    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

                    The Estuary Book

                   Maine Coastal Program
                   Maine State Planning Office
         GC512     State House Station 38
         .M2R84    Augusta, Maine 04333
         1991      January 1991
        C.1

                                     The Estuary Book

                    A Guide to Promoting Understanding and Regional Management of
                                          Maine's Estuaries and Embayments

                        Maine Coastal Program
                        Maine State Planning Office
                        State House Station 38
                        Augusta, Maine 04333
                        January 1991

                Acknowledgements

                                                         The Estuary Book was produced by the Maine Coastal Program of
                                                         the Maine State Planning Office with funding provided by the
                                                         Federal Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management under
                                                         Section 306 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972.

                                                         Maine Coastal Program
                                                         State House Station 38, 184 State Street, Augusta, ME 04333
                                                         Telephone: (207)289-3261 Fax: (207)289-5756
                                                         Director: David Keeley

                                                         Prepared by: Jenny Ruffing, Maine Coastal Program
                                                         Artwork by: Anne Talgenhorst

                                                         Representatives of the following organizations are gratefully
                                                         acknowledged for their help in reviewing this guide:
                                                         Eastern Mid-Coast Regional Planning Commission
                                                         Maine Aquaculture Association
                                                         Maine Association of Conservation Commissions
                                                         Maine Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Resources (Soil
                                                         and Water Conservation Commission)
                                                         Maine Department of Economic and Community Development
                                                         (Office of Comprehensive Planning)
                                                         Maine Department of Environmental Protection (Marine Program &
                                                         Non-Point Source Pollution Program)
                                                         Maine Department of Marine Resources (Anadromous Fish Division
                                                         & Marine Science Bureau)
                                                         Maine Department of Conservation, Maine Geological Survey
                                                         Maine State Planning Office
                                                         Town of Brunswick Planning Office
                                                         University of Maine Cooperative Extension (Rockland Office).

                                                         The author acknowledges the North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and
                                                         Community Development, Division of Coastal Management for permission to use
                                                         material from A Guide to Protecting Coastal Waters Through Local Planning,
                                                         Raleigh, North Carolina, 1986, in the preparation of this guide.

                                                                                       Table of Contents

                     1    Introduction

                     3    Chapter One - Maine Estuaries: Resources & Values
                                 Maine Nearshore Embayments
                                 Origins of the Present Day Coastline
                                 The Maine Coast
                                 Estuary Basics
                                 Estuarine Communities
                                 Recommended Reading for More Information

                     17 Chapter Two - The Consequence of Development
                                 Estuarine Use & Pollution in Maine, a brief history
                                 Estuarine Use & Pollution Today
                                        Natural Resources
                                        Water Quality
                                        Types of Pollution
                                        Quality of Life & Coastal Culture

                     29 Chapter Three - Estuary Planning & Management
                                 The Need for Estuary Planning
                                 Estuary Planning & Comprehensive Planning
                                 Planning Basics
                                         Inventories & Issue Identification
                                         Policy Development
                                         Implementing Estuary Management
                                                Regulatory Measures
                                                Nonregulatory Measures
                                 How to Keep the Ball Rolling...
                                         Institutional Arrangements
                                         Citizen Involvement & Information
                                         Enforcement in the Estuary
                                 The Town of Brunswick, A Case Study
                                 What Planning Can't Do
                                 Recommended Reading for More Information

                     46 Cited References

                     47 Appendix - Sources for Information

         am
         C"
         CP
         5-

                                     US                 of Comriorce
                                     NOTU'- CUL--i    Servicas Center Library
                                     2234 South Hobson Avenue
         C:3                         Charleston, SC 29405-2413

               Introduction

                       The coast of Maine is a beautiful mosaic of estuarine
                       environments: salt marshes and mudflats, tidal rivers and
                       creeks, bays and coves. Twice a day the tide creeps in,
                       rolling over mudflats and lapping at the marsh edge. Slowly
                       the seaward current reverses and the waters push inland,
                       over the marsh grasses to wash the shore. The saltwaters of
                       the sea mingle withfreshwaters of brooks, streams, and
                       rivers. After the estuary isfull, the tide slacks and ebbs,
                       draining wetlands and tidal creeks, pulling waters warmed
                       by the mudflats out to sea. Diggersfollow the tide out,
                       turning over the mudfor clams and worms, until the turn of
                       the tide brings them home.                                                         T@.

                    Estuaries are among the most precious resources of our
               coast. As productive environments where fresh and salt waters meet,
               estuaries provide valuable habitat for an abundance of marine life,
               birds, and other creatures as well as pathways to inland waters for
               migratory fish. The vistas of undisturbed marsh and clean tidewaters
               are treasured scenic resources and visually define a quality of life
               cherished by coastal residents and visitors to Maine.
                    Oyster and clam shell heaps, the last remaining traces of settle-
               ment by ancient peoples, line the banks of many Maine estuaries and
               attest to the long attraction of estuaries as places to live and find
               food. In recent times, human activities along the shores of Maine
               estuaries have left a more damaging legacy than decomposing shells.
                    For generations, coastal residents disposed of untreated sewage
               in estuary waters and located dumps in coastal wetlands without
               concern. Chamels and harbors were dredged to provide safe passage
               and anchorages for boats and ships, and the dredge spoils placed on
               marshes or other sensitive sites. Industries once were allowed to
               discharge harmful wastewaters without treatment into Maine estuar-
               ies. The natural bounty of the Gulf of Maine has accommodated the
               excesses of human activities to an extent; our coastal waters remain
               relatively clean compared to more industrialized parts of the
               country.
                    Recently, however, signs of environmental damage have
               become apparent. Widespread closures of shellfish areas due to
               bacterial pollution, declines in fish landings, and evidence of toxic
               compounds in estuary and bay sediments have raised concern that
               our coastal waters need the same level of management and protec-
               tion that we give our freshwater rivers and lakes.

                                                                 The Maine Coastal Program is a cooperative effort by federal,
                                                            state and local governments to manage the resources of the Maine
                                                            coast, including estuaries. In December of 1989, the Maine Coastal
                                                            Program initiated an Estuary Project to focus on the management
                                                            needs of these productive coastal systems. While investigating the
                                                            problems of Maine estuaries and developing a state strategy for
                                                            estuarine management, the project identified a need for informa-
                                                            tional materials on Maine estuaries and on the environmental
                                                            problems associated with estuarine resource use. Profiles describing
                                                            nineteen Maine estuaries were prepared and published as the Estuary
                                                            Profile Series. The Estuary Book was created to pull together basic
                                                            information on estuarine systems and coastal pollution as well as to
                                                            provide ideas for communities and citizens concerned with the
                                                            future of our estuaries.

                                                                   The objective of The Estuary Book is to provide information
                                                                            about estuaries, the impact of uses on the
                                                                                 environmental health of an estuary and what
                                             Wi             communities and concerned individuals can do to successfully
                                                            manage and protect their local estuarine resources. Much of the in-
                                                            formation presented here pertains to other embayments along the
                                                            Maine coast which may not be true estuaries.
                                                                  This book has three chapters. The first chapter describes
                                                            natural features of estuaries in Maine and the importance of these
                                                            special environments. The second chapter details the sources and
                                                            effects of water pollution and habitat alteration on estuarine re-
                                                            sources. The final chapter examines how land use planning can be
                                                            used to protect and improve coastal water quality and natural
                                                            resources. Regulatory and nonregulaiory tools that promote wise
                                                            stewardship of estuarine resources are reviewed. Sources for more
                                                            information are summarized in the Appendix.

                          Great Blue Heron
                          (Ardea herodias)

                2

                      Chapter One
                      Maine Estuaries: Resources & Values

                                    What is an Estuary?
                                    "An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water
                                    which hasfree access to the ocean and within which
                                    seawater is measurably diluted by freshwaterfrom
                                    land drainage" (Pritchard, 1967).

                              By this classic definition, the entire Gulf of Maine (see map below), limited by Cape Cod to the southwest,
                      Georges Bank offshore and the Bay of Fundy to the northeast, may be considered an estuary since Gulf waters
                      are somewhat isolated from the Atlantic Ocean waters by uplands and submerged banks offshore, receive a
                      tremendous volume of freshwater run-off from land, and exchange water freely with the North Atlantic through
                      the Northeast Channel. Moving closer to shore, a pattern of rugged headlands and islands defines bays of all sizes
                      along the Maine coast.

                  The Estuary Boundary                                       Casco Bay and other large bays along the Maine coast have
                  For thepurposes ofthis guide, the estuary            waters diluted by freshwater discharge from rivers and streams.
                  boundary includes the waters inland to               Casco Bay, bounded by Cape Elizabeth and Small Point headlands,
                  the head of tide and seaward to an imagi-            is often called an estuary. The salinity within Casco Bay varies
                  nary line drawn across the mouth of the              slightly with changes in the amount of freshwater flowing into the
                  embayment and all contiguous wetlands                bay, however, the bay is basically a marine habitat.
                  (fresh and salt marsh) as well as shore-
                  lands Within the extreme high water mark                   The Fore, Presumpscot, Cousins, and Royal Rivers are the
                  or the 100-yearflood boundary, which-                major estuarine embayments that contribute to the estuarine charac-
                  ever is greater.                                     ter of Casco Bay. Middle and Maquoit Bays and the Harraseeket and
                  An estuary, as defined by scientists,                New Meadows Rivers are embayments within Casco Bay that
                  includes all waters measureably diluted              receive freshwater from land run-off, small streams and brooks.
                  by saltwater, which may be below the                 These coastal features are called neutral embayments because they
                  head of tide and extendfar offshore be-              receive low volumes of freshwater. Although not true estuaries, salt
                  yond headlands at the mouth of the estu-
                  ary.                                                 marshes, migratory fish streams, and other ecosystems associated
                                                                       with estuaries often fringe the edges of neutral embayments.
                                                                             Estuaries are the focus of this handbook. Neutral embayments
                                                                       will be included since these productive coastal systems are facing
                                                                       similiar water quality and resource management problems. This
                                                                       chapter will discuss the characteristics and importance of the
                                                                       nearshore embayments at the interface of land and sea.

                                                                       Maine Nearshore Embayments
                                                                             Maine nearshore embayments fail into two very general categ-
                                                                       ories: estuaries and neutral embayments. Estuaries have at least
                                                                       one major freshwater source that measureably dilutes the sea waters.
                                                                       Estuaries can have considerable freshwater inflow--the Kennebec,
                                                                       St. Croix, Penobscot, and Machias Rivers; or very little--the Dam-
                                                                       ariscotta and Medomak Rivers. The freshwater sources of many
                                                                       small and medium sized river estuaries of the mid and eastern Maine
                                                                       coast originate in ponds or lakes, often within 40 miles from the
                                                                       head of tide.

                                                                             In Maine, estuaries occupy coastal river valleys flooded or
                                                                       drowned by sea level rise. When sand and gravel are deposited by
                                                                       longshore and river currents across the mouth of coastal rivers or
                                                                       streams, bar-built estuaries are formed. The Webhannet River (Wells
                                                                       Harbor), Saco River, Kennebunk River, and Mousam River estuaries
                                                                       are examples of bar-built estuaries. Bar-built estuaries are protected
                                                                       by barrier beaches and are often associated with expansive marshes.
                                                                       Bar-built estuaries usually drain at low tide, leaving only a small
                  Outline of the Machias River estuary,                channel of freshwater flowing over the flats. These bar-built systems
                      a &owned river valley estuary.                   are dynamic environments, eroding an         'd building as sand flows be-
                                                                       tween offshore deposits and beaches and sand bars.

                  4

                    Neutral embayments lack a major freshwater river and appear
               more as arms of the sea with high salinities that change very little
               during a tidal cycle. Neutral embayments usually have several small
               freshwater brooks, streams and seeps diluting the bay water. Most
               neutral embayments are wide and shallow, exposing expanses of
               productive mud flat and salt marsh at low tide. In Maine, many
               coastal embayments are called 'rivers', for example--the New Mead-
               ows River, Bagaduce River, Jordan River and Skillings River, when
               actually, they are neutral embaymcnts with small streams and brooks
               providing the source of freshwater.
                    The narrow embayment of Somes Sound on Mt. Desert Island
               is considered Maine's only fjord. Fjords are deep estuaries created             Outline of the Webhannet River
               by the flooding of a glacial valley and marked by a glacial deposit or            estuary, a bar-built estuary.
               terminal moraine at the seaward limit. Although small streams feed
               into Somes Sound, the fjord lacks a major freshwater source.
                    Local indentations of the coastline are commonly called coves
               or inlets. Minor in size compared to other coastal features, coves are
               locally significant as locations for sheltered harbors. Where the
               embayment entrance is wide and freshwater influx minor, wave
               action and marine environments dominate. When the embayment
               entrance is restricted, freshwater flow from streams or from border-
               ing marshlands may form an estuary. These small estuaries are
               important resources for coastal communities and provide valuable
               fish and wildlife habitat.

                                                                                            Outline of the Bagaduce River, a neutral
                                                                                                        embayment.

               Origins of the Present Day Coastline
                    The estuaries and neutral embayments of the Maine coast were created as changes in sea level flooded the
               coast after the last period of glaciation. Approximately 20,000 years ago, massive ice sheets moved south and
               east from Hudson Bay to northern New England, scouring the land bare of soil as they advanced. The rocks and
               soils collected in glacial deposits. Today, these deposits are mined for gravel and sand. As the earth warmed and
               the glaciers melted, the ocean pushed inland, flooding river valleys and lowlands.
                    Glaciomarine sediments were deposited in the ocean at the seaward margin of the glaciers. These fine-
               grained blue clays, characteristic of many Maine estuaries, are called the Presumpscot Formation. With the
               removal of the weight of the glaciers, the Maine coast began to rebound. Consequently, the seas retreated rapidly
               approximately 12,500 years ago. When the land had risen to its original elevation, the sea again began to creep
               inland, as a general warming trend melted glaciers around the world.
                    The sea continues to drown our coastline. At this time, sea level is rising at a rate of about one foot (30 cm.)
               a century along the Maine coast. Warming trends in global climate may accelerate this rate and sea level is pro-
               jected to rise by three feet over the next one hundred years in some areas. The actual rate of sea level change
               varies along the coast because of local geologic conditions. In northeastern Maine and in southwestern Maine, a
               gradual sinking of the land contributes to variations in sea level rise (Kelley et al., 1989).

                                                                                                                               5

                 The Maine Coast                                      Each estuary and neutral embayment of the Maine coast occu-
                                        R./Passamaquoddy Bay     pies an unique setting reflecting the local geology, topography, and
                                                                            I
                                                                 climate. Geologists have divided the coast into four sections or
                                                                 compartments that correspond to bedrock features and coastal
                  Dennys R./Cobscook Bay      NE                 morphology: southwest (SW), south-central (SQ, north-central
                                                                 (NQ, and northeast (NE) (after Kelley, 1987).
                                       Machias R./Machias Bay         The southwest (SW) section extends about 42 miles from
                        Clhiandler R.                            Kittery north to Cape Elizabeth. Along this section of coast, rocky
                                                                 capes separate arc-shaped bays bordered by sandy beaches. Old
                                                                 Orchard Beach on Saco Bay is the largest sand beach in this region.
                       Pleasant R.                               From the Piscataqua River north, major estuaries in this area include
                                    Narraguagus R.
                                                                 York River, Webhannet River (Wells Harbor), Mousam River, Ken-
                                                                 nebunk River, Saco River, Scarborough River, and Spurwink River.
                                               NC                Many of these estuaries have broad expanses of salt marshes that are
                                Frenchman Bay                    protected by sandy barrier beaches or spits.
                                                                      The south-central (SC) section extends from Cape Elizabeth to
                   Union R.                                      Port Clyde for approximately 55 miles. This area of the mid-coast,
                                                                 including Casco Bay, is marked by southwest to northeast striking
                                                                 bedrock peninsulas separating long narrow embayments. Casco Bay
                                                                 is located at the southern end of this region and includes estuaries on
                                       C@'                       the Fore River, Presumpscot River, Royal River, and Cousins River.
                              Penobscot R./Penobscot Bay         The lower Kennebec River is the largest estuary in this section.
                                                                 Maquoit and Middle Bays and the New Meadows and Harraseeket
                                                                 Rivers are typical neutral embayments in this region; they are
                                                                 important shellfish growing areas.
                      St. George R.                                   To the northeast of the Kennebe   'c River, the Sheepscot, Dam-
                                                                 ariscotta, Medomak, and St. George Rivers form major estuaries
                                 Madomak R./Muscongus Bay        characterized by productive salt marshes and mud flats. The south-
                      iI)amariscotta R.                          central section of the coast includes a great variety of coastal land-
                                         SC                      scapes and environmental conditions which permit a wide diversity
                                                                 of aquatic plants and animals to flourish (Adamus, 1978).
                 Kennebec R          heepscot R./Sheepscot Bay        Penobscot Bay east to Machias Bay defines the north-central
                                    S
                                                                 (NQ section of the coast, an indented shoreline with granite out-
                                                                 crops and many islands. The Penobscot Estuary/Bay complex is the
                    Royal R.    Casco Bay                        largest along this stretch of coast. Other estuaries (from west to cast)
                                                                 include the Passagassawakeag, Union, Narraguagus, Pleasant,
                                                                 Chandler, and Machias Rivers. Morgan Bay, Bagaduce River,
                                                                 Skillings River, Taunton Bay/Hog Bay, Mason Bay, and Little
                      Scarborough R. Saco Bay                    Kennebec Bay are representative of the variety and extent of neutral
                             Saco R.                             embayments located in this region.
                            Kennebunk R.        SW                    The northeastern (NE) section from Machias Bay east to the
                             Webhannet R.                        Canadian border has erosion-resistant volcanic cliffs on the outer
                                                                 coastline (the Cutler Coast). Behind the cliffs lie well-protected
                                       York R.                   estuaries at the head of Passamaquoddy Bay and Cobscook Bay. The
                                             Piscataqua R.       St. Croix River estuary opens into Oak Bay/Passamaquoddy Bay
                   Location of coastal compartments              along the Canadian border. To the south, the Orange River, Dennys
                          on the Maine coast.                    River and Pemamaquan River estuaries form inner Cobscook Bay.

                6

                      Estuaries are areas where salt and fresh waters meet. The                   Estuary Basics
                  interaction of these waters determines the currents and the distribu-
                  tion of plants and animals. Estuaries are complex systems with
                  special assemblages of biological communities and environmental
                  conditions. Estuaries share some of the same animal and plant com-
                  munities as neutral embayments but the chemical and physical
                  influence of the strong freshwater influx into the estuarine system
                  creates conditions unique to estuaries. The following four points
                  summarize principle characteristics of these natural systems of the
                  Maine coast.
                  1. Estuaries have three subsystems - the riverine, estuarine
                  and marine.
                      The boundaries of the subsystems are determined by water
                  salinity. Salinity is a measure of the amount of dissolved salts in
                  water. Freshwater (the riverine subsystem) generally has a salinity
                  less than 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt) and full strength seawater (the
                  marine subsystem) has a salinity of 30 to 35 ppt. The estuarine sub-
                  sytem has varying salinities from 0.5 ppt to 30 ppt. The boundaries
                  of each subsystem are not fixed and change with both the tide and
                  with the seasonal floods of freshwater from snow melt and spring
                  rains.
                  The Riverine
                       The riverine subsystem provides a pathway to inland waters for
                  smelt, salmon, alewives, and other migratory fish which need need
                  freshwater to spawn. In Maine, darns across many coastal rivers cut
                  off the freshwater riverine section of the estuary and the natural
                  upriver range of tide. In some rivers, the influence of the tide
                  extends far inland beyond the presence of saltwater. Of the 19 miles
                  of tidewater on the Kennebec River estuary; the upper 10 miles
                  between Bowdoinham and Augusta is tidal freshwater.
                       Merrymeeting Bay is a tidal bay formed by the confluence of
                  the Kennebec River estuary with the Androscoggin River and four
                  smaller rivers. Merrymeeting Bay is the largest and most important
                  tidal freshwater habitat in Maine. Many coastal creeks and rivers
                  have tidal freshwater marshes and waters at the upper reaches of
                  tide.
                  The Estuarine
                       In the estuarine subsystem salinities range from 0.5 to 30 parts
                  per thousand. Animals and plants adapted to this envirorunent can
                  tolerate a range of salinities and temperatures. Few species can with-
                  stand the extreme fluctuations in salinity at the head of the estuary
                  where saltwater first mixes with freshwater.
                                                                                                     Cat-tail (Typha spp.), common plant
                        In the warmer upper reaches of a few estuaries are horseshoe                found at the edge of fresh tidal marshes
                  crabs and other species commonly found south of cold Maine

                                                                                                                                       7

                                                              waters. The American oyster reaches the northern natural extent of
                                                              range along the U.S. coast in the upper Sheepscot River estuary.
                                                                   Many species of shellfish and fish rely on the sheltered envi-
                                                              ronment of estuaries and embayments as nurseries. Oceanic fish,
                                                              including schools of herring and menhaden (pogies) visit estuarine
                                                              waters to feed in summer months. Other fish such as the short-nose
                                                              sturgeon, tom cod, nine-spined stickleback, mummichog, and
                                                              species of flounder spend their entire life cycle in estuarine waters.
                                                              The Marine
                                                                   In neutral embayments and at the seaward edge of estuaries, the
                                                              marine subsystem dominates. The marine environment tends to be
                                                              more stable than the other subsystems with less flux in salinity and
                                                              temperature. The shores and waters resemble areas of the exposed
                                                              outer coast, but are more sheltered environments. Mussel bars, kelp
                                                              beds and rockweed-covered shores are features of the marine sub-
                                                              system.
               11. The flow of freshwater into Maine estuaries varies greatly with the season.
                   During the spring run-off season, from late February to May, Maine rivers normally swell from 10 to 30
               times their average size. A smaller peak occurs in November or December. These seasonal variations are illus-
               trated in the chart below. The influx of freshwater into Maine estuaries is so great during this period that it causes
               offshore surface waters in the Gulf of Maine to move in a huge counterclockwise spiral. The circulation gyre
               continues even after the spring floods end, maintained by gravity and tidal currents, and distributes rich nutrient-
               laden waters throughout the Gulf.
                   The influx of freshwater changes the distribution of salinities and circulation in Maine's estuaries. Neutral
               embayments may also develop salinity gradients during periods of high run-off. Marshes at the estuary edge act
               to soak up floodwaters, moderating the fluctuations in water flow. The flood of waters from the land also adds
               huge amounts of nutrients to estuarine and neutral embayment waters and triggers the algal blooms of late spring.
               Seasonal floods, from spring freshets and fall storms, wash tremendous amounts of silt and muds into estuaries
               and to a lesser extent, into neutral embayments.

                             6W -                                                       Mean Daily Discharges by Month
                                                                                        for Three Maine Coastal Rivers
                             500 -                                                      from October 1987 through September
                                                                                        1989 (in cubic feet per second).
                             400
                                                                                                       Sheepscot River

                             300 -                                                                    @Royal River

                                                                                                       Dennys River
                             2W  -

                             100 -

                               0
                                       Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Ma. Apr. May Jun.  Jul. Au& Sep.
                Source  Water Resources Data, Maine Water Year 1988, U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Data Report ME 88-1.

               8

                 Ill. Mixing between the fresh and saltwater layers and
                 estuarine water circulation depends on the shape of the
                 estuary, the volume of river flow, the height of tide and
                 winds.
                      Freshwater is lighter than saltwater. This is why freshwater ice
                 forms even on the saltiest coastal waters in the winter. (Freshwater
                 also freezes at a higher temperature than saltwater.) Since saltwater
                 is heavier than freshwater, incoming tidewaters tend to travel up the
                 estuary along the bottom of the estuarine channel while the lighter
                 river water flows seaward on the surface.

                      This two-layer circulation creates a gradient in water salinity
                 between the bottom and surface waters and may be a seasonal
                 feature that occurs only when the river discharge is high or in
                 limited sections of the estuary. The same estuary in mid-summer
                 may have very little freshwater river flow, and if tidal currents are
                 stronger than river currents, more mixing will occur between the two
                 layers. Winds and changes in water temperature also increase
                 mixing between the bottom and surface waters.
                      The Maine estuaries receiving the greatest volume of freshwa-
                 ter, the Penobscot, Kennebec, and St. Croix Rivers, and some
                 smaller estuaries including the Piscataqua, Royal, and Passagas-
                 sawakeag Rivers, have long smooth salinity gradients with a two-
                 layer circulation pattern (Larsen & Doggett, 1979).
                      Not all estuaries have a gradient of salinities. In some estuaries,
                 the salinity of the estuary varies or flucwates from fresh to salty over
                 the course of the tide, completely mixing the water. Many shallow
                 bar-built estuaries have fluctuating salinities. If the volume of
                 seawater brought in by the rise in tide is much greater than the
                 volume of freshwater flowing into the estuary basin, the salinitiy of
                 the water will change dramatically over the tidal cycle. Aquatic life
                 in these estuaries must adjust to extreme salinity conditions.
                      The Saco, Mousam, Kennebunk, Harrington, and Pleasant
                 Rivers experience major salinity changes over a tidal cycle, from
                 fresh to full strength seawater. The York, Sheepscot, and St. George
                 Rivers have high ocean-like salinities at the seaward sections and
                 fluctuating salinities in the upper sections (Larsen & Doggett, 1979).
                       The mixing and circulation in an estuary determines where
                 sediments erode and accumulate as well as where pollutants collect
                 in the estuarine basin. Information of this kind is necessary to
                 evaluate the ecological impact of pollution discharges and dredging
                 and harbor development projects. The circulation and salinity
                 pattern in an estuary also influences the distribution of estuarine and
                 marine plants and animals.

                                                                                                                                      9

                                                                       IV. Estuaries coHect poUutants from the entire watershed.
                                                                             Estuaries accumulate pollutants and sediments from discharges
                                                                       and land use practices upstrearn as well as along the estuary shores.
                                                                       The entire estuary watershed influences estuarine water quality.
                                                                             Pollutants that enter the estuary are not washed quickly out to
                                                                       sea with the next tide. Many pollutants dissolve in freshwater and
                                                                       settle out in saltwater. The chemicals or contaminants attach to
                                                                       sediment particles, to each other, or to other compounds; they may
                                                                       sink to the bottom of the estuary, be moved by currents, dredging, or
                 The Estuary Watershed                                 fishing activities, or be absorbed into marine plant and animal tissue.
                 The estuary watershed includes all lands                    Some pollutants remain suspended in the seawater and are
                 that drain directly to the estuary aswell as          eventually washed out to sea. The time it takes for all the water in an
                 all the smaller watersheds of each river,             estuary to be moved out to sea is called the flushing rate. Flushing
                 stream, and brook flowing into the
                 estuary. Since estuary watersheds also                rates vary from days to weeks. The flushing rate of an estuary
                 include, river watersheds, they are gener-            determines how long pollutants that are dissolved or suspended in
                 ally larger in area than neutral embay-               estuarine water will remain in the estuary. The height of tide, size of
                 ment watersheds.                                      the estuary basin, and the volume of freshwater flow determines the
                 The map below outlines the watershed                  flushing rate. In general, the higher the tidal range, the smaller the
                 areas of the Chandler River estuary and               estuary volume, and the higher the freshwater flow--the greater the
                 the adjacent Mason Bay neutral                        volume of water exchanged during each tide.
                 embayment.

                                                                                             Fla                       K
                                   P
                             -D
                                                                                                               S                      L
                              M                                                                                          A_R @d M@F'@IE I D
                                      G

                                                                                                                           1.k

                                                                                                                          +
                                  +

                                                                            ct     I L
                                                                                                          Z\

                                                                                                           I                       vg

                                                                                                                                           M-A
                                         LU      A

                                                                                      JONES
                                              b.                                                                         A

                                                                                                                                    _7

                                                           S-,h

                                                                                                         d)

                                                     Map of the Mason Bay and Chandler River Watersheds

                                                                                                   Estuarine
                       Every living thing in an estuary has a set of environmental                 Communities
                 requirements which must be met in order to survive. These require-
                 ments--temperature, light, salinity, water, air, and soils or substrate,
                 differ among species. Groupings of environmental factors that
                 support assemblages of plants and animals sharing similiar require-
                 ments are called habitats. A community includes alf the animals,
                 plants and other living organisms that lives within a defuled habitat.
                       All the living organisms within a community are interdepend-
                 ent. Some are predators and some prey, some depend on a certain
                 seaweed for food or shelter, or any of a number of complex relation-
                 ships. In the grand scheme of things, humans are a part of the
                 estuarine community too. Whether harvesting food, building docks,
                 or reseeding clam flats, the lives of coastal residents and users of the
                 estuary are entwined with the other members of the estuarine
                 community. Significant communities common to Maine estuaries,                               Salt Meadow Grass
                 each representing a particular habitat, are discussed in the following                       (Spartina patens)
                 section.

                 Coastal Marshes

                       Marshes are transitional areas between land and water. The
                 salinity, frequency of flooding, and age of the marsh determines the
                 types of plants and animals found there. Plants that tolerate fresh to
                 slightly saline waters flourish in freshwater tidal marshes. Examples
                 of freshwater marsh plants include cat-tails, wild rice, and arrow
                 arum. Tidal fresh marshes are important fish and wildlife habitats.                              Glasswort
                 Studies indicate that of all types of wetlands, coastal freshwater tidal                      (Salicornia spp.)
                 marshes support the greatest numbers and species of birds. Often
                 fresh marshes fringe the landward edge of salt marshes.
                       Salt meadow hay (Spartina patens) is a short wiry grass com-
                 mon to well-established high salt marshes that are irregularly
                 flooded by high tides. Cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), a tall coarse
                 grass of the low marsh, grows at the edge of tidal creeks and in areas
                 with frequent tidal inundation. Cordgrass is the characteristic species
                 of the narrow bands of marsh that fringe many Maine estuaries and
                 bays.
                       Salt pannes and tidal creeks are features of Maine coastal
                 marshes. Salt pannes are pools of tidewater that collect on top of the
                 marsh and are home to mosquito larvae, mummichog fish and other
                 creatures. Tidal creeks are tributaries of river estuaries and often                           Sea Lavender
                 extend far inland from the main channel of the estuary.                                       (Lirnonium spp.)
                       Marshes are important to the maintenance of a balanced coastal                  Plant species common to
                 ecosystem. In the spring and fall, when coastal rivers swell from                        Maine's salt marshes.

                                                                   snow melt and rains, marsh grasses along rivers and tidal creeks
                                                                   slow the rush of waters, which allow sediment to settle and protects
                 One acre ofsalt marsh can absorb 30,000           the shore from erosion. Spongy wetland soils absorb and gradually
                 gallons of water.                                 release waters thus moderating flood conditions and storm surges.
                                                                   The grasses and soils of coastal marshes trap pollutants, nutrients,
                                                                   and sediments from land run-off, thereby improving water quality.
                                                                         Each winter ice rafts and tides break up decaying marsh grasses
                                                                   and wash the plant bits into estuary waters. Decaying particles of
                                                                   marsh grasses, algae, seaweed, and other plants are the cornerstone
                                                                   of the estuarine food chain and contribute to the productivity of
                                                                   estuarine waters. Many commercial seafood species such as lobster,
                                                                   herring, menhaden (pogies), alewife, crab, oyster, and clam, rely on
                                                                   the rich food supply of estuaries during some part of their life cycle.
                                                                   Small fish seek shelter in marsh grasses at high tide from Great Blue
                                                                   Herons and other birds that stalk the shallows to feed. Bald Eagles
                                                                   and Ospreys also hunt in the marshes and occasionally nest in tall
                                                                   trees along the estuary shore.

                                                                   Intertidal Flats

                                                                        Mudflats are the most common intertidal estuarine environment
                                                                   in Maine. The muds and sands of intertidal flats support an abun-
                                                                   dance of fauna including Baltic clams, gem clams, periwinkles,
                                                                   amphipods and commercially important soft-shelled clams and
                                                                   marine worms. Green algae mats and clumps of seaweed and blue
                                                                   mussels are common features of intenidal flats. Intertidal flats along
                                                                   the Maine coast are vital feeding and gathering grounds for much of
                                                                   the North American shorebird population during migrations each
                                                                   fall. The birds feed on tiny worms and other invertebrates that
                                                                   burrow in the intertidal muds, doubling their weight within two
                                                                   weeks in preparation for an arduous flight back to South America.

                                                                   Estuary Bottom
                                                                        Submerged lands of the estuary bottom support many of the
                                                                   same invertebrates that live on the flats and other creatures that
                                                                   prefer to live below the range of tide. Salinity, depth of water, and
                                                                   sediment type are the main factors determining the distribution of
                        'P_                                        species. In more marine areas of the lower estuary, lobsters, Euro-
                                                                   pean oysters and crabs share the bottom with other benthic dwellers.
                                A
                                                                   Mussels, clams, scallops, and oysters are filter feeders, filtering the
                                                                   estuarine waters and muds for food. Flounder, hake, cod, and other
                                                                   fish species also dwell near the bottom. Living in contact with the
                               N
                                                                   bottom muds and sands, bottom dwellers are especially susceptible
                              Blue Mussels                         to toxic pollutants that collect in the estuarine sediments.
                             (Mytilus edulis)

                12

                  Eelgrass Meadows
                          Eelgrass (Zostera marina) meadows are important commu-
                  nities of the estuary bottom. Eelgrass plays an essential role in the
                  establishment of shellfish beds and provide nursery areas for many
                  species of fish, shellfish, and crustaceans. Neither algae nor sea-
                  weed, eelgrass is a flowering plant which blooms underwater in the
                  spring and produces seeds in July and August.
                       The long slender grass blades slow currents and allow
                  suspended sediment to settle. Eelgrasses also act as nutrient buffers,
                  taking up nutrients from the sediments and slowly releasing them
                  when the leaves decay. Mussels and other shellfish larvae settle on
                  the grasses to grow. Small flounder and other fish use the meadows
                  as nursery areas. Migrating waterfowl flock to eelgrass areas to feed
                  on the leaves and seeds. Eelgrass is a principal food source for brant
                  geese, Canada geese and ducks.
                       The significance of eelgrass to coastal ecology was first recog-
                  nized in the 1930s when a disease (the eelgrass wasting disease)
                  destroyed 90 percent of eelgrass along the East Coast. During these
                  years, bay scallop landings dropped in Massachusetts, sub-tidal
                  areas once covered in eelgrass eroded when celgrass beds that had
                  anchored bottom areas disappeared, and populations of migrating
                  American brant and other waterfowl declined.

                       Eelgrass has rebounded in recent years, but new threats include
                  harbor development and sediment pollution from land run-off. Boat
                  traffic, the harvest of shellfish and fish with heavy drags, and the
                  dredging of navigational channels, are all activities which rip up
                  eelgrass meadows. Outbreaks of eelgrass wasting disease have been
                  recently reported in Maquoit and Middle Bays and the Great Bay
                  estuary on the Piscataqua River in New Hampshire.
                       Run-off from lands draining into the estuary watershed can
                  contribute heavy loads of soil, nutrients and herbicides which affect
                  eelgrass meadows and other nearshore aquatic vegetation. Eelgrass
                  needs light to thrive and will weaken if the water is murky with
                  sediment or dense algal blooms for long periods. TTie dramatic die-
                  off of eelgrass in Maquoit Bay and Middle Bay, has been attributed
                  to a variety of factors including disease, mussel dragging, added nu-
                  trients and sediments from land run-off, and resuspcnsion of sedi-
                  ments from boat traffic and clam digging (Short, 1988).
                                                                                                                  Eelgrass
                                                                                                              (Zostera rwrina)

                                                                                                                                       13

                                                                  Estuary Waters
                                                                  Plankton
                                                                        Suspended in the waters of the estuaries are plankton. Plankton
                                                                  include shellfish and fish larvae, phytoplankton (one-celled plants),
                                                                  zooplankton (microscopic animals) and bacteria. Plankton are food
                                                                  for the shellfish and fish of the estuary. Seasonal floods of freshwa-
                                                                  ter run-off from land each spring and late fall, bring quantities of
                                                                  nutrients to the estuary waters and trigger algae and phytoplankton
                                                                  blooms.

                                                                        Red tides are blooms of a species of plankton algae toxic to
                                                                  humans. When red tide plankton accumulates in shellfish at toxic
                                                                  levels, the Maine Department of Marine Resources closes areas and
                                Plankton                          prohibits shellfish harvesting to protect public health. The cause of
                                                                  red tide blooms is not known; nutrient-loaded run-off from land may
                                                                  be linked t- the occurrences.

                                                                  Fish
                                                                        Many oceanic fish visit outer reaches of estuaries in the sum-
                                                                  mer and fall to feed. The cod spawning ground at the mouth of the
                                                                  Sheepscot River estuary is one of the few known spawning grounds
                                                                  for offshore fish in Maine estuaries. Flounder are known to spawn
                                                                  just outside the entrance to the Webhannet River estuary and other
                                                                  sandy estuaries on the southern coast.'Estuaries are suspected to play
                                                                  vital roles as nurseries for many species of fish, however, the de-
                                                                  pendence of offshore fish stocks on Maine estuaries for food,
                                                                  shelter, and spawning habitat is unknown.
                                                                        Fish that swim from the saltwater to spawn in the freshwater
                                                                  are called anadromous and fish that journey from inland waters to
                                                                  spawn in the sea are called catadrornous. Maine estuaries support
                                                                  one catadromous species, American eel, and eleven anadromous
                                                                  species--Atlantic salmon, rainbow smelt, Atlantic sturgeon,
                                                                  blueback herring, searun brook trout, sea lamprey, American shad,
                                                                  striped bass, shortnose sturgeon, alewife, and searun brown trout
                                                                  (introduced from Europe in the 1800s). The shortnose sturgeon is on
                                                                  the federal endangered species list and is found in the Kennebec,
                                                                  Sheepscot and Penobscot Estuaries.
                                                                        We often underestimate the economic and ecologic contribu-
                                                                  tion of estuarine migratory fish in Maine. Maine is unique among
                                                                  eastern states in the diversity and abundance of native anadromous
                                                                  fish. The last remaining wild runs of Atlantic sea-run salmon in the
                                                                  eastern United States occur in the Sheepscot, Penobscot, Narra-
                                                                  guagus, Pleasant, Machias and Dermys Rivers each spring. Smelt,
                                T                                 alewives and other anadromous fish are harvested commercially in
                                                                  many areas along the coast. The abundance of the anadromous
                          Alewife in eelgrass.                    fisheries is limited by man-made dams which block passage to
                                                                  spawning grounds.
                14

                        The value of anadromous fish is more than the economic value                   In recent years, the coastal communities
                  of the harvest. For instance, alewives are an essential source for                   of Damariscotta and Boothbay Harbor
                  lobster bait in early spring before other bait becomes available.                    have stocked alewives in order to reduce
                  Juvenile alewives feed on zooplankton and help maintain the water                    the zooplankton population in ponds that
                  quality of inland freshwater lakes. The fry are also important food                  supply the municipal drinking water sys-
                                                                                                       term. Large amounts of zooplankton are
                  for birds and larger fish. Anadromous fish, with their connections to                undesirable because they taint the water
                  both fresh and salt waters, epitomize the interdependence of the                     and clogfilters at treatment stations.
                  marine and inland environments of the coastal watershed.
                        Estuary waters provide ice-free habitats for loons, black ducks
                  and other waterfowl in the winter after inland lakes freeze over.
                  Harbor seals occasionally visit estuaries during the summer. In more
                  remote areas, seal haul outs and bird nesting islands are found.

                  Estuary Edges
                  Shorelands, Banks, Bluffs, and Beaches
                        The shores, banks, bluffs and uplands are vital parts of the
                  estuarine ecosystem. The uplands and edges along the estuary buffer
                  and sustain other habitats in the estuary. Vegetation along the edge
                  of the estuary helps to naturally stabilize the shore and provide a
                  buffer, filtering land run-off before it reaches the estuary waters.
                        In sandy estuaries, sand flows inshore and offshore, between
                  inshore sand beaches and bars and offshore sand deposits. In muddy
                  estuaries, eroding bluffs and banks supply sediment to adjacent
                  marshes and mudflats. Interference in the natural cycles of erosion
                  and deposition can lead to sediment 'starvation.' For example, if
                  banks or shorelines are stabilized artificially with seawalls or riprap,
                  adjacent marshes and flats may erode during storms or strong tides
                  and eventually disappear. The slumping of banks along the estuary
                  contributes to the growth of marshes and mudflats.

                                                                                                          'JII

                                                                                                                                             15

                The importance of buffers,                                Wildlife and birds use the banks and shores to gain access to
                an example--                                        the estuary edge. A number of mammals, such as shrews, otters, and
                When the Rachel Carson Wildlife Refuge              raccoons, live just above the reach of tide and forage in the intertidal
                was founded in southern Maine in the                area. Ecologists believe these edge environments, known as
                early 1970s, only the wetlands of Scar-             ecotones, are key elements in maintaining the diversity and integrity
                borough Marsh were acquired to protect              of the coastal landscape.
                habitatfor migratory birds.
                As residential development crept up to the                The slow rise in sea level along the Maine coast may gradually
                edge of the marsh, the refuge managers              erode soft bluffs and other edge environments. The marshes and flats
                realized that an upland buffer was essen-           may migrate inland where the lay of the land permits if bluffs and
                tial to preserve the wildlife values of the         banks are available to supply sediment to these depositional systems.
                estuarine habitats. Today, aquisition of            Coastal planners are concerned that the'hardening' of the coastline
                adjacent uplands is a managemntpriority             by parking lots, roads, seawalls, and other development will not
                for the refuge.                                     allow the future expansion landward of marshes and flats flooded by
                                                                    rising sea level.

                                                                    Recommended Reading for More information
                                                                    An Ecological Characterization of Coastal Maine. S. Fefer and P.
                                                                    Schettig, editors, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-8-/29,
                                                                    Newton Comer, MA, 1980.
                                                                          A six volume comprehensive description of Maine coast
                                                                          environments from Cape Elizabeth north to Passamaquoddy
                                                                          Bay.
                                                                    "Charting Our Course",An Activity Guidefor Grades 6-12 on Water
                                                                    Quality in the Gulf of Maine. Maine State Planning Office, Maine
                                                                    Coastal Program, Augusta, ME, 1989.
                                                                          Available from the Maine State Planning Office.
                                                                    Living with the Coast of Maine. Joseph T. Kelley, A. Kelley and 0.
                                                                    Pilkey, Jr., sponsored by Maine Audobon, Duke University Press,
                                                                    Durham, NC., 1989.
                                                                          This book describes the geologic processes at work shaping the
                                                                          coast of Maine. Coastal hazards and guidelines for safe con-
                                                                          struction on the shore are reviewed.
                                                                    Secrets of a Salt Marsh. John 0. Snow, Guy Gannet Publishing Co.,
                                                                    Portland, ME, 1980.
                                                                          Observations on the fauna and flora of Scarborough Marsh,
                                                                          Maine.
                                                                    The Gulf of Maine. Spencer Appolonio, Courier of Maine Books,
                                                                    Rockland, ME, 1979.
                                                                          A handbook on the geology and natural history of the Gulf of
                                                                          Maine. Available from the Courier Gazette in Rockland.

                                                                    The Maine Coast--A Nature Lover's Guide. Dorcas Miller, East
                                                                    Woods Press, Charlotte, NC, 1979.
                                                                          An introduction to coastal ecosystems and areas of interest
                                                                          open to the public.

                16

                  Chapter Two
                  The Consequence of Development

                       Over the past twenty years, coastal Maine has experienced
                  tremendous population growth. Some coastal towns have doubled in
                  size; all have felt the impact of rising land values and demand for
                  more services. As people discover the beauty and opportunities of
                  the Maine coast, estuarine environments face stress from resource
                  development and water pollution. This chapter explores the uses of
                  estuaries and the impacts of human use on estuarine ecology.
                  Estuary Use & Pollution in Maine,
                  a historical perspective.
                       In the late 1700s farmers diked and drained large salt marshes
                  along the estuaries of the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy to
                  create hay fields and pasture. Remnants of dikes are found in Scar-
                  borough Marsh and along the Machias River estuary. Maine salt
                  marshes are not intensively used for agriculture today, but in some
                  areas grasses are collected for garden mulch and seaside lavender
                  gathered for the dried flower trade.
                       In the early 1800s, towns developed at the head of major Maine
                  estuaries. Augusta, Calais and Saco were located on tidal falls which
                  supplied energy for manufacturing. Later, dams were built to
                  generate hydroelectric power. The rivers w6re'used to float logs and
                  other raw material from the interior of the state to industries along
                  the coast. Tidewater ice, known as "white gold"; was a valuable
                  commodity shipped as far as the West Indies before the invention of
                  refrigeration. Located at the crossroads of inland and coastal water
                  transportation routes, Maine estuary towns such as Portland, Bath,
                  Wiscasset, Waldoboro, Thomaston, Belfast, Ellsworth, and Machias,
                  became centers of maritime trade and shipbuilding.
                       From the last half of the nineteenth century to the 1960s,
                  manufacturers dumped industrial wastes into Maine estuaries. They
                  assumed that pollution disposed of in coastal rivers was quickly
                  diluted and washed out to sea. Decades of industrial discharges and
                  other pollutants had catastrophic consequences for fish, shellfish,
                  and other aquatic life in Maine estuaries. Wood sludge from paper
                  mills smothered most life on the bottom of the Presumpscot, Ken-
                  nebec, Penobscot, and St. Croix Estuaries before federal clean water
                  legislation in the 1970s required pollution control measures. Shoals
                  of sawdust linger today off the shores of historic saw mill locations
                  in the upper Damariscotta, Machias, and St. Croix Estuaries and in
                  other areas along the Maine coast.

                                                                                                                                       17

                                                                      The Androscoggin River, which empties into Merryineeting
                                                                 Bay on the Kennebec/Androscoggin Estuary, was once considered
               One of the largest spills along the Maine         one of the nation's 10 dirtiest rivers. By 1940, sulphite-process pulp
               coast ocurred in November 1963, when              and paper mills discharged hundreds of tons of black wastewater in
               the tanker Northern Gu6Fran aground on            to the Androscoggin River each day. Thousands of fish died and dis-
               West Cod Ledge in Casco Bay. Approxi-             solved oxygen levels dropped to near zero in the river and Merry-
               mately one million gallons of crude oil           meeting Bay. In the summer of 1941 hydrogen sulfide gas from the
               spilled and drifted east to strand on 400         foul river peeled paint off houses in Lewiston and sent noxious
               miles of shore in the Muscongus Bay and           odors from Berlin, New Hampshire to Brunswick, Maine. The
               Pemaquid Peninsula area.                          public outcry that ensued galvanized the cleanup of the Androscog-
               Over 600,000 pounds of lobsters held in           gin and focused attention on the pollution problems of Maine rivers.
               lobster pounds and over 180,000 bushels
               of soft-shell clams were contaminated by               During the past forty years, five major oil spills (100,000
               the oil spill (Card et al., 1981).                gallons or more) and approximately 23 large oil spills (1,000 gallons
                                                                 or more), have leaked from tankers, pipelines, and terminals on the
                                                                 Maine coast. Oil spills have damaged intertidal flats and contami-
                                                                 nated sediments in the Piscataqua River estuary, Casco Bay, Mus-
                                                                 congus Bay, Penobscot Bay, and Long Cove in Searsport.
                                                                 Estuary Use & Pollution Today
                                                                      Water quality has certainly improved in recent years, yet
                                                                 threats to the environmental health of Maine's estuaries have not
                                                                 disappeared. Industrial wastewater discharges are cleaner and more
                                                                 regulated than in the past and many towns have constructed munici-
                                                                 pal treatment plants to handle residential wastewater. Although
                                                                 Maine salt marshes are no longer ditched and drained to control
                                                                 mosquitos or create farmland as in the past, present day highway and
                                                                 bridge construction projects often damage estuarine habitats by
                                                                 altering marshlands or estuarine drainage.
                                                                      The evidence of environmental damage in Maine estuaries of
                                                                 concern now is subtle and usually not as obvious as oil-soaked
                                                                 seabirds or clouds of foul gasses. Toxic compounds that contaminate
                                                                 estuarine sediment, water, and living resources are detected only
                                                                 through complicated analysis and the harmful effects are difficult to
                                                                 pinpoint.
                                                                      The burgeoning coastal population has concentrated
                                                                 development along the uplands of Maine estuaries, increased the
                                                                 volume of municipal wastewater discharged into coastal rivers,
                                                                 strengthened demand for seafood and other marine resources,
                                                                 crowded harbors with recreational boats, and in general, intensified
                                                                 the use of these fragile ecosystems. This intensified use influences
                                                                 the environmental health of Maine estuaries.

                                                                      The chart on the opposite page briefly describes some of the
                                                                 consequences of human activities on the estuarine ecosystem. The
                                                                 activities are grouped into four broad categories of human uses of
                                                                 estuarine resources and uplands--waste disposal, marina and port
                                                                 development, food source, and land use.

               18

                                The Effect of Development on Estuarine Ecology
                     Waste Disposal
                          Manufacturing (paper & textile mills, tanneries etc.): Even when regulated and treated, waste-
                     streams can include heavy metals (mercury,copper, lead, arsenic ... ), polyriuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
                     (PAHs); dioxin, and organic sludge.
                          Power Plants: Cooling water from power plants adds heat to estuary waters. Nuclear power plants
                     contribute low levels of radionuclides to the estuarine environment from liquid discharges to estuary waters.
                          Municipal Sewage: Treatment plants discharge treated wastewater containing bacteria, nutrients, road
                     residues, household toxics, chlorine, heavy metals and other substances including wastes from commercial
                     businesses tied into the sewage system.
                          Storm Outfalls: Combined sewer overflows (CSO) and storm drain outfalls; add road residues, sedi-
                     ment, bacteria, and trash to estuary waters. If a municipal sewage plant malfunctions or is flooded by storm
                     waters, raw sewage may be discharged into the estuary.
                          Overboard Discharges: Some residential wastewater is treated with sand filtration and chlorination
                     before disposal into tidal waters as an overboard discharge. Over 3,000 of these overboard discharges
                     remain on the Maine Coast and add bacteria, chlorine, and nutrients to coastal waters. New overboard dis-
                     charges are forbidden by state law. An unknown number of illegal straight pipes discharge sewage directly
                     into Maine tidewaters.
                     Marina & Port Development
                          Dredging and Dredge Spoil Disposal: Dredging to maintain navigational channels or anchorages and
                     disposal of dredge spoils results in redistribution of pollutants in bottom sediments, increased turbidity of es-
                     tuarine waters and destruction of bottom habitats.
                          Harbor, Port and Marina Development: Boat traffic may add bacteria, chlorine, and formaldehyde
                     from marine toilets to nearshore waters, as well as marine trash, small oil and fuel spills, and toxic bottom
                     paints and chemicals from boat and ship maintenance activities. Boat traffic can potentially harm submerged
                     aquatic vegetation, introduce foreign plants and animals, and cause noise Pollution.
                     Food Source
                          Traditional Fisheries: A by-product of fishing is the addition of lost traps, nets and other gear as well
                     as trash into nearshore waters. Harvesting techniques such as bottom-dragging disturbs natural estuarine
                     bottom habitats. The repeated digging of mud flats for clams and worms changes the texture of the intertidal
                     mudflat habitat and increases turbidity of tidal waters. Selective harvesting of particular species may change
                     natural cycles of abundance.
                          Aquaculture: The feeding and raising of fish in aquaculture pens adds nutrients to estuarine waters
                     and may alter the natural ecology under the pens. Introduction of non-native shellfish seed and fish smolt to
                     Maine waters may unintentionally spread foreign species and diseases.
                     Land Use
                          Roads: Road run-off contains polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), lead, zinc, and oil from
                     automotive traffic as well as nutrients and bacteria from land drainage. Road construction across estuaries or
                     tidal creeks can alter tidal flow, destroy wetland habitats and block passage for migratory fish.
                          Residential Development: Waterfront residential development often involves shoreline alteration
                     with stabilization measures or dock construction. Lawn and garden fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes, and
                     nutrients and bacteria from malfunctioning septic systems, are all associated with run-off from residential
                     areas. Clearing and paving land for lawns, driveways, parking lots, and roadways increases the rate of flow
                     and volume of land run-off into coastal waters.
                          A riculture: Runoff from agricultural lands often contains nutrients from fertilizers or animal manure,
                     pesticilles, and eroded topsoil.
                          Mining: Drainage from mining operations may include heavy metals and eroded soil.
                          Forestry Practices: Forestry operations involving large clearcuts or the use of skidders on slopes and
                     streams within a coastal watershed may increase erosion of topsoil and the volume of surface water run-off.
                     These practices increase sediment loads and water temperature in freshwater tributaries of estuaries and
                     coastal waters. Timber management with herbicides within the estuary watershed may result in the accumu-
                     lation of toxic herbicide residues in estuarine waters and sediments.
                                                                                                                                      19

              The Impact of                                      Among the natural resources of an estuary are living resources
                                                            (marine life and wildlife), estuarine habitats and communities
              Human Use on                                  (marshes, mudflats, and eelgrass meadows), and geologic features
              Natural Resources                             (sand beaches, bluffs, gravel deposits). Human impact on the natural
                                                            resources of an estuary may be minor, such as the placing of a moor-
                                                            ing or major, such as dredging to improve navigation.
                   Often small alterations to the estuarine shoreline appear to effect only the immediate area. These minor
              changes may add together over time to slowly change the ecology of an estuary and the character of the estuarine
              landscape. Common changes to the estuarine landscape over one year may include construction of several small
              private docks, new placement of moorings, removal of trees and brush from shorefront lots, or the development
              of a waterfront residential subdivision. The total effect of incremental changes over a period of time is referred to
              as cumulative impact.
                   Shoreland development changes natural rates of erosion and alters sediment supply to nearby marshes,
              mudflats,-and beaches. Construction of wharves, docks and seawalls, riprapping shorefront and clearing natural
              shoreline vegetation are activities which may modify the natural processes of erosion and deposition in the estu-
              anne environment. Dredging operations are necessary to maintain harbors and anchorages, but the removal of
              bottom sediment may cause variations in erosion and deposition at the dredge site and and other areas of the
              estuary.
                   Over time, enough incremental changes to estuarine habitats will significantly alter the natural estuarine
              ecology. Because the changes are gradual and over time, clear cause and effect relationships are difficult to
              determine. Commercial harvests of shellfish, fish, and worms in Maine estuaries and neutral embayments have
              declined over the years (see graph below). Many fish species, once harvested from Maine estuaries and harbors,
              are now rare. Years ago, sturgeon were fished from the Mousam River estuary and cod from the Scarborough
              River estuary. The precise cause of changes in the abundance and location of species is not always obvious.
              Habitat alteration, overfishing, water pollution, natural cycles of abundance, and climatic change all may influ-
              ence the decline in landings of species that are harvested in Maine estuaries and neutral embayments.

                                         Annual Maine Landings of Selected Species
                8000                                   (1970-1988) (in 1 000's of pounds)

                7000

                6000

                                                                                                                 Sandworm
                5000
                                                                                                                 Bloodworm
                4000
                                                                                                                 Soft Shell Clam
                3000                                                                                         -El- Alewife

                2000

                1000

                        '70 '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88
               Source: Maine Dept. of Marine Resources Annual Data.

              20

                                                                     V

                      Good water quality sustains life. At the hean of estuary plan-               The Impact of
                  ning is a concem for water quality. Water quality affects fish,
                  shellfish, and other natural resources as well as the available uses of          Human Use on
                  the estuary by people. Protection of water quality within the estuary            Water Quality
                  watershed includes protection of freshwater resources used for
                  drinking, farming, recreation, and manufacturing and saltwater
                  resources used for aquaculture, recreation, and fishing. The connec-
                  tions between land and water uses are strong, particularly for water
                  dependent uses. Water dependent uses include activities which
                  require access to saltwater. Marinas, fishing piers, fish packing
                  plants, boat yards, and shellfish hatcheries are examples of develop-
                  ments which need or prefer a shoreside location. The development
                  and use of shorelands directly influences nearshore water quality.
                  The Hydrologic Cycle
                       The water quality of an estuary is affected by all the uses of the land and water in the estuary watershed.
                  Water cycles through the environment. Water falls as rain or snow, runs from rivulets to streams to rivers to the
                  ocean, sinks through the ground to replenish groundwater, or is drawn up to sustain plants and animals. Water
                  vapor escaping as evaporation from lakes, ocean, and land, and as transpiration from plants, forms clouds. The
                  clouds condense, the water falls as rain or snow and the cycle begins again. These movements (illustrated in the
                  drawing below) are called the hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic cycle demonstrates how all water in the environ-
                  ment is interrelated, whether it be freshwater, saltwater, or groundwater. Human use of the land and waters influ-
                  ences the amount and type of soil, chemicals and other pollutants carried into rivers and estuaries.

                                         Precipitation

                                                                                                                         Evaporation
                                                                                                                         from estuary
                                                                                                             Transpiration,
                                                                                                               by plants

                                                                                                   .@.Evapora loi
                                                                                                     land stirlace

                                                                                               Estuary-

                                     ------                       zip-
                              C ro@ndwater -       Frest water

                                                                                                                                       21

               Estuarine
               Pollution                                             Pollutants discharged directly from pipes into rivers and estuar-
                                                                ies are called point sources of pollution. Point sources of pollution
                                                                include all licensed discharges with federal NPDES (National Permit
                                                                & Discharge Elimination System) and state discharge permits from
                                                                industries, small companies, municipal sewer systems, aquaculture
                                                                fish pens, and overboard discharges. Oil spills from tankers are also
                                                                considered point source discharges. Some point sources, such as
                                                                straight pipes discharging untreated residential sewage, are often
                                                                overlooked and unlicensed. The Maine Department of Marine
                                                                Resources is surveying these illegal systems.
                                                                     Non-point source pollution (NPS) refers to any pollution
              For more information on non-point source          which is not a licensed discharge or does not have a localized or
              pollution contact:                                clearly identified source. Non-point source pollution is associated
              Non-Point Source Pollution Program,               with land and water use and poses a serious threat to coastal water
              Maine Dept. of Environmental Protec-              quality and estuarine ecology. The non-point source label is a mis-
              tion, State House Station 17, Augusta,            nomer, since every pollutant has a source, however, the source of
              Maine 04333.                                      NPS pollution is usually not as specific as point source pollution.
                                                                Inadequate septic systems, stormwater run-off, clearcutting, con-
                                                                struction, and boat pollution all contribute to non-point source
                                                                pollution along the Maine coast.
                                                                     Urban development, agriculture, and forestry operations are the
                                                                major categories of land-based non-point source pollution in Maine.
                                                                Each activity influences coastal water quality because of alteration
                                                                of the land and removal of natural vegetation. Urban NPS pollution
                                                                includes stormwater run-off (nutrients, road oils, lead, sediments)
                                                                and pollution associated with residential development. Drainage
                                                                from agricultural lands may include nutrients from fertilizers and
                                                                farm animals, pesticides, and soil. Large clearcuts and other forestry
                                                                practices may increase temperature and turbidity of streams and
                                                                creeks in the estuary watershed as well as add herbicides to estuarine
                                                                waters. Intensified use of estuarine waters creates water-based NPS
                                                                pollution. Marinas, harbor dredging projects and finfish aquaculture
                                                                operations are examples of water-based activities that can impair
                                                                estuarine water quality and natural resources if not planned
                                                                correctly.
              The Groundwater - Estuary Connection
                   Groundwater seeps into estuary water and estuary water percolates into veins of groundwater. The intrusion
              of saltwater into freshwater municipal and private wells is a common problem along the Maine coast. Some
              coastal communities are served by public drinking water systems that tap surface waters (ponds, rivers, or lakes),
              groundwater wells, or a combination of sources. Rural residents usually draw drinking water from individual
              wells. In areas of the coast, increased demand on groundwater resources for residential use pulls more water from
              the water table than the aquifer can replenish and saltwater is drawn in to compensate. Groundwater polluted by
              leaking underground fuel tanks, abandoned dumps, or failing septic systems, may seep into estuaries and Pollute
              coastal waters.

              22

                   Water Classification
                      The Maine Department of Environmental Protection manages estuarine and marine waters by designating
                   allowable uses and levels of pollution with a water classification system. Estuarine and marine waters are classi-
                   fied as SA, SB, or SC. Every three years the classification is updated and public hearings are held to review the
                   proposed classification. During the public hearings, communities have the opportunity to comment on the water
                   classification. The classification is based on bacteria, aquatic life, and dissolved oxygen standards.

                          Class SA waters are the highest classification. All discharges are prohibited in Class SA waters. Class SA waters
                     have high quality water, unique ecological resources and are often located next to coastal parks or other public lands.
                     Ile estuarine and marine communities, and dissolved oxygen and bacteria content of SA waters must be as naturally

                     occurs.
                          "Class SA waters shall be of such quality that they are suitable for the designated uses of recreation in and on the
                     water, fishing, aquaculture, propagation and harvesting of shellfish and navigation and as habitat for fish and other estu-
                     arine and marine life."

                          Class SB waters allow discharges which do not cause detrimental changes to the aquatic community, including
                     finfish aquaculture and hydroelectric power generation. Most estuaries in Maine are currently designated SB. Class SB
                     waters must have a dissolved oyxgen content at least 85% of saturation and bacteria concentration may not exceed levels
                     recommended for shellfish growing areas. Enterococcus bacteria must not exceed specified levels between May 15th and
                     September 30th.
                          "Class SB waters shall be of such quality that they are suitable for the designated uses of recreation in and on the
                     water, fishing, aquaculture, propagation and harvesting of shellfish, industrial processing, and cooling water supply,
                     hydroelectric power generation and navigation and as habitat for fish and other estuarine and marine life."
                          Class SC waters allow heavy industrial discharges as long as the water quality supports the fish and aquatic com-
                     munities normally found in the area and allows swimming and fishing. The Penobscot Estuary, Portland Harbor, St.
                     Croix Estuary and other industrialized coastal waters are classified as SC. Class SC waters must have an oxygen content
                     of at least 75% of saturation and bacteria concentration may not exceed levels recommended for restricted shellfish
                     growing areas. Enterococcus bacteria must not exceed specified levels between May 15th and September 30th.
                          "Class SC waters shall be of such quality that they are suitable for the designated uses of recreation in and on the
                     water, fishing, aquaculture, propagation and restricted harvesting of shellfish, industrial processing and cooling water
                     supply, hydroelectric power generation and navigation and as habitat for fish and other estuarine and marine life."

                     From: Water Classification Program, January 1989. Maine Revised Statutes Annotated Title 38, Article 4-A, Department of
                     Environmental Protection, Bureau of Water Quality Control, Augusta, ME.

                   Dissolved Oxygen
                        Dissolved oxygen in the water is essential for all plants and animals living in an estuary. The amount of
                   dissolved oxygen in water is used as an indicator of water quality and the level of life that the water can support.
                   The maximum amount of dissolved oxygen (the saturation level) that can be dissolved in a given amount of
                   water varies with the salinity and temperature of the water. The colder the water, the higher the saturation level
                   of dissolved oxygen, and the more saline the water, the lower the saturation level.
                        The surface water in an estuary is usually at or near oxygen saturation, while conditions near the bottom
                   vary with the amount of verticle mixing in the water column, the presence of plants such as eelgrass and sea-
                   weeds, and the demand for oxygen by shellfish, decomposing bacteria, fish, and other creatures.

                                                                                                                                                  23

                Coastal Water
                Pollutants                                               This section explores the effects of major water pollutant cate-
                                                                   gories on estuarine ecosystems.

                                                                   Bacteria
                Approximately one-third of the produc-                   Bacterial pollution from sewage treatment plants, boaters,
                tive shelyishflats in Maine were closed in         malfunctioning septic systems, urban and agricultural run-off or
                1990 because ofpossible bacterial pollu-           household overboard discharges is usually a condition that disap-
                tion.                                              pears once the source of bacteria is eliminated and does not perma-
                                                                   nently harm the estuarine environment. Bacterial pollution is a
                                                                   human health concern which reduces the availability of shellfish for
                                                                   harvesting and waters for recreational activities. Malfunctioning
                                                                   septic systems from residences along the shore are suspected of
                                                                   being a major source of bacterial pollution to Maine estuaries. The
                                                                   Maine Department of Marine Resources (MDMR) monitors bacteria
                                                                   levels in shellfish growing areas as part of the Shellfish Sanitation
                                                                   Program in order to protect public health.

                                                                   Chlorine
                                                                        A serious environmental consequence of sewage discharges
                                                                   from municipal treatment plants, licensed overboard discharges, and
                                                                   marine toilets is the trace of chlorine added to kill harmful viruses
                                                                   and other pathogens. Chlorine is used as an antifoulant for industrial
                                                                   intakes at power stations and to wash down boats. Chlorination can
                                                                   produce very hazardous chlorinated organic compounds such as
                                                                   dioxin. Chlorine is also highly toxic to aquatic life in minute quanti-
                                                                   ties. Traces of chlorine in estuary waters reduces and may deter
                                                                   migratory fish runs. The Maine Department of Environmental Pro-
                                                                   tection (MDEP) requires most coastal municipal and industrial
                                                                   treatment systems to dechlorinate chlorinated effluent or use altema-
                                                                   tive forms of disinfection.

                                                                   Nutrients
                                                                        Nutrients, in particular phosphorus and nitrogen, are necessary
                                                                   for the overall productivity of estuarine waters. Nitrogen is usually,
                                                                   although not always, the nutrient limiting phytoplankton growth in
                                                                   Maine estuaries, just as phosphorus limits growth in most freshwater
                                                                   lakes. Nutrients are a concern when excess amounts produce unde-
                                                                   sirable changes in the abundance of phytoplankton and other aquatic
                                                                   species.
                                                                         Population density and land use changes in the estuarine wa-
                                                                   tershed can increase nutrient loads to estuarine waters. Wastewater
                                                                   sewage treatment plants, urban run-off,- and agricultural activities are
                                                                   major land-based sources for nitogen and phosphorus in Maine estu-
                                                                   aries. Finfish fanning operations also add nitrogen from fish waste

                24

                 and excess feed and can create water quality problems in estuaries
                 that are not well flushed.

                      The addition of nitrogen to nearshore waters from septic
                 systems, sewage plants, fish pens, marine heads, or land run-off can
                 cause nuisance blooms and upset the natural balance of nutrients.
                 Red tides are common nuisance blooms along the Maine coast each
                 summer. Occurrences of red tides are phenomena not yet understood
                 and may be linked to iron as well as nitrogen availability.
                      The loading of nutrients into nearshore embayment waters can             Theone-cell microscopic algae thatproduces
                 lead to a condition known as eutrophication. Excessive amounts of             red tide(Gonyaulax tamarensis). Drawing
                 nutrients cause phytoplankton to multiply or bloom in great quanti-           is many times actual size.
                 ties. When the phytoplankton sink and die, bacteria decompose the
                 plankton and deplete the dissolved oxygen in the estuary. If dis-
                 solved oxygen levels become too low, shellfish and other bottom                In addition to nutrients, the availability of
                 dwellers may die. A massive shellfish kill in Maquoit Bay in the fall          light, iron, water temperature, and other
                 of 1988 was caused by an unusual bloom of phytoplankton that                   chemical and physical factors limit the
                 settled to the bottom and within 48 hours had smothered 80% of the             growth ofphytoplankton in estuaries.
                 soft-shelled clams, European oysters, and other shellfish in the bay.

                 Heavy Metals
                      Mercury, cadmium, chromium, copper, zinc, and lead are a few
                 of the heavy metals found in industrial discharges in Maine. Trace
                 metals also enter the marine environment from municipal sewage
                 treatment discharges and road run-off. Since metals tend to accumu-
                 late in marine and estuarine sediments, bottom dwelling animals in-
                 cluding shellfish and ground fish, are most at risk. Human health is
                 also affected by exposure to heavy metals.
                      High concentrations of heavy metals may naturally occur in
                 estuarine waters because of the geology within the watershed or
                 result from industrial discharges and urban run-off. Elevated levels
                 of heavy metals have been detected by Maine state and university
                 scientists in sediments in Casco Bay, Boothbay Harbor, Muscongus
                 Bay, St. George River, Blue Hill Bay, Penobscot Bay, Union River,
                 Narraguagus River and the St. Croix River.
                       Although the entire coast has not been sampled intensively,
                 studies indicate that areas with a legacy of industrial discharges,
                 coastal mining, or harbor activities, have some heavy metal contami-
                 nation. In Boothbay Harbor, non-point source stormwater nm-off
                 from parking lots, boatyards, and marinas is suspected to be the
                 source of high lead levels found in harbor sediments. Mine drainage
                 from the Callahan Mine on the shore of Cape Rosier in Blue Hill
                 Bay has caused local shellfish to accumulate unnaturally high levels
                 of copper.

                                                                                                                                    25

                                                                Petroleum Derivatives
                                                                     Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other aromatic
                                                                compounds are major concerns because of their mutagenic (change
                                                                cell growth) and carcinogenic (cause cancer) properties. Sources of
                                                                PAHs include oil from tanker spills, bilge water discharges, leaking
                                                                underground gas storage tanks, discarded motor oil bottles, road run-
                                                                off, sewage plants, rainfall, and creosote from wharf pilings.
                                                                     The presence of PAHs and other organic petroleum compounds
                                                                can be predicted in areas of past oil spills, intense harbor activity,
                                                                and municipal and industrial discharges. The discovery of PAH
                                                                levels in Casco Bay higher than those found in Boston Harbor
                                                                heightened a growing awareness that the marine environment in
                                                                Maine is not as pristine as once believed (Larsen et al, 1983). Low
                                                                levels of PAHs have also been found in sediments of Penobscot,
                                                                Machias and Frenchmen Bays.

                                                                Organochlorines and Other Synthetic Organic
                                                                Compounds
                                                                     Organochlorines are stable compounds that accumulate in
              The bald eagle population, once threat-           sediment and the fatty tissues of animals. Organochlorides (DDT),
              ened by'the effect of DDT on chick sur-           polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and-dioxin are highly persistent
              vival, has rebounded in Maine. Canadian           in the environment and harmful to animals. PCBs were once used in
              studies of marine mammals, however,               electrical equipment and have not been manufactured in the U.S. for
              reveal that DDT still persists as an en-
              vironmental problem.                              over ten years, yet they continue to enter the environment from
                                                                improper disposal or leaking shoreside'landfills. Low levels of PCBs
                                                                in mussel tissue have been recorded by EPA in Casco Bay, Penob-
                                                                scot Bay, Machias Bay, and Frenchman Bay.
                                                                     The presence of DDT and PCBs is not as predictable as that of
                                                                other pollutants. Dioxin, however, is associated with a certain kind
                                                                of paper mill discharge. Dioxin is a by-product of the kraft paper-
                                                                making process which bleaches wood pulp with chlorine. The
                                                                lignins (natural binddfg of W6W-fiber) from the wood and the
                                                                chlorine combine to produce dioxin, a substance suspected to cause
                                                                birth defects in humans. In March 1990, the Department of Environ-
                                                                mental Protection released the results of a study which revealed the
                                                                presence of dioxin in fish sampled from the Androscoggin, Ken-
                                                                nebec, Penobscot, and Presumpscot Rivers.
                                                                     Paints, household chemicals, and hundreds of other chemicals
                                                                in daily use find their way to the estuary waters via sewage plants,
                                                                stonn sewers, and in regulated and nonregulated discharges. Chemi-
                                                                cal toilets on boats often use formaldehyde, a very toxic substance
                                                                often emptied directly into estuary waters with sanitary waste. The
                                                                EPA estimates more than 70,000 chemicals are in industrial use and
                                                                an additional thousand more are introduced each year; few have
                                                                been studied to assess their effect on human and aquatic life.

              26

                         Toxic by-products of manufacturing often slip into regulated
                   discharges by accident or on purpose. Storms wash a myriad of
                   chemical traces into Maine estuaries. The synergistic effects of these
                   substances, how they react and interact, is a mystery.

                   Biocides
                         Biocides include a broad range of chemicals designed to kill                     Commercial application and sales ofpes-
                   living organisms. Tributyltin (TBT), a biocide, is an antifouling                      ticides is licensed and regulated by the
                   compound used in boat bottom paint. Although the use of tributyltin                    Board ofPesticide Control (Maine Dept.
                   is now restricted, it is still in use and accumulates with other heavy                 of Agriculture, Food and Rural Re-
                   metals in the sediments of harbor areas and centers of boat building                   sources). Residential use in Maine is un-
                   activity.                                                                              regulated.
                         Pesticides are biocides designed to kill plants and insects.
                   Traces of pesticides are difficult to detect in the marine environment
                   because the compounds are designed to break down into other
                   substances in relatively short periods of time. The toxic effect of
                   these secondary products is unknown. Large quantities of biocides
                   are used on roadways, power line right-of-ways, golf courses, timber
                   lands, apple orchards, blueberry fields and on other crops. Herbicide
                   application on forest lands in Maine is the heaviest in the nation.
                   Studies have found levels of pesticides in the groundwater of
                   agricultural areas in Maine (Neil et al., 1989), but the presence of
                   pesticides other than DDT in Maine estuarine environments, has not
                   been investigated.

                   Temperature
                         People can alter the temperature of coastal waters and streams
                   with discharges of heated wastewater. Maine Yankee Atomic Power
                   Plant and coal-fired plants along the coast use estuary water for
                   cooling turbines. Major changes in the landscape, such as paving
                   over large areas or extensive clearcutting, will also increase the
                   temperature of surface run-off with potentially darnaging conse-
                   quences for fish and other marine life.
                         When the estuary volume and flushing rate is high, the effect of
                   warm water may be minimal. But even a small increase in water
                   temperature can alter the ability of fish and shellfish to reproduce
                   and may decrease oxygen levels in the water.

                   Sediments
                         Plowed fields, construction sites, road ditches, natural erosion,
                   and clearcuts are the principal sources of sediments that wash into
                   the estuary with each storm. Soil washing into tidal creeks and
                   coastal waters blocks the light needed by aquatic plants and in
                   sufficient quantities, smothers shellfish beds and bottom communi-
                   ties. Suspended sediments can damage gills and other sensitive fish

                                                                                                                                                 27

                                                                tissue. Dredging and bottom-dragging harvesting techniques also
                                                                increase the turbidity of estuarine waters.

                                                                Marine Trash
                                                                     Marine trash clutters miles of shoreline and threatens the health
                                                                of estuarine animals. Fish, birds, and other wildlife ingest nonbiode-
                                                                gradable plastics or are entangled by them. Pieces of gillnet and
                                                                ghost lobster traps keep on fishing for months or years after they
                                                                disappear from the fisherman's care. Marine trash enters the envi-
                                                                ronment from combined sewer outfalls,. land run-off, livers,
                                                                streams, recreational boaters, shore side visitors, and fishermen. In
                                                                Maine, commercial fishermen and recreational boaters are respon-
                                                                sible for much of the marine debris found on our shores.

              The 1989 Coast Week Cleanup in Maine
              covered 176 miles of shorefront and col-
              lected an average 102.6 pounds of debris
              per mile. (Data compiled by the Maine
              Coastal Program with assistancefrom
              the Centerfor Marine Conservation.)

                                                                                                  J

              Quality of Life and Coastal Culture
                   Development and pollution of estuary waters and uplands changes the lives of those who live and work
              along the coast. Pollution of estuarine waters and the subsequent decline in fisheries affects many coastal resi-
              dents accustomed to making a living harvesting natural resources from coastal waters. Access to estuaries and
              other sections of the coast is becoming more restricted. Less than 10% of the Maine coast is in public ownership,
              yet more than 75% of the state's population lives within the coastal counties. A recent survey by the Maine State
              Planning Office revealed that almost 90% of clam and worm diggers cross private shorelands to get to flats. One-
              third of those surveyed had private property owners object to passage across their lands (Dawson, 1990).
                   Years ago, saltwater farms stretched down to the estuary edge. Many families owned a fish house and dock
              on the shore for convenient access to the water and as a place to store and repair fishing gear. In recent years,
              land values have soared and many residents cannot afford or choose not to maintain the waterfront farms and
              shore lots that have been in the family for generations. The sale and subdivison of family farms and waterfront
              lands leads to an increase in residential and road development and all the environmental problems associated
              with urban land use.

              28

                  Chapter Three
                  Estuary Planning and Management

                  What is Estuary Management?
                       An estuary management program is designed to protect, sustain
                  and improve the resources of an estuary watershed. Harbor manage-
                  ment ordinances, land use and shoreland ordinances, and shellfish
                  ordinances are among the regulatory tools used to manage estuaries.
                  Volunteer water quality monitoring, community education, clam flat
                  seeding and septic system pumping programs are a few examples of
                  nonregulatory efforts underway in communities along the Maine
                  coast. Ideally, estuary management involves all the communities
                  bordering an estuary or within the same coastal watershed working
                  together to define common goals and strategies to sustain the quality
                  of coastal waters and other natural resources that they share.
                  The Need for Estuary Planning
                       As population and development pressures increase on the
                  Maine coast, so does the need for protection and wise stewardship of
                  estuaries and other coastal waters. Development concentrates at the
                  edges of the coast, where water meets land in estuaries or other bays.
                  State agencies have only limited authority to protect local resources
                  by enforcing state environmental regulations. By thoughtful plan-
                  ning, towns can encourage economic development of estuaries that
                  sustain diverse and abundant natural resources. Establishing priority
                  uses in the estuaries will contribute to a hcalthy-,and clean
                  environment.
                       Land use and resource planning offers local governments an                          Getting Started
                  opportunity to play an active role in directing future changes to their                  Even if town government is not ready to
                  town rather than reacting to controversial developments crisis by                        address estuaryplanning on a large scale,
                  crisis. Problems and issues involving land and resource development                      estuary management efforts can be started
                  differ from area to area and are best handled by residents who under-                    by individuals or community groups with
                  stand the unique situation of their area and must live with the                          particular issues of concern-finding the
                  outcome.                                                                                 sources of pollution causing a clam flat
                                                                                                           closure, improving anadromousfish runs,
                       Land use plans are an expression of community vision. The                           protecting a coastal marsh, or mapping
                  plans lay out scenarios describing the community in the ftiture--                        estuary habitats.
                  where development should occur and businesses should locate, and                         The important thing isjust to get started.
                  which natural and cultural resources need to be protected. Planning
                  provides an opportunity to anticipate and prrvent problems such as
                  permanent closure of productive clam flats, shorefront erosion, or an
                  over-built coastline. Prevention is always less expensive than re-
                  mediation.

                                                                                                                                                    29

                                                                      Estuary Planning &
                                                                      Comprehensive Planning
                 Why are Comprehensive Plans                               An estuary plan can be part of a town comprehensive plan and
                 Important?                                           may lead to an ambitious regional effort involving many towns
                 Comprehensive plans are sources of in-               working together to balance the protection of natural resources
                 formation about the community, its lands             within the coastal watershed with appropriate land use activities and
                 and resources and projections for the                water uses.
                 future. Comprehensive plans provide the                   Maine communities are required by the Comprehensive and
                 backupfor legal challenges to ordinances             Land Use Regulation Act of 1988 to develop growth management
                 enacted by the town. Just asfederal laws             programs that include a comprehensive plan and an implementation
                 must be consistent with the U.S. Con-
                 stitution, so must town ordinances be                program to carry out the plan. Towns must include in their
                 backed by a document expressing the                  comprehensive plans, programs for the regional management of
                 priorities and intentions of the residents.          shared resources that extend beyond municipal borders, for example
                                                                      --estuaries and coastal watersheds. Most coastal towns will address
                                                                      estuary and embayment issues in sections of the comprehensive plan
                                                                      that cover water quality, marine resources, and other natural
                                                                      resource areas. In addition, discussions of estuarine issues and
                                                                      resources should be incorporated into sections concerning the local
                                                                      and regional economy, public access to the coast, and recreational
                                                                      opportunities.
                                                                           Estuary planning should complement existing comprehensive
                                                                      plans and be included in future or updated comprehensive plans.
                                                                      Policies relating to water quality, natural resource conservation and
                                                                      land use within a plan can be used to develop local ordinances and
                                                                      programs that effectively manage estuarine resources and the
                                                                      resources of the coastal watershed.

                                                                      Working Together
                 Home Rule & Responsibility of                             Estuaries are shared resources that require cooperative manage-
                 Local Government.                                    ment. Large estuaries often span political boundaries, as do many
                 In Maine, as in many other New England               other water resources such as freshwater lakes and groundwater
                 states, all powers not expressly reserved            aquifers. Estuary water quality, habitats and fisheries cannot be
                 by the state legislature are allowed to be           protected piecemeal.
                 exercised by municipal governments. This                  If a town decides to protect a clam flat at one end of the estuary
                 strong reliance on local control is called
                 'home rule'.                                         and another town encourages marina development across the water,
                 Authority for designing, implementing,               the conservation action may be thwarted as oils and discharges from
                 and enforcing most shoreland and other               boat traffic pollute the flats or a shellfish closure prohibiting shell-
                 land use regulations resides with local              fish harvesting around the marina overlaps the conservation area.
                 government. Because of the tradition of              The comprehensive planning process provides an opportunity for
                 home rule, towns have the prerogative to             towns to work together on issues relating to water quality and
                 protect andmanage resources within their             resource protection.
                 jurisdiction.

                 30

                       Even if towns have different schedules for completion of an                  The Office of Comprehensive Planning
                  official Comprehensive Plan, they need to work together to plan                   (OCP) in the Maine Department of Com-
                  the management of shared resources such as estuaries, ground                      munity and Economic Development
                  water aquifers, and freshwater lakes. The regional nature of                      (MDECD) and local regional planning
                  coastal watersheds requires communication and cooperation be-                     agencies provide assistance to towns de-
                  tween towns as well as between state agencies with res nsibilities                veloping comprehensive plans. (See Ap-
                                                                            po                      pendix for information.)
                  in estuarine areas. In the lingo of planners, what is required for
                  effective estuarine management is an "interlocal effort".
                  Planning Basics
                       The following reviews three stages in the development of an
                  estuarine resource management plan and program. First, inventory
                  the resources and identify the issues; then develop policies and rec-
                  ommendations for implementation measures; and finally, develop
                  and enact ordinances, regulations, and programs that address the
                  issues of concern and provide for long-term management of estuar-
                  ine resources. Grass-roots public involvement and education pro-
                  grams are essential to ensure widespread support for the final plan
                  and recommendations.
                  Inventories & Issue Identification
                       Inventories contain facts about natural resources, land use, and water use within the estuary watershed.
                  Collecting information is an ongoing process. Inventories must be periodically revised with new data to reflect
                  current trends and conditions so that policies and implementation measures can be updated. 'Me inventory
                  section of a plan also examines the needs and concerns of the community, and the types of measures needed to
                  address those needs and concerns. Surveys and public meetings are useful tools to identify issues of concern and
                  priorities of residents. Asking the right questions is necessary in order to obtain the desired information.
                       Windshield surveys are used to quickly identify nonpoint source pollution and general patterns of land use.
                  Driving around, an observer can note areas of possible non-point source pollution by watching for recent con-
                  struction, land-clearing activities, bare earth, or erosion gullies. Short surveys mailed to residents are useful to
                  identify issues of concern and priorities for management.

                                 Ask questions and note trends
                                 Are clam flats closed due to bacterial pollution? is water quality getting better or worse?
                                 Are there more applications for shoreland building permits than there used to be? Are the
                                 shorelands of the estuary "hardened" with parking lots, riprap, seawalls and other modi-
                                 fications?
                                 Arethere old dumps atthe shores of the estuary or in nearby marshes and small wetlands?
                                 Where werethe old mills and industries located, what did they produce and discard? Are
                                 the estuary shores and inlets littered with plastictrash and otherdebris? Whathas been the
                                 overall effectof incremental development along the estuary and in the estuary watershed?

                                                                                                                                          31

               Examples of Information to                                        This list is not complete, but indicates the kind of in-
                                                                                 formation needed for an understanding of how an
               Collect and Map:                                                  estuary fits into the local ecology and economy.
                                                                                 (Addresses of sources are listed in Appendix A).

               Estuary and estuary watershed unit boundaries.                    Research the location of historical industrial sites
               Source: Maine Geological Survey (MGS).                            and land use, including the location of forgotten
               Groundwater and surface water resources in the                    underground fuel tanks, town dumps or industrial
               estuary watershed.                                                dumps.
               Sources: Topographic maps, MGS aquifer maps, regional             Sources: Historical society records, town libraries, old
               planning agencies                                                 insurance maps.

               MDEP Water Classification for surface waters in the               Non-point source pollution i.e., malfunctioning
               estuary watershed.                                                septic systems, combined sewer overflows, storm-
               Sources: Topographic maps, regional planning                      water drainage outfalls, road drainage culverts and
               agencies, Maine Dept. of Environmental Protection                 ditches, clearcut areas, livestock yards.
               (MDEP).                                                           Sources: Town road maps and sewer district plans, local
               Major estuarine and marine habitats especially those              water quality groups, MDMR area biologists.
               related to commercially harvested marine resources                Coastal hazard areas, sand dunes, and flood plains.
               including salt and fresh marshes, freshwater tidal                Sources: County emergency management agencies, MGS
               habitat, flats, submerged aquatic vegetation (eelgrass            (sand dune maps), MDECD.
               meadows), migratory fish streams, shellfish and                   Existing and suitable areas for water dependent ac-
               marine worm beds, aquaculture lease sites.                        tivities including boatbuilding, harbors, fish buying
               Sources: Maine Coastal Marine Environment maps                    stations, lobster holding areas, moorings, weirs.
               availablefrom MGS; shel@(Iish maps availablefrom Maine
               Dept. of Marine Resources (MDMR) area biologists.                 Sources: Coastal water dependent use maps are avail-
                                                                                 able from regional planning agencies or the Office of
               Major land uses in the estuary watershed--farmland,               Comprehensive Planning (MDECD).
               conservation, tree growth, urban, rural residential.              Sites ideal for shellfish or finfish aquaculture.
               Shoreland zones and other existing zoning districts.              Sources: MDMR area biologists, Maine Aquaculture As-
               Sources: Regional planning agencies, soil and water con-          sociation.
               servation districts offices, tax maps.
               Areas with significant botanical, archeological,                  Traditional paths to the shore, public access sites,
               wildlife, geological, or scenic resources. High value             boat ramps.
               deer yards and wintering areas; waterfowl, shore-                 Sources: Old maps, public surveys, tax maps.
               bird, and wading bird nesting and feeding areas;                  Underground petroleum storage tanks, waterfront
               spawning and nursery areas for Atlantic salmon and                gas tanks and oil distribution facilities.
               Bald Eagle nesting areas.                                         Sources: A list can be obtainedfrom the QJfice of Oil and
               Sources: Heritage Program (Maine Dept. of Economic                Hazardous Materials (MDEP) or county emergency man-
               and Community Development ), Critical Area Program                agement agencies.
               (Maine State Planning Office), Maine Dept. ofInland Fish
               and Wildlife (MIFW) area biologists, surveys.                         Estuary profiles are available for nineteen
               Locations of present and past sources of pollution to                 Maine estuaries. The profiles are brief de-
               estuarine waters including licensed discharges.                       scriptions of selected estuaries. Maps are
               Source: The Water Quality Control Bureau (MDEP) will                  available for five estuaries. Estuary profiles
               provide computer printout of discharges by town and dis-              and maps are available from the Maine State
               charge license limits--the amount and type ofpollutant                Planning Office, regional planning agencies,
               allowed to be discharged.                                             and University of Maine Cooperative Exten-
                                                                                     sion offices.

               32

                Estuarine Management Issues
                     Each estuary along the Maine coast is unique; issues of concern
                differ between areas. The following are only a few of the issues to
                be considered when designing an estuary management plan.
                Aquaculture
                     When planning for sustainable economic development, towns
                should identify and protect existing and potential aquaculture
                development sites. Precautions must be taken to ensure that aquacul-
                ture operations are sited to minimize the effect on water quality. Aq-
                uaculture enterprises can provide year-round employment opportuni-
                ties, supplement incomes of traditional fishermen, and contribute to
                the local economy. Proposed aquaculture development often con-
                ceins harvesters fishing wild stock near the proposed lease site and
                riparian landowners. Plans to protect existing and potential aquacul-
                ture sites should address the concerns of all users of the estuary.
                Waterfront Development
                     Large-scale waterfront development projects are often contro-
                versial in Maine as communities struggle to define and retain their
                identity. Conversion of shorefront business properties to condomini-
                ums or recreational marinas is often perceived as a threat to tradi-
                tional fishing-related uses of the waterfront. Harbor management
                plans and ordinances, which regulate water use pertaining to moor-
                ing and navigation channels, and shoreland zoning, which designates
                the type of land development within 250 ft. of tidal water, are key
                tools in managing urban waterfronts.
                Coastal Hazards and Sea Level Rise
                     Unstable shore environments such as flood zones, bluffs and
                sand dune areas need additional restrictions on alteration and
                construction within buffer zones that exceed the minimum require-
                ments of state shoreland zoning and flood plain management regula-
                tions. A slow rise in sea level caused by global changes in climate
                will alter the shape of the coast in the near future. Long-term shore-
                land planning must allow room for marshes, dune fields and other
                coastal habitats to migrate inland as sea level rises. Setbacks for
                homes, businesses, and especially septic systems and wells should
                reflect projected sea level rise and natural rates of shore erosion.
                Clam Flat Closures
                     Extensive closures of areas to the harvest of shellfish because
                of bacterial pollution may cause hardship in small coastal communi-
                ties especially when many residents depend on digging for all or part
                of their income. Bacterial pollution in Maine estuaries generally
                comes from a combination of sources such as septic systems,
                municpal sewage treatment plants, stormwater run-off, flocks of
                waterfowl, or livestock yards. Pollution from each of these sources
                can be prevented by a combination of regulations, inspections,
                public information, and publically funded improvements.
                                                                                                                              33

                                                               Public Access
                                                                    The State of Maine has a unique tradition of public access
                                                               across private land. Fishermen and coastal residents have long
                                                               enjoyed informal access to the coast and estuaries for fishing or
                                                               recreation. Fishermen often haul boats and store gear out of the
                                                               reach of tide on private beaches. As the coast becomes more devel-
                                                               oped, free and open access to the coast is becoming limited. Paths
                                                               down to the shore and shortcuts along the coves that people have
                                                               used for years are often blocked off with 'No Trespassing' signs
                                                               soon after the property is sold. Conservation easements, shorefront
                                                               purchases and legal right-of-ways are tools towns can use to pre-
                                                               serve traditional access to coastal waters.

                       Who Owns the Estuary?
                       The people of Maine own the lands below low tide and the estuary waters. In areas of extensive intertidal
                       flats, private ownership extends for a distance of 1650 feet from the high water mark before public
                       ownership begins. The Bureau of Public Lands in the Maine Department of Conservation and the Maine
                       Department of Marine Resources manages and grants leases on submerged lands. in the intertidal zone,
                       between the high and low water mark, the public has certain rights even if the shoreland is privately
                       owned.
                       These rights, established by the Colonial Ordinance enacted by the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the
                       1640s, include fishing, fowling and navigation aswell asskating, salticecutting, mooring boats and worm
                       and shellfish digging. The use of private shorelands for sunbathing and other recreation was possibly
                       limited by the 1987 Moody Beach decision which upheld the right of private shorefront owners along
                       a beach in Wells, Maine to restrict access by the public.

                                                               Policy Development
                                                                    Policies are based on analysis of the information gathered
                  The following topics are in-                 during the inventory and issue identification effort. Policies are
                  cluded in the coastal policies of            clear, specific, and enforceable statements that direct future planning
                  the State of Maine are within the            decisions. Policies developed for Comprehensive Plans must be con-
                  scope of estuary planning:                   sistent with the nine coastal management policies and ten growth
                  1. Port and Harbor Development               management goals of the State of Maine. The policy section of a
                  2. Marine Resource Management                plan usually includes overlay maps that specify the locations of
                  3. Shoreline Management and                  various land and water use categoties--for instance the location of
                  Access                                       conservation areas, high density development areas, water dependent
                  4. Hazard Area Development                   use zones, shoreland zoning areas, and NMEP water classifications.
                  5. State and Local Cooperative
                  Management                                        Policies are specific statements related to a general goal. For in-
                  6. Scenic and Natural Areas Pro-             stance, if the goal is "to protect the marine resources", the policy
                  tection                                      may read:"The Town of             will revise its shoreland zoning
                  7. Recreation and Tourism                    ordinance to establish a new resource protection district around the
                  8. Water Quality                             western side of            Estuary". Policies recommend implemen-
                  9. Air Quality                               tation measures which are described in detail in an implementation
                                                               program.

                34

                  implementing Estuary Management
                       Maine towns have limited direct jurisdiction over estuarine
                  waters, but are able to regulate boating and shellfish harvesting ac-
                  tivities. By preparing harbor management and comprehensive plans
                  that address uses of the estuary, towns can influence the decisions of
                  regulatory agencies at the state and federal level. The public may
                  comment on applications for state leases of submerged lands,
                  dredging projects, wetland alterations, discharge licenses and other
                  activities that are regulated by the state. Organized public comment
                  can directly affect these activities that are outside the direct jurisdic-
                  tion of towns.

                       The water classification designations described in Chapter Two
                  can be used by towns to regulate permitted uses. Towns and resi-
                  dents can influence the classification of surface waters during the
                  public hearing and review period mandated every three years. For
                  instance, an upgrade of a section of an estuary from Class SB to
                  Class SA waters would require the removal of all discharges and
                  prohibit future dredging projects. Upgrading Class SC waters to
                  Class SB would require discharges to meet higher standards and
                  eventually result in improved water quality.
                       Most importantly, towns can directly influence coastal water
                  use and quality by managing adjacent land use. Many users of
                  estuary waters require shore access or water quality that permits
                  certain uses of the waters and submerged lands. These water depend-
                  ent uses include, but are not limited to, shellfish harvest, aquacul-
                  ture, lobster holding, swimming, recreational boating, and fishing.
                  By implementing zoning and other measures that direct land devel-
                  opment along the shore and in the coastal watershed, towns can
                  control the use of estuary waters and uplands within their jurisdic-
                  tion.

                  Implementation Measures
                       Implementation measures are the ordinances and programs
                  used to carry out the policy decisions made in a comprehensive plan.
                  For years, Maine communities have used many tools to manage
                  estuary resources. The tools include regulatory measures--zoning,
                  subdivision, shellfish, and harbor ordinances and regulations, and
                  nonregulatory programs--citizen water monitoring programs, coastal
                  cleanups, stormwater management projects, capital improvements to
                  sewage treatment plants, shellfish seeding efforts, and removal of
                  obstructions to fish migration.
                       Every community and region will find that a certain combina-
                  tion of approaches best conserves estuarine resources while allowing
                  sustainable growth and development.

                                                                                                                                           35

                 Regulatory Measures
                                                                      Zoning Ordinances
                                                                            Zoning controls development by establishing standards such as
                                                                      minimum lot size or setbacks. Maine towns use a variety of zoning
                                                                      techniques to regulate development.
                                                                            Shoreland Zoning--Shoreland zoning is a state-wide program
                                                                      requiring local regulation of development within a minimum of 250
                                                                      feet of tidal waters, Great Ponds, coastal and freshwater wetlands,
                                                                      and rivers and within 75 feet of certain streams. Municipal govern-
                                                                      ments must adopt and enforce local shoreland zoning ordinances that
                                                                      meet or exceed the minimum requirements issued by the Department
                                                                      of Environmental Protection.
                                                                      * Increase minimum setbacks established by the State in areas of
                                                                      natural hazards (sand dunes, steep banks, and bluffs), and flood
                                                                      plains. Purpose: To protect property and reduce erosion.
                                                                      * Establish conservation zones or resource protection districts along
                                                                      the shore and uplands bordering productive shellfish beds, spawning
                                                                      areas, eelgrass beds, tidal creeks, wetlands and other important
                                                                      estuarine habitats. Purpose: To protect and conserve water
                                                                      quality and natural resources.

                                                                        The Town of Yarmouth established a resource protection district
                                                                        (River Corridor) regulating filling activities and uses. The district
                                                                        includes the tidal marsh wetlands and areas within the 100-year
                                                                        floodplain of the Royal River, Cousins River and Pratts Brook or lands
                                                                        within 100 horizontal feetof the normal high water mark. This district
                                                                        is part of Yarmouth's shoreland zoning ordinance.

                                                                        Zone the waterfront to reserve area for water dependent uses.
                                                                      Purpose: To protect marine and fishing related activities from
                                                                      competing and incompatible uses. Guidelines for Commercial
                                                                      Fishing/ Maritime Use Zones are available from the Maine Depart-
                                                                      ment of Environmental Protection and the Office of Comprehensive
                Build-out studies are useful exercises.               Planning.
                When designing ordinances, assume that                     Town-wide Zoning-- All coastal Maine communities have in
                eventually the area will be built up to the           place minimum lot size and subdivision ordinances or rely on the
                limits of-existing regulations.                       minimums specified in the State Plumbing Code that apply to all
                For example, ifan area iszoned two acres              areas within the town. Land use ordinances provide an opportunity
                minimum, imagine a probable future                    to enact measures that protect water quality within the coastal
                where the land will be subdivided entirely            watershed and by extension, the estuary.
                into two acre parcels. Incentivesfor pro-               Direct planning boards or conservation commissions to review
                tection of agricultural lands, conserva-
                tion easements or clustered housing with              subdivision plans for waste disposal, road drainage, and effect on
                open space may need to be included to                 coastal wetlands and surface waters. Purpose: To encourage
                achieve the ideal landscape envisioned.               impact assessment beyond the immediate confines of the project
                Regional planning councils and the Of-                and protect water quality.
                fice of ConWrehensive Planning can as-                * Prohibit the direct channeling of surface water runoff into adjacent
                sist with build-out studies.                          water bodies and require that design and construction standards be
                36

                    met for storm drainage. Purpose: To protect water quality and
                    reduce nonpoint source pollution.
                    * Require developers to provide information about and to assess the
                    local environmental impact of a proposed development beyond the
                    requirement of the state subdivision law. Purpose: To encourage
                    developers to assess the environmental values affected by the
                    project and use best management practices to reduce impact on
                    the environment.
                           Overlay Zones--Overlay zones are mapped zones that apply
                    regulations or requirements in addition to those of one or more
                    underlying zoning districts. Overlay zones are a flexible tool that
                    can be used to promote uses by imposing additional criteria without
                    changing the existing permitted uses, densities and specifics of the
                    base zones.
                       The City of Portland created a waterfront overlay district to promote
                       and protect activities related tothe fishing industry. The Town of York
                       has a watershed protection overlay zone that establishes permitted
                       and prohibited uses and performance standards for development.

                    Best Management Practices
                    Best Management Practices (BMPS) are design or construction standards that are recommended or required by
                    ordinances or regulations to minimize the impact of development on the environment.

                                                                                                       Porous pavermnt, especially in------"
                                                    n                      _4                           Arin aVMss, reduces ran-off.
                                                                              R
                                                                                                       pa   9
                                                      cW0
                           Grass waterways or swales instead
                           of curbs and gutters allow the
                           infiltration of water into the ground.

                                     Strawbales and strewn straw a
                                     construction sites hold back sediment                                                                  __@.rolled density of developed areas
                                                                 t

                                     and help protect receiving waters.                                                                            and maintenance ofnatural vegetation
                                                                                                                                                   reduces effects of pollution an ground
                                                                                                                                                   and surface waters
                                                                                                                             Minimum or no tillage
                                                                                                                             leaves a lay@ of plant
                                                                                                                                ue on the ground that
                                                                                                                             rcsid
                                                                                                                             protects the soil from
                                                                                                                             erosion yearround.
                         nt urfarming
                       reduces erosion and
                       run-off.
                       Conservation buffers along
                       waterways protect strearnbanks and
                       reduce soil crosion and ruri-off.

                                        cd                                                                                         iure storage and livestock
                                                                                                                               containment reduce bacterial
                                                                                                                             4 contamination of waterways.

                                                                                     n.
                        RON
                                                                         Examples of Best management Practices

                                                                                                                                                                                    37

                                                                 Harbor Management Ordinances
                 Sources for model ordinances                          Intensified use in and around harbors has led to the need for
                 (listed in Appendix)                            harbor management plans and ordinances. Assisted by the Maine
                 Harbor & Land Use Ordinances                    Department of Economic and Community Development, several
                 MDECD (Qjfice of Comprehensive Plan-            Maine towns have developed plans to coordinate use of their har-
                 ning) and regional planning agencies.           bors. Integration of harbor plans into estuary plans is essential to
                 Shoreland Ordinances                            evaluate the impact of harbor development on the natural resources
                 MDEP (Land Bureau, Shoreland Zoning             of the entire estuary.
                 Coordinator) and Maine Association of
                 Conservation Commissions.                       Health Regulations
                 Watershed Protection & BMP's                          Health regulations can be used to reduce bacterial pollution of
                 MDEP (Water Bureau, Nonpoint Source             estuary waters.
                 Pollution Program) and local Soil and
                 Water Conservation Districts.                   *Require inspection of septic system before property transfer and
                 Shellfish Ordinances                            upgrade if neccesary. Purpose: To upgrade in-ground septic sys-
                 MDMR Shel@ish Program.                          tems.
                 General                                         *Create a sanitary wastewater management district. Put all the
                 How to Prepare a Land Use Ordinance: A
                 Manualfor Local Officials (1990), avail-        septic systems within a specified district on a regular maintenance
                 able from the Qfce of Comprehensive             and inspection schedule. Purpose: To ensure that septic systems
                 Planning.                                       are maintained and provide maintence services at an affordable
                                                                 cost.

                                                                 Shellfish Programs & Ordinances
                                                                       At least forty-three towns in Maine have shellfish conservation
                                                                 ordinances which regulate the licensing of clam diggers and man-
                                                                 agement of shellfish flats. Among the    measures towns have taken to
                                                                 protect their clam flats are designation of conservation areas, limit-
                                                                 ing the number of licenses overall and limiting the number of
                                                                 licenses granted to non-resident diggers, and seeding of clam flats.
                                                                 Regional biologists (MDMR) assist towns and shellfish conservation
                                                                 commissions with ordinances and conservation programs. The Brun-
                                                                 swick Shellfish Management Program is a model program of
                                                                 regionally based management of a shared natural resource. Recip-
                                                                 rocity agreements between the towns of Harpswell, West Bath, and
                                                                 Phippsburg coordinate the opening and closing of shellfish flats to
                                                                 prevent overharvesting of one area.

                                                                 Migratory Fish Regulations
                                                                       Twenty-eight towns manage alewife fisheries. The towns
                                                                 usually grant contracts to private parties to harvest the alewife run.
                                                                 Limits are set by the state and towns regarding the season and hours
                                                                 of harvesting operations.

                 38

                                                                                                        Nonregulatory
                 Marine Water Quality Task Force                                                        Measures
                      A marine water quality task force brings together all the local
                 agencies, municipal officials and concerned citizens to coordinate
                 local water quality improvement efforts and promote understand-
                 ing of marine quality issues. In the Machias River area, a task force
                 coordinated by the county emergency management office is exam-
                 ining the water quality problems of the Machias River estuary and
                 inner Cobscook Bay.

                 Water Quality Testing Program
                      The Maine Department of Marine Resources (MDMR) and                               Technical training manuals and assis-
                 the Maine Department of Environmental Protection (MDEP) are                            tance for volunteer water quality moni-
                 responsible for testing estuarine waters for pollution. State agencies                 toring groups are available from local
                 lack the resources to cover the approximately 3,500 miles of Maine                     offices of the University of Maine Coop-
                 coastline. Volunteers can contribute to the collection of water                        erative Extension.
                 quality information by gathering and testing water samples and in-
                 vestigating the sources of pollution. Citizens along the Darnaris-
                 cotta and St. George Rivers monitor water quality with the assis-
                 tance of the University of Maine Cooperative Extension Program
                 and the MDMR Shellfish Program.

                 Shore Steward Program
                      Estuary residents can form a Shore Steward group to watch                         For more infortntition write:
                 over a stretch of shoreline. The Shore Steward Program is an effon                     Shore Steward Program, State Planning
                 similar to neighborhood watch or Adopt-A-Stream programs, but is                       Office, State House Station #38, Augusta,
                 focused on caretaking stretches of coastal shoreline.                                  ME 04333.

                 Household Toxic Material Reduction and Collection Program
                      Although the amount of lawn fertilizers and herbicides, garden pesticides and household chemicals used by
                 an individual may be minor, the total amount used by all the individuals within a coastal watershed, in addition to
                 roadside and utility right-of-way herbicide spraying, is significant. Even trace amounts of pesticides are toxic to
                 soft-shelled clams. Herbicides may destroy aquatic vegetation and fertilizers add excessive amounts of nutrients
                 to estuarine waters. Distribution of information to homeowners on alternatives to toxic chemicals can reduce
                 their use in the coastal watershed. Periodic municipal collections of household toxic chemicals will prevent
                 improper disposal and possible contamination of water quality. Contact local University of Maine Cooperative
                 Extension offices for assistance in establishing a community collection program.

                                     TVKF E9T1

                                                                                                                                               39

                                                                    Land Acquisition & Conservation
                For property tax assistance information,                  Faced with soaring property taxes some shorefront owners opt
                write: MaineResidents Property TaxPro-              to subdivide or sell their land. Towns and local conservation groups
                gram, Bureau of Taxation, State Office              and land trusts can work together to provide information on altema-
                Building, Augusta, Me 04333,                        tives to development or sale of shorefront property. The Maine
                or call 1-800452-1983.                              Residents Property Tax Program offers property tax relief to eligible
                For information on creative approaches              residents. Donations of conservation easements, tree growth desig-
                to conserve land contact: Maine Coast               nation and sale of development tights      'are also options available to
                Heritage Trust, The Nature Conservency,             owners seeking to reduce property taxes or preserve the natural
                and local land trusts.                              character of their land.

                In response to development pressure,                      Some communities have researched historic rights-of-way and
                voters on Nantucket Island, Massa-                  rediscovered areas that allow public access to coastal waters. Water-
                chuesetts authorized in 1983, a two per-            front Action Grants (administered by the Office of Comprehensive
                cent land transfer tax tofund a land bank           Plaming) and other grant programs have been used by towns to
                established to purchase open space for              purchase shorefront and other lands.
                use by island residents.
                                                                    Marine Resource Conservation & Improvement
                                                                    Programs
                For information on hatcheryprojects con-                  Often regulation of shellfish and fish harvesting is not enough
                tact: Hancock Co. Cooperative Exten-                to protect the abundance of estuarine resources. Identification and
                sion, Boggy Brook Rd. RFD 5, Ellsworth,             protection of significant estuary habitats, public outreach efforts,
                ME 04605_for Shore Harvester News                   and investigations of the sources of pollution to coastal waters are
                newsletter. Regional MDMR biologists
                will assist with resource inventories and           all important for a successful natural resource program.
                conservation plans.                                       Several towns in Maine have implemented reseeding programs
                                                                    to improve local clam flats. Near Jonesboro a group of ten towns co-
                                                                    operativcly operate a regional clam hatchery. Many communities are
                                                                    improving fishladders and removing obstructions that block passage
                                                                    by migratory fish to inland waters.

                40

               How To Keep the Ball Rolling.............

                    Long-term estuary planning must be integrated into existing
               efforts and must enjoy the general support of the community. Fish,
               shellfish, conservation, comprehensive planning, and harbor com-
               mittees all contribute to management of the estuary and the coastal
               watershed.

               Institutional Arrangements
                    Organizing estuary conservation efforts and keeping those
               efforts alive after completion of a comprehensive plan provides a
               true challenge to community leaders. Meshing estuary watershed
               conservation efforts with existing programs or institutions is one
               way to ensure continuity over time. Conservation commissions and
               soil and water conservation districts are examples of existing groups
               whose purpose is to conserve and manage natural resources. In-
               volvement in estuarine and coastal watershed issues is a natural
               extension of their original mandates.

               Conservation Commissions
                    Conservation commissions are municipal boards created by the
               local government to identify and conserve the natural resources
               within a town. A conservation commission can review and coordi-
               nate town response to state permit applications, such as wetland
               alteration and dredging proposals, water classification hearings, or
               discharge permits, and can provide assistance to local planning
               boards. Usually conservation commissions serve in an advisory role
               to town government; they can be granted more powers at the discre-
               tion of the municipality. A local conservation commission can play
               an important role in organizing public outreach programs on estuar-
               ine resource and water quality issues and undertaking a resource in-
               ventory of the estuary watershed.

                    At one time there were over 200 towns with conservation com-
               missions in Maine, but many disbanded over the years. More than                 To find out more about conservation
               100 conservation commissions are still active in Maine and several              commissions contact the Maine Associa-
                                                                                               tion of Conservation Commissions, P.O.
               communities are planning to revive their old commissions. The                   Box 222, BeVast, ME 04915.
               Maine Association of Conservation Commissions (MACC) is a non-
               profit organization dedicated to providing support and information
               to local commissions in Maine.

                                                                                                                                     41

                                                                     Soil and Water Conservation Districts
                 For more information on projects and                     Sixteen Soil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCD) in
                 technical assistance contact the district or       Maine are very active in water quality protection and soil conserva-
                 State Soil and Water Conservation Com-             tion. The districts are involved with soil mapping, floodplain studies,
                 mission, State House Station #28, Augusta,         small watershed protection efforts, erosion and non-point source
                 Maine 04333.                                       pollution control projects, septic and sewage sludge disposal, the
                                                                    small watershed program, and other resource protection and conser-
                                                                    vation programs. The districts also review resource alteration
                                                                    permits submitted to state agencies and make recommendations.
                                                                    Local SWCDs are assisted by the State Soil and Water Conservation
                                                                    Commission which is part of the Maine Department of Agriculture.

                                                                    Coastal Watershed Districts
                                                                          In early 1990, an act allowing for the creation of Coastal Water-
                                                                    shed Districts was passed by the Maine legislature. This legislation
                                                                    was an extension of the law that alloWs the creation of watershed
                                                                    districts to protect inland lakes. The purpose of coastal watershed
                                                                    districts is "to protect, restore and maintain water quality and
                                                                    aquatic resources of coastal harbors, bays, estuaries and other
                                                                    coastal waters and to manage and conserve the land and water
                                                                    resources of coastal watersheds within the jurisdiction of these
                                                                    districts."

                 For more information on coastal water-                   The responsibilities of coastal watershed districts include
                 shed districts contact the Maine Associa-          initiating and coordinating research on aquatic resources and coastal
                 tion of Conservation Commissions.                  environments; planning coastal restoration projects to improve water
                                                                    quality and to enhance aquatic resources within the district; working
                                                                    to coordinate ordinances and regulation within the watershed
                                                                    district; and adoption and implementation of coastal protection,
                                                                    management and restoration plans.
                                                                          A watershed approach to management of coastal resources is an
                                                                    approach advocated by coastal communities around the country. The
                                                                    creation of coastal watershed districts is an opportunity for Maine
                                                                    communities to regionally manage coastal land and water resources.
                                                                    The revised marine resource plan of the Town of Brunswick recom-
                                                                    mends the formation of a coastal wat6rshed district to address water
                                                                    quality problems in Maquoit Bay and Middle Bay.
                                                                          Historically, Maine communities have been reluctant to form
                                                                    regional watershed districts. Although many Maine communities
                                                                    have discussed creating lake watershed districts, only one group of
                                                                    communities has formally agreed to cooperatively manage their
                                                                    water resources. The Cobbossee Watershed District, organized in
                                                                    197 1, is a joint effort by the City of Gardiner, and towns of Litch-
                                                                    field, Mt. Vernon, Manchester, Monmouth, Readfield, Richmond,
                                                                    Wayne and Winthrop; to protect and restore 28 lakes within the
                                                                    watershed.

                 42

                Citizen Involvement and Information
                     Successful estuary planning and management requires grass root public involvement. All the major users of
                the estuary should be invited to participate. This includes, but is not limited to--clammers, wormers, aquacultur-
                ists, municipal sewer plant operators, conservation groups, landowners, school groups, industry representatives,
                and other local business people. Public education on the impact of common activities on estuaiine ecology is
                often more effective than regulation. For instance, boat pumpout facilities are often underutilized by boaters
                because they are less convenient than pumping sewage overboard. Enforcement is almost impossible; education
                on the effect of overboard discharge is the often the best way to promote compliance.
                Enforcement in the Estuary
                     The local Code Enforcement Officer is responsible for enforc-
                ing town ordinances including shoreland zoning. By sharing the                      For information on the Code Enforce-
                same Code Enforcement Officer, towns within a watershed can                         ment Officer Training Program or a copy
                promote fair enforcement of each town's regulations and ordinances.                 of A Handbook for Municipal Officials
                                                                                                    on Interlocal Code Enforcement,' con-
                The harbor master in an estuary has authority to assign moorings,                   tact: MDECD, Office of Comprehensive
                direct boat traffic, enforce boat discharge regulations, keep naviga-               Planning, Augusta, Maine 04333.
                tion channels clear and control other activities affecting harbor
                waters.

                     Marine Patrol (MDMR) and local shellfish wardens enforce
                shellfish and fish regulations on tidewater, and game wardens
                (MIFW) enforce fish and game rules on fresh water and uplands.
                Maine towns rarely fine violators of local ordinances; instead they
                usually require correction. Enforcement ultimately depends on
                citizcn cooperation. People who live or work on an estuary are
                usually the first to know of a water quality problem or shoreland
                zoning violation. Concerns should be reported to the town office and
                staff need to know who to contact next.

                                                 The Town Of Brunswick- A Case Study
                           Several years ago, a group of Brunswick residents became concerned that the clam resource of
                           Brunswick tidal flats were threatened by pollution from land run-off. The residents formed the Bays
                           Planning Committee and set out to revise the marine resource section of their comprehensive plan in
                           order to protect the town clamming industry valued at over two million dollars a year in harvested
                           value.
                               In June 1989, the Town of Brunswick completed "The Maquoit & Middle Bays Comprehensive
                           Plan Revision". To date, this document is the bestexampleof a local plan that provides for the longterm
                           protection of estuarine 'and marine resources. The plan suggests bold and innovative programs--the
                           creation of sanitary wastewater management districts and awatershed protection district, specific rec-
                           ommendations to reduce non-point source pollution by limiting the percentage of a lot that can be
                           covered with an impermeable surface, regulating shoreside fuel facilities and developing a Toxic
                           Material Disposal Plan. With these measures the Town hopesto protect its soft-shell clam inclustryfrom
                           land-based pollution.
                           Maquoit and Middle Bays Comprehensive Plan Revision by Christopher Heinig of Intertide Corporation, South
                           Harpswell, Maine, June 16,1989 for The Town of Brunswick Bays Planning Committee.

                                                                                                                                           43

                                                               What Planning Can't Do
                                                                     Not all problems can be solved by planning and management at
                                                               the municipal or local level. Individual actions will make the differ-
                                                               ence. Boat owners need to dispose of trash properly and eliminate or
                                                               reduce the use of chlorine in heads and for boat maintenance. Clam
                                                               diggers and other harvesters must respect conservation closures and
                                                               aquaculture leases. Property owners and developers need to be
                                                               aware of the impact of their activities on the surrounding land and
                                                               waterscape and investigate best management practices even if not
                                                               required to do so by local regulations. Fundamental changes in the
                                                               way individuals do things will have the most profound and long
                                                               lasting effect on estuaries and the resources we treasure.

                                                               Recommended Reading For More Information
                                                               Coastal Management Techniques, A Handbookfor Local Officials,
                                                               prepared by Land & Water Associates and Maine Tomorrow,
                                                               Hallowell, ME, Maine Dept. of Economic and Community Develop-
                                                               ment, Augusta, ME, October 1988.
                                                                     This excellent handbook discusses issues associated with devel
                                                                     opment along the coast and provides examples and explana-
                                                                     tions of management techniques used by Maine communities
                                                                     Available from MDECD, Office of Comprehensive Planning.
                                                               Financing Marine and Estuarine Programs: A Guide to Resource,
                                                               Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, September
                                                               1988.
                                                                     A primer focusing on accessing revenues, managing the flow of
                                                                     funds and buiding institutions to oversee financial planning and
                                                                     management with case studies of creative financing by commu
                                                                     nities around the country. Available from EPA, Office of
                                                                     Marine and Estuarine Protection, Washington D.C. 20460.
                                                               Guidelinesfor Maine's Growth Management Program, MDECD,
                                                               Office of Comprehensive Planning, Augusta, UE, December 1988.
                                                                     Available from MDECD, Office of Comprehensive Planning.
                                                               Managing Maine's Harbors and Waterfronts, Maine State Planning
                                                               Office and Maine Department of Economic & Community Develop-
                                                               ment, Office of Comprehensive Planning, Augusta, NIE, November
                                                               1989.
                                                                     Background materials on major water quality issues and natural
                                                                     resources including toxic and nutrient pollution, historical pol-
                                                                     lution, dredging, and writing harbor ordinances. Available
                                                                     from regional planning agencies and MDECD, Office of
                                                                     Comprehensive Planning.

                44

              Managing the Shoreline for Water Dependent Uses, A Handbook of
              Legal Tools, prepared for the New England/ New York Coastal
              Zone Task Force by the Marine Law Institute, University of Maine
              School of Law, Portland, ME, December 1988.
                   A technical handbook describing legal tools used by New
                   England communities including many in Maine, to manage
                   land and water use along the coast. Available from the Maine
                   State Planning Office.
              Natural Resources Handbook, A Planning Toolfor Maine Commu-
              nities, prepared for the Maine State Planning Office, by the Maine
              Association of Conservation Commisssions, July 1987.
                   A handbook explaining how to conduct a natural resource and
                   land use inventory, mapping the information and interpreting
                   the results. Available from: Maine Association of Conservation
                   Commissions or MDECD.

              Watershed: An Action Guide to Improving Maine Waters , Maine
              State Planning Office, Maine Department of Environmental Protec-
              tion, and University of Maine Cooperative Extension, Augusta, ME,
              April 1990.
                   This guide describes actions an individual can do to improve
                   water quality and reduce nonpoint source pollution. Available
                   from local University of Maine Cooperative Extension offices.

                                                                                                    Snowy Egret
                                                                                                   (Egretta thula)

                                                                                                                         45

                 Cited References                             Adamus, P.R. 1978. The Natural Regions of Maine, by the Center
                                                              for Natural Areas, South Gardiner, ME, for the Maine Critical Areas
                                                              Program, Maine State Planning Office, Augusta, ME.
                                                              Bartlett, Jr., W.P., W.B. Higgins, and W.J. Nichols, Jr. 1989. Water
                                                              Resources Data, Maine, Water Year 1988, U.S. Geological Survey,
                                                              Augusta, ME. Report ME-88-1.
                                                              Card, D.J., R.A. Aho, and L. Gillespie 1981. Casco Bay Marine
                                                              Resources Inventory. Prepared for Maine Dept. of Environmental
                                                              Protection, Bureau of Oil and Hazardous Material, Maine Dept. of
                                                              Marine Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, ME.
                                                              Dawson, M. 1990. Coastal Public Access in Maine, Coastal Pro-
                                                              gram, Maine State Planning Office, Augusta, ME.
                                                              Fefer, S.I. and P.A. Schettig (editors) 1980. An Ecological Charac-
                                                              terization of Coastal Maine (North and East of Cape Elizabeth), U.S.
                                                              Fish and Wildlife Service, Northeast Region, Newton Comer, MA.
                                                              FWS/OBS-80/29.
                                                              Heinig, C. 1989. Maquoit and Middle Bays, Comprehensive Plan
                                                              Revision, June 16,1989, prepared for the Town of Brunswick, Inter-
                                                              tide Corp., South Harpswell, ME.
                                                              Kelley, J.T. 1987. An Inventory of Coastal Environments and
                                                              Classification of Maine's Glaciated Shoreline, in Glaciated Coasts,
                                                              Academic Press Inc., New York, NY, p. 151-175.
                                                              Kelley, J.T., A. Kelley, and 0. Pilkey, Jr. 1989. Living with the
                                                              Coast of Maine, sponsored by Maine Audobon, Duke University
                                                              Press, Durham, NC.
                                                              Larsen, P.F. and L.F. Doggett 1979. The Salinity and Temperature
                                                              Distributions of Selected Maine Estuaries, Bigelow Laboratory for
                                                              Ocean Sciences, West Boothbay Harbor, ME.
                                                              Larsen, P.F., D.F. Gadbois, A.C. Johnson and L.F. Doggett 1983.
                                                              Distribution of polycyclic hydrocarbons in the surficial sediments of
                                                              Casco Bay, Maine, Bulletin of Envirormiental Contamination and
                                                              Toxicology 30: 530-535.
                                                              Neil, C.D., J.S. Williams and T.K. Weddle 1989. Pilot Study-
                                                              Pesticides in Ground Water Final Report, Maine Dept. of Conserva-
                                                              tion, Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, ME Open File No. 89-2.
                                                              North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community
                                                              Development 1986. A Guide to Protecting Coastal Waters Through
                                                              Local Planning, Division of Coastal Management, North Carolina
                                                              Dept. of Natural Resources and Community Development, Raleigh,
                                                              NC.
                                                              Pritchard, D.W., 1967. What is an Estuary?: Physical viewpoint, in
                                                              Lauff, G. H., ed., Estuaries. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Washington, DC,
                                                              p.3-5.
                                                              Short, F.T., 1988. "Eelgrass Distribution and Status in the Maquoit
                                                              Bay and Middle Bay Areas of Brunswick, ME", (unpublished).
                 46

                   The agencies and organizations listed here are a partial listing            Appendix
               of those that can provide information and assistance with estuary               Sources for
               planning and resource management efforts.
                    For further information consult 'Environmental Resources of                Information
               Maine', a directory available from the Maine Department of
               Environmental Protection (call 289-2811 for copies) or 'Coast-
               Links, A Resource Guide to Maine's Coastal Organizations', a
               publication available from the Coastal Program (call 289-3261 for
               copies).
               Cooperative Extension Offices                                 Regional Planning Councils
               University of Maine Cooperative Extension (UMCE)              Capital Coastal Council of Governments
               9 Coburn Hall, Orono, NIE 04469 (581-3181)                    89 Western Ave., Augusta, ME 04330 (622-7146)
               Androscoggin/Sagadahoc Counties Cooperative                   Eastern Mid-Coast Planning Commission
               Extension                                                     9 Water SL, Rockland, ME 04841 (594-2299)
               277 Minot Ave. Auburn, ME 04210 (786-0376)                    Greater Portland Council of Governments
               Cumberland County Cooperative Extension                       233 Oxford St., Portland, ME 04101 (774-9891)
               96 Falmouth St., Portland, ME 04103 (780-4205)                Hancock County Planning Commission
               Hancock County Cooperative Extension                          RFD 4, Box 22, Ellsworth, ME 04605 (667-713 1)
               Boggy Brook Rd., RFD 5, Ellsworth, ME 04605                   Lincoln County Municipal Resource & Planning Office
               (667-8212)                                                    Lincoln County Courthouse, P.O. Box 249, Wiscasset, ME
               Kennebec County Cooperative Extension                         04578 (882-6358)
               290 Eastern Ave., Augusta, ME 04330 (622-7546)                Penobscot Valley Council of Governments
               Knox/Lincoln Counties Cooperative Extension                   I Cumberland Place, Suite 300, P.O. Box 2579, Bangor,
               375 Main St., Rockland, ME 04841 (594-2104)                   ME 04401 (942-6389)
               Penobscot County Cooperative Extension                        Southern Maine Regional Planning Commission
               Court House Annex, 105 Hammond St., Bangor, ME 04401          Box Q, 255 Maine Street, Sanford, ME 04073 (324-2952)
               (942-7396)                                                    Washington County Regional Planning Commission
               Waldo County Cooperative Extension                            63 Main St. Machias, ME 04654 (255-8686)
               RFD, Box 64 1, Belfast, ME 04915 (342-597 1)
               Washington County Cooperative Extension                       Soil and Water Conservation Districts
               I I Water St., Machias, ME 04654 (255-3345)                   Cumberland County SWCD
               York County Cooperative Extension                             1A Karen Dr., Westbrook, ME 04092 (871-9247)
               P.O. Box 347, Alfred, ME 04002 (324-2814)                     Hancock County SWCD
                                                                             41 Main St., Ellsworth, ME 04605 (667-8663)
               Environmental Organizations                                   Kennebec County SWCD
               Maine Aquaculture Association                                 Federal Bldg. Rm. 408-C, Western Ave., Augusta, ME
               P.O. Box 535, Damariscotta, ME 04543 ( 563-8168)              04330 (622-8250)
               Maine Association of Conservation Commissions                 Knox-Lincoln Counties SWCD
               P.O. Box 222, Belfast, ME 04915 (338-5538)                    RR I, Box 15, Waldoboro, ME 04572 (832-4292)
               Maine Audubon Society                                         Penobscot County SWCD
               Gilsland Farm, 118 U.S. Route 1, Falmouth, ME 04105           970 Illinois Ave., Bangor, ME 04401 (941-8973)
               (781-2330)                                                    Waldo County SWCD
               Maine Coast Heritage Trust                                    69 Northport Ave., Belfast, ME 04915 (338-2320)
               167 Park Row, Brunswick, ME 04011 (729-7366)                  Washington County SWCD
               Natural Resources Council of Maine                            49 Court SL, P.O. Box 121, Machias, ME 04654
               271 State Stn, Augusta, ME 04330 (622-3101)                   (255-4659)
               The Nature Conservancy                                        York County SWCD
               P.O. Box 338,122 Maine St.                                    160 Cottage St., Sanford, ME 04073 (324-7015)
               Topsham, ME 04086 (729-5181)

                                                                                                                                   47

                 State Agencies
                 Maine Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural                  Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife
                 Resources                                                        284 State St. Station 41, Augusta, ME 04333 (289-3371)
                 (Soil and Water Conservation Commission)                         Regional Offlees.
                 Deering Building, AMHI Complex, Station 28, Augusta,             Region A (Kittery to Phippsburg), RR 1, 328 Shaker Rd.,
                 ME 04333 (289-3871)                                              Gray, ME 04039 (289-3849, 1-800-322-1333)
                 Maine Department of Conservation                                 (Phil Bozenhard)
                 (Bureau of Public Lands, Land Use Regulation                     Region B (Georgetown to Searsport), 8 Federal St.,
                 Commission, Maine Geological Survey)                             Augusta, ME 04330 (289-2536, 1-800-322-3606)
                 Harlow Building, AMIR Complex, Station 22, Augusta, ME           (Eugene Dumont)
                 04333 (289-4900)                                                 Region C (Penobscot to Eastport), 68 Water St., Machias,
                 Maine Department of Economic and Community                       ME 04654 (255-3266) (Tom Schaeffer)
                 Development                                                      Maine Department of Marine Resources
                 (Office of Comprehensive Land Use Planning, Heritage             Stevens Complex (Hallowell) Station 21, Augusta, ME
                 Program)                                                         04333 (289-2291)
                 Capitol Center, 219 Capitol St., Station 130, Augusta, ME        Regional Biologists:
                 04333 (289-6800)                                                 (New Hampshire Border to Kennebec River) Box 12,
                 Maine Department of Environmental Protection                     Dixon Rd., Ogunquit, ME, 03907 (646-3322)
                 (Bureau of Land Quality Control, Bureau of Water Quality         (Brad Sterl)
                 Control, Bureau of Oil and Hazardous Materials Control)          (Kennebec River to Union River) East Shore Rd.,
                 Ray Building, AMIR Complex, Station 17, Augusta ME               Brigham's Cove, West Bath, NIE 04530 (443-6559)
                 04333.(289-7688)                                                 (Donald Card)
                 Regional Offices:                                                (Union River to Canadian Border) RR I Box 172,
                 South Portland: DEP 312 Canco Rd.,So. Portland, NIE              Gouldsboro, ME 04607 (422-3167) (Jay McGowan) & P.O.
                 04103 (879-6300)                                                 Box 37, East Machias, ME 04630 (David Clifford)
                 Bangor: DEP 106 Hogan Road, Bangor, ME 04401                     Maine State Planning Office
                 (941-4570)                                                       (Critical Areas Program, Ecological Reserves, Land for
                 Presque Isle: DEP 1235 Central Parkway Dr., Presque Isle,        Maine's Future, Maine Coastal Program, Shore Stewards)
                 NIE 04769 (764-2044)                                             184 State SL, Station 38, Augusta, ME (289-3261)

                                                                                  Resource Conservation and Development
                                                                                  Areas
                                                                                  Downeast RC&D Area
                                                                                  P.O. Box 210, Cherryfield, ME 04622 (546-2368)
                                                                                  Threshold to Maine RC&D Area
                                                                                  IA Karen Dr., Westbrook, ME 04092 (871-9248)
                                                                                  Time and Tide RC&D District
                                                                                  US Route 1, Box 12, Waldoboro, ME 04572 (832-5348)

                 48

                                                                        illiall@ililligh
                                                                          3 6668 00003 8614