04769 (764-2044) 184 State SL, Station 38, Augusta, ME (289-3261) Resource Conservation and Development Areas Downeast RC&D Area P.O. Box 210, Cherryfield, ME 04622 (546-2368) Threshold to Maine RC&D Area IA Karen Dr., Westbrook, ME 04092 (871-9248) Time and Tide RC&D District US Route 1, Box 12, Waldoboro, ME 04572 (832-5348) 48 illiall@ililligh 3 6668 00003 8614