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                The Estuary Book

               Maine Coastal Program
               Maine State Planning Office
     GC512     State House Station 38
     .M2R84    Augusta, Maine 04333
     1991      January 1991
    C.1
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                                 The Estuary Book

                A Guide to Promoting Understanding and Regional Management of
                                      Maine's Estuaries and Embayments

                    Maine Coastal Program
                    Maine State Planning Office
                    State House Station 38
                    Augusta, Maine 04333
                    January 1991
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            Acknowledgements

                                                     The Estuary Book was produced by the Maine Coastal Program of
                                                     the Maine State Planning Office with funding provided by the
                                                     Federal Office of Ocean and Coastal Resource Management under
                                                     Section 306 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972.

                                                     Maine Coastal Program
                                                     State House Station 38, 184 State Street, Augusta, ME 04333
                                                     Telephone: (207)289-3261 Fax: (207)289-5756
                                                     Director: David Keeley

                                                     Prepared by: Jenny Ruffing, Maine Coastal Program
                                                     Artwork by: Anne Talgenhorst

                                                     Representatives of the following organizations are gratefully
                                                     acknowledged for their help in reviewing this guide:
                                                     Eastern Mid-Coast Regional Planning Commission
                                                     Maine Aquaculture Association
                                                     Maine Association of Conservation Commissions
                                                     Maine Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural Resources (Soil
                                                     and Water Conservation Commission)
                                                     Maine Department of Economic and Community Development
                                                     (Office of Comprehensive Planning)
                                                     Maine Department of Environmental Protection (Marine Program &amp;
                                                     Non-Point Source Pollution Program)
                                                     Maine Department of Marine Resources (Anadromous Fish Division
                                                     &amp; Marine Science Bureau)
                                                     Maine Department of Conservation, Maine Geological Survey
                                                     Maine State Planning Office
                                                     Town of Brunswick Planning Office
                                                     University of Maine Cooperative Extension (Rockland Office).

                                                     The author acknowledges the North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and
                                                     Community Development, Division of Coastal Management for permission to use
                                                     material from A Guide to Protecting Coastal Waters Through Local Planning,
                                                     Raleigh, North Carolina, 1986, in the preparation of this guide.
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                                                                                   Table of Contents

                      Introduction

                 3    Chapter One - Maine Estuaries: Resources &amp; Values
                             Maine Nearshore Embayments
                             Origins of the Present Day Coastline
                             The Maine Coast
                             Estuary Basics
                             Estuarine Communities
                             Recommended Reading for More Information

                 17 Chapter Two - The Consequence of Development
                             Estuarine Use &amp; Pollution in Maine, a brief history
                             Estuarine Use &amp; Pollution Today
                                    Natural Resources
                                    Water Quality
                                    Types of Pollution
                                    Quality of Life &amp; Coastal Culture

                 29 Chapter Three - Estuary Planning &amp; Management
                             The Need for Estuary Planning
                             Estuary Planning &amp; Comprehensive Planning
                             Planning Basics
                                     Inventories &amp; Issue Identification
                                     Policy Development
                                     Implementing Estuary Management
                                            Regulatory Measures
                                            Nonregulatory Measures
                             How to Keep the Ball Rolling...
                                     Institutional Arrangements
                                     Citizen Involvement &amp; Information
                                     Enforcement in the Estuary
                             The Town of Brunswick, A Case Study
                             What Planning Can't Do
                             Recommended Reading for More Information

                 46 Cited References

                 47 Appendix - Sources for Information

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                                 NOTU'- CUL--i    Servicas Center Library
                                 2234 South Hobson Avenue
     C:3                         Charleston, SC 29405-2413
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           Introduction

                   The coast of Maine is a beautiful mosaic of estuarine
                   environments: salt marshes and mudflats, tidal rivers and
                   creeks, bays and coves. Twice a day the tide creeps in,
                   rolling over mudflats and lapping at the marsh edge. Slowly
                   the seaward current reverses and the waters push inland,
                   over the marsh grasses to wash the shore. The saltwaters of
                   the sea mingle withfreshwaters of brooks, streams, and
                   rivers. After the estuary isfull, the tide slacks and ebbs,
                   draining wetlands and tidal creeks, pulling waters warmed
                   by the mudflats out to sea. Diggersfollow the tide out,
                   turning over the mudfor clams and worms, until the turn of
                   the tide brings them home.                                                         T@.

                Estuaries are among the most precious resources of our
           coast. As productive environments where fresh and salt waters meet,
           estuaries provide valuable habitat for an abundance of marine life,
           birds, and other creatures as well as pathways to inland waters for
           migratory fish. The vistas of undisturbed marsh and clean tidewaters
           are treasured scenic resources and visually define a quality of life
           cherished by coastal residents and visitors to Maine.
                Oyster and clam shell heaps, the last remaining traces of settle-
           ment by ancient peoples, line the banks of many Maine estuaries and
           attest to the long attraction of estuaries as places to live and find
           food. In recent times, human activities along the shores of Maine
           estuaries have left a more damaging legacy than decomposing shells.
                For generations, coastal residents disposed of untreated sewage
           in estuary waters and located dumps in coastal wetlands without
           concern. Chamels and harbors were dredged to provide safe passage
           and anchorages for boats and ships, and the dredge spoils placed on
           marshes or other sensitive sites. Industries once were allowed to
           discharge harmful wastewaters without treatment into Maine estuar-
           ies. The natural bounty of the Gulf of Maine has accommodated the
           excesses of human activities to an extent; our coastal waters remain
           relatively clean compared to more industrialized parts of the
           country.
                Recently, however, signs of environmental damage have
           become apparent. Widespread closures of shellfish areas due to
           bacterial pollution, declines in fish landings, and evidence of toxic
           compounds in estuary and bay sediments have raised concern that
           our coastal waters need the same level of management and protec-
           tion that we give our freshwater rivers and lakes.
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                                                             The Maine Coastal Program is a cooperative effort by federal,
                                                        state and local governments to manage the resources of the Maine
                                                        coast, including estuaries. In December of 1989, the Maine Coastal
                                                        Program initiated an Estuary Project to focus on the management
                                                        needs of these productive coastal systems. While investigating the
                                                        problems of Maine estuaries and developing a state strategy for
                                                        estuarine management, the project identified a need for informa-
                                                        tional materials on Maine estuaries and on the environmental
                                                        problems associated with estuarine resource use. Profiles describing
                                                        nineteen Maine estuaries were prepared and published as the Estuary
                                                        Profile Series. The Estuary Book was created to pull together basic
                                                        information on estuarine systems and coastal pollution as well as to
                                                        provide ideas for communities and citizens concerned with the
                                                        future of our estuaries.

                                                               The objective of The Estuary Book is to provide information
                                                                        about estuaries, the impact of uses on the
                                                                             environmental health of an estuary and what
                                         Wi             communities and concerned individuals can do to successfully
                                                        manage and protect their local estuarine resources. Much of the in-
                                                        formation presented here pertains to other embayments along the
                                                        Maine coast which may not be true estuaries.
                                                              This book has three chapters. The first chapter describes
                                                        natural features of estuaries in Maine and the importance of these
                                                        special environments. The second chapter details the sources and
                                                        effects of water pollution and habitat alteration on estuarine re-
                                                        sources. The final chapter examines how land use planning can be
                                                        used to protect and improve coastal water quality and natural
                                                        resources. Regulatory and nonregulaiory tools that promote wise
                                                        stewardship of estuarine resources are reviewed. Sources for more
                                                        information are summarized in the Appendix.

                      Great Blue Heron
                      (Ardea herodias)

            2
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                  Chapter One
                  Maine Estuaries: Resources &amp; Values

                                What is an Estuary?
                                "An estuary is a semi-enclosed coastal body of water
                                which hasfree access to the ocean and within which
                                seawater is measurably diluted by freshwaterfrom
                                land drainage" (Pritchard, 1967).

                          By this classic definition, the entire Gulf of Maine (see map below), limited by Cape Cod to the southwest,
                  Georges Bank offshore and the Bay of Fundy to the northeast, may be considered an estuary since Gulf waters
                  are somewhat isolated from the Atlantic Ocean waters by uplands and submerged banks offshore, receive a
                  tremendous volume of freshwater run-off from land, and exchange water freely with the North Atlantic through
                  the Northeast Channel. Moving closer to shore, a pattern of rugged headlands and islands defines bays of all sizes
                  along the Maine coast.
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              The Estuary Boundary                                       Casco Bay and other large bays along the Maine coast have
              For thepurposes ofthis guide, the estuary            waters diluted by freshwater discharge from rivers and streams.
              boundary includes the waters inland to               Casco Bay, bounded by Cape Elizabeth and Small Point headlands,
              the head of tide and seaward to an imagi-            is often called an estuary. The salinity within Casco Bay varies
              nary line drawn across the mouth of the              slightly with changes in the amount of freshwater flowing into the
              embayment and all contiguous wetlands                bay, however, the bay is basically a marine habitat.
              (fresh and salt marsh) as well as shore-
              lands Within the extreme high water mark                   The Fore, Presumpscot, Cousins, and Royal Rivers are the
              or the 100-yearflood boundary, which-                major estuarine embayments that contribute to the estuarine charac-
              ever is greater.                                     ter of Casco Bay. Middle and Maquoit Bays and the Harraseeket and
              An estuary, as defined by scientists,                New Meadows Rivers are embayments within Casco Bay that
              includes all waters measureably diluted              receive freshwater from land run-off, small streams and brooks.
              by saltwater, which may be below the                 These coastal features are called neutral embayments because they
              head of tide and extendfar offshore be-              receive low volumes of freshwater. Although not true estuaries, salt
              yond headlands at the mouth of the estu-
              ary.                                                 marshes, migratory fish streams, and other ecosystems associated
                                                                   with estuaries often fringe the edges of neutral embayments.
                                                                         Estuaries are the focus of this handbook. Neutral embayments
                                                                   will be included since these productive coastal systems are facing
                                                                   similiar water quality and resource management problems. This
                                                                   chapter will discuss the characteristics and importance of the
                                                                   nearshore embayments at the interface of land and sea.

                                                                   Maine Nearshore Embayments
                                                                         Maine nearshore embayments fail into two very general categ-
                                                                   ories: estuaries and neutral embayments. Estuaries have at least
                                                                   one major freshwater source that measureably dilutes the sea waters.
                                                                   Estuaries can have considerable freshwater inflow--the Kennebec,
                                                                   St. Croix, Penobscot, and Machias Rivers; or very little--the Dam-
                                                                   ariscotta and Medomak Rivers. The freshwater sources of many
                                                                   small and medium sized river estuaries of the mid and eastern Maine
                                                                   coast originate in ponds or lakes, often within 40 miles from the
                                                                   head of tide.

                                                                         In Maine, estuaries occupy coastal river valleys flooded or
                                                                   drowned by sea level rise. When sand and gravel are deposited by
                                                                   longshore and river currents across the mouth of coastal rivers or
                                                                   streams, bar-built estuaries are formed. The Webhannet River (Wells
                                                                   Harbor), Saco River, Kennebunk River, and Mousam River estuaries
                                                                   are examples of bar-built estuaries. Bar-built estuaries are protected
                                                                   by barrier beaches and are often associated with expansive marshes.
                                                                   Bar-built estuaries usually drain at low tide, leaving only a small
              Outline of the Machias River estuary,                channel of freshwater flowing over the flats. These bar-built systems
                  a &amp;owned river valley estuary.                   are dynamic environments, eroding an         'd building as sand flows be-
                                                                   tween offshore deposits and beaches and sand bars.

              4
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                Neutral embayments lack a major freshwater river and appear
           more as arms of the sea with high salinities that change very little
           during a tidal cycle. Neutral embayments usually have several small
           freshwater brooks, streams and seeps diluting the bay water. Most
           neutral embayments are wide and shallow, exposing expanses of
           productive mud flat and salt marsh at low tide. In Maine, many
           coastal embayments are called 'rivers', for example--the New Mead-
           ows River, Bagaduce River, Jordan River and Skillings River, when
           actually, they are neutral embaymcnts with small streams and brooks
           providing the source of freshwater.
                The narrow embayment of Somes Sound on Mt. Desert Island
           is considered Maine's only fjord. Fjords are deep estuaries created             Outline of the Webhannet River
           by the flooding of a glacial valley and marked by a glacial deposit or            estuary, a bar-built estuary.
           terminal moraine at the seaward limit. Although small streams feed
           into Somes Sound, the fjord lacks a major freshwater source.
                Local indentations of the coastline are commonly called coves
           or inlets. Minor in size compared to other coastal features, coves are
           locally significant as locations for sheltered harbors. Where the
           embayment entrance is wide and freshwater influx minor, wave
           action and marine environments dominate. When the embayment
           entrance is restricted, freshwater flow from streams or from border-
           ing marshlands may form an estuary. These small estuaries are
           important resources for coastal communities and provide valuable
           fish and wildlife habitat.

                                                                                        Outline of the Bagaduce River, a neutral
                                                                                                    embayment.

           Origins of the Present Day Coastline
                The estuaries and neutral embayments of the Maine coast were created as changes in sea level flooded the
           coast after the last period of glaciation. Approximately 20,000 years ago, massive ice sheets moved south and
           east from Hudson Bay to northern New England, scouring the land bare of soil as they advanced. The rocks and
           soils collected in glacial deposits. Today, these deposits are mined for gravel and sand. As the earth warmed and
           the glaciers melted, the ocean pushed inland, flooding river valleys and lowlands.
                Glaciomarine sediments were deposited in the ocean at the seaward margin of the glaciers. These fine-
           grained blue clays, characteristic of many Maine estuaries, are called the Presumpscot Formation. With the
           removal of the weight of the glaciers, the Maine coast began to rebound. Consequently, the seas retreated rapidly
           approximately 12,500 years ago. When the land had risen to its original elevation, the sea again began to creep
           inland, as a general warming trend melted glaciers around the world.
                The sea continues to drown our coastline. At this time, sea level is rising at a rate of about one foot (30 cm.)
           a century along the Maine coast. Warming trends in global climate may accelerate this rate and sea level is pro-
           jected to rise by three feet over the next one hundred years in some areas. The actual rate of sea level change
           varies along the coast because of local geologic conditions. In northeastern Maine and in southwestern Maine, a
           gradual sinking of the land contributes to variations in sea level rise (Kelley et al., 1989).

                                                                                                                           5
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             The Maine Coast                                      Each estuary and neutral embayment of the Maine coast occu-
                                    R./Passamaquoddy Bay     pies an unique setting reflecting the local geology, topography, and

                                                             climate. Geologists have divided the coast into four sections or
                                                             compartments that correspond to bedrock features and coastal
              Dennys R./Cobscook Bay      NE                 morphology: southwest (SW), south-central (SQ, north-central
                                                             (NQ, and northeast (NE) (after Kelley, 1987).
                                   Machias R./Machias Bay         The southwest (SW) section extends about 42 miles from
                    Clhiandler R.                            Kittery north to Cape Elizabeth. Along this section of coast, rocky
                                                             capes separate arc-shaped bays bordered by sandy beaches. Old
                                                             Orchard Beach on Saco Bay is the largest sand beach in this region.
                   Pleasant R.                               From the Piscataqua River north, major estuaries in this area include
                                Narraguagus R.
                                                             York River, Webhannet River (Wells Harbor), Mousam River, Ken-
                                                             nebunk River, Saco River, Scarborough River, and Spurwink River.
                                           NC                Many of these estuaries have broad expanses of salt marshes that are
                            Frenchman Bay                    protected by sandy barrier beaches or spits.
                                                                  The south-central (SC) section extends from Cape Elizabeth to
               Union R.                                      Port Clyde for approximately 55 miles. This area of the mid-coast,
                                                             including Casco Bay, is marked by southwest to northeast striking
                                                             bedrock peninsulas separating long narrow embayments. Casco Bay
                                                             is located at the southern end of this region and includes estuaries on
                                   C@'                       the Fore River, Presumpscot River, Royal River, and Cousins River.
                          Penobscot R./Penobscot Bay         The lower Kennebec River is the largest estuary in this section.
                                                             Maquoit and Middle Bays and the New Meadows and Harraseeket
                                                             Rivers are typical neutral embayments in this region; they are
                                                             important shellfish growing areas.
                  St. George R.                                   To the northeast of the Kennebe   'c River, the Sheepscot, Dam-
                                                             ariscotta, Medomak, and St. George Rivers form major estuaries
                             Madomak R./Muscongus Bay        characterized by productive salt marshes and mud flats. The south-
                  iI)amariscotta R.                          central section of the coast includes a great variety of coastal land-
                                     SC                      scapes and environmental conditions which permit a wide diversity
                                                             of aquatic plants and animals to flourish (Adamus, 1978).
             Kennebec R          heepscot R./Sheepscot Bay        Penobscot Bay east to Machias Bay defines the north-central
                                S
                                                             (NQ section of the coast, an indented shoreline with granite out-
                                                             crops and many islands. The Penobscot Estuary/Bay complex is the
                Royal R.    Casco Bay                        largest along this stretch of coast. Other estuaries (from west to cast)
                                                             include the Passagassawakeag, Union, Narraguagus, Pleasant,
                                                             Chandler, and Machias Rivers. Morgan Bay, Bagaduce River,
                                                             Skillings River, Taunton Bay/Hog Bay, Mason Bay, and Little
                  Scarborough R. Saco Bay                    Kennebec Bay are representative of the variety and extent of neutral
                         Saco R.                             embayments located in this region.
                        Kennebunk R.        SW                    The northeastern (NE) section from Machias Bay east to the
                         Webhannet R.                        Canadian border has erosion-resistant volcanic cliffs on the outer
                                                             coastline (the Cutler Coast). Behind the cliffs lie well-protected
                                   York R.                   estuaries at the head of Passamaquoddy Bay and Cobscook Bay. The
                                         Piscataqua R.       St. Croix River estuary opens into Oak Bay/Passamaquoddy Bay
               Location of coastal compartments              along the Canadian border. To the south, the Orange River, Dennys
                      on the Maine coast.                    River and Pemamaquan River estuaries form inner Cobscook Bay.

            6
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                  Estuaries are areas where salt and fresh waters meet. The                   Estuary Basics
              interaction of these waters determines the currents and the distribu-
              tion of plants and animals. Estuaries are complex systems with
              special assemblages of biological communities and environmental
              conditions. Estuaries share some of the same animal and plant com-
              munities as neutral embayments but the chemical and physical
              influence of the strong freshwater influx into the estuarine system
              creates conditions unique to estuaries. The following four points
              summarize principle characteristics of these natural systems of the
              Maine coast.
              1. Estuaries have three subsystems - the riverine, estuarine
              and marine.
                  The boundaries of the subsystems are determined by water
              salinity. Salinity is a measure of the amount of dissolved salts in
              water. Freshwater (the riverine subsystem) generally has a salinity
              less than 0.5 parts per thousand (ppt) and full strength seawater (the
              marine subsystem) has a salinity of 30 to 35 ppt. The estuarine sub-
              sytem has varying salinities from 0.5 ppt to 30 ppt. The boundaries
              of each subsystem are not fixed and change with both the tide and
              with the seasonal floods of freshwater from snow melt and spring
              rains.
              The Riverine
                   The riverine subsystem provides a pathway to inland waters for
              smelt, salmon, alewives, and other migratory fish which need need
              freshwater to spawn. In Maine, darns across many coastal rivers cut
              off the freshwater riverine section of the estuary and the natural
              upriver range of tide. In some rivers, the influence of the tide
              extends far inland beyond the presence of saltwater. Of the 19 miles
              of tidewater on the Kennebec River estuary; the upper 10 miles
              between Bowdoinham and Augusta is tidal freshwater.
                   Merrymeeting Bay is a tidal bay formed by the confluence of
              the Kennebec River estuary with the Androscoggin River and four
              smaller rivers. Merrymeeting Bay is the largest and most important
              tidal freshwater habitat in Maine. Many coastal creeks and rivers
              have tidal freshwater marshes and waters at the upper reaches of
              tide.
              The Estuarine
                   In the estuarine subsystem salinities range from 0.5 to 30 parts
              per thousand. Animals and plants adapted to this envirorunent can
              tolerate a range of salinities and temperatures. Few species can with-
              stand the extreme fluctuations in salinity at the head of the estuary
              where saltwater first mixes with freshwater.
                                                                                                 Cat-tail (Typha spp.), common plant
                    In the warmer upper reaches of a few estuaries are horseshoe                found at the edge of fresh tidal marshes
              crabs and other species commonly found south of cold Maine

                                                                                                                                   7
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                                                          waters. The American oyster reaches the northern natural extent of
                                                          range along the U.S. coast in the upper Sheepscot River estuary.
                                                               Many species of shellfish and fish rely on the sheltered envi-
                                                          ronment of estuaries and embayments as nurseries. Oceanic fish,
                                                          including schools of herring and menhaden (pogies) visit estuarine
                                                          waters to feed in summer months. Other fish such as the short-nose
                                                          sturgeon, tom cod, nine-spined stickleback, mummichog, and
                                                          species of flounder spend their entire life cycle in estuarine waters.
                                                          The Marine
                                                               In neutral embayments and at the seaward edge of estuaries, the
                                                          marine subsystem dominates. The marine environment tends to be
                                                          more stable than the other subsystems with less flux in salinity and
                                                          temperature. The shores and waters resemble areas of the exposed
                                                          outer coast, but are more sheltered environments. Mussel bars, kelp
                                                          beds and rockweed-covered shores are features of the marine sub-
                                                          system.
           11. The flow of freshwater into Maine estuaries varies greatly with the season.
               During the spring run-off season, from late February to May, Maine rivers normally swell from 10 to 30
           times their average size. A smaller peak occurs in November or December. These seasonal variations are illus-
           trated in the chart below. The influx of freshwater into Maine estuaries is so great during this period that it causes
           offshore surface waters in the Gulf of Maine to move in a huge counterclockwise spiral. The circulation gyre
           continues even after the spring floods end, maintained by gravity and tidal currents, and distributes rich nutrient-
           laden waters throughout the Gulf.
               The influx of freshwater changes the distribution of salinities and circulation in Maine's estuaries. Neutral
           embayments may also develop salinity gradients during periods of high run-off. Marshes at the estuary edge act
           to soak up floodwaters, moderating the fluctuations in water flow. The flood of waters from the land also adds
           huge amounts of nutrients to estuarine and neutral embayment waters and triggers the algal blooms of late spring.
           Seasonal floods, from spring freshets and fall storms, wash tremendous amounts of silt and muds into estuaries
           and to a lesser extent, into neutral embayments.

                         6W -                                                       Mean Daily Discharges by Month
                                                                                    for Three Maine Coastal Rivers
                         500 -                                                      from October 1987 through September
                                                                                    1989 (in cubic feet per second).
                         400
                                                                                                   Sheepscot River

                         300 -                                                                    @Royal River

                                                                                                   Dennys River
                         2W  -

                         100 -

                           0
                                   Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Ma. Apr. May Jun.  Jul. Au&amp; Sep.
            Source  Water Resources Data, Maine Water Year 1988, U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Data Report ME 88-1.

           8
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             Ill. Mixing between the fresh and saltwater layers and
             estuarine water circulation depends on the shape of the
             estuary, the volume of river flow, the height of tide and
             winds.
                  Freshwater is lighter than saltwater. This is why freshwater ice
             forms even on the saltiest coastal waters in the winter. (Freshwater
             also freezes at a higher temperature than saltwater.) Since saltwater
             is heavier than freshwater, incoming tidewaters tend to travel up the
             estuary along the bottom of the estuarine channel while the lighter
             river water flows seaward on the surface.

                  This two-layer circulation creates a gradient in water salinity
             between the bottom and surface waters and may be a seasonal
             feature that occurs only when the river discharge is high or in
             limited sections of the estuary. The same estuary in mid-summer
             may have very little freshwater river flow, and if tidal currents are
             stronger than river currents, more mixing will occur between the two
             layers. Winds and changes in water temperature also increase
             mixing between the bottom and surface waters.
                  The Maine estuaries receiving the greatest volume of freshwa-
             ter, the Penobscot, Kennebec, and St. Croix Rivers, and some
             smaller estuaries including the Piscataqua, Royal, and Passagas-
             sawakeag Rivers, have long smooth salinity gradients with a two-
             layer circulation pattern (Larsen &amp; Doggett, 1979).
                  Not all estuaries have a gradient of salinities. In some estuaries,
             the salinity of the estuary varies or flucwates from fresh to salty over
             the course of the tide, completely mixing the water. Many shallow
             bar-built estuaries have fluctuating salinities. If the volume of
             seawater brought in by the rise in tide is much greater than the
             volume of freshwater flowing into the estuary basin, the salinitiy of
             the water will change dramatically over the tidal cycle. Aquatic life
             in these estuaries must adjust to extreme salinity conditions.
                  The Saco, Mousam, Kennebunk, Harrington, and Pleasant
             Rivers experience major salinity changes over a tidal cycle, from
             fresh to full strength seawater. The York, Sheepscot, and St. George
             Rivers have high ocean-like salinities at the seaward sections and
             fluctuating salinities in the upper sections (Larsen &amp; Doggett, 1979).
                   The mixing and circulation in an estuary determines where
             sediments erode and accumulate as well as where pollutants collect
             in the estuarine basin. Information of this kind is necessary to
             evaluate the ecological impact of pollution discharges and dredging
             and harbor development projects. The circulation and salinity
             pattern in an estuary also influences the distribution of estuarine and
             marine plants and animals.

                                                                                                                                  9
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                                                                   IV. Estuaries coHect poUutants from the entire watershed.
                                                                         Estuaries accumulate pollutants and sediments from discharges
                                                                   and land use practices upstrearn as well as along the estuary shores.
                                                                   The entire estuary watershed influences estuarine water quality.
                                                                         Pollutants that enter the estuary are not washed quickly out to
                                                                   sea with the next tide. Many pollutants dissolve in freshwater and
                                                                   settle out in saltwater. The chemicals or contaminants attach to
                                                                   sediment particles, to each other, or to other compounds; they may
                                                                   sink to the bottom of the estuary, be moved by currents, dredging, or
             The Estuary Watershed                                 fishing activities, or be absorbed into marine plant and animal tissue.
             The estuary watershed includes all lands                    Some pollutants remain suspended in the seawater and are
             that drain directly to the estuary aswell as          eventually washed out to sea. The time it takes for all the water in an
             all the smaller watersheds of each river,             estuary to be moved out to sea is called the flushing rate. Flushing
             stream, and brook flowing into the
             estuary. Since estuary watersheds also                rates vary from days to weeks. The flushing rate of an estuary
             include, river watersheds, they are gener-            determines how long pollutants that are dissolved or suspended in
             ally larger in area than neutral embay-               estuarine water will remain in the estuary. The height of tide, size of
             ment watersheds.                                      the estuary basin, and the volume of freshwater flow determines the
             The map below outlines the watershed                  flushing rate. In general, the higher the tidal range, the smaller the
             areas of the Chandler River estuary and               estuary volume, and the higher the freshwater flow--the greater the
             the adjacent Mason Bay neutral                        volume of water exchanged during each tide.
             embayment.

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                                                 Map of the Mason Bay and Chandler River Watersheds
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                                                                                               Estuarine
                   Every living thing in an estuary has a set of environmental                 Communities
             requirements which must be met in order to survive. These require-
             ments--temperature, light, salinity, water, air, and soils or substrate,
             differ among species. Groupings of environmental factors that
             support assemblages of plants and animals sharing similiar require-
             ments are called habitats. A community includes alf the animals,
             plants and other living organisms that lives within a defuled habitat.
                   All the living organisms within a community are interdepend-
             ent. Some are predators and some prey, some depend on a certain
             seaweed for food or shelter, or any of a number of complex relation-
             ships. In the grand scheme of things, humans are a part of the
             estuarine community too. Whether harvesting food, building docks,
             or reseeding clam flats, the lives of coastal residents and users of the
             estuary are entwined with the other members of the estuarine
             community. Significant communities common to Maine estuaries,                               Salt Meadow Grass
             each representing a particular habitat, are discussed in the following                       (Spartina patens)
             section.

             Coastal Marshes

                   Marshes are transitional areas between land and water. The
             salinity, frequency of flooding, and age of the marsh determines the
             types of plants and animals found there. Plants that tolerate fresh to
             slightly saline waters flourish in freshwater tidal marshes. Examples
             of freshwater marsh plants include cat-tails, wild rice, and arrow
             arum. Tidal fresh marshes are important fish and wildlife habitats.                              Glasswort
             Studies indicate that of all types of wetlands, coastal freshwater tidal                      (Salicornia spp.)
             marshes support the greatest numbers and species of birds. Often
             fresh marshes fringe the landward edge of salt marshes.
                   Salt meadow hay (Spartina patens) is a short wiry grass com-
             mon to well-established high salt marshes that are irregularly
             flooded by high tides. Cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora), a tall coarse
             grass of the low marsh, grows at the edge of tidal creeks and in areas
             with frequent tidal inundation. Cordgrass is the characteristic species
             of the narrow bands of marsh that fringe many Maine estuaries and
             bays.
                   Salt pannes and tidal creeks are features of Maine coastal
             marshes. Salt pannes are pools of tidewater that collect on top of the
             marsh and are home to mosquito larvae, mummichog fish and other
             creatures. Tidal creeks are tributaries of river estuaries and often                           Sea Lavender
             extend far inland from the main channel of the estuary.                                       (Lirnonium spp.)
                   Marshes are important to the maintenance of a balanced coastal                  Plant species common to
             ecosystem. In the spring and fall, when coastal rivers swell from                        Maine's salt marshes.
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                                                               snow melt and rains, marsh grasses along rivers and tidal creeks
                                                               slow the rush of waters, which allow sediment to settle and protects
             One acre ofsalt marsh can absorb 30,000           the shore from erosion. Spongy wetland soils absorb and gradually
             gallons of water.                                 release waters thus moderating flood conditions and storm surges.
                                                               The grasses and soils of coastal marshes trap pollutants, nutrients,
                                                               and sediments from land run-off, thereby improving water quality.
                                                                     Each winter ice rafts and tides break up decaying marsh grasses
                                                               and wash the plant bits into estuary waters. Decaying particles of
                                                               marsh grasses, algae, seaweed, and other plants are the cornerstone
                                                               of the estuarine food chain and contribute to the productivity of
                                                               estuarine waters. Many commercial seafood species such as lobster,
                                                               herring, menhaden (pogies), alewife, crab, oyster, and clam, rely on
                                                               the rich food supply of estuaries during some part of their life cycle.
                                                               Small fish seek shelter in marsh grasses at high tide from Great Blue
                                                               Herons and other birds that stalk the shallows to feed. Bald Eagles
                                                               and Ospreys also hunt in the marshes and occasionally nest in tall
                                                               trees along the estuary shore.

                                                               Intertidal Flats

                                                                    Mudflats are the most common intertidal estuarine environment
                                                               in Maine. The muds and sands of intertidal flats support an abun-
                                                               dance of fauna including Baltic clams, gem clams, periwinkles,
                                                               amphipods and commercially important soft-shelled clams and
                                                               marine worms. Green algae mats and clumps of seaweed and blue
                                                               mussels are common features of intenidal flats. Intertidal flats along
                                                               the Maine coast are vital feeding and gathering grounds for much of
                                                               the North American shorebird population during migrations each
                                                               fall. The birds feed on tiny worms and other invertebrates that
                                                               burrow in the intertidal muds, doubling their weight within two
                                                               weeks in preparation for an arduous flight back to South America.

                                                               Estuary Bottom
                                                                    Submerged lands of the estuary bottom support many of the
                                                               same invertebrates that live on the flats and other creatures that
                                                               prefer to live below the range of tide. Salinity, depth of water, and
                                                               sediment type are the main factors determining the distribution of
                    'P_                                        species. In more marine areas of the lower estuary, lobsters, Euro-
                                                               pean oysters and crabs share the bottom with other benthic dwellers.
                            A
                                                               Mussels, clams, scallops, and oysters are filter feeders, filtering the
                                                               estuarine waters and muds for food. Flounder, hake, cod, and other
                                                               fish species also dwell near the bottom. Living in contact with the
                           N
                                                               bottom muds and sands, bottom dwellers are especially susceptible
                          Blue Mussels                         to toxic pollutants that collect in the estuarine sediments.
                         (Mytilus edulis)

            12
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              Eelgrass Meadows
                      Eelgrass (Zostera marina) meadows are important commu-
              nities of the estuary bottom. Eelgrass plays an essential role in the
              establishment of shellfish beds and provide nursery areas for many
              species of fish, shellfish, and crustaceans. Neither algae nor sea-
              weed, eelgrass is a flowering plant which blooms underwater in the
              spring and produces seeds in July and August.
                   The long slender grass blades slow currents and allow
              suspended sediment to settle. Eelgrasses also act as nutrient buffers,
              taking up nutrients from the sediments and slowly releasing them
              when the leaves decay. Mussels and other shellfish larvae settle on
              the grasses to grow. Small flounder and other fish use the meadows
              as nursery areas. Migrating waterfowl flock to eelgrass areas to feed
              on the leaves and seeds. Eelgrass is a principal food source for brant
              geese, Canada geese and ducks.
                   The significance of eelgrass to coastal ecology was first recog-
              nized in the 1930s when a disease (the eelgrass wasting disease)
              destroyed 90 percent of eelgrass along the East Coast. During these
              years, bay scallop landings dropped in Massachusetts, sub-tidal
              areas once covered in eelgrass eroded when celgrass beds that had
              anchored bottom areas disappeared, and populations of migrating
              American brant and other waterfowl declined.

                   Eelgrass has rebounded in recent years, but new threats include
              harbor development and sediment pollution from land run-off. Boat
              traffic, the harvest of shellfish and fish with heavy drags, and the
              dredging of navigational channels, are all activities which rip up
              eelgrass meadows. Outbreaks of eelgrass wasting disease have been
              recently reported in Maquoit and Middle Bays and the Great Bay
              estuary on the Piscataqua River in New Hampshire.
                   Run-off from lands draining into the estuary watershed can
              contribute heavy loads of soil, nutrients and herbicides which affect
              eelgrass meadows and other nearshore aquatic vegetation. Eelgrass
              needs light to thrive and will weaken if the water is murky with
              sediment or dense algal blooms for long periods. TTie dramatic die-
              off of eelgrass in Maquoit Bay and Middle Bay, has been attributed
              to a variety of factors including disease, mussel dragging, added nu-
              trients and sediments from land run-off, and resuspcnsion of sedi-
              ments from boat traffic and clam digging (Short, 1988).
                                                                                                              Eelgrass
                                                                                                          (Zostera rwrina)

                                                                                                                                   13
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                                                              Estuary Waters
                                                              Plankton
                                                                    Suspended in the waters of the estuaries are plankton. Plankton
                                                              include shellfish and fish larvae, phytoplankton (one-celled plants),
                                                              zooplankton (microscopic animals) and bacteria. Plankton are food
                                                              for the shellfish and fish of the estuary. Seasonal floods of freshwa-
                                                              ter run-off from land each spring and late fall, bring quantities of
                                                              nutrients to the estuary waters and trigger algae and phytoplankton
                                                              blooms.

                                                                    Red tides are blooms of a species of plankton algae toxic to
                                                              humans. When red tide plankton accumulates in shellfish at toxic
                                                              levels, the Maine Department of Marine Resources closes areas and
                            Plankton                          prohibits shellfish harvesting to protect public health. The cause of
                                                              red tide blooms is not known; nutrient-loaded run-off from land may
                                                              be linked t- the occurrences.

                                                              Fish
                                                                    Many oceanic fish visit outer reaches of estuaries in the sum-
                                                              mer and fall to feed. The cod spawning ground at the mouth of the
                                                              Sheepscot River estuary is one of the few known spawning grounds
                                                              for offshore fish in Maine estuaries. Flounder are known to spawn
                                                              just outside the entrance to the Webhannet River estuary and other
                                                              sandy estuaries on the southern coast.'Estuaries are suspected to play
                                                              vital roles as nurseries for many species of fish, however, the de-
                                                              pendence of offshore fish stocks on Maine estuaries for food,
                                                              shelter, and spawning habitat is unknown.
                                                                    Fish that swim from the saltwater to spawn in the freshwater
                                                              are called anadromous and fish that journey from inland waters to
                                                              spawn in the sea are called catadrornous. Maine estuaries support
                                                              one catadromous species, American eel, and eleven anadromous
                                                              species--Atlantic salmon, rainbow smelt, Atlantic sturgeon,
                                                              blueback herring, searun brook trout, sea lamprey, American shad,
                                                              striped bass, shortnose sturgeon, alewife, and searun brown trout
                                                              (introduced from Europe in the 1800s). The shortnose sturgeon is on
                                                              the federal endangered species list and is found in the Kennebec,
                                                              Sheepscot and Penobscot Estuaries.
                                                                    We often underestimate the economic and ecologic contribu-
                                                              tion of estuarine migratory fish in Maine. Maine is unique among
                                                              eastern states in the diversity and abundance of native anadromous
                                                              fish. The last remaining wild runs of Atlantic sea-run salmon in the
                                                              eastern United States occur in the Sheepscot, Penobscot, Narra-
                                                              guagus, Pleasant, Machias and Dermys Rivers each spring. Smelt,
                            T                                 alewives and other anadromous fish are harvested commercially in
                                                              many areas along the coast. The abundance of the anadromous
                      Alewife in eelgrass.                    fisheries is limited by man-made dams which block passage to
                                                              spawning grounds.
            14
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                    The value of anadromous fish is more than the economic value                   In recent years, the coastal communities
              of the harvest. For instance, alewives are an essential source for                   of Damariscotta and Boothbay Harbor
              lobster bait in early spring before other bait becomes available.                    have stocked alewives in order to reduce
              Juvenile alewives feed on zooplankton and help maintain the water                    the zooplankton population in ponds that
              quality of inland freshwater lakes. The fry are also important food                  supply the municipal drinking water sys-
                                                                                                   term. Large amounts of zooplankton are
              for birds and larger fish. Anadromous fish, with their connections to                undesirable because they taint the water
              both fresh and salt waters, epitomize the interdependence of the                     and clogfilters at treatment stations.
              marine and inland environments of the coastal watershed.
                    Estuary waters provide ice-free habitats for loons, black ducks
              and other waterfowl in the winter after inland lakes freeze over.
              Harbor seals occasionally visit estuaries during the summer. In more
              remote areas, seal haul outs and bird nesting islands are found.

              Estuary Edges
              Shorelands, Banks, Bluffs, and Beaches
                    The shores, banks, bluffs and uplands are vital parts of the
              estuarine ecosystem. The uplands and edges along the estuary buffer
              and sustain other habitats in the estuary. Vegetation along the edge
              of the estuary helps to naturally stabilize the shore and provide a
              buffer, filtering land run-off before it reaches the estuary waters.
                    In sandy estuaries, sand flows inshore and offshore, between
              inshore sand beaches and bars and offshore sand deposits. In muddy
              estuaries, eroding bluffs and banks supply sediment to adjacent
              marshes and mudflats. Interference in the natural cycles of erosion
              and deposition can lead to sediment 'starvation.' For example, if
              banks or shorelines are stabilized artificially with seawalls or riprap,
              adjacent marshes and flats may erode during storms or strong tides
              and eventually disappear. The slumping of banks along the estuary
              contributes to the growth of marshes and mudflats.

                                                                                                      'JII

                                                                                                                                         15
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            The importance of buffers,                                Wildlife and birds use the banks and shores to gain access to
            an example--                                        the estuary edge. A number of mammals, such as shrews, otters, and
            When the Rachel Carson Wildlife Refuge              raccoons, live just above the reach of tide and forage in the intertidal
            was founded in southern Maine in the                area. Ecologists believe these edge environments, known as
            early 1970s, only the wetlands of Scar-             ecotones, are key elements in maintaining the diversity and integrity
            borough Marsh were acquired to protect              of the coastal landscape.
            habitatfor migratory birds.
            As residential development crept up to the                The slow rise in sea level along the Maine coast may gradually
            edge of the marsh, the refuge managers              erode soft bluffs and other edge environments. The marshes and flats
            realized that an upland buffer was essen-           may migrate inland where the lay of the land permits if bluffs and
            tial to preserve the wildlife values of the         banks are available to supply sediment to these depositional systems.
            estuarine habitats. Today, aquisition of            Coastal planners are concerned that the'hardening' of the coastline
            adjacent uplands is a managemntpriority             by parking lots, roads, seawalls, and other development will not
            for the refuge.                                     allow the future expansion landward of marshes and flats flooded by
                                                                rising sea level.

                                                                Recommended Reading for More information
                                                                An Ecological Characterization of Coastal Maine. S. Fefer and P.
                                                                Schettig, editors, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service FWS/OBS-8-/29,
                                                                Newton Comer, MA, 1980.
                                                                      A six volume comprehensive description of Maine coast
                                                                      environments from Cape Elizabeth north to Passamaquoddy
                                                                      Bay.
                                                                "Charting Our Course",An Activity Guidefor Grades 6-12 on Water
                                                                Quality in the Gulf of Maine. Maine State Planning Office, Maine
                                                                Coastal Program, Augusta, ME, 1989.
                                                                      Available from the Maine State Planning Office.
                                                                Living with the Coast of Maine. Joseph T. Kelley, A. Kelley and 0.
                                                                Pilkey, Jr., sponsored by Maine Audobon, Duke University Press,
                                                                Durham, NC., 1989.
                                                                      This book describes the geologic processes at work shaping the
                                                                      coast of Maine. Coastal hazards and guidelines for safe con-
                                                                      struction on the shore are reviewed.
                                                                Secrets of a Salt Marsh. John 0. Snow, Guy Gannet Publishing Co.,
                                                                Portland, ME, 1980.
                                                                      Observations on the fauna and flora of Scarborough Marsh,
                                                                      Maine.
                                                                The Gulf of Maine. Spencer Appolonio, Courier of Maine Books,
                                                                Rockland, ME, 1979.
                                                                      A handbook on the geology and natural history of the Gulf of
                                                                      Maine. Available from the Courier Gazette in Rockland.

                                                                The Maine Coast--A Nature Lover's Guide. Dorcas Miller, East
                                                                Woods Press, Charlotte, NC, 1979.
                                                                      An introduction to coastal ecosystems and areas of interest
                                                                      open to the public.

            16
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              Chapter Two
              The Consequence of Development

                   Over the past twenty years, coastal Maine has experienced
              tremendous population growth. Some coastal towns have doubled in
              size; all have felt the impact of rising land values and demand for
              more services. As people discover the beauty and opportunities of
              the Maine coast, estuarine environments face stress from resource
              development and water pollution. This chapter explores the uses of
              estuaries and the impacts of human use on estuarine ecology.
              Estuary Use &amp; Pollution in Maine,
              a historical perspective.
                   In the late 1700s farmers diked and drained large salt marshes
              along the estuaries of the Gulf of Maine and the Bay of Fundy to
              create hay fields and pasture. Remnants of dikes are found in Scar-
              borough Marsh and along the Machias River estuary. Maine salt
              marshes are not intensively used for agriculture today, but in some
              areas grasses are collected for garden mulch and seaside lavender
              gathered for the dried flower trade.
                   In the early 1800s, towns developed at the head of major Maine
              estuaries. Augusta, Calais and Saco were located on tidal falls which
              supplied energy for manufacturing. Later, dams were built to
              generate hydroelectric power. The rivers w6re'used to float logs and
              other raw material from the interior of the state to industries along
              the coast. Tidewater ice, known as "white gold"; was a valuable
              commodity shipped as far as the West Indies before the invention of
              refrigeration. Located at the crossroads of inland and coastal water
              transportation routes, Maine estuary towns such as Portland, Bath,
              Wiscasset, Waldoboro, Thomaston, Belfast, Ellsworth, and Machias,
              became centers of maritime trade and shipbuilding.
                   From the last half of the nineteenth century to the 1960s,
              manufacturers dumped industrial wastes into Maine estuaries. They
              assumed that pollution disposed of in coastal rivers was quickly
              diluted and washed out to sea. Decades of industrial discharges and
              other pollutants had catastrophic consequences for fish, shellfish,
              and other aquatic life in Maine estuaries. Wood sludge from paper
              mills smothered most life on the bottom of the Presumpscot, Ken-
              nebec, Penobscot, and St. Croix Estuaries before federal clean water
              legislation in the 1970s required pollution control measures. Shoals
              of sawdust linger today off the shores of historic saw mill locations
              in the upper Damariscotta, Machias, and St. Croix Estuaries and in
              other areas along the Maine coast.

                                                                                                                                   17
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                                                                  The Androscoggin River, which empties into Merryineeting
                                                             Bay on the Kennebec/Androscoggin Estuary, was once considered
           One of the largest spills along the Maine         one of the nation's 10 dirtiest rivers. By 1940, sulphite-process pulp
           coast ocurred in November 1963, when              and paper mills discharged hundreds of tons of black wastewater in
           the tanker Northern Gu6Fran aground on            to the Androscoggin River each day. Thousands of fish died and dis-
           West Cod Ledge in Casco Bay. Approxi-             solved oxygen levels dropped to near zero in the river and Merry-
           mately one million gallons of crude oil           meeting Bay. In the summer of 1941 hydrogen sulfide gas from the
           spilled and drifted east to strand on 400         foul river peeled paint off houses in Lewiston and sent noxious
           miles of shore in the Muscongus Bay and           odors from Berlin, New Hampshire to Brunswick, Maine. The
           Pemaquid Peninsula area.                          public outcry that ensued galvanized the cleanup of the Androscog-
           Over 600,000 pounds of lobsters held in           gin and focused attention on the pollution problems of Maine rivers.
           lobster pounds and over 180,000 bushels
           of soft-shell clams were contaminated by               During the past forty years, five major oil spills (100,000
           the oil spill (Card et al., 1981).                gallons or more) and approximately 23 large oil spills (1,000 gallons
                                                             or more), have leaked from tankers, pipelines, and terminals on the
                                                             Maine coast. Oil spills have damaged intertidal flats and contami-
                                                             nated sediments in the Piscataqua River estuary, Casco Bay, Mus-
                                                             congus Bay, Penobscot Bay, and Long Cove in Searsport.
                                                             Estuary Use &amp; Pollution Today
                                                                  Water quality has certainly improved in recent years, yet
                                                             threats to the environmental health of Maine's estuaries have not
                                                             disappeared. Industrial wastewater discharges are cleaner and more
                                                             regulated than in the past and many towns have constructed munici-
                                                             pal treatment plants to handle residential wastewater. Although
                                                             Maine salt marshes are no longer ditched and drained to control
                                                             mosquitos or create farmland as in the past, present day highway and
                                                             bridge construction projects often damage estuarine habitats by
                                                             altering marshlands or estuarine drainage.
                                                                  The evidence of environmental damage in Maine estuaries of
                                                             concern now is subtle and usually not as obvious as oil-soaked
                                                             seabirds or clouds of foul gasses. Toxic compounds that contaminate
                                                             estuarine sediment, water, and living resources are detected only
                                                             through complicated analysis and the harmful effects are difficult to
                                                             pinpoint.
                                                                  The burgeoning coastal population has concentrated
                                                             development along the uplands of Maine estuaries, increased the
                                                             volume of municipal wastewater discharged into coastal rivers,
                                                             strengthened demand for seafood and other marine resources,
                                                             crowded harbors with recreational boats, and in general, intensified
                                                             the use of these fragile ecosystems. This intensified use influences
                                                             the environmental health of Maine estuaries.

                                                                  The chart on the opposite page briefly describes some of the
                                                             consequences of human activities on the estuarine ecosystem. The
                                                             activities are grouped into four broad categories of human uses of
                                                             estuarine resources and uplands--waste disposal, marina and port
                                                             development, food source, and land use.

           18
<pb n="23" />

                            The Effect of Development on Estuarine Ecology
                 Waste Disposal
                      Manufacturing (paper &amp; textile mills, tanneries etc.): Even when regulated and treated, waste-
                 streams can include heavy metals (mercury,copper, lead, arsenic ... ), polyriuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
                 (PAHs); dioxin, and organic sludge.
                      Power Plants: Cooling water from power plants adds heat to estuary waters. Nuclear power plants
                 contribute low levels of radionuclides to the estuarine environment from liquid discharges to estuary waters.
                      Municipal Sewage: Treatment plants discharge treated wastewater containing bacteria, nutrients, road
                 residues, household toxics, chlorine, heavy metals and other substances including wastes from commercial
                 businesses tied into the sewage system.
                      Storm Outfalls: Combined sewer overflows (CSO) and storm drain outfalls; add road residues, sedi-
                 ment, bacteria, and trash to estuary waters. If a municipal sewage plant malfunctions or is flooded by storm
                 waters, raw sewage may be discharged into the estuary.
                      Overboard Discharges: Some residential wastewater is treated with sand filtration and chlorination
                 before disposal into tidal waters as an overboard discharge. Over 3,000 of these overboard discharges
                 remain on the Maine Coast and add bacteria, chlorine, and nutrients to coastal waters. New overboard dis-
                 charges are forbidden by state law. An unknown number of illegal straight pipes discharge sewage directly
                 into Maine tidewaters.
                 Marina &amp; Port Development
                      Dredging and Dredge Spoil Disposal: Dredging to maintain navigational channels or anchorages and
                 disposal of dredge spoils results in redistribution of pollutants in bottom sediments, increased turbidity of es-
                 tuarine waters and destruction of bottom habitats.
                      Harbor, Port and Marina Development: Boat traffic may add bacteria, chlorine, and formaldehyde
                 from marine toilets to nearshore waters, as well as marine trash, small oil and fuel spills, and toxic bottom
                 paints and chemicals from boat and ship maintenance activities. Boat traffic can potentially harm submerged
                 aquatic vegetation, introduce foreign plants and animals, and cause noise Pollution.
                 Food Source
                      Traditional Fisheries: A by-product of fishing is the addition of lost traps, nets and other gear as well
                 as trash into nearshore waters. Harvesting techniques such as bottom-dragging disturbs natural estuarine
                 bottom habitats. The repeated digging of mud flats for clams and worms changes the texture of the intertidal
                 mudflat habitat and increases turbidity of tidal waters. Selective harvesting of particular species may change
                 natural cycles of abundance.
                      Aquaculture: The feeding and raising of fish in aquaculture pens adds nutrients to estuarine waters
                 and may alter the natural ecology under the pens. Introduction of non-native shellfish seed and fish smolt to
                 Maine waters may unintentionally spread foreign species and diseases.
                 Land Use
                      Roads: Road run-off contains polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), lead, zinc, and oil from
                 automotive traffic as well as nutrients and bacteria from land drainage. Road construction across estuaries or
                 tidal creeks can alter tidal flow, destroy wetland habitats and block passage for migratory fish.
                      Residential Development: Waterfront residential development often involves shoreline alteration
                 with stabilization measures or dock construction. Lawn and garden fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes, and
                 nutrients and bacteria from malfunctioning septic systems, are all associated with run-off from residential
                 areas. Clearing and paving land for lawns, driveways, parking lots, and roadways increases the rate of flow
                 and volume of land run-off into coastal waters.
                      A riculture: Runoff from agricultural lands often contains nutrients from fertilizers or animal manure,
                 pesticilles, and eroded topsoil.
                      Mining: Drainage from mining operations may include heavy metals and eroded soil.
                      Forestry Practices: Forestry operations involving large clearcuts or the use of skidders on slopes and
                 streams within a coastal watershed may increase erosion of topsoil and the volume of surface water run-off.
                 These practices increase sediment loads and water temperature in freshwater tributaries of estuaries and
                 coastal waters. Timber management with herbicides within the estuary watershed may result in the accumu-
                 lation of toxic herbicide residues in estuarine waters and sediments.
                                                                                                                                  19
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          The Impact of                                      Among the natural resources of an estuary are living resources
                                                        (marine life and wildlife), estuarine habitats and communities
          Human Use on                                  (marshes, mudflats, and eelgrass meadows), and geologic features
          Natural Resources                             (sand beaches, bluffs, gravel deposits). Human impact on the natural
                                                        resources of an estuary may be minor, such as the placing of a moor-
                                                        ing or major, such as dredging to improve navigation.
               Often small alterations to the estuarine shoreline appear to effect only the immediate area. These minor
          changes may add together over time to slowly change the ecology of an estuary and the character of the estuarine
          landscape. Common changes to the estuarine landscape over one year may include construction of several small
          private docks, new placement of moorings, removal of trees and brush from shorefront lots, or the development
          of a waterfront residential subdivision. The total effect of incremental changes over a period of time is referred to
          as cumulative impact.
               Shoreland development changes natural rates of erosion and alters sediment supply to nearby marshes,
          mudflats,-and beaches. Construction of wharves, docks and seawalls, riprapping shorefront and clearing natural
          shoreline vegetation are activities which may modify the natural processes of erosion and deposition in the estu-
          anne environment. Dredging operations are necessary to maintain harbors and anchorages, but the removal of
          bottom sediment may cause variations in erosion and deposition at the dredge site and and other areas of the
          estuary.
               Over time, enough incremental changes to estuarine habitats will significantly alter the natural estuarine
          ecology. Because the changes are gradual and over time, clear cause and effect relationships are difficult to
          determine. Commercial harvests of shellfish, fish, and worms in Maine estuaries and neutral embayments have
          declined over the years (see graph below). Many fish species, once harvested from Maine estuaries and harbors,
          are now rare. Years ago, sturgeon were fished from the Mousam River estuary and cod from the Scarborough
          River estuary. The precise cause of changes in the abundance and location of species is not always obvious.
          Habitat alteration, overfishing, water pollution, natural cycles of abundance, and climatic change all may influ-
          ence the decline in landings of species that are harvested in Maine estuaries and neutral embayments.

                                     Annual Maine Landings of Selected Species
            8000                                   (1970-1988) (in 1 000's of pounds)

            7000

            6000

                                                                                                             Sandworm
            5000
                                                                                                             Bloodworm
            4000
                                                                                                             Soft Shell Clam
            3000                                                                                         -El- Alewife

            2000

            1000

                    '70 '71 '72 '73 '74 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '83 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88
           Source: Maine Dept. of Marine Resources Annual Data.

          20
<pb n="25" />

                                                                 V

                  Good water quality sustains life. At the hean of estuary plan-               The Impact of
              ning is a concem for water quality. Water quality affects fish,
              shellfish, and other natural resources as well as the available uses of          Human Use on
              the estuary by people. Protection of water quality within the estuary            Water Quality
              watershed includes protection of freshwater resources used for
              drinking, farming, recreation, and manufacturing and saltwater
              resources used for aquaculture, recreation, and fishing. The connec-
              tions between land and water uses are strong, particularly for water
              dependent uses. Water dependent uses include activities which
              require access to saltwater. Marinas, fishing piers, fish packing
              plants, boat yards, and shellfish hatcheries are examples of develop-
              ments which need or prefer a shoreside location. The development
              and use of shorelands directly influences nearshore water quality.
              The Hydrologic Cycle
                   The water quality of an estuary is affected by all the uses of the land and water in the estuary watershed.
              Water cycles through the environment. Water falls as rain or snow, runs from rivulets to streams to rivers to the
              ocean, sinks through the ground to replenish groundwater, or is drawn up to sustain plants and animals. Water
              vapor escaping as evaporation from lakes, ocean, and land, and as transpiration from plants, forms clouds. The
              clouds condense, the water falls as rain or snow and the cycle begins again. These movements (illustrated in the
              drawing below) are called the hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic cycle demonstrates how all water in the environ-
              ment is interrelated, whether it be freshwater, saltwater, or groundwater. Human use of the land and waters influ-
              ences the amount and type of soil, chemicals and other pollutants carried into rivers and estuaries.

                                     Precipitation

                                                                                                                     Evaporation
                                                                                                                     from estuary
                                                                                                         Transpiration,
                                                                                                           by plants

                                                                                               .@.Evapora loi
                                                                                                 land stirlace

                                                                                           Estuary-

                                 ------                       zip-
                          C ro@ndwater -       Frest water

                                                                                                                                   21
<pb n="26" />

           Estuarine
           Pollution                                             Pollutants discharged directly from pipes into rivers and estuar-
                                                            ies are called point sources of pollution. Point sources of pollution
                                                            include all licensed discharges with federal NPDES (National Permit
                                                            &amp; Discharge Elimination System) and state discharge permits from
                                                            industries, small companies, municipal sewer systems, aquaculture
                                                            fish pens, and overboard discharges. Oil spills from tankers are also
                                                            considered point source discharges. Some point sources, such as
                                                            straight pipes discharging untreated residential sewage, are often
                                                            overlooked and unlicensed. The Maine Department of Marine
                                                            Resources is surveying these illegal systems.
                                                                 Non-point source pollution (NPS) refers to any pollution
          For more information on non-point source          which is not a licensed discharge or does not have a localized or
          pollution contact:                                clearly identified source. Non-point source pollution is associated
          Non-Point Source Pollution Program,               with land and water use and poses a serious threat to coastal water
          Maine Dept. of Environmental Protec-              quality and estuarine ecology. The non-point source label is a mis-
          tion, State House Station 17, Augusta,            nomer, since every pollutant has a source, however, the source of
          Maine 04333.                                      NPS pollution is usually not as specific as point source pollution.
                                                            Inadequate septic systems, stormwater run-off, clearcutting, con-
                                                            struction, and boat pollution all contribute to non-point source
                                                            pollution along the Maine coast.
                                                                 Urban development, agriculture, and forestry operations are the
                                                            major categories of land-based non-point source pollution in Maine.
                                                            Each activity influences coastal water quality because of alteration
                                                            of the land and removal of natural vegetation. Urban NPS pollution
                                                            includes stormwater run-off (nutrients, road oils, lead, sediments)
                                                            and pollution associated with residential development. Drainage
                                                            from agricultural lands may include nutrients from fertilizers and
                                                            farm animals, pesticides, and soil. Large clearcuts and other forestry
                                                            practices may increase temperature and turbidity of streams and
                                                            creeks in the estuary watershed as well as add herbicides to estuarine
                                                            waters. Intensified use of estuarine waters creates water-based NPS
                                                            pollution. Marinas, harbor dredging projects and finfish aquaculture
                                                            operations are examples of water-based activities that can impair
                                                            estuarine water quality and natural resources if not planned
                                                            correctly.
          The Groundwater - Estuary Connection
               Groundwater seeps into estuary water and estuary water percolates into veins of groundwater. The intrusion
          of saltwater into freshwater municipal and private wells is a common problem along the Maine coast. Some
          coastal communities are served by public drinking water systems that tap surface waters (ponds, rivers, or lakes),
          groundwater wells, or a combination of sources. Rural residents usually draw drinking water from individual
          wells. In areas of the coast, increased demand on groundwater resources for residential use pulls more water from
          the water table than the aquifer can replenish and saltwater is drawn in to compensate. Groundwater polluted by
          leaking underground fuel tanks, abandoned dumps, or failing septic systems, may seep into estuaries and Pollute
          coastal waters.

          22
<pb n="27" />

               Water Classification
                  The Maine Department of Environmental Protection manages estuarine and marine waters by designating
               allowable uses and levels of pollution with a water classification system. Estuarine and marine waters are classi-
               fied as SA, SB, or SC. Every three years the classification is updated and public hearings are held to review the
               proposed classification. During the public hearings, communities have the opportunity to comment on the water
               classification. The classification is based on bacteria, aquatic life, and dissolved oxygen standards.

                      Class SA waters are the highest classification. All discharges are prohibited in Class SA waters. Class SA waters
                 have high quality water, unique ecological resources and are often located next to coastal parks or other public lands.
                 Ile estuarine and marine communities, and dissolved oxygen and bacteria content of SA waters must be as naturally

                 occurs.
                      "Class SA waters shall be of such quality that they are suitable for the designated uses of recreation in and on the
                 water, fishing, aquaculture, propagation and harvesting of shellfish and navigation and as habitat for fish and other estu-
                 arine and marine life."

                      Class SB waters allow discharges which do not cause detrimental changes to the aquatic community, including
                 finfish aquaculture and hydroelectric power generation. Most estuaries in Maine are currently designated SB. Class SB
                 waters must have a dissolved oyxgen content at least 85% of saturation and bacteria concentration may not exceed levels
                 recommended for shellfish growing areas. Enterococcus bacteria must not exceed specified levels between May 15th and
                 September 30th.
                      "Class SB waters shall be of such quality that they are suitable for the designated uses of recreation in and on the
                 water, fishing, aquaculture, propagation and harvesting of shellfish, industrial processing, and cooling water supply,
                 hydroelectric power generation and navigation and as habitat for fish and other estuarine and marine life."
                      Class SC waters allow heavy industrial discharges as long as the water quality supports the fish and aquatic com-
                 munities normally found in the area and allows swimming and fishing. The Penobscot Estuary, Portland Harbor, St.
                 Croix Estuary and other industrialized coastal waters are classified as SC. Class SC waters must have an oxygen content
                 of at least 75% of saturation and bacteria concentration may not exceed levels recommended for restricted shellfish
                 growing areas. Enterococcus bacteria must not exceed specified levels between May 15th and September 30th.
                      "Class SC waters shall be of such quality that they are suitable for the designated uses of recreation in and on the
                 water, fishing, aquaculture, propagation and restricted harvesting of shellfish, industrial processing and cooling water
                 supply, hydroelectric power generation and navigation and as habitat for fish and other estuarine and marine life."

                 From: Water Classification Program, January 1989. Maine Revised Statutes Annotated Title 38, Article 4-A, Department of
                 Environmental Protection, Bureau of Water Quality Control, Augusta, ME.

               Dissolved Oxygen
                    Dissolved oxygen in the water is essential for all plants and animals living in an estuary. The amount of
               dissolved oxygen in water is used as an indicator of water quality and the level of life that the water can support.
               The maximum amount of dissolved oxygen (the saturation level) that can be dissolved in a given amount of
               water varies with the salinity and temperature of the water. The colder the water, the higher the saturation level
               of dissolved oxygen, and the more saline the water, the lower the saturation level.
                    The surface water in an estuary is usually at or near oxygen saturation, while conditions near the bottom
               vary with the amount of verticle mixing in the water column, the presence of plants such as eelgrass and sea-
               weeds, and the demand for oxygen by shellfish, decomposing bacteria, fish, and other creatures.

                                                                                                                                              23
<pb n="28" />

            Coastal Water
            Pollutants                                               This section explores the effects of major water pollutant cate-
                                                               gories on estuarine ecosystems.

                                                               Bacteria
            Approximately one-third of the produc-                   Bacterial pollution from sewage treatment plants, boaters,
            tive shelyishflats in Maine were closed in         malfunctioning septic systems, urban and agricultural run-off or
            1990 because ofpossible bacterial pollu-           household overboard discharges is usually a condition that disap-
            tion.                                              pears once the source of bacteria is eliminated and does not perma-
                                                               nently harm the estuarine environment. Bacterial pollution is a
                                                               human health concern which reduces the availability of shellfish for
                                                               harvesting and waters for recreational activities. Malfunctioning
                                                               septic systems from residences along the shore are suspected of
                                                               being a major source of bacterial pollution to Maine estuaries. The
                                                               Maine Department of Marine Resources (MDMR) monitors bacteria
                                                               levels in shellfish growing areas as part of the Shellfish Sanitation
                                                               Program in order to protect public health.

                                                               Chlorine
                                                                    A serious environmental consequence of sewage discharges
                                                               from municipal treatment plants, licensed overboard discharges, and
                                                               marine toilets is the trace of chlorine added to kill harmful viruses
                                                               and other pathogens. Chlorine is used as an antifoulant for industrial
                                                               intakes at power stations and to wash down boats. Chlorination can
                                                               produce very hazardous chlorinated organic compounds such as
                                                               dioxin. Chlorine is also highly toxic to aquatic life in minute quanti-
                                                               ties. Traces of chlorine in estuary waters reduces and may deter
                                                               migratory fish runs. The Maine Department of Environmental Pro-
                                                               tection (MDEP) requires most coastal municipal and industrial
                                                               treatment systems to dechlorinate chlorinated effluent or use altema-
                                                               tive forms of disinfection.

                                                               Nutrients
                                                                    Nutrients, in particular phosphorus and nitrogen, are necessary
                                                               for the overall productivity of estuarine waters. Nitrogen is usually,
                                                               although not always, the nutrient limiting phytoplankton growth in
                                                               Maine estuaries, just as phosphorus limits growth in most freshwater
                                                               lakes. Nutrients are a concern when excess amounts produce unde-
                                                               sirable changes in the abundance of phytoplankton and other aquatic
                                                               species.
                                                                     Population density and land use changes in the estuarine wa-
                                                               tershed can increase nutrient loads to estuarine waters. Wastewater
                                                               sewage treatment plants, urban run-off,- and agricultural activities are
                                                               major land-based sources for nitogen and phosphorus in Maine estu-
                                                               aries. Finfish fanning operations also add nitrogen from fish waste

            24
<pb n="29" />

             and excess feed and can create water quality problems in estuaries
             that are not well flushed.

                  The addition of nitrogen to nearshore waters from septic
             systems, sewage plants, fish pens, marine heads, or land run-off can
             cause nuisance blooms and upset the natural balance of nutrients.
             Red tides are common nuisance blooms along the Maine coast each
             summer. Occurrences of red tides are phenomena not yet understood
             and may be linked to iron as well as nitrogen availability.
                  The loading of nutrients into nearshore embayment waters can             Theone-cell microscopic algae thatproduces
             lead to a condition known as eutrophication. Excessive amounts of             red tide(Gonyaulax tamarensis). Drawing
             nutrients cause phytoplankton to multiply or bloom in great quanti-           is many times actual size.
             ties. When the phytoplankton sink and die, bacteria decompose the
             plankton and deplete the dissolved oxygen in the estuary. If dis-
             solved oxygen levels become too low, shellfish and other bottom                In addition to nutrients, the availability of
             dwellers may die. A massive shellfish kill in Maquoit Bay in the fall          light, iron, water temperature, and other
             of 1988 was caused by an unusual bloom of phytoplankton that                   chemical and physical factors limit the
             settled to the bottom and within 48 hours had smothered 80% of the             growth ofphytoplankton in estuaries.
             soft-shelled clams, European oysters, and other shellfish in the bay.

             Heavy Metals
                  Mercury, cadmium, chromium, copper, zinc, and lead are a few
             of the heavy metals found in industrial discharges in Maine. Trace
             metals also enter the marine environment from municipal sewage
             treatment discharges and road run-off. Since metals tend to accumu-
             late in marine and estuarine sediments, bottom dwelling animals in-
             cluding shellfish and ground fish, are most at risk. Human health is
             also affected by exposure to heavy metals.
                  High concentrations of heavy metals may naturally occur in
             estuarine waters because of the geology within the watershed or
             result from industrial discharges and urban run-off. Elevated levels
             of heavy metals have been detected by Maine state and university
             scientists in sediments in Casco Bay, Boothbay Harbor, Muscongus
             Bay, St. George River, Blue Hill Bay, Penobscot Bay, Union River,
             Narraguagus River and the St. Croix River.
                   Although the entire coast has not been sampled intensively,
             studies indicate that areas with a legacy of industrial discharges,
             coastal mining, or harbor activities, have some heavy metal contami-
             nation. In Boothbay Harbor, non-point source stormwater nm-off
             from parking lots, boatyards, and marinas is suspected to be the
             source of high lead levels found in harbor sediments. Mine drainage
             from the Callahan Mine on the shore of Cape Rosier in Blue Hill
             Bay has caused local shellfish to accumulate unnaturally high levels
             of copper.

                                                                                                                                25
<pb n="30" />

                                                            Petroleum Derivatives
                                                                 Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and other aromatic
                                                            compounds are major concerns because of their mutagenic (change
                                                            cell growth) and carcinogenic (cause cancer) properties. Sources of
                                                            PAHs include oil from tanker spills, bilge water discharges, leaking
                                                            underground gas storage tanks, discarded motor oil bottles, road run-
                                                            off, sewage plants, rainfall, and creosote from wharf pilings.
                                                                 The presence of PAHs and other organic petroleum compounds
                                                            can be predicted in areas of past oil spills, intense harbor activity,
                                                            and municipal and industrial discharges. The discovery of PAH
                                                            levels in Casco Bay higher than those found in Boston Harbor
                                                            heightened a growing awareness that the marine environment in
                                                            Maine is not as pristine as once believed (Larsen et al, 1983). Low
                                                            levels of PAHs have also been found in sediments of Penobscot,
                                                            Machias and Frenchmen Bays.

                                                            Organochlorines and Other Synthetic Organic
                                                            Compounds
                                                                 Organochlorines are stable compounds that accumulate in
          The bald eagle population, once threat-           sediment and the fatty tissues of animals. Organochlorides (DDT),
          ened by'the effect of DDT on chick sur-           polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and-dioxin are highly persistent
          vival, has rebounded in Maine. Canadian           in the environment and harmful to animals. PCBs were once used in
          studies of marine mammals, however,               electrical equipment and have not been manufactured in the U.S. for
          reveal that DDT still persists as an en-
          vironmental problem.                              over ten years, yet they continue to enter the environment from
                                                            improper disposal or leaking shoreside'landfills. Low levels of PCBs
                                                            in mussel tissue have been recorded by EPA in Casco Bay, Penob-
                                                            scot Bay, Machias Bay, and Frenchman Bay.
                                                                 The presence of DDT and PCBs is not as predictable as that of
                                                            other pollutants. Dioxin, however, is associated with a certain kind
                                                            of paper mill discharge. Dioxin is a by-product of the kraft paper-
                                                            making process which bleaches wood pulp with chlorine. The
                                                            lignins (natural binddfg of W6W-fiber) from the wood and the
                                                            chlorine combine to produce dioxin, a substance suspected to cause
                                                            birth defects in humans. In March 1990, the Department of Environ-
                                                            mental Protection released the results of a study which revealed the
                                                            presence of dioxin in fish sampled from the Androscoggin, Ken-
                                                            nebec, Penobscot, and Presumpscot Rivers.
                                                                 Paints, household chemicals, and hundreds of other chemicals
                                                            in daily use find their way to the estuary waters via sewage plants,
                                                            stonn sewers, and in regulated and nonregulated discharges. Chemi-
                                                            cal toilets on boats often use formaldehyde, a very toxic substance
                                                            often emptied directly into estuary waters with sanitary waste. The
                                                            EPA estimates more than 70,000 chemicals are in industrial use and
                                                            an additional thousand more are introduced each year; few have
                                                            been studied to assess their effect on human and aquatic life.

          26
<pb n="31" />

                     Toxic by-products of manufacturing often slip into regulated
               discharges by accident or on purpose. Storms wash a myriad of
               chemical traces into Maine estuaries. The synergistic effects of these
               substances, how they react and interact, is a mystery.

               Biocides
                     Biocides include a broad range of chemicals designed to kill                     Commercial application and sales ofpes-
               living organisms. Tributyltin (TBT), a biocide, is an antifouling                      ticides is licensed and regulated by the
               compound used in boat bottom paint. Although the use of tributyltin                    Board ofPesticide Control (Maine Dept.
               is now restricted, it is still in use and accumulates with other heavy                 of Agriculture, Food and Rural Re-
               metals in the sediments of harbor areas and centers of boat building                   sources). Residential use in Maine is un-
               activity.                                                                              regulated.
                     Pesticides are biocides designed to kill plants and insects.
               Traces of pesticides are difficult to detect in the marine environment
               because the compounds are designed to break down into other
               substances in relatively short periods of time. The toxic effect of
               these secondary products is unknown. Large quantities of biocides
               are used on roadways, power line right-of-ways, golf courses, timber
               lands, apple orchards, blueberry fields and on other crops. Herbicide
               application on forest lands in Maine is the heaviest in the nation.
               Studies have found levels of pesticides in the groundwater of
               agricultural areas in Maine (Neil et al., 1989), but the presence of
               pesticides other than DDT in Maine estuarine environments, has not
               been investigated.

               Temperature
                     People can alter the temperature of coastal waters and streams
               with discharges of heated wastewater. Maine Yankee Atomic Power
               Plant and coal-fired plants along the coast use estuary water for
               cooling turbines. Major changes in the landscape, such as paving
               over large areas or extensive clearcutting, will also increase the
               temperature of surface run-off with potentially darnaging conse-
               quences for fish and other marine life.
                     When the estuary volume and flushing rate is high, the effect of
               warm water may be minimal. But even a small increase in water
               temperature can alter the ability of fish and shellfish to reproduce
               and may decrease oxygen levels in the water.

               Sediments
                     Plowed fields, construction sites, road ditches, natural erosion,
               and clearcuts are the principal sources of sediments that wash into
               the estuary with each storm. Soil washing into tidal creeks and
               coastal waters blocks the light needed by aquatic plants and in
               sufficient quantities, smothers shellfish beds and bottom communi-
               ties. Suspended sediments can damage gills and other sensitive fish

                                                                                                                                             27
<pb n="32" />

                                                            tissue. Dredging and bottom-dragging harvesting techniques also
                                                            increase the turbidity of estuarine waters.

                                                            Marine Trash
                                                                 Marine trash clutters miles of shoreline and threatens the health
                                                            of estuarine animals. Fish, birds, and other wildlife ingest nonbiode-
                                                            gradable plastics or are entangled by them. Pieces of gillnet and
                                                            ghost lobster traps keep on fishing for months or years after they
                                                            disappear from the fisherman's care. Marine trash enters the envi-
                                                            ronment from combined sewer outfalls,. land run-off, livers,
                                                            streams, recreational boaters, shore side visitors, and fishermen. In
                                                            Maine, commercial fishermen and recreational boaters are respon-
                                                            sible for much of the marine debris found on our shores.

          The 1989 Coast Week Cleanup in Maine
          covered 176 miles of shorefront and col-
          lected an average 102.6 pounds of debris
          per mile. (Data compiled by the Maine
          Coastal Program with assistancefrom
          the Centerfor Marine Conservation.)

                                                                                              J

          Quality of Life and Coastal Culture
               Development and pollution of estuary waters and uplands changes the lives of those who live and work
          along the coast. Pollution of estuarine waters and the subsequent decline in fisheries affects many coastal resi-
          dents accustomed to making a living harvesting natural resources from coastal waters. Access to estuaries and
          other sections of the coast is becoming more restricted. Less than 10% of the Maine coast is in public ownership,
          yet more than 75% of the state's population lives within the coastal counties. A recent survey by the Maine State
          Planning Office revealed that almost 90% of clam and worm diggers cross private shorelands to get to flats. One-
          third of those surveyed had private property owners object to passage across their lands (Dawson, 1990).
               Years ago, saltwater farms stretched down to the estuary edge. Many families owned a fish house and dock
          on the shore for convenient access to the water and as a place to store and repair fishing gear. In recent years,
          land values have soared and many residents cannot afford or choose not to maintain the waterfront farms and
          shore lots that have been in the family for generations. The sale and subdivison of family farms and waterfront
          lands leads to an increase in residential and road development and all the environmental problems associated
          with urban land use.

          28
<pb n="33" />

              Chapter Three
              Estuary Planning and Management

              What is Estuary Management?
                   An estuary management program is designed to protect, sustain
              and improve the resources of an estuary watershed. Harbor manage-
              ment ordinances, land use and shoreland ordinances, and shellfish
              ordinances are among the regulatory tools used to manage estuaries.
              Volunteer water quality monitoring, community education, clam flat
              seeding and septic system pumping programs are a few examples of
              nonregulatory efforts underway in communities along the Maine
              coast. Ideally, estuary management involves all the communities
              bordering an estuary or within the same coastal watershed working
              together to define common goals and strategies to sustain the quality
              of coastal waters and other natural resources that they share.
              The Need for Estuary Planning
                   As population and development pressures increase on the
              Maine coast, so does the need for protection and wise stewardship of
              estuaries and other coastal waters. Development concentrates at the
              edges of the coast, where water meets land in estuaries or other bays.
              State agencies have only limited authority to protect local resources
              by enforcing state environmental regulations. By thoughtful plan-
              ning, towns can encourage economic development of estuaries that
              sustain diverse and abundant natural resources. Establishing priority
              uses in the estuaries will contribute to a hcalthy-,and clean
              environment.
                   Land use and resource planning offers local governments an                          Getting Started
              opportunity to play an active role in directing future changes to their                  Even if town government is not ready to
              town rather than reacting to controversial developments crisis by                        address estuaryplanning on a large scale,
              crisis. Problems and issues involving land and resource development                      estuary management efforts can be started
              differ from area to area and are best handled by residents who under-                    by individuals or community groups with
              stand the unique situation of their area and must live with the                          particular issues of concern-finding the
              outcome.                                                                                 sources of pollution causing a clam flat
                                                                                                       closure, improving anadromousfish runs,
                   Land use plans are an expression of community vision. The                           protecting a coastal marsh, or mapping
              plans lay out scenarios describing the community in the ftiture--                        estuary habitats.
              where development should occur and businesses should locate, and                         The important thing isjust to get started.
              which natural and cultural resources need to be protected. Planning
              provides an opportunity to anticipate and prrvent problems such as
              permanent closure of productive clam flats, shorefront erosion, or an
              over-built coastline. Prevention is always less expensive than re-
              mediation.

                                                                                                                                                29
<pb n="34" />

                                                                  Estuary Planning &amp;
                                                                  Comprehensive Planning
             Why are Comprehensive Plans                               An estuary plan can be part of a town comprehensive plan and
             Important?                                           may lead to an ambitious regional effort involving many towns
             Comprehensive plans are sources of in-               working together to balance the protection of natural resources
             formation about the community, its lands             within the coastal watershed with appropriate land use activities and
             and resources and projections for the                water uses.
             future. Comprehensive plans provide the                   Maine communities are required by the Comprehensive and
             backupfor legal challenges to ordinances             Land Use Regulation Act of 1988 to develop growth management
             enacted by the town. Just asfederal laws             programs that include a comprehensive plan and an implementation
             must be consistent with the U.S. Con-
             stitution, so must town ordinances be                program to carry out the plan. Towns must include in their
             backed by a document expressing the                  comprehensive plans, programs for the regional management of
             priorities and intentions of the residents.          shared resources that extend beyond municipal borders, for example
                                                                  --estuaries and coastal watersheds. Most coastal towns will address
                                                                  estuary and embayment issues in sections of the comprehensive plan
                                                                  that cover water quality, marine resources, and other natural
                                                                  resource areas. In addition, discussions of estuarine issues and
                                                                  resources should be incorporated into sections concerning the local
                                                                  and regional economy, public access to the coast, and recreational
                                                                  opportunities.
                                                                       Estuary planning should complement existing comprehensive
                                                                  plans and be included in future or updated comprehensive plans.
                                                                  Policies relating to water quality, natural resource conservation and
                                                                  land use within a plan can be used to develop local ordinances and
                                                                  programs that effectively manage estuarine resources and the
                                                                  resources of the coastal watershed.

                                                                  Working Together
             Home Rule &amp; Responsibility of                             Estuaries are shared resources that require cooperative manage-
             Local Government.                                    ment. Large estuaries often span political boundaries, as do many
             In Maine, as in many other New England               other water resources such as freshwater lakes and groundwater
             states, all powers not expressly reserved            aquifers. Estuary water quality, habitats and fisheries cannot be
             by the state legislature are allowed to be           protected piecemeal.
             exercised by municipal governments. This                  If a town decides to protect a clam flat at one end of the estuary
             strong reliance on local control is called
             'home rule'.                                         and another town encourages marina development across the water,
             Authority for designing, implementing,               the conservation action may be thwarted as oils and discharges from
             and enforcing most shoreland and other               boat traffic pollute the flats or a shellfish closure prohibiting shell-
             land use regulations resides with local              fish harvesting around the marina overlaps the conservation area.
             government. Because of the tradition of              The comprehensive planning process provides an opportunity for
             home rule, towns have the prerogative to             towns to work together on issues relating to water quality and
             protect andmanage resources within their             resource protection.
             jurisdiction.

             30
<pb n="35" />

                   Even if towns have different schedules for completion of an                  The Office of Comprehensive Planning
              official Comprehensive Plan, they need to work together to plan                   (OCP) in the Maine Department of Com-
              the management of shared resources such as estuaries, ground                      munity and Economic Development
              water aquifers, and freshwater lakes. The regional nature of                      (MDECD) and local regional planning
              coastal watersheds requires communication and cooperation be-                     agencies provide assistance to towns de-
              tween towns as well as between state agencies with res nsibilities                veloping comprehensive plans. (See Ap-
                                                                        po                      pendix for information.)
              in estuarine areas. In the lingo of planners, what is required for
              effective estuarine management is an "interlocal effort".
              Planning Basics
                   The following reviews three stages in the development of an
              estuarine resource management plan and program. First, inventory
              the resources and identify the issues; then develop policies and rec-
              ommendations for implementation measures; and finally, develop
              and enact ordinances, regulations, and programs that address the
              issues of concern and provide for long-term management of estuar-
              ine resources. Grass-roots public involvement and education pro-
              grams are essential to ensure widespread support for the final plan
              and recommendations.
              Inventories &amp; Issue Identification
                   Inventories contain facts about natural resources, land use, and water use within the estuary watershed.
              Collecting information is an ongoing process. Inventories must be periodically revised with new data to reflect
              current trends and conditions so that policies and implementation measures can be updated. 'Me inventory
              section of a plan also examines the needs and concerns of the community, and the types of measures needed to
              address those needs and concerns. Surveys and public meetings are useful tools to identify issues of concern and
              priorities of residents. Asking the right questions is necessary in order to obtain the desired information.
                   Windshield surveys are used to quickly identify nonpoint source pollution and general patterns of land use.
              Driving around, an observer can note areas of possible non-point source pollution by watching for recent con-
              struction, land-clearing activities, bare earth, or erosion gullies. Short surveys mailed to residents are useful to
              identify issues of concern and priorities for management.

                             Ask questions and note trends
                             Are clam flats closed due to bacterial pollution? is water quality getting better or worse?
                             Are there more applications for shoreland building permits than there used to be? Are the
                             shorelands of the estuary "hardened" with parking lots, riprap, seawalls and other modi-
                             fications?
                             Arethere old dumps atthe shores of the estuary or in nearby marshes and small wetlands?
                             Where werethe old mills and industries located, what did they produce and discard? Are
                             the estuary shores and inlets littered with plastictrash and otherdebris? Whathas been the
                             overall effectof incremental development along the estuary and in the estuary watershed?

                                                                                                                                      31
<pb n="36" />

           Examples of Information to                                        This list is not complete, but indicates the kind of in-
                                                                             formation needed for an understanding of how an
           Collect and Map:                                                  estuary fits into the local ecology and economy.
                                                                             (Addresses of sources are listed in Appendix A).

           Estuary and estuary watershed unit boundaries.                    Research the location of historical industrial sites
           Source: Maine Geological Survey (MGS).                            and land use, including the location of forgotten
           Groundwater and surface water resources in the                    underground fuel tanks, town dumps or industrial
           estuary watershed.                                                dumps.
           Sources: Topographic maps, MGS aquifer maps, regional             Sources: Historical society records, town libraries, old
           planning agencies                                                 insurance maps.

           MDEP Water Classification for surface waters in the               Non-point source pollution i.e., malfunctioning
           estuary watershed.                                                septic systems, combined sewer overflows, storm-
           Sources: Topographic maps, regional planning                      water drainage outfalls, road drainage culverts and
           agencies, Maine Dept. of Environmental Protection                 ditches, clearcut areas, livestock yards.
           (MDEP).                                                           Sources: Town road maps and sewer district plans, local
           Major estuarine and marine habitats especially those              water quality groups, MDMR area biologists.
           related to commercially harvested marine resources                Coastal hazard areas, sand dunes, and flood plains.
           including salt and fresh marshes, freshwater tidal                Sources: County emergency management agencies, MGS
           habitat, flats, submerged aquatic vegetation (eelgrass            (sand dune maps), MDECD.
           meadows), migratory fish streams, shellfish and                   Existing and suitable areas for water dependent ac-
           marine worm beds, aquaculture lease sites.                        tivities including boatbuilding, harbors, fish buying
           Sources: Maine Coastal Marine Environment maps                    stations, lobster holding areas, moorings, weirs.
           availablefrom MGS; shel@(Iish maps availablefrom Maine
           Dept. of Marine Resources (MDMR) area biologists.                 Sources: Coastal water dependent use maps are avail-
                                                                             able from regional planning agencies or the Office of
           Major land uses in the estuary watershed--farmland,               Comprehensive Planning (MDECD).
           conservation, tree growth, urban, rural residential.              Sites ideal for shellfish or finfish aquaculture.
           Shoreland zones and other existing zoning districts.              Sources: MDMR area biologists, Maine Aquaculture As-
           Sources: Regional planning agencies, soil and water con-          sociation.
           servation districts offices, tax maps.
           Areas with significant botanical, archeological,                  Traditional paths to the shore, public access sites,
           wildlife, geological, or scenic resources. High value             boat ramps.
           deer yards and wintering areas; waterfowl, shore-                 Sources: Old maps, public surveys, tax maps.
           bird, and wading bird nesting and feeding areas;                  Underground petroleum storage tanks, waterfront
           spawning and nursery areas for Atlantic salmon and                gas tanks and oil distribution facilities.
           Bald Eagle nesting areas.                                         Sources: A list can be obtainedfrom the QJfice of Oil and
           Sources: Heritage Program (Maine Dept. of Economic                Hazardous Materials (MDEP) or county emergency man-
           and Community Development ), Critical Area Program                agement agencies.
           (Maine State Planning Office), Maine Dept. ofInland Fish
           and Wildlife (MIFW) area biologists, surveys.                         Estuary profiles are available for nineteen
           Locations of present and past sources of pollution to                 Maine estuaries. The profiles are brief de-
           estuarine waters including licensed discharges.                       scriptions of selected estuaries. Maps are
           Source: The Water Quality Control Bureau (MDEP) will                  available for five estuaries. Estuary profiles
           provide computer printout of discharges by town and dis-              and maps are available from the Maine State
           charge license limits--the amount and type ofpollutant                Planning Office, regional planning agencies,
           allowed to be discharged.                                             and University of Maine Cooperative Exten-
                                                                                 sion offices.

           32
<pb n="37" />

            Estuarine Management Issues
                 Each estuary along the Maine coast is unique; issues of concern
            differ between areas. The following are only a few of the issues to
            be considered when designing an estuary management plan.
            Aquaculture
                 When planning for sustainable economic development, towns
            should identify and protect existing and potential aquaculture
            development sites. Precautions must be taken to ensure that aquacul-
            ture operations are sited to minimize the effect on water quality. Aq-
            uaculture enterprises can provide year-round employment opportuni-
            ties, supplement incomes of traditional fishermen, and contribute to
            the local economy. Proposed aquaculture development often con-
            ceins harvesters fishing wild stock near the proposed lease site and
            riparian landowners. Plans to protect existing and potential aquacul-
            ture sites should address the concerns of all users of the estuary.
            Waterfront Development
                 Large-scale waterfront development projects are often contro-
            versial in Maine as communities struggle to define and retain their
            identity. Conversion of shorefront business properties to condomini-
            ums or recreational marinas is often perceived as a threat to tradi-
            tional fishing-related uses of the waterfront. Harbor management
            plans and ordinances, which regulate water use pertaining to moor-
            ing and navigation channels, and shoreland zoning, which designates
            the type of land development within 250 ft. of tidal water, are key
            tools in managing urban waterfronts.
            Coastal Hazards and Sea Level Rise
                 Unstable shore environments such as flood zones, bluffs and
            sand dune areas need additional restrictions on alteration and
            construction within buffer zones that exceed the minimum require-
            ments of state shoreland zoning and flood plain management regula-
            tions. A slow rise in sea level caused by global changes in climate
            will alter the shape of the coast in the near future. Long-term shore-
            land planning must allow room for marshes, dune fields and other
            coastal habitats to migrate inland as sea level rises. Setbacks for
            homes, businesses, and especially septic systems and wells should
            reflect projected sea level rise and natural rates of shore erosion.
            Clam Flat Closures
                 Extensive closures of areas to the harvest of shellfish because
            of bacterial pollution may cause hardship in small coastal communi-
            ties especially when many residents depend on digging for all or part
            of their income. Bacterial pollution in Maine estuaries generally
            comes from a combination of sources such as septic systems,
            municpal sewage treatment plants, stormwater run-off, flocks of
            waterfowl, or livestock yards. Pollution from each of these sources
            can be prevented by a combination of regulations, inspections,
            public information, and publically funded improvements.
                                                                                                                          33
<pb n="38" />

                                                           Public Access
                                                                The State of Maine has a unique tradition of public access
                                                           across private land. Fishermen and coastal residents have long
                                                           enjoyed informal access to the coast and estuaries for fishing or
                                                           recreation. Fishermen often haul boats and store gear out of the
                                                           reach of tide on private beaches. As the coast becomes more devel-
                                                           oped, free and open access to the coast is becoming limited. Paths
                                                           down to the shore and shortcuts along the coves that people have
                                                           used for years are often blocked off with 'No Trespassing' signs
                                                           soon after the property is sold. Conservation easements, shorefront
                                                           purchases and legal right-of-ways are tools towns can use to pre-
                                                           serve traditional access to coastal waters.

                   Who Owns the Estuary?
                   The people of Maine own the lands below low tide and the estuary waters. In areas of extensive intertidal
                   flats, private ownership extends for a distance of 1650 feet from the high water mark before public
                   ownership begins. The Bureau of Public Lands in the Maine Department of Conservation and the Maine
                   Department of Marine Resources manages and grants leases on submerged lands. in the intertidal zone,
                   between the high and low water mark, the public has certain rights even if the shoreland is privately
                   owned.
                   These rights, established by the Colonial Ordinance enacted by the Massachusetts Bay Colony in the
                   1640s, include fishing, fowling and navigation aswell asskating, salticecutting, mooring boats and worm
                   and shellfish digging. The use of private shorelands for sunbathing and other recreation was possibly
                   limited by the 1987 Moody Beach decision which upheld the right of private shorefront owners along
                   a beach in Wells, Maine to restrict access by the public.

                                                           Policy Development
                                                                Policies are based on analysis of the information gathered
              The following topics are in-                 during the inventory and issue identification effort. Policies are
              cluded in the coastal policies of            clear, specific, and enforceable statements that direct future planning
              the State of Maine are within the            decisions. Policies developed for Comprehensive Plans must be con-
              scope of estuary planning:                   sistent with the nine coastal management policies and ten growth
              1. Port and Harbor Development               management goals of the State of Maine. The policy section of a
              2. Marine Resource Management                plan usually includes overlay maps that specify the locations of
              3. Shoreline Management and                  various land and water use categoties--for instance the location of
              Access                                       conservation areas, high density development areas, water dependent
              4. Hazard Area Development                   use zones, shoreland zoning areas, and NMEP water classifications.
              5. State and Local Cooperative
              Management                                        Policies are specific statements related to a general goal. For in-
              6. Scenic and Natural Areas Pro-             stance, if the goal is "to protect the marine resources", the policy
              tection                                      may read:"The Town of             will revise its shoreland zoning
              7. Recreation and Tourism                    ordinance to establish a new resource protection district around the
              8. Water Quality                             western side of            Estuary". Policies recommend implemen-
              9. Air Quality                               tation measures which are described in detail in an implementation
                                                           program.

            34
<pb n="39" />

              implementing Estuary Management
                   Maine towns have limited direct jurisdiction over estuarine
              waters, but are able to regulate boating and shellfish harvesting ac-
              tivities. By preparing harbor management and comprehensive plans
              that address uses of the estuary, towns can influence the decisions of
              regulatory agencies at the state and federal level. The public may
              comment on applications for state leases of submerged lands,
              dredging projects, wetland alterations, discharge licenses and other
              activities that are regulated by the state. Organized public comment
              can directly affect these activities that are outside the direct jurisdic-
              tion of towns.

                   The water classification designations described in Chapter Two
              can be used by towns to regulate permitted uses. Towns and resi-
              dents can influence the classification of surface waters during the
              public hearing and review period mandated every three years. For
              instance, an upgrade of a section of an estuary from Class SB to
              Class SA waters would require the removal of all discharges and
              prohibit future dredging projects. Upgrading Class SC waters to
              Class SB would require discharges to meet higher standards and
              eventually result in improved water quality.
                   Most importantly, towns can directly influence coastal water
              use and quality by managing adjacent land use. Many users of
              estuary waters require shore access or water quality that permits
              certain uses of the waters and submerged lands. These water depend-
              ent uses include, but are not limited to, shellfish harvest, aquacul-
              ture, lobster holding, swimming, recreational boating, and fishing.
              By implementing zoning and other measures that direct land devel-
              opment along the shore and in the coastal watershed, towns can
              control the use of estuary waters and uplands within their jurisdic-
              tion.

              Implementation Measures
                   Implementation measures are the ordinances and programs
              used to carry out the policy decisions made in a comprehensive plan.
              For years, Maine communities have used many tools to manage
              estuary resources. The tools include regulatory measures--zoning,
              subdivision, shellfish, and harbor ordinances and regulations, and
              nonregulatory programs--citizen water monitoring programs, coastal
              cleanups, stormwater management projects, capital improvements to
              sewage treatment plants, shellfish seeding efforts, and removal of
              obstructions to fish migration.
                   Every community and region will find that a certain combina-
              tion of approaches best conserves estuarine resources while allowing
              sustainable growth and development.

                                                                                                                                       35
<pb n="40" />

             Regulatory Measures
                                                                  Zoning Ordinances
                                                                        Zoning controls development by establishing standards such as
                                                                  minimum lot size or setbacks. Maine towns use a variety of zoning
                                                                  techniques to regulate development.
                                                                        Shoreland Zoning--Shoreland zoning is a state-wide program
                                                                  requiring local regulation of development within a minimum of 250
                                                                  feet of tidal waters, Great Ponds, coastal and freshwater wetlands,
                                                                  and rivers and within 75 feet of certain streams. Municipal govern-
                                                                  ments must adopt and enforce local shoreland zoning ordinances that
                                                                  meet or exceed the minimum requirements issued by the Department
                                                                  of Environmental Protection.
                                                                  * Increase minimum setbacks established by the State in areas of
                                                                  natural hazards (sand dunes, steep banks, and bluffs), and flood
                                                                  plains. Purpose: To protect property and reduce erosion.
                                                                  * Establish conservation zones or resource protection districts along
                                                                  the shore and uplands bordering productive shellfish beds, spawning
                                                                  areas, eelgrass beds, tidal creeks, wetlands and other important
                                                                  estuarine habitats. Purpose: To protect and conserve water
                                                                  quality and natural resources.

                                                                    The Town of Yarmouth established a resource protection district
                                                                    (River Corridor) regulating filling activities and uses. The district
                                                                    includes the tidal marsh wetlands and areas within the 100-year
                                                                    floodplain of the Royal River, Cousins River and Pratts Brook or lands
                                                                    within 100 horizontal feetof the normal high water mark. This district
                                                                    is part of Yarmouth's shoreland zoning ordinance.

                                                                    Zone the waterfront to reserve area for water dependent uses.
                                                                  Purpose: To protect marine and fishing related activities from
                                                                  competing and incompatible uses. Guidelines for Commercial
                                                                  Fishing/ Maritime Use Zones are available from the Maine Depart-
                                                                  ment of Environmental Protection and the Office of Comprehensive
            Build-out studies are useful exercises.               Planning.
            When designing ordinances, assume that                     Town-wide Zoning-- All coastal Maine communities have in
            eventually the area will be built up to the           place minimum lot size and subdivision ordinances or rely on the
            limits of-existing regulations.                       minimums specified in the State Plumbing Code that apply to all
            For example, ifan area iszoned two acres              areas within the town. Land use ordinances provide an opportunity
            minimum, imagine a probable future                    to enact measures that protect water quality within the coastal
            where the land will be subdivided entirely            watershed and by extension, the estuary.
            into two acre parcels. Incentivesfor pro-               Direct planning boards or conservation commissions to review
            tection of agricultural lands, conserva-
            tion easements or clustered housing with              subdivision plans for waste disposal, road drainage, and effect on
            open space may need to be included to                 coastal wetlands and surface waters. Purpose: To encourage
            achieve the ideal landscape envisioned.               impact assessment beyond the immediate confines of the project
            Regional planning councils and the Of-                and protect water quality.
            fice of ConWrehensive Planning can as-                * Prohibit the direct channeling of surface water runoff into adjacent
            sist with build-out studies.                          water bodies and require that design and construction standards be
            36
<pb n="41" />

                met for storm drainage. Purpose: To protect water quality and
                reduce nonpoint source pollution.
                * Require developers to provide information about and to assess the
                local environmental impact of a proposed development beyond the
                requirement of the state subdivision law. Purpose: To encourage
                developers to assess the environmental values affected by the
                project and use best management practices to reduce impact on
                the environment.
                       Overlay Zones--Overlay zones are mapped zones that apply
                regulations or requirements in addition to those of one or more
                underlying zoning districts. Overlay zones are a flexible tool that
                can be used to promote uses by imposing additional criteria without
                changing the existing permitted uses, densities and specifics of the
                base zones.
                   The City of Portland created a waterfront overlay district to promote
                   and protect activities related tothe fishing industry. The Town of York
                   has a watershed protection overlay zone that establishes permitted
                   and prohibited uses and performance standards for development.

                Best Management Practices
                Best Management Practices (BMPS) are design or construction standards that are recommended or required by
                ordinances or regulations to minimize the impact of development on the environment.

                                                                                                   Porous pavermnt, especially in------"
                                                n                      _4                           Arin aVMss, reduces ran-off.
                                                                          R
                                                                                                   pa   9
                                                  cW0
                       Grass waterways or swales instead
                       of curbs and gutters allow the
                       infiltration of water into the ground.

                                 Strawbales and strewn straw a
                                 construction sites hold back sediment                                                                  __@.rolled density of developed areas
                                                             t

                                 and help protect receiving waters.                                                                            and maintenance ofnatural vegetation
                                                                                                                                               reduces effects of pollution an ground
                                                                                                                                               and surface waters
                                                                                                                         Minimum or no tillage
                                                                                                                         leaves a lay@ of plant
                                                                                                                            ue on the ground that
                                                                                                                         rcsid
                                                                                                                         protects the soil from
                                                                                                                         erosion yearround.
                     nt urfarming
                   reduces erosion and
                   run-off.
                   Conservation buffers along
                   waterways protect strearnbanks and
                   reduce soil crosion and ruri-off.

                                    cd                                                                                         iure storage and livestock
                                                                                                                           containment reduce bacterial
                                                                                                                         4 contamination of waterways.

                                                                                 n.
                    RON
                                                                     Examples of Best management Practices

                                                                                                                                                                                37
<pb n="42" />

                                                             Harbor Management Ordinances
             Sources for model ordinances                          Intensified use in and around harbors has led to the need for
             (listed in Appendix)                            harbor management plans and ordinances. Assisted by the Maine
             Harbor &amp; Land Use Ordinances                    Department of Economic and Community Development, several
             MDECD (Qjfice of Comprehensive Plan-            Maine towns have developed plans to coordinate use of their har-
             ning) and regional planning agencies.           bors. Integration of harbor plans into estuary plans is essential to
             Shoreland Ordinances                            evaluate the impact of harbor development on the natural resources
             MDEP (Land Bureau, Shoreland Zoning             of the entire estuary.
             Coordinator) and Maine Association of
             Conservation Commissions.                       Health Regulations
             Watershed Protection &amp; BMP's                          Health regulations can be used to reduce bacterial pollution of
             MDEP (Water Bureau, Nonpoint Source             estuary waters.
             Pollution Program) and local Soil and
             Water Conservation Districts.                   *Require inspection of septic system before property transfer and
             Shellfish Ordinances                            upgrade if neccesary. Purpose: To upgrade in-ground septic sys-
             MDMR Shel@ish Program.                          tems.
             General                                         *Create a sanitary wastewater management district. Put all the
             How to Prepare a Land Use Ordinance: A
             Manualfor Local Officials (1990), avail-        septic systems within a specified district on a regular maintenance
             able from the Qfce of Comprehensive             and inspection schedule. Purpose: To ensure that septic systems
             Planning.                                       are maintained and provide maintence services at an affordable
                                                             cost.

                                                             Shellfish Programs &amp; Ordinances
                                                                   At least forty-three towns in Maine have shellfish conservation
                                                             ordinances which regulate the licensing of clam diggers and man-
                                                             agement of shellfish flats. Among the    measures towns have taken to
                                                             protect their clam flats are designation of conservation areas, limit-
                                                             ing the number of licenses overall and limiting the number of
                                                             licenses granted to non-resident diggers, and seeding of clam flats.
                                                             Regional biologists (MDMR) assist towns and shellfish conservation
                                                             commissions with ordinances and conservation programs. The Brun-
                                                             swick Shellfish Management Program is a model program of
                                                             regionally based management of a shared natural resource. Recip-
                                                             rocity agreements between the towns of Harpswell, West Bath, and
                                                             Phippsburg coordinate the opening and closing of shellfish flats to
                                                             prevent overharvesting of one area.

                                                             Migratory Fish Regulations
                                                                   Twenty-eight towns manage alewife fisheries. The towns
                                                             usually grant contracts to private parties to harvest the alewife run.
                                                             Limits are set by the state and towns regarding the season and hours
                                                             of harvesting operations.

             38
<pb n="43" />

                                                                                                    Nonregulatory
             Marine Water Quality Task Force                                                        Measures
                  A marine water quality task force brings together all the local
             agencies, municipal officials and concerned citizens to coordinate
             local water quality improvement efforts and promote understand-
             ing of marine quality issues. In the Machias River area, a task force
             coordinated by the county emergency management office is exam-
             ining the water quality problems of the Machias River estuary and
             inner Cobscook Bay.

             Water Quality Testing Program
                  The Maine Department of Marine Resources (MDMR) and                               Technical training manuals and assis-
             the Maine Department of Environmental Protection (MDEP) are                            tance for volunteer water quality moni-
             responsible for testing estuarine waters for pollution. State agencies                 toring groups are available from local
             lack the resources to cover the approximately 3,500 miles of Maine                     offices of the University of Maine Coop-
             coastline. Volunteers can contribute to the collection of water                        erative Extension.
             quality information by gathering and testing water samples and in-
             vestigating the sources of pollution. Citizens along the Darnaris-
             cotta and St. George Rivers monitor water quality with the assis-
             tance of the University of Maine Cooperative Extension Program
             and the MDMR Shellfish Program.

             Shore Steward Program
                  Estuary residents can form a Shore Steward group to watch                         For more infortntition write:
             over a stretch of shoreline. The Shore Steward Program is an effon                     Shore Steward Program, State Planning
             similar to neighborhood watch or Adopt-A-Stream programs, but is                       Office, State House Station #38, Augusta,
             focused on caretaking stretches of coastal shoreline.                                  ME 04333.

             Household Toxic Material Reduction and Collection Program
                  Although the amount of lawn fertilizers and herbicides, garden pesticides and household chemicals used by
             an individual may be minor, the total amount used by all the individuals within a coastal watershed, in addition to
             roadside and utility right-of-way herbicide spraying, is significant. Even trace amounts of pesticides are toxic to
             soft-shelled clams. Herbicides may destroy aquatic vegetation and fertilizers add excessive amounts of nutrients
             to estuarine waters. Distribution of information to homeowners on alternatives to toxic chemicals can reduce
             their use in the coastal watershed. Periodic municipal collections of household toxic chemicals will prevent
             improper disposal and possible contamination of water quality. Contact local University of Maine Cooperative
             Extension offices for assistance in establishing a community collection program.

                                 TVKF E9T1

                                                                                                                                           39
<pb n="44" />

                                                                Land Acquisition &amp; Conservation
            For property tax assistance information,                  Faced with soaring property taxes some shorefront owners opt
            write: MaineResidents Property TaxPro-              to subdivide or sell their land. Towns and local conservation groups
            gram, Bureau of Taxation, State Office              and land trusts can work together to provide information on altema-
            Building, Augusta, Me 04333,                        tives to development or sale of shorefront property. The Maine
            or call 1-800452-1983.                              Residents Property Tax Program offers property tax relief to eligible
            For information on creative approaches              residents. Donations of conservation easements, tree growth desig-
            to conserve land contact: Maine Coast               nation and sale of development tights      'are also options available to
            Heritage Trust, The Nature Conservency,             owners seeking to reduce property taxes or preserve the natural
            and local land trusts.                              character of their land.

            In response to development pressure,                      Some communities have researched historic rights-of-way and
            voters on Nantucket Island, Massa-                  rediscovered areas that allow public access to coastal waters. Water-
            chuesetts authorized in 1983, a two per-            front Action Grants (administered by the Office of Comprehensive
            cent land transfer tax tofund a land bank           Plaming) and other grant programs have been used by towns to
            established to purchase open space for              purchase shorefront and other lands.
            use by island residents.
                                                                Marine Resource Conservation &amp; Improvement
                                                                Programs
            For information on hatcheryprojects con-                  Often regulation of shellfish and fish harvesting is not enough
            tact: Hancock Co. Cooperative Exten-                to protect the abundance of estuarine resources. Identification and
            sion, Boggy Brook Rd. RFD 5, Ellsworth,             protection of significant estuary habitats, public outreach efforts,
            ME 04605_for Shore Harvester News                   and investigations of the sources of pollution to coastal waters are
            newsletter. Regional MDMR biologists
            will assist with resource inventories and           all important for a successful natural resource program.
            conservation plans.                                       Several towns in Maine have implemented reseeding programs
                                                                to improve local clam flats. Near Jonesboro a group of ten towns co-
                                                                operativcly operate a regional clam hatchery. Many communities are
                                                                improving fishladders and removing obstructions that block passage
                                                                by migratory fish to inland waters.

            40
<pb n="45" />

           How To Keep the Ball Rolling.............

                Long-term estuary planning must be integrated into existing
           efforts and must enjoy the general support of the community. Fish,
           shellfish, conservation, comprehensive planning, and harbor com-
           mittees all contribute to management of the estuary and the coastal
           watershed.

           Institutional Arrangements
                Organizing estuary conservation efforts and keeping those
           efforts alive after completion of a comprehensive plan provides a
           true challenge to community leaders. Meshing estuary watershed
           conservation efforts with existing programs or institutions is one
           way to ensure continuity over time. Conservation commissions and
           soil and water conservation districts are examples of existing groups
           whose purpose is to conserve and manage natural resources. In-
           volvement in estuarine and coastal watershed issues is a natural
           extension of their original mandates.

           Conservation Commissions
                Conservation commissions are municipal boards created by the
           local government to identify and conserve the natural resources
           within a town. A conservation commission can review and coordi-
           nate town response to state permit applications, such as wetland
           alteration and dredging proposals, water classification hearings, or
           discharge permits, and can provide assistance to local planning
           boards. Usually conservation commissions serve in an advisory role
           to town government; they can be granted more powers at the discre-
           tion of the municipality. A local conservation commission can play
           an important role in organizing public outreach programs on estuar-
           ine resource and water quality issues and undertaking a resource in-
           ventory of the estuary watershed.

                At one time there were over 200 towns with conservation com-
           missions in Maine, but many disbanded over the years. More than                 To find out more about conservation
           100 conservation commissions are still active in Maine and several              commissions contact the Maine Associa-
                                                                                           tion of Conservation Commissions, P.O.
           communities are planning to revive their old commissions. The                   Box 222, BeVast, ME 04915.
           Maine Association of Conservation Commissions (MACC) is a non-
           profit organization dedicated to providing support and information
           to local commissions in Maine.

                                                                                                                                 41
<pb n="46" />

                                                                 Soil and Water Conservation Districts
             For more information on projects and                     Sixteen Soil and Water Conservation Districts (SWCD) in
             technical assistance contact the district or       Maine are very active in water quality protection and soil conserva-
             State Soil and Water Conservation Com-             tion. The districts are involved with soil mapping, floodplain studies,
             mission, State House Station #28, Augusta,         small watershed protection efforts, erosion and non-point source
             Maine 04333.                                       pollution control projects, septic and sewage sludge disposal, the
                                                                small watershed program, and other resource protection and conser-
                                                                vation programs. The districts also review resource alteration
                                                                permits submitted to state agencies and make recommendations.
                                                                Local SWCDs are assisted by the State Soil and Water Conservation
                                                                Commission which is part of the Maine Department of Agriculture.

                                                                Coastal Watershed Districts
                                                                      In early 1990, an act allowing for the creation of Coastal Water-
                                                                shed Districts was passed by the Maine legislature. This legislation
                                                                was an extension of the law that alloWs the creation of watershed
                                                                districts to protect inland lakes. The purpose of coastal watershed
                                                                districts is "to protect, restore and maintain water quality and
                                                                aquatic resources of coastal harbors, bays, estuaries and other
                                                                coastal waters and to manage and conserve the land and water
                                                                resources of coastal watersheds within the jurisdiction of these
                                                                districts."

             For more information on coastal water-                   The responsibilities of coastal watershed districts include
             shed districts contact the Maine Associa-          initiating and coordinating research on aquatic resources and coastal
             tion of Conservation Commissions.                  environments; planning coastal restoration projects to improve water
                                                                quality and to enhance aquatic resources within the district; working
                                                                to coordinate ordinances and regulation within the watershed
                                                                district; and adoption and implementation of coastal protection,
                                                                management and restoration plans.
                                                                      A watershed approach to management of coastal resources is an
                                                                approach advocated by coastal communities around the country. The
                                                                creation of coastal watershed districts is an opportunity for Maine
                                                                communities to regionally manage coastal land and water resources.
                                                                The revised marine resource plan of the Town of Brunswick recom-
                                                                mends the formation of a coastal wat6rshed district to address water
                                                                quality problems in Maquoit Bay and Middle Bay.
                                                                      Historically, Maine communities have been reluctant to form
                                                                regional watershed districts. Although many Maine communities
                                                                have discussed creating lake watershed districts, only one group of
                                                                communities has formally agreed to cooperatively manage their
                                                                water resources. The Cobbossee Watershed District, organized in
                                                                197 1, is a joint effort by the City of Gardiner, and towns of Litch-
                                                                field, Mt. Vernon, Manchester, Monmouth, Readfield, Richmond,
                                                                Wayne and Winthrop; to protect and restore 28 lakes within the
                                                                watershed.

             42
<pb n="47" />

            Citizen Involvement and Information
                 Successful estuary planning and management requires grass root public involvement. All the major users of
            the estuary should be invited to participate. This includes, but is not limited to--clammers, wormers, aquacultur-
            ists, municipal sewer plant operators, conservation groups, landowners, school groups, industry representatives,
            and other local business people. Public education on the impact of common activities on estuaiine ecology is
            often more effective than regulation. For instance, boat pumpout facilities are often underutilized by boaters
            because they are less convenient than pumping sewage overboard. Enforcement is almost impossible; education
            on the effect of overboard discharge is the often the best way to promote compliance.
            Enforcement in the Estuary
                 The local Code Enforcement Officer is responsible for enforc-
            ing town ordinances including shoreland zoning. By sharing the                      For information on the Code Enforce-
            same Code Enforcement Officer, towns within a watershed can                         ment Officer Training Program or a copy
            promote fair enforcement of each town's regulations and ordinances.                 of A Handbook for Municipal Officials
                                                                                                on Interlocal Code Enforcement,' con-
            The harbor master in an estuary has authority to assign moorings,                   tact: MDECD, Office of Comprehensive
            direct boat traffic, enforce boat discharge regulations, keep naviga-               Planning, Augusta, Maine 04333.
            tion channels clear and control other activities affecting harbor
            waters.

                 Marine Patrol (MDMR) and local shellfish wardens enforce
            shellfish and fish regulations on tidewater, and game wardens
            (MIFW) enforce fish and game rules on fresh water and uplands.
            Maine towns rarely fine violators of local ordinances; instead they
            usually require correction. Enforcement ultimately depends on
            citizcn cooperation. People who live or work on an estuary are
            usually the first to know of a water quality problem or shoreland
            zoning violation. Concerns should be reported to the town office and
            staff need to know who to contact next.

                                             The Town Of Brunswick- A Case Study
                       Several years ago, a group of Brunswick residents became concerned that the clam resource of
                       Brunswick tidal flats were threatened by pollution from land run-off. The residents formed the Bays
                       Planning Committee and set out to revise the marine resource section of their comprehensive plan in
                       order to protect the town clamming industry valued at over two million dollars a year in harvested
                       value.
                           In June 1989, the Town of Brunswick completed "The Maquoit &amp; Middle Bays Comprehensive
                       Plan Revision". To date, this document is the bestexampleof a local plan that provides for the longterm
                       protection of estuarine 'and marine resources. The plan suggests bold and innovative programs--the
                       creation of sanitary wastewater management districts and awatershed protection district, specific rec-
                       ommendations to reduce non-point source pollution by limiting the percentage of a lot that can be
                       covered with an impermeable surface, regulating shoreside fuel facilities and developing a Toxic
                       Material Disposal Plan. With these measures the Town hopesto protect its soft-shell clam inclustryfrom
                       land-based pollution.
                       Maquoit and Middle Bays Comprehensive Plan Revision by Christopher Heinig of Intertide Corporation, South
                       Harpswell, Maine, June 16,1989 for The Town of Brunswick Bays Planning Committee.

                                                                                                                                       43
<pb n="48" />

                                                           What Planning Can't Do
                                                                 Not all problems can be solved by planning and management at
                                                           the municipal or local level. Individual actions will make the differ-
                                                           ence. Boat owners need to dispose of trash properly and eliminate or
                                                           reduce the use of chlorine in heads and for boat maintenance. Clam
                                                           diggers and other harvesters must respect conservation closures and
                                                           aquaculture leases. Property owners and developers need to be
                                                           aware of the impact of their activities on the surrounding land and
                                                           waterscape and investigate best management practices even if not
                                                           required to do so by local regulations. Fundamental changes in the
                                                           way individuals do things will have the most profound and long
                                                           lasting effect on estuaries and the resources we treasure.

                                                           Recommended Reading For More Information
                                                           Coastal Management Techniques, A Handbookfor Local Officials,
                                                           prepared by Land &amp; Water Associates and Maine Tomorrow,
                                                           Hallowell, ME, Maine Dept. of Economic and Community Develop-
                                                           ment, Augusta, ME, October 1988.
                                                                 This excellent handbook discusses issues associated with devel
                                                                 opment along the coast and provides examples and explana-
                                                                 tions of management techniques used by Maine communities
                                                                 Available from MDECD, Office of Comprehensive Planning.
                                                           Financing Marine and Estuarine Programs: A Guide to Resource,
                                                           Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, September
                                                           1988.
                                                                 A primer focusing on accessing revenues, managing the flow of
                                                                 funds and buiding institutions to oversee financial planning and
                                                                 management with case studies of creative financing by commu
                                                                 nities around the country. Available from EPA, Office of
                                                                 Marine and Estuarine Protection, Washington D.C. 20460.
                                                           Guidelinesfor Maine's Growth Management Program, MDECD,
                                                           Office of Comprehensive Planning, Augusta, UE, December 1988.
                                                                 Available from MDECD, Office of Comprehensive Planning.
                                                           Managing Maine's Harbors and Waterfronts, Maine State Planning
                                                           Office and Maine Department of Economic &amp; Community Develop-
                                                           ment, Office of Comprehensive Planning, Augusta, NIE, November
                                                           1989.
                                                                 Background materials on major water quality issues and natural
                                                                 resources including toxic and nutrient pollution, historical pol-
                                                                 lution, dredging, and writing harbor ordinances. Available
                                                                 from regional planning agencies and MDECD, Office of
                                                                 Comprehensive Planning.

            44
<pb n="49" />

          Managing the Shoreline for Water Dependent Uses, A Handbook of
          Legal Tools, prepared for the New England/ New York Coastal
          Zone Task Force by the Marine Law Institute, University of Maine
          School of Law, Portland, ME, December 1988.
               A technical handbook describing legal tools used by New
               England communities including many in Maine, to manage
               land and water use along the coast. Available from the Maine
               State Planning Office.
          Natural Resources Handbook, A Planning Toolfor Maine Commu-
          nities, prepared for the Maine State Planning Office, by the Maine
          Association of Conservation Commisssions, July 1987.
               A handbook explaining how to conduct a natural resource and
               land use inventory, mapping the information and interpreting
               the results. Available from: Maine Association of Conservation
               Commissions or MDECD.

          Watershed: An Action Guide to Improving Maine Waters , Maine
          State Planning Office, Maine Department of Environmental Protec-
          tion, and University of Maine Cooperative Extension, Augusta, ME,
          April 1990.
               This guide describes actions an individual can do to improve
               water quality and reduce nonpoint source pollution. Available
               from local University of Maine Cooperative Extension offices.

                                                                                                Snowy Egret
                                                                                               (Egretta thula)

                                                                                                                     45
<pb n="50" />

             Cited References                             Adamus, P.R. 1978. The Natural Regions of Maine, by the Center
                                                          for Natural Areas, South Gardiner, ME, for the Maine Critical Areas
                                                          Program, Maine State Planning Office, Augusta, ME.
                                                          Bartlett, Jr., W.P., W.B. Higgins, and W.J. Nichols, Jr. 1989. Water
                                                          Resources Data, Maine, Water Year 1988, U.S. Geological Survey,
                                                          Augusta, ME. Report ME-88-1.
                                                          Card, D.J., R.A. Aho, and L. Gillespie 1981. Casco Bay Marine
                                                          Resources Inventory. Prepared for Maine Dept. of Environmental
                                                          Protection, Bureau of Oil and Hazardous Material, Maine Dept. of
                                                          Marine Resources, West Boothbay Harbor, ME.
                                                          Dawson, M. 1990. Coastal Public Access in Maine, Coastal Pro-
                                                          gram, Maine State Planning Office, Augusta, ME.
                                                          Fefer, S.I. and P.A. Schettig (editors) 1980. An Ecological Charac-
                                                          terization of Coastal Maine (North and East of Cape Elizabeth), U.S.
                                                          Fish and Wildlife Service, Northeast Region, Newton Comer, MA.
                                                          FWS/OBS-80/29.
                                                          Heinig, C. 1989. Maquoit and Middle Bays, Comprehensive Plan
                                                          Revision, June 16,1989, prepared for the Town of Brunswick, Inter-
                                                          tide Corp., South Harpswell, ME.
                                                          Kelley, J.T. 1987. An Inventory of Coastal Environments and
                                                          Classification of Maine's Glaciated Shoreline, in Glaciated Coasts,
                                                          Academic Press Inc., New York, NY, p. 151-175.
                                                          Kelley, J.T., A. Kelley, and 0. Pilkey, Jr. 1989. Living with the
                                                          Coast of Maine, sponsored by Maine Audobon, Duke University
                                                          Press, Durham, NC.
                                                          Larsen, P.F. and L.F. Doggett 1979. The Salinity and Temperature
                                                          Distributions of Selected Maine Estuaries, Bigelow Laboratory for
                                                          Ocean Sciences, West Boothbay Harbor, ME.
                                                          Larsen, P.F., D.F. Gadbois, A.C. Johnson and L.F. Doggett 1983.
                                                          Distribution of polycyclic hydrocarbons in the surficial sediments of
                                                          Casco Bay, Maine, Bulletin of Envirormiental Contamination and
                                                          Toxicology 30: 530-535.
                                                          Neil, C.D., J.S. Williams and T.K. Weddle 1989. Pilot Study-
                                                          Pesticides in Ground Water Final Report, Maine Dept. of Conserva-
                                                          tion, Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, ME Open File No. 89-2.
                                                          North Carolina Department of Natural Resources and Community
                                                          Development 1986. A Guide to Protecting Coastal Waters Through
                                                          Local Planning, Division of Coastal Management, North Carolina
                                                          Dept. of Natural Resources and Community Development, Raleigh,
                                                          NC.
                                                          Pritchard, D.W., 1967. What is an Estuary?: Physical viewpoint, in
                                                          Lauff, G. H., ed., Estuaries. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Washington, DC,
                                                          p.3-5.
                                                          Short, F.T., 1988. "Eelgrass Distribution and Status in the Maquoit
                                                          Bay and Middle Bay Areas of Brunswick, ME", (unpublished).
             46
<pb n="51" />

               The agencies and organizations listed here are a partial listing            Appendix
           of those that can provide information and assistance with estuary               Sources for
           planning and resource management efforts.
                For further information consult 'Environmental Resources of                Information
           Maine', a directory available from the Maine Department of
           Environmental Protection (call 289-2811 for copies) or 'Coast-
           Links, A Resource Guide to Maine's Coastal Organizations', a
           publication available from the Coastal Program (call 289-3261 for
           copies).
           Cooperative Extension Offices                                 Regional Planning Councils
           University of Maine Cooperative Extension (UMCE)              Capital Coastal Council of Governments
           9 Coburn Hall, Orono, NIE 04469 (581-3181)                    89 Western Ave., Augusta, ME 04330 (622-7146)
           Androscoggin/Sagadahoc Counties Cooperative                   Eastern Mid-Coast Planning Commission
           Extension                                                     9 Water SL, Rockland, ME 04841 (594-2299)
           277 Minot Ave. Auburn, ME 04210 (786-0376)                    Greater Portland Council of Governments
           Cumberland County Cooperative Extension                       233 Oxford St., Portland, ME 04101 (774-9891)
           96 Falmouth St., Portland, ME 04103 (780-4205)                Hancock County Planning Commission
           Hancock County Cooperative Extension                          RFD 4, Box 22, Ellsworth, ME 04605 (667-713 1)
           Boggy Brook Rd., RFD 5, Ellsworth, ME 04605                   Lincoln County Municipal Resource &amp; Planning Office
           (667-8212)                                                    Lincoln County Courthouse, P.O. Box 249, Wiscasset, ME
           Kennebec County Cooperative Extension                         04578 (882-6358)
           290 Eastern Ave., Augusta, ME 04330 (622-7546)                Penobscot Valley Council of Governments
           Knox/Lincoln Counties Cooperative Extension                   I Cumberland Place, Suite 300, P.O. Box 2579, Bangor,
           375 Main St., Rockland, ME 04841 (594-2104)                   ME 04401 (942-6389)
           Penobscot County Cooperative Extension                        Southern Maine Regional Planning Commission
           Court House Annex, 105 Hammond St., Bangor, ME 04401          Box Q, 255 Maine Street, Sanford, ME 04073 (324-2952)
           (942-7396)                                                    Washington County Regional Planning Commission
           Waldo County Cooperative Extension                            63 Main St. Machias, ME 04654 (255-8686)
           RFD, Box 64 1, Belfast, ME 04915 (342-597 1)
           Washington County Cooperative Extension                       Soil and Water Conservation Districts
           I I Water St., Machias, ME 04654 (255-3345)                   Cumberland County SWCD
           York County Cooperative Extension                             1A Karen Dr., Westbrook, ME 04092 (871-9247)
           P.O. Box 347, Alfred, ME 04002 (324-2814)                     Hancock County SWCD
                                                                         41 Main St., Ellsworth, ME 04605 (667-8663)
           Environmental Organizations                                   Kennebec County SWCD
           Maine Aquaculture Association                                 Federal Bldg. Rm. 408-C, Western Ave., Augusta, ME
           P.O. Box 535, Damariscotta, ME 04543 ( 563-8168)              04330 (622-8250)
           Maine Association of Conservation Commissions                 Knox-Lincoln Counties SWCD
           P.O. Box 222, Belfast, ME 04915 (338-5538)                    RR I, Box 15, Waldoboro, ME 04572 (832-4292)
           Maine Audubon Society                                         Penobscot County SWCD
           Gilsland Farm, 118 U.S. Route 1, Falmouth, ME 04105           970 Illinois Ave., Bangor, ME 04401 (941-8973)
           (781-2330)                                                    Waldo County SWCD
           Maine Coast Heritage Trust                                    69 Northport Ave., Belfast, ME 04915 (338-2320)
           167 Park Row, Brunswick, ME 04011 (729-7366)                  Washington County SWCD
           Natural Resources Council of Maine                            49 Court SL, P.O. Box 121, Machias, ME 04654
           271 State Stn, Augusta, ME 04330 (622-3101)                   (255-4659)
           The Nature Conservancy                                        York County SWCD
           P.O. Box 338,122 Maine St.                                    160 Cottage St., Sanford, ME 04073 (324-7015)
           Topsham, ME 04086 (729-5181)

                                                                                                                               47
<pb n="52" />

             State Agencies
             Maine Department of Agriculture, Food and Rural                  Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife
             Resources                                                        284 State St. Station 41, Augusta, ME 04333 (289-3371)
             (Soil and Water Conservation Commission)                         Regional Offlees.
             Deering Building, AMHI Complex, Station 28, Augusta,             Region A (Kittery to Phippsburg), RR 1, 328 Shaker Rd.,
             ME 04333 (289-3871)                                              Gray, ME 04039 (289-3849, 1-800-322-1333)
             Maine Department of Conservation                                 (Phil Bozenhard)
             (Bureau of Public Lands, Land Use Regulation                     Region B (Georgetown to Searsport), 8 Federal St.,
             Commission, Maine Geological Survey)                             Augusta, ME 04330 (289-2536, 1-800-322-3606)
             Harlow Building, AMIR Complex, Station 22, Augusta, ME           (Eugene Dumont)
             04333 (289-4900)                                                 Region C (Penobscot to Eastport), 68 Water St., Machias,
             Maine Department of Economic and Community                       ME 04654 (255-3266) (Tom Schaeffer)
             Development                                                      Maine Department of Marine Resources
             (Office of Comprehensive Land Use Planning, Heritage             Stevens Complex (Hallowell) Station 21, Augusta, ME
             Program)                                                         04333 (289-2291)
             Capitol Center, 219 Capitol St., Station 130, Augusta, ME        Regional Biologists:
             04333 (289-6800)                                                 (New Hampshire Border to Kennebec River) Box 12,
             Maine Department of Environmental Protection                     Dixon Rd., Ogunquit, ME, 03907 (646-3322)
             (Bureau of Land Quality Control, Bureau of Water Quality         (Brad Sterl)
             Control, Bureau of Oil and Hazardous Materials Control)          (Kennebec River to Union River) East Shore Rd.,
             Ray Building, AMIR Complex, Station 17, Augusta ME               Brigham's Cove, West Bath, NIE 04530 (443-6559)
             04333.(289-7688)                                                 (Donald Card)
             Regional Offices:                                                (Union River to Canadian Border) RR I Box 172,
             South Portland: DEP 312 Canco Rd.,So. Portland, NIE              Gouldsboro, ME 04607 (422-3167) (Jay McGowan) &amp; P.O.
             04103 (879-6300)                                                 Box 37, East Machias, ME 04630 (David Clifford)
             Bangor: DEP 106 Hogan Road, Bangor, ME 04401                     Maine State Planning Office
             (941-4570)                                                       (Critical Areas Program, Ecological Reserves, Land for
             Presque Isle: DEP 1235 Central Parkway Dr., Presque Isle,        Maine's Future, Maine Coastal Program, Shore Stewards)
             NIE 04769 (764-2044)                                             184 State SL, Station 38, Augusta, ME (289-3261)

                                                                              Resource Conservation and Development
                                                                              Areas
                                                                              Downeast RC&amp;D Area
                                                                              P.O. Box 210, Cherryfield, ME 04622 (546-2368)
                                                                              Threshold to Maine RC&amp;D Area
                                                                              IA Karen Dr., Westbrook, ME 04092 (871-9248)
                                                                              Time and Tide RC&amp;D District
                                                                              US Route 1, Box 12, Waldoboro, ME 04572 (832-5348)

             48
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                                                                    illiall@ililligh
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