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N31N30 HO?JV3'S-3"N sz:HVA.-JV 09-gand 3NIVW Ao xnns 3HJL --10 3in.LIISNI H3EV3S3U SHI I-10A Z,3[q' A tL6L L DH DO to A- pas do W-F dp 4, k Jc U011ewjo;ul -eco @,U GUOZ le4s A6 TRIGOM The Research Institute of the Gulf of Maine (TRIGOM) is a consortium of academic institutions and research agencies dedicated to the ad- vancement of marine science and oceanography through cooperative efforts. TRIGOM provides a variety of services to the marine science community through publications, meetings ' and seminars on subjects of common interest. In'addition, the Institute seeks to undertake its own projects which will help the state and region better plan for multiple uses of -the coast and-to manage its natural resources. ACADEMIC MEMBERSHIP Bates College Bowdoin College Colby College Cornell University Maine Maritime Academy Nasson College Saint Francis'College Southern Maine Vocational Technical Institute University of Maineat Farmington University of Maine at Orono University of Maine at Portland-Gorham PARC The Public Affairs Research Center was established at Bowdoin College in 1966 to act as focal point for conducting studies of economic conditions, community government, regional development, and public administration. These activities are financed through research .contracts with government and business organizations, as well as through the assistance of foundation grants and contributions from .business firms,and individuals. 0 U S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 2234 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON SC 29405-2413 A Socio-Economic and Environmental Inventory of the North Atlantic Region including the Outer Continental Shelf and adjacent waters from Sandy Hook, New Jersey, to Bay of Fundy VOLUME I Book 2 Property of CSC Library Submitted to Bureau of Land Management, Marine Minerals Division as partial fulfillment of Contract 08550-CT3-8 November 1974 COASTAL ZONE INFORMATION CENTER The Research Institute of the Gulf of Maine Box 2320 South Portland, Maine Information in this document is unrestricted' in use and may be. copied in, part or, total provided refrence, is made-, to TRIGOM-PARC as authors and, BLM as'. the supporting; agency. TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume One: Environmental Inventory Book Two: Chapters Four and Five Page Chapter 4.0 Major Sounds and Embayments 4.1 Geology of Major Sounds and Embayments 4.1.1 Introduction - Maine to Cape Cod 4-2 4.1.2 Sediment Classification 4-2 4.1.3 Major Estuarine Embayments of the Gulf of Maine 4-9 Passamaquoddy Regions 4-9 Maine 4-13 Southern Maine Coast 4-19 New Hampshire - Maine Border 4-19 Newburyport, Massachusetts 4-21 Boston, Massachusetts 4-34 4-.1.4 Minor Embayments Bordering the Gulf of Maine 4-37 4.1.5 References 4-43 4.1.6 Introduction - Cape Cod to Sandy Hook 4-49 Massachusetts 4-49 Rhode Island 4-54 Connecticut - New York 4-54 Other Areas 4-57 4.1.7 References .4-58 4.2 Physical Oceanography 4.2.1 Introduction to Region North of Cape Cod 4-63 4.2.2 Characteristics of Currents 4-63' Coastal Shelf 4-63 Inshore 4-66 Major Estuarine Embayments 4-67 4.2.3 Tides 4-70 4.2.4 Fresh Water Input 4-74 General Discription of Freshwater Discharge of Major Basins 4-74 Temperature and Salinity of the Coastal, Shelf 4-// 4.2.5 Characteristics of Circulation 4-89 Salt Wedge Estuary 4-91 Partial TTTl-ix-ea-Estuary 4-91 Vertically Homogeneous Estuary 4-91 Chapter 4.0 (Continued) Page Sectionally Homogeneous Estuary 4-92 4.2.6 Misfits and Variations 4-92- 4.2.7 Sea Ice Conditions - Eastport to Cape Cod 4'94 4.2.8 References, 4-96 4.2.9 Circulation and, Currents - Region South of Cape Cod Introduction 4-200 4.2.10 Tides 4-216 4.2.11 Sea Ice Conditions - Cape Cod to New York 4-218 4.2.12 References 4-220 4.3 Chemical Oceanography of Coastal Waters 4.3.1 Areas South of Cape Cod 4-352 Continental Shelf South of Long Island 4-352 4.3.2 New York Bight 4-354 4.3.3 Raritan Bay 4-364 4.3.4 Long Island Sound 4-364 4.3.5 Narragansett Bay 4-370 4.3.6 Massachusetts Bay 4-377 4.3.7 Cape Ann to Cape Elizabeth 4-379 4.3.8 Casco Bay to Eastport 4-395 4.3.9 References 4-406 4.4 Meteorology and Climate 4.4.1 Introduction 4-416 4.4.2 Southern Sub-Region 4-416 Precipitation 4-418 Temperature 4-420 Humidity 4-420 Data from Environmental Impact Statements 4-420 4.4.3 Northern Sub-Region 4-429 Precipitation 4-436 Temperature 4-436 Data from Environmental Impact Statements 4-436 4.4.4 Storms 4-452 Introduction 4-452 Tropical Cy-clones 4-452 4.4.5 References 4-502 4.5 Biological Oceanography 4.5.1 Mussel-Oyster Reefs 4-507 Habitat Definition Description 4-507 Habitat Dynamics 4-507 Chapter 4.0 (Continued) Page Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-509 Biological Components 4-510 References 4-541 4.5.2 Worm-Clam Flats 4-544 Habitat Definition Description 4-544 Habitat.Dynamics 4-544: Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-548 Biological Components 4-550 References 4-566 4.5.3 Shallow Salt Pond 4-569 Habitat Definition Description 4-569 Habitat Dynamics 4-569 Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-571 Biological Components 4-573 References 4-595 4.5.4 Salt Marshes 4-596 Habitat Definition Description 4-596 Habitat Dynamics 4-596 Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-598 Biological Components 4-600 References 4-617 4.5.5 Plankton-Based Pelagic-Estuarine 4-618 Habitat Definition and Description 4-618 tnamics 4-618 Lffect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-621 Biological Components 4-622 References 4-624 Chapter 5.0 Exposed Shorelines 5.1 Geology of Sand Beaches - Maine to Cape Cod 5-4 5.1.1 Physiography 5-4 Bedrock Land Structure Control 5-4 Submergence and Formation of Second- Order Physiographic Shoreline Features 5-5 Late-Pleistocene Glaciation st- PTeistocene Sea Level Changes, Gulf of Maine 5-5 @Sources of Sediment 5-12 5.1.2 New England Beaches 5-19 Barrier Beaches 5-19 Pocket Beaches 5-24 Standplain Beaches 5-25 Tombolos and Spits 5-25 Beach Erosion-Accretion 5-25 Chapter 5.0 (Continued) Page 5.1.3 Maine Beaches. 5-32 Popham Beaches Phippsburg 5-32 Old Orchard Beach Biddeford 5-33 Saco Bay Sediments Saco 5-41 Wells-Kennebunk Area - Ogunquit 5-49 Long Sands/Short Sands Beaches York 5-55 5.1.4 New Hampshire Beaches 5-58 Rye Gravel Beach - Rye 5-58 Hampton/Seabrook Beaches - Hampton, Seabrook 5-61 5. 1.5 Massachusetts Beaches 5-64 Salisbury Beach - Salisbury 5-64 Plum Island - Newburyport 5-64 Crane Beach - Ipswich 5-77 Coffin Beach - Essex 5-84 Cape Ann Beaches - Gloucester, Rockport 5-86 Boston Basin Beaches 5-88 White Cliffs to Nobscusset Point - Plymouth 5-101 North Dennis Beaches - Dennis 5-107 Brewster, Eastham, Wellfleet Beaches Dennis, Brewster, Easthayn, Wellfleef 5-107 Outer Cape Cod Beaches - Provincetown to Monomoy Island 5-113 5.1.6 References 5-140 5.2 Wind and Wave Climate 5-148 5.2.1 Winds 5-148 5.3 Biological Oceanography 5-155 5.3.1 Sandy Shores Habitat 5-155 Habitat Definition/Description 5-155 Habitat Dynamics 5-155 Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 5-158 Biological Component 5-158 References 5-163 5.3.2 Rocky Shores Habitat 5-164 Habitat Definition/Description 5-164 Habitat Dynamics 5-164 Effects of Man-Induced Stresses 5-168 Biological Components 5-169 References 5-179 Chapter 4 Major Sounds - and Embayments Page 4.1.1 Introduction Maine to Cape Cod 4-2 4.1.2 Sediment Classification 4-2 4.1.3 Major Estuarine Embayments of the Gulf of Maine 4-9 Passamaquoddy Regions 4-9 Maine 4-13 Southern Maine Coast 4-19 New Hampshire - Maine Border 4-19 Newburyport, Massachusetts 4-21 Boston, Massachusetts 4-34 4.1.4 Minor Embaymenis Bordering the Gulf of Maine 4-37 4.1.5 References 4-43 4.1.6 Introduction Cape Cod to Sandy Hook 4-49 Massachusetts 4-49 Rhode Island 4-54 Connecticut New York 4-54 Other Areas 4-57 4;1.7 References 4-58 4-1 The following is an integrated description of Major Sounds and Embayments. A more detailed description..:of this region'Vi1l be found in Section 4.5- BiloTog'ical-Ocea'niography; where individual habitats such as worm and clam flats, mussel and oyster reefs, and shallow salt ponds will be described more thoroughly. This entire region is, in general terms, that area lying inshore from the open ocean or Offshore Region previously presented in Chapter 3.0. The area is roughly defined as that lying behind the major headlands but@also includi,ng-s'ounds and estuaries. The delineation of the physical and geological areas will '' not necessarily overlie or closely resemble the biological habitat limits. In places terms such as inshore, nearshore, coastal shelf,and estuaries will also be used in parts of this,section' in describing the geological, physical' and chemical aspects. 4.1 GEOLOGY OF MAJOR SOUNDS?AND EMBAYMENTS 4.1.1 INTRODUCTION - MAINE TO CAPE COD The major embayments of Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts are, for the most part, estuaries where ocean water is diluted by fresh water. The various estuarine-basins have originated by the drowning of river valleys, the drowning of glaciated valleys, building of barrier bars or beaches-seaward of low-coastal plains, and drowning of tectonically-produced basins. The truly estuarine portions of the major embayments are drowned river valleys, but the embaymehts themselves may have originated by barrier bar building or by tectonic activity. From Portland, Maine south, the major estuarine basins are drowned river valleys.further segregated from open marine waters by large barrier islands or spits with the exception of Boston Harbor, a graben or fault produced basin. North of Portland the estuaries are confined to submerged river valleys with unmodified mouths. A few small coastal basins in Maine are classified fjords, such as Somes Sound on Mt. Desert Island. 4.1.2 SEDIMENT CLASSIFICATION In general, estuaries can be broadly divided'into two constituent sediment categories: the fine-grained estuaries and the coarse- grained ones. The fine-grained estuaries, as the name implies, are dominated by mud sediment delivered to the estuary as a suspensate and deposited along the margins of the estuarine channel. Further, fine-grained estuaries are characterized by long, linear basins with a single channel flanked by mud flats and mussel reefs at the mouths of the basins. Coarse-grained estuaries, on the other hand, are dominated by sand-sized sediment and a variety of complex sand body morphologies 4-2 both within and immediately outside the basin inlets. The fine-grained estuaries of New England are also dominated by fluvial input and exhibit moderately to highly stratified cir- culation patterns. Mud is the dominant sediment as the fluvial waters deliver large quantities of silt and clay to the estuary. Only minor volumes of sand are delivered to these estuaries as bedload or suspended load as most of the large rivers have sedi- ment-retaining dams over much of their length. Sand may be delivered to the lower segment of the estuary from adjacent beaches during periods of flood tide and storm surges, but the high rate of river discharge throughout most of the year in a fine-grained estuary in effect subdues the du@@ation and st"rength of flood tidal currents, thereby preventing large quantities'of sand from entering the estuary. The coarse-grained estuaries, however, are typically well-mixed estuaries where the tidal currents dominate over river discharge. These estuarine basins are typically, at least in part, broad, marsh-filled lagoons fronted by barrier islands. Sand is delivered to the basin through the inlets during rising tides (Hayes, 1969). The lower to mid-portions of the estuaries exhibit sand bars, sand- floored channels, and, on higher surfaces, muddy clam flats and salt marsh. Commonly coarse-grained estuaries exhibit several channel systems which converge just inside the basin mouth. The upper portion of the channel complexes are characterized by mudflats as current velocities are reduced and incapable of transporting sand-sized grains this far up the estuary (Hayes and McCormick, 1967).Figure 4-1 shows a schematic cross-section through the Parker River Estuary, a coarse-grained type. The forms of sand accumulation in the coarse-grained estuaries.of New England have been detailed by Hayes (1969). The most common types of sand bodies are ebb deltas (subdivided into swash bars, ebb sand sheets, and submarine lunate bars), flood deltas (made up of clam flats, spillover lobes, ebb shields, ebb spits, and sand flats covered with flood-oriented sand waves), channel-bottom sand wave fields, mid- channel bars and point bars. An example of the morphological elements of a typical New England ebb-tidal delta is in a coarse-grained estuary as sho- wn in.Tigure 4-2 while Figure 4-3 shows the elements of a flood- tidal delta. Hayes (1969) further states: "Smaller forms, such as sand waves, mega-ripples, and asymmetric ripples, abound on the surfaces of these features (larger sand accumulations). Four factors: time-velocity asymmetry of tidal currents, topographic shielding, vertical position with reference to mean low water, and residual ebb currents in major channels, are the.primary controls of the type, abundance, and orientation of these smaller bed forms on the larger sand bodies. .4-3 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Location and Schematic Section Across a Tidal 4-1 Channel-Parker River (Hayes and McCormick, 1967) _-MOW, C-0610. I M j:: 7 . .......... .......... . ... .......... .. .............. ... ........ -- - ------- Z:LT: DE D ......... .. .. A SSOCIO- ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI07N] IR@W I FIGURE Morphological Elements of an Ebb-Tidal Delta. 4-2 (Hayes, et.al., 1973) 4-5 9-V PILGO LITU POOLA le -40 s4u@w@L3 LPOL6oLoqd.AoW E-V (696L WOJ44009) j3unoizi pe& -1 N01038 OU.NV-UV HIHON 3H.L AO kUO-LN3ANI -XN3VYNO81AN3 aNV OINON003- Oos- 01 C., Z < in rn X rn rm rn z m co ro 0 rn z x m m -n w 0 9L I < m x 0 co r-I C/) C/) x M C) f f X ;a 0 Z,- mm A M OD > z M , Z M 0 m M z zF m 6 OR cn ( ) > 0 > G) m z > 0 -1 M m 0 X 0 m > m r- m 6 0 > rn (n G) r, F) 0 M Of major importance is the prominence of flood currents as sand-transporting agents. Most of the intertidal sandy areas are dominated by flood-formed features; therefore, the dominant transport direction is landward with resultant infilling of the estuaries from barrier beaches and/or offshore sources." Flood tidal deltas are the largest, dominant sand body within the, coarse-grained estuaries. This sand body consists mainly of gently seaward-dipping sand surfaces covered with flood-oriented sand waves. Delta margins are raised surfaces called ebb shields, or, where spits generate off from the delta, ebb spits covered by ebb-oriented mega- ripples. In places the deltas are cut by spillover lobes (a lobate ridge) formed by ebb currents (Hayes, Boothroyd, and Hine, 1970). While the above-mentioned sand bodies, channels, and mudflats dominate the channel areas, inter-channel areas of the coarse-grained estuaries and channel-margin areas of fine-grained estuaries are built up by salt marsh organic matter. Early studies of New England salt marshes dealt with hypotheses of plant succession and marsh development (Mudge, 1847; Shaler, 1884; Davis, 1910) while more recent studies (Redfield, 1967; McCormick, 1968; Hartwell, 1�70; and Farrell, 1971) have been concerned with marsh stratigraphy, organic content, and water content. The stratigraphy of marsh peat in New England estuaries is dominated by thick sections of brown to yellow-brown fibrous roots of Spartina patens with an organic content of from 20 percent to 25 percent over- lying thinner deposits of organic rich silts and clays mottled by the thick tubular roots of Spartina alterniflora. This marsh succession overlies three types of sediment facies depending on the locality within the estuary. Marsh tracts immediately bordering uplands overlie thin deposits of black peat derived from fresh and brackish water plants and averaging an organic content of 30 percent or greater. The black, freshwater peat, in part, overlies Pleistocene or Post- Pleistocene outwash or glacio-marine clays. Marshes are underlain by estuarine, shell-bearing silts and clays in the upper sections of estuaries near channels, while pointbar, channel, and flood-tidal delta sands underlie marsh deposits at the basin mouth (Figure 4-4). Redfield (1967) has studied the water content of the Barnstable Marsh. The patterns of content variability probably apply elsewhere in New England marsh tracts, although water content due to upland runoff will vary seasonally. High salt mars,h peat contains higher than 60 percent volume of water. Where salt marsh exists adjacent to uplands, the water content may be over 80 percent. Intertidal peat, or Spartina alterni- flora peat contains between 30 to 60 percent water while estuarine sedi- ments contain less than 30 percent as interstitial water. 4- 7 Columnar Section High Salt Marsh Peat, brown to yEllow brown) 4-20 composed of rcats of high salt marsh plants, eet fine textured, average organic content 2376 Uj Alterniflora. Peat, gray brown, composed ex- Z 0_2" clusively of remains of Spartina alterniflora Ld "@*,and'silt 0 _j Western Fine Grained Facies,*gray, contains 0 77- 0-25 less than 10% plant debris, local concen-rations Feet of sheli debris, mean grain size 5.30, some portions well laminated Black Peat, contains 30% or more fresh and 3' brackish water plant remains Weathered Zone) composed of sand and gravel) La ? stained black near upper contact _j CL Blue Clay, blue gray, composed of clay and silt., locally varved A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGUREJ Typical Salt Marsh Peat Section Found in New England 14-4 Estuaries (McCormick, 1969) 4-3 Figure 4-5 is a section of salt marsh peat moss - Barnstable Harbor. Coarse-grained and fine-grained estuaries are end members of a con- tinuous transition series of estuaries. Timson (unpublished data) has recognized that coarse-grained estuaries receiving ever increasing fluvial discharge tend towards a.morphology more typical of fine-grained estuaries in their mid-portions. The Merrimack River estuary is fine- grained for most of its area, but the Plum Island barrier and a re- stricted inlet promote coarse-grained deposits close to the estuary's mouth.. Great Bay, the Kennebec, the Penobscot, the Saco, and the Passamaquoddy regions are true fine-grained estuaries, while the Scarboro, Wells, Barnstable, Essex, and Hampton estuaries are the closest examples of true coarse-graine@d estuaries. 4.1.3 MAJOR ESTUARINE EMBAYMENTS OF THE GULF OF MAINE PASSAMAQUODDY'REGIONS St. Croix River Estuary and Cobscook Bay. Passamaquoddy Bay is a complex coastal basin characterized by tides exceeding seven meters in range. The St. Croix River enters the western central inside border of the Bay from the north, while Cobs- cook Bay is a smaller, complex basin emptying into the extreme southwest corner of the Bay through Head Harbour Passage and the Gulf of Maine through Lubec Narrows (Figures 4-6 and 4-7). The coastal geology of the region has been studied by various investigations for the International Joint'Commission on the Passa- maquoddy Power Project in 1959. The recent sediments of Cobscook Bay are derived from the rivers entering the Bay and from reworked surficial Pleistocene deposits on the upland margins of the Bay complex. Suspended sediment may be transported into Cobscook Bay from Passama- quoddy Bay, although there exists no direct evidence for this phenomenon. Borings obtained by the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers for the Passama- quoddy Tidal Project (1959) and borings done for the Pittston Company (1973) in Deep Cove off Cobscook indicate that recent marine clays and silts overlie, in varying thickness, up to 13 meters of glacio-marine blue clays.. The blue clays directly overlie bedrock. In high velocity channels either ledge or a gravel lag deposit constitutes the bottom. Gravel beaches and sandy tidal flats border islands covered by a thin veneer of outwash sediments, or where Post-Pleistocene blue clays are absent, glacial till. Surface sediments coarsen toward the Bay channels and toward the mouth of the Bay. 4-9 UPLAND )6D ------ SPRING ---------- TO --------- CREEK CLAY. so STO --------------- NE SAND SHEL! - ------------- L 30 CLAY SwND a S A 7RD C@AY SAND SAND CLAY SAND SILT A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] FIGURE Water Content of Salt Marsh Peat-Up Lands to a Main 4-5 Ti dal treek-Ba'rnstabl e Ha .rbor (Redfield, 1967) 4 10 N MOON.Aw A NEW BRUNSWICK 'A N Go Amm.l. A-tv LOOK" ftMKSTM am& OOKAOS DO fXfA AV . I" iI MAINE OUTER 4 OU.ODDYO REGION --------------- mm. MAD GRAND A..N ISLAND A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RE ION] 7G TR FIGURE I St. Croix and Cobscook Bay Estuaries (Forgeron, 1959) 4-6 4-11 144 q _q- 0 W IISO ns Beach Birch Point Eastport COSSCOOK BA@, Gave Point C 15 0 North 0 Lubec Lube 0 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I C 13 4-7 obscook Bay 4-12 PM MAIVE Penobscot River Estuary The Penobscot River is the largest river in Maine, draining 12,196 square kil.ometers of terrain. The River flows southerly into Penobscot Bay, a funnel-shaped reentrant with numerous islands in the middle and to the margins of the basin. (Figure 4-8) The estuarine portion of the Penobscot is 52 nautical miles in length extending from the head of tide at the Bangor hydroelectric dam to.'Searsport. The estuary can be divided into two portions, a narrow basin with the width averaging nearly two nautical kilo- meters from Bangor to Bucksport and the lower, funnel-shaped estuary whi,ch opens to a width of 15 nautical kilometers from Bucksport to Rockland. The basin has a mean depth of 10 meters with a maximum depth of 33 meters and a surface area of 23,600 acres with a low water volume of 30 billion feet 3 (Haefner, 1967), The sediments of the lower Penobscot estuary have been studied by Ostericher (1965), Hathaway (1972), and Folger (1972 a & b). Fol-ger (1972 a) characterizes the basin as one of high tidal range and relatively small sediment input'coupled with high current velocities throughout most of the estuary ( 100 cm/sec ) and vig'orous@wave action. The resultant of these conditions is a sediment distribution which coarsens from the basin channel laterally to -the upland margins and down estuary. Clays occur throughout the deeper portions of the upper lower estuary and coarsens to silt between Rockland and Vinalhaven. Medium to fine sand covers the bay bottom south of Rockland. Coarse sand and gravels exist close to the shoreline and at the mouths of small bays off Penobscot Bay (Figure 4-9). Cores penetrating surface sediments indicate that in the upper regions of the lower Bay, clay grades down to sand; the mid-portions, clay predominates from the surface to at least depths of three meters; silt or fine sands to fine silts at depths in the lower Bay (Ostericher, 1965)(Figure 4-10a and b). Organic carbon content decreases with increasing grain-size. Maximum values of 2.1 percent organic content were found by Folger (1972 a) in the estuarine clays, while values of 0.5 percent were found in sand-sized sediments. Ross (1967) has delineated the areal distribution of sediments delivered to the shallow inshore by the Penobscot River on the basis of the pre- sence and abundance of amphiboles in the sand fraction of the sediments. Sediment is dispersed in a fan-like pattern from the mouth of the river. The dispersed fan extends as far south as Isle au Haut and as far east as Mount Desert Island (Figure 4-11).' Ross (1967) illustrates this dispersal in Figure 4-11 , based on heavy mineral analysis. Although 4-13 ORONO A BANGOR BREWER SOIJADABSCOOK HAMPIDENy C BA-LD HILL COVE WINTERPORT MAR D MARSH R. BUCKSPORT N VERONA 1. .F FORT POINT SIZARSPORT :1;" SEAIRS 1. 0H 0 3 6 BELFAST NAUT MI ISLESBORO @SOUAC 'AST S@ A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN71C RB31ON FIGURE 4- 4-8 Penobscot River Estuary SEARSPOR 6 ('0 0 0 2 4 6 a 10 12 60. 44- 20' ROCMLANO A 44* W.O." "Po A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Bathymetry of Lower Penobs '. cot River Estuary 4-9 (Folger, 1972) 4-15 z om-!!L,-,S, -MO@5-@ 26 81012 -Z 44 EXPLANATION r6lAlEl-G... ---- .. "."' - - - - - ---- 111,416 W E.IUM-VERY FINE SAND SILT CLAY C %ORGAN CARBON ROCKLAND AVE 00-5. 44- . .. .. ... . . . ail A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGUAE I Sedimen .t Texture of Lower Penobscot River 4-10a (Folger, 1972) 69, CLAY SILT SANO 00, .016 25G.. SEAFIS@O. Q-- A B ,Z. I Do 20 0 g200 Aj B I 0500 BC Ilk 0 2 4 6 8 40 12 0 3 4 N-f-I mdos A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGIO FIGURE I lediment-Size Variation with Depth 4-16 1 4 _job (Folger, 1972) 44 700 NEW HAMPSHIRE- ire MAINE Portlaind MASS., Boston NEW RUNS K G11,6P 0 0 0 '419 OF'200 MAINE 70-9 0 .00, '@100 NOVA SCOTIA 440 0 100 200 KILOMETERS I I CONTOUR INTERVAL IN METERS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Sediment Dispersal Seaward of the Penobscot River M, Estuary (Ross, 1967) PO 1 4-11 4_ 17 this dispersal pattern contradicts a southwest drift flow along the Maine coast, no reason for the anomalous distribution has been offered. 4 8 SOUTHERN MAINE COAST Saco River Estuary The Saco River drains 3470 square kilometers of New Hampshire and Maine uplands and flows into the southern end of the Saco Bay, Maine,area as seen in Figure 4-12. Jetty construction, dam-building,,and dredging have altered the natural sedimentation conditions in the Saco River estuary. Prior to jetty construction both a large flood-tidal delta and ebb- tidal delta existed at the mouth of the estuary. Only a diminutive flood-tidal spit remains within the estuary composed of 0.3 mm coarse, feldspathic sand with flood-oriented mega-ripples on the upper portions of the spit. The lower portions of the spit toward the estuary channel are also covered by mega-ripples which orient themselves to the ambient current direction. Elsewhere in Saco River estuary, coarse to medium sand occurs on the channel bottom in the lower reaches, whereas fine to medium_ sand covers the flats on channel bottoms in the upper estuary (Farrell, 1970). NEW HAMPSHIRE-MAINE BORDER Great Bay Piscataqua River Estuary EmbayTent The Great Bay embayment is a complex basin composed of three elements: Little Bay, Great Bay, and the Piscataqua River estuary. The Piscataqua forms the western margin of the bay complex, flowing from the north-northwest to the southeast in a confined channel. The estuary flowsinto Portsmouth Harbor, a funnel-shaped basin holding eight islands. Portsmouth Harbor opens directly into the Gulf of Maine. Little Bay is an elbow-shaped basin which-empties into the Piscataqua estuary 9 km from the ocean. The arms of the elbow basin are oriented north-south and east-west. The Bellamy River flows into the upper reaches of the east-west arm, and the Oyster River flows into the upper portions of the north-south arm. The north-south arm of Little Bay opens south into Great Bay, a large estuarine basin characterized by extensive intertidal mud flats. The Lamprey River flows southeast into the eastern arm of Great Bay, while the Squamscott and Winnicut Rivers flow north into the southern portions of the Bay. The Little Bay Great Bay complex encompasses about 5700 acres at mean high water and about 2700 acres at mean low water; inter-tidal flats and marsh tracts make up over 2500 acres of estuarine area 4-19 NONESLICH RIVER SACO SAY 0 100 200 IOY IBBY RBOR RIVER RIVER A 001 LITTLE PROUTS IRIV1 002 NECK OLD ORCHARD BEACH 003 GOO$EF 'AREW-'7 SACO EF84ROOK RIVER 004 A. A 5 SACO BAY, MAINE AFTER LISCGS CHART 231 jp -LOW TIDE MARGIN 4c) ---SALT MARSH LIMIT & I HYDROGRAPHIC STATIONS BIDDE'FORD POOL SAMPLE LOCATIONS q 6'-V2 1 12, MI. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION 'W FIGURE I 4-12 Saco River Estuary (Farrel, 1970) 4-201- (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1972). The entire area of the tidal portion of the Piscataqua River Embayment is 15,407 acres (N.H. Water Supply and Poll..Control Comm., 1971). Secchi disk measurements in the estuary indicate that during May and June the turbidity of the waters are high due to river water sus- pensates, decreasing and stabilizing in July, varying only over the tidal cycle. Anderson (1972) has shown that suspended sediment concentrates reach a maximum at high-water slack when concentration may reach 70 mg./L over the,m-ud flats in Great Bay (Figure 4-13). Suspended sediment concentration varies linearly with -wave-chop height in estuarine waters. Wave heights can reach a maximum with increased water depth, hence maximum-suspension during high tide. A plot of wave height variation with suspended sediments is shown in Figure 4-14. During all seasons of the year, turbidity readings increase with distance from the harbor mouth. NEWBURYPORT, MASSACHUSETTS Merrimack River Estuary The estuary of the Merrimack has received much attention as the sub- ject of hydrographic and geologic investigations. Hartwell (1969, 1970) has studied the hydrologic characteristics, sedimentology and marsh stratigraphy of the embayment. Other studies include geological studies by Hayes and McCormick (1967), Hayes (1971) McCormick (1968), Rhodes (1971) and Sammel (1962). Jerome, Chesmore, Anderson and Grise (1965) have looked at the morphometry of the basin as a prelude to a marine resources investigation, while Wiesnet and Cotton (1967) defined the circulation patterns using infrared imagery. The sedi- mentary environments are shown in Figure 4-15, while the flood-tide stratification appears in Figure 4-16. Suspended sediment concentrations vary with river discharge. During a discharge of 1.900 cfs, Hartwell (1970) found concentration of up ,to 19 mg1l in fresh waters, but concentrations of only up to 5 mg/1 in. marine waters. When the estuarine waters are mixed, maximum sedi- ment concentration may occur anywhere in the estuary over a tidal cycle, but are generally higher during ebb stage when the river influence is greatest. Figure 4-17 illustrates the changes in suspended sediment concentration during a complete tidal cycle. Suspended sediment loads ,of 2,590,000 kg /day are found in April and 36,300 kg /day in the fall. (U.S. Geological Survey, 1968). Much of the river sediment is deposited on Joppa Flats, a wide intertidal mudflat expanse along the southern margin of the embayment during high discharge conditions and flood tide stages when the river water is ponded over this area. 4-21 EBB FLOOD B-28-70 9-02-70 z 0 F- 60 < so fr 40-- z _j 35- LIJ 30-- z 25- - 0 20-- 0 LIP z Cj z AD., LL) . ..... 10.- E3 LL) ...... W 5- LLJ 4 T_ 3 LL1 z > 2 1300 1500 1700 1200 1400 1600 TIME IN HOURS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REG FIGURE I Suspended Sediment Concentration over Mudflats in 4-13 Great Bay-Ebb & Flood Tides (Anderson, 1972) 22 30 32 30 28 26 24 22 Z 20 18 R=.80 z Uj 16 Uj 14 0 0 . 0 12 a 0 0 10 00 1 0 0 z Lli8 a- 0 6 FLOOD 4 o TIDE 2 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 WAVE HEIGHT IN CM A SOCIO-ECONomic AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Suspended Sediment Concentration Versus Wave Hei ht 4-14 in Great Bay (Anderson, 1972) 9 23 > SEDI MENTARY ENVI RONMENTS d`u'@ P, . ......... :.;; MERRIMACK RIVER ESTUARY K;f ze,,5i K@ lack Rock M PA- Creek 0 GULF z 4 -n 0 of @, .4, MAINE 3 'n. Creek M 0 ;a V) M z < rD 0 z .............. . C+ .... . . . K . .. ................. MAIN CHANNEL C+ 1< J-'IISLAND@@-',, . . . . . . ....... 16: (1)M Subtidal Channel EJ Ive z < Flood-Tidol Delta 0 z M 4 F3 Intertidol Flats t C:> (D C+ M SECONDARY TIDAL CHANNELS LA Major 0 -n "'A Minor rD M 0 U3 z % Solt Marsh ru 0 El -7 Bedrock Outcrop. L< 0 Plum Island River C+ 0 0 kilometers 3-D FLOOD-TIDE STRATIFICATION MERRIMACK RIVER ESTUARY SALINITY %o 2 HOURS BEFORE HIGH WATER 0 0-10 A" 11 00 7 JULY, 1967 M 11-20 1200 8 jULY, 1967 21-32 eSAMPLE SURFACE LOCATI ONS 0 300 600 0- METERS APPROXIMATE 2- LOCATION OF CL - NORTH SALT-WEDGE W 4 BOUNDARY 61 14f X. ell PY mo A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRqRj FIGURE I Flood-Tide Stratification in the Merrimack River 4-16 Estuary (Hartwell, 1970) 4_ 25 WEST UPSTREAM, km EAST 7 6 4 3 00700 13" 10 5 16 (mg/1) 13 10 00800 LOW WATER 16 13 5 0900 0 13 5 01000 10 10 516 10 rz 0 1200 7 4 510 1300 0 w 5 01400 HIGH WATER w 5 3 01600 5 3 1700 0 5 10 "..-I @M.Z% 1830 13 01930 16 SAMPLING STATIONS @4 3 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC R7EGI70N] FIGURE Changes in Suspended Sediment Concentrations during a 4-17 Complete Tidal Cycle-Merrimack Estuary (Hartwell, 1970, 4- 26 Sediment types and textural parameters of sediments are correlated .with the hydrographic circulation pattern of the estuary. Generally, sediments are coarse in the tidal channels and at the mouth of the estuary where sand-sized sediment is transported into the estuary from adjacent barrier beaches. Sediment in the main channel is gravelly to slightly gravelly sand - moderately sorted to well-sorted. Muddy sand to mud sediments are found on the intertidal flats where tidal currents are weaker. These sediments are poorly sorted to very poorly sorted. Smaller tidal channels are generally fine-grained and poorly sorted. Mean grain-size and sorting for the river are shown onfigure 4-18 and 4-19. The mouth of the Merrimack River estuary.is characterized, from estuary to ocean, by a flood-tidal delta, stabilized inlet, and a large, arcuate ebb-tidal delta. The flood-tidal delta is composed of well-sorted sand and gravelly sand and covered by flood-oriented bedforms in the central and southern portions and ebb-oriented bedforms on the northern margin. During low river flow conditions, fl'ood-oriented bedforms dominate. Bedform migration rates and scales are greatest during spring tides. (Figure 4-20). The tidal inlet has been stabilized by the Army Corps of Engineers along the outer margins of the channel, but strong currents and storm erosion has altered the inner channel, eroding back the southern portion of the inlet and building a spit into the channel just to the east. The ebb-tidal delta has a central channel dominated by estuarine currents, flanked by wave-generated swash.bars to the north and south to form a broad sand body arc (Hayes, Owens, Hubbard and Abele, 1973). Two distinct large sa'lt marsh tracts occur in the lowest reaches of the estuary. The Salisbury Marsh lies just north of the Merrimack River and contains peat to thicknesses of up to four meters. The sa:lt marsh peat is thickest on the eastern side of the tract where it is drained by Black Rock Creek: Spartina patens and S. alterniflora peat lie directly on estuarine silts and sands f-hroughout most of the marsh tract, but Hartwell (1970) found fresh-water peat in depressions attesting to a marsh origin of submergence of the Merrimack River flood plain. (Figures 4-21 and 4-22). The Plum Island River Marsh occurs along the southern margin of the estuarine embayment, and extends south, behind Plum Island, to join wi'th the extensive marshlands of the Parker River estuary. Average peat thickness in this marsh tract is only from one to two meters, but an isolated basin containing four meters of peat occurs between the Plum Island River and Plum Island (Figure 4-23). Peat thicknesses 4-27 00- > MEAN GRAIN SIZES A P MERRIMACK RIVER ESTUARY tj-k h, P3 , , . elock Roc GULF z -o- -n of - L2 MAINE 00 k) in.. re. m x M fD :E rD -s z m o,- z LUM lb -4 N @S lo z 4le .................. (D m "Ool-t 71 > 1.0 40 0 1.0 -2.54) -n E3 < (D m El 2.51-4.0-0 m m z 14.04) 0 Cl+ 33 El Bedrock Outcrop r P.Ium Is and R.iver z kl:ltm@eters@I z SEDIMENT SORTING MERR(MACK RIVER ESTUARY Rock GULF C2. of MAINE M M rown C ek., M 0) CL C+ :E: rl> 0 (D z r+ PLUM ............ C) Z 41e*4 M 0 0 tt -n STANDARD DEVIATION (a) N < Moderately to Well Sorted (<1.00) .: . . . . . . . . . . . . . rD Poorly Sorted (1.0-2.00) C+ Very Poorly Sorted (>2.OS6) > P Bedrock Outcrop Plum Island River C) kilometers CD MIGRATION DISTANCE (METERS.) PA) a) OD c- C cn Z m -n m 4@:b5 r@c c)M m 0 (A m z C+ rL cn CD z c- K c CD rD rn z 5 m -5 U) z G) `ix 4-'n (D m (D 5 M-U 0) C+ .... .. -1 ". cl0 (D 0 m z 0 UD 0 -40 c) a- c QL G) c (n 0 (D. m m Z 0 PEAT ISCIPACH MAP SALISBURY MARSH LOCATION MAP .......... PIVER cc v R W.M. ... ... . .. N 0 400m ........ MLW SAMPLE'LOCATION 0 CORE SITE D' PROBE ROD STATION STRATIGRAPHIC CROSS SECTION PEAT THICK.NESS(m) E' 7*1 <2 aiat F' *0 0- C'' 2-3 3-4 Y4 BEDROCK 00 0 A 0 A 0 400 MLW A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Peat Isopach Map of the Salisbury Marsh 4-21 (Hartwell, 19,70) -4-31 STRATIGRAPHIC CROSS SECTIONS A SALISBURY MARSH BLACK F ? ? DL"K 1M.AcK *oCE ? *ocK B cl@ CREEK MEE L J L Cr W W 3. 7 ? C. Rem a 100 200 3oo @o .00 WIE.8 LITHOLOGY m Lili.9 High Solt Marsh ROCK Dp 01 CREEK High Salt Marsh Peat Spartin ofterniflora Peat Silty to Sandy Interlidal Focies m BloCk Peat 7 ? Bedrock A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR@W FIGURE I Cross Sections Across Selected Trave'rses in the 4-22 Salisbury Marsh (Hartwell, 1970) 4-32 PEAT ISOPACH MAP PLUM ISLAND RIVER MARSH LOCATION MAP Xf." ...... .... ......... PLUM ISLAND N ........... 400 r'n '@P ............... . ... .......... .... ....... SAMPLE LOCATION 2 CORE SITE 0 PROBE ROD STATION PEAT THICKNESSW -STRATIGRAPHIC CROSS SECTION El 0-1 G :MLW 2 -3 3-4 0 400 m, A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TW LFIGURE Peat Isopach Map of the Plum Island River Marsh 4_23 (Hartwell, 1970) L 4-33 are less here than in the Salisbury Marsh because of the high rates of inorganic suspended sediment setting on this side of the estuary, as well as the possibility of much of the area being underlain by relict flood-tidal delta bodies. Salt marsh overlies estuarine sands and silts in the.Plum Island River Marsh (Figure 4-24). BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS Boston Harbor Boston Harbor comprises over 20 square miles - an embayment character- .ized by numerous islands and tombolos. The embayment opens directly ,,-;,ast as a U-shaped funnel with the metropolis of Boston at the spout. The Mystic, Chelsea, and Charles River estuaries enter into the northwestern margins of the Harbor and the Neponset River estuary enters the western side of the bay (Figure 4-25). The main channel of the embayment is President Roads, extending east- erly and northeasterly from the mouth of the Mystic River to Massachu- setts Bay between Deer Island and Long Island.. A 20-foot deep channel extends in a southwesterly direction from the southern margins of President Roads to the mouth of the Neponset River. The remainder of the,Harbor is characterized by shallow, subtidal flats and channels Several high-velocity channels exist between the islands where spit; or tombolos have not cut them off. The Charles River is the largest river emptying into Boston Harbor. The Charles drains 590 kilometers and has an annual average discharge of 374 cfs with a recorded maximum of 2,540 cfs and a minimum of 0.1 cfs (U. S. Department of the Interior, 1969). Current velocities within Boston Harbor reach a maximum of two knots between Deer Island Light and Long Island Head. Mencher, Copeland And Payson (1968).have summarized the currents of Boston Harbor, "Around the southwestern end of.Long Island, the current is rotary, counterclockwise, with average velocity at strength of about.0.2 kts. Usually, the flood sets southwesterly; the ebb, easterly. Between Thompson and Spectacle Islands, the velocity reaches a maximum of 0.5 knots, the flood setting northwesterly and the ebb southeasterly. In the main channel between Spectacle Island and the Navy Yard, the maximum velocity varies from 0.5 to 1.0 knots." The sediments of Boston Harborare characterized by black to brown muds lying unconformally on bedrock, glacial till, or blue clay. The muddy sediments are about 4.5 m thick throughout the Harbor, but may reach depths of 12 m where old river channels have been filled by marine STRAT I GRAPH I C CROSS SECTIONS SALISBURY MARSH E E E* 0- pk 0 IDO 200 300 400 soc KETERS LITHOLOGY 9 ElLiving High Salt Marsh QHigh Salt Marsh Peat Ifte Spartino olterniflor Peat - - - - - - Silty to Sandy Intertidol Facies 2 08lack Peat cr 9 Blue/Gray Clay W3. HighRay Fi I I LLJ NEWBURY MARSH ftk'U .8 AM PLUM ISLAND WOOPORIOGE ISLAND RIVER RIVER 0- w 2 ? PLUSI ? WOODG*1041E ISLAND H. ? K ISLAND 2 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRJ@o I FIG RTEoss Sections Across Salisbury and Plum Island U Cr 4-24 River Marshes (Hartwell, 1970) 4-35 -096L "*Le -V joqjPH uOISO9 40 @ajnjpaj DLqdpj6oag N01038 OLLNVIIV HIUON 3Hi =10 AHOJLN3ANI WiN3NNOHAN3 ONV OIVYON003-0rXn V 0, 75@ A AM' 7". iPf. 21@ jw QF V, j 7-' "7 deposition (Boston Society of Civil Engineers, 1961). Crosby (1903) estimates that deposition rates within the Harbor are slow, averaging at best, a few meters per thousand years. Mencher, Copeland and Payson-0968) have studied sediment composition, sediment distribution, and organic content of the sediments. Sand fractions of the sandy muds are composed mostly of.quartz grains and coke, coal, and burnt wood shards - "Boston fallout." Minor amounts of feldspar, rock fragments, micas and organic matter are also present. Silt fractions are composed almost entirely of quartz, while the clay fractions are dominated by a chlorite-illite-muscovite- feldspar-particulate organic matter assemblage. Sediment distribut ion within Boston Harbor indicates depositional control by current activity. Sand and gravel is present in the main channels and at the margins of the islands. Sediment elsewhere grades from coarse silts to clays toward basin centers from the margins where current velocities are low throughout the tidal cycle (Figure 4-26). Most of the inorganic sediments are derived from erosion of glacial sediments mantling the islands, and very little is delivered to the Harbor from rivers as they are all extensively dammed. Organic carbon concentrations range from less than one percent to greater than 15 percent. The coarser organic fraction originates as windblown coke and coal particles, whereas the finer organic matter is derived from sewer outfalls located in the Harbor. The highest organic carbon concentrations are found to the northwest and southeast of Moon Island and Long Island (Figure 4-27) and are a consequence of the hydrographic conditions directing sediment dispersal from major sewer outfalls (Figure 4-28). 4.1.4 MINOR EMBAYMENTS BORDERING THE GULF OF MAINE Numerous smaller estuaries empty into the Gulf of Maine, and they have been studied by various investigators. Generally, the estuaries which have been studied are of two types: 1) Relatively long, linear, narrow estuaries characterized by fine-grained sediments throughout and hydro- graphic patterns marked by*stratified waters at their heads and well- mixed waters in the lower estuary; 2) Coarse-grained estuaries usually formed by barrier spit restriction and characterized by extensive marsh deposits and well-mixed estuarine waters except at the heads of small tidal creeks or channels. A third, anomolous type occurs on Mt. Desert Island, Somes Sound. This estuary is a fjord type estuary and has been studied by Folger (19,72b) who concentrated on studies of the estuarine sediments and circulation patterns. 4-37 1. DEER ISLAND 2. LONG ISLAND 3. SPECTACLE ISLAND 4. THOMPSON ISLAND 5. MOON HEAD 6. SOUANTUM 7. PEDDOCKS ISLAND B. HULL ....... 9. NUT ISLAND 'UU . . . . . . Z 7 SCALE 0 1/2 1 NAUNCAL MILES LEGEND ........... ...... x GRAPHIC MEAN COARSER THAN 4Sb xx ..... 9 &&A GRAPHIC MEAN 4 - 6 41 GRAPHIC MEAN 6-8 4) ........ GRAPHIC MEAN FINER THAN 8(k A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Mean Grain Size of Boston Harbor Sediments 4-38NW 1 4-26 Mencher et al.., 1968) DEER ISLAND 2. LONG ISLAND LE ISLAND 3.SPECTAC 4. THOMPSON ISLAND MOON HEAD 5. AIM 6. SOUANTUM IAN" 7. PEDDOCKS ISLAND .... ..... 8.HULL 9. NUT ISLAND ................ .......... N.%, .. I., ............ . .... ..... . . ........... ... 3 ............. ........ ............... ........... ........I . Z I_ ...... .......... 4 . ......... .......... 8 @jg 7 ..... ... ------ SCALE .. 1/2 0- .... .... NAUTICAL MILES ............ ... . ...... . .......... LEGEND ENTRATION <5% xxx CARBON CONC . .... 9 &A& CARBON CONCENTRATION 5-10% CARBON CONCENTRATION 10-15% CARBON CONCENTRATION >15% AIM.. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Organic Carbon Concentrations of.Boston Harbor 14-27 sediments@ (Mencher et al 1968) - 4-39 IDEERISLAND 2. LONG ISLAND 3. SPECTACLE ISLAND 4. THOMPSON ISLAND 5. MOON HEAD 6. SOUANTUM 7. PEDDOCKS ISLAND 8. HULL 9. NUT ISLAND 3 N3 2 7w R 8 6 -7:lzzz SCALE 112 NAUTICAL MILES LEGEND - SEWER OUTFALLS NET MOTION OF WATER DURING ONE TIDAL CYCLE =010- THE THICKNESS OF THE ARROWS IS PROPORTIONAL 9 TO THE VELOCITY OF THE CURRENT. AREAS WHERE HIGH CARBON VALUES ARE PRE- --- DICTEID ON THE BASIS OF SEWER LOCATIONS AND HYDROGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE ISewer Outfall Is, Water Movements, and Predicted High' @w 1 4-28 Organic Carbon Content (Mencher et al 1968) 4-40 The fine-grained minor estuaries are limited to the Maine Coast. The hydrography of the St. George River estuary has been studied by the U. S. Department of Public Health (1967) and Timson (unpub- lished'data). The Medomak River estuary in Waldoboro, Maine, has been studied, hydrographically, by the U. S. Department of Public Health (1968). The Damariscotta River estuary circulation and surface sediments have been investigated by McAlice (1970b,in press). The Sheepscot River estuary has been the subject of intense study with the advent of the location of an atomic power plant in a cove off the lower estuary. Stickney (1959) published an ecological study of the Sheepscot which included a hydrographic study and a survey of the depositional environments. Hydrographic and sediment studies@_qollect-i @Ied environmental background data for the atomic plant at Bailey Point on the Lower Sheepscot. These studies have been conducted under the auspices of the Maine Yankee Power Company (1969-1972). Schnitker (1972) has studied sedimentation rates and suspended sediment trans- port in Back Cove, the site of effluent discharge from the power plant. Graham and Boyar (1965) have studied temperature and salinity seasonal distributions in the lower portions of the estuaries of the Boothbay Region. The coarse-grained estuaries are limited to the southern Maine, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts coastlines. 'Farrell (1970, 1972 ) has studied the sediments, marshes, and hydro- graphy of Scarboro River estuary. The Hampton River estuary has been investigated by Greer (1969 a & b) and Normandeau Associates (1972). Daboll (1969 a & b) studied the sediments and hydrography of the Parker River estuary; McCormick (1968, 1969) studied the marshes of the Parker River; and Boothroyd and Hubbard (1971) and Hubbard (1971) studied bedforms in the lower Parker River estuary. Boothroyd (1969) has studied the sand body morphology and sedimentology of the Essex River estuary. This area has also been investigated by Chesmore, Brown and Anderson (1973) for the Massachusetts Department of Marine Resources. Jerome, Chesmore and Anderson (1969) have investigated the hydrography of the Annisquam River estuary as well as its morphometry. The smaller estuaries entering Boston Harbor have been studied by Chesmore, Brown and Anderson (1972) and Jerome, Chesmore and Anderson (1966). 4-41 Fiske, Watson and Coates (1966) have studied the marine resources of the North River estuary. The geology of Barnstable Harbor has been studied by Redfield (1959, 1967) and Hobbs (1972). Ayers (1959) has studied the hydrography of the area. Curley, Lawton, Whittaker and Hickey (1972) and Nilsson (1972) have studied the morphometry and currents of Wellfleet Harbor, respect- ively. Hine (1973) has studied the sedimentology and hydrography of Pieasant Bay, Chatham. 4-42 4. 1.5 REFERENCES Anderson, F.E., 1972. ResuspensiOn of estuarine sediments by small amplitude waves. Journ. Sed. Petrol., 42:602-607. Ayers, J.E., 1959. The hydrography of Barnstable Harbor. Limnol. Oceanog., 4:448-462. Boothroyd, J.C., 1969. Essex Bay sand bodies: a preliminary report: In Coastal Environments: N.E. Massachusetts and New Hampshire: '@_.E.P.M. Field Trip Guidebook, Cont. No. 1-CRG, Univ of Mass., Department of Geology Publication Series: 128-146. Boothroyd, J.C. and Hubbard, Dennis T., 1971. Genesis of estuarine bedforms and crossbedding: (abs) G.S.A. Annual Mtg., Wa'shington, D.C., Nov. 1-3, 1971. Boston Society of Civil Engineers, 1961. Boring data from Greater Boston. Bumpus, D.F., J.R.Chevrier, F.D. Forgeron, W.D. Forrester, D.C. MacGregor, R. W. Trites, 1959. Studies in physical oceanography for the Passamaquoddy Power Project: in International Passama- quoddy Fisheries Board Report to International Joint Commission, Appendix I. Canadian Department of Environment, 1973. Summary of physical, biological, socio-economic and other factors relevant to potential oil spills in the Passamaquoddy Region of the Bay of Fundy: Preliminary Report. Chesmore, A.P., Testaverde, S.A., and Richards, F.P., 1971. A study of the marine resources of Dorchester Bay: Mono. Ser. No. 10. Mass. Div. Marine Fisheries. 44 pp. Brown, D. J., and Anderson, R.D., 1972. A study of the marine resources of Lynn-Saugus Harbor: Mono. Ser. No. 10. Mass. Div. Marine Fisheries. 44 pp. Brown, D.J., and Anderson, R.D., 1973. A study of the marine resources of Essex Bay: Mono. Ser. No. 13, Mass. Div. Marine Fisheries. 39 pp. Chevrier, J.R., 1959. Drift bottle experiments in the Quoddy Region. In studies on physical oceanography for the Passamaquoddy Power Tr-Oject. A-43 Crosby, W.O., 1903. A study of the 9POlogy of the Charles River estuary and Boston Harbor, with special reference to the building of the proposed dam across the tidal portion of the river: Technology Quart., 16:64-92. Curley, J.R., Lawton, R.P., Whittaker, D.K. and Hickey, J.M., 1972. A study of the marine resources of Wellfleet Harbor: Mono. Ser. No. 12. Mass. Div. Marine Fisheries. 37 pp. Daboll, J.M., 1969a. Holocene sediments of the Parker River Estuary, Massachusetts: In Coastal Environments: N.E. Massachusetts and Aew Hampshire: 9_.E.P.M. Field Trip Guidebook, Cont. No. 1-CRG, .Univ. of Mass. Department of Geology Publication Series: 337-355. 1969b. Holocene sediments of the Parker River Estuary, Mass.: M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, Coastal Research Group, Cont. No. 3-CRG: 138 pp. Davis, C.A., 1910. Salt marsh formation near Boston and its geological significance: Econ. Geology, 5:623-639. E.G. & G. International, 1973. Geophysical and drogue study/current profile reports: Eastport Tanker Terminal Project, Frederick R. Harris, Co. 55 pp. Farrell, S.C. 1970. Sediment distribution and hydrodynamics Saco River and Scarboro estuaries; Maine-: Cont. No. 6,.Coastai Research Group, Department of Geology, University of Massachusetts: 129 pp. 1971. Holocene salt marsh stratigraphy and sedi- mentary history of Scarboro estuary, Saco Bay, Maine: (abs.) 2nd Coastal and Shallow Water Conf., Univ. of Del., Oct. 9-10, 1971. 1972. Coastal processes, historical changes, and the post-Pleistocene geologic record of Saco Bay, Maine: Ph.D. dissertation Coastal Research Center, University of Massachusetts, Amherst: 439 pp. Fiske, J.D. 'Watson, C.D., and Coates, P.G., 1966. A study of the marine resources of the North River. Mono. Ser. No. 3., Mass. Div. Marine Fisheries: 53 pp. Fol.ger, D.W., 1972 a. Characteristics of estuarine sediments in the United States: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 742: 94 pp. 1972b.. Texture and organic carbon content of bottom sediments in some estuaries of the United States: In Environ- mental Framework of Coastal Plain Estuaries, Geol. Soc. America, Mem 183: 391-408. 4-44 Meade, R.H., Jones, B.F., and Cary, R.L. 1972c. Sediments and waters of Somes Sound, a fjordlike estuary in Maine: Limnol. Oceanogr. 17:394-402. Forgeron, F.D., 1959. Temperature and salinity in the Quoddy Region: .Rept. of the Int. Passamaquoddy Fish. Bd. to the Int. Joint Comm. Appendix I (Oceanography) Chap. 1:44 pp. Forrester, W.D., 1959. Current measurements in Passamaquoddy Bay and the Bay of Fundy 1957 and 1958: Rept. of the Int. Passamaquoddy Fish. Bd. to the Int. Joint Comm. Appendix I (Oceanography) Chap. 3: 73 pp. Graham, J.J., and Boyar, H.C., 1965. Ecology of herring larvae-in the coastal waters of Maine. Int. Comm. N.W. Atl. Fish., Spec. Pub. 6:625-634. Greer, S.A. 1969a. Stop description: Hampton Harbor Estuary: In Coastal Environments: N.E. Mass. and N.H.: S.E.P.M..Field Trip Guidebook, Cont. No. 1-CRG, Univ of Mass., Dept. of Geol. Pub. Series: 92-107. 1969b. Sedimentary mineralogy of the Hampton Harbor Estuary, N.H. and Mass.: In Coastal Environments: N.E. Mass. and N.H.: S.E.P.M. Field Trip7_-Guidebook, Cont. No. 1-CRG, Univ. of Mass., Dept of Geol., Pub. Series: 403-414. Haefner, P.A., 1967. Hydrography of the Penobscot River Estuary: J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 24 (7): 1553-1571. Hartwell, A.D.,. 1970. Hydrography and Holocene sedimentation of the Merrimack River Estuary, Mass. Cont. No. 5-CRG, Univ. of Mass., Dept. of Geol. Pub. Series: 166 pp. and Hayes,. M.O., 1969. Hydrography of the Merrimack River Estuary, Mass.: In Coastal Environments: N.E. Mass. and N.H.: S.E.P.M. Field Trip Guidebook, Cont. No. I-CRG, Univ. of Mass., Dept. of Geol. Pub. Series: 218-244.. Hathaway, J.C., 1972. Regional clay mineral facies in estuaries and continental margin of the United States East Coast: In Environmental Framework of the Coastal Plain. Hayes, M.O., 1969. Forms of sand accumulation in estuaries: (abs.) In Program for S.E. Section, G.S.A. Meeting, 18th Annual, Columbia-, _9_.C. , April , 1969. and McCormick, C.L., 1967. Sedimentation in estuaries with reference to the Merrimack and Parker Rivers, Mass- achusetts:, In Economic Geology in Massachusetts, Farquahar, O.C. (Ed.), 547-65-7. 4-45 Boothroyd, J.C., and Hine, A.C. 111, 1970. Diagnostic primary structures of 'estuarine sand bodies: (abs.) program, Annual Convention, AAPG, Calgary, Alberta, June 22-24, 1970, 851. 1971. Geomorp hology of tidal inlets: In The Estuarine Environment, Schubel, J.R. (Ed.) A.G.I. Short Course Lecture Notes, 30-31 Oct., 1971, XIII-1 - XIII-17. Owens, E.H., Hubbard, D.K., and Abele, R.W., 1973. The investigation of form and processes in the coastal zone: In Coastal Geomorphology, Coates, D.R., (Ed.), S.U.N.Y., Bingham@f_on, N.Y., 11-42. Hine, A.C., 111, 1973.. Sand deposition in the Chatham Harbor Estuary and neighboring beaches. Cape Cod, Massachusetts: M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Mass. Hobbs, C. H. 111, 1972. Sedimentary environments and coastal dynamics of a segment of the shoreline of Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts: M.S. Thesis, Coastal Research Center, Dept. of Geol.,Univ. of Massachusetts. Hubbard, D.K., 1971. Movement of deep-water estuarine bedforms in the lower Parker River estuary, Plum Island, Mass: unpub. Senior honors thesis, Coastal Research Center, Univ. of Mass., 70 pp. Jerome, V.C., Jr., Chesmore, A.P., Anderson, C.O., Jr., and Grice, F. 1965. A study of the marine resources of the Merrimack River Estuary. Mono. Ser. No. 1. Mass. Div. Marine Fisheries, 90 pp. , Chesmore, A.P., and Anderson, C.O., Jr., 1966. A study of the marine resources of Quincy Bay. Mono. Ser. No. 2. Mass. Div. Marine Fisheries. 61 pp. 1969. A study of the marine resources of the Annisquam River - Gloucester Harbor Coastal System. Mono. Ser. No. 8. Mass. Div. Marine Fisheries. 62 pp. Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company. 1969. First annual report: Environmental studies. , 1970. Second annual report: Environmental studies. , 1971. Third annual report: Environmental studies. , 1972. Fourth annual report: Environmental studies. 4-46 McAlice, B.J., 1970a. A preliminary survey of the Damariscotta River Estuary: Maine Geological Survey, Augusta, Maine. 23 pp (mss). b in press. A preliminary oceanographic survey of the Damari a River Estuary; Lincoln County, Maine. Bureau of Geology, Maine Dept. of Conservation. McCormick, C.L.., 1968. Holocene stratigraphy of the marshes at Plum Island, Massachusetts: unpub. Ph.D. thesis, Univ. of Mass., 104 pp. 1969. Holocene stratigraphy of the marshes at Plum Island, Massachusetts: In Coastal Environments: N.E. Massachu- setts and N.H.: S.E.P.M. Fie-ld Trip Guidebook, Cont. No. I-CRG, Univ. of Miss., Dept of Geol. Pub. Ser., 368-390. Mencher E., Copeland, R.A., and Payson, H., Jr., 1968. Surficial sediments of Boston Harbor, Massachusetts. Journal Sed. Pet., 38:79-86. Mudge, B.F., 1847. The salt marsh formations of Lynn. Proc. Essex. Inst., 2:117-119. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 1972-1974. Flushing rates of the Penobscot River Estuary. Monthly publication. New Hampshire Water Supply and Pollution Control Commission, 1971. Piscataqua River and coastal watershed: Report No. 55. 247 pp. Nilsson, H.D., 1972. Coastal and submari ne morphology of eastern Cape Cod bay: unpub. M.S. thesis, Univ. of Massachusetts, 170 pp. Normandeau Assoc., '1972. Chapter on geology and hydrography of Hampton Harbor, New Hampshire. In Seabrook Station: environmental report, Vol. II. Public Service To-. of New Hampshire. Ostericher, Charles, Jr., 1965. Bottom and subbottom investigations of Penobscot Bay, Maine, 1959: U.S. Naval Oceanog. Office Tech. Report, 173, 177 pp. Pittston Company (1973).Application to Maine Department of Environmental Protection to construct a marine terminal and oil refinery. Redfield, A.C., 1959. The Barnstable marsh. In Proc. of the Salt Marsh Conference, Marine Inst., Univ. of Ge-orgia, Athens, Georgia. 37-39. -SA.C. 1967. The ontogeny of a salt marsh estuary. In Estua'ri"es, A.A.A.S., 108-114. 4-47 Rhodes, Eugene G., 1971. Three-dimensional analysis and interpre- tation of Pleistocene-Holocene deposits by the seismic reflection- refraction method, Merrimack Embayment, Gulf of Maine: unpub. M.S. thesis, Coastal Research Center, 134 pp. Ross, D.A., 1967. Heavy-mineral assemblages in the nearshore surface sediments of the Gulf of Maine. U.S. Geological Survey Prof. Paper 575-C, 77-80. Sammel, E.A., 1962. Configuration of the bedrock beneath the channel of the lower Merrimack River,,Massachusetts: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 405-D, D 125-D 127. Schnitker, D., 1972. History of sedimentation in Montsweag Bay. Maine Geol. Survey, Bull. No. 25. 20 pp. Shaler, N*S., 1886. Preliminary report on sea-coast swamps of the eastern United States: U.S. Geol. Survey, 6th Ann.'Report, 364 pp. Stickney, A.P., 1959. Ecology of the Sheepscot River Estuary. Fish. Spec. Sci. Report, No. 309, 21 pp. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1972 Final environmental statement Newington Generating Station, Unit No. 1, Newington, New Hampshire. U.S. Army Corps of Eng., Waltham, Massachusetts.@ U.S. Dept. of Public Health, 1967. Survey of the St. George River Estuary. Dept of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts. 1968. Survey of the Medomak River Estuary. Dept. of Public Hj-alth, Boston, Massachusetts. U.S. Dept. of the Interior, 1967, Water resources data for the State of Maine, Oct., 1966 to Sept., 1967: Dept. of Interior Documents. 1969, Water resources data for the State of Maine, Oct., 1968 to Sept., 1969: Dept.of the Interior Dept. U.S. Geological Survey, 1968. Water resources data for Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont - 1967: Water Resources Div., U. S. Geological Survey, 305 pp. Wiesnet, D.R., and Cotton, J.E., 1967. Use of infrared imagery in circulation studies of the Merrimack River estuary, Massachusetts: U.S. Geological Survey open-filereport, 11 pp. 4-48 .4.1.6 INTRODUCTION CAPE COD TO SANDY HOOK Most of the embayments south of Boston can,be@separated into two cateoories,on the basis of size. Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, Buzzards Bay and Cape Cod Bay all are relatively large in size, each being greater than 380 square km in area. Many smaller embay- ments and coastal marshes, however, lie both within and between these larger systems. Most:of the following discussion will involve the large systems. MASSACHUSETTS Cape Cod Bay Cape Cod Bay is roughly circular in outline, being surrounded by Cape Cod to the west, south and east, and by the Massachusetts south shore .(Plymouth area) to the northwest@ Depths generally increase seaward, and are greater than 48 m seaward of Provincetown (Figure 4,29). In area, Cape Cod exceeds 500 square km. In contrast,to the other major embayments, Cape Cod has essentially no freshwater influx, with the result that salinities are typically marine. Sediment influx, therefore, is considered to be minor and most of the sediment is reworked from older deposits. Nearshore sediments tend to be coarse in size nearshore and finer grained in the deeper portions of the bay (Figure 4-30) (Hough, 1942; Folger, 1972). Organic contents vary, inversely with sediment size, although the number of reported values at present are too few to plot., significant trends. Buzzards Bay Buzzards Bay lies along the coast of southeastern Massachusetts, bounded on its seaward side,by Cape Cod and the Elizabeth Islands It is ap pr*oximately 37 km long and 15 to 18 km across, with wat@r depths in the central portions 'ranging from 12 to 18 m (Figure 4-31). The north side of the bay is generally rough but with a gentle gradient, while the south side is steep nearshore, but with smoother topography. Geo- physical profiles in, the area indicate that the bay sediments overlie between 9 and 61 !.r, of crystalline basement (Oldale,1969; Folger, 1972). Sediments within BU7zards Bay are sandy around the edges and.muddy in the central portions of the bay (Figure 4@-32) (Hough, 1940; Moore, 1963; Rhoads, 1967; Rhoads and Young, 1970). As a result, organic carbon values tend to be high in the muddy central areas (generally greater 3d 15' 700 y N f6o f4o lzo 0- C) f20 T 0. foo so Ito bo 4 5- A R 0 @10 2@ Kilomeiers 0 to 15 1voilticolmiles A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRPO I FIGURE Topography of Cape Cod Bay (Hough, 1942) 4-29 4-50 15' OJINC 31- oo. 42'- o 0 0 0 o o o 0 ... WELLFLEET a o jr. in, V oo o o oo o o a o *.*.*.:::::::::::.:.*.*o*.*.'o ........... sooo.osoooo -.':':':'0 42 o o x oooo o o 45' EXPLANATION 0 10 26- GRAVEL-COARSE SAPID L Kilometers MEDIUM-VERY FINE SAND 0 5 40 L I SOLT & CLAY NouticalAftles *%ORGANIC CARBON A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I Bottom Sediments of Cape Cod Bay 4-30 (Hough, 1942 and Hat haway, 1971) 4-51 /VC,1,01 mdes 20 0- B E D, 30 4 0 70 3 '0 '0 0 4 50, W ODS HC@E 3 0" 04 60 40 0 60 @090 SOUND 40 P, 1 -.1 -1 - A. A C Tl@ .UNYS 70'5 0 25' A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGIO @N] FIGURE 4-52 1 4-31 Topography of Buzzards Bay Moore, 1963) EXPLANATION -doom GRAVEL MEDIUM SAND IERI COARSE SAND Cl FINE SAND COARSE SAND SILT AND CLAY %ORGANIC CARBON L 0 4 1 J lvc,f,col Miles C) NE. 13 E 1), C Q 01 2 x OLE W 3 0'- -x SouNO MA FIT HA'S NEYAR .:CUT T vi 70 5 0' 40 41-25' A SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Bottom Sediments of Buzzards Bay 4-32 (Moore, 1963 and Hathaway, 1971) 4-53 than one percent) and lower around the edges. Presumably most of the surficial sediment has been derived from the reworking of glacial sedi- ments; little is thought to be modern. RHODE ISLAND Narragansett Bay Narragansett Bay occupies the entire eastern shoreline of Rhode Island, and has a total area in excess of 380 square km, although much of it is occupied by islands, the largest being Aquidneck Island (Figure 4-33). The shape and bathymetry of the bay is defined by three main channels (Taunton River, Providence River and Greenwich Bay) cutting into a bed- rock valley within a structural depression (Berg, 1963; Upson and Spencer, 1964). Test borings show 18 to 48 m of unconsolidated glacial sediment overlying a consolidated sedimentary (Carboniferous) cover (See Folger, 1972; McMaster, 1960). Most of the bay is shallower than 6 m (particularly in the northern half of the bay). In the south, depths within East Passage are greater than 18 m, but substantially shallower at Sakonnet Passage and West Passage (Figure 4-33). The amount of fresh water flowing into Narragansett Bay is not great. Wilson and others (1967) s ate that the mean flow rate of the Taunton River, for example is 29 m@/sec. The inflowing suspended sediment, therefore, is also small in quantity, meaning that much of the material in suspension is eroded from surrounding shoreline or consists of resus- pended bottom sediments. Morton (1972) has estimated that only ten percent of the suspended sediments escape into Rhode Island Sound. The surface sediments within Narragansett Bay are sandy nearshore and muddy in the center (McMaster, 1960). Sand is particularly abundant in and near the three passages (Figure 4-34). The few available analyses suggest that the sediment near populated (polluted) areas is highly polluted, with organic carbon values greater than 2.0 percent. CONNECTICUT-NEW YORK Long Island Sound Th e longest estuary in the northeastern United States is Long Island Sound, which is more than 148 km long and between 18 and 45 km wide. It is delineated by the New England Upland to the north and the Long Island - Block Island glacial moraines to the south. Depths within the sound are generally greater than 18 m but less than,37 m. Seismic profiles show a profusion of buried channels throughout the entire sound (Tagg and Uchupi, 1967; Grim, Drake and Heirtzler, 1970). Apparently these are relict stream channels which cut into pre- Plei-stocene rocks, perhaps Coastal Plain strata. 4-54 45 A Rl 20 so jo I 4 GE 0 to to 0 LIP I-) 0 0 3 �r ANO I 00*0 Lremical mj/jr$-- SEA LEVEL- A AP SEA CONSOLIDATED SEDIMEN - 100- IESTUARINE SEDIMENT, -200 I bUTWASH:@TILL) 200- -40,0 CONSOLIDATED SEDIMENT (CARBONIFEROUS STRATA) 3,* -600 40d CRYSTALLINE BASEMENT -600 -WW u A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I Topography of Narragansett Bay (McMaster, 1960; 4-33 Hathaway, 1971) --- -- 4-55 74025' EXPLANATOO %ORGANIC CAPM semD SILT-CLAV SAND-SILT-C AY 2.3 35- C AIS), lot 4, 1:7 C, 0 6 ISL AVO Nou i a/ Miles ND 15' A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRJ@V FIGURE Bottom sediments of Narragansett Bay (McMaster, 1960; 4-34 Hathaway, 1971) 11-56 The major river flowing into this estuary is the Connecticut River, which has an average discharge of 606,m3/sec and a suspended load of 81 x 103 tons per year (Dole and Stabler, 1909; Wilson and others, 1967). The river is navigable for 96 km (to Hartford) with depths greater than 4.5 m. The major sediment input, however, is not from the Connecticut River, but from dredge spoil dumpage, which accounts for 0.8 x 106 tons per year in the western part of the south (Gross., 1972). The influence of the extensive duck farms along northwestern Long Island must also have a heavy effect upon the sediments, as does the heavy urbanization along much of the Connecticut and New York shoreline. The sediments within Long Island Sound have not been studied in the detail of the other estuaries mentioned in this review, in spite of (or perhaps because of) the degree of urbanization of the area. Sedi- ments tend to contain more than 75 percent mud in the western central portions and 50 to 75 percent in the eastern part, with shoreline areas often containing mostly sand. The mud is mostly illiti!c, with smaller amounts of chlorite (Hathaway, 1972). Organic content in western Long Island Sound exceeds one percent and locally is much greater than two percent, although the sparsity of samples prohibits complete delinea- tion of these organic-rich areas. -The influence of the wastes from industrial and dredge spoilage as well as the* duck farms (Nichols, 1964) is tremendous, although the impact is not well documented. OTHER AREAS Studies of smaller areas both within these four large bays and also in intervening areas are numerous. Much of the floristic data are summar- ized by Halvorson and Dawson (1974) while coastal utilization has been discussed by Ducsik (1974). In many instances these studies have con- centrated on marshes or small saline ponds (lagoons) t-rapped behind the barrier beaches. For instance, marsh studies from southern New England include those by Taylor (1938), Chapman (1940), Miller and Egler (1950), Sears (1963) and Bloom (1964). 4-57 4.1.7 REFERENCES Berg, j.W., 1963. Seismic profiles, Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., v. 74, p. 1305-1312. Bloom, A.L., 1964. Peat accumulation and compaction in a Connecticut coastal marsh. Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, v. 34, p. 599-603. Chapman, 1940. Studies in salt-marsh ecology. Sections VI and VII, comparisons with marshes on the east coast of North America. Jour. Ecol., v. 28, p. 119-152. Dole, R.B., and Stabler, H., 1909. Denudation. in Papers on the conservation of water resources. U.S. Geol. Survey Water Supply Paper 234, p. 78-93. Ducsik, D.W., 1974. Coastal zone utilization. Coastal and offshore environmental inventory, Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoals. Marine Pub. Series No. 3, Univ. of Rhode Island. Folger, D.W., 1972. Characteristics of estuarine sediments of the United States. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper, 742, 94 pp. Grim, M.S., Drake, C.L., and Heirtzler, J.R., 1970. Sub-bottom study of Long Island Sound. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull v. 81, pp 649-666. Gross, M.G., 1972. Geologic aspects of waste solids and marine waste deposits, New York metropolitan region, Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull., v. 83, pp. 3163-3176. Halvorson, W.L. and Dawson, G.G., 1974. Coastal vegetation in coastal and offshore environmental inventory, Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoals, Marine Pub. Series No. 3, University of Rhode Island. Hathaway, J.C., 1972, Regional clay mineral facies inthe estuaries and continental margin of the-United States east coast. Geol. Soc. Amer. Memoir 133. Hough, J.L., 1940. Sediments of Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts, Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, v. 10, pp 19-32. Hough, J.L., 1942. Sediments of Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts, Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, v. 12, pp 10-30. McMaster, R.L., 1960. Sediments of Narragansett Bay system and Rhode Island Sound, Rhode Island. Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, v. 30, pp 249-274. Miller, W.R., and Egler, F.E., 1950. Vegetation of the Wequetoquock- Pawcatuck tidal marshes, Connecticut Ecol. Monogr., v.2C, pp 145-172. 4-58 Moore, J.R., 111, 1963. Bottom sediment studies, Buzzards Bay, Massachu- setts Bay, Jour. Sedimentary Petrology, v. 33, pp. 511-558. Morton, R. W., 1972. Spatial and temporal distribution of suspended sediment in Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island Sound. Geol. Soc. Arier. Memoir 133, p. 131-141. Nichols, M.M., 1964. Characteristics of sedimentary environments in Moriches Bay, in Papers in marine geology - Shepard commemorative volume, MacMillan Company, pp. 363-383. Oldale, R.N., 1969, Seismic investigations on Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket, Massachusetts, and a topographic map of the basement surface from Cape Cod Bay to the Islands. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper, 650-B, pp 122-127. Rhoads, D.C., 1967. Biogenic re-working of inter-tidal and sub-tidal sediments in Barnstable Harbor and Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts. Jour. Geol. v. 75, pp 461-476. Rhoads, D.C. and Young, D.K., 1970.. The influence of deposit-feeding organisms on sediment stability and community trophic structure. .Jour. Marine Res., v. 28, pp 150-176. Sears, P.B., 1963. Vegetation, climate, and coastal submergence in Connecticut. Science, v. 140, pp 59-60. Tagg, A. R., and Uchupi, E., 1967. Subsurface morphology of Long Island Sound, Block Island Sound, Rhode Island Sound, and Buzzards -Bay. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper, 575-C, pp. 92-96. Taylor, N., 1938. A preliminary report on the salt marsh vegetation of Long Island, New York. New York State Mus. Bull., v. 316, pp 7-84. Wilson, A. and others, 1967. River discharge to the sea from the shores of the conterminous United States. U.S. Geol. Survey Hydrol. Inv. Atlas HA-282. Upson, J.E., and Spencer, C.W., 1964. Bedrock Valleys of the New England Coast as related to fluctuations of sea level. U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper, 454-M, 44 pp. 4-59 Chapter 4 Major Sounds . and. Embayments Page Chapter 4.2 Physical Oceanography 4.2.1 Introduction to Region North of Cape Cod 4-63 4.2.2 Characteristics of Currents 4-63 Coastal Shelf, 4-63 Inshore 4-66 Major Estuarine Embayments 4-67 4.2.3 Tides 4-70 4.2.4 Fresh Water Input 4-74 General Description of Freshwater Discharge of Major Basins 4-74 Shelf 4-77 4.2.5 Characteristics of Circulation 4-89 Salt Wedge Estuary 4-91 Partially Mixed Es .tuary 4-91 Vertically Homogeneous Estuary 4-91 Sectionally Homogeneous Estuary 4-92 4.2.6 Misfits and Variations 4-92 4..2.17 Sea Ice Conditions - Eastport to Cape Cod 4-94. 4.2.8 References 4-96 4.2.9 Circulation and Currents Region South of Cape Cod Introduction 4-200 a-61 Page 4.2.10 Tides 4-216 -218 4.2.11 Sea Ice Conditions Cape Cod to New York 4 4.2.12 References 4-220 4-62 4.2 PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY MAJOR SOUNDS AND EMBAYMENTS 4.2.1 INTRODUCTION TO REGION NORTH OF CAPE COD The North Atlantic Estuarine Zone (U.S. Fish and,Wildlife Service, 1970) extends from the Canadian border in the east (450N.,'670W.) to Cape Cod in the south (420N., 700W.). The general shoreline traverses three states; Massachusetts, New Hampshire,and Maine (Figure 4-35). Each has a relatively large city on its coast; Boston, Portsmouth, and Portland respectively. The shoreline extends in an: arc northward from:Cape Cod to Portland and then eastward to the Canadian border. The southern shoreline partially encloses Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays between the northern tip of Cape Cod and Cape Ann. From.Cape Ann to Cape Small, the Bigelow Bight partially encloses Ipswich and Casco Bays. From Cape Small to the Canadian border the shoreline is interrupted by the largest estuary of the coast, Penobscot River Estuary and Bay. A second large bay, Passamaquoddy Bayis dissected (Figure 4-35) by the U.S. Canadian border and opens into the Bay of Fundy. The narrow Bay of Fundy opens onto the Gulf of Maine through two channels on the western and eastern sides of Grand Manan Island. The coastal shelf zone extends offshore to about 27 km from the headlands and to a depth of about 91 meters. Beyond this distance and depth, the water deepens rapidly only to shoal again in some areas producing banks and ledges such as Jeffreys Ledge, Cashes Ledge, Platts Bank,and Grand Manan Banks. The progression of seasonal events in this shelf water is less conservative than events within the adjacent Gulf of Maine and more conservative than the waters of the estuaries and embayments. 4.2.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF CURRENTS COASTAL SHELF The non-tidal drift characteristic to the coastal zone begins at approximately 27 km from shore, near the 90 m isobath. The cir- culation is complex reflecting both inshore and offshore events although the forces causing non-tidal drift and the direction of drift are the same as those encountered offshore. Sources and movements of water along the western coast of the Gulf of Maine are summarized in Table 4-1 and Figure 4-36. Water enters the coastal shelf from three sources; 1) the Bay of Fundy, 2) the western basin of the Gulf of Maine and 3) the dis- charge of estuaries. Water departs the Bay of Fundy on its eastern side and may join the Gulf of Maine eddy to proceed to the coast. In addition, water may at times depart the Bay on the eastern side through Grand Manan Channel to move directly onto the coastal shelf. 4-63 Tabl al 4-1 Movements of coastal water. Initial location Destination Area Depth Movement Area Depth 1. Bay of Fundy Surface West of Grand Manan Eastern Surface Island to Maine coast. or to sector cast side of the Island and of coast then west to the coast of Maine. Primarily in spring, autumn, and winter (Chevier and Trites 1960) 2. Western Basin off Surface In shore during winter Inshore, Surface the eastern sector of the coast 3. Eastern sector of Surface Westward along the coast, Inshore Surface the coast then offshore near Penob- scot Bay, and parallel to the western sector of the coast, finally inshore as a compensatory current or a cuTrent diverted by botium topography. During au- tumn, spring, and summe; 4. Western Basin off loom and deeper, Inshore along the bottom. Shore Surface eastern and central bottom All seasons coastal sectors 5. jefferys and Scan-' loom and deeper, Inshore along the bottoin. Shore Surface turn Basins bottom All seasons Coastal 30-100m, bottom From cast to west alona Shore Surface the bottom and then in- shore. All seasons. Occa- sionally eastward into the Bay of Fundy 7. Penobscot Bay Surface Sinking during winter in a Offshore loom southeriv direction to 150 m and' deeper (Bigelow 1927). Possible reuirti. Shore Surface along the bottom 4-64 The flow continues westward and then southerly moving offshore in the vicinity of Penobscot Bay and Cape Ann. Although the main flow is from east to west@water m0ves shoreward in a number of areas along the coast. These shoreward movements have corresponding offshore limbs formed by estuarine discharge. Such eddies are common in the Western sector of the coast, especially in the area between Cape Small and Cape Anhi the Bigelow Bight. Once past Cape Ann the alongshore flow may either move offshore in the southern limb of the Gulf of Maine eddy (Figure 4-35) or turn westward into Massachusetts Bay Where it continues southward into Cape Cod Bay. As'in the offshore water of the Gulf the major forces causing non- tidal drift are Winds and dyhami't pressure gradients and the direct- ion of drift is affected by Coriolis force and the contours of the bottom and shore. Wind frequencies in Figure 4-37 are from Portland, Maine,and correspond to frequencies from other areas of the Western coast as well as to those usually encountered in the Gulf of Maine. Generally, the straight line drifts of surface drift bottles re- leased at the Portl6hd lightship were correlated with wind direction when the expected deflection of the drift to the right of prevailing winds by Coriolis force was considered. In autumn, winds were from north to west and the drift was-southwest. In winter, increased southwest winds increased the offshore component of drift resulting in fewer recoveries. Winds were more variable in the spring. A relative increase in southerly and easterly winds increased the drift to the northeast. In summer, a relatively larger frequency Of winds from the southwest to southeast increased the drift to the northeasti Anomalies of dynamic height and the corresponding streamlines indicate the direction and complexity of coastal sur- face currents (Figure 4-38). The streamlines coincide generally with the major currents of the Gulf while indicating irregularities that agree with the drift bottle atlas of Bumpus and Lauzier (1965). These are 1) the winter convergence shoreward east of Penobscot Bay, 2) the summer tounterclockwise eddy east of Casco Bay and 3) the clockwise or counterclockwise eddy south of Casco Bay. The spring eddy and the summer shoreward movement in the vicinity of Ipswich Bay are hot found in the atlas. However, some evidence for the eddy is given by Bigelow (1927) and the summer flow shoreward may be explained by the movement of water over the ledges, Old and New Scantum, and into Scahtum Basin (Figure 4-39). The eddies strongly developed in the spring are related to the spacing of river discharges. Each outpouring of estuarine dis- charge has a compensatory return of more saline water moving shoreward on the eastern side of the discharge (Figure 4-35). Bottom topography has an effect on the deployment of the discharge. The Penobscot estuarine discharge moves from a large bay and then through a complex of ledges, islands, and channels causing the water to mix. 4-65 r The Penobscot River salinity increases offsho e,. that of, the Kennebec and Sheepscot is constant (Figure 4-40). Because Coriolis force deflects currents to the right of their direction of flow in the northern.hemisphere, the discharges bend to the west over the coastal shelf and the discharge from the Penobscot River is located on the western side of its bay. Bottom water moves shoreward along the coast penetrating the bays and estuaries (Graham, 1970a, Burfipus MS). At times the flow parallels that at the surface moving from east to west, then at some distance down the coast the flow may turn shoreward (Figure 4-41).. Upwelling is the most prominent feature of the coastal circulation. Sur- face water is carried parallel to or offshore from the coast with a compensating movement shoreward along the bottom. The average number of days that sea bed drifters are out may vary from 164 to 288 when released along the coast (Graham, 1970a), making it difficult to determine any seasonality in bottom flows. However, surface water flows generally offshore or alongshore on the coastal shelf during all seasons,suggesting that upwelling might be con- tinuous throughout the year. Specific exceptions to upwelling occur when winds, dynamic topography at the surface, and bottom topography move surface water shoreward (Table 4-1, Figure 4-35). INSHORE Theoretically, fresh water entering an estuary is mixed with salt water by the tides which is then carried from the estuary. The seaward moving water would be deflected to the right side of the estuary by Coriolis force caused by the rotation of the earth. In compensation for the salt water removed from the estuary more saline coastal water would enter. This water would also be de- flected to the right of its direction of flow or to the side of the estuary opposite to that from which the estuarine flow is departing. In addition to this horizontal difference in flows the more dense and heavier coastal water would be expected to enter along the bottom. In practice the size and shape of an estuarine embayment, its degree of openness to the sea, and the locations of entering rivers among other factors may complicate inshore currents along the western coast of the Gulf of Maine. The distributions of residual currents has received little attention in the coastal embayments and estuaries. Some inferences as to dis- tributions of currents can be obtained from the distributions of salinity. In a few instances, flood and ebb tidal currents are given in the.literature; these are reported here. 4-66 MAJOR ESTUARINE EMBAYMENTS OF THE GULF OF MAINE Passamaquoddy Region: St. Croix River Estuary and Cobscook Bay Current velocities in the lower St. Croix estuary do not exceed 61.1-cm/sec,with flood velocities exceeding ebb velocities slightly. Surface current velocities are also slightly higher than velocities at depth. Current velocities are distributed symmetrically about high and low water slack periods. Highest velocities are attained three hours before high water and three hours before low water. Details of Passamaquoddy region circu- lation are shown in the report of Forrester (1959), pages 19 to 43. Flushing time for the St. Croix esiuary has been computed for the basin above St. Andrews (Forgeron, 1959). For a discharge of 3150 cfs the flushing times vary from 6.5 to 6.8 days depending upon base salinity used (31.13 o/oo and 29.95 o/oo respectively). Flushing times of 5.7 and 5.8-days were calculated during a discharge rate of'2170 cfs in August of 1958. Ketchum and Keen (1953) found a flushing rate of eight days in August of 1951. Flushing rates have not been determined for Cobscook Bay, but a residual drift out of the Bay exists. Drift bottle studies indicate, however, that surface transport well into the estuary occurs in at least 14 hours from well within Passamaquoddy Bay during the flood portion of the tidal curve (Chevrier, 1959). Tidal current velocities have been measured in the lower reaches and passages leading into Cobscook Bay by various investiqators. Current velocities attain values of 159.4 cm./sec at the con- fluence of Western and Head Harbour Passages with shears developing at channel depth (Canadian Department of Environment, 1973), while current velocities in restricted channels of the lower Bay may reach 308.6 cm/sec at times of spring tides (E.G. & G., 1973). Timson (1973) has studied surface drift rates into Cobscook Bay during a period of normal tides and has found that average drift rates are approximately 140.9 cm/sec during flood tides in the central portion of the Bay. Average hourly flood and ebb currents do not exceed 180.0 cm/sec in the restricted, deep channels (Forrester, 1959). Penobscot Bay The salinity distribution at the entrance to Penobscot Bay suggests that freshened water departs on the western side,of the bay and a compensatory return of coastal water enters on its eastern side (See Section 4.2.5). Apparently this circulation is maintained to the head of the bay by the islands which separate East Penob- scot Bay from West Penobscot Bay. Current studies with drogues on the ebb and flood tides were made at the head of Penobscot Bay in relation to flows entering local harbors and coves (Anon., 1967). 4-67 The droque,tracks are shown in Figures 4-43,and 4-44. Flushing rates are published monthly by N.O.-A.-A-.--for the Penobscot Estuary. High discharge periods are characterized by flushing rates of about 10.6 days from Winterport to the mouth of the estuary. Low runoff periods increase the flushing times to about 14.2 days. Casco_Bay Currents in Casco Bay are discussed in relation to the distribu- tions of temperature and salinity in Section 4.2.5. Brayton and Campbell (1953) interpreted these data inferring the circulation shown in Figures 4-45, 4-46, and 4-47. The interaction of the intruding flow of coastal shelf water with the seaward flow of lighter bay water is shown for the surface and depths of 7.5 m and 15 m. Tidal effects were'not determined but the authors presumed that the entire system fluctuates in relation to tidal advances and retreats. Saco River Estuary current velocities within the Saco River estuary are go verned by the relative salt wedge - freshwater surface layer positions and the topographic irregularities of-the estuarine channel. Low-wAter and high-water slacks do not conform to maximum or minimum water levels. At one-quarter flood the river water maintains a high enough head momentum to retain an ebb flow of 25 cm/sec while current velocities in the lower estuary and at depth in mid-estuary average 60 cm/sec in a flood direction as the salt wedge begins to advance up-estuary. Ninety minutes before flood tide, current velocities may exceed 100 cm/sec in the flood direction. Flood velocities are higher at the surface of the water column at the mouth of the estuary; at the bottom or mid-depth in mid-and lower, upper estuary; and at the surface and in an ebb direction at the very head of the estuary. Current velocities during ebb tide stages are higher than flood velocities. At one-quarter ebb, surface velocities may reach values exceeding 150 cm/sec. Surface velocities are greater than velocities at depth. All flow is to the mouth of the estuary except in the deep basins where low, flood-directed velocities reveal the landward flow of dense salt water still flowing to the deeper portions of the basins (Farrell, 1970). At three-quarter ebb, all flow is ebb and velocities attain their highest values. Surface flows throughout the estuary exceed velo- cities at depth. Maximum velocities occur in the mid-portion of the estuary where the channel is constricted in several locations. 4-68 Coastal Shelf Hampshire Data obtained as part of the Seabrook EIS (PSNH, 1972) show the distribution of drift envelopes released at various locations and the paths of seabed drifters in the same area. More recent work of Shevenell and others (Unpublished manuscript, 1974) shows similar distributions of recovered drifters generally occurring to the south and west of release points in and around the New Hampshire shelf. _V&-rima-ick EstUai@,y - Massachusetts The release of plastic floats in the Merrimack River estuary. (Jerome, Chesmore, Andersen, and Grice, 1965) suggested that the flow of water on both the ebb and flood tides followed the main channel of the estuary (Figure 4-48). The dispersion of dye apparently indicated this channel flow for deeper water as well (Figure 4-49). Further, some of the dye which departed the estuary on the ebb flow.was returned on the subsequent flood. Tidal currents in the estuary show a pronounced asymmetry with respect to velocity-tide stage relationships. In tidal channels, ebb currents are nearly twice as.strong as flood currents, reaching values of above two meters per second. Peak flood velocities occur three to four hours after low water, but peak ebb velocities do not occur until four to six hours after high water. Over flat areas, ebb and flood velocities are equal in magnitude and symmetrical with respect to the tide stages. Flood current velocities are stronger at depth; while ebb velocities are higher at the surface of the water column.(Hartwell, 1970). North River Dye released in the North River estuary on the ebb tide moved back into the estuarine mouth; the dye was carried upstream''on the flood. These dye experiments reported by Fiske, Watson, and Coales (1966) are shown in Figure 4-50- Boston Harboir Current velocities within Boston Harbor reach a maximum of 102 cm/sec between Deer island Light and Long Island Head. Mencher, et al. (1968), have summarized the currents of Boston Harbor. "Around the southwestern end of Long Island, the current is rotary, counterclockwise, with average velocity at strength of about'102 cm/sec. Usually, the flood sets southwesterly; the ebb, easterly. Between Thompson and Spectacle Islands, the velocity reaches a maximum of 257 cm/sec, the flood setting - In the main northwesterly and the ebb southeasterly 4-69 channel.betweeh Spectacle Island and the Navy Yard, the maximum velocity varies.from 257 to 514 cm/sec. Figure 4-42 below shows the direction of the Flood Currents in Boston Harbor at the time of Maximum Flood Current, generally T@ hours after Low Water at Boston. Generally speaking the Ebb Currents flow in precisely the opposite direction (note one exception shown by dotted arrow east of Winthrop), and reach these maximum velocities about 4 hours after High Water at Boston. Basically, the velocities of the Ebb Currents are about the same as those of the Flood Currents. Where the Ebb Current differs by a .2 kt, the velocity of the Ebb is shown in parentheses. Thevelocities shown on this Current Diagram are the maximums normally encountered each month at Full Moon and at New Moon. At other times the velocities will be smaller. As a rule of thumb, the velocities shown are those found on days when High Water at Boston is 11.0 to 11.5 ft. (see Boston High Water Tables When the height of High Water is 10.5 kl, subtract 10 percent from the velocities shown; at 10.0 ft., subtract 20 per- cent;at 9.0 ft., 30 percent; at 8.0 ft., 40 percent; below 7.5 ft., 50 percent." 4.2.3 TIDES Tides are the vertical oscillations of ocean waters; the flood tide culminates in high water and the ebb tide in low water. The dif- ference between high and low water is the tidal range. The tides and their range are caused by the gravitational attraction of ocean waters to the moon and the sun. The moon is the smaller, but it is much closer, therefore it is the dominating force. In combination the moon and the sun generate three classes of tide-producing forces; 1) semidiurnal forces with a period of oscillation of about one half day, 2) diurnal forces with a period of oscillation of about one day and 3) long period forces with a period of about one half month or more. The tide generating forces fluctuate periodically with the constant changes in the position of the moon and the sun, in their .respective distances from earth and their eliptical orbits about a common center of gravity with the earth. In the study area the tides are semidiurnal; that is, there are two high waters alternated with two low waters in one day. However, the lunar or tidal day is 24 hours and 50 minutes (24.84 hours). Thus, at any given locality the high and low water periods are approximately 50 minutes later each day. If one stood at a given 4-70 location at the same hour each day, he would have seen all phases of a complete cycle of rising and falling tides in about 15 days. The phase of the moon has a cycle of 29.5 days. When the moon is new and full and the attracting sun and moon are in direct align- ment with the earth, the high water is higher and the low water is lower increasing the tidal range. These are known as spring tides. During the first and third quarters when the moon is at right angles to the sun, as seen from the earth, the high water is lower and the low water higher, reducing the tidal range. These are known as the neap tides. The moon changes its distance from the earth during a cycle of 27.5 days. When in apogee, it is farthest from the earth and when in perigee it is nearest the earth. Perigee spring tides are maximal and apogee neap tides are minimal. Figure 4-51 shows the typical semidiurnal tidal cycle for Boston and its change in range with the distance of the moon from earth and its phase. Note that the tidal range between low and high water is not the same for the two cycles on a given day. Table 4-2 gives the astronomical data pertinent to tidal cycles in 1973. Tidal range varies with geographic locations along the coast and Table 4-12 gives the mean tidal range for other locations. Figure 4-52a gives the tidal ranges in feet while Figure 4-52b is a Co- time map showing position of crest line of high tide at one-hour intervals after the moon's transit of meridian at Greenwich. Figure 4-52c illustrates the Co-range of mean spring tides. Essentially, one of the most striking features of the geographic variation of the tidal range is its increased size in the northeastern part of the coast compared to its southern part. At Boston Light in Massachusetts the mean tidal range is 3 m; at Eastport, Maine,the tidal range is about 6 m, or twice that of Boston. However, tidal range also varies with the confining topography of the coast. There- fore, considerable variation exists from the small 0.5 to 1 m ranges in the open ocean to the extremes of over 6 m in some of the embay- m.ents and channels of the northeastern part of the coast. Times of high and low tides proceed down the coast of Maine f 'rom Lubec to Boston down to Monomoy Island. High tide occurs at Lubec,, Maine,approximately one hour and 30 minutes before high tide at Monomoy Point on Cape Cod. The difference in times for low tides is one hour-nine minutes. The difference of times with respect to high or low water is caused by the configuration of the bathy- metry of the Gulf of Maine (Emery and Uchupi, 1972). When a tidal wave approaches the New England Coast from.the east, it must trans- gress the continental shelf. A wave node will approach the northern coast of Maine over the Scotian shelf faster than over the Georges Banks or Browns Bank. Wave approach distances over the Gulf of 4-71 ASTRONOMICAL DATA, 1973 Tabl e 4-2 -ANational Ocean Surve , 1972Y. -Y Greenwich mean time of the moon's phases, apogee, perigee, greatest north and south declination, moon on the Equator, and the solar equinoxes and solstices. January February Parch April d. h. m. d. h. m. d. h. d h. S 2 14 .. 03 09 23 0 5 00 07 E i 113 0 4 15 42 E6 01 .. E 5 09 0 5 11 E 9 19 .. 4) 10 14 05 P 10 08 P 6 04 0 12 05 27 N12 13 N 11 19 N 8 05 N -16 05 P13 11 () 11 21 26 10 04 28 P 16 21 017 10 07 E 18 07 .. 14 14 .. 0 18 21 28 E18 23 0 18 23 33, 13 51 E 22 12 .. C) 25 03 Ot 20 18 13 S 21 21 26 06 05 A25 13 A 25 09 A 22 02 A 28 16 S26 06 S 25 14 0 25 17 59 S 29 21 0 26 23 46 E 29 04 Ma y June July August d. h. d. h. M. d. h. d. h. 2 20 55 01 04 34 E 5 07 E 1 17 P 4 06 P1, 14 4) 7 08 26 4) 5 22 27 N 5 08 N1 17 S 12 14 S 8 21 4) 9 12 07 4)7 21 11 A 12 P-2 A 9 10 E 11 19 .. E8- 00 D- 15 711-66 0 14 02 17 0 17 04 58 S15 08 'E 20 00 E 16 06 .. S 19 03 A15 17 0 23 03 58 0 21 10 22 A 19 14 015 20 3.5 N 26 14 N 22 21 0 25 08 40 02 21 13 01 P 28 07 P 25 07 E 26 12 E22 18 .. 0 29 18 59 0 28 03 25 () 23 19 45 E 29, 03 N29 04, P30 00 030 11 September October November December d. h. m. d. h. m. d. h. d. h. m. 4 15 22 S-2 13 0 3 06 29 3 01 29 5 5 05 A3 23 E 6 07 E 3 15 .. A 6 03 4)4 10 0 10 14 0 10 01 54 E 12 14 E9 22 P 12 15 N 10 02 0 12 15 16 012 03 09 N 12 16 P 10 22 N 19 03 . . P16 01 0 17 06 34 E 16 05 0 19 16 11 N16 08 E 19 00 .. 0 16 17 13 P 20 22 . . 013 22 0 24 19 55 04 22 00 08 03 23 04 21 E22 19 S 26 05 S 23 0-9 .. E 25 12 .. 026 03 17 A 28 13 .0 24 15 07 26 13 54 S29 20 A 25 22 A31 19 E 30 22 0, new moon; 4), first quarter; 0, full'moon; 3, last quarter; E, moon on -the Equator; N, S, moon farthest north or south of the Equator; P, moon in @Ap ,apogee or perigee; 01, sun at vernal equinox; 02, sun a summer solstice; 03, sun at autumnal equinox; 04, sun at winter solstice. Oh is midnight. 12h is nIoon.. The times may be adapted to any other time meridian than Grelenwich by adding the rongitude in time when it.is east and sub- @racting it when west. (15* of longitude equals Ihour of time). This table was compiled from the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac. 4-72 Maine to the New Hampshire coast are greater than that to Mohomoy Island, but tides approach the lower Cape from the southwest as well as from the east; wave interference over Georget Banks probably delays the tidal Wave passage so that tides on Monompy lag those of Boston or Portsmouth.by 50 minutes. Tidal currents are the horizontal movements that accompany the verti- cal rise and fall of the tides. in the coastal Waters where the tidal currents are confined by topography such as narrow embayments, channels and estuaries, the currents are reversing. Generally, they move shore- Ward on the flood and seaward on the-ebb. Theoretically, there is an approximate constancy between the times of the current and the tide; especially when the difference in the range between the two tidal cycles (diurnal inequality) in a given day is small (see Figure 4-51). The strongest tidal flow woUld,be expected one hour before the times of high and low water. Essentially, the greater the range in the tides the stronger the currents. Usually strong currents occur with the spring tides and weak currents with the neap tides. The velocity of the tidal current-increases where the volume of water that may be passed is reduced by the constriction of a channel or the shoaling of an offshore bank. -In such cases the velocity is independent of the advance 'of the tide. in the rocky inshore areas of coastal Maine, narrow interconnecting channels called "guts" may be located between embayments. Some guts may still have ebbing water within them while water in the embayment receiving its flow may al- ready have begun to flood. Lower Hell GateAs a portion of one such interconnecting channel between the Kennebec and Sheepscot estuaries. Velocities, average 154 cm/sec there and up to 463 cm/sec has been recorded. Figure 4-53 shows the mean flood and ebb velocities for selected locations along the coast: In open coastal waters velocities are about 30 cm/sec. Table 4-13 gives velocities for other coastal locations. Figure 4-83 shows the location of tidal datum points (bench marks) and Table 4-11 gives the station names for all New England stations. Slack water or the period of 2ero velocity is momentary in inshore water and nonexistent in offshore water Where the tides are rotary. Without the inshore restricting topography, the offshore tidal current changes direction continually in a clockwise manner. Haight (1942) illustrates this characteristic for the Nantucket Shoals Lightship located slightly south and west of the area (Figure 4-54). The pattern of flow for the two tidal cycles is that of an ellipse with two maxima and two minima (Figure 4-55). Rotary tidal currents are subject to the same astronomical effects,as the inshore reversing currents@ 4-73 Also. where the volume of water passed at a given point is reduced by Shoals such as Georges Bank the tidal velocities are considerably in- creased compared to the weak velocities over the adjacent deeper water. Table 4-3. lists the direction of flow and mean velocity for rotary tides over Georges Bank. An object suspended in the surface layer would be carried downstream for a given distance and then upstream for the same distance on a reversing tide, assuming that the tidal velocities and duration of the ebb and flood tidal currents were the same. However, non-tidal currents have a decided effect upon the tidal currents. Within the inshore channels the addition of fresh water lengthens the distance that a particle of surface water is carried on the ebb flow. Winds blowing up the channel will lengthen the distance traveled on the flood and reduce that traveled on the ebb. Non-tidal currents off- shore essentially distort the ellipse characteristic of the rotary currents. If the non-tidal currents are sufficiently strong they may at a given time mask.the tidal currents. However, the latter will be apparent when current measurements are taken hourly thus indicating the clockwise change in current direction and velocity. 4.2.4 FRESH WATER INPUT Between Passamaquoddy Bay in the east and Cape Cod Bay in the south, rivers drain seventeen major basins and discharge their effluents into the ocean. Near the river mouths the discharges enter estuaries and then after mixing with salt water usually the mixed water flows into an embayment. The Kennebec-Androscoggin, Mousa@, Piscataqua, and Merrimack estuaries flow into the open coastal shelf. Discharges are evenly spaced along the coast. Large rivers (St. Croix, Penobscot, Kennebec-Androscoggin, Saco, and Merrimack) are separated by one or more small rivers. Only the St. Croix and Dehnys rivers enter the same major embayment, Passamaquoddy Bay (Figure 4-35). Mean discharges during a water year usually vary from 77.5 c.f.s. for the small Mousam River to 12,396 c.f.s. for the large Penobscot River (Table 4-4). On the average, peak discharge occurs in April and reaches a low in August or September (Figure 4-56). A smaller in-, crea se may occur in autumn to early winte'r. Additional data on fresh water inputs may be found in Chapter 2.3, Hydrology. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF FRESH WATER DISCHARGE OF MAJOR BASINS Discharge of the, St. Croix River into the estuary is a mean annual rate of 4,000 cfs. The river peaks in April during spring freshets with an average monthly maximum of 4,461 cfs and a monthly minimum 4-74 TablEF A-3 p,rARI TIDAT- CURRENTS Uational 06ean Survey,-1972) Georges Bank Georges Bank Georges Bank Lat. 41*5(Y N., long. (@;*37' W. Lat. 41*54' N., long. 67*08' W. Lat. 41.48'.N., long. 670341 W. Time Direct ionl--V-@,--ill Time Direction Velocity Time Direction Velocity (true) (true) (true) Degrees Knots Degrees Knots Degrees Knot* 285 09 0 21) 1.1 5.51: 4 0 32 1 5 0 1 3 04 1.1 1 323 1.4 Fig 1 3.32 zi U 2.1 2 324 1.2 S@ 2 344 1.5 S @ @f, 2 342 2.0 3 341 1.1 3 0 1 2 -Z; @ 3 358 3.3 2.2- 4 10 LO 4 33 0' 7 4 35 0.7 5 43 0.9 0 8 5 S'2 5 0.8 13 6 bg 1.0 118 1:1 6 126 1.3 7 127, 1.3 7 133 1.5 'c@ 7 15U 2.0 8 147 1.6 8 15.3 1.2 8 159 1.9 r -V 9 172 1.4 6 5 9 178 1.1 9 169 1.7 10 197 0.9 E5 to 208 0.0 10 197 1.2 p It 232 0.8 ;z 11 236 0.8 11 275 0. 9 Georgei Bank Georges Bank Ocorges Bank L-%t. 41142' -N., long. 67137' NV. Lat. 41'41' N., long. 6749' 11'. Lat. 41'30' N., long. 68'07' IV. Time Direction Velocity Time Direction Velocity Time Direction Velocity (true) (true) itrue) Degrees Knots Degrees Knots Degrees Knots 0 316 1.1 A 0 318 1.6 Esz; 0 312 1.5 1 341 1.3 1 320 8 =I= 1 33S 1.7 1.0 2 325 2 356 1 4 2 346 1.5 x 3 10 0.8 3 .330 0.8 3 14 1.1 4 43 0.6 4 67 0.3 4 59 0.9 5 92 0.8 5 0.9 5 99 0.9 6 1212 1.0 6 117 1.5 6 123 1.3 7 144 1.7 7 145 7 126 1.7 F! 8 170 8 144 1.7 8 160 1.6 9 195 1.0 9 160 1.3 9 187 1.3 10 215 O=E5 1.0 1.0 10 242 0.9 W 214 11 272 0.9 it 1.2 11 274 1.1 Georges Bank Georges Bank Georges Dank Lat. 41129' N., long. 67104' W. Lat. 41'14' N., long. 67*38' W. Lat. 41*131 N., long. 68*.V 11'. Time Direction velocity Time Direction Velocity Time Direction Velocity (true) (true) (true) Degrees Knote Degrees Knots Deques Knots =1 0 277 1.0 0 305 1.4 .0 319 1.5 1 302 1.2 29. 1 332 1.6 1 332 2.0 2 &N 1.4 5@ 2 355 1.6 2 345 1.4 3 348 1.3 @.n3 9 3 1.4 3 9 0.8 4 15 1.2 4 39 1.1 @-U =- s,. 4 42 0.6 5 48 1 1 5 77 0.9 5 so 0.7 6 85 1:2 6 112 1.2 C! --@! %3 6 ]IS 1.0 7 122 1.4 t:,z 7 141 1.6 7 138 1.3 8 145 1.5 I - S 162 1.6 8 164 1.4 12 9 166 1.3 E 1Z 5 9 187 1.5 5 9 69 1.5 = 10 194 ZE3 .a@) 1.2 10 214 1.4 =Ca 10 ISS 1.3 11 223 1.1 11 232 1.2 11 236 0.9 Georges Bank Georges Bank Great South Channel Georges Bank Lat. 40-48' N., long. 67*4(Y W. Lat. 40*4W N., long. 681341 W. Lat. 40'31' N@, lon4. 66147' W. Time Direction Velocity Time Direction Velocity Timp Direction Velocity (true) (true) (true) Degrees Knots Degrees Knots Der. ees Knots 0 304 0.9 0 301 1.2 0 3*10 0.7 1 340 0.9 1 325 1.5 1 33t 0.9 2 3.53 0.8 2 345 1.4 2 342 1.1 3 29 0.6 3 8 1.1 3 3 1. it 4 56 0.6 4 36 O.S @.2 5 83 0.6 73 4 23 0.6 5 69 0.8 5 M 0.4 6 107 0.9 6 106 1.0 6 11-9 0.7 @j 7 141) 1.0 7 131.) 1.4 7 40 0.9 I I 8 1.56 1,0 8 153 5 8 N4 1.0 9 175 0'9 5 9 175 1 4 9 179 1. =-.2 10 2&-' 0.8 o- 10 201 1 1 10 190 11 243 0.8 it 237 0.9 11 =1 1 0. 6 Portland Lightship. off Cape Efi:ab@eth, Maine: Tidal curTent is reversing type with Velocity 3Ver,1,2tng only 0.1 k-not. 1zee table 2. Poldon Lightibip, off Rosion, Harbor enlrance, Vaj,,.: Tidal current is reversing type with vejccii;@ averzgin table 2. g only 0.1 knot. 4-7:5 Table 4-4 River basins and their annual discharges by water year into coastal waters. Only the most seaward gauging stations at localities draining over 100 sq mi are listed. Data. are from records of the U.S. Department of Interior Geological Survey (1972, 11973). Mean Annual Drainage Area Discharge cfs. Recipient Major River Basin (sq. mi.) Mean (N yrs.) Enbayments St. Croix 1,320 4,000 52 Passamaquoddy Bay Dennys 92.4 186 16 Passamaquoddy Bay Machias 457 919 58 Machias Bay Narraguagus 232 474 23 Narraguagus Bay Union 148 260 52 Blue Hill Bay Penobscot 6,670 11,590 .69 Penobscot Bay 299 494 56. Penobscot Bay 178 312 30 Penobscot Bay Sheepscot 148 236 33 Sheepscot Bay Kennebec 2,720 4,321 43 Shelf Proper '4rA 694 50 Shelf Proper 514 928 43 Shelf Proper 579 920 42 Shelf Proper Androscoggin 3,257 5,978 43 Shelf Proper Royal 142 266 22 Casco Bay Presumpscot 436 656 84 Casco Bay Saco 1,298 2,655 55 Saco Bay 161 286 31 Saco Bay Mousam 105 176 32 Shelf Proper Piscataqua 108 200 Oct.70- Shelf Proper Sept.71 Merrimack .4,635 7,055 48 Shelf Proper Ipswich 124 198 41 Ipswich Charles 211 374 40 Massachusetts Bay in September of 1,539 cfs (Figure 8'iniForgeron,,1959). A second, lower discharge peak occurs in November or December. The Dennys River is the largest of the three rivers entering Cobscook Bay. The average discharge of the Dennys is 186 cfs (U.S.G.S., 1969), with a recorded maximum of 2,700 cfs and a minimum of 8.4 cfs. Forgeron (1959) estimates that the total flow of river water into Cobscook Bay is approximately 300 cfs annually. The discharge of the Penobscot varies from a maximum of 82,200 cfs to a minimum of 3,360 cfs. The average annual discharge is 11,560 cfs (U.S.G.S., 1969). Peak discharge occurs in late April or early May with magnitude peaks in late October - early November or December. The Saco River has an average annual discharge of 2,919 cfs. Maximum discharge recorded was 45,000 cfs in 1936, while a minimum dis- charge of 244 cfs was obtained in 1964. The average annual discharge from the Piscataqua River (Salmon Falls River) is 237 cfs with a recorded maximum of 5,490 cfs and a minimum of 6.4 cfs. The Oyster River has an average annual discharge of 19.3 cfs and the Lamprey River - 274 cfs with a maxi- mum of 5,490 cfs and a minimum of one cfs (U.S.G.S., 1967). The Merrimack River is the fourth largest river in New England, draining 12,970 square km of terrain. The average daily discharge of the River is about 7,000 cfs, and ranges from more than'23,000 cfs in the spring to about 1,700 cfs in the fall. The Charles River is the largest river emptying into Boston Harbor. The Charles drains 590 square km and has an annual average dis- charge of 374 cfs with a recorded maximum of 2,540 cfs and a minimum of 0.1 cfs (U.S.G.S., 1969). TEMPERATURE AND SALINITY OF THE COASTAL SHELF The coastal shelf extends in a narrow band about 27 to 36 km wide from the entrance to the Bay.of Fundy to Cape Ann. The major modi- fiers of salinity and temperature along the shelf are river discharge and the strength of tidal mixing increases in the opposite direction, from west to east. Salinity From Penobscot Bay westward larger river discharges intensify salin- ity gradients both horizontally and vertically (Figures 4-108 through 4-116). The spacing of the plumes of estuarine discharge 4-77 also makes the distribution of isoha-lines more complex west of, Penobscot Bay. Essentially, each plume of discharge directed onto the shelf has a corresponding intrusion of more saline coastal water shoreward on its right. Because the discharges are evenly spaced along the coast, there is an alternation of estuarine and shelf waters. This alternation is especially evident from the surface down to 10 meters in the spring (Figures 4-113 and, 4-114). Temperature Progressively greater tidal mixing distributes heat downward in the summer from west to east. Thus, the difference between the surface and bottom temperatures is small in the east and large in the west where the water is.stratified thermally during the summer (Figures 4-126,and 4-127). Consequently,'summer surface tempera- ture increases toward the west, but bottom temperature decreases. Water temperature is relatively uniform along the coast at 20 meters in summer. This layer of uniform temperature occurs at 40 meters depth farther offshore (Bigelow, 1927). Surface temperature gradients are usually perpendicular to the coast, especially in the eastern sector (Figures 4-117 through 4-127). To the west the inflow of estuarine water makes the dis- tribution of isotherms more complex. In addition, in August, temper- atures as high as 16 C may extend shoreward from the Gulf between Casco and Ipswich Bays. During the same month, in-the eastern sector of the coast, temperatures decrease from inshore to offshore indicating the inshore side of a tongue of cold water existing in summer between the warm inshore and offshore waters (Apollonio and Applin, Jr., 1972; Gran and Braarud, 1935). Temperature Records Long term temperature records have been kept at Boothbay Harbor (National Marine Fisheries Service until 1973; and presently operated by Maine Department of Marine Resources) and at St. Andrews, New Bruns- wick (at-the Biological Station, Fish Research Board of Canada). The Boothbay Harbor station records begin in 1905 and St. Andrews also began about the same time. Figure 4-57 shows the Boothbay Harbor average temperature from 1905 to 1964 along with the annual deviation 1940-1959. A tabular summary of the St. Andrews station from 1921-1972 is presented on Table 4-5 and Figure 4-58 shows the annual deviation for the same area. Finally, a summary of Boothbay Harbor, Eastport, Portland, and Boston from 1923 to 1946 shows an overall comparison (Table 4-6). Table 4-1 summarizes mean surface water temperatures and densities at major coastal areas from East- port to Sandy Hook. 4-78 zo@ ko ko %alkoA.oAD'%O"- *.OAD@ %DA0A.0 to ko ko@ ko" CD. 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W f.,) %D CO 14 Cli Un .6:- W m -a i su @,- 0 r,3 c r") N)*N) W CA C@ (D- - - - - - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 co -mw"l W w run co - co L" cn C" C." r%.N Co Pb W tm ON 4@0 Co @4 4Ln 0) to to C@ C) c) c C) C) C@ @ CD C@ CD M C:) n . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 A*CO r**,: *W %*D *V1 W -*4 Ab W -4 4D W .40 r,3 M-, %.o ab Ct a, Q C:> C C@ CD a""-" IIQ zo *@4 * I * * * I * * I - - * . cu -4 -to 0: m 4D m -4 -4 4@- CO %J P. %4 40 W W %0 W tn C@ CD W 4b, U M W W W 4:@- W M W W.A. W W.O. p. Cn tb (n 4h. :tm Zo @D 6 Z. ;j Z. 6 Zo @o :0 L, 6 ;o Z. 6 C) (M Ln co Cl. .3.4 MO% L, Ln 4m (M 01 -4 M al CO M -4 -4 kn -4 CO 14 M CO CA '(D *N) *-4 @'J*W IQ- 6 Iro * I . . . . . . . . 14 CD@ W W -4 CO l< 40, (D C) 40 -4 On W-Ln -4 CD m 0 C@ CD CD W m C3 CD CD C@ CD N) N) rQ ra W W W ;o ;o zo Zo Z. @o Zo ;.3 6 @.;D 6 Zo CD Ln CL C-1 CD 1*1: W -P- Ch- 4:b W C zo zo ;n 1"0 *Co 'W *-4 *(D 41. *41.. 'W *CD 14'- U) W *03 '03 C*D @.A. no N;w w ro m m r%3 w m w 4::b w j:@. m Z"' @0 ZO @J Z. ZO :4 60 '93+ FFFFF F F:- F.@ :*3 1? C+ _-.4 (A Ln -4 C_'3 %0 Cn 00 P"O M 'Pb Cn W W __4 W Co CO re". -Q -4 @4 0% @4 M @4 M 0 -4%4WWW OWCOMW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 @4 'j, co 1) %c @4 to 4h. m Ln ob w w qm Co tD r-i w m wi W -4 co < P. C3 -4 Ab L.4 P@ W ul W W U) -b- N -th W cn W Itn -4 4" Ul US C2 'a %*o '00 w, t*o @'j Zn Zn '4b 4'%"C')* 'P. 4:b C*.@ 4'D n, ONOO CD 0 kn CO -4 CA Im -4 Im at @.4 M -4 @J Ch @4 00 CO -4 CO (n 4:b W C3 W co W (.n W 00 co Ob 4m o-n S@. 'Co @4 zo L, Al Table 4--6 Annual Mean Temperatures for Maine Coast (Source: Maine Department of Sea and Shore Fisheries.) YEAR BBH EASTPORT PORTLAND. PORTSMOUTH BOSTON, MEAR 1923 45.4 44.7 48.0 46.0 1924 45.9 45.1 47.Z 46.3 1925 45.5 45.8 49.0 46.8 1926 44.8 45.2 48.0 46.0 1927 46.2 46.1 48.8. 47.0 1928 47.0 - 49.3, 48,.2 1929 45.0 48.9 47'.G 1930 46.6 44.4 - 50.01 47.0 1931 48.4 43.8 47.6 50.4 47.6 1932 46.8 43.8 .47.2 49.5 46..8 1933 47.5 - 47.6 49.9 48.3 1934 45.6 42.5 - 48.5 45.5 1935 46.7 42.3 48.6 45.9, 1936 45.5 43.6 - 48.6 45.,9 1937 48.2 44.5 47.1 50.1 47.5 1938 45.2 43.5 46.8 49.5 46.3 1939 43.5 42.9 44.7 49.3, 45..l 1940 44.6 41.8 44.4 48.2 44.8 1941 46.1 42.1 49:.7 45.9 1942 46.6 42.2 45.9 50.1, 46.2 1943 45.3 42.0 45.4 49.8 45'.6 1944 46.4 43.1 45.7 46.7 - 45-.5 1945 47.1 43.6 45.7 46.8 51.2 46.9 1946 47.3 43.6 - 47.1 51.9 47.5 MEAN 46.1 43.1 46.1 46.9 49.4 46.3 4-81 El 0 w 0 Mo I P I ID 0 0 ty 0 C, w (D RD CD Years -4 W:@ 0 3 C) M-M M0 co w 0 (D 0 L-i w W 0j, mmT -,,I -4 co o -0 @L 0. . w N W N w tj O-o o c: CIOV 0 -3 0 11 50 FO :4 :1, w w 00 co -4 .3 Z@ 0 I , - (@ 04 tr tj w (D. cn :r 0M rM W-- m w w T'ID M, 0" m0 03 11 CD -Q C-Ds E; t@ M co w w w co co co w pcn* :j0 N GQ cr & cwoqQ CD co ul 0 CD CL z (D P EQ En U) Cn fD -00 W N w m CP co @, - mw. co CPM ci @r 0-0 w w w 0 C5 FO -j FO F ci z 0 p. 0 0 B w co 0 0 W ul Epp !2 E r M- m m wm F FO C4 Im C.0 C) m !2 w co Temperature and Salinity Variations in temperature and salinity (Figure 4-59) are character- ized by 1) a reduction in the seasonal range of T-S relations from west to east which is associated with decreasing stratification, and 2) differences in the configuration of the T-S diagrams which show a downward retardation of seasonal changes by vertical stratification during the spring and summer. Because there are few gradients in temperature and salinity east of Penobscot Bay a pycnocline, an area of rapid vertical change in density is barely evident in the spring and summer (Figure 4-60). In contrast the bottom of the pronounced pycnocline occurs at approxi- mately 20 m west of Penobscot Bay and water is least dense at the surface after the spring discharge. In autumn,the pycnocline is destroyed and the lighter water mixed downward as indicated by the gentle gradient in the west. The water column is homogeneous in the east in the autumn and during.winter in the west. The slight increase in density at the surface in the east may,be caused by winter cooling in the surface water. St. Croix - Passamaquoddy Bay - Cobscook Bay Temperature - Salinity. Salinity and temperature measurements in the lower St. Croix estuary indicate that the lower estuarine-portions are moderately stratified with a salinity difference of 8 o/oo between surface and bottom during spring freshets. The upper portions of the estuary are probably well-stratified during the same periods of high discharge. During periods of lower discharge the top and bottom salinities differ by no more than 3 o/oo with salinities rarely dipping below 28 o/oo in the lower estuary. Temperatures in the lower estuary vary,from 1 C in February to 15 C in July or August. Temperature stratification is present throughout the year except during the fall months. During the winter months the bottom water within the estuary is from I to 2 C warmer than surface waters. Temperature inversions occur in May and for the summer months the surface waters may exceed bottom water temperatures by as much as four degrees.' Cobsco6k Bay adjoining Passamaquoddy Bay is an irregular basin of probable river valley submergence origin. The entire bay is a com- plex of eight northwest-southeast trending irregular arms. The three largest arms have rivers entering their heads. These rivers are the Dennys, Pennamaquan, and Whiting Rivers; they empty into bay arms named-after their respective rivers. Salinities within Cobscook Bay are generally high year round with 4-83 measurements always exceeding 30 o/oo and, in general., remaining 'constant throughout the water column. Salinities vary from 30.2 0/00 in winter months to 32.3 o/oo in late summer. Water temper- atures are also constant with depth and vary from as low as 0.6 C in winter to 14 C in the fall months. Surface waters are slightly colder during the winter months than bottom water temperatures, but are homogeneous throughout the rest of the year. Penobscot Bay Temperature and Salinity. The temperature of the estuarine waters of the Penobscot varies seasonally with winter freezing of the upper estuary from December to March. Temperatures are uniformly 4-5 C throughout the estuary in April. Warm freshwater inflow and surface warming generate temperature stratification in the lower estuary, from Bucksport south, during the spring and early summer months. The head of the estuary is characterized by uniformly warm (19-20 C) water, while partial horizontal stratification exists in the mid-estuary. Bottom waters in the lower estuary are about 5 C. Temperatures reach a maximum of 20 - 22 C in August and intensify lower estuary thermal stratification even though bottom waters may be as high as 10 C. Surface water tooling in the fall months create uniform (10 - 12 C) temperatures throughout the entire estuary (Haefner, 1967). Salinity and density distribution within the Penobscot River estuary define three different zones of stratification and salinity zonation (Haefner, 1967). The upper estuary is a freshwater and oligohaline section (0-0.5 o/oo, 0.5-3 o/oo) (Hedgpeth, 1951) characterized by thorough mixing. During spring freshets, this section extends 17 - 20 km down estuary from Bangor, almost to Winterport. As river discharges decrease, the length of the freshwater section decreases to only about two nautical miles from Bangor. The oligohaline portion of the upper estuary exists just down estuary from the freshwater section and varies in length from six nautical miles during high discharge to two nautical miles during low-flow conditions. The mesohaline section (3.1 - 17 o/oo) extends from Winterport to Bucksport and varies in.length depending upon fluvial discharge, tidal flow, and mixing conditions. Over most of the length of this region the waters are partially mixed to moderately stratified, 4-04 but thelower part of the mid-portion extends into the lower, deeper portions of the estuary during spring freshets producing high strati- fication below Bucksport. The polyhaline section (17.1 30 o/oo) incorporates up to 50 percent of the estuarine basin and exhibits high stratification throughout the year because of the deep nature of the embayment at its lower reaches. Because of the widths of the lower basin and the existence of an island complex dividing the lower estuary into two separate but wide channels, strong lateral variation in salinity distribution occurs year round. Lower salinities exist on the west side of the Islesboro Islands due to the Coriolis effect. This condition pre- vails both during high and low river flow stages. Haefner (1967) found that bottom waters in the lower estuary attained a maximum salinity value of 32.2 o/oo during spring freshets as far north as Bucksport. Surface salinities of greater than 30 o/oo are limited areas south of Belfast during low flow conditions (Sewell, 1932) and just south of the Islesboro islands during maximum fluvial discharge. Casco Bay Casco Bay is a moderately large embayment opening onto the coastal shelf between Cape Small and Cape Elizabeth. Many islands and ledges split the upper bay from northeast to southwest forming shallow reaches about 10 to 12 m deep. The lower bay is deeper, about 60 m, and al- though it is somewhat free of islands the bottom is rugged. The Royal and Presumpscot Rivers flow into the bay; the latter is thoroughly polluted. Smaller streams, such as the New Meadows River, also contribute freshened water to the bay. Salinity and temperature.' Profiles of summer salinity and temperature are given by Brayton and Campbell (1953) for the lower portion of the bay and by Hulbert (1968) for portions of both the upper and lower bays (Figures 441 through 4-73). Data from the upper bay during autumn and winter are given by Eayrs and Banerjee (1970); note the freshened,water at station 1 (Figure 4-74 and Table 4-8). The study of the lower bay in 1953 by Brayton and Campbell suggested that the salinity regime and to some extent the temperature regime of the lower bay is controlled by )l fresh water mixed in the upper bay flowing southward toward the coastal shelf and )2 the northward intrusion of shelf water into the bay. Essentially, the intrusion of more saline and colder shelf water is bracketed to the northeast and southwest by less saline and warmer water. The source of this less saline water is the freshened water that is split as it flows southward from the upper bay. The water split to the east is rein- forced by additional freshened water from another source. This additional water apparently comes from the Kennebec River estuarine 4-85 Table 4-8 Upper Casco Bay, salinity and temperature data (1968) from station in Figure 4-67 Station 1 Brothers Island; 430 411 50" N., 70" 12' 07" W., Low water- 23-24 ft. Depth Salinity Temperature Date Sampled 0/00 *C 17 Oct. S 31.7 13.5 B 31.9 ---- S - Surface 21 Oct. S 32.0 ---- M - Mid-depth B 31.8 ---- 7 Nov. S 32.2 ---- B - Bottom .13 Nov. S 31.8 6.0 B 32.4 ---- 19 Nov. S 30.2 6.0 B 31.5 6.5 3 Dec. S 30.3 5.0 B 32.0 6.1 Dec. S 28.9 6.0 B 28.7 6.0 9 Dec. S 31.3 3.5 B, 31.4 3.1 Station 2 Lucksee Sound; 43* 42' 19" N., 706 06' 28" W., Low water 80-851 Depth Salinity Temperature Date Sampled 0/00- 0C 14 Oct. S 32.1 8.5 17 Oct. S 32.0 14.0 5 Nov. S 32.4 ---- 7 Nov. S 32.5 ---- B 32.4 14 Nov. S 32.5 8.5 M 32.0 7.0 3 Dec. S 32.3 6.1 B 32.4 6.7 9 Dec. S 32.0 -1.5 B 32.8 4.1 4-86 Station 3 Richmond Island 43" 30' N., 700 12' W. Low water 125' Depth Salinity Temperature, Date Samp-led 0/00 0C 22 Oct. S 32.1 14.0 M 32.8 12.5 B 33.0 12.0 15 Nov., S 32.6 8.0 M 32.0 '6. 9 B 33.0, 7.0 11 Dec. S 32.2 4.6 B 32.3 ---- Station 4 Lucksee Sound 43* 39' 25" N., 70* 08' 07" W., Low water 100' Depth Salinity Temperature Date Sampled 0/00 cc 22 Oct S 32.6 ---- B 32.5 ---- Station G Portland Lightship 430 31' 37" N., 700 05' 30" W, Low water 1201 Depth Salinity Temperature Date Sampled 0/00 C 4 Nov. S 33.0 ---- B 33.0 ---- Station G Pomeroy Rock 43' 40' 09" N., 70'0 131 40" W, Low water 30' Depth Salinity Temperature Date Sampled 0/00 cc 15 Oct. S 30.9 9.0 B 32.0 4-87 outflow. Although it is not indicated in the distribution of isohalines shown by Brayton and Campbell (1953), the water split to the west could at times be reinforced or.extended southward by estuarine water enter- ing the adjacent Saco Bay from the estuarine outflow of the Saco River. The intrusion of shelf water into Casco Bay in-July can be traced onto the coastal shelf where it is bracketed by the freshened water from the Saco and Kennebec estuaries (Figures 4-108, 4-113, and 4-115). Detailed profiles of salinity and temperature are not available for other seasons although tables of data for the same stations covered by Brayton.and Campbell are given in allied reports by the Narragansett Marine Laboratory of the University of Rhode Island (1954a and 1954b). However, profiles of temperature and measures of surface and bottom salinity (Figures 4-75 and 4-76) summarize the progression of seasonal events for these indentities in Casco Bay (Day, 1959a and 1959b). Thermal stratification is encompassed by the 12 C. i.sotherm which departs the surface in June and returns to the surface during Septem- ber. The autumnal overturn and the transition to winter thermal homogeneity is also evident. Similarily, there is little difference between surface and bottom salinity and the lowest salinity at both depths occur in the spring. The tongue of colder more saline water that intrudes from offshore is indicated by the distribution of density at all depths down to 15 m and is especially marked at 8 m (Figures 4-77V 78, @nd 79f). 'In general, density increases from inshore to offshore. Great Bay - Piscataqua River Temperature and Salinity. Estuarine water temperatures vary season- ally and from one portion of the estuary to another, but do not vary with depth which attests to the effectiveness of mixing in the basin. Estuarine waters are warmer than marine wa ters from April to October. Water temperatures increase to about 22 C in mid-August to well be- low 5 C in the winter. Temperatures eq 'uilibrate with marine waters in April and October, while the estuary becomes colder th-an marine waters in the winter months. Within the estuary itself, the temperatures of the waters well up in the estuary are 3 - 4 degrees higher than those at the mouth of the estuary. Much of this inner-estuary warming is due to insolation from the shallow intertidal flats. Water warmed by insolation over the flats and the warmer river water then is removed on ebb tides. During the summer months ebb-tidal water is about four degrees warmer than flood-tidal water. Maximum temperature differences with depth are 2 C in Portsmouth 4-88 Harbor at the entrance of the estuary. Temperatures within the estuary never vary more than 1 C with depth (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1972). Estuarine water salinites also-vary seasonally, areally throughout the estuary, and slightly with depth, at any one point. Salinities reach a seasonal low during spring freshets in the upper estuary in April with surface salinities decreasing to about 11-12 o/oo. Lower estuary salinities range from 22 to 27 o/oo during the same period. Salinity values reach a maximum of from 30-32 o/oo in August and September throughout the entire estuary and vary during the late fall and winter months only during times of increased rainfall in the drainage basin. Higher salinity values are encountered at depth, but surfaceto bottom increase averages only one to two parts per thousand. No well-defined salt wedge has been found in this lower estuary. 4.2.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CIRCULATION Where the river meets the sea an estuary is formed; the manner in which this meeting takes place varies according to river flow, tidal velocities, and the shape of the estuarine basin. The classification used here is based on the physical circulation of estuaries. Its features were proposed by Stommel (1951 unpublished, 1953) adopted,by Pritchard (1952, 1955), Pritchard and Carter (1971), and Khchum (1953), and reviewed -recently -by Bowden (1967). Essentially, the circulation is determined by the relative role between tidal flows and river discharge. Tables 4-9 and 4-10 indicate the major types of estuaries, the physical processes that dominate in them and the factors or forces that retain them in equilibrium to the extent that they may be classified. Pritchard's classification is indicated by letters A through D within the classification of Bowden to suggest that opinions may vary among experts. Estuarine basins in the study area (northern) are drowned river valleys with the sea entering at one end and the river at the other. As the river enters the basin the river water mixes with the salt water and carries it into the ocean and away from the coast. Becaus-e the estuarine system must maintain a salt balance, salt water moves into the basin to replace that transported to sea. The amount of salt removed and the amount entering in compensation is determined ..largely by mixing. The entering sea water is more dense and sinks below the departing brackish water of the estuary; it flows inward near the bottom. The volume of such density currents depends upon 4-89 Table 4-9 Type physical processes Salt balance factors A. Salt wedge River input horizontal & vertical advection B..-- Partially mixed Neither River input of horiz.advection, vert. tidal flow dominates advec-& vert.diffusion C. Vertically homogeneous Tidal flow dominates long ' advec.,lat-advec. & lateral diffusion D. Sectionally homogeneous Tidal flow dominates longitudinal diffusion Table i4-10 Type Physical processes Forces 1. Salt wedge (A) River flow dominant Pressure gradients,ffeld accelerations Coriolis effect,interfacial action 2. Two layer fl ow with en@- River flow modified Pressure gradients,field trai nment i nc. fjo rds by ti da.1 currents accelerations Cori olis effect entrainment 3. Two layer flow with River flow and tidal Pressure gradients,Cori- vert. mixing (B) mixing olis effect,entrainment, turb.shear stresses 4. Vertically homogeneous Tidal currents pre- Pressure gradients,en- dominating trainment a. With lat,@variation (C) b. Laterally homogeneous(D) 4-90 the degree of mixing in the estuary. Tidal, currents provide the energy for such mixing, increasing the movement or advection of portions of the sea water into the freshened water and furthering its diffusion or transfer of salt. Where the mixing is'very vigor- ous such vertically stratified density currents may not exist.since the entire water column may be homogeneous. Drowned river valleys narrow at their head and widen at their mouth where Coriolis effect may occur. Because the earth is rotating,, currents are deflected to the right of their intended direction of flow in the Northern Hemis- phere. Looking down the estuary, the less saline outgoing water leaves primarily on the left.. This Coriolis effect may continue into the narrower portions of the estuarine basin, but it is diffi- cult to detect and may in fact be absent.from narrow completely mixed estuaries. SALT WEDGE ESTUARY In this type of estuary the river flow dominates all other factors. The fresh water flows out and over the salt water forming two layers with a sharp discontinuity at their interface., The resulting steep density gradient reduces turbulence and mixing (Figure 4-80). The Coriolis effect causes more fresh water to depart on the right side of the estuary looking seaward and the interface of fres.h and salt- water slopes downward toward the right. The movement of salt water shoreward tends to be slow,since the amount of salt water mixed with fresh water carried to sea is reduced by the discontinuity layer. The Mississippi River estuary'is usually cited as an example of a sale wedge estuary. In view of the vigorous tides in the study region, salt wedge estuaries do not oc-cur. PARTIALLY MIXED ESTUARY Tidal currents in relatively shallow estuaries mix fresh water downward and salt water-upward destroying any possibility of a salt wedge. The interface is gradual.with its maximum gradient in density occurring near the level of no-net-motion. This level exists at the depth where the net residual flow of the flood and ebb tides is zero and above it the net flow is seaward and below it the net flow is landward (Figure 4-81). Because the amount of salt mixed and carried out of the estu- ary is great the flow into and out of the estuary is considerably larger than the flow of river water entering. Many estuaries in the subject region are of the partially@mixed type. The Sheepscot estuary in central Maine is a good example (Figure 4-82a) as well as the Kennebec estuary (Stommel, 1953). The Coriolis effect can be detected 'within the estuarine mouth of the Sheepscot (Graham, unpublished data). VERTICALLY HOMOGENEOUS ESTUARY According to Pritchard-and Carter (1971@) if the estuary.is sufficiently 4-91 wide and the mixing vigorous, the estuary might become entirely mixed, destroyfng the vertical density gradient found in the parti- ally mixed estuary. The flow of less saline water to the sea is on the right at all depths and the incoming more saline water on the left. The wider reaches of the Delaware and Raritan estuaries are of this type, but are not any such estuaries in the study region. SECTIONALLY HOMOGENEOUS.ESTUARY When the tidal mixing completely dominates relative to river flow, the interface is obliterated and salinity is homogeneous both verti- cally and laterally. The movement of salt upstream may be by diffusion in spite of the absence of large salinity gradients (Pritchard and Carter, 1971). 4.2.6 MISFITS AND VARIATIONS Although the relation of river inflow to tidal flows permits a use- ful classification of estuaries, the characteristics of their circula- tions may be obscured by other factors.. Somes Sound is a fjord- type of embayment located in the eastern sector of the coast (Figure 4-15). A small stream enters at the head of its U-shaped glaciated valley and a sill 153 feet in depth is at the entrance to its basin. The circulation in its deeper waters is very likely slow with little exchange causing the accumulation of hydrogen sulfide. In the upper water, especially above the depth of the sill, the circulation is like that of a partically mixed estuary in which the bottom has been re- placed by a basin of undiluted sea water. Seasonal changes in river flow can also change an estuarine circu- lation sufficiently to alter its classification. The Hampton Harbor estuary in New Hampshire is usually homogeneous vertically with tidal currents dominating. But during spring rains it may become partially mixed (PSNH, Seabrook Station, 1972). During some seasons winds may alter the circulation. Southern winds blowing up the Sheepscot may change the vertical profile of tidal excursions shifting the depth at which the level of no-net-motion usually occurs (Figure 4-82b). Along the coast of Maine, abrupt changes in the shape of an estu- arine basin may either alter the character of its circulation or in some of its sections, its classification. The Kennebec estuary is connected to the Sheepscot estuary by a narrow and rough channel called the Sassanoah River. The currents through this channel are fast and it is likely that the water column is homogeneous in some of its sectors. Stommel (1953) describes the effect of water emerging from a narrow sector of the Kennebec estuary into the wider sector near the mouth. Essentially, as the less dense water- moves into the widened sector it loses its velocity because of the sector's increased volume. The less dense water spreads over the 4-92 surface because it cannot push before it the denser water of the widened sector. As more water moves downstream stratification in- creases between the two layers. With reversal of the tide both waters move upstream where they are mixed by turbulence and back eddies in the narrow channel. Narrow channels or constrictions in channels are common in the high rocky area of the coast and occur in the southern lower coastal area where the mouths of estuaries are often narrowed by bars. In some instances channel constrictions cause tidal falls which thoroughly mix the water; e.g. Sheepscot Falls and Sullivan Falls. Narrow channels with broad areas of shallow water at their borders may have circulations that differ within the channel and above the channel sides. In the channel occupying Sullivan Harbor it is possible that in some places a vertical level of no-net-motion does not exist (Graham, preliminary data) because the route taken through the harbor by the flood tide may in part differ from that of the ebb tide. 4-93 4.2.7 SEA-ICE CONDITIONS-EASTPORT TO CAPE COD FROM: NOAA (1972) U.S. COAST PILOT Ice. The extent to which the harbors of Maine are closed to navi- gation by ice varies.greatly indifferent years. During some winters most of the harbors_are open,,.-Oile in others the only @arbors available for anchorages are Quoddy Narrows, Eastport, Little River, Machias Bay (above Avery Rock Light), Mistake Harbor (not much used), Winter Harbor, and Boothbay Harbor. Portland Harbor generally has an open channel in winter, kept so by steamers and tugs. The mouths of,the rivers are generally avoided for anchorage in winter and early spring on account of running ice. In the bays and Harbors the ice formation is mostly local; beginning at the head, in sheltered places along the shore, it extends outward. During a calm or light winds from northward the local formations rapidly increase, while strong winds break them up and force them as-drift ice onto the lee shore. The tidal currents do not.prevent the formation of ice or influence its movements in strong winds except in the larger rivers. In severe winters some of the harbors south of Cape Ann are closed to navigation by icej and there is more or less drift ice in all the harbors, in Cape Cod Bay, and on Monomoy and Nantucket Shoals. In the principal harbors, steamers and tugs usually keep a channel open. See Ice under the different headings in the text. During some winter months or when threatened by icing conditions, lighted buoys may be removed from station or replaced by unlighted buoys; unlighted buoys, and day beacons and lights on marine sites also may be removed; see LIGHT LIST. The International Ice Patrol is conducted by the U-S. Coast Guard whenever the presence of ice begins to threaten steamship traffic in the North Atlantic Ocean, which usually begins in February and ex- tends to about July. The patrol guards the southeastern, south- western, and southern limits of the regions of icebergs in the vicinity of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland for the purpose of informing passing ships of the extent of this dangerous area. Reports of'ice in this area are collected.from passing ships and from flights by Ice Patrol aircraft. Should severe ice conditions be en- countered, the Coast Guard deploys a surface patrol ship to conduct ice observations. Information on ice conditions are disseminated by Ice Patrol Bulletins which are broadcast by radio and landline circuits. A list of the radio stations, frequencies, and times of broadcast are published annually in Local Notices of Mariners of the First and Third Coast Guard Districts and in the Notice to Mariners issued by the U.S. Naval Oceanographic Office. All shipping is requested to assist in the operation of the Inter- 4-94 national Ice Patrol by radio reporting all sightings of ice at once to the Commander, International Ice Patrol (COMINTICEPAT), Governors Island, New York. The report can usually be made via the nearest Coast Guard station. 4-95 4.2.8 References (Section 4.2 Nortn) Anonymous. 1967. Report on pollution Navigable waters of the Penobscot River and upper Penobscot Bay in Maine. Merrimack River Project - Northeast Region Boston, Mass. U.S. Dept. Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Admin. 95 p. Appendix 8 p., I chart. Bigelow, Henry B.. 1927. Physical oceanography of the Gulf of Maine, Buss. U.S. Bur. Fish. 40: 511-1027. Bowden, K.F.. 1967. Circulation and diffusion. In Estuaries (Ed. G.H. Lauff) Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Publ. 83: 15-36. Brayton, C.E. and R. Campbell. 1953. Report on physical oceanographic cruise #1 Casco Bay, Me. Part 2, Summer, 1953. Oceano. Div. U.S. Navy Hydro. Ofc. Ref. No. 53-27: 9 p., 21 Figs., 1 Table, 1 Appendix. Bumpus, D.F. and L. Lauzier. 1965. Surface circulation of the Contin- ental Shelf off eastern North America between Newfoundland and Florida. Amer. Geog. Soc. Serv. Atlas Mar. Environ., Folio 7. Canadian Department of Environment. 1973. Summary of physical, biologi- cal, socio-economic and other factors relevant to potential oil spills in the Passamaquoddy Region of the Bay of Fundy. Chevrier, J. R. 1959. Drift bottle experiments in the Quoddy Region. In Studies on physical oceanography for the Passamaquoddy Power Project. Day, Godfrey C. 1959. Oceanographic observations, 1957 east coast of the United States. U.S. Fish.Wildl. Ser., Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish 282: 121 p. 1959. Oceanographic observations,1958 east coast of the United States, U.S. Fish. Wildl. Ser., Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish 318: 119 p. Eayrs III, Weston and Tapan Banerjee. 1970. Hydrographic data from Casco Bay, Me; Fall, 1968. So. Maine Voc. Tech. Inst., Techn. Rep. Ser. No. 1, 4 p. EGSG, International. 1973. Geophysical and drogue study/current profile reports: Eastport Tanker Terminal Project, Frederick R. Harris, Co., 55 pp. 4-96 Eldridge. 1973. Tide and Pilot Book. R. E. White, Boston., Ma. Emery, K. 0. and E. Uchupi. 1972. Western North Atlantic Ocean:: topography rocks,, structure., water, life and sediments... Am. Assoc. 'Pet. Geol, Memoir 17. Farrell, S. C. 1970. Sediment distribution and hydrodynamics, Saco River and Scarboro estuaries; Maine. Cont. No. 6,Coastal Research Group, Dep. of Geol.,Univ. of Mass., 129 pp. Fiske, J. D., C. E. Watson and P. G. Coales. 1966.A study of the marine resources of the 'North River. Dept. Nat. Resources., Mass. Monogr. Ser. 3, 53 p. Forgeron, F. D. 1959. Temperature and salinity in the Quoddy Region Rep. of the Int. Passamaquoddy Fish.. Bd. to the Int.. Joint Comm. Appendix I .(Oceanography) Chap. 1, 44 :.pp. Forrester, W. D. 1959. Current meas.urements in Passamaquoddy Bay and the Bay of Fundy 1957 and 1958: Rep of the Int.Passamaquoddy Fish. Bd. to the Int. Joint Comm. Appendix I (Oceanography) Chap. 3: 73-pp. Graham, J. J. 1972. Retention of larval herring within the Sheepscot estuary of Maine Fish. Bull-, U.S. 20: 299-305. 1970a. Coastal currents of the western Gulf of Maine. Intern. 'Comm.. 'Northwest Atl., Fish.. Res- Bull. 7: 19-31. 1970b. Temperature, salinity., and transparency observa- tion, coastal Gulf of Maine. 1962-65. U. S. Fish. Wild. Serv. Data Rep.42: Microfische, 1 p. Haefner'. P. A., Jr. 1967. Hydrography of the Penobscot River (Maine.) estuary. J. Fish Res. Bd. Can. 24 (7): 1553-1571. Haight, F. J. 1942. Coastal currents along the Atlantic Coast of the United States. U.S. Dept. Comm. Coast & Geodetic Sur- vey. Spec. Publ. 230: 73 p. Hartwell, A. D. .1970. Hydrography and Holocene sedimentation of the Merrimack River Estuary. 'Mass. Cont. No.5-CRG, Univ. of Mass!, Dep. of Geol., Publ. Series, 166 pp. Hed gepeth, J. W. 1951. The classification of estuarine and brackfish waters and the hydrographic climate-: In H. S.Ladd (Ed.)Report of Committee on a treatise,of marine ecology and paleoecology. Nat. Resource- Counc., Washington, D. C. No. 11: 49-56- .Hulbert, Edward M. 1968. Stratification and mixing in coastal waters of the western Gulf of Maine during summer, J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 25 (2): 2609-2621. Jerome,'Wilham C., Jr., Arthur Chessmore, Charles 0. Anderson, and Frank Grice. 1965. Study of the marine resources of the Merrimack Estuary. Mass. Div. Marine Resources. Mono- graph No. 1.p. Ketchum, B. H. 1953. Circulation in estuaries. Proc. Third Conf. Coastal Eng., pp. 65-76. Ketchum, B. H. and D. J. Keen. 1953. The exchanges of fresh and salt waters in the Bay of Fundy and in Passamaquoddy Bay. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 10 (3): 97-124. Mencher, E., R. A. Copeland, and H. Payson, Jr. 1968. Surficial sediments of Boston Harbor, Massachusetts. J. Sediment. Petrology, 38: 79-86. Narragansett Marine Laboratory, University of Rhode Island, 1954a. Data Report #2, physical oceanography. fall, 1953. Inshore survey project, Casco Bay. Oceano. Div., U.S. Navy Hydro.. Ofc., Ref. No. 54-5: 1 p. I Table. 1954b. Data report No. 3, physical oceanography winter, 1954. Inshore survey project Casco Bay. Oceano. Div., U. S. Hydro. Ofc. Ref. No. 54-5: 10 p., 1 Table. National Ocean Data Survey, 1969, Records of current observations, Penobscot Bay. USC & GSS Ferrel (ASV-92). Project No. OPR-490. National Ocean Survey, 1971, Tide Current tables, 1972. Atlantic coast of North America. U.S. Dept. Comm. NOAA, 200 p. 1972. Tide tables, High and low water predictions, 1973. East Coast of North & South America. U.S. Dept. Comm. 288 Normandeau Associates Inc. 1972. Seabrook Station: Environmental Report, Construction State. For: Public Service Company of New Hampshire. Pritchard, D. W. 1952. Estuarine hydrography. Advan. Geophys. .1: 243-280. 1955. Estuarine circulation patterns. Am. Soc. Civil Eng. 81 (seperate 717).. Pritchard, D. W., and H..H. Carter, 1971. Estuarine circulation patterns. N-1. 4-98 Sherman, Kenneth. 1966. Seasonal and annual distribution of zooplank- ton in coastal waters of the Gulf of.Maine, 1964. U.S. Fish. and Wildl. Ser. Spec. Sci. Rep., Fish. 530, 11 p. Stommel, H. 1953. The role of density currents in estuaries. Proc. Minnesota Intern. Hydraulic Conv. 1953. 305-312.. 'Timson, B. S. 1973. Surface drift measurements in Cobscook Bay, East@- port, Maine and their implications to oil spill clean-up. Open-file report, Me., Bureau of Geol., Dep. of Conserv.,.. 12 pp. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1972. Final environmental statement, Newington..Generating Station, Unit No. 1, Newington, New Hampshire. U. S. Army Corps of Eng., Waltham,.Ma-ss. U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1970. National estuary study. Vol'. 2: 303 p. U. S. Geological Survey. 1972. Water resources data for Maine., 1971. Part I, Surface Water records: .112 p. 1973. Water resources data for Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont, 1971. Part 1, Surface water records: 401 p. 1 pl. 4-99 St. Croix River M A I N E Passamaquoddy Dennys Bay River Machiasport Bangor zone, border _.Somes Sound (I vc@ 0 Penobscot Bay Damariscotta River heepscot River rtland Casco ennebec River Bay N.H. Saco River ATLANTIC Portsmouth OCEAN 10 Merrimack River Cape Ann Massachusetts Bay Boston. North MASS; River Cape Cod Bay Cape Cod R. 1. zone border A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE 4-100 NW- 1 4-35 1North Atlantic Estuarine Zone co, 0 @O 0 69 0 1600 0 ,e,> -0 66-0 is A SURFACE 199W BRUNSWIC,, C7 OF MAIAN It .01@4 BOTTOM OF KA1'XZ 49 1>10 0 090 64? 0 0 660 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REG107N I FIGURE Inferred Routes of Travel of a Particle of Water 4-36 Source to,Coastal Shelf (Grahami, 1970a) 4-'10.1' AUTUMN WINTER WINDS No?3 DRIFT No 28 SPRING SUMMER WINDS NxI10 DRI FT N&I5 4w- a 10 % A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Frequencies of Prevailing Direction of Winds.and 4-102 4-37 BIottle D.rift (Haight, 1942) 0.47 1 'Ns CURR ENTS 090 OCTOBER as 1963 Ic- o." CURRENTS FES-MAR 1965 Mz - - -------- Id Plcp_' URRENTS 'j, 0 MAY 1965 ---------- -090 ZZ *ell CURRENTS AUGUST 1964 zr; 4 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN71C REGION TR FIGURE I lynamic Topography at the Surface Relative to 30M. 4-38 (Graham, 1970b) I - 4-103 43 OL <loom 00 1\1 4f TUM BASIN\, NJEW SCAvk 70 0 00 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC 7R7EG71ON] FIGURE TR Effect of Bottom Irregularities on the Dynamic 4-104 9a 4-39 Topography (Graham, 1970b) 301 690 301 pr 440301- 30' 44 0 .. .... 32.2 44000'- 44! 00' 310 32,71 >31.0 EPSC-0 320 29 K5@@\ 310 010) 31.0 X5 30.0 P Wr 30' 6q.0 30' A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION IR@a I FIGURE jEffect of Discharge form Penobscot, Kennebec, and Sheepscot Rivers as shown by salinity distribution - 4-40 May 1965 (Graham, 1970a) 4-105 I- 4@ ...... SEA BED DRIFTERS 0 RELEASE 0 RECOVERY DR! FTE R DR FTER..-- AUTUMN it .0 00 .0, Wl@NTER lip. SPRING 4 p 0 U L F 0 M A I INE SUMMER FA SOCIO - ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTC REGION] FIGURE Release, Routes,and Recovery of Sea Bed Drifters "119pw 4-41 (Gorham,.1970a) 11-106 BOSTON HARBOR CURRENTS The fd m below shows the direction of the Flood Currents in Boston 14arbor at the time o mum Flood Current, generally 3'hhrs. after Low Water at Boston. Generally speakin$ the Ebb Currents flow in precisely the opposite direction (note one exception, shown by dotted arrow cast of Winthrop), and reach these maximum velocities about 4 hrs. after High Water at Boston. Basically, the velocities of the Ebb Currents are about the same as those of the Flood Currents. Where the Ebb Current differs by a .2 kt, the veloci of the Ebb is shown in parentheses. ity. The Velocities shown on this Current Diagram are the maximums normally encountered each month at Full Moon and at New Moon. At other times the velocities will be smaller. As a rule of thumb, the velocities shown are those found on days when High Water at Boston is 11.0 to 11.5 ft. (see Boston High Water Tables pp. 10-15). When the height of High Water is 10.5', subtract 1017o from the velocities shown; at 10.0% subtract 20%; at 9.0, 3001o; at 8.0, 4017o; below 7.5', 50%. 0 STO-N H13R. IYA CHELSEA .50) R 0 IZQ .@@81?OAZP 50iIND Pol 150 GRAVF 5 0 5,0-BoSTON 1.5 Z-0 ,be- 1130STCH 0", 00 %z wT. '--'AA1 .1 .5 1.7 1.3 q Q @k Z QUINCY HIN6HAM A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE@NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRPO FIGURE 0 TB ston Harborturrents 4 42 Eldridge, 1973) 4-107 c@ cc- PENOBSCOT RIVER 0 FORT POINT COVE 110, 712 00 r3 00- 1- C KIDDER pr. FORT 49 POINT 0 +2 -c-) m SEARSPOR z < 0 -5 =(D SEAR PORT Z HARBOR SEARS K ISLAND C+ +4 r- f4 0. 7/25^6 . 66 V, SAO 3 #t 43 0.1 v) #3 z t 3 42 4 7/26/66 #1 TURNER PT -0 BELFA 8 2 rD -5 ;4"" 1@@* V2 7129186 0 0 8/4/" 451/2 #4 42 &/$/so lu, 4 In +61/2 0 ut @516/66 1@ +.s , C+ 66 + +5 tv 1/2 51/1 PE&KINS PT l< +3 LEGEND 431/2 41 i DIRECTION I= +21/ 0 +11/2 431/2 46 OF CURRENT +4 +5 V2 #4 1. WIND -i /66 42 Z 8/9 TURT-1@@%4"/" DIRECTION AT TIME 451/2 6/6/6 am/66 HEAD OF STUb 0 42 0 ..#K of CASTINE AFTER LOW TIDE 8/$/66 ISLESBOR01 .0 ISLAND NAUTICAL MILES 0 NORTHPORT CL MARSHALL PT I --I 1 0 1/2 SAYSIDE CL (D CURRENT STUDIES IN PENOBSCOT SAY AREA DURING FLOOD TIDE PENOBSCOT RIVER m N 8 CIO FORT POINT Z. COVE C 0 00 M m STOCKTON HARBOR FORT 4 Pol * m 7/28/64 z +41/2 0 -S SEARSPO + =3 rD -- :3 01 a _Ct. z SEARSPOR 0 HARJ@ C+ m 4 SEARS a Z 44,w ISLAND ko m a% in < m 61/2 (D @5 BELFA TURNER PT 0 0 Cr 90/66 (A 111/121" + 0 0 0 -n 44 C+ 0 6/m/116 +4 jw m *11 PE KINS PT z *a 0/0 a LEGEND 0 oF cmite"r tHmCnow 111146 Of WW AT TIME > dF rri + 6/041 Cr > + CASTINE 04 go we $7r4n NN I M4101 TICE WORTHPO 0 MARSHALL PT. SCALE, (D A Z-*9 1/2 &AV" 0 a 13AYSIDE Nautical miles CURRENT STUDIES IN PENOBSCOT SAY AREA DURING EBB TIDE C) 0 z 9v El 46 c;,* c2 POR AND SOUTH @jf@ fl ORTLAND A- CAPE ELIZABETH v CURRENTS (SURFACE) lb@ 05 7V !;5' FSOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Casco Bay Currents at the Sur 'face 4-45 (Brayton and Campbell,,,1953) 4-110 PV A ev cl *C,) POR AND SOUTH 4, ORTLAND CAPE ELIZABETH CURRENTS '(25ft.) L -1 @5' 10 6-5' - - - 55' TO OR T 0 L U A T N H D CAPE E L, , T Z A @EH [A Soclo"ECONOMIC AND ENVIRIONMENT-AL INVENTORY OF THE,NORTHATLANTIC REGION -U7REC TR FIG (@sco Bay.,.currents-at 25 Feet _ U 4 46 Brayto n ah d tampb'el I "1953) 4-111 El 13 0 POR AND SOUTH ORTLAND __r CAPE ELIZABETH CURRENTS (50ft) 15' 05, 7b* A SOCIO-ECONOMIC, AND, ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF. THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Casco Bay Currents at 5 .Ofeet. 4-47 (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) 112 Atlantic Salisbury Ocean 4-1b 00 0=r 0 Pluni, 0) CD Island. Q. Cr dip 00 00) CL (D0 0 orp V) C_ (D 5 rD In-coming Tide (D ___-Out-going Tide ER M Newbury (D Pi C+ 0 0) Newburyport < CD -1 0 > 0 0 Salisbury Atlantic 0 Ocean z -n 0 .K 0 0 % -Plum ZE U) < @O CD TD 0 Island U) CD 0) 0 CD ;a Z5 _r 0, CL r+ (D 0 Woodbridge - Release Point C_ Island CD C@ 0 -n Pot h of Dispersion 0 (D M ;0 M M C+ M z Newbury . 0 sw Newburyport (D C-1- > P Ln :FE -0b 0 C+ 1335 1330 Dye ischarse 1325 1300 0800 0930 094Z 1045 183 1545 026 (41 1500 P*TQ1 1847 1645 165b,@ ITOO A SOCIO- ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] TR FIGURE ummary of Dye Movement on Tidal Action 1; pkV 1 4-50 Vi ske et al., 1966) _I s . 4-1151 DAY 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 is. is 20 Ft. A C, E I I BOSTON 10 J 9 A I a. -A A 7 6 5 3 0 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAffC REGION FIGURE Typical Tide Curves for Boston 47.1116 I-NO 4-51 (NOS/NOAA, 1972 CA.NADA M I N E %WASHINGTON Eastport 18.2 ...:'@ANCOCK Jonesport 11.5 WA .L.DO Prospect Harbor 10.5 Winter Harbor 10.5 Southwest Harbor 10.2 LINCOLN KNOX SAGADANO Isle au Haut 9.3 C Rockland 9.7 oj'Nonhegan island 8.8 H. CUMBERLA Pemaquid Harb .or 8.8 Portland 9.0 %YORK STRAFF<@ Kennebunkport 8.7 York Harbor 8.6 Portsmouth 8.7 Merrimack River 8.3 ::4SSEX Gloucester 8.7 Boston 9.0 Cap Cod Canal 8.7 iUFFOLK Provincetown 9.1 MASS. 0 %J. NANTUCKET FWO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Mean Tidal Range in Feet for Selected Areas Along 4-52a the Coast 4-117 50 30. lb Af, N A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH AKAN-nC REGION FIGURE -Time Map Showing Position of High Tide at One 4-52b Hour Intervals (Emery and Uchupi, 1972) 230 wow 4P - -------------- A SOCK) =ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI07N] TR FIGURE Co-Range Map of Mean Spring Tides 4-52c (Emery and Uchupi, 1972) 4-ils - M. A I N E WASHINGTON Eastport 313 Jonesport HANCOCK LINCOLN %KNOX SAGADAHOC\"'@,@-- isie au Haut 1.4/1_5 N.H. -Sheepscot .1 CUMBERLAN t Bath 1-0/1.5 Portland YIO R K VELOCITY STRAFFORD.......'% f loo Kennebunkport 3/3 Yebb .4/ York Harbor .4 ROCKI@@. '***....: 8 1-2/1.8 ..Port mouth 2.2/1 Merrimack River .4 SSEX George's Island 3 -4/2'. 6 SUFFOLK Cap4 Cod Canal 2 Provincetown Harbor 6/ '-A .4 MASS... PROVIDENCE WASHINGTON NANTUCKET - --- ------ A SOCIO- N IC AND ENVIRONMENTAL'INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TWI, FIGURE Mean fl,ood and Ebb Velocities for ;Selected Coastal 4-53 1 Location's 4-119 North Midnight 12 Noon 12 4 5 Scale of /(not$ 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 /0 12 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC 'AND E L INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC R N.VIRON.MENTA FIGURE Rotary Current - Nantucket Shoals Lightship 4-54 (Haighf, 1.94,2) 4.---120-- North L+3 L4 a Xr le ell L+ I CO L 0 AV <7' jPH+1 L 2 H+3 Scale of Knots I 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI FIGURE Mean Current Curve - Nantucket Shoals Lightship 4-55 (Haight, 1942) NW] 1 4-1211- HYDROLOGIC CONDITIONS 60,000 01014000 St. John River at Fort Xent, Me. 50,000 Drainage area: 5,690 al mi. 40,000 30,000 20,000 10,000 0 Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept.. Year 4,000 01031500 PiscataquiS River near D ?ver-Foxcroft, Me. 3,000 Drainage area: 297 sq mi. tr 2,000 44 XI 1,000 r.7-1 r-M 0 Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Year 600 u 01057000 Little Androscoggin River near South Paris, Me. r 400 Drainage area: 76.2 sq mi. 54 .... XX 200 L E.- X 07M F/' 0 - -2 L Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mir. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Year Explanation Median of monthly and yearly mean discharges for water years'1931-60. Monthly and yearly mean discharges during 1973 water year. L A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH AT'LANTIC REGION] TR FIGURE--[ Runoff Comparison at Two Lon .g-Term Index G Iuaging 4-122 &d. 1 .4-56 Stations During 1971, (U.S. Geological Survey, 1972) ANNUAL SEA WATER TE 4b -b 0 0 DEVIATION OF -n .,1905-09 run M ko m -91 C) 1915-19 Dl--. m z 1920-24 - C M < 1925-29 - 00 t.0 1930-34 - C." rn 0 V) 0 C+ 1935-39 - cn 1940-44 - cu CD 0 -n m .1945-49 - -1 4@t- C) C) m 1950-54 - 7Z, 19 5-59 5 00 t Ljo) tO M rQ --h M 2.0- @.A vi v- jj 2.0- '25 5 @4 '50 '55 '60 '65 1921 30 '35 40 Year A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION 1. FIGURE-1 Quarterly Devations of Surface Water Temperature 4--124 4-58 at St. Andrews, N.B. . (Lauzier and Hull, 1969) AREA 2 AREA 4 S 14- 12- A 10- 1963-64 SP 6 u 0 4 2 w SURFACE 10METERS LIJ 14 - - - - - - - 20METERS IL 30METERS :1 12 - LLI 10 - 1964-65 /Ito, 2 - 30 31 32 33 30 31 32 .33 S A L I N I T Y TIC REGIO A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN FIGJRE Seasonal Temperatur -e Salinity Relations .hips 4-59 (Graham, 1970b) 4-125 0- Sp S A W ASSp W JO- E %1-20- A S 1-30- a- WEST EAST w C:) 40 22 23 24 25 26 22 23 24 25 26 DENSITY- SIGMA T A- .T A SOCIO-F:CONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF T-HE NORTH ATLANTIC REG- ION IR@WFIGURE Vertical Distribution of Density East and Wes t of 4-60 Penobscot Bay (Graham, 1.970b) El 03 0 L M POR AND 'o 18 15 0 '19 @y 20 31 0 0 032 43 so 0 0 044 UTH 1 V4 053 ORTLAND 01 A 114 052 57 0 --@ !3 1 1 0 3 0 121' o 033 056 IB 0 D 042 51 04 o6 G H I i K 45 13 1 054 056 07 1 29 041 @0 022 0 46 50 034 0 0 055 CAPE 040 1 ELIZABETH 18 12 @0 23 128 147 049 0 0 U35 0 09 24 027 o39 148 CASCO BAY 0 0 036 Station Locations 110 126 37 038 0 @ 25 0 0 0 V5@ ib@ 65 !@5 30 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Lower Casco Bay Station Locations (Graham, 197bb) 4-61 Ln El 0 eV -V 0 c., 31.00 POR AND .20, 20 @50 -------- S 0 U'Tl H .80 ORTLA .20 I %, NN 31.00-1--l 11 26"1 L / /, .101 10 .110 36@ -.20 40' .10 CAPE ELIZABETH .20. CASCO BAY SURFACE SALINITIES (%*) .10 -@30 43 .20--, .10 .20 .10 //@)I,00 f5' 10, 65' 7b* 55' A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONWENTAL.INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] FIGURE 4-62 Lower Casco Bay Surface Sal nity (Graham 1970b) 4-128 ila A Cc C" 0 POR AND .30 .20 .30 jp .30 30 .30 1.40 .30 1 1 -- .20 .40 .40 31.00 SOUTH .40 oRrLAND .30 .10 .60 '.601 f .30 - W.50 CAPE .20 31.50 1., ELIZABETH .40 .40 .40 .30 31.50 .40 .40 SALINITY (25ft.) %o .40.30 0 1-5' ibr C@5' 7b* !;5' OR So L U A T N H D 031! @APE ,TH ELIZA @E A SOICIO-EGONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE 4-63 Lower Cas'co Bay Salinity - 25 Feet (Graham, 1970b) 4- 1 A c'C 30-, .40 POR AND 01. 1" .1 I-'[email protected]'/" 40.50 1 .60 6o 0 ------- 31.30 .60 70 70 /7 SOUTH ORT LAND 31 0 5o .90 CAPE 31.70 ELIZABETH It 31.80 30# /* @0 40 50 .60 A0 11 - 11 1 1 1, I SALI N ITY (50ft.) %o 60 .60 4@O !80 0 f5' 0-5 76* !;5 O"S T OU LAN H D CAPE ,T, ELIZA @E A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE 4-64 Lower Casco bay Salinity - 50 Feet (Graham, 1970b) 4-130 Wa I I I SLIDE 9 1 2 5 5 7 a or 00 ffd 1.50 "W Section A 15W Section 8 3?.00- is Is 12 13 d. _Tr" - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - to --------- ------------ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Zzz - - - - - :: -:!: _- :_ __ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - L59 - - - __.: -.7: __ ____ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 000! 1W Section C TUDC 9 2 0 2 r 23 24 2! 0 5d 1W - - - - - - - Section D 4k:50,11 1 - 3.0 ry ------------- -77*77 772?@@ Z Z Joe ISO, Section E SLIDE a 32 3@3 34 35 34 37 too, .77- 3Z.00 c,,ioi F [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY.- OF THE--NORTH ATLANTICA0310N 4-65a Lower C a sco Bay Vertical Salinity Section FIGI)RE (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) 4-131 43 42 41 40 39 38 arm - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - io 50. -- - - - - - - Soo' 32.00 5 0- @ection G 4eWN 3.3' 44 45 46 47 49 0*- L - -- - - - - - - - - - 3 t. @ o 32.00 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I swo Section H 2 4 ti.' Sit 91 49 - - - - - - - - - - -------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1co. 32.00 - - - - - - - - --- 200'. 43@WW 3s, Section I 53 54 5.5 57 0, 7.Z so@ Z- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - too' 32.00 100, f It 0 0L Seelion Is rr to 1`9 Section. 50 100i Section L secrion G A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGTON@ FIGURE 4-65b Lower C "Ila (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) asco Bay - Vertical Salinity Section 4-132 00 Pv .M POR AND 60 - 60 59 60 62 62 /--->-60 S TH --58 3 OUTH 62 SOU ORTLAND 59 60@-' 61 61 2 61 6 55ij 59 5 15 @8 P3 CAPE '8 1 ELIZABETH 5 56 %0" 6i CASCO BAY 43 Surface Temperature 'F July 27-28,1953 f5. 1b, 6-5' 7b* 5 5 v OR '30 TLA U N TH D 0 6 -EW 55' CAPE L' T E ZA E H 5@7 A qOCIO- ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRF;WFIGURE Lower Casco Bay Temperature - OF, Surface 4 -66 (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) 133 IC's d,' 15 15 14.5 POR AND v 14 1.4.5 15 P 15.5 15.5 15 16 16- 15.5 LITH 0 % % ORTLAND 14 11 .5 15.; .eel 16.5 16 14.5 14 %V CAPE -16 ELIZABETH 14 SURFACE TEMPERATURE C .15 15.5 10 15.5 15 0 f5' lb@ 70 A SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION -IFIGURE I Lower Casco Bay Temperature - OC, Surface 4-67 (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) 4-134, LEW Py Lf C C" 5 56 57 56 PO AND 55 54 51455 1 57 56 56 56 56 157 1 55 55 SOUT H ;:-:z 5 54 53 ORTLAND G 58 '* "', I "'-- 57, '159 56 51 V 55 CAPE ELIZABETH 5 3........ 5. 'I 52 It \59 51- 55 56" 521-' TEMPERATURE *F (25ft) 57 535 55 5, 6 5 58 0@51 7b* - - - - Y54 54 52 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND, ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION U 1E Lower Casco Bay Temperature OF, 25 Feet 8 n46' (B Irayton and Campbell, 1953) 4-135 ev C@ C' ly '0 14 P0 AND 13 12 I;2 113 II '1114 14 13 soul H 13 12 ORTLAND 13 CAPE 12' ELIZABETH 10) 12-- 13 fill 15 TEMPERATURE 0C (25 ft) f5' 7:Oo 5@51 OR So T U LAT N H D C", CAPE I TH E ZA @M A SOCO-EcONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION F E IGURE Lower Casco Bay Temperature - OC, 25 Feet 4-69 (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) 4-.137 YA 0* 56 55 5 Cl) POR AND 5352 50 50 54 53 51 53 51 52 51 50 52 54, SOLIT H ORTLAND IIf 5 50 51 5 4 51 CAPE ELIZABETH .53 ff ------- 51 50 51 44 49 TEMPERATURE F (50ft) 50 51 50 10, C@5 7b* r SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE'NORTH ATLANTIC A 'REG FIGURE 1K Lower Casco Bay Temperature - FO, 50.Feet 4-70 (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) 1 4-.137 OV-/ Li 0 A -ev 0* m POR AND t /If SOUTH ORTLAND 12 CAPE ELIZABETH 10 10 TEMPERATURE C (50ft) 'o 13 12 lb' 65, 7;0' E@5' A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I Lower Casco Bay Tem erature - CO, 50 Feet 4771 (Brayton and Campbeyl, 11953) SLIDE 2 3 5 7 sec,ion ectiom 43-@s M 37, 34 IS 14 .3 10 SO% - - - - - - - - - - - - so' Sedion C 1-7-71@1 ------- ISO' 43'40'k 35, SLIDE 20 21 23 2.4 7 2: ------ 7tj 4 IOV. 777@,- D 43'39'N 30 29 10a sevion E- 51.10, 3-1 3 S5 Be 37 5 0, 1-2 7@-, "7-7 I -tctlcr, r [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE 4-72a Lower Casco Bay Vertical Temperature Sections (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) 4-139 43 4 12 4.1 60.- 4.0 39: 31 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Joe- 150. S ction G 200, 0. 44 45 4.6 47 46 51- -- - -- - - --- -- -- -- - - - - - - --- - - - - - Joe - - - - - - - - - - - t5o'. 7-1" Stdion 45- zoo'-- 7 7/51@@ 4 2@:! Q'X 35, ELVOCa 52 5.1 50 49 to - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 200% section 5 IS -$4 57 5 f, ot fro'- 77,77 @Zao' 200*- 43*37'N Secilon J Sec*fon K 1 1.9 0. V- 100 2.00,1 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR@a I FIGURE 4-72b Lower Casco Bay Vertical Temperature Sections 4-14.0 (Brayton nd CamDbell, 1953) LOW TIDE rw WDOAM SOD 10'OD 11vt 0 012.5. 120 1711, IV Ir l2r, Poliq FREE lo@ WERE to. D 110 JULY 9 POUND OF TEA 30 JULY 10,11 40- HIGH TIDE x I= PM M. 3*0 4:00 5100 Tw *60 1. 0 Afe- 0_1 1145- br 5. Iwo_.rv. w IV -------- -------- "20 JULY10 4 #j 30- HIGH TIDE LOW TIDE 0- AT K A b" to- r X WHALEBOAT! CL 20- 30- EAGLE 40- A B JULY 24 JULY 2.4 50- A x 0 x @30.00 ----------- C 10- L 1 20- 'JULY JULY 11 30- SALINITY TEMP 'W,-HALFWAY PMK 40 - \.. ^1E . t E` E I',- A14UTICAL MILE JULY 26 __ J_ @ 'JULY I I SALI*N91.TY A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Central Casco Bay-Vertical Temperature Sections 4-73 (Hulbert, 1968) 4-141 Great @.Chebeaqu Island o2 0 A .:Long Island 0 E C5 oG 43040 Portland OB Peaks Island 04 0 C South Portland I'A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION ITR FIGURE I pper Casco Bay-Salinity and Temperature Stations 4-14' 4-74 50 .40 SURFACE T,'F 0 jAN FES MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT N DEC ""': IN:, 30 IN IN IN 0* 1 4 38* k38 40", 1 \45' 4 \5 IN IN 090- 12C c 39' 39* 1, 150- ;33 BOTTOM S%. SURFACE S SU@RFACE @T,'F 50 A S'OCI0 -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Portland L Iightship-Salinity and Temperature Data 4-75 (Day, 1959a) 11-1431 7OF Go- 50- 40 - SURFA.CE T,-F 0 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN. JUL, AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC v v 40- 4 ::4 40' 0 60- X ao 100 - ------ 120- 41 50* 140- 34 - BOTTOM S%o 32 30 4 SURFACE S%. TOM 5 7 OOT @@@@@@@@SURFACE @SX. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RM7107N] FIGURE Portland L .ightship-Salinity and Temperature Data 4-76 (Day, 1959b) 4- 17-W 0 4 ri0 ri POR AND 3 DO 4 3 1121 f"*@23 00 2 1 ' '/ 23.00 9 8 7 7 1 23.00 % SOUIH / " 1, AND %, ORTL 9 9% C PE f ELIZAB TH 3 23.00 Sigma t (Surface) @; J2 A SOC40 ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC TEGION@ TRFM FIGURE Distribution of Density (Sigma t) in Lower Casco 4-77 Bay Surface (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) 4-145 4 c-1 C.,0 2 5 POR AND 3 5 7 4 4 5 " ',"@e 7 4 5 4 6 7 SOL11 H 4 ORTLAND 3 6 Joe 1A' 24.00 ...... 4 1, CAPE 6 It 1 1,1" ELIZABETH 7 9 24.00 4 Sigma t (25ft) 21 "V7 9 8 5 3 4 6 5 5 76- Y2 A SOC40-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRjjW FIGURE Distribution of Density .(Sigma t) in Lower Casco 4-78 Bay - 25 Feet (Brayton and Campbell, 1953). 4-146 / 3 6 61 _7 POR AND 24.00 8 9 "88 2 3 6'7 2 3 SOUTH @,'@7,6 7 ----- - ORTLAND 24.00 3 4,' CAPE 9/ ELIZABETH 41 2' 3 61' 24.00 4 5 3@ - 2 3( Sigma t (50ft) 6 1-5' 6-5 76 ORS T 0 L U A T N H D 6 CAPE B T ELIZA @EH A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Distribution of Density (Sigma t) in Lower Casco 4-79 Bay - 50 Feet (Brayton and Campbell, 1953) - 4-147 SEA RIVER FRESH SALT 0 S@ =\77\7 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR [FIGURE Salinity and Velocity Profiles of a Salt Wedge 4-80 Estuary (Bowden, 1967) SEA RIVER 0 Sb % A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE FSa'in ity and Velocity Profiles of a Partially 4-81 Mi xed Estuary (Bowden, 1967) 4-14 1 1 NET TIDAL EXCURSION (km) EBB FLOOD 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 0NA- I Jan. May Oct. No Net Motion 10 - - - - - - - - F- a. Oct.- May 20L,,@ 17* on. BOTTOM A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC R@EGION TRIM FIGURE Vertical Profiles of Mean Tidal Excursions in the 4-82 a Sheepscot Estuary (Graham, 1972) NET TIDAL EXCURSION (km) *OFFSHORE WIND INSHORE 0 21012 jo123 3210123 765432101234567e flood E -to- 11: q Ebb ---- CL LL) 20L 77, BOTTOM M, - \Y'@'O 77- @,,h A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION]' FIGURE An Effect of Offshore Winds in the Net Tidal 4-82b Excursions Along the Channel of the Sheepscot IWO Estuary (Graham, 1972) 4-149 717 7M 70W I" 69W 68W 67W 4 _vP A I N E 7 3) 3 3 - - --- - ---------------- -t. -It, 3@ 3? C 0 73 u 5 o INOEX MAP N RENCH MARNS PAL 43*301 4 f MAINE .1, - -W, d- H 9, E, D2 11 70-0@ 69130, 6 C. c'v DECUM INII @69 7. ' 7 7@ o' E, '-3 j7 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC FIGURE Index Map - Tidal Bench Marks Maine 4-83a (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1948) 4-15( Table 4-11a Tidal Bench Mark Locations Maine Index Map Number Name 1 Eastport 2 Cutler, Little River 2A Stone Island, Machias Bay Starboard Island, Machias Bay 3A Machiasport 4A Shoppee Point, Englishman Bay 5 Steel Harbor Island 6 Jonesport, Moosabec Reach 7 Marraguagus River Entrance 7A Green Island, Petit Manen Bar 8 Fish Island, Pinkham Bay 8A Sand Cove, Gouldsboro Bay 8B Couldsboro Bay (North End) 9 Prospect Harbor 10 Winter Harbor, Frenchman Bay 11 Bar Harbor, Hount Desert Island 12 Southwest Harbor, Mount Desert Island 13 Bernard, Bass Harbor, Mount Desert Island 14A Blue Hill Harbor, Blue Hill Bay 16 Burnt Coat Harbor, Swans Island 15A Mackerel Cove, Swans Island 22A Isle Au Haut (NE end) 22B Isle Au Haut (Thorofare) 24 Matinicus (Wheaton Island) 25 Vinalhaven, Vinalhaven Island 27 Pulpit Harbor, Morth Haven Island 30A Winterport, Penobscot River 31 Belfast, Penobscot Bay Rockland, Penobscot Bay 37 Port Clyde 38 Burnt Island, Georges Islands 39 Otis Cove, St. George River 40 Thomaston, St. George River 41 Monhegan Island 42 Jameson Point, Friendship Harbor 43 Jones Neck, Medomak River 44 Waldoboro, Medomak River 46 Muscongus Harbor 47 Hoxie Cove, Huscongus Sound 48 New Harbor, Muscongus Sound 49 Fort Point, Johns Bay 50 East Boothbay, Damariscotta Riv:er 4-151 Table 4-11a (continued) Index Map Number Name 51 East Edgecomb, Damariscotta River 52 Newcastle, Damariscotta River 53 Damariscove Harbor 54 Boothbay Harbor @55. Southport, Townsend Gut 56 Isle of Springs, Sheepscot River 57 Cross River (N. end Barter's I..) 58 Wiscasset., Sheepscot River 59 Sheepscot, Sheepscot River 60 Back R. Ferry, Westport I. 61 Robinhood Riggs Cove 62 Phipps Point, Hockomock Bay 63 Palace Cove, Sassanoa.River, 64 Hunniwell Pt. (Fort Popham) 65 Phippsburg,Kennebec River 66 Bath, Kennebec River 67 Sturgeon I., Merrymeeting Bay 71 Androscoggin River Entrance 72 Brunswick, Androscoggin River 73 Cundy Harbor, New Meadows River 74 Howard Point, New Meadows River 75 South HarpswellPotts Harbor 76 Wilson Cove, Harpswell Neck 78 Jewell Island, Casco Bay 79 Great Chebeague I. , Casco Bay 80 Long Island, Casco Bay 81 Great Diamond I., Casco Bay 82 Peak's Island, Casco Bay 83 Cushing Island, Casco Bay 84 Portland 85 Richmond Island 87 Cape Porpoise (Bickford I.) 89 York 90 Gerrish I., Whf., Portsmouth Harbor 91 Kittery Point, Pepperell Cove 92 Portsmouth Navy Yard, Seavy I. 93 Salmon Falls River Bridge .4-152 M 45' 401 M A I N E 3 05, 05' 5 6 43-W 4LOR@ NEW HAMPSHIRE 55' OEPARI.ENT OF CnMMERCE U 5 Codst @d Geodeb, S-Y Wdo ngtofi, 0 C 8 INDEX MAP TIDAL BENCH MARKS NEW HAMPSHIRE MAY. 1955 dots nd n@rnbrsmcficste the local,hes al Oich I'M bench nuk MASSACHUSETTS d.o ane mdabfe 5a 0 55, 'el C 51, A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REON] F!y 8@ Index Map - Tidal Bench Marks - New Hampshire TR _3b (U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1955) . I 4-153 Table 4-11b New Hampshire index Map Number Name e Squamscott River Railroad Bridge 3 Newington, Piscataqua River 4 Atlantic Heights (National Gypsum Co.), Piscataqua River 5 Fort Point (Fort Constitution)@, New Castle Island 6 Jaffrey Point (Fort Stark), New Castle Island 7 Gosport Harbor, Star Island, Isles of Shoals 8 Hampton River Entrance 4-154 71-30, /0 (XI IJ S DEPAPIMENT OF Cll-,@Cl 1-111 S D C P--lh 43`00' INDEX MAP 4 t'h TIDAL 8ENCH MARKS N E W H A M P S H I E MASSACHUSET-rs ddt@ add -1an 4.1, N. 1he dcaht.@ at h,dh Wal N,rh -k data are oailabl@ WHus' ELI, 4230 M AAS S A C H '/U S E T T S, S,WA di :,Tar. ;6 'la a, l' W. PRO-ViDENCI!: R H 0 D E V1, 41 14 f A ND 4).30 f SO ........... A h. k , li Illy 1957 '71 30T @43 M-- EW41 4 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Index Map - Tidal Bench, Marks - Massachusetts Tllp@w I 4-83c I (U.S. Dept. of ICommerce, 1955) 4-155 Table 4-11c Massachusetts Index Map Number Name Fig. 4.3-18c 1 Salisbury Beach, Merrimack River Entr. 2 Plum Island (North End), Merrimack River Entr. 3 Newburyport, Merrimack River 4 Plum Island Highway Bridge, Plum I. River 5 Newbury Old Town, Parker River 6 Plum Island (South End), Plum I. Sound 7 Annisquam, Annisquam River 8 Rockport Harbor 9 Ten Pound Island, Gloucester Harbor 11 Salem 13 Fort Dawes, Deer I., Boston Harbor 14 Belle Isle Inlet, Winthrop 15 Chelsea St. Bridge, Chelsea R., E. Boston 16 Wellington Memorial Bridge, Mystic River 17 Boston Naval Shipyard, Charlestown 18 Boston (Appraisers Stores) 19 South Boston and Vincinity 20 Neponset R., Highway Bridge, Boston Harbor 21 Moonhead 22 Nut Island, Quincy 23 Town River Yacht Club, Town River Bay 24 Weymouth, Fore River Bridge 25 Weymouth, Weymouth Fore River 26 Eastern Neck, Weymouth'Back River 27 Hingham (Naval Ammunition Depot), Weymouth Back River 28 Crow Point, Hingham Harbor Entrance 29 Hingham, Hingham Harbor 30 Nantasket, Weir R., Hingham Bay 31 Hull (Windmill Pt.), Hingham Bay 33 Boston Lt. Lighthouse I., Boston Harbor 34 White Head, Cohasset Harbor 36 Scituate 36A Damons Point, North River 37 Plymouth, Plymouth Harbor 39 Cape Cod Canal Entrance, Cape Cod Bay 40 Barnstable Harbor (Beach Point) " Cape Cod 43 Provincetown and Vicinity, Cape Cod 44 Peaked Hill Bar, Outer Coast Cape Cod 46 Little America (Head of Pamet River), Cape Cod 49 Powder Hole, Monomoy Point 50 Chatham, Lydia Cove 51 Pleasant Bay (Quanset Pond) 52 Little Pleasant Bay (Southwest End) 4-156 Table 4-11c (continued) Index Map Number Fig. 4.3-18c 53 Little Pleasant Bay (Northwest End) 55 Chatham Stage Harbor 56 Wychmere Harbor, Harwichport 57 Herring River Entrance 59 South Yarmouth, Bass River 60 Hyannisport 62 Cotuit, Great Bay 63 Poponesset Island, Poponesset Bay 64 Waquoit Bay (Yacht Club) 65 Falmouth Heights, Vineyard Sound 67 Little Harbor and Nobska Point, Woods Hole 68 Woods Hole (Oceanographic Institute) 69 Uncatena I., Elizabeth Is., Woods Hole 70 Tarpaulin Cove, Naushon I., Elizabeth Is. 71 Kettle Cove, Naushon I., Elizabeth Is. 73 Quicks Hole, Nashawena I., Elizabeth Is. 74 Cuttyhunk Pond Entr., Cuttyhunk I. 75 Penikese Island, Elizabeth Islands 76 Chappaquoit Point, W. Falmouth Harbor Entr. 77 Stony Point Dike, Buzzards Bay 78 Monument Beach and Back R. Harbor, Buzzards Bay 79 'West Mooring Basin (Hog Island), Buzzards Bay 80 Buzzards Bay, Cape Cod Canal 81 Sears Point, Buzzards Bay 82 Onset, Onset Bay, Buzzards Bay 83 Wareham, Wareham R., Buzzards Bay -84 Great Hill (I mile north of Great Hill Pt.), Buzzards Bay 85 Mari.on, Sippican Harbor, Buzzards.8ay 86 Mattapoise", Mattapoisett Harbor, Buzzards Bay 87 West Island (W. Side) _ Buzzards, Bay 88 New Bedford (Clark Pt.), Buzzards Bay 89 New Bedfore (New Bedford-Fairhaven Bridge) 90 New Bedford (Nashawena Mills), Acushnet R. 91 South Dar-mouth, Appona anset R. Entr. L 92 Ulestport- Harbor Entr., ?Charlton Wharf) 93 Kix Bridge, Westport R. (East Branch) 94 Fall River (State Pier) 95 Fall River, Taunton River 96 Great Point, Nantucket Island 99 Nantucket, Nantucket Island 99A Eel Point 99B Smith Point 99C Muskeget Island 4-157 Table 4-11c (continued) Index Map Number Name Fig. 4.3-18c 100 Chappaquiddick I. (Southwest Side) 100A Katama Bay, Chappaquiddick, Is. 101 Edgartown, Martha's Vineyard 102 Oak Bluffs, Martha's Vineyard 103 West Chop, Martha's Vineyard 103A Cedar Tree Neck, Martha's Vineyard 105 Gay Head and Vicinity, lv'iartha's Vine@vard 105A Squibnockett Point 106 No Mans Land Island A -1 PQ 0 CURRENT FLOODS EAST z CURRENT EBBS WEST TIDAL CURRENT CHART DS ROM 0 G) P..jd chn 4.0 1 DA C 0 Cn BUZ ZARDS BAY 0) M VINEYARD AND NANTUCKET SOUNDS CL =r 0 0 0.4 z (.0 rt, @D (D K 0 5 m 0.4 JJ 0. C-+ 0.3 04C7,@@ W 00 > V) < m m C+ 0.5, > L 0.2 i 2 1.8 j,5 - 0 N co 1.0 0.4 0 A. N A Ar r V C N Z r so rj v 0 tA IL 0. 0 -n 0 0.5 Slack 0.7 0 @411 0.6 0.9 r17 IL S v I If E Irr it % . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2 . ......... 0 CUPIREENT ROODS EAST 0 TIDAL CUZZ-FENT CHART -ij z curzalril"ll EBBS VIEST If -n 0 B U 72-40- S 1, k Y VINWARD cr AM R'l )S NANTUCKET SOL to @@l @41 r7l z CL 0 < 0 0-2 97, '42".0; z &A 02 -un z 4. v 47 y, Cl+ (D 0 9.6 N r v c x x r so I'V"- R C+ 0 CD LA Cl+ rl JL IA tj 1.2 Ag IL 9 a > IL v CS �r- 00 pliz 0 m CURRENT FLOODS EAST 110ODS 90F.W 0 TIDAL CURRENT CHART CURRENT EBBS WEST 0 BUZZARDS BAY 4@:- -n VINEY*ARD AND NANTUCKET SOUNDS Yrp, m 41-u z 0 0-0 4A a- tn 0 k BY-6 cm z If- (D -I> (D 0.3 ...... .. ... . . 0.3 0.6 la 20 c+ 0 2.2 s o u (D N A r u c ir r r 7 2.2 2.2 41' 0 1.0 4 o 03 (A 03 0 0.6 0 r Z. 0.8 A MAO, JL V 1 U G- H- 0 0 CURRMT FLOODS EAST z CURRENT EBBS WEST TiDALCURRENT CHART 4@- Fir cm G) cn c: 0 BUZZARDS BAY r-L VINEYARD A14D 41 NANT'UCKET SOUND S 0 rn Y, 12 tD (D 0.2 C+ z- -as4- m ID V A jv r u c x g r so&@Afo V) 0 A C+ k) .13 Q 0- 2.3 0 1:6 rt (D '77- -c.5 C+ 01- C+ 0 CURRENT FLOODS EAST 3w TIDAL CURRENT CHART OODS HOLE' CURRENT EBBS WEST 0 z BUZZARDS BAY 4 -n P..b.& cm 1 0 VINEYARD AND c (D NTUCKET SOUNDS m @w m m 10 41*W m 0 2 C 0 OL V) 5 1.5 rn . . .... . e. ..... .. C+ po (D 0.2 0.7 ko PP 3 OX .4 :",-7 0. , -@) m 0.3 > 3@ C.+ 0:5 0.2 N A IV 0 v r u c m v r s o v CD VL 0 -0.", ..2. 2.0 i4lo 0.4 @o a 4 r'b-4 sw 0 0. 9 0 e.,@, W m a, v P m 2.1 0 0. 0 4 0 4 0.3 E IL ..G. H.. . ...... 0.2 ............w ........... 4,@ 01 4@- 0*1 CURRENT FLOODS EAST @OOVS BOLE TIDAL CURRENT CHART CURRENT EM WEST 4@- G) m BUZZARDS BAY N c: 0 cn VINEYARD m m AND NANTUCKET SOUND Ln m 0-0 -1 c ".w rN 0 "'af (D > ff--h X_.q ry-". C+ a- %.0 FWA. o'. 5 0. WTA." Weak m 0 MA .3 C+ 0 0.4 0. .6.. 04 ',4,NN A r u c jr r r s o u Ar 0 0 IL C+ a ,3 ll 9 0.9 0 0 - Weak C+ 0.5 0 1.4 v% 0.2 0. V N, .0.2 0. 4% S IL JD Weak a.. H CURRENT FLOODS EAST ODS HOLE CURRENT EBBS WEST TIDAL CURRENT CHART OL 4@- cum BUZZARDS BAY VINEYARD ANO NANTUCKET SOUNDS X .6 0 M-A& r+ BY 1.2 cu- 0.4 1.5 0.4 < Va. .7 0.2 0.6 m 05 w 4 m so N 0 0.9 Pf A N T U C X E r 0.6 f 0.3 0.5 I ------ 0.5- 'P %LOOP 0- 0.5 -n "N w qjs k 0.6 m _@j 4 w 4 sll_@7 0.3 4 6.3 r i X I. A r 0 2 H4 0 C,4 U:,,, -2 -r M 7 FL 0 0 P S EEA S T OODS UOLr'j z TIDAL CURRENT CHART 0 BUZZ4@7-,GS BAY c 0 VINE-YARD cl) =r A,,', D Z.7 m NANTUCKET SOUNDS e c Yy m CL 0 CL L'a J @D -1, 3 Y. ;71. -i rn c - " 4 @ I '@ - , -.;, , r4 1.2 0,2 V"l -X / I , ,, " X; 06 c+ (D Is %,c", 4 A tv r u c ir z r s 0 u 11 0 1.0 Lr) t -7--, on 02 0 e 0.7 "o z, -A J3 All fA @7j 0 V CURRENT FLOODS EAST TIDAL CURRENT CHART DR HOLE CURRENT EBBS WEST 0 kr, z BUZZARDS BAY I 0 M-A VINEYARD -1 AND c: 0 NANTUCKET SOUNDS m .6 M m cn_ 0 < 0 3 0 m ".. , 0- Ln ?y pl@ La z 4 0.3 ji a > Gay m --- r c-t- (D 0.6 0.3 WFJ..." 0.3 0 0 2 ::E 0.7 M7 0.4 0.5 0) -w (D 0.6 0.6 NA N T U C K R F SOUND C+ 0.5 0 1.4 0.7 1.2 0 0 1.2 0 Fall- 2 0-s 2,41 VL IL v I 4\1 /I T 0 z 00 o CUF.RENT FLC-ODS EAST OODS ROLE CURRENT EM WEST 0 TIDAL CURRENT CHART -n 0 P.4@4 Cwf BUZZARDS BAY C al VINEYARD \ AND NANTUCKET SOUNDS --l" m cu z -1 =3 end oL 01 ko M 1.0 (4) c+ t, 0,6 0.4 0.6 N 0.4 2.1 -1.2- 0 015 lo. 29 N A v r u c K E r S 0 U N D z 4 -@3-4 @- -- --- W CA 1.4 yy 0 0,7 1.4 -n 12 > h i's C+ rD .23 Ik" 1.7 -to 0 ::E 1.0 tgi-. o's .14 it -1 t.ce I t", C+ A 40 --0.6 ci. -4.4 A C+ CURRENT FLOODS EAST DO ROLE CURRENT EBBS WEST TIDAL CURRENT CHART BUZZARDS BAY IA 94 7! VINEYARD c MD m NANTUCKET SOUNDS M -40-- M Ak m < 0 3 C+ OL3,-O -1 11 a 0.2 Weak or C> and . ......... @03 variable C+ (D 0.5 m @NANrUCKEr S 0 U N 41* su 0 03- OL7 UZI cm 13 All 0 -4 0 V) ta C+ m ZU 0 0 03 04 4 E VL D 0.3-, S=Q :4b 4::b 0 3W A OODS 110LIR CURRENT FLOODS EAST CURRENT EBBS WEST TIDAL CURRENT CHART win" &no z BUZZARDS BAY -n0 VINEYARD m AND MQ 1 c 0 NANTUCKET SOUNDS 0 m M .8 ul crl .3 CL 0 0 IN CL Ln 06 AV z Al LIM 0.3 m R (D .5 WFhW.& Weak-- 0.4 0.4 C) 0.9 < m AT- z 1.4- 'D 5 NA NTUCKET S 0 tr N DAll ca. Cl+ -9/ m Z9 (D 410 M C4. .3 r+ o Weak .8 co -n --0.9 =23 Bjff 14 07 0 V) 0.6 0 z 0.7 0 6'4 a A S VL it ask > w L--------------- ALIN ITY S URFA/CE PT SE CT. @3 T- @5 10Meters 321 0 tAeters j". 16 --400 0 7@ -01 BOTTOM G U L F 0 1.11 A 1 N .- IV` 1, y"'t A SOCIO-ECOKOMIC AND !:Ml@iONMENTAL INVENMORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REON FIGU8E I Oistribution of Isohalines Sep Itember-October 1962 4-1.08 (Gra)am, 1970b) 4- SALINITY 4p SURFACE OCTOBER 1963 "ylp- lometers six.; 0 Meters 30 Met* % A"' 7K - - i 5 9- six is j4 Ap. 314 BOTTOM 0 F M A I A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE Distribution of Isohalines October 1963 %ka 1 4-109 (Graham, 1970b) 4-172 - SALINITY SURFACE OCT-NOV 1962 4p riD 10 Motors t.. 4k4 2OMeters 30moters II-Tvip 4.1 IT 46b 4% 'Al SOTTOm 0 U L F0 P M I N A SOCIO-EC'ONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC. REGION] .VM I FIGURE I Distribution of Isohalines October-November 1962 4-110 (Graham, 1970b) 4_173 Ap" Us ------------ IL SALINITY SURFA 4b 325 20moters lb 3OMeters BOTTOM "-GULF Of MAINK A SOCIO-ECONOMICAND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Distribution of Isohalines October-November 1964 4-111 (Graham, 1970b) lb It 't 41 SALINITY SURFACE FES-MAR 1965 'Zo IOMeters @0. 32.0 20 Meters V.. Al 32.0 'to"7 .%,,, '@rt A, 3o Meters SOTTOM 0 U L F 0 F IN IN E V.. 7"-, A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Distribution of Isohalines February-March 1965 4-112 (Graham, 1970b) 4-175 70 v PIN SAUNITY SURFACE MAY 1964 ......... . JWA - - - ........... WA 10 Met* 7__ t., 0 Meter 30meter *4b 3.1 0 F M A N E, BOTTOM 0 U L F A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRI@W FIGURE Distribution of isohalines May 1964 4-113 (Graham, 1970b) 4 176 SOA AD Ap Ap. SALINITY SURFACE MAY 1965 % -J" IL Z' IOMeters --------- - ------------- 20maters z 't i dW44@ 1/7 30mews % p4b BOTTOM 0 LIP L FOF MAINI A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION71 FIGURE Distribution of Isohalines May 1965 4-114 (Graham, 1970b) fie'. SALI N ITY SURFACE JULY IOMeters 44P 10. -pu 42 Oxi 20M*1srs / -,-- V 30 Motors AN -wa 47 BOTTOM ss 0 U L F 0 F MAI N E/ A S(M-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RMION TR FIGURE listribution of Isohalines July 1963 4-115 (Graham, 1970b) SALINITY SURFACE AUG 1964 W.3- 4p 3, 4p 32.4 lometers 47- .7. %I 41 Ile 14 20 Motors 4p,. A., w.3- W4 Motors r j --- ------------ - --------- Ap 14. BOTTOM 0 U TL F 0 P #A A I N I lo. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Distribution of Isohalines August 1964 4-116 (Graham, 1970b) 4-179 TEMP V. SURFACE SEPT-OCT 1962 'To PIP. Z , IOMeters ZOMeterv t-V 30 Mwers /0* -o 4. lb. V gm A OTTOM 0 U L F 0 F M A I a A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Distribution of Isotherms September-October 1962 4-117 (Graham, 1970b) 4-1.80- TEMP. *C SURFACE OCTOBER 1963 I TV Ile- 10 Motors 20 Meters /lvw5 30 Motors s7- ks 4 0 F M A I N I A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION IRWa I FIGURE I Distribution of Isotherms October 1963 4-118 (Graham, 1970b) 4-131 % TEMP *C SURFACE OCT-NOV 1962 @,7 lometers 20Meters b o -.-- /30 Mate 4Tx A. BOTTOM 0 U L P 0 F M A I N E A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Distribution of Isotherms October-November 1962 4-119 (Graham, 1970b) 4-1875P R % TEMPIC SURFACE NOVEMBER 1964 4-- 10 Meters 20 Meters 3OM*t*ff 7A f0r4 Opt, 10 BOTTOM OF MAIN 10. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF TI-F- NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Distribution of.Isotherms November 1964 4-120 (Graham, 1970b) 4-183 TEMP *C o SURFACE JANUARY 1963 30 .1o ---------- -- 4 IOMeters 45 to lo ---------- j46 20M eters .j, 14 j. 1. o 3 OMeters j yg- 28 30 4o o 5.3 5o SOT TO@/ ILF 0 F/M A I N A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Distribution of Isotherms January 1963 4-121 (Graham, 1970b) TEMPIC S fWACE " AR FEB 1965, '4 lometers ss. 10- 51 -0. to to go 3OMet*rs 0 U L F 0 BOTTOM F M A I N I A SOCIO - ECONOMIC AND- ENMRONMEWAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN',nG REGION; JR@o RE FIGU Distri'butionof Isotherms February-March 1965 4-122 (Graham, 1970b) Ice, TO lb ------------ TEMP *C Mp *C S SU RFACE URFACE MAY 1964 --------------- IOMolors 20M oters sF lu @47 30 Motors,' Fall' N BOTTOM 0 U L F 0 F M A I N A S(M-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI;@Nj TR FIGURE Distribution of'Isotherms May 1964 4-123 (Graham, 1970b) .00 TEMP *C SURFACE MAY 1965 00 40 10Meters -'00 Ic- 20 Meters --0111101mr- lo 4.G CA Ste" 30M 4o JLS 4.o -BOTTOM/ 0 U L P OF MAINE '0 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE Distribution of Isotherms May 1965 4-124 (Graham, 1970b) 4-187 /@T.E'M -C 1A 1, E MAY-JUNE 1963 47 10Msters 20 Motors -77 .30meters "o . ............. 30TTOM 4'.GU L F OF MAINE A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I Distribution of Isotherms May-June 1963 4-188 4-125 (Graham, 1970b) 0 Olt TEMPC SURFACE Ito JULY 0----;, 1963 ",05 lomelers '0 1Y 20meters ao 30meit -.0 60 0 BOTTOM UL F 0 F M A I N E A SOCIO-ECONbmic AND EMARONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGIONJ TR FIGURE I Distribution of Isotherms July 1963 4-126 (Graham, 1970b) 4- 189 ........... TEMP*c SURFACE 7-1 I's GA AUG 116. 964 6. Ms M4 10moters wo 0.0 ev 20 Motors I 12 3OMWers To @7 a a 0 N E BOTTOM a L F 0 F A SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANI) ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RE7GI071N] FIGURE TR I Distribution of Isotherms August 1964 4-190 4-127 (Graham, 1970b) Tabl e- 47,12 Tidal Range of Sel ected Locations (NOS, 1972) POSITION DIFFERENCES GES PLACk Time Height Tide' Lat. Long. -- I . n,gn LO* High Low hle@ Sprimo Level water water water water MAINE rtme mertdian, 75-F. 627 EASTPORT-------- - 54 66 59 18.2 20.7 9.1 .029 Gleason Cove, Western Passage ------- 4@ 58 67 03 18.4 210; 9 9.2 St. Crolx River 63' Robbinston --------------- 7 ------ 45 05 67 06 119.2 21.8 9.6 633 St. Croix Island ---------------- 45 08 67 08 i19.6 22.3 9.8 657 Calais ----------- w--------------- 45 11 67 17 @20.0 22.8 10.0 Cobscook Bay 639 Deep Cove, Moose Island --------- 44 54 67 01 .18.7 21.3 9.3 e4l East Bay ------------------------ 44 56 67 07 :19.1 21.8 9.5 643 Coffins Point ------------------- 44 52 67 07 118.3 20.8 9.1 645 Birch islands ------------------- 44 52 67 09 17.6 20.0 8.5 647 Floran Head, South Bay --------- " 44.52 67 04 19.2 2i.9 9.6 Lubec --- -------------- --------- - 44 '52 66 59 17.5 20.0 8.7 651 West Quoddy Head - ---------- - ------ 44 49 66 54 15.7 @7.9 7.8 653 Moose Cove ------------------------ - 44 44 67 06 14.8 '16.9 7.4 655 Cutler, Little River ---------------- 44 39 67 13 13.6 15.5 6.8 657 Stone Island, Machias Bay ------- 1144 3 -7 22 12.4 14.1 ,6.2 C59 Machiasport, Machias River ------ _ 6 0 4 42 67 24 12.5 [email protected] 6.3 F61 Sh3ppee Point, Englishman Bay 144 37 67 30 1 12.1 13- 8 6.1 663 Roque 1. Harbor, Englishman B,. 44 34 67 31 12.3 1.4.0 6.1 'Ratio. tWharves dry at- 1cw water. ere is a bore in the Petitcodiac River. It arrives at f@bncton about 21 30* before high liter at St. John and its height Is about 5 to 3i feet on average spring tides but it somefimes c4rr--2ds 5 feet, on highest tides. On smal I tides it Is not much more than a large ripple. �The Reversing Falls at St. John.--The most turbulence In the gorge occurs cn days when the tides are largest. On largest tides the cutward fall Is between 15 and 16i feet and Is accompa- lied by a greater turbulence than the Inward fal I which is between 11 and 12J- feet. The outward @111 is a-i- Its best between 2 hours beforo and 1 hour after low water at St. John; the Inward fall is best just before the time of high water. ror Eastern.Standard time subtract one hour from the predictions obtained using these diffar- 4-191 Table 4-12 (ccnt.@ POSrrK)N PLAa Lot. L-9. M- SP.1i19 [email protected] MA INE Conti nued Time meridian, 75*W, '.665 Sfeefe Harbor Island -------- - ---- - 44 30 67 33 n.6 13.3 .667 Jonesport, Moosabec, Reach - -- ------ 44 32 67 36 669 @@Gibbs Island, Pleasant River 11.5 13.2 44 33 67 46 11 3 13.C 144 37 67 45 11 8 13.6 1. 671 jAddison, Pleasant River -------- .673 lTrafton Island, Narraquagus Bay ----- 44 29 67 50 11.1 12.8 5.t 675 @Milbrldge, Narraguagus River Z2 67 53 11.3 13.0. 5.e 7677 "Pigeon Hi I 1 44 27 67 52 11.1 12.8 'Green Island, Petit Manan 22 67 52 10. 6 12.2 678 679 ;Pinkham Bay, Dyer Bay --------------- 44 28 67 '1 5 12;0 5-- 681 @@Garden-Point, Gouldsboro Bay -------- 4.4 28 67 59 10.$ 12.4 5.4 683 iCorea Harbor - --- ------------------ 144 24 67 58 10.5 12.1 5.2 685 'Prospect Harbor-----_____ I 4t-, 24 68 01 10.5 12.1 5.2 'Frenchman Bay -701 Winter Harbor----------- @441 23 68 05. 10.11 11.6 5,0 703 Eastern Point Harbor--:--------@ 144 28 68 10 -10.5 12.1 5.2 705 Sullivan ---------------- ------- @44 31 68 12 110.5 12.1 5.2 707 l6bunt Desert Narrows ------------ 44 26 68 ;@2 10.5 12.2 5.3 Yount Desert Island 709 Salsbury i44 26 68 17' 10.6 12.2 5.3 711 Bar Harbor ----------- 4-4 23 68 22 10.5 12.1 5.2 713 Southwest Harbor - --------------- @44 -@ 6 68 19 10.2 11.7 5.i 715 Mount Desert ---------- 144,12 68 20 10.6 12.2 5.3 717 Bass Harbor ------- ------------- 144 14 68 21 9.9 11.3 5.0 ?19 Pretty Marsh 44- 20 68 25 10.2 11.7 5.1 Blue ffill Bay 721 Union River ------------ - ----- - 4.,4-- 30 68 26 :L6.4 :Li.9 5.z ?23 Blue Hill Harbor - ---------- - - 44r 24 68 34 -io.1 n. 6 s.0 10.3 11.8 5.1 725 Allen Cove ----------- - --------- 44. 3-8 1 68 ZZ 727 Mackerel Cove@ ------------- --- 144. 10 68 26 10.0 11.5 5.0 729 Burnt Coat Harbor, Swans Island ----- - 44 09 68 27 9.5 10.8 4.7 MAINE, Penobscot Bay 99femoffin Reach Z731 Naskeag Harbor ------------------ 44 14 68 33 10.2 11.6 5.1 733 Center Harbor ------------------- 4.4 116 68 35 10.2 11.5 5.0 735 Sedgwick ---------- - ---------- - 44 18 68 38 10.2 11.7 5.1 736 Isle Au Haut ------------------------ 44- 04 68 38 9.3 10.7 4.7 737 Head Harbor. Isle Au Haut------- 44 01 68 37 9.1 10.4 4.6 739 Kimball Island ---------------------- 44 04 68 39 9.6 10.9 4.8 741 Oceanville, Deer Isle ----------- --- 44 12 68 38 10.2 11.5 5.0 743 Stonington, Deer i5le--7 ------------ 44 09 68 40 9.7 12.0 4.8 745 Northwest Harbor, Deer Isle --------- 44 14 68 41 20.1 11.5 5.0 747 Vatinicus Harbor -------------------- 43 t2 68 53 9.0 10.4 4.5 749 Vinalhavcn, Vina.1h.-ven Island ------- 44 03 66 50 9.3 10.7 4.6 751 Iron Point, North Haven Island---- 44 08 68 52 9.5 10.8 4.8 7@3 Pulpit Harbor, North Haven Island--- 44 09. 68 53 9.8 11.1 4.9 755 Castine --------------- 44 23 63 18 9.7 11.1 @.8 757 Pumpkin Island, South Bay --- 44 25 68 44 10.3 11.7 5.1 Penobscot River 759 Fort Point -------- - - - ------- - 44 28 68 49 10.3 11. a 5.1 .761 Elucksprt ----------------------- " 34 611 411 11.0 12.5 5.5 763 South Orrinoton - -- - ----------- 4,4 42 68 49 12.3 14.0 6.1 765 Hampden ------ - ------ - --------- 44 45 68 50 12.8 14.6 6.4 767 Bangor -------------------------- 44 48 6846 13.1 14.9 6.5 '769 18.1fast ----------- - ---------------- 44 26 69 00 10.0 11.5 5.0 Camden ------------------- W----------- 44 12 69 03 9.6 10.9 4.8 Rockland ----- - --------------------- 44 06 69 06 9.7 11.2 4.8 @@_5 041s Pead --------------------- - ---- 7- 44 06 69 03 9 4 10.7 4.7 777 il)yer Point, Weskeag River ----------- 44 0 2 69 07 9:6 10.9 4.8 4-192 Table..4-12 (Cofit. POSITION RANGES PLACE mean Lot. LongI Jide 'Mean Spring Level feet ftet _t MAl RE,: Outer Coast H., W. TIme merldlan, 75-W. ?79 TLnants-Harbor - ------------ 4Z 53 69 12 9@3,10. 6 4.6 781 Monhegaa 4z i, 6 69 19 8.8 10.1 4.4 783 Burnt Island, Georges Islands-- 4Z 52 69 18 8.9 10.2 4.4 St. Oeor@e Rtver 785 Port 4Z 56 69 16 .8.9 10.2 4.4 787' Otis Cove - - ----------------- --- @4Z 59 69 1 0@ 9.1 20.5 4.5 789 Thomaston ---- - ---------- - -- - 4-4 04 69 11 9. ?t 10.8 4.7 791 New Harbor,- Muscongus Bay ----------- 4Z 52 69 29 8.8 10.1 4.4 793 Uluscongus Harbor, Muscongus Sound--- 4@ 58 69 27 .9.0 10.4 4.5 795 Friendship Harbor --------- - -------- 14Z 58 69 20 9.0 10.4 4.S Nedomak Rtver 797 Jones Neck--" --------------- - 44 01 69 25 9.1 10.5 4.5 799 Waldoborc --- - ------- ------- 44 06 69 23 9.5 10.9 4.S -7 .8.8 10.1 4.4 801 Pomaquid Harbor, ohns, Bay- ------- j4Z 53 69 32 Dcmarlacotta Rtuar 8015 East @cothbay------- ------ 4Z 52 69 Z55 8.9 10.2 4.4 805 Newcastle ----------------------- @4t 02 69 32 9.3 10.7 4.6 807 Damariscove Harbor, Camariscove I--- @AZ 46 69 Zi7 8.8 10.1 4.4 809 Boothbay 143 51 69 38 8,8 10.1 4.4 811 Southport, To%q nsend Gut - - - - - -- - 43 51 69 40 8.9 20.2 4.4 Sheejoscot.R.tuer I .613 Isle of 143 52 69 411 8.9 10.3 4.4 815 Cross River entrance---------- l 43 56 69 4-01 9.1 10.5 4.5 1-144 69 401 9.4 10.8 4.7 817 , Wi scassel------ 8119 Sheepsco@ (below rapids) - - - - -- 44 03 69 -07 9.6 11.0 4.8 8pi Back River -- ---------------- 57 .69 41 9.2 10.5 4.5 823 Robinhood, @asanoa 7 43 El 69 441 8.8 10.1 4.4 625 Mill Point Sasanoa River---- 1! 4Z 53 69 46 8.8 10.1 4.4 827 Upper Hell Gate, Sasanoa River-.- @43 54 69 47 7.0 6.0 3.5 MAINE, Kennebec River 829 Fort Popham--___-- &3, e.5 69 47 8.4 9.7 4.2 631 Phippsburg - - - --- - ------ 8.0 9.2 4.0 1) ---------- 143 55 69 49 6.4 7.4 3.2 43 59 69 50 5.3 6.1 2.6 835 Sturgeon Island, Parrymeeting -Bay --- j" 49@ '09 "9 8Z3 Bai-h ------------------- - -- 857 Androscoggin River entrance --------- 43 571 69 53 4.7 5.4 2.3 839 Brunswick, Androscoggin River 4Z 55 69 58 3.8 4.4 1.9 842 Bowdoinham, Cathance River ------ - -- 144 00 69 54 5.7 6.6 2.8 843 [ Richmond---- - --------- 44 05 69 48 5.3 6.0 2.6 845 Nehumkeag Island - --------------- - - 44 10 69 45 5.3 6.0 2.6 847@ Gardiner- ---------------- 44 14 69 46 5.0 5.7 2.5 849 Hatt towelj ---- - -------------- 144 17 69 47 4.3 4.9 2.1 851 Augusta - - - -------------------- 44 19 69 46 4.1 4.6 2.0 MAINE,'Casco Bay 855 @Small Point Harbor------@ ---------- 43 4-4 69 51 8.8 10.1 4.4 855 @Cvndy Har@or, New Meidows River---- 4.3 47 69 54 8.9 10.2 4.4 857 Howard Point, New Meadows. River---- 'Z 53 69 53 9.0 10.3 4.5 659 @Lowell Cove, Crrs Island---- 43 45 69 59 8.8 10.1 4.4 .851 Harpswel I Harbor -------------------- 43 45 70 CO 9.0 10-4 4.5 863 South Harpswell, Potts Harbor----- 43 44 70 01 8.0 10.2 4.4, 865 Wilson Covq, Middle 43 49 6: 959 9.1 10.5 4.5 867 Little Flyinc Point, Maquoit Bay - - - 43 50 70 03 9.0 10.3 4.5 8 59 South Fresport---,-r --- --- - --------- 4Z 49 ?0 05 9.0 10.3 4.5 871 7Chebeague Point, .eat Chebeague 1- 43 46 70 06 9.0 10 4 4 5 873 1 Pr i nce F@D i ----- 43 46 70 10 9-.0 10.*4 4:5 875 IPeaks Island - - - - --------- - 43 39 70 12 9.0 10.41 4.5 877 P0RTLAND-------------- 43 40 70 15 9.0,10.41 4.5 ,R3tio. 4-193 Table 4-12 (cont.) POSITION RANGES Mean No. PLACE Tide Lot. Long. Mean Spring Level fee t feei feet MAINE, Outer Coast-Continued 879 Richmond rsf,@,nd --------------------- 43 33 70 14 8.9 10.1 4.4 Sal Old Orchard Beach ------------------- 43 31 70 22 8.8 20.2 4.4 883 hbod Island Harbor ------------------ 43 27 70 21 8,7 9.9 4.3 885 Cape Porpoise ----------------------- 43 22 70 26 8.7 9.9 4.3 887 Kennebunkport ----------------------- 4Z 21 70 28 8.6 9.9 4.3 889 York Harbor ------------------------- 4Z 08 70 38 8.6 9.9 4.3 MAINE and NEW HAMPSHIRE Portsmouth )7arbor Sol Jaffrey Point ------------------ 43 03 70 43 8.7 10.0 4.4 893 Gerrish Island Wharf ----------- 43 04 70 42 8.7 10.0 4.4 895 Fort Point ---------------------- 43 04 70 43 8.6 9.9 4.3 897 Kittery Point ------------------- 43 05 70 42 8.7 10.0 4.4 899 Seavey.Island ------------------- 43 05 70 45 8.1 9.3 4.0 901 Portsmouth ---------------------- 43 05 70 45 7.8 9.0 3.9 PiscataQua River 963 Atlantic Heights ---------------- 43 05 70 46 7.5 8.6 3.7 905 Dover Point --------------------- 43 07 70 50 6.4 7.4 3.2 907 Salmon Falls River entrance ----- 43 11 70 50 6.8 7.8 3.4 909 Squamscott River RR Bridge ------ 43 03 70 55 6.8 7.8 5.4 911 Gosport Harbor, Isles of Shoals ----- 42 59 70 37 8.5 9.8 4.2 o13 Hampton Harbor ---------------------- 42 54 70 49 8.3 9.-5 4.1 MASSACHUSETTS, Outer Coast 915 Merrimack River entranc 07 ----------- 42 49 70 49 8.3 9.5 4.1 IN-1-1yipur i, merrjMaCk River -------- 114 4J 7.8 9.0 3.9 919 Plum. Island Sound (south and)------ 42 43 70 47 8.G 9.9 4.3 921 Ann;squam --------------------------- 42 39 7D 41 8.7 20.1 4.4 923 Rockport ---------------------------- 42 40 70 37 8.6 10.0 4.3 925 Gloucester -------------------------- 42 36 70 40 B.7 10.1 4.3 927 Manchester Harbor ------------------- 42 34 70 47 8.8 10.2 4.4 929 Beverly ----------------------------- 42 32 70 53 9.0 10.4 4.5 931 Salem ------------------------------- 42 31 70 53 8.8 20.2 4.4 933 Marblehead -------------------------- 42 30 70 51 9.1 20.6 4.5 Broad Sound 935 Nahant -------------------------- 48 25 70 55 9.0 10.4 4.5 937 Lynn Harbor --------------------- 42 27 70 58 9.2 10.7 4.6 Boston Harbor 939 Boston Light ------------------------ 42 @20 70 53 9 OiIO.4 4.5 941 Lovell.1sland, The Narrows ---------- 42 20 70 56 9:11aO.6 4.5 943 Deer Island-(south and) ------------- 42 21 70 58 9.3i'l.0.8 1.1.6 945 Belle Isle Inlet entrance ----------- 42 23 71 00 9 5i 11.0 4.7 947 Castle (stand ----------------------- 42 20 71 01 9:4110.9 4.7 949 BOSTON ------------------ - ---------- 42 21 71 03 9 :5 11..0 4.7 9bl Dover St. Bridge, Fort Point Channel 42 21 71 04 9 Y1.0 4.8 Charles River 953 Charlestown Bridge -------------- 42 22 71 04 9 5111.0 1_7 955 Charles River Dam --------------- 42 22 71 04 9:5ill.0, 4.7 957 Charlestown --------------------- 42 22 71 03 9.5 11.0i 4.7 959 Chelsea St. Bridge, Chelsea River---. 42 23 71 01 9.6 21.1@ 4.a )[11stic River 961 Wellington Bridge ------------- 42 24 71 05 9.613.1.1 i4.8 963 9 [email protected]@ 4:6 Medford Bridge ----------------- 42 25 71 07@ 965 Neponsef, Neponsat River ------------ 42 17 71 02 9:5 11.0 4 7 967 Moon Head --------------------------- 42 19 70 59 9 4 10.9 4.7 969 RaInsford Island, Nantasket Roads--- 42 19 70 57 9:1 10.6 4-194 Table 4-12- (cor!t.) POSITION PAINGES No. RACE Mean Lot. Long. Tide Mean Spring; L,@el @IASSACHUSETTS, Outer Coast Con. f-t f-t fe4 Hingha,m 3ay N. W. Time meridiarz, i I 971@ Hut Island -------------------------- A2 2-1 70 57, 9.4! 10.7 4.6 973 Sheep Island ------------------------- 42 17 70 55 9.5 11.0 4.7 975 Weymou+h Fore River Bridge ---------- 4n 1-5 "0 r 9.5 Ia.() 4.7 977 Wer.@)uth Back River Pridge ---------- 42 15 -0 9.5 11.0 4.7 979 Cro4 Point, Hingham Harbor entrance- 42 16 J 70 5 9.L 10.9 4.7 981 H 1 nc'@iari --- - ------------------------- 42 15 70 53 1 9.11 21.0 4.7 933 Nan;asket Beach, Weir River ---------- qL 2 16 71) 2 1 9.4 10.91 4.7 4-s' 1-7 70 985 Strawberry HI I I ---------------------- 9.5 11.0 4.7 987 Hu I I -------------------------------- 42 18 70 55 9.3 1018 4. It Cohasset harbor to Davis Bank 989 Cohasset Harbor (WhIte K?ad) -------- 42 15 70 47 8.8 10.2 4.4 991 Scituate ---------------------------- 42 12 70 43 8.8 10.2 4.4 992 Damons Point, t@'@rth River ----------- 1 2@ -1 20 70 44 8.5 9.9 4.2 Cape Cod Bay 993 Gurnet Point -------------------- 42 OC@ 70 Z' 9. 5' 10.7 4.6 995 P I yrnourh ------------------------ 41 58 1 70 @-o 9.5 13-0 4.7 997 Gape Cod C@ana I, east en7rance-- ! el '@5 ! 'i 0 1, 0 8.7 10.1 4.3 999 Barnstable Harbor, Beach Point- AI -3 770 17 9.5 11.0 4.7 1001 Wel If loot ------------------------ 41 Z 5 i 70 02 10.0 11.6 5.0 1003 ProvIncetown --------------------- 142 03 70 11 9.1 10.6 4.5 1005 Race Point ---------------------- 1 42 04 70 15 9.0 10.4 .1.5 Cape Ccd 1007 Cape Cod Lighthouse, S7. of ----- 42 00 70 01 7.6 8.3 3.8 1009 Nlauset Harbor -------- :----------- "1 48 69 56 6.0 7.0 3.0 ioll Cha'@ham (ou1sr coa-,@) ----------- @'@ 1 40 6@- 5 6 6.7 7.8 3. @ 1013 Chat.h,@@m (inside) ---------------- ?.1 41 69 5-7 3.6 4.2 1.8 i015 Pleasant Bay --------------------- 111 44 69 59 3. 2 3.7 1.6 ?.017 1`4onomoy Point -------------------- 41 33 70 @O 3.7 4.3 1.8 1019 Georoes Shoal ------ - - - ------------ 41 4e 67 '-'5 4.2 4.8 @@.I 1021 Cavl@ Bank, @,Iantucket Shoals -------- 41 OS 69 1.3, 1.51 C). 6 4 19 5 Tabl-- 4-13 138 CUPRSNT DIFFERENCES AND OTHER CONSTANTS ------------- T__ 'MUM CU@RENTS POSMON Ebb PLACE )ilec- Lot. Lo-g. 10. C.e tiort @ce (true) 1@elcc- (true) @eac- ty BAY OF FUNDY N. W. I Brazil Rock, 6 miles east of -- ------- 43 22 65 18 275 1.0 5C 1,0 5 Cape Sable, 3 miles south c, [ ---------- @i3 20 65 38 275 2.2 95 2.0 10 Cape Sab I e, 12 mi I es south 43 ll@ 65 37 285 1.7 901 1:6 15 B I onde Rock, 5 n' I es south 143 151 65 59 310 2.0 -25 2 0 20 Seal Island, 13 miles sou@hwest of ---- 143 161 66 15 325 2.6 14CI 1. 25 Cape Fourchu, 17 miles southwest ol --- 43 34 65 24 355 1. 2 1451 1.2 30 Cape Foirchu, 4 miles west of - - --- - - 43 47 66 15 02.0 175 1.7 35 Lurcher Shoe 1, 0 m i I es @,ast o 4-3 512 66 21 355 2.0 275 I.S 40 Lurcher Shoal , 10 mi I e5 west 43 46 66 42 01.4 160 1.6 45 Lurcher Shoal, 10 miles northwest of-- 4-3 59 66 37 51.8 175 1.2 50 Brier Island, 5 miles west of ----- -- @d4 1 66 30 52.7 185 2.5 55 Brier Island, 15 miles west of----- 4 4L 7, 66 44 60 2.4 250 1.2 CO GannGt Rock, 5 mi i es southeast of--- 144 29 66 41 40 2.6 230 3.9 65 Soprs Head, 10 mi I es northwest of---- 44 31 66 23 120 1.9 2,)5 2.0 70 Pr im Pb i nt, 2-0 m i 1 es wc-st of ----------- 4-1 441 66 2.5 40 1.6 235 2 . A 75 Cape Spencer, 14 r.-J : es south o -------- 4-1 -a@ 65 57 50 1.7 215 1.6 80 BAY OF FUNDY ENTRANCE ----------------- A4 1-5 66 56 30 2.3 210 2.4 MAINE COAST 85 Eastport, Friar Roads--- i-t '54 i 66 b@, 210 3.0 -10 Z.0 90 Western Flassare, off Kendall Head ----- 44 56 67 00 320 3.2 140 3.1 95 Western Passage, off Frost, Ledge----44 56 1 67 OP 330 2.1 150 1.7 100 Flond Point, 7.6 miles SSE. of ---------- 14 20 67 30 :15 0.5 215 1.2 105 Mcosabcc Reach, e@st end----- 1 a --------- - it, 31 67 -4 110 1.0 260 1.0 i1c ',,',oosabcc @each, west end -------------- 39. 90 I.C 255 1.2 11511 Bar Hlc:rtor, 1.2 mi I es cast of - ------- ii.l 2" 1 63 lo 330 0.2 150 0.7 1201 Casco Passage, E. end, Blue Hi I I Bay--- L.4 121 63 28 85 0.7 285 0.7 125 Hat Island, SE. of, Jericho Say ------- 14 08 68 30 320 0.9 125 i.3 I of 6 130 Isle Au Haut, 0.8 mi. E. of Richs Pt-- 44 05 68 35 335 1.4 140 1.5 135 West Penobscot Say, oif Mionrce I ------ 14& 05 C9 00 50.3 leo 0.6 140 Musccnrius Sound ----------------------- 113 @6 69 27 ---- ---- I---- ---- 145 Darroriscotta River, off Cavis, PoInt --- 143 53 69 35 350 O.G 215 1.10 150 Sheepscot River, ofi Barter Island ---- 43 5.1 69 41 50.& 200 2.1 155 Loxe TrIt., VE. of, S@ts,@nca River ----- - - 43 51 69 43 325 1.7 150 1.8 160 Lower Hell Gare, 'Knubble eey4 -------- ;43 53 69 44 290 3.0 155 3.5 265 Upper Hell Gate, Sas2ncc River -------- 43 S4 69 46 305 1.0 140 0.8 KENNEBEC RIVER 170 Hunniwell Point, iorthea@'t of---- 43 45 69 47 330 2.4 1@0 9 175 Bald Head, 0.3 mile southwest of ------ - 1 3 48 f9 48 320 1.6 "5 2.3 -ff Head, wes-@ of ------------------- 43 51 65 48 15 2.3 205 3i 1801 BIL .4 155 FIddler Lc@@,e, north of --------------- 43 53 69 48 2651 *9! 115 2 6 scj'h of ------- ------- 43 @,5 69 48 '1@00 .0 1,;0 1 Ooubling Point, 312 61 225 Z' 1951 Lincoln Ledge, cast of ---------------- 143 54 69 49 01*9 i?5 2.8 2001 Ca th, 0. 2 m i 1 e sou @h of br i 143 55 69 48 5:1. 0 1791. 1.5 'Flood begins, +,Ohl"": ebb begins, -lh 351. 'Times of slack are 7ndefinite. 3Current too wc2k and variable to be predicted. 4VCIOCities up to 9.0 knots have teen observed in the vicinity of The Boilers. 3FIrbod begins, +1-h 3C@@; maximum flood, +2h 50; ebb begins, +!-' 200; maximum ebb, +2h 05'. *Current turns wes'wZrd Jusi befcrc t@e end of 'he flood. 4-196 (Gont) Tabl e 4-13 @URRENT DIFFERENCES AND OTHER CONSTANTS MAXIMUM CURRENTS, POSITION Fbod Ebb No. PLACE Direc- Aver. Dilec- A@er- Lot. long, tion cge lion, oge (true) veloc- Irrue) veloc- ity ity CASCO SAY X. W. deg. ktirts deg. knofs 16 .2ob Broad Sound, west of Eagle Island ----- 4Z5 43 70 04 10 0.9 170 1.3 210 Hussey Sound, 0.2 mile SE. of Crow 1-- 43 41 70 11 0 1.1 175 0.8 215 Hussey Sound,0.5 mile S. of Overset 1- 4?5 40 0 340 1.1 150 1.4 22D Portland Hbr. ent., SW. of Cushing 1- 43 Za 70 13 320 1.0 1551 1.1 ;22'5 Diamond 1. Ledge, r9ldchannel SW. of-- 43 401, 71" 70 14 300 0.9 150 0.9 230 Portland Freakwatler Lt., 0.3 mi. Nd.of 4-6 40 70 15 (2 )0./1 50. 0.5 25s Grand Trunk Wh3rves, off ends --------- 43 40 70 15 250 0.6 40 0.4 240 Portland Bridge, center of draw ------- 4Z 39 70 16 225 0.9 50 1.0 MAINE COAST-Continued 245 Portland Lightship-------- - ------ 43 32 70 0`6 ---- ---- ---- ---- 250 Cape Elizabeth ---------- - ---------- - 43 34 70 11 340 0.3 160 0. Z 235 Cape Porpolse ------------------------- 43 22 70.24 35 0.3 215 0.3 260 Cape Neddick --------------- - --------- 43 10 70 35 25 0.4 205 0.4 z65 York Harbor ent., 3 miles south of ---- 43 08 70 33 25 0.4 205 0.4 PORTSMOUTH HARBOR 270 Kitts Rocks, 0.2 mi I e west of---- 4Z 03 70 42 325 0.8 175 1.6 275 Little Harbor entrance ----- - --------- 4Z 03 70 43 310 0.7 130 1.1 280 PORTSMOUTH HARSCIR ENT. (off Wood I .)-- 4Z 04 70 42 355 1.2 195 1.8 S85 Fort Point - - ------------------------- 4Z 04 70 4121 350 1.5 130 2.0 ;90 Salamander 43 05 70 45 260 1.3 85 1.@ 2@5 Between H[ck Pocks and Clarks I ------ 43 05 70 43 335 0.9 195 0.8 300 Kittery Point Bridge -------- - ----- -- 4S 05 70 43 20 0.8 200 1.1 Z05 Jamaica island, NE. of -- - ------------ Q05 70 43 315 1.0 135 1.0 310 Seavey Island, north of -------------- 4Z 05 70 44 260-1.4 80 1.8 315 Between Clarks 1. and Seavey I -------- 4Z 05 70 44 20 1.8 (4) (4) 320 Clarks island, south of --------- - ---- 43 04 70 44 260 2.1 80 3.1 325. Sea-vey Island, south of ---------------- 43 04 70 44 260 3.0 90 3.8 330 Behween Varvln 1. and Goat I - ------ 43 04 70 44 160 1.2 340 0.8 335 Henderson Point, wpst 43 05 7D 44 340 2.6 170 2.Z 340 Off Gangway Pock - ------- - ------ - --- 43 05 70 45 230 2.1 110 3.0 345 Badgers Island, east 43 05 70 45 240 1.1 50 0.4 350 Badgers Island, SIN. of - - - ---------- - @3 05 70 45 330 3.3 125 3.7 PISCATAQUA RIVER and TRIBUTARIES 355 NW. of Nobles Island (Rik..bridge) ----- 43 05 70 46 50 1.6 200 0.9 350 lobles Islard, north of ---- - -- - ----- 43 06 70 46 305 3.6 140 4.4 3t5 Frankfort Island, south 43 07 70 48 310 2.6 130 2.9 3-,0 Little Bay entrance, Dover Point--- 43 07 73 50 270 5.8 95 4.2 375 Furber S+ralt -------- - ----- - - - ----- 43 05 70 52 185 2.0 10 2.1 MASSACHUSETTS COAST 380 Gunboat Shoal ---------------- -------- 4,3 01 70 42 340 0.5 160 0.5 355, Isles of Shoals Light, White Island --- 142 58 70 371 20 0.3 200 0.3 .'Times of slack are indefinite. 'Current tends 110 rotate counterclockwise, flood direction swinging from westward to southward. 'Current too weak and variable to be predicted. ebbs about Ij hours. Slack before 40@set-V3tions indicate that current floods about 11 hours and flO.)d occurs about 4j hours earlier, maximum flood about I hour later, stock before ebb about * hour later, and maximum ebb about 1j hours earlier than corresponding predictions at Portsmouth Harbor En- trance. Average ebb velocity Is less than knot. 4-197 Tabj,@ 4-13 Con I.-'CU-RRENT 'DIFFERENCES AND OTHER CONSTANTS MAMMUM CURRENTS POSITION Flood Ebb No. PLACE Ili,ec- A@er- D,rec. A.e,. Lai. Long. ,on GE!e hon -ce (t-.) -loc- (I-) -lot. ity ;ty -7- I &g. .4-nots dey. knot, a MASSACHUSETTS COAST-Continued N. W. .390 Merrimack River entrance -------------- 42 491 70 49 285 2;2 105 1.4 395 Newburyport, IV12rrimack River ---------- 42 49 0152 29,)[ 1CO 1.4 400 Plum Island Sound entrance ------------ 42 42 ;0 47 3i5 1. G 165 1.5 2DD 1.0 15 1.3 405 Annisquam Harbor Light ------------- - - 142 40 70 41 1"! 410 Gloucester Harbor entrance -- - -------- 142 35 70 40 ---- ---- ---- ---- 415 Slynman Canal ent., Giouce -ster Hbr--142 371 70 40 320 3.0 130 3,Z 420 Marblehead Channel -------------------- 14@ 30 70 49 285 0.4 205 0.4 425 Nahant, off East Point ----- - --------- i42 25 70 54 235 0_1 1@5 0.7 430 Lynn Harbor entrance ------------------ 42 25 70 57 325 0.5 10 0.5 435 Winthrop Beach, 1.2 miles east of----- 42 23 70 57 195 .0.4 95 0.2 BOSTON HARBOR APPROACHES 440 Stellwaoen Bank ---------------- - - 42 24 70 24 ---- ---- ---- - - 445 Boston Lightship --------------- ---- 42 20 70 45 ---- ---- ---- ---- 450 North Channel, off Great Faun ------ -- j4, 2. 22 70 5 r: 200 1.2 25 1.4 455 Hypocrite. Channel ---------------- L---- 42 21 '10 5' 255 2.2 70 1.0 460 Nantasket Roads entrance -------------- 42 19 70 53 260 -1.4 85 1.5 465 Black Rock Channel -------------------- 42 19 70 551 220 1.2 35 1.2 BOSTON HARBOR 470 The Narrows, off Georges Island--42 19 70 16@ 280 0.9 lio 1.3 475 The Narrows, off Gallups Island ------- 42 20 ?0 561 125 0.6 315 0.2 480 Between Ga!Jups 1. and Georges 42 29 70 55: 2C5 0.6 4@ 0.8 485 Nubble Channel ------------------------ 42 20 70 571 195 0.6 15 0.8 490 e0STON HARSaR (Deer Island Light)---- 42 20 70 57 260 1.7 165 -1.3 495 Po i nt Sh i r 1 ey, 0. 5 m i I e S;1. of 42 21 70 59 ---- ---- ---- --- 500 Main Ship Chan., off Ft. Independence- 42 21 71 01 300 0.6 lio 0.6 505 Fort Point Channel entrance --------- -142 23 71 03 210 0.2 25 0.4 510 Bet%een Boston and East Boston ---- --- 14- 2i 71 03 340 0.4 160 0.6 515 Charles River entrance -------- I 41 21 71 04 520 Between Charlestown and East Bost_on__-_--_j42 22@ 11 03 25 0.4 200 0. 6 525 Chelsea River entrance ------ - -------- 42 71 02 100 0.5 2290 0.6 530 Mystic River entrance ----------------- 42 71 03 270 0.4 SO, 0.5 535 Between Spectacle 1. and G3stle 1---- 42 20 71 00 250 0.6 ?0 0.6 5,10 Between Spectacle'l. and Thompson I--- 42 19 71 00 310 0.3 120 0.5 5.!5 Dorchester Say, off Thimble Island--- 42 18 71 02 23C 0.8 65 0.9 550 Neponset River (railroad br1dqe)----- 42 17 71 02 230 0.6 50 0.7 .555 Between Long 1. and Spectacle I ------- 42 19 70 58 185 0.4 25 0.5 560 Between Thompson 1. and M,)cn Head ----- 42 18 71 00 260 0.4 E5 0.5 565 Between Moon Head and Long Island ----- 42 29 70 59 ---- ---- ---- ---- 570 Between Long 1. and Rainsford I ------- 42 19 70 58 225 0.8 45 1.0 575 Nantasket Roads, off Georges Island- 42 19 70 55 250 1.3 40 1.9 580 Nantasket Roads, off Rainsford I------ 142 18@ 70 571 210 1.1 60 i.0 585 Squantum, 0.3 Tille SE. of --- - ------- 142 17 71 001 ---- ---- ---- ---- 590 Nut Island, 0.8 mile Wesi Df7 --------- 142 17 70 581 271, 0.3 t5 O.Z S95 Hull Out ------------------------------ 14@ 18 70 tl@l af-5 2.0 7,@O 2.4 C00 Between Paddocks 1. and Nut I --------- 14@ 17 70 57 125 1.C 315 1.4 605 Between Peddocks 1. and Sheep I--- - 42 17 70 56 40 0.5 2,^0 0.4 610 lBetween Raccoon 1. and Grape 161 70 56 H 185 0.5 301 0.4 'Current too weak and variable to to predicted "For fIccd and slack tefore etb, -111 2D-. For etb and s-lack before flood, -C)h 311cor flord Lnd --!.--ck tof,3re etb, -2h 00-. For ebb and cla@-k b"-fore flc")d, -Oh 20.. 'For flor-cl, +_@' 3,51. For ebb, -01 to-. ft'_urrent weck and rotary, turning countprclockwisp. 4-.198 Taldle -CURRENT DIFFERENCES AND OTHER CONSTANTS "IMUM CURRENTS POSITION Flood Ebb PLACE D;F@C. @eloc- deg. km,fs deg- knoes BOSTON HARBOR-Continued N W. 623 Weymouth Fare River, Qu[ncy Potnt---14Z 151 7') 925 0.6 451 0.9 915, Wavmouth Back River, brldcz@ ------------ 42 15 0 -6 r' 165 I.n 345 1.2 0 01 Huil, Channel SE. of ------------- - --- - 1 3 1_2 1-81 -'0 54 60 0.2 215 0 3 635, Strawberry Hill, 0.5 mile wes' of ------ 42 3,7 70 54 r, (5 1 Off Punkin - ---------- 42 15 70 54 IZI) 0.9 3251 1.1 6,5 1 Worlds End, N@rt@ of ------ - ---------- @42 16 70 57' 85 3.0 275 1.2 6-0 Off Crow Point ------------------------ 1!.12 16 .70 54 150 0.9 :535 1.0 CAPE COD BAY 6@5 R3ce Point, 7 miles north of ---------- ;42 11 70 16 P90. 1.5 6,@O Race Point, I mile northwasr of-----142 05 70 15 225 1.0 60 0.9 665 Provlncetown K.)rbor - - ---- - - ------- 142 03 70 10 :515 0.6 135 0.4 C-@O Wellfleet Harbor -------------------- 141 54s 70 0-3! 20 0.7 200 0.@ 675 Barnstable Harbor -------------------- 141 44 70 26' 190 1.2 5 1.'4 680 Sandwich Harbor ---- - ------------------ @Ili e6 70 OC) --- Cape Cod Canal (see page 144) -------- ---- ---- ---- ---- 665 Sagarnore Beach-- - -------- a--------- !41 48 70 311 ---- ---- ---- ---- 690@ Elitsville Harbor, I mile east of----:41 51 70 30, 200 0.3 20 O.a 695 Manomet Potnt----__ 41 56@ '70 -@k2 155 3.1 10 0.9 7CO! Gurnat Point, I mile east of-- 00 70 351 250 1.4 ---- 1.0 705i Plyr*uth Harbor---- 58 70 391 245 0.5 10 0.4 7101 Farnham Rock, 035 180 1.1 10 0.9 1 mile east of - -- - -- - 142' 06 7 Di,e Aver- 07 0@ e 4-199 4.2.9 CIRCULATION AND CURRENTS REGION SOUTH OF CAPE OD INTRODUCTION The components of circulation discussed in the Preceding chapter on the offshore area are greatly modified in coastal areas by both emergent and submergent geomorphology. Confined to narrow passages at their entrances, the tidal motion becomes a reversing oscilla- tion rather than a rotary one within the coastal waters, and the currents increase sharply in amplitude (Fig. 4-84). The ele- vation of the land immediately adjacent to these waters sharply increases the hydrostatic head of the freshwater runoff, and both diurnal and seasonal oscillations in temperature are much sharper. These factors, operating directly upon the shallower waters over short distances, produce steeper pressure gradients and hence stronger currents than those of offshore areas. Just as the emergent shore and underwater topography act as barriers and channels to modify the course of these currents, so does the moving water act upon the shifting coastlines, building bars, and wearing away head- lands; in general, acting together with the historical tectonic processes to produce the three major types of coastal embayments found in this area; sounds, drowned estuaries, and inlets behind bar- built beaches. Vin,pyard and Nantucket Sounds These two areas form essentially a single body of relatively shallow water 75 nautical km long, 28 nautical km wide in the Nantucket portion and 7 nautical km wide in the Vineyard portion. Bumpus, Lynde, and Shaw (1973) classifies them as Prichard Type D estuaries. River runoff is relatively low, and tidal currents of up to 35 km/hr dominate. The residual drift is characterized by an eddy of Gulf of Maine waters around Nantucket Island and into the sound, then a net easterly flow of about 5 percent of the tidal volume (200 m3 per tidal cycle) out of Nantucket Sound between Monomoy and Nantucket Islands (Figs. 4-84 and 4-85), given off from the southern side of currents within Nantucket Sound (Bigelow, 1924). Drift bottles, released in Rhode Island Sound to the west, confirmed strong easterly drift into Vineyard and Nantucket Sounds, as well as the clockwise gyre around Nantucket Island (Cook, 1966). There appears to be an onshore set from the northern sections of Vineyard and Nantucket Sounds as well as movement south between Nantucket and 14artha's Vine- yard. Rhode Island Sound This area is much rnore open than the sounds to the east and the west (Fiq. 4-84). It receives a large amount of water from Buzzards Bay and Narragansett Bay, which comprise virtually its total northern 4_200 boundary. The fresh water discharge from Narragansett Bay persists year-round and its effect can be seen in the salinity profiles in Figures 4-129 to 4-155. A definite salt-wedging effect from the outer shelf can be seen in both the salinity and the density profiles of Figures 4-129 to 4-155 except in January when it appeared essentially homogeneous. The temperature structure approaches vertical homogeneity between October and April (Fig. 4-134 and 4-135), then becomes stratified over the summer (Fig. 4-152 to 4-155), developing a sharp thermo- cline (4-132, 4-133). The usual onshore-offshore gradient per- sists, with summer and winter reversals (Morton, 1967@. The general circulation pattern in Rhode Island Sound consists of a clockwise gyre centered off the Sakonnet River (Cook, 1966). The shelf water moving inshore from south of Martha's Vineyard moves north along the eastern portion of the Sound, giving off water to Vine- yard Sound and the southeastern shores of Buzzards Bay. The eddy en@ trains water from the northern shores of Buzzards Bay, from the Sakonnet River, and from Narragansett Bay as it flows west along the coast of Rhode Island. It circles south, and receives water from between Block Island and Point Judith, except in the summer (Table 4-15), when it gives off water to the west. Prevailing winds drive a portion of this water to the east between Block Island and Martha's Vineyard, and from there it flows north to complete the cycle (Fig. 4-84). Cook ascribes the general circulation pattern to estuarine out- flow and non-estuarine advective processes, modified seasonally by prevailing winds and seasonal changes in runoff. He does not discuss the geomorphology of the area, which undoubtedly interacts with the dynamic gradients. Rhode Island Sound is naturally bounded on the south by subsurface remnants of the Ronkonkoma moraine, producing an elevated area between Block Island and Martha's Vineyard, broken only by a 9 km gap off Block Island (McMaster, 1960). The Harbor Hill moraine is manifested by a discontinuous belt of hummocky relief from Point Judith to the Elizabeth Islands, cut by the submerged valley of Buzzards Bay. These features undoubtedly contribute to the location of the gyre, and must be responsible in part for the cyclonic nature of water movement. In this same area there is the phenomenon of a tidal current reversal well known to local sailors, such that the ebb currents to the east of Narragansett Bay flow eastward into Nantucket Sound; those to the west flow westward into Block Island Sound, drawing water inward from the south. The currents to the westward (interacting with the Block Island Sound Area) are much stronger than those to the eastward off Buzzards Bay (Eldridge, 1974). Bumpus also described a larger gyre envelop- ing Block Island which was discussed in an earlier section. 4-201 Table 4-15 Circulation in Rhode Island Sound. Changes in the seasonal pattern. Data compiled 1@ CD from Cook, 1966. Season Depth East. RIS Pt. Judith- Prevail. Surface Block Is. Wind Runoff Spring Surface N. and E. East S & SW decr. fr. weak W. components Apr, May, June Bottom N. and W. West March Max. Summer Surface N. with weaker NW and SW SW & minimum E. & W. components Jul, Aug, Sept Bottom North West Fall & Winter Surface E. or SE offshore E & S NW no data Oct - Apr Bottom onshore North Block Island Sound This,area comprises 1,040 square km west of Rhode Island Sound. Its average depth is 40 m, with a maximum of 100 m (Williams, 1969). It opens to the Atlantic Ocean through Southern Channel between Montauk Point and Block Island, and to the west it exchanges water with Long Island Sound through the Race and Plum Gut. Block Island Sound is somewhat more protected than Rhode Island Sound. It receives only a small amount of river discharge. The eastern sector is a broad flat plain with a mean depth of 33.5 m. The western topography is rough, dissected by many holes, ridges, and submerged valleys reaching 51.5 m-. The greatest depth in Block Island Sound is a closed basin 98.5 m, deep lying 7 km south of East Point on Fishers Island. A sill runs from Valiant Rock across The Race to Fishers Island (Fig. 4-156), the junction of Block Island and Long Island Sounds. This sill and an extensive shoal area restrict the free exchange of water between the two sounds (Gallagher and Nalwalk, 1971). The temperature,structure in Block Island Sound is nearly homo- geneous spring and fall. Temperatures decrease with depth in summer but no distinct thermocline develops. Bottom temperatures are slightly warmer in winter. In summer the warmest temperatures occur near shore along the Rhode Island coast while the coldest are on the bottom 'in Block Island Channel (about 13 C). In summer there are typically cells of warm or cold water a few kilometers in extent. These indicate a thermal front between Block Island Sound and Rhode Island Sound. A cold eddy persists off Montauk Point in June and July. During June, July, and August the surface temperatures in western Block Island Sound are about 1 C warmer than Central Block Island Sound,'probably from mixing with Long Island Sound water. Weather conditions such as clouds and fog affect surface temperatures. During this time a tongue of cold saline water wedged along the bottom into Block Island Sound from the shelf and cold water from the shelf floods through Block Island' Channel and ebbs again through there and between Block Island and the mainland, keeping onshore-offshore gradients high. In early fall, the temperatures are warmer inshore, the water column becomes homogeneous, and the horizontal gradient reverses, placing the warmer temperatures offshore. The rate of cooling is a function of the autumn storms. The winter gradients are all very weak. The largest vertical gradient is 0.4 C at 20 m. Vernal warming takes place first inshore, following no definite pattern. Differential heating results in thermal eddy development. A more complete description of the seasonal dynamics of the temperature structure is given in Williams, Lamoureaux, and Azarovitz, 1971). 4-203 The lowest salinities in Block Island Sound are about 30 O/oo at the surface near Montauk Point while highest of 31 O/oo occur on the bottom in Block Island Channel. Diurnal fluctuations in tempera- ture and salinity are shown in Figure 4-176. They mainly reflect tidal variations. The circulation pattern in Block Island Sound shows some features typical of estuaries and others typical of a strait between two seas (Williams, et al., 1971). Few current data exist for non-tidal flow, but with f-hos-eavailable there appears to be a cyclonic gyre similar to Rhode Island Sound (Figure 4-84), with some seasonal changes in pattern. Water flows westward into Block Island Sound between Point Judith and Block Island (Riley, 1952). It crosses the Sound and joins the southeast flow of water from Long Island Sound out past Montauk Point. The subsurface water from Block Island Sound continues into Long Island Sound, but the water flowing out of Long Island Sound stays close to Montauk Point and has little effect on the hydro- graphy of the central and eastern portions of Block Island Sound. During summer, there is no eastward transport Virough the central portion of the sound. Both the outflow from Long Island Sound and the freshwater drainage from the Rhode Island coast are at a minimum, and offshore water is prevalent throughout Block Island Sound, bearing shelf-type plankton rather than species from coastal waters. By winter the Long Island Sound flow increases, influencing.to some extent the subsurface pattern in the central portion of Block Island Sound in the form of a diffuse eddy. Williams (1969) reports onshore bottom drift and offshore surface drift along the boundary between Block Island Sound and the Atlantic Ocean, as well as some bottom drift into Long Island Sound at the Race. Long Island Sound To the west of Block Island Sound, Long Island Sound stretches 185 km down the Connecticut coast, comprising an area of about 2,300 square km (Riley, 1959). The maximum depth is 100 m near the eastern end, but elsewhere depths rarely exceed- 30 m. Water from Long Island Sound is exchanged with Block Island Sound through the eastern end. There is a limited exchange with New York Harbor through the East River at the western end. The drainage basin,comprises 13 times the area of the Sound itself; greater than 75 percent of the runoff is accounted for by the Thames and Connecticut Rivers at the eastern end which does not appreciably affect the hydrography of the central and western portions. Some estimates of annual stream discharge are given in Figure 4-178, 4-204 4-179, and 4-180. In 1973 the greatest discharge occurred in April and the Connecticut River accounted for a large percentage of the runoff. The effect of Connecicut River discharge on the salinity of the outer shelf has already been discussed. The water temperatures for central Long Island Sound (Figure 4-178 and 4-179) range annually from close to O,C (Jan.-Feb.) to 22 C (Jul.- Aug.). Bottom temperatures lag the surface slightly during both heating and cooling so that a slight negative gradient develops in summer and a slight positive gradient in winter. Both surface and bottom follow the air temperatures with a slight lag. Temperatures are generally higher in the Western Sound in summer and lower there in winter, reflecting the seasonal onshore-offshore gradient. A similar seasonal radient exists between the Long Island and Connecticut shores ?Figure 4-180 and 4-182). Shorter- term fluctuations occur in both the eastern and western Sound followinq the tidal cvcle (Fiaure 4-168 to 4-171). Salinity increases from surface to bottom (Figure 4-178 and 4-179) and is generally higher in the eastern end where it is flushed with shelf water. Off the mouths of rivers such as the Connecticut, the fresh waterflow may significantly lower salinities all the way to Plum Gut during periods of heavy flow (Figure 4-176, Table 4-37). Salinity also tends to be lower along the Connecticut shore because river water tends to be pushed back along that shore. Seasonal varia- tions follow the runoff pattern. Riley states that the Sound has a two-layered transport system, with a relatively fresh surface layer moving eastward out of the Sound as saline bottom water moves inward to the west. He tentatively suggests that the Sound changes 30 percent of its volume each month. The non-tidal surface circulation appears to involve net drift east- ward into the Sound from the East River, joining a counterclockwise current in the western third of the Sound. This gyre trades off with a weak clockwise gyre in the central portion. Another small clockwise eddy exists between the Connecticut River and Long Isla nd Shoal. To the east of these eddies, there is an eastward drift out through the passages into Block Island Sound, where the water merges with the western portion of the Block Island Sound circulation as mentioned above. Riley attributed the circulation within the Sound to the Coriolis effect,upon tidal flow, and the horizontal density gradients. He did not discuss seasonal changes in drift patterns, except to state.that Long Island Sound outflow increased in midwinter and de- creased in midsummer. 4-205 More recent studies in the eastern Sound (Hollman and Sandberg, 1972, Dehlinger, Fitzgerald, Feng, Paskowsky, Garvine and Bohlen, 1973) confirm net inflow at the surface through the Race and net outflow at the surface through Plum Gut (Figure 4-157 through 4-161) and a salt-wedgin effect into the Sound on the bottom resulting in two-layered flow ?Figure 4-163 and 4-164). Hollman and Sandberg (1972) also showed a greater amount of exchange between Block Island Sound and Long Island Sound than was'indicated by Riley (1952), involving both surface and bottom water, probably influenced to a great extent by wind conditions (Figure 4-162 through 4-166). Tidal current velocities are greater in the eastern passages than in the western passages (Figure 4-167), except in the confines of the East River. Tidal amplitudes increase from 1 m in the eastern Sound to 2 m in the western Sound (see section on tides'). Tidal currents are essentially reversing with small rotational components (Figures 4-157 through 4 _161). Buzzards Bay Buzzards Bay is a wedge-shaped estuary averaging abo 13 km in width and 43 km along its NE-SW axis (Figure 4-85). It is bounded to the east by the mainland shoulder of Cape Cod, and then by the Elizabeth Islands,,a slender archipelago separating the Bay from Vineyard Sound to the east. Water is exchanged between these two larger bodies through a series of narrow passages, Woods Hole, Robinsons Hole, Quicks Hole, and Canapitsit Channel, resulting in extremely swift tidal currents, especially through Woods Hole (180 cm/sec average maximum) and Quicks Hole (128 cm/sec average maximum). Tidal currents in the Bay itself are relatively weak (67 cm/sec average maximum), semi-diurnal, reversing type. At its NE apex, Buzzards Bay exchanges water with Cape Cod Bay through the Cape Cod Canal, a man-made connector 12 km long and 145 m wide, where tidal currents reach 232 cm/sec during the ebb and 206 cm/sec on the flood (Fairbanks, Randall, Collings and Sicles, 1971). The mean tidal range is 1 m at the Bay entrance (Bumpus 'et al., 1973), and is variously recorded at 1.4 m (Bumpus, ibid.) anZ_@_m (Fairbanks, et al., 1971) at the western entrance to the canal. The discrepancj__To_@_the canal probably depends upon the location of measurement, since the canal would be expected to significantly amplify the tidal range. A later section gives fuller treatment of tidal regimes. There is a small net influx of water from Cape Cod Bay (Fairbanks, et al., 1971), and an apparent net counterclockwise drift around BuzFards Bay (Bumpus, et al., 1973). Bumpus classifies the area as a Type C, verticallTh-omogeneous estuary. The Water temperature ranges annually from -1 C to 24 C at the canal 4-206 entrance, from -1.7 C to 31 C at Woods Hole, and from -0.5 C to 18 C at the mouth (Figs. 4.: 86, 87; Tables 4 -16 and 17). Tempera- tures minima occur in January and February; maxima occur in July and August at Woods Hole and 'the Canal, but may be as late as .September at the light station which is under direct influence of the shelf waters. Only at the entrance is there any vertical strati- fication (2-3 C). Light Station records indicate a progressive long- term warming of summer surface water which is consistent with trends along the shelf as a whole. At the head of the Bay, water from Cape Cod Bay, which may be as much as 5.5 C colder in summer, enters dur- ing the last 2 112 hour of the flood tide, but most of this is flushed back out again when the cycle reverses (Fairbanks, et al., .1971). There is little variation in salinity either with season or with distance alon the axis of the estuary, reflecting the low fresh- water runoff @1,000 cfs annual average). The range is greater at the Light Station (29.18-32.49 o/oo) than at Woods Hole (30.84- 31,87 o/oo) or the Canal (30.41-32.72 o/oo), probably because most of the runoff occurs from small rivers along the 0;! shore (Tables 4-16, 17, 18). Narragansett Bay Narragansett Bay is a complex estuary 28 km long (along its major axis) and 18.5 km at its maximum width. It is made up of 3 major N-S systems; from east to west the Sakonnet River-Mount Hope Bay- Taunton River system, the East Passage-Providence River System, and the West Passage (Fiqure 4-88). The total area of the Bay is 3.24 x 109 2 and its volume is 2.8 x 109m3 at MLW. The tidal volume is 4 x 10@3 or 15 percent of the total volume. Overall mean depth is @.8 m, however the Sakonnet River and West Passage Systems are relatively shallower (average depth 7.5 m) than East Passage, a deep, narrow area of irregular submarine topography, where the average depth is 17.8 m and maximum depths reach 62 m (Morton, 1967). Tides in the Bay are semidiurnal with an amplitude of 1.12 m at the mouth, increasing to 1.4 m in the upper reaches.' The area is vulner- able to storm surges so that tidal flood barriers have been built at Providence (Bumpus, et al., 1973). Tidal currents show standing wave characteristics. T-hu-s, a current maximum is reached midway between upper bay and lower bay minima, coincident with high and low water. Currents are usually less than 50 cm/sec, but maxima of 140 cm/sec occur near Tiverton, Rhode Island, where the Sakonnet River is greatly restricted (Morton, 1967). Swifter currents typically occur in the constrictions of the passages (Figure 4-89). Narragansett Bay is classified as a Type B, moderately stratified 4-207 Table 4-16. Monthly temperature and salinity at Woods Hole. TEMPERATURE C 0 SALINITY 0/00 Mean Range Mean Range January -0.4 -1.7 to 1.4 31.08 29.39 - 31.61 February -0.5 -1.7 to 0.8 31.16 30.44 - 31.77 March 2.1 0.7 to 3.2 30.86 30.28 - 31.16 April 5.6 3.5 to 7.7 30.88 30.28 - 31.13 INlay 10.3 7.6 to 13.7 30.86 30.03 - 31.08 June 16.8 13.2 to 19.1 30.84 30.50 - 31.08 July 20.7 19.2 to 21.6 -31.15 30.79 - 31.86 August 21.8 20.8 to 31.0 30.99 29.88 - 31.36 September 20.6 19.2 to 21.4 31.46 30.94 - 31.70 October 17.4 16.1 to 19.4 31.78 31.48 - 31.96 November 11.0 7.6 to 16.6 31.87 31.54 - 32.05 December 5.6 3.9 to 7.6 31.64 29.70 - 31.98 Table 4-17. Temperatures and salinities at Buzzards Bay Lightship. TEMPERATURE Co SALINITY 0/00 -Mean Range Mean Range Janua ry 1.6 -0.4 to 2.8 31.79 31.18 - 32.13 February 0.7 -0.5 to 2.2 31.70 29.15 - 32.02 March 1.8 1.0 to 2.9 31-73 31.26 - 32.16 April 4.4 2.5 to 5.8 31.80 31.45 - 32.25 May 8.9 6.2 to 11.5 31.58 30.81 - 32.44 June 14.2 11.6 to 16.9 31.50 31.28 - 31.82 July ---- ------------ ----- ------------- August 16.3 14.2 to 17.9 31.56 31.31 - 32.12 September 16.4 15.0 to 18.0 31.79 31.67 - 32.12 October 16.2 15.0 to 17.5 31-98 31.88 - 32.07 November 12.5 9.5 to 16.0 32.22 32.04 - 32.32 December 7.1 5.9 to 8.5 32.21 31.71 - 32.49 4-208 Table 4-18 AVERAGE MONTHLY SALINITIES (0/00) AT HIGH AND LOW TIDE IN THE CAPE COD CANAL, JUNE 1966 -'DEC. 1969 1966 1967 1968 1969 High Low High Low High Low High Low Tide Tide Tide Tide Tide Tide Tide Tide January - - 31.48 31.45 30.71 31.29 31.53 31.95 February - - 31.04 31.59 30.87 31.39 31.26 32.28 March - - 30.77 31i5O 30.41 31.44 31.60 32.19 April - - 31.02 31.55 30.46 31.65 30.70 32.07 May - - 30.53 30.91 31.00 31.48 31.23 31.59 June 31.53.. 31.64 30.67 31.11 31.28 31.18 31.72 31.75 July 32.58 31.75 30.89 31.49 31.74 31.47 32.11 31.86 August 32.72 32.06 31.29 31.67 31.81 31.81 32.02 31.97 September 31.74 31.80 31.48 31.63 32.16 32.06 32.28 32.22 October 31.81 31.99 31.46 31.73 32.31 32.20 31.72 31.86 November 31.42 31.81 31.25 31.42 31.79 31.90 31.46 31.76 December 31.53 31.45 30.63 31.61 31.16 31.43 31.14 31.88 4-209 estuary, with net outward flow of fresh water above a net inward flow of salt (Bumpus, et al., 1973). Streamflow into the combined areas is _Y-@Fnd there is a definite increasing salinity gradi- 2,709 cfs annuall . ent from head to mouth and from surface to bottom throughout the year. The salt wedge moves up-estuary in summer and down-estuary in winter (Fig. 4-90). This seasonal fluctuation is small in West Passage, but significantly greater in the other two passages, reaching a minimum salinity in February (Hicks, 1963). The Bay is isothermal from surface to bottom most of the year, but becomes stratified from May through July, corresponding to maximum surface temperatures. In summer the water is warmer up-estuary; the reverse is true in winter (Fig. 4-90). Diurnal variations in physical parameters were measured for a single station in West Passage by Morton (1967). These data, taken over 36 hours in November, showed bottom temperatures slightly higher than surface temperatures, as opposed to the generally isothermal character- ization of this time of hear by Hicks (1963). Bottom temperatures were more stable than surface temperatures, which were affected by a storm which came up about 6 hours after the sampling began (Fig. 4-91), lowering the surface temperatures and, after a delay, affect- ing the bottom. Tidal influence was greater on a short-term basis, causing temperature maxima at high tide with the inflow of warmer Sound water, and minima at low tide. Nevertheless, the total diurnal fluctuation was only about 1 C, while air fluctuations were more than 11 C, and affected the overall trend of the water temperature. Data are given in Figure 4-128 to 4-129. Salinities agreed with the generalized picture (higher on the bottom) with a maximum variation of only 0.5 o/oo away from the mean (Fi?. 4-90). Density variations closely followed salinity (Table 4-24 * The combination of temperature and salinity produced a low vertical density gradient, and there was A great deal of mixing between surface and bottom waters. Raritan Bay - Hudson River (New York Harborl New York Harbor is a complex estuarine system of 390 square kilo- meters, formed by the drowned lower valleys of the Raritan and Hudson Rivers (Figure 4-92). The Outer Harbor is a triangular area made up of Raritan Bay on the west and south, Lower Bay as the largest portion on the north, and Sandy Hook Bay in the southeast. It opens to the eastward into New York Bight. The Inner Harbor is made up of the Hudson River, Upper Bay, Newark Bay and their various connectors; the Arthur Kill, a tidal strait linking the western end of Raritan Bay with Newark Bay; Kill Van Kull.which connects Newark and Upper Bays; the East River which 4-210 joins Upper Bay to Long Island Sound; and the Harlem River which connects the East River to the Hudson above Manhatten Island. Upper Bay empties directly into Lower Bay through The Narrows between Staten Island and Long Island. The Outer Harbor averages 23 nautical kilometers along its E-W axis and 22 nautical kilreters on its N-S axis, for a combined aerial ext- tent of (1,670 x 10 ft2)., of this, the Raritan Bay-Arthur Kill portion forms 242 square kilometers, with 77 km of shoreline (sea cliffs, wide beaches, tidal marshes) on the Bay and 65 km on the Kill. In Raritan Bay the average depth is 7 m, natural depths reach 9 m, and a channel is dredged to 12 m. Lower Bay is deeper, aver- aging 9 m with dredged depths of 13 m. Arthur Kill has a mean depth of 5.4 with-a narrow channel dredged to 11 m. The channel of the Raritan River is 7.5 m up to Perth Amboy and 2.7 m to New Brunswick, forming 3.6 m of channel (Publ. Health Serv., 1963). Data are summarized in Table 4-20. The combined area receives an average of 26,400 cfs of river dis- charge (Bue, 1970). The natural freshwater drainage area of Rari- tan Bay and Arthur Kill is approximately 3,380 square kilometers. Its major tributary streams are the Raritan and Shrewsbury Rivers; those to the Kill are the Elizabeth and Rahway Rivers. Of the total runoff (2,000 cfs), more than 80 percent is from the Raritan River, which flows 38 km from its junction with the Millstone River east- ward into the Bay. Water also enters the Ba'y f5om the Hudson River system, with a net discharge of 6.0 billion ft per tidal cycle flowing through the Nasrows into the Lower Bay from the Upper Bay. Of this, 0.7 billion ft is fresh water, making the Hudson River system a major source of water to Raritan Bay. In-addition to river inputs, raw and munici- pal sewage wastes add 650 cfs to the Arthur Kill and 105 cfs to Raritan Bay, which exceeds natural runoff from the Raritan River 55 percent of the time according to the discharge rates in Figure 4-93. The mean tidal range in the combined system is 1.7 m.Heights in- crease up the bay. Mean heights of 1.3 m at the Narrows and 1.6 m at Staten Island reach 1.6 and 1.9 m respectively over spring tides. The tidal prism is 9200 x 106ft3, which is 300 times the river dis- charge. Flushing times vary from 15 to 30 days depending on the river flow (Bumpus et al., 1973). Tidal currents reach 52 cm/sec in Raritan Bay and 2-6 _65/sec in Lower Bay. Upstream bottom currents transport water at a rate of 17,000 cfs between Sandy Hook and Rock- @away Point, and have been detected as far upstream as Governors Island (22 kri) and Riverdale (49 km) and about 25 percent of the time at West Point (101 km) in the Hudson River - The net circulation pattern in the Bay is a slow, counterclockwise 4-211 '.3 ;> 0 1 "r C-1 l) H. 0 0 0 P. C-4 1-1 C+ C+ 0 0 = B 9 tv C', tt p C+ Ei 0 H. V, 0 i:, pj C-1 C-,@ C t4 td 00 1+ ru C-f- ia. Fj 0 0 C+ ro 4 Z (D 0 cq \,n cl C+ C+ (D C+ C'> rn M co \-n crl% r\j 00 :1-:0 0 0 N p & n: F3 pq @; 0- (D H a too-, 01% IMI 4 1 W CD t:l F-j (D M co \-n 00 C+ Id to C+ cn CD CA C+ C+ CD 0 zo P- 00 cr% 00 co (D FJ A.) H ::c C-0 (D @n CD Cj) %D 0 0 0 "A -P, R.) @-g loo 0 @4 r C+ \,n @A p zo FJ -4 C7% 00 QO TABLE 4-20 SUMMARY OF USGS STREAM GAGING STATION RECORDS, RARITAN'BAY STUDY AREA STREAMS Drainage Average Average Gaging Station Are@, Discharge, Runoff Pte, Location mi cfs cfsm Raritan River Basin Raritan River, Bound Brook, N.J. 779 1,220 1.57 Green Brook, Plainfield, N.J. 9.8 12.1 1.24 Lawrence Brook, -Farrington Dam, N.J. 34.4 38.5 1.12 South River, Old Bridge, N.J. 94.6 137 1.45 TOTALS 917.8 1,407.6 Extrapolated total average discharge: 1,,072 1,650 Arthur Kill Drainage Area Elizabeth River, Elizabeth, N.J. 20.2 23.8 1.18 Rahway River, Rahway, N.J. 40.9 44.8 1.10 Robinson's Branch, Rahway River, Rahway, N.J. 21.6 23.5 1.09 TOTALS 82.7 92.1- Extrapolated total average discharge: 136 Extrapolated total average discharge for.total Arthur Kill drainage area: 160 4-213 TABLE 4-20 (Cont'd) SUMMARY OF USGS STREAM GAGING STATION RECORDS, RARITAN BAY STUDY AREA STREAMS Drainage Average -Average Gaging Station Are Discharge, Runoff Pte, .Location mi cfs cfsm Navesink-Shrewsbury River Basin Swimming River (head of Navesink River) near Red Bank, N.J. 48.5 77.2 1.59 New Jersey Shore Drainage Area @69 - 1.50* Extrapolated total average discharge: 110 Staten Island Shore Drainage Area 24 1.10* Extrapolated total average, discharge: 25 Estimated 4-214 gyre (Fig. 4-94) in which salt waters inflowing from the Lower Bay and fresh waters inflowing from the Raritan River each tend to keep to the right, so that salinities are higher on the north side of the Bay than,the south side. The mean annual gradient in 1.27 o/oo, with some variations according to river flow. Waters on the flood tide thrust southward at the head of the Bay, bisecting the Raritan River discharge and tending to accelerate it.. The river discharge, on the other hand, tends to dam up the high salinity water at the head of the Bay (Jeffries, 1962). Current dispersion studies show a net seaward movement from the mouth of the Raritan River of about 0.2 km tidal cycle, and the Arthur Kill a net seaward movement of-about 1.8 km/tidal cycle. Currents flowing seaward through the Narrows are displaced westward, thus adding to the western portion of the Bay some waters originating in the Upper Bay (Public Health Service, 1963). Bumpus, et al., 1973, classifies the Raritan Bay portion as a Type C, @_e_r_tically homogeneous estuary, whereas the Hudson River portion is partially mixed. Salinity and temperature regimes follow river inflow. Annual ranges are given in Fig. 4-184. Salinities in terms of chloride concentration patterns are given in Section 4.3.11. In general, a mass of high chlorinity water extends from Seguine Point to Sandy Hook, while relatively low salinities prevail along the Southeast portions of the Bay. There is an intermediate zone be- tween the two masses which extends to the Highlands inside of Sandy Hook. The same general pattern persists to the bottom. A smaller second lobe of high chlorinity water extends southward into Sandy Hook Bay, and a smaller third lobe pushes northward toward New Dorp Beach on Staten Island. Deep water chlorinities corresponded closely, giving the estuary its Type C character. ,Westerly winds apparently displace the high chlorinity lobes to- ward the Staten Island Shore, while easterly winds favor its central position within the Bay. Changes in freshwater runoff may also change the position of these lobes. River discharge is from 6 to 50 times greater in January through March when lobes are well de- veloped than in summer and autumn when they tend to disappear. The predominant wave regime at the entrance is from the east and northeast. Water temperatures may vary from 0 C to 26 C. The highs occur in July and the lows in January or February. There is a vernal lag in warminq so that downstream areas may be 1.7 C to 3.5 C cooler during flooding tides. The incomin tide pushes warmer water up into Arthur Kill both summer and winter @Figure 4-195). The Upper and Lower Bays form a mixing zone for waters from the 15 Hudson River and New York Bight. Temperatures are about 21 C and considerably cooler than those of 27 C in Raritan Bay. During the winter, Lower Bay harbor water is about 2.7 C while Raritan Bay is 10 C and the New York Bight is 6 to 7 C. Two shallow areas, Upper Bay and Lower East River, constitute areas of local warming (Powers and Backus, 1951). Tidal effects are less than expected at The Narrows. Surface water temperatures are slightly higher at slack- before-ebb in winter, reflecting the inflow of warmer flood waters from Lower Bay. In the Hudson River, typical tidal tongues of cooler summer water and warmer winter water extend up-river during slack- before-ebb and downriver during slack-beforE-flood (Figs. 4-196 and 4-198). Salinity distributions by season and by tidal stage are given in Figures 4-199 to 4-206. In summer, the surface salinities in The Narrows and Upper Bay are at a minimum of 20 o/oo as expected during slack-before-flood and at a maximum of about 26 o/oo during slack- before-ebb. Winter tidal variations are smaller. Salinity distributions for the Hudson River', the East River, and the Harlem River complex are predictably higher in summer, reflecting the seasonally low fresh water runoff. During the tidal cycle, the expected salinity minima occur at slack-before-flood and maxima occur at slack-before-ebb for both surface and bottom water in the Hudson. In the Harlem and East Rivers the reverse occurs. This is because the volume of the outflow in the Hudson is so great by com- parison that the strong outflow on ebb sucks water out of the Harlem and East Rivers, causing replacement by the higher salinity water from eastern Long Island Sound and salinity variations of up to 2 o/oo during a tidal cycle. 4.2.10 TIDES As described previously for the Gulf of Maine, tidal currents of the shelf and coastal waters of the Northwestern Atlantic are semidiurnal in nature with a period of 12 h 25 m, and nearly equal in amplitude (Fig. 4-97). The amplitude also manifests long-term peric-@dicities corresponding to phase, parallax, and declinatiGn of the moon (Fig. 4-98). The greatest spring tides (high tides corresponding to the full and new moons, i.e. every 14 days) occur during the summer and winter solstices. The lowest low tides occur at night during the winter and in early'morning during the summer (Emery and Uchupi, 1972). The amplitude of the tidal wave is generally less than 0.5 m in the open ocean, but as the wave crosses the shelf it increases between 1.5 and 2 m due to the decreased depth. Drag on the bottom decreases the speed of propagation and shortens the wave lenth, so that although the wave front is essentially parallel to the shelf edge as it 4- 2 1 approaches, the timing of its arrival on shore will vary depending upon the width and depth of the shelf (Fig. 4-99). Predictive tables of the times of high and low tides for specific localities are avail- able (NOAA, 1973). Slowing of the tidal wave propagation becomes more pronounced in broad, shallow estuaries such as Long Island Sound. Refraction of the tidal wave around complex island areas such as those south of Cape Cod may cause tidal waves to approach from several different directions and at different times. It may also result in a damping or amplifying effect on tidal height, depending.upon the degree to which the differ- ent waves are in phase with each other (Fig. 4-100). Some estuaries also amplify the tidal wave height by'confining the water in a narrow passage or from resonance set up within the estuary (Fig. 4-101). Changes in amplitude of this nature can be seen in Table 4-22, by com- paring tidal heights from east to west in Long Island Sound or from south to north in Buzzards and Narragansett Bays. The periodic variations in amplitude of the tidal wave are reflected in the tidal currents, which reach their maximum velocities during spring tides. Predicted values for both heights and current velo- cities for any given date at specific locations can be found in Tidal Current Tables (Anon., annual). On the outer shelf the currents rotate clockwise through 3600in a single period, with no slack water and al- most equal velocities in all directions. Closer to the coast, the currents become more elliptical, with 3 hour of velocitY maxima alter- nating with 3 hour of velocity minima (Fig. 4-102, 4-103, and 4-43. The major directional axis for these shallower shelf currents is shown in Figure 4-104. Within passages and confined bays, the currents become more bi-directional, depending upon their restriction, and take on the character of reversing currents with a period of slack water intervening during the change in direction. At times, both the velocity and direction may be obscured by wind currents, runoff currents, or the development of a storm surge, but generally the effect of tidal currents exceeds that of all others combined. Some of the highest velocities for the shelf areas (65 cm/sec) are reached over Georges Banks and the entire shallow region between Long Island and Nova Scotia. Some tidal current maxima for both off- shore and inshore areas are given in Fig. 3-99. Tidal current velo@ cities at lightships are given in Fig. 102. Typically, tidal velo- cities are. greater in confined passages. Tidal heights may be greatly affected by wind stress, which may blow water in or out of confined areas. Storm tides or storm surges may be caused by interaction of wind stress, lowered barometric pressure transport by waves, and swell and coastline configuration. The occurrence of storm surges relative to normal tidal phases determines 4-217 the overall tidal rise, which may be damped or greatly amplified. Historical data on storm surges for east coast areas have been collected by Harris (1963), some of which are given in Figures 4-105 and 4-106. Data are also available from the U.S. Department of Commerce, and hourly predictive data for velocities and direction of flow in specific areas are available from several sources. 4.2.11 SEA-ICE CONDITIONS-CAPE COD TO FlIEW YORK FROM: NOAA (1973) U.S. COAST PILOT Eastern Long Island Ice. In ordinary winters the floating and pack ice in Long Island Sound, while impeding navigation, does not render it absolutely unsafe, but in exceptionally severe winters the reverse is truej none but powerful steamers can make their way. Drift ice, which is formed principally along the northern shore of the sound under the influence of the prevailing northerly winds, drifts across to the southern side and accumulates there, massing into large fields, and remains until removed by southerly winds, which drive it back to the northerly shore. In ordinary winters ice generally forms in the western end of the sound as far as Eatons Neck; in exceptionally severe winters ice may extend to Falkner Island and farther eastward. Effects of winds on ice. In Long Island Sound northerly winds drive to the sout shore of the sound and southerly winds carry it back to the northern shore. Northeasterly winds force the ice westward and cause formations heavy enough to prevent the passage of vessels of every description until the ice is removed by westerly winds. These winds carry the ice eastward and, if of long duration, drive it through The Race into Block Island Sound, thence it goes to sea and disappears. In New Haven Harbor the influence of the northerly winds clears the harbor and its approaches unless the local formation is too heavy to be moved. Southerly winds force the drift ice in from the sound and Drevent the local formations from leaving the harbor. Tides have )ittle effect upon the ice. Additional information concerning ice conditions in the waters adjoining Long Island Sound is given under the local descriptions. New York Harbor Ice. Navigation of the channels in the Port of New York and New Jersey is not restricted by ice. The main channels do not freeze over, and any ice in the smaller waterways is well broken up by tugs and general traffic. Fresh-water ice is brought down the Hudson River in large floes during periods of thaws or winter freshets. Occasion- ally there are large accumulations of ice at Spuyten Duyvil where Harlem River joins the Hudson, and at such times it is difficult for low-powered vessels or tows to make much headway. Under conditions of strong winds the slips on the exposed side of the channel become packed with drift ice, causing difficulty when maneuvering in the slip or when berthing. During extremely severe winters navigation is interfered with seriously.for only short periods of time. Western Lona Island Ice. In ordinary winters the floating and pack ice in Long Island _@_ound,, while impeding navigation, does not render it absolutely un- safe, but in exceptionally severe winters the reverse is true; then only the powerful steamers can make their way. Drift ice, which is formed principally along the northern shore of the sound under the influence of the prevailinq northerly winds, drifts across to the southern side and accumulates there, massing into large fields, and remains until removed by southerly winds which drive it back to the northerly shore. In ordinary winters ice generally forms in the western,end of the sound as far as Eatons Neck; in exceptionally severe winters ice may extend to Falkner Island and farther eastward. Effects of winds on ice. In Long Island Sound northerly winds drive the ice to the southern shore of the sound and southerl winds carry y it back to the northern shore. Northeasterly winds force the ice westward and cause formations heavy enough to prevent the passage of vessels of every, description until the ice is removed by westerly winds. These winds carry the ice eastward and if of long enough duration, drive it through The Race into Block Island Sound, from where it goes to sea and disappears. In Bridgeport Harbor winds from north to northwest clear the harbor of drift ice, and those from southeast through south to southwest force the ice into the harbor from the sound. The outer buoys may be carried out of position by heavy ice during severe winters.. Additonal information concerning ice conditions in the waters ad- joining Long Island Sound is given under the local descriptions. 2 19 4.2.12 REFERENCES (SOUTH) Bigelow, H.B., 1924. Physical oceanography of the Gulf of Maine. Bull. Bur. Fish., 40:511-1027 Bue, C.D., 1970. Streamflow from the United States into the Atlantic Ocean during 1931-60: U.S. Geol. Survey Water - Supply Paper 1899-1, 36 pp. Bumpus, D. F., M.S. A description of the circulation on the contin- ental shelf of the East Coast of the United States, Woods Hole, Oceanographic Inst., 84 p. Bumpus, D.F., R.E. L.@'nde "and D.11. Shaw, 1973. Physical Oceanography. In Coastal and Offshore Environmental Inventory: Cape Hattaras f-o Nantucket Shoals. liar. Publ. Series No. 2. Univ. of R.I. Canadian Department of Environment, 1973. Summary of physical, biological, socio-economic and other factors relevant to poten- tial oil spills in the Passamaquoddy Region of the Bay of Fundy: Preliminary Report. Chevrier, J.R., 1959. Drift bottle experiments in the Quoddy Region. In studies on physical oceanography for the Passamoquoddy Power Project. Cook, G.S., 1966. lion-tidal curculation in Rhode Island Sound. Drift bottle and sea-bed drifter experiments, 1962-63. Navy Underwater 14eapons Research and Engineering Sta. Tech. Mem. #369, I-Alay, 1966. Dehlinger, P., W. Fitzgerald, S. Feng, D. Paskovisky, R. Garvine and W. Bohlen. A determination of budgets of heavy metals in Long Island Sound. lst Annual Report, 111SI, "J'niv. Conn., 1973 E.G. & G. International, 1973. Geophysical and droque studv/current profile reports: Eastport Tanker Terminal Project, Frederick R. Harris, Co. 55 pp. Eldridge, R., 1973. Tide and Pilot Book. R.E. White Co., Boston, Mass. 1974. Tide and Pilot Book. R.E. l,hite Co. Boston, Mass. Emery, K.O. and E. Uchupi, 1972. Western lNorth Atlantic Ocean; Topo- graphy, rocks, structure, water, life and sediments. Memoir 17, Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geologist, Tulsa, ekla. 4-220 4.2.12 REFERENCES (continued) Fairbanks, Randall B., W.S. Collings and W.T. Sicles, 1971. An assessment of the effects of electrical power generation on marine resources in the Cape Cod Canal. Mass. Dept. Nat'l @Resources. Div. Hlarine Fisheries. Farrell, S.C., 1970. Sediment distribution and hydrodynamics Saco River and Scarborough estuaries, Maine: Cont. No. 6 Coastal Research.Group, Dept. of Geology, Univ. of Mass: 129 pp. Gorgeron, F.D., 1959. Temperature and-sa]inity in the Quoddy Region: Rept. of the Int. Passamaquoddy. Fish. Bd. to the Int. Joint Comm. Appendix I (oceanography) Chap. 1: 44 pp Forrester, W.D., 1959. Current measurements in PassamaQuoddv Bay and the Bay of Fundy, 1957 and 1958: Rept. of the'Int. Passa- moquoddy Fish. Bd. to the Int. Joint Comm. Appendix I (Oceano- graphy) Chap 3: 73 pp. Gallagher, J. and A. Nalwalk. 1971.. Bathymetry of Block Island Sound. N.U.S.C. TM TA131-136-71. Haight, F.J., 1942. Coastal currents along the Atlantic coast of the United States: U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Spec. Pub. No. 230: 73 pp. Harris, D.L., 1963. Characteristics of the hurricane storm surge U.S. W.B. Tech. Paper No. 48. Washington, D.C.: 139 pp Hartwell, A.D., 1970. Hydrography and Holocene sedimentation of the Merrimack River Estuary, Mass. Cont. No. 5-CR6, Univ. of Mass. Con. No. 5-CR6, Univ. of Mass, Dept. of Geol. Pub. Series: 166 pp Hedgpeth, J.W., 1951. The classification of estuari,ne and brackish waters and the hydrographic climate: In H.S. Ldd [Ed.] Report of Committee on a treatise of marine ecology and paleoecology. Nat'l. Res. Council, Washington, D.C. No. 11: 49-56 Hicks, S., 1963. Physical oceanographic studies of Narragansett Bay, 1957 and 1958. Spec. Sco. Rep. U.S. Fish. and Wildl., Serv. No. 457: 1-30. Hollman, R. and G.R. Sandberg, 1972. The residual drift in Eastern Long Island Sound and Block Island Sound. A preliminary report. New York Ocean Science Laboratory Tech. Rept. No. 0015. 4-221 4.2.12 REFERENCES (continued) Jeffries, H.P., 1962. Environmental characteristics of Raritan Bay. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 13:5-39 Kangas, R.E., 1973. Light Vessel/Light Station oceanographic observa- tions East Coast of the United States. Jan.-Det., 1971 Oceano- graphic Report No. CG 373-59. Ketchum,,B.H. and H. Corwin, 1964. The persistence of "winter" water on the continental shelf south of Long Island, New York. Limnol. and Oceanogr. 9:467-475. McMaster, R.L., 1960. Sediments of Narragansett Bay system and Rhode Island Sound, R.I., J. Sed. Petrology 30:249-274. Mencher, E., Copeland, R.A., and Payson, H., Jr., 1968. Surficial sediments of Boston Harbor, Massachusetts. Journal Sed. Pet., 38:79-86. Morton,.R.W., 1967. Spatial and temporal observations of suspended sediment: Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island Sound. NUWS TM No. 396. National Ocean Survey, 1973. Tide Tables, High and Low water pre- dictions, East Coast, and North and South America. U.S. @)ept. Com. NOAA: 288 pp. Powers, C.F. and R.H. Backus, 1951. The distribution of temperature in New York Harbor and its approaches. Cornell Univ. Status Report #10, ONR. Public Health Service, 1963. Progress report for the conference on pollution of Raritan Bay and adjacent interstate waters. 2nd Session. U.S. Dept. HEW Raritan Bay Project Metuchen. Riley, G.A., 1948. Hydrography of Western Atlantic; Long Island Sound, and Block Island Sound. W.H.O.I. Tech. Rent. 11. 1952. Hydrography of the Long Island and Block Island Sounds: Yale Univ. Peabody 1"lluseum Nat. History Bingham Oceanog. Collection, Bull. 13, Art., p. 5-39. 1959. Mote on particulate matter in Long Island Sound. Bull. Bingham Oceanog. Coll. V. 17 p. 813-85. 4-29-2 4.2.12 REFERENCES (continued) Shonting, D. H., G. S. Cook and F. G. Wyatt, Jr. 1966. The seasonal distribution of oceanographic variables measured in Rhode Island Sound during 1963-64. A data report. CONSEC No. 423. N.U.W.S. Sverdrup, H. U., M. W. Johnson and R. H. Fleming. 1942. The oceans, their physics, chemistry@and general biology. Prentice Hall, Englewood, N.J. U.S. Dept. of Comm., NOAA, National Ocean Survey. 1972. U.S. Coast Pilot. Atlantic coast, Eastport to Cape Cod. Ninth edition, 1972, Washington, D.C. 1973. U.S. Coast pilot 2 (8th ed.), Atlantic Coast, Cape Cod to Sandy Hook, Washington, D. C.: 249 p. Williams, R. G. 1969. Physical oceanography of Block Island Sound. I USL Rept. # 966. Williams, R. G., J. E. Lamoureaux and T. R. Azarovitz. 1971. Seasonal variations of temperature and sound speed in Block Island Sound. NUSC Rept. No. 4131. 4-223 Table 4-22 Range of Tidal Heights in Feet According to Eldridge (1974) Spring Neap, Mean Variation* Tidal Tidal Tidal Rise Rise Rise Boston 11.8 7.6 9.5 Nantucket Island 3.1 1.2 2.2 Nantucket Sound 3.7 1.5 2.5 1.5 - 3.4 Martha's Vineyard 1.7 1.4 - 2.7 Wood's Hole 1.8 0.9 1.3 - 3.0 Buzzard's Bay Mouth 3.6- 1.7 2.8 3.4 - 3.8 Canal Entrance 3.5 3.0 - 4.1 Rhode Island Sound 3.8 3.3 3.5 2.4 - 4.9 Narragansett Bay Mouth (Newport) 3.5 Head (Providence) 4.6 Block Island Sound 3.1 2.5 2.8 Long Island Sound (Ct. side) Eastern 3.5 2.5 3.0 Middle .6.5 4.9 5.7 Western 6.6 7.4 7.0 Long Island Sound (N.Y. side) Eastern 2.4 2.0 2.8 Middle 4.0 7.3 Western 7.1 6.5 7.5 Long Island, South Shore 3.7 New York Harbor Upper Bay 4.5 Narrows 4.8 Hudson River 3.7 Lower Bay 4.7 East River 6.2 5.3 7.1 Raritan Bay 5.0 4.7 5.3 *Mean rise variation according to location within the listed area. 4-224 Hourly Ti.dal-Current Velocities at Selected Table-4-23 Locations, from Haight (1942) H-ly C-rent. Velo-tiel It !;,Iectnd LOCAtions, 1- Haight (1942) the .. 0 1 2 3 4 5 67 4 9 10 11 12 t ... 7ret [email protected] w Kt 0.00 0.84 0.75 0.61 0.61 0.69 0. 80 0. 853 0. 8) 0.69 0.62 !. 5 2 a 33 41 * 37.1 'N 61 7. 1 355 315 018 0 6 086 1 166 191 21 2 260 308 44 Ili-y-1 re.-I Kt.. 0.2@ 0.20 OAG Oj41 0.51, 0,42 0.2402 ;1 0.2r O.J6 0.41 0.42 0.29 T a 141*22.8'N 11-00.0-W 1'*,. 0030 0097 013: 0.5, 0163 181 20z 3,11 327 344 ... G'O 1 0 0 0 lu- r . S Inch t 05 i3 114 . 18 0.07 0.070 .10 .10 11 .09 * %; .14 2 37 i ' 0 40*04.3 72-43. 4-W 'T 15 085 10 2 12 152 20 1 ', 2 5 291 07 34' 25 IF-e ".!..d %@- 0.00 0.08 0.11 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.04 0.04 0.11 0.113 0.12 1 0.02 41-28.7'N 73-11.4*W _- 073 090 093 098 IGO 115 255 271 217 280 2805 339 JU.S.S. C-d-I Kt- 0.07 0.03 0.09 009 0.12 0.12 J.0 1 0) 0.0) 0.11 0.11 0,11 0.08 149-16.0-N 73-15.5'W 'T 308 045 395 i09 112 115 :31 -* - a, 9 257 2 2 2 29, 305 K 010 019 0.21 C.22 1.21 0.@r@ Ch,,,.--l C.24 0.15 0.02 0.01 0. 17 0.23 0.2' j4Q'28.C*H 72 .500'w @.r 283 260 292 i0a ;93 092 Olb 111 120 270, 272 271 29 A. lb 0.21 0.15 0.06 0.04 0.11 0-17 O.@2@' Z..'i 0.216 0:00 0.14 0.21. 0.2, j4.'I"T'C'[email protected]'. 265 295 292 090 090 090 a 1 262 279 232 d 0. 4 1 0.26 0.12 0.21 0.41 0.60 O.@-- 0.41 0.10 0.24 0.41 1.4) C;45 '3'S5.2-W T I11 121 1121 011 111 111 '-3 14.. 196 297 2 290 ,8 0.,,4! 0.03 0.02 0 03 0 0 -@3 @5 0 1 @') 5 0.1@)4 00.02 0.rA O.C"' 0 y) -@S. 3@4 13-51.0-W Q20 063 119 i3 , I I, ,- j 34, Doi U - .3 . G - 1.111, Fl- 0.11 1.11 1-04 0.1@ 0.05 0.116 0 . 01 0.'14 1.06 0.07 0. 04 0.024 0.01 31. 04 . 5 73-25.5-W 'T 01-1 029 059 09, 147 146 1H3 221 24a 2 @'g 293 3u 000 0.23 0:20 0.111 K@;. 0.210 0.01 0.12 0.19 0.22 0.20. 0.11 0.07 0.61, 0.20 7@' 119 2 3 9 039 OB6 102 110 L40 117 2 1 "Jo -'01 3 38 17. 1, - w F-2t- 0.22 0 . 36 0.11 0.-3 0.29 0. 3.1 0 . 26 0.11 0.10 0.@O 0.29 0 . 31 2 0.21j Y@ :3r. .47.3'N 74-34.6'. T 304 005 073 099 103 112 ii5 151 217 2@8 284 295 191 r"' 1.37 0.85 0.38 0.32 1.21 1.40 1.?) O.AH 0.4ij 0. 25 0.92 1.039 ,.41 31'47.9'N 75*(,1.4'W 306 317 015 087 117 126 13i136 17. 252 217 3 0 303 F-7-- In' Sn'. I yt- 0.24 0. 1.% 0.09 0.10 0.1.9 O@27 0.27 0-2 0.14 0;09 0 . 1.r. 0..'.) O.i'91 T a 0 74*41,-, 346 354 OZ5 On: 111 141 111 111 11, , 1 101 121 11 1 '4 @1 0.07 a.06 096 1' 1.05 :01, 0. -1,0 .1 0 0- .1 37 511. .. 5'.4 'T 060 030 @62 090 121 '54 19,2,; 1 215 211, 2 101 0311, 3, 0, I' '.!' '. 1' '."' "' 0." 0 2 1 '3' 7 74' : 1 %4 37 111'. 'T 1 041 OIL 10 6 1@ '1 143 2J7 1 2 7 1 192 326 3 1 020 01 0 0 0 0 a j 9 Charl-,. .11 .20 021 0-q2 '45.1-H 7 4 9 8" 1 34 211 111 214@ 'T 74 211@ 26 144 00 0 U 'I10 0 0 0 - '5 0-13 0-06 0 .03 0-1 0-14 051) 1 0.1 36*5a--"75-42.2'w 'T 1 71 1 @11 11 11 0114 10) 101, 2 '1 7'N 21 2 2 1 1 0 72 2 2 Kt.. O.'A 0.90 0.9" 0.64 o. 12 0. 511 1611.2@ 0 1. 0.9-, 0."1 0. 11 6 71'"11.1' 'T JJ2 -2 312 312 312 126 121" 126 1? 6 126 L.6 3121 t.- ..04 G'0'4 0.04 0.04 0 .04 0.04 O.n3 0.03 0.011 11 0.03 0.01 0.01 T 03', 072 116 140 165 205 23 726u 2 317 @41 024:i Kt '@- I--( 77. 1 W 4-22-1, rim lic Table 4-24 Results of 36-Hour Time Station Sample. Concen- Surface Bottom Surface Bottom Surface Bc'U-,*,on .No. tration Temper- Temper- Sali- Sali- Dens- Dens- mg/1 ature ature nity ni-cy I-Cy 2.zy 0C cc /00 /00 Ct 2.14 TS-2-B 1.64 11.47 31.29 23-83 TS-3-S 2.16 11-3:7 31.23 23.80 TS-4-B 1.88 11.4o 31.28 23. "12 TS-5-S, 2.01 11.4o 31.26 C_ - TS-6-B 2.00 11.44 31-35 2'3.,_ES TS-7-S 1.85 11.44 31.26 23.E'-' TS-8-B 1.69 11.45 31.22 2z,.78 TS-9-S 1.74 11-36 31-22 2 ECI TS-10-B 1.78 11.19 31-11 23 . TS-11-S 1.73 11.25 30.92 2 cz 81 TS-12-B 1.95 11.,L4 30.84 2 TS-13-S 1.97 li.o8 3-1 -03 7- TS-14-B 2.37 lo.89 11.38 30.86 31.22 2q.-l- 1-1 ';0.02 .27 23.;, TS-15-S 2.12 io.96 "rj T 6 10-74 1-1 L-@ -_@J. -1 0, P -, @; , , S-1,-B 1.92 30. c92 TS-17-S 2.22 10.92 11.3-1, 31. 03 TS-18-B 2.15 10-99 11-32 31.02 43 2' TS-19-S .1.91 lo.94 11-32 331-03 31.26 21:<.114 TS@-20-B 2.32 11.11 11-31 31-18 31.42 23-77 2-- TS-21-S 1.98 10-97 11.19 31-09 31-35 23-72 TS-22-B 1.81 lo.66 11.12 31-10 TS-23-S 2.02 10.91 11.00 31.o8 TS-24-B 2.07 10-51 11L. C)6 31 - 16 TS-25-S 2.37 10-35 11-03 3 TS-26-B 2 - .56 10-57 11-@3 30-97 3'-30 TS-27-S 2.17 10-73 11.00 _3 1 .0 5 3-1. 310 2 2'@. -2 2 TS-28-B 2.34 10-54 11.06 31-00 3-, TS-2--,'-S 2.15 10-71 10.-2 31. 07 -1 .2, TS-30-B 3.72 10-76 J., . L 7 -2, _3 7 7 lo.54 1- .(D'@ IS-31-S 2.67 - !Zg ;II TS-'2-B 2@ lo.47 1C.37 53 2 TS-33-S 2.93 lo.84 11. C9 3 1 mS-?4-B 2.61 10.88 11 . .0:--- mS-35-S 2.19 10.1--o Ii. B 1.93 10-37 10 - 4-226 Table 4-25 d4 -OCI 4 0@-, emp@-ira*;,---c- s all 4, ni ty cu rreent- @ I @,& . and speed ..he curren- s@a`--ns sl-own -n @::c Ck L 6,, 6 kiv ti i I I ,s. Cu, rrent mc-Agnil Itudes are ral at- ve only -U- 0- Jun a 972 P L UX C U RR E N T D"R-^--70N SHED Lj L L, (Dagr,@es Mag) _(kts 12 0 S u 3 Li 2 7 7 9 27. 06 1. 7 23. So 29 1 . 7 13100 16.11 25.75 280 1.6 , ,.0 40 1 IT 2 Sj . 290 0. 8 0 3 . 9 26.3 270 3 106 111.8 29.21 265 1.5 S; 1400 6 27.2 2 UO 5 .4 2 7. -7 270 2. 0 2@ -6 9 29.63 295 2.6 2 295 0. 9 U^ 3 27. 295 2. 0. 3 5 300 Ij 2 "3 .6 9 3. 1 9.2 2 3 .US 1 2 @ 5 S U:71 -7 30 5 13 . 4 6C.3 2Y 1) 0 2.8 2 2 0 100 2.9 2. 12.5 23.59 290 0 6 12. 5 28. vc 5 305 1 .6 1 A . 9 1 3 1700 S u R ": 2 7 . 7 1 1 2 6 5 0.3 0 2. 6 2 6- 7 270 0.9 2.3 23 .83 235 0. 7 iu5 12.2 23.97 310 0.4 i800 S u R 1-1,11-.3 7 .Z' 0 120 1 0 1 2.2 3 .80 1 1*31 5 0. 6 so 1 2. 29. 17 12 5 0.4 29.62 106 12 . 0 090 0.4 1900 SURIC 13.9 27.4,1 145 2 . ? -8. 9 60 2. 2 80 i-.2 29.;Lr 160 2.2- 106 12.2 2- 96 7 1 50 2.12 4-227 table 4-26 PLUM GUT 05 June,,1972 CURRENT TIME DEPTH TEIMP. SALINITY DIRECTION SPEED Ift) .(Degrees Mag) (Kts) (0c) -(ppt) 2000 SURF 14.7 26.80 170 3 8 40 12.2 29-12 145 2:9 so 11.7 29.74 150 2.8 29.79 1-@ 0 106 11.7 2.7 2100 SURF 3.5 27.48 1105 3.5 40 12.3 29. * 73 165 3.8 so 11.6 29.5il 155 3.3 106 111.6 291.0-5 155 2.8 2200 SUR": 13.9 26U.86 175 3.3 1'. 9 1.16 J2.7 23.40' 185 2. 7 80 ii.8 29.14 160 2.5 106 11.7 29.32 150 2.0 2300 SURF 13.9 25.71 15.5 3.5 -10 11.7 27.06 160 2.4 1 1 80 .7 29.04 140 1.3 106 111.7 29.17 130 1.2 2400 S U Rl 14.9 25.77 180 0.2 40 13.5 205.35 180 1.9 80 12.2 28.04 150 1.1 106 11.9 28.57 030 0.8 06 June, 1972 0100 SURF 14.4 25.8-1 220 0.0 10 'L@'. 13.7 26.42 190 1.0 80 i2.8 27.41 2@O 0.5 1001 141.8 29.22 280 1.2 0200 SURF 14.4 280 0.0 Z. 0 10.9 IN A 295 0.3 so 13.5 NA 295 1.0 106 11.8 NA 270 1.1 4-228 ,Table 4-27 FISHERS ISLAND SOUND 07 June, 1972 CURRENT TIME DEPTH TEMP. SALINITY DIRECTI.ON SPEE.D (Degrees .,Mag)_(Kts.) '(ft) (0c) (Ppt) 1200 SURF 13.11 28.24 NA NA 25 j2.5 29.13 NA NA 50 12.3 29.29 NA NA 75 12.3 2 9 130 0 N'A NA 1300 SURF 13.4 27.6 100 1.00 Z5 12-8 2 8.7 4 090 1.50 50 12.3 29.23 1.30 75 29.49 120 1.10 1353 SURF 13.0' 28.01 340 1.1 0 2-0 12.3 23,87 350 1.00 I 00 12.4 29.21, 045 0.57 75 12.2' 29.510 -110 0.57 1500 SUR17 13.4 28.1,7 30.5 1.40 2:) 12.8 '28. 73 3 3'5 1.60 50 12.5 29.06 325 1.70 750 12.2 29.31 340 2.00 -2.40 1600 SURF 13.4 28.@73 345 25 12.9 28.97 340 2.70 50 12.7 29.00 330 2.50 75 12.7 29.02 340 2.90 1655 SURF 12.8 29.11 320 2.60 25 12.3 29..09 330 2.50 10 .0 12.8 29.09 340 2.40 75 112.8 29.09 3:3 0 2.30 1805 SURF 13.2 29.07 350 l..80 25 13.0 29.29 350 .1..90 50 12.8 29-54 335 2.00 70- 12.8 29.65 330 2.40 1900 SURF 13.0 29.37 350 1.20 25 13.0 29.40 355 .20 50 12.9 29.65 340 1.40 75 12.8 29.76 320 1 .,3.0 2 00 0 SURF 12.9 .29.07 070 0-.-:54 12.9 29.43 340 0.'32 25 50 12.9 29.80 340 0.7-8 75 12.9 29.93 320 0.5-,8 4-@229 Tabl e 4-28 FISHERS ISLAND SOUND 07 June, 1972 CURRENT TIME DEPTH TEMP. SALINITY DIRECTION SPEED (ft) (0c) (ppt) (Degrees Mag) (Kts) 2055 SURF 13.3 27.89 140 1.60 23 12.9 29.47 130 1.60 50 12.8 29.74 160 1.10 75 12.8 29-82 145 0.80 2155 SURF 13.7 25-97 145 2 . '00 25 13.2 23.88 135 2. 50 50 12.9 29.27 205 2.20 75 12.8 29.64 180 1.80 2255 SURF 13.7 26.45 125 2.40 25 12.9 29.11 125 2.20 50 12.9 29.27 125 2.20 75 12.9 29.38 130 2.00 2356 SURF 13.3 26.38 130. 2.30 2 Do .12.8 29.10 140 2.30 50 12.4 29.20 140 2.10 75 12.4 29.33 135 1 .80 08 June, 1972 oloo SUR- 12.8 27.14 110 2.00 2D 12.3 29-19 140 1.60 50 12.2 29.41 140 1.80 75 12.1 29-56 150 1.90' 0200 SURF 12.8 29-59 100 1.10 25 12.1j 29-09 150 0.84 50 12.2 29.43 135 0.84 75 12.2 29-54 130 0.74 0240 SURF 12.7 NA 3,5 0.52 2@ 12.4 NA 045 0.58 50 12.3 NA 045 0.48 75 12.2 NA 115 0.42 .4-230 Table 4-29 VAL'IANTROCK 27 June, 1972 CURRENT DEPTH TEMP. SALINITY DIRECTION SPEED T IM E r- (ft) (0c) (ppt) (,Degrees Mag) (Kts) 1320 SURF 14.2 29.10 NA NA 30 13.8 29.17 NA NA 60 13.1 29.52 NA NA 90. 13.0 30.34 NA NA 7415 SURF NA 28-87 155 1.40 30 N' A 29.01 15o 1.80 60 NA 29.07 140 1.50 90 NA 29.54 155 1.00 1535 SURF N'A 29.02 175 1.90 30 h' A 29.04 170 1.60 60 NA 29.09 160 1.60 90 NA 29.22 155 1.20 1600 SURF NA 28.77 175 2.30 36- @NA 23.88 165 1.80 60 NA 28.96 155 1.90 90 NA 29.44 140 .1.30 1700 SURF 15.0 28.38 175 2.30 30 14.3 29.76 175 1.90 60 14.3 28.96 170 1.20 90, 14.3 29.00 180 1.10 1805 SURF 15) . 8 26.96 165 1.60 185 1.20 30 15.2 27.74 60 14.3 29.04 185 0.11 90 14.3 29.15 181 0.06 1910 SURF /15.2 27.23 190 0.67 30 15.2 27.71 195 0.53 60 14.7 28.63 280 0.57. 90 14.4 28.96 230 0.43 -2000 SURF 0.35 r 15.3 27.36 205 30 14.8 28-17 270 0.60 60 14.5 28.87 2.95 1.10 90 14.1 29.37 285 0.64 2100 SURF 14.8 27.88 325 1.80 30 14.4 29.01 315 1.70 60 14.1 29.07 325 1.80 90 13.8 325 1.60 4-231 Tabl e 4-30 VALIANT ROCK 27 June, 1972 CURRENT' TIME DEPTH TENI.P. SALINITY DIRECTION SPEED (ft) (0c) (ppt) (Degrees Mag) (Kts) 2200 SURF 14.2 29.18 340 1.60 30 14.2 29.21 340 1.70 60 14.2 29.23 330 1.90 9@ U 13.5 29.89, 330 @1.90 2300 SURF 14.2 29.15 345 1.60 30 14.2 29.1.9 340 1.70 60 13.6 29.26, 345 1.50 90 13.4 29.8.8 325 0.65 2400 SURF 14.1 29.25 335 1* 10 30 14.1 29.23 335 1 10 60 13.5 29.46 345 0:90 90 13.3 30.04 270 o.66 23 June, 1972 0100 SURF 14.2 .29.12 045 0.59 30 [email protected] 29.15 075 0.58 60 1 3.7 29.30 135 0.22 90 13.2 30.26 190 0.56 0200 SURF 14.5 28.86 135 1.70 30 14.5 28.97 135 1.80 60. 14.3 29.07 130 1.70 90 13.5 28.90 140 1.10 4-232 T-,.a.ble 4-31 RACE 24 July, 1972 CURRENT TIME DEPTH TEMP. SALINITY DIRECTION SPEED (f t) .(Oc) (ppt) (Degrees- Ma,g) (Kts) 1000 SURF 17.8 @3'0.42 310 .1.10 40 16.2 '30.68 320 1.10 80 15.5 31.15 320 0.80 120 15.1 31.@6 315 0.90 1100 SURF 17.8 30.50 080 0.38 40 17.2 '@o. 52 310 0.12 so 17.3 30.66 290 0.20 120 15.5 30.81 180 0.01 1200 SURF 17.8 29.80 125 '0.90 40 16.2 30.84 115 0.90 so 14.4 .31.49 1.40 120 14.2 31.50, 140 1.20 1300 SURF 16.6 30.19 110 1.40 40 15.7 30.88 130 1.50 so 15.2 31.13 110 0.60 120 14.9, 31.14 110 '1400 SURF 17.5 29.46 125 1.50 40 15.2 30.54 110 1.00 80 14.5 31.30 085 0.15 120 14.4 31.35 340 0..22 .1500 SURF 18.0 29.40 130 1.00 40 15.6 30.45 350 0.36 30.92 50 0.46 15.1 0 25- 120 14.7 31.26' 230. 0.45 1600 SURF 18.2 29-058 145 0.27 40 '15.0 1) 0 . 5 1 310 0.35 80 i5.1 30.93 300 0.90 120 @14.9 31.19 300 0.60 1700 SURFi 18.5 29.91 310 0.30 40 16.7 30.46 320 0.74 80 15.1 30. 57 310 1.40 120 14.6 31.27 290 1.30 1800 SuRi@ 18.5 29. 77 310 0.34 40 17 *2 29.97 330 0.85 so 16.1 30.46 325 1.80 120 15.2 31.15 .330 2.00' 4-233 Tabl e 4-32 RACE 24 July, 19.72 CURRENT TIME DEPTH TEMP. SALINITY DIRECTION SPEED (ft) (0c) -(ppt) (Degrees Maq) (Kts) 1900 SURF 30.69 280 2.30 5 40 [email protected] 30.90 305 2.20, 80 13. 8 31.15 330 2.10 120 15.0 31.42 315 2.10 2000 su"MI: 17.7 30.18 .300 2.30 40 17.5 30.70 300 2.20 80 15.7 31.30 310 Z.00 120 15.2 31.39 325 1.90 21,00 SURFF 117.8 30-43 325 2.10 4@ 17.3 30.96' 325 2.20 80 14.8 31.48 335 1.50 14.5 30.46 330 0.50 2200 SURF 17.7 30.42- 320 1.10 foL 11 16.1 31.10 320 1.40 so J5.7 31.26 335 1.20 120 14.9 31.53 290 0.75 2300 SURF 17.8 30.11 135 0.75 40 17.7 30-64 240 0.32 so 17.1 30.72 210 0.27 120 16.1 31.15 130 0.65 4-234 Table 4-33 R A C E 19 October, 1972 CURRENT T T V, D E PT H p S T N. "TY DIRECTION SPEED Z. i - hL. I L (ft) (0c) (op-t) (Degrees Mag) (Kts) 08,15 S U R F 1, 0 53 315 1 .10 6.1 1 ZL . 0 31 .53, 305 0.60 193 14.0 31 .63 305 0.48 192 0 31 .65 3 15 0.24 3 1 .25 0900 s 13.3 200 0.72 64 1 3 1.54 3 0 5 0.19 128 3 1 . 35 6 325 0.26 192 13.3 290 0.40 1000 SURF '14.0 30.72 145 1.40 64 14.0 31.55 100 0.70 128 14.0 31.55 105 0.60 192 14.1 31.61 100 0.90 1100 SURF 113,.6 31.03 125 0.80 64 11".0 31.05 10D, 0 . 910 331.37 . @o 128 9 100 1 192 3.9 085 1.30 1200 S U R F I 120 1.30 '04 12. 2 31.07 JL5 1.00 128 13.3 3".38 i7'O 0.90 192 @3.4 31.52 210 1.00 1 "z"10 0 0 S U11 R F 14. 5 31 . 14 4 150 0.70 6 '1 14.6 31 .15 170 0. 25 128 14.7 311.23 090 0.26 192 14.7 31.34 180 0.20 1400 S U R 14.0 31 .19 250 0.90 64 14.1 31.2' 160 1.00 14.1 311 240 i.00 128 192 14.1 31.29 240 0.80 1500 SURIZ 13.8 31.115 310 1.00 6 -4 13.8 31 .20 280 0.80 128 13.8 31.22 230 1.00 192 13.8 31.25 290 1.10 110,00 SURIF 14.7 30.95 335 1 .60 64 14.8 31.01 -135 2.110 128 14.9 31.21 320 2.20 19@ 14.9 31.25 325 2.10 4-235 Table 4-34 RACE 19.0ctober, 1972 CURRENT T.T F, DEPTH Tz. P. SAI Tt@ DIRECTION SPEED .@ -11"t f..c 17co Su-lI-r 14.3 31.06 340 1.50 64 14.3 31 .10 330 1.70 128 14.2 31.21 330 1.70 192. 1 4.2 31.31 320 1 800 SURF 14.1 31.22 330 2.20 64 14.3 .31.23 315 2.10 128 14.2 31.51 315 2.20 192 14.2 31.53 2.40 1900 SURF 13.7 31.65 320 2.00 64 13.8 31.64 315 2.10 128 13.8 31.65. 315 2.10 192 13.9 31.68 320 1.70 2000 SURF 14.1 31.66 325 1.80 64 14.3 31.65 320 1.60 128 14.3 31.68 320 1.60 192 14.3 31 .68 320 .1.40 2100 SURF 13.7 31.61 310 0.70 64 13.8 31.66 '285 0.53 128 13.9 31 .73 325 0.58 192 13.9 31.73 340 0.36 4-236 ....... ... . Tabl e 4-35 RACE 17 January, 1973 CURRENT TIME DEPTH TEMP. SALINITY DIRECTION . SPEED (ft) (0c) (ppt) (Degrees,H2,j) (Kts) '1100 SURF 5.3 30.98 080 .0.84 33 5.4 080 0.63 67 5.8 31 .26 085 0.59 95 5.7 31.25, loo 0.45 1200 SURF 5.1 30.48 080 1.21 33 .1 31.02 075 1.12 67 . 3 31.05 077 0.98 95 5.3 31.32 079 0.92 1300 SURF 4.8 30.05 078 1.01 33 5.1 30.11 078 0.94 67 5.3 '3' 1 . 2 6 080 0.78 95 5.3 - 31.38 .083 0..69 1400 SURF 5.0 30.18 078 1.14 33 5.3 30.44 078 0.98 67 5.6 30.65 073 0.84 95 5.7 31.20 075 0.65 1500 SURF 5.0 30.24 050 0.51 33 .5.0 30.35 057 0.45 67 5.4 30.52 062 0.25 95 5-06 30.90 315 0.06 1600 SURF 4.9 30.10 055 0.16 33 5.0 30.25 028 0.25 67 5.6 30.40 320 0.10 95 5.6 31.01 235 0.35 1700 SURF 4.6 30.19 233 0.10 33 4.8 30.36 240 0.29 67 5.3 30.78 280 0.53 95 5.4 31.30 278 0.49 1800 SURF 4.3 3b.27 290 0.78 33 4.6 30.43 290 0.76 67 5. 3 30.93 @265 0.88 95 5.4 31.51 278 1.07 1900 SURF 4.8 30;53 255 1.01 33 5.2 30.95 282 1.27 67 5.4 31' 31 327 1.04.. 95 5.4 31.46 310 1.19 4-237 Table 4-36 RACE 17 January, 1973 CURRENT TIME DEPTH TEIMP. SALINITY DIRECTION SPEED (ft) (0c) (ppt) (Degrees Mag) (Kts) 2000 SUIRP 5.3 'zi.08 290 1.27 1@ @- I 1 -1 Z) . .39 280 1.35 67 31.4-5 302 1.12 95 5.6 31.44 290 1.04 21100 S U R F- ')'0 0.94 5.0 @1.39 305 0.88 67 5.9 31.54 288 0.80 -1 - 0.9 31.54 278 0.67 2200 S UR F 5,-.,) 1d20 0.55 33 5 3, 1 .24 0 9 0.47 8 3 57 1.1.--' 285 0.37 95 5.8 31 .063 225 0.27 4-238 @Table 4::37 ESTIPIATED STREAM DISCHARGE ENTERING LONG ISLAND SOUND Cubic feet per second Year Month A B C D E 1972 January 15,100 4,630 3,400 11550 24,700 February 13,200 -3t440 3,360 1,380 21,400 March 32,200 8,970 10,600 3,130 54,900 April 49,600 7,220 5,140 3,690 65,700 May 56,600 6,970 5,580 4,090 73,200 June 31,500 8,440 5,680 2,790 48,400 July 20,100 6,300 2,730 1,880 31,000 August 8,480 11260 1,040 870 11,600 September 5,360 760 1,130 680 7,930 October 7,870 1,580 1,440 880 11,800 November 25,600 4,760 5,720 2,270 38,400 December 31,800 7,890 8,240 2,920 50,800 Mean 24,800 5,190 4, 510' 2,180 36,700 1973 January 29,800 6,120 5,380 2,550 43,600 February 33,600 7,330 6,700 2,900 50,500 March 46,400 5,890 4,200 3,390 59,900 April 45,900 7,090 5,600 3,500 62,100 May 36,600 5,600 3,760 2,810 48,800 June 20,400 2,400 1,890 1,640 26,300 July 30,900 3,560 2,130 2,@1.90 38,900 August B,580 Iru-80 1,160 910 12,300 September October -November December Mean A, Connecticut River, B, Housatonic River; C, Tharic-s River, D, all other surface. inflow; E, total surface inflow to Long Island Sound. Total does not include qround-water inflc,-..! cstimate,3 Lo average 300-400 cfs. 4-239 Tabl e 4-38 Surface stations Bottom stations 5 Summer 24.3 t 0.9 .23.0 t 1.0 23.2 zt 0.9 237 t 0.7 22,1 0.7 21.7 0.8 ,Fall 11.7 -t 4.5 9.7 --t 4.3 .11.1 :�-- 4.2 11,9 -L 4.0 10.0 @L 4.1 12.1 5.2 Winter 3.4 :t 2. -9 2.9 @t 1.6 2.4 -t 1.8 3.0 :t: 2.0 3.4 --t 1.8 2.3-1.5 Spring 14.1 --t 6.0 13.6 -t 5.5 12,0 -.L 4.5 13.4 zL- 5.3 12.4 :t 5.1 11.6 -L 4.9 Summer 24.0 ::t 2.8 23.2 :t 3.0 22.8 -t 2.9 23.6 :t 1.2 22.3 -t 2.6 21.6 --t 2.5 SALI-,ITY Surface stations Bottom stations 6 6 Summer 24-02 :t 1.14 26.37 -t 0.46 26.91 L 0.60 A2.26 --t 1.12 26.59 :L- 0.54 27.10 :t 0.41 Fall 21-77 t 2.24 26.12 -�: 1.20 27.14 -t 0.71 22.71 -t 2.45 26.,35.-4- 1.22 27.28 --t 0.82 Winter 12-88 t 6.86 19.55 :t 1,38 23.27 t 2.17 18.93 -L 4.42 21-46 :t 3.14 . 22.75 -t 3.26 Spring 11-82.:L- 6.91 17.98 J: 4,47 19-13 - 6.41 16.50.i: 4.07 19-80 --t 4.36 20.69 4.56 Summer 25-09 -t 2.22 26.23 --t 1,42 26.74 =t: 0.82 24-95 --t 1.32 26.59-1.72 27.39 0.80 Mern daily di-@cliarge rate of Raritan River in ft--, vc, 1937-1958 Montb 195-1 1958 January 9-25 2,739 February 1,754 1,854 March 1,51 3,716 April 37022 3,246 May 648 2,359 June 2SO 557 July 131 709 August 95 360 September 12-2 October 148 November 2S3 December 2,393 4-240 -n CDC 0 m Mass. 0 m z < .0 0 z Conn. C+ K m z < -A S0@31AD NANTUCKET m 5- 02@ I'M SOUND 5 SOP LONG 0 olo 0 -n ISLAND 15 r- r+ SOUND BLOCK (D m z ISLAND 0 Atlantic Ocean z "n 0 G) (bc 0 Ln M 0 0 0 < C+ m v CA 0 coo (D 0 NARRAGANSETT (m 0 BAY.-* C2 0 N C+ 0) < 0 -1 m 0 RHODE 0 ISLAND 0 CL SOUND MARTHA'$ m VINEYARD m N z BLOCK 0 ISLAND NANT CKE Cr 21 8 (D SOUND C+ 13LOCK w ISLAND, 0 0 z 7PO-;g 60- 50- x 40- 1969 30- MEAN WEEKLY RANGE (THERMOGRAPH RECORDS) 70- MAXIMUM WEEKLY RANGE (C DRIPS OF ENGINEERS RECORDS) U- 60- w 50- cr 1968 wa 40- Li 30- 70 6 70 50- 06 1966 1967 40- 30- S 0 N D J F M A M i i A S 0 N D MONTHS A SOCIO-ECONOMC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Weekly Temperature Ranges at West End of Cape 4-86 Cod Canal 4-2431. 70- 60- 50- 40- 1969 30- -EAST ENTPtNICE WEST ENTRANCE 70- 60- w 50- U' 40- 1968 w 30- 70- 60- 50-- 1966 40- 1967 30 S 0 77 D J F A _1__S__T_0 1 N1 D-7 MONTHS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Weekly Mean Temperature at the East and West 4-87 Entrance to the Cape Cod Canal (Fairbanks et al., 4-244 1971) X 41 AL 45" 0 dkf A, 40 41 35 cp w ic 41 30 Rhode Island Sound 25 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE ivers and Passages in the Narragansett Bay System 4-88 (Morton, 1967) 4-245 0 h -BRISTOL ZHECK 47 Qj. - -- --- .4& OL 3 LI 0.4 02 0. DA cr I- os id FA SZEO-ECONOMC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI@@j FIGURE I Narragansett Bay Currents 4-246 4-89 (Eldridge, annual) 19.0 20 --20.0- P 18.5 ..... 19.5* 40 60 so F 100 16.0 120 20 15 10 5 0 Distance in nautical miles from entrance to the bay 0 0.5 0.0 20 0.0 29- 2:0 5 3C. 0.:5 40 1L7 60 2.5 (D 80 100 20 15 10 5 0 Distance In noutical miles from entrance to the boy Seasonal Trends and Ranges for Narragansett Bay' T@moeratu-, Salinity, winter Sprirg suroer aut=n .._1 autumn tc C.tr-- I Ger-al Sur-ace tendency increass2 decrease decrease decrease increase increase incr as- increase G-r- s-f... r-,. 0. 0C,_ 11.5 23.0 9.0 - 24.5 20 29.5 - 29.0 21 5.5 1.8.5 12 .0 32.0 3i@, 31.5 32.5 ,2e Gen@ral butto-T tandany in-ase de-Se crease derreise increase ncre.. increase increase I jGenera2 tottom range 0.0 B.0 - 22 9.0 - 29.0 27.0 31.0 - 30.5 - 5.0 1;U5 13. 32.5 32.0 32.0 32.S 2.5 0 13 ... -11 t,,@- i Surf... t. bottom [.cra _3 6-r-se decrease increase inor.... @nc-... i-.- i-r.as. V.rtic. [email protected]. ,- 013 -0.9 -4.2 1.0 2.2 6.3 1.0 1 0.1 3"Based on four cruises in Jan-y-February, April, 3uly, and November, 1957. 2EaSt and West ?assag_ _ly. 3Except Mt. Hope Bay and Sakonnet River. -.0 P@ A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE-1 Vertical Distribution of Temperature and Salinity T1W @cl 1 4-90 in the Providence River and Narragansett Bay (Bumpus et.al., 1973) 1-247 fill C SEA WATER TEMPERATURE (-C) torTow 10- a -C AIR TEMPERATURE (*C) 16IM;- SALINITYt%.) SV.FACE BOTTOM 30.5 .41 I I 71CIAL HEIGHT (M) L 17 14 1 IS 20 22 2@ 26 2. 3p @2 @4 5. TI E STATION NVUBIER storm C, @7 /11.Al- HEIGHT (ITI) A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC iTE@GION FIGURE I Variation of Physical Parameters During Time Station WO 1 4-91 (Morton, 1967) 4-248 UPPER BA Y 0 10 20 50 -lizaboth > qk Now Now jonoy 0 sp 'o Study Arad srArEN ISL AND oy m -rJ (D C3rt 0 rD z C-+ 4r+ CD Port Re z sall NIS (D 0) < I -Is m < cr @. 0 LOWER a4Y n -5 0 (D Wood 0 IrIncess ko m Bay 14 z RARMAN BAY r SA S@: Nl- MILES F w a EE' s gm Wz 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] FIGURE TR chematic Representation of Net Currents in F 4-93 New York Outer Harbor (Jeffries, 1962) 4 -2 100,000. 5 10,000-- 5-- CA 4- LU 1,000 ZZ 5 100J-- F-1 I 10- - - 1 5 20 80 95 99 05 .2 140T 1 199.9 .1 .5 2 10 30 io 70 90 98 99.8 % TIME EQUALLED OR EXCEEDED NIS A SOCIO-@ ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Probability Plot of Extrapolated Daily Discharge 4-94 Data for the Raritan River (Public Health Service, I QA7) A-251 7ZW 42W To% 0 W.. w eAI I P- 9 w 41 41'30' sahonot Point 22 e% 26 Point ju&th W--HiD 0 1: 10C Y. OF COMMERCE C-I l.d G-I-c S-11 Gooilk.- --S.- D C Knottlook Point INOIX MAP TIDAL HfNCH MAKKS R14001 ISLAND the i"Aill.es j lull 71'30' 721W WST 19" A SOCIO-EWN IC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Index Map - Tidal Bench Marks - Rhode Island 4-252wol 4-95a (U.S.. Dept. of Commerce, 1968) Table 4-21a Tidal Bench Mark Locations Rhode Island INDEX MAP NAME NUMBER I Sakonnet, Sakonnet River Entrance 2 Tiverton (Nannaquacket Point, Sakonnet River 3 Tiverton (Near Anthony Point), Sakonnet River 4 Tiverton (Bay Oil Company), Sakonnet River 5. Fort Adams, Narragansett-Bay 6 Newport (Naval Training Station) 7 Navy Pier, Prudence Island (Southeast end of) 8 Sandy Point, Prudence Island 9 Melville (Navy Fuel Oil Depot) 10 Bristol Point, Bristol Neck 11 Bristol Narrows, Mt. Hope Bay 12 Bristol, Bristol Harbor 13 Providence (State Pier No. 1) 14 Pawtucket, Seekonk River 17 Wickford, Nar'ragansett Bay 18 East Greenwich, Greenwich Bay 19 Narragansett Pier, Narragansett Bay 20 Point Judith (Eastern Breakwater), Harbor of Refuge 21 Point Judith Pond Entrance (Galilee), Harbor of Refuge 22 Point Judith Pond (North End) 23 Point Judith Pond (Potters Pond) 24 Ninigret Pond, Charleston 25 Watch Hill Point 26 Westerly, Pawcatuck River 27 New Harbor, Great Salt Pond, Block Island 28 Block Island Harbor (Old Harbor), Block Island 4-253 74-OD 73-30 7 30' 7 S C H E a T 42-00, 0 16 15 C 0 N N E C T I C T 13 @41'30, 5 4 20 L4 27 6 0 29 31. S A 4 100 0 @EPCE VE"RTvE%T OF CJm L S Co,st,,,j G-, 5,- W@@ r." C C INDEX MAP S TIDAL BENCH MAINS C CONNECTICUT d,:I, ,d -b@ W.Ae the 1-1,bes at Odh Wal bmh @0 40,30, - data are aladatle 14'9, -00 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGL)RE I Index Map - Tidal Bench Marks - Connecticut 4-254 4-95b (U.S. Dept. of Comerce, 1948) Table 4-21b Tidal Bench Mark Locations Connecticut INDEX MAP NAME NUMBER 2A Noank, Fishers Sound 4 New London, Thames River 6 Norwich, Thames River 8 Saybrook Jetty, Connecticut River Entrance 8A Old Saybrook Point, Connecticut River 9 Lyme Highway Bridge (West End), Connecticut River 10 Hadlyme, Connecticut River 10A East Haddam, Connecticut River 12 Higganum, Connecticut River 13 Portland-, Connecticut River 15 Rocky Hill, Connecticut River 18A Dick Island Roads 20A Sachum Head @25 New Haven, New Haven Harbor '27 Stratford Housatonic River 28 Bridgeport '31 South Norwalk, Norwalk River 32 Stamford,. Stamford Harbor 33 Coscob Harbor 4-255'. INDEX MAP 11DAL BENCH MARKS NEW YORK N -d- -1 65 rv 10 12 13 14 is 7 46 '27 4 IEW-RK Q OIL" 3L- .15 j ----------- A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION 1RWa FIGL)RE Index Map - Tidal Bench Marks - New York I 4-95c (U.S. Dept. of Commerce and C. & G. S., 1950). 4-256 Table 4-21c Tidal Bench Mark Locations New York INDEX MAP NAME, NUMBER 1 Norton Point, Coney Island 2 Fort Hamilton 3 Brooklyn Naval Shipyard, East River 3A Hunters Point 5 College Point, Flushing Bay Entrance 6 Willets Point (Fort'Totten) 10 Glen Cove (New York Yacht Club), Hampstead Harbor 11 Bayville Bridge, Oyster Bay 14 Eatons Neck, Huntington Bay 19 Port Jefferson Harbor Entrance 20 Port Jefferson, Port Jefferson Harbor 21A Herod Point 21B Northville 23 Orient Point (New London Ferry Company Dock), Gardiners Bay 24 Plum Gut Harbor, Plum Island 25 Little Gull Island 26 Silver Eel Pond (Fort Wright), Fishers Island 27 Orient, Orient Harbor 29 Greenport, Greenport Harbor 31 Coecles Harbor,,Shelter Island 33 Southold, Southold Bay 34 New Suffolk, Cutchogue Harbor 35 South Jamesport, Great Paconic Bay 43 Noyack Bay, Shelter Island Sound. 44 Sag Harbor, Shelter Island Sound 47 Threemile Harbor Jetty, Threemile Harbor Entrance 49 Promised Land, Napeague Bay 50 Montauk, Fort Pond Bay 51 Montauk Harbor Entrance, Montauk Point 55 Shinnacock Inlet 55A Moriches Inlet 63 Patchogue, Great South Bay 64 Sayville (Town Dock), Brown Creek, Great South Bay 65 Lone Hill, Fire Island Beach, Great South Bay. 65A Point O'Woods, Great South Bay 66 Great River, Connetquot River, Great 'South Bay 67, Bay Shore, Watchogue Creek Entrance, Great South Bay 68 Fire Island Lighthouse, Fire Island Beach 68A West Fire Island, Fire Island, Great South Bat 69 Wa. Wa'Yanda Yacht Club, Captree Island, Great South Bay 4-257 Table 4-21C (continued) INDEX MAP NAME NUMBER 70 Democrat Point, Fire Island Inlet 71 Oakbeach 72 Babylon, Sampawam, Creek Entrance, Great South Bay 73 Neguntatogue Creek Entrance, Great South Bay 74 Elder Island, Great South . Bay 75 Gilgo Heading, Gilgo'Beach, Great South Bay 76 Amityville, Amityville Creek Entrance, Great South Bay 77 Biltmore Shores 78 Green Island Drawbridge, Hempstead Bay 79 Ballmore, Ballmore Creek, Hempstead Bay 80 Cube Island (Southeast End), Hempstead Bay ,81 Deep Creek Meadow (Southwest End)%, Hempstead Bay 82 Neds Creek, False Channel Meadow, Hempstead Bay 84 Point Lookout, Jones Inlet 85 Meadow Island (Bascule Bridge), Hempstead Bay 86 Freeport, Freeport Creek, Hempstead Bay 89 Baldwin, Parsonage Cove, Hempstead Bay 90 Cinder Island (East Side), Hempstead Bay 92 Bay Park, East Rockaway, Hewlett Bay, Hampstead Bay 93 Long Beach 94 Woodmore (Keystone Yacht Club), Brosware Bay 95 Far Rockaway, Atlantic Beach, Reynolds Channel, East Rockaway Inlet 96 Norton Point, Hook Creek, Head of Bay, Jamaica Bay 97 Mott Basin, Jamaica Bay 98 New York International Airport, Jamaica Bay 100 Beach Channel (Cross Bay Bridge), Rockaway Beach, Jamaica Bay 101 Broad Creek Marsh, Jamaica Bay 102 North Channel Bascule Bridge (Cross Bay Boulevard), . Grassy Bay, Jamaica Bay 103 Canarsle Beach, Jamaica Bay 104 Mill Basin, Brooklyn, Jamaica Bay 106 Barren Island (Foot of Flatbush Avenue), Marine Park- way Bridqe, Jamaica Bay Entrance 107 Plum Island Marina Boat Basin, Plum Beach Channel, 107A Manhattan Beach, Sheepshead Bay 4-258 Iva WATERDURY R H 0 D E _j W"-v N E W Y 0 R q4 NEW UAVEN S,U.d k0c: 0 Ln M d r-L M BRIDGEPORT 0 U D m 23 z fl. < 5 CA (D m V X 0 z 22 41!N m 0) 41w rn _0_0 0 Z TD 21 &!.t -k - P 4 N E W ER EY 4 @ t 2 % ; i I 0 --1 r- I!., I I... 31 15 _h CL 5 4 CIO r t, C-) m 0 c... ip 7 60 CD L 0 G 57 Gi 62 59 (D @-j N1 -,IV YOR 64 Flu 6@ pt 61 ou :x 112 = 0) ;!@ si 177 1'7 -n @j -/1 44 7M 1 71- CL 9-cl C-) m u, s. C)EPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 2 i Coast and G.odl;tic Survey z V Washington, D. C. (D _< b,, INDEX MAP 0 C. -1 ; -1 @4 " ENCII MARKS TIDAL BE q NEW YORK 0 put 11 - Long klaiid bt-,:!nd Ln r,hil!! tjAJ11CLl-'_!HllzA. 41,@'Iz,@ fs, 7 7413Y TABLE 4.21d New York INDEX MAP NAME NUMBER 11 Kingston, Ropdout Creek, Hudson River 20 Haverstraw, Hudson River 22 Tarrytown, Hudson River 23 Irvington, Hudson River 24 Yonkers, Hudson River 25 Riverdale, Hudson River 26 Spuyten Duyvil Creek Entrance, Hudson River 27 New York City (Dyckman Street Ferry Slip, Tubby Hook), Hudson River 2UO New York City (West 157th Street, Dock and George Washington Bridge), Hudson River 29 New York City Pier 92), Hudson River 30 New York City ,Ne Battery) 31 St. George, Staten Island 36 New Dorp Beach,'.Staten Island 36A Ft. Wadsworth, The Narrows 37 Governors Island, New York Harbor 39 New York City (Foot of East 90th St), East River 41 Port Morris, East 138th St. 43A Throgs Neck, Ft. Schuyler 45 New Rochelle Long Island Sound 47 Rye Beach (Playland) Amusement Park, Long Island Sound 4-260 DAY 10 11 12 13 14 Is 16 17 18 19 20 F IItI. A IBOSTON E to 9 a A A 7 6 5 LL-L I- T-7 4 J-H+ 3 0 -1 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRO NMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI07N] FIGURE Typical Tide Curve for North Eastern U.S. Ports 4-97 (NOS/NOAA, 1972) i F M A M i j A S 0 N D UINOX SOLSTI@E EQUINOX I ISOLSTICE MOON 101 0 0 9 0 & 10 0 0 0 0 0 @ 0 0 10 0 16 Cj 4 3 0 Z < I m r 0: NLT -77 77 143ET Ui SU ,SUNFIISE LEE A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND EN\,ARONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I Relation of Tidal Range to Phases of the Moon 4-98 (Sverdrup et.al., 1942) 4-261 76* 74* 72' 70* 42* +5 42' +4 +2 #3 2+1 0 +2 @3 +2 A +I- I HR. 0 -1 -1 0 0 40* - @2 40* -1-1 @ 415 4 0 41 > I HR. 42 41 11+12 .10 1 9 7 B 0 51 +3 38* 5 -3 1 A 2y 0 +1 f 0 241 0 5.dH4.4/4 B 36* -36' 76* 74* 72' 70' A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] FIGURE I Co- idal Chart Showing Approximate Time of High 4-99 Water Relative to New York Harbor (Bumpus et al., 4-262 1973) 7 70* A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Co-Range Chart for Mean Spring Tides 4-100 (Emery and Uchupi, 1972) 4-263 760 74* 72* 70* 68* 42" 4.6 420 4.1 6 8 2. .3 4.3 7.2@ .5 .6 3.0 -A3.0 4. 2.0 4.7 40* - 2.5 2.7 40* 5.8 4.1 1 RANGE OF MEAN TIDE 38. 3.4 (IN FEET) 2.4 2.8 360 364 LE S THAN 3.6 78' 74* 72* 700 63* A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REG17ON71 r I UR 101 4 1 (Bumpus et al., 1973) Range of Mean Tide [Vorth Alidnight 12 ,rVoon 12 4 9 8 6 7 Scale of Knots t II I I 1 1 1 1 11 1 0.0 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 10 Z2 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION "oon e @5 6 FIGUR D on and Velocity of Tides at Nantucket L Tie i ct I I 4-102T lghtship (Haight, 1942) .1-265 Norf h L+3 10 4 L+1 0 0 L 0 61 @cy I / L-1 'pH+1 Ole O"H+Z H+3 Scale of Knots 1 1 1 1 f 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Pattern of Tidal Currents at Nantucket Lightship 4-103 (Haight, 1942) 4-266NW 45.p2* So. .p9, 7w ?71 76. 7,5- 74. ?3. TZ. 7r. 65- MY A 47 43. 42. 42. 41- 40. 31- 5r 30. 3r. 31- 35- 8i0 3V 33- '00@4 3V 32- 3V' 3j- 30. 29- TIDAL CURRENTS . . . . . .. . . . TIDAL ELLPSES IN;,rATE*DIPECTK)N AND SPEED OF TIDAL CURRENTS AT 20- 2 HOUR INTERVALS.. 0 2 4 9 KWHOLQ 26. 2 KM/HOUR ZIP 1-2 Km/H" W 82- a;-I so- 7r- 76. 75* 74. 73. TZ* 71' 70* sq, Go A SOCIO'-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-nC REGION FIGURE I Surface Tidal Currents Offshore Over the Continental 4-104 Shelf (Emery and Uchupi, 1972) 4-267 76* 740 72* 700 68 42* 9.7H8.5,IJ8 16-7H14..2/10 42' 9.5MSL 8.4mSL 1 10.4H9..4 3MSL -3t, I c 14 is 12.21-110-3 7.7H6.8/9 7.8E5 J7,"c'. lo.4H9/6 9.5MSL/ A 7.7E5.2 "004, 7.7H7.2 7.9E5.6 400 10-5H8-5/4 7.6115.4 STATION MODELS 8 16. 0 MSL or MLW 5-7113.6 SURVEY DATA HEIGHT ABOVE MHW UNKNOWN DUE TO HURRICANES 3.5H2.9 UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED 38* 5.2 H 3-1/18 "40 -14 41, 1-e 01, 0 0 e * 4X Op 4.6E3.4 1-5 4 SA Z/ k 7.5H6.3 01941 7.4H6. TYPES OF STORMS H-HURRICANE T-TROPICAL NOT HURRICANE 36'. -4.8M L 36* E-EXTRATROPICAL HIGHEST 'TIDE RECORD IS 8.6 SL GIVEN IN FEET. 10) MSL NUMBER OF YEARS NOT GIVEN IF GREATER THAN 20 76' 74* _72* 70*-- 13 . . . . . . . . . 8 le- [A SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Highest Recorded Tide Levels 4-105 (Bumpus et.al., 1973) 4_263 71- 30' 71*00' 42-00 42*00' PROVIDENCE WAREHAMI Uj 5' 14! 0: 13' 12' 41-30'- 10 41-30' MA HAS VINEYARD NOMANS IS - 7' (@BLOCK ISLAND 11 71. 301 7 1*00' A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATAN-nc R _E@IoN FIGURE % Surge Height (in feet) Above Predicted or 4-106 Astronomical Tide in a Hurricane (Bumpus et al. 1973) 4-269 C) Ja ND ly ly 171 4 pl- 0 J? Now ")N@ w Asi- z v u -Sit 1.0 7.0 m Z LONG 0 < M 0.5 0 \15 0.7-- 0) C-) z "4 7.5 2.8,e 0.,5 WEAK 0 s m Z r, "41 1.9 it 1.7. 14 2.3 c 0 2X 5 J, 2.1 < (D 0 m 1. 0 2.2 R'D 0 0 I.A lp 0 -0.3- 0 2 9 0.2 k 00 K4 C_, > -h -n 0 C+ N.G. (D --1 1.3 )!4 -5 /@@ 1. c. rri m 41 - - I cr z cr 0 TIDAL CURRENT CHART 0 @9 BLOCK ISLAND SOUND AND EASTERN ct, C+ 0.5 RAMA---- LONG ISLAND SOUND =r > i (D ORRAr CONIC KA=CAL WBAM 1A r__P@ 72*W 72.@ W, 4W 0 0.2 Gv. PR- 44 P -2 IR ve, PR-3( T x WIP-1 x x P x P-n w X .$R-2 4% wp-s..: x EP-3 S1@4 P-4 x x RIS-1 RIS-4 RIS-7 x x RIS-2 RIS-5 RIS-8 x RIS-3 RIS-6 RIS-9 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC FIGURE Station Points Sampled for Temperature, Salinity 4-128 and Density by Morton, 1967 (Morton, 1967) 4-271 4@- N) 0 0 f TEMPERATURE J- C) m 9 10 12 10 11 12 10 12 10 11 12 10 It 10 11 12 10 11 12 10 8 z 0 G) C M lz> c) M TS-1 TS-2 TS-3 TS-4 TS-5 TS-6 TS-? TS- x -4 0 z 0 0 w a < TO 5 0 z 10 - (D m -5 z 3 _-q -70 - Cl+ > 0 E TS-10 TS-It TS -12 TS-13 TO -14 TS-15 TS-16 TS-1 I-- z ............. . 03 c+ < m C) c z C+ C) 0 a < (D N) E/) c.+ 0) I-- Cl+ TS-20 TS-21 TS-22 TS-Z3 TS-24 TS-23 TS-2 I'D -1. :c 0`10 ul m r 20 - TS-28 TS-20 TS-30 TS-31 TS-32 TS-33 TS-34 TO .35 to it 'o 10 11 12 10 11 0 11 12 go If 12 10 11 IF to TLMPL14ATURE 0C) ---TT 720 50* 40' 30, 20, 10' 710 50@ . . . . . . - - - - - -- - - - - - - H Of 140. 14 150 7 7e 4., 4d 30 71* 30 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION71 TR@MFIGL)RE ransects Used in Obtaining Temperature Profiles 4-.130 (Shonting et al., 1966) 4-2731 4a 31Y la 71* w 401 . . . . . . . . . . 0wtRAGANse@;@ iF9 F=1 P=4 041- -QUID.EC@ SLA@ TOY' so 21Y RHODE ISLAND SOUND to + 41! - o 2 :3 1= -;;=G;v- W 71' w bt" A -:2, 6@"D A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REG170NI: FIGURE I Hydrographic and Time Stations 4-131 (Shonting et al., 1966) 4-274 SURFACE OBSERVATIONS DATE POSITION Swc a" CRUISE NO. STATION DEPTH WWI.* NO. DAY YEAR INoun LATITWDI LOWATUDI IMOMINIECTED DEPT" 1 a2 7 24 05 40 woo AIR AIR TEMPERATURE HUMID. VEATHER SEA -ILL WATER WT. MISS anytI VIET ITT I--- Y. ON, --I TRANS. 19.961 SUBSURFACE OBSERVATIONS S"PLE Tct S 0/00 at Vf DEPTH 1-1 0000 19 "687 32o28 22@799 1518909 4900 20s265 32*31 22,668 1519,78 4*00 209207 32931 229684 1519*62 8900 199413 32s4l 22*966' 1517960 8,00 19.465 92o4l 22.953 1517,74 12900 139676 1 365 32954 25,000 1488984 2 60 *0 00 00 109:345 32*62 25e930 1485926 24900 9,336 32.76 25.339 1465.4T 28900 9*221 32966 259274 1484s,96 32E,00 9*037 32s81 25*423 1484*53 36*00 89907 32.85 25,473 1484.1b 40900 8#897 32*86 25w483 1484o2l 2 4 6 a10 Q 14 is Is 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 TEMP(*C) .7A .9 31.0 .123A .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 SZO .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 A .9 3&0 .1 .2 3 A .5 SALCO/001 - 0 4- 12- i4 x 32 T sv 5 Wf 36- .40' .6A ZLO 2 A.6 .8 ZLO2A A .8 Z&O 2 :1.0 .6 .1 !t.0 2 .4 .6 .8 250 .2 A .6 A MO .2 A .6 6 9470 24 68MW 2 4 4 8 KW 2. 4 6 9 15M 2 4 6 8 010 2 4 6 0 I= 2 4 NUOS 3"P CRUISIE 14% STATION.Q. CATZ: 24 JULY 1110641, s A SOCIO- ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY. OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE Monthly Data Sample - Station 12 July 24, 1963 4-132 (Shonting et al., 1966) -275. SURFACE OBSERVATIONS DATE POSITION STATWO SAMftl Low* YEAR LA71TUM LONGI MW RECTED DEPT04 1 13 196 0150 @111 TE.PERATUPIN CLOW q woo A.41hICL AIR HUMID. NOT. ftess ITT ."NEN Dwy WIT OOL. TOM& 9-951 SUBSURFACE OBSERVATIONS SIWPLE OEPT. 1.1 Toc S 0/0 VF 0*00 180385 32,30 230136 15i4s4U 4*00 1893bl 32e2R 23,132 1514*38 8s,00 15*334 32o55 24,038 1505s59 12s00 11s,173 32.69 24,972 1491,86 16*00 10*499 32*51 24*9S3 1489*Z8 20900 10*3791 32.51 24*967 14'dS 991 .24900 10 * 2ti6 32.71 25,151 1488e79 28,00 10*165 32969 25,151 1488,50 2 4 6 )0 Q 14 16 fe 20 22 -24 26 as 30 32 .5 .6 .7 A .9 31.0 .1 2.3 A .5 .6 .7 8 .9 32-0 .1 .2 .3 A .5 .6 .7 A .9 33.0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 4- hs A20- x s 28- T11 36- 40 A 2LO 2 A .6 A 2 .4 .6 .8 210 .2 .4 .6 .3 240 2 .4 A .8 210 .2 A .6 A 2IL0 .2 :4 Iffrt . . . 6 8 1470 2 4 6 6 MW 2 4 6 8 14W 2 4 6 0 15W 2 -6 6 150 2 4 IM 2 4 SWEPM159 10 SrATION 13 DATE: 24 JULY 1963 ---- - ------- PT 24] A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND EWIRONMENTAL IWENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Monthly Data Sample - Station 13 - July 24, 1963 4-276 1 ,MWR 1 4-133 (Shonting e .t al., 1966) SURFACE OBSERVATIONS DATE POSITION wc a". XPL0084 NO. DEPTH SAMPLE 1.91CO&RECTED DEPT14 y TRAII HOUR LATITUDE LONGITUDII 4A 1964 i450 32 A101 TEMPEMATUOE aft memo. AIR ""AMD. T.. ITT VIA "0" will) -.1 a AMT. 2'.11 29 9. 0 1@ I r- SUBSURFACE OBSERVATIONS SAKPL TOC S 0/00 at V, DEPTH 0*00' 4#343 32,64 25*900 14b5.o 13 4900 4.396 32.64 25.897 1465.4e 8*00 4*436 32*68 25,922 1465970 121100 4o474 32e69 25,928 1465,94 16*00 4*502 32*71 25,Y38 1466,15 20*00 49525 32.73 259954 1466*34 24900 4.518 32*72 25 * 944 1466,36 Se00 4*530 32.71 2 .47 2 5,942 1466 32*00 4,541 32,70 25,929 1466.57 2 4 6 a to 12 14 t6 Is 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 TEMk4C) @5 .6 .7 .8 .9 310 .12 3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .6 .9 32.0 .1 .2 3.4 .5 .6 T .8 .9 33.0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 SALM/00) 0 4- a. 0 12 IS - 0 A x T sv S w 20 - 24 x 32- .4 8 21.0 .2 .44 .8 V-0 .2 .4 .6 A 2&0 2 44 .6 .2 MO 2.4 .6 .8 210 .2 .4 .6 .6 _j. __4 2(,LO .2 .4 .6 .4 55 1442 14Z 7.5 14W 81 1.490 5 15,00 05 15,1* I@ 1!10 SX011/51 .1 __4 .4_ 4__ 2@ 2 SWIEP CRUISI 4A STATION I I MATIE: 22 JANUARY IS" A SOCIO- ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL. INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] FIGURE Monthly Data Sample - Station 11 January 22, 1964 .4-134 (Shonti.ng et al., 1966). 4 - 2 7 7 SURFACE OBSERVATIONS DATE POSITION SQ..c MAIL CRUISE NO. STATION 0101-li No DAY YEAR ITUDIR LONGATUCE U*cO a DEPTH 4A 1 12 1 22 19 44 36 AIR TENPIWA no A WLL WIND MGT. Alit I CIOUD I I ". AMEND. 'SATHER ---fT --T On, TYPE -1. MR. ANY. COL. TRAOIL 6,20 L SUBSURFACE OBSERVATIONS $A-PLE DEPTH 1.1 TOC S O/OD 0? VI 0,00 4.542 32.73 25.951 1466 06 4400 49544 32.72 25.945 1466:1@ 8,00 4,561 32.80 216.009 1466*39 12*00 4,564 32.80 26*006 1466.47 16.00 4.6u3 32.85 26.U44 1466,77 20,00 4sb65 32,88 269US6 1467,12 24,00 4*746 32987 26.039 1407,51 28*00 4.730 32.87 26.045 1467*5e 32,,00 4 7241 32.86 26.053 146-1.5-7 36,00 4:7481 32.86 26*036 1467o7l 2 4 6 a 10 12 14 Is 18 20 22 24 26 2s 30 32 TEMP('C) ! !i i ! i I . i i I ! i i i SAL10/00) 5 .6 .7 .8 .9 31-0 .1 .2 3 A .5 .6 .7 A .9 32.0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 2 9 33.0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 I ------------ 4 0 4- a 0 12- 0 0 'K sv 0 E 20 - w 24- 0 25- 0 A x 32- 0 A _7 0 40 6.8 2LO .2 .4 .6 .8 22.0 .2 .4 .6 A210 .2 .4 .6 .8 24.0 .2 .4 .6 .8 M .2 .4 .6 A 2&0 -2 -4 .6 + 4 4 55 14" 1470 75 141@90 14!2 9!1 25@2 4 -045 1 25@2 1' S.V.(M/SE A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE 'Monthly Data Sample - Station 12 - January 22, 1964 4-135 (Shonting e't,al., 1966) 4-278 720 50' 40' 0* 20, 10' 710 50' 30. 0.0 0 1.0 03.0 2.0 3. 4.0 3.0 so' 4.0 72* 30. 20@ 710 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Surface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound 4-136 February 4, 1964 (Shonting et,al.,.1964) 4-279 72' 30, 20' 10' 71* 30' - - - - - - - - - - - a 1%-j- S .@i@ OF: 0' WA:TE LL AE@l UNIF SAY RELATIV T 3d or Q -05 00 .50 40@ 140 'po 4# W. 20' 71* 50 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Surface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound 4-280 4-137 February 28, 1964 (Shonting et al., 1964) 720 5 40' 30' 20, 10, 710 5u "0. '30' -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .......... 2." 1.5 2.5 0 1.5 3.o .0 -4 2.5 50 2.3 !20 E 4CF @4 1=1 - p-qw 71' 6 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI07N] FIGURE I Surface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound 4-138 April. 2, 1964 (Shonting et al., 1964) 4-281 72' 50' 40. 30, 20, 10, 710 5.0, "1. 30, - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - N1, 3r 8.0 8.5 4 o: 7.5 7.5 0. 7.0 j 0 7. it Ix 41 7.0 7.0 7.0 7 7. 4011 1.40 F= 2, @0. 14 20 10, 710 [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-ncowm FIGURE I Surface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound 4-139 May 7, 1964 (Shontihg et,al., 1964) 4-282-- 50; 30, 20, 710 50 3AW -------------- --------------- ---------- .................... to 140' 461 I so 4# 36- 20@ 4 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAWIC RMION TR@e I FIGUR 1JES urface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound 4-10 May 21, 1964 (Shonting et.al., 1964) @4-233 720 so' 40' 30' 20' 10' 71* 50' 'v. 30, ........... ...... ........ ... ....... ... ..... ............. .... T .... ... . . . '!, ..: , T qr 1b7 to 0 lb@ Cr r -+ ps Cq MA, P k4 M 72 w 4d 30. 20, 16, A SOC40-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Surface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound NW 1 4-141 July 2, 1964 (Shonting et al., 1964) -4-284,!, 720 40, 30' 00 tie -A49F c::> @f ex "d' 17 IAM. 0%9 TO TNf NATURt OF T"I OISEWED -EA4"RATURE GRADIENTS, TME ISONE&A CONTOURS ARE OUtSTIONAKE. kit W. 2W 7 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION GUR S urface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound _1 T2August 20, 1964 (Shonting et,al., 1964) r4 4 t-235 720 50' 40' 30, 2.0, .01 71* 5.0, 4.01 30. @q F4 - T 2d 1-26 0. 14.5 oo 40 k4 14 L4 72 4d 3W 20' 71 -It @,v A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRSW I FIGURE Surface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound 4-2-86 4-143 1 September 17, 1964 (Shonting et al., 1964) 72* W. 40, 3w 20' 710 5d 46 3C KK t a& 40 w aw 6w 40, A SOCO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IWENTORY OF THE NoRTH ATLAN-nC REGION FIGURE Surface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound IR@W 1 4-144 1 October 1, 19.64 (Shonting et,al., 1964) 4-287 720 io@,_ 40' 30@ 2w to' @71 5v -------------- -- --- ------- . .. .. .. .. 13.5 N-2.5 T to'] op 14 40 PL kq w - -- ft, -P- q t4 so, 30, 40 20. 16@ 710 5V 40. 20 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Surface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound 4-288 1 4-1451 October 23, 1964 (Shonting et al., 1964) 41Y 3W 20. 10 50, 4@ .... ..... .. IPA 10.0 10 .W P 14 01-134- M33PW5C=%- Iq 4= M re 4d 2w Kr A SOCIO-ECONOMIC. AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Surface Isotherms in Rhode Island Sound 4-146 November 19, 1964 (Shonting et al., 1964) --71 4-289 TEMPERATURE VC) 1 2 3 4 5 6 T a 9 10 11 12 19.76 19.87 19.50 1&99 19.57 19.48 19.24 19.44 19.78 19.68 2Q84 19.69 0- 5- )so 10- I revo 20- @5'0 25- 11.0 30- 1Z 35- 10.0 A SOCIO- ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] FIGURE Vert Cal Temperature Profiles in Rhode Island Sound 4-147 July 1963 (Shontihg et al., 1964) 4-290NW TEMPERATURE ('C) 6 7 a 9 16 1P 18.59 18.74 18.7or 1B.69 19.70 18.02 18-86 19.56 13.26 te.35 is.23 10.75 0- 5- 16.0 10- 15..0 13.0 20- ---- 14.0 1-7 25- 30- 35- 11.0 TLANTIC REGION FA -c'<=-ECONOMIC AND, ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH A FIGURE I lertical Temperature Profiles in Rhode Island Sound 4-148 August 1963 (Shonting et,al. 1964) -29 .I 4 TEMPERATURE VC) 3 4 5 6 7 a 9 10 11 12 15.56 15.44 15.24 15.15 15.01 14.90 14.83 15.89 14.92 14114 14.89 14.94 0- / / - Nl>a 5- 15- IL 20- 25- 30- 35- 0 [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Vertical Temperature Profiles in Rhode Island Sound 4-149 October 1963 (Shonting et al., 1964) 4-292 TEMPERATURE J"C) 1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 2@37 232 296 294 2,83 &29 &40 351 &62 4.02 4.34 454 to- is- 4.0 3.0 20- 25- 30- A SOCIO-ECONOM .IC AND: ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE@ NORTH ATLAN11C RE GION FIGURE Vertical Temperature Profiles in Rhode Island Sound 4-150-1 January 1964 (Shonting et al., 196,4-)-- 4-293 TEMPERATURE (*Q 1 2 3 4 5 6 10 12 114 3.30 &44 &31 3-58 &79 3.84 3.90 0 5- 3.30 10- 25- 30- A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC R FIGURE Vertical Temperature Profiles in Rhode Island Sound 4-151 March 1964 (Shonting et al., 1964) TEMPERATURE (*C) 1 2 3 4 6 7 0 9 eo 11 12 1&13 M.15 13.24 13.37 12JI MIS 1&24 15.37 1&4a 1160 IS.?e 13.90 0--11 - - __z --- 0.0 10- 12A 11.0 9. CL I I'0 C so 20- 30- FA SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN=-REGION IRWM I FIGURE I Vertical Temperature Profiles in Rhode Island Sound 4-152 June 1964 (Shonting et.al., 1964) TEMPERATUFM (*C) 1 2 3 4 3 6 7 a 9 10 If 0 18.84 18.98 [as$ 1&79 19613 19.24 1%36 19.41 1946 19.54 Is"229 N9.0 IN, 19 10 - is. or 12j0 15.0 20- too 9.0 23- A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-nC REGION FIGURE Vertical Temperature Profiles in Rhode Island Sound 4-153 July 1964 (Shonting et al., 1964) TEMMMATURE rC) 24 23 22 11 to It 17 Is Is 14 13 19.40 M37 49.43 17.96 17.42 17.39 17.27 17.26 M55 15-00 1", 0 0 -20 -25 INA A SOCIO-ECONOMICAND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Ve'rtical Temperature Profiles in Rhode Island Sound 4-154 July 1963 (Shonting et al., 1,964) 4-297 TEMPERATUREM) 24 23 22 21 20 19 Is 17 16 15 14 13 M43 M33 18.01 18.44 1&50 18.41 18.40 18.39 17.49 16.82 -0 10 1r.0 -15 20 -N, -35 -40 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] TW FIGURE. Vertical Temperature Profiles in Rhode Island Sound 4-155 August 1.963 (Shonting et a.l., 1964) A-2 uvc, v (EL6L `LP 48 AabUL I LPO) 9S L-t PuleLS1 6UOI uJ84SP3 UL SUOL4P4S ;uawainspaW 4uajjno 38nou N01018 OLLNVUV HiHON ]HI JO AHOiN3ANI IVIN3ANOUIAN3 ONV OIV40NO03-OIOOS V C) D 0 Flo ,N) 0 D 0 5: 0 _n 0 0 -n 0 rn r- rn z C) > ch C*) m > cn a) M 0 z 7-r 41000 A 41015 N N BEGIN DIRECTION DURATION (Mog) SURFACE 1235 flDod (NW) 4.5 hrs. 1720 ebb(SE) 6.5 hrs. 40 FEET 1224 f" (NW) 5.0 hrs. 1800 ebb.(SE). 7.0 hrs. 80FEET 121?-:. flood(NW) 55 hrs. .1800 ebb (SE) 65 hrs. 106 FEET (near bottom) 1216 f lood (NW) 5.5 hrs. 1820 ebb(SE) 6D hrs. I krct A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION. .[TR FIGURE 4-157 Reversing Tid,e Currents - Plum Gut June 5, 1.972 4-300 (De.h1fnger et al., 1973) (M09) BEGIN DIRECTION DURATION 1140 ebb (SE) 4.50 hrs. 1800 flood (NW) 5.00 hrs. 4 0 FEET 1145 ebb (SE) 3.5 hrs. .1646 flood (NW) 6.0 hrs. 80 FEET 1150 ebb (SE) 2.5 hrs. 1625 f lood (NW) 65 hrs. 120 FEET (near bottom) 1130 ebb- (SE) 3.0 hrs. 1632 f lood (NW) 6.5hrs. I knot A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH AnANTIC REGION FIGURE Reversing Tide Currents-the Race July 24, 197Z 4-158 (Dehlinger et al., 1973) 4-ini BEGIN DIRECTION DURATION SURFACE 0955 ebb (SE) 4.5 hrs. 1325 f lood (NW) 75 hrs. 64FEET 1004 ebb (SE) 45 hrs. 1500 flood (NW) 6.5 hrs. - 128 FEET 1009 ebb (SE) 35 hrs. 1405 flood (NW) 7.5 hrs. 192FEET 1015 ebb (SE) 2.5 hrs. 1410 f lood (NW) 7.0 hrs. A SOQO-ECONOMIC AND EMARONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-nc REGioNl. ,FIGURE Reversing Tide:Currents-the Race October 19*, 1972 TRI$W 4-159 (Dehlin,ger t: a.1 1. 9 7 3) 02 BEGIN DIRECTION DURATION SURFACE (mag.) .1021 ebb 6.0 hrs. .1615 flood 6.5hrs. 33 FEET 1024 ebb 6.0 hrs. 1628 flood 6..5 hrs. 67 FEET 1026 ebb 5.0 hirs. 1602 flood 6.5 hirs. 95 FEET 1030 ebb 4.5 hra. 1502 flood 7.5 hrs. I knot A SOCIO-ECONOMC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-nc FIGURE Reversing Tide Currents the Race January,17, 1973 4-160 (Dehlinger et al., 1973) 4-303,, N (MOO) BEGIN DIRECTION. DURATION SURFACE 1330 ebb(SE) 6.5 hrs. 2037 f load (NW) 45 hrs. 30FEET 1330. ebb (SE) 6.0 hrs. 1950 flood (NW) 5-Ohrs. 6 .60FEET 1350 ebb(SE) 5.5 hrs. 1857 flood (NW) 6-Ohrs. 90 FEET (near bottom) 1355 ebb(SE) 45 hrs. 1942 flood (NW) 5.0 hrs. I knot .A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION, FIGURE Reversing Tide Currents Valiant Rock June 27, 1972 4-161 (Dehlinger et.al., 1973) 4-304 W 6L 16 jaqp upS PUP UIRWLLOH) PUPLSI IOOLG M-t 'eLSI BU01 u.AD4s?3 PURIpunoS PU SUOL4e4S 6UILdweS 38now N0103H OUNVITV H1,80N 3H.L :10 A80.LN3ANI IVINNVOUAN3 GNV ONON003 - 000S V :z M m > :z E) G E) E) Dc- :> :> Cn 4N v 0 z zz om O:E z Ul !Z 0 = ch C) CD 72 OW 7230W CONNECTICUT CONNECTICUT A-1 A- I SURFACE IBOTTOM ORIENT PT /,71;r ORIENT PT 41 00 N 4100 d, 72j3ow 72 30 w CONNECTICUT CONNECTICUT A-2 SURFACE A72 60_@T`TOM RIENT PT ENT P Lt QQ N tA@ 41 QQ T4 72 30W Q 72 .50 w CONN22CTICUT CONNECTICUT A-3 BOTTOM PT A-3 SURFACE ORIENT PT -41 00 N __41 00 N _v/ 72 30 w 72 30 W CONNECTICUT k.@ CONNECTICUT IENT PT ORIENT PT A-4 SURFACE A-4 BOTTOM 7 xa ok LI 00 N w q 72 30 w 72 .50W 'q". CONNECTICUT CONNECTICUT ORIENT PT RIENT PT A-5 S URFACE oIL" A-5 BOTTOM LIQQ N A SOC40-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR5W I FIGU JE Surface and Seabed Drifters - "A" Transect 4-1 63 (Hollman and Sandberg,,1972) 72 00W 72 3OW CONNECTICUT CONNECTICUT N-I SURFACE N-1 BOTTOM 41 no N 1 00 72 OOW 72 3OW 72 OOW CONNECTICUT CONNECTICUT N-2 SURFACE N-2 OTTOI 4100 w XA 72 00W 72 3OW 72 OOW CONNECTICUT CONNECTICUT SURFACE N-3 8, TTOM MONTAUK PT 4100 N [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC 7R7EGI70N] TR@a. FIGURE' Surface and Seabed Drifters "N" Transect 4-164 (Hollman and Sandberg, 1972) 4-307 7 Dow 72 00 vi CONNECT"CUT CONNECTICUT ISHERS IS IINTT H-1 BOTTOM r., H-1 SURFACE 410-- -T@ L11 00 N 72 00 w 72'30W CONN 'ECT 1 C UT 72 OOW CONNECTICUT 41 ISHERS IS SURFACE '7RIENT PT H-2 BOTTOM H-2 ;Z1 4100 N kA 41 00 N 4 ME- I 1 11,11 11 72 00 w CON NECTI iCUT 72 30 W 72 00 W CONNECTICUT H-3 SJRFAC -.3 BOTTOM ORIENT PT MONTAUK PT -N--' 41 on, N at 72 OOW 7230 W 72 00 w CONNECTICUT CONNECTICUT NIZVOY 1 H-4 SURFACE -4 MONTAUK PT C, 41 00 N t", 1 41 00 N 2 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I Surface and Seabed Drifters - "H" Transect A-308 4-165 (Hollman and Sandberg, 1972) WINTER 72 00 W OCC IN 'i'W WINTER 72 3OW 72 OOW OCC JAN FEB CONNFCTIC CONNECTICUT H74 SURFACE Ot! -4 BOTTOM RIENT PT MONTAUK PT @1 CON 41 00 'm v '4 ......... X SPRING 72 COW SPRING 72 OOW MAR APR MAY MAR APR MAY CONNECTICUT CONNECTICUT H- BOTTOM H-4 SURFACE ONTIUK IT MONTAUK PT tA M 41 00 Z:i U m;11 h, 72 00 W "UN JWL AUG SUMMER 72'00 W JUN JUL AUG CONNECTICUT C 0N@ECTICUT H-4 SURFACE H-4 BOTTOM MONTAUK PT MONTAUK PT kA 4100 N 41 AUTUMN 72 00 W OCT AUTUMN 72 OOW SEPT NOY SEPI OCT NOV CONNECTICUT CONNECTICUT H-4 SURFACE H-4 BOTTOM MONTAUK PT ONTAUK PT 41 00 N -@Z@m 4100 r CO @BO4 7 TTOM A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH.ATLANTIC REG107N FIGURE I Seasonal Changes in Drift Patterns Along the "H." .TRI Transect (Hollman and Sandberg, 1972) 4-166 160 120 80 40 LL 73-40' z 73020 4C LLJ - A 73*00' -40 7 24 0' -80 72 2 0' -120 1800 2000 2-400 0400 0800 [zoo t600 [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-ncREGIONJ FIGURE I Mean Tidal Velocities Tidal Passes from East to West 4-167 in Long Island Sound (Riley, 1948) 4-310 1 > SURFACE TEMPERATURES,. *F 0 N TRU*E 051 C= C5 CIO 0% 00 cr 0) CL 0 0 CD z =C: o --i K (D C (D CL -a + (D Ln Ln C+ rD a C I a -5 M < (D @0- TIDELESS C+ Ln TY C+ m 0 rD ko --h ch 0 (T30 rD -Ti rD tn 0 C-t 0 (D + 4b. 73,30 2GE N TRUE cposl -ow ch -0 r- a- 0) -h r-L r) 0 (D 744 Ln . @a I \ , ".. I o --i F. \ (D 0 (D m M-0 C+ (D Ln Ul z 410, (D C C S (D TIDELESS M >T3, C+ kD -n C+ co 0 m (D :3 --h. z M 0 fD X: m (D cr (A & (D -5 T50 0 0 7046 NAUTICAL MILES z 25' 210. m 73' SUMFACEC TE@-,gr.,`ZMATI U!@ES. OF 0 N TRUE -n G) 05, c C) M GO -0 Ul r_ z 0 (D Z =0 --i (D C rD m =3 a Z r16 rD Z-;: C"t (D < m 410 < C-f- (D z - rD --406- 00, 0-5 C7 0 m ru cr > 40o 0 m (D =s ko --h z O)o 0 (D X: -n CD C-t 0 (D CL \C@ 4z:- 4 Z NAUlIGAL MILES lis 5' 730301 2, SURFACE TEMPERATURE$.@F N TRUE + 0 Z -n o Im 41 05' c 0 CO m (A z < 0 m Z V) =r- 0 (D r- (Dm -400- Z C+ CD Ln c+ Z (D < + M 410 (D (D 00, 0 >400 ci. ko 0 cm sw cr w 0 r- A- ct w 0 M (D= --h z cn 0 0 :E: rrl (D rD rr C-t + -40*- 55, 0 0 UM \SO' 0 AQ, N 0 3 4 0 V CAL VC 4b@ 73' 25 20' N 4- TRUE -n -05' M 0 M -=3 0- E3 -h 8.5- (D ru 0 m m V) 91) m z D 28 <2e.5 -414 M (D olly (D 0 @D _n M C+ SLACK BEFORE FLOOD TIDELESS kD 0 -1 CA QL :3 M 4- 56' 3 4 0 1 27 N U AL MILES 215, @0. 10 35' 7 3'@ 0' 0 N TRUE z -n -05' G) c 0 m 2 8.5 Lo M 0 (A m a Z < cr a CD 0) -1 0 0 0 CD z Ln K rD m z % V) C4 (D (D < 414 5 --h @. M (Y < 0 = z 0 (D rt: 8 (D >28 TIDELESS ? m (A SLACK BEFORE EB13 a- cl+ rr (D -5 0 0) -5 -n r-, <28 m -c 28.5 ko z oll 0 14 (A X > Ln r + 0 55, a 0 4 NAUTICAL MILES 'HE 35 73*301 215- 2'0' N TRUE 8m ,n -051 4 1@& G -4 In z C+ -t, (D 0) 27.5 0 (D Z (D Ul) 0) m 0) ,- z i Oj @. cl, 0 =5 C+ Ln CO Z, 410 m m -S h A .1 0(y < 0 0 m X: C-5 _n (D (n C+ 0 (D ko 0 -5 0 ao, 0) CL -n 27 .1 M UD i Ln Pi = �-l CL > (A 55' rL 8 m 0 NAUTICAL MILL5 z I - - - r -- A 0% 210. Z-IV > N TRUE C-@Ncj -n 05, c M M z < cr rt -h 5-0 (D 0) -1 0 0 0 (D Z I r m CD V) 0) z 77 z (D I --l I k % 41* < I - M 00, < 0 =3 T .1 1 . . I ". -5 26 0 0 (D M: 27 (D m W rt co QQ 0 m Lo t.0 z 4 (A 0 25 CL -55, CL m 0 NAUTICAL MILES z 40 35' 73*301 25 @200- A: Undeirtined years are shown at ma xitnum and minimurn rnanthly. d:i3charfjo in the 100- Period begin ing Septernb6r IS28 J93S AM- 1938- .50 !VS2 LW 1972 JIM Uj Uj 19 4 U Monthly m 6 a n stream discharge i ifft 0 5ound during current and post yeor@ V) 3 z JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT., OCT NOV DEC 0 40 ........... ... ......... i Annual mean stream discharge- into So u n d by: calendar years; 01 f 1970-71- 72- 73, 74 75 -X 77- 'M 7@ 8Q 81 -82 83 94 86 87 98 89 90 A SOCIO-ECO NOW AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RMON Estimated Stream Discharge Entering Long Island 4-176 Sound (I.I.S.C.G.S.) 4-319 (.S. D*o*s*n) punOS LLL-V Pu sj 6uol 6ULJa4u3 D6JP40SLO WMAIS aAL4eLnwno 38n!Dld N01938 011 NVITV H18ON 3Hi JO AHOIN3ANI -lVIN31NNO81AN3 CINV OINAO03 - OIOM v r:::,.: wvr -W 0 ol.. '0 oz 0 0 z 777 coo_- 3b, OC z z o -TI z oir 09 _0 09 ol OL 08, Ar 10, 73* 5 0' 4 0' 3o, 20i *7 3 .10 *2 49 5 410 12 Figure 3. Chart of central Long Island Sound. Dots and large numbers indicate routine stations. AjTows and small numbers show observed direction and sl-,cW of nontidal drift in oentimeters per second. Values at Sts. 1. 3, and 5 were obtained during the present survey. Others are estimates from Riley (1952). based on U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey tidal current charts. 7 3 12 T@@ A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC FIGURE Sampling Stations in Central Long Island Sound 4-178 1 (Ri I ey, 1959) 1 4-321 30 WATER TEMPERATURE 20 10 0 SAUNI" 28 26 24 FAIEOPITATION )0 0 A 0 1952 1953 1954 Figure 1. Average temperature (*C) and salinity (*/o.) at the surface (solid lines) and )bottom (dashed lines) at inshore stations in-tbo central part of Long Island Sound. Total precipitation (cm.) between successive dates of oceanographic observation. .V AIR 20 _ TEMPERATURE 10- 0- .10 - 25 WAIE 'E.PERATuRE 20 10 0 SALINITY 28 26 - 24 A77- 0 N 1 0 F M 1952 1953 ;954 Fi&inv 2. Weekly averages of air temperature (*C) recorded by the Now Haven Weather :Bureau. Average water temperature (OC) and salinity at surfam (solid lines) and @bottozn (dotted Rues) at offshore Sts. 2 M 7AIER PERA'UR' A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I nnual Temperature and Salinity Cycles in Central 4-3?@@2 4-179 Long Island Sound (Riley, 1959). TEWPERATURE WITY >27- 25 Figure 4. Surface temDerature (OC) and salinity June 4 to 11. 1952. Dots indicaw positions of observation. A SOC110- IECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR 'GLIRE Surface Temperature and Salinity in Central Long r4_ 180 Island Sound (Riley, 1959) 4-323, TEMPERATURE 7 24 30"INITY 6 '28 .25 Figure 0. Surface temperuture (0Q and salinity (G/oo). April 6 to 15, 1953- A SOC40-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-nC REGION jTRqR FIGURE Surface Temperature and Salinity.in Central 4-181 Long Island Sound (Riley, 1959) 4-324 TEMPERATURE 20.5 0 21.6 Q.5 303 SALINITY 27 Figure 0. Surface temperature (*Q and salinity September 29 to October 8, 1952. A SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRWMI FIGURE Surface Temperature and Salinit in central 4-182 Long Island Sound (Riley, 1959@ 1-4-325 TM& NARPtows ARTHUR r KILL RARiTAIN RIVER t 0i 0 4 07 . ......... o2 RARITAN BAY --.LO)NER BAY ........ 05 .......... 1--k NEW JERSEY 40- 2 V 10, 05, 74* Surface stations Bottom stations 6 5 6 Summer 24.3 :L- 0.9 23.0 1.0 23.2 :t 0.9 23.7 :t- 0.7 -22.1 -t 0.7 21.7 t 0.8 Fall 11.7 --t 4.5 9.7 -t 4.3 11.1--4.2 11.9-4.0 10.0 :t- 4.1 12.1 t 5.2 Winter 3.4-2.9 2.9 t 1.6 2.4- 1.8 3.0 t 2.0 3.4 :t 1.8 2.3 --t 1.5 Spring 14.1 t 6.0 13.6 5.5 12.0 -t 4.5 13.4 -- 5.3 12.4 :t 5.1 11.6 -t 4.9 Summer 24.0 :t 2.8 23.2 3.0 22.8 --+- 2.9 23.6 =t 1.2 22.3 @t 2.6 21.6 i: 2.5 NITY SALIN Surface stations Bottom stations 1 6 1 5 6 Summer 24.02 :t 1.14 26.37 :L- 0.46 26.91 :t 0.60 24.26 ::L- 1.12 26.59:i- 0.54 27.10.t 0.41 Fall 21.77 --+- 2.21 26.12 --t 1.20 27.14 -- 0.71 22.71 --+- 2.45 26.35 --@- 1.22 27.1-8 0.82 Winter 12.88 -t 6.86 19.55,:i- 1.38 23.27 t 2-17 18-93 :t 4.42 21.46 -t 3.14 22.75 3.26 Sprin.g 11.82 --t 6.91 17.98 :t 4.47 19.13 ::L- 6.41 16.50 :i-- 4.07 19.SO :i-- 4.36 20.69 :i- 4.56 Summer 25.09 :t 2.22 26.23 :t 1,42) 26.7 4 :L- 0.82 24.95 :i-, 1.32 26.59 t 1.72 27.39 0.80 TABLE 2. Mean da;ly di.@charge rate of Raritan Ricer in ft:;, @ec, 1-9-57-19,58 Month 1958 January 925 2,739 Febmary 1, 134 1,854 1'5@-s 3,716 March April 3,022 3,246 Mav 648 2,359 June 2SO 557 July 131 -109 AugLISt 95 360 September 12') 346 October 148 - November 2S3 -93 December 2,0 FA SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RIRGION@] FIGURE Sampling Stations Within Raritan Bay 4-183 (Jeffries, 1962) 4-326 1957 WS 1.959 50 41 Q@ 25 LLJ 4 6 8. 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC; AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE 196 4-184 Seasonal' River Discharge Raritan Bay (Jeffries, 4-327 00 > 'Y RARITAN BAY PROJECT 8', R 0,@ L IV' AVERAGE CHLORIDE Z5 CONCENTRATION (IN PARTS PER THOUSAND-%.) m JUNE- DECEMVER,1962 8 DEPTH-5 FEET SrArEN ISLAND c 0 )o 0 '0 M z C-) =r Z 141 146 z C) C-) z < rD .0 C+ 13.8 m To @J 20 C+ Will 132--@ 14.1 10 -14.0 1.14 -4 CID 12.2 12. Mo Ma &0 3 > KLES C+ NEW. i E R S E 1 0 1 z 3 ___ 4 5 CONTOUR INTERVAL -0.2 %. > 8 R 0 0 K'L r N RARITAN BAY PROJECT AVERAGE CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION (IN PARTS PER THOUSAND-%.) m JUNE- DECEMSER,19U DEPTH-5 FEET FROM BOTTOM srArEN ISLAND 4@. co op m Z < 15-4 0 14.4 14 14.9 z - K/ L ca 0 z 15.g 15.4 C) 15.0 CD 14.2 z C7 a r) m WO 0 CD (D -5 C+ c+ 142 0 @4. 13.4 (D I X 13.4 14,8 144 m 14.0 Ln '14. z 12A _n 1.0 (D rD 13.4 1 140 fD C+ ko Lrl _rI > @o 14.2 kD 0 Ln ct _@j r+ 0 minfflur NEW 4// E 5 y 0 _rn 0 1 Z.- a 4@h TERVAL 0.2 %. C) B'R'O 0 L > RARITAN BAY PROjECT CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION IN%., JULY, 19621 DEPTH -5 FEET TEMP.-22.0�1.5- C TIDE-LATE EBB TO EARLY FLOOD WIND EAST SrArEN ISLAND cly 14.00 '14'Z5 z 14. 50 14.75 0 15.00 z K C-) m 15.00 r) a 0 c@ M u C.+ K25 li.T5 sw c+ J. -1. 0 0 13.75 14,50 14.25 L) .50 + pi 3.T5 14.00 Dr+ .80 13 .......... 00 D0) 14. P, 14. 0 > yl C+ 0 NEW I/ E R 5 E y Yl rD n P. i*, it it I,-, r--7' -1 7 '-r-- '--l (D C+ cOu rou,-s wrrfivAL M5n* IPW > N -A 8, R 0 0 L Y iv RARITAN BAY PROJECT CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION 0 IN OCTOBER, J962, DEPTH -5 FECT m TEMP.-IS.0 tI'5* C 0 TIDE-LATE COB TO EARLY FLOOD 0 WIND SOUTHWEST srArEN ISLAND 00 m 00 M 0 z (=1 0 13.50 ;no 15.00 0 CL z Cr (1) '1515 (D C7 cn :I-_ r*%) cv@-, z 14.T5 cr 0 1450 m 14. rD ;V 14 .00 V) " as (D 18.25 (D 0) c-r > l'o go _n MILES NEW 11 E R S E y (D @ m m 1.0 C+ m cn G) -4 M,k olo INTERVAL 0.25 OR 0.5 DEFENDINg ON CONTROL 0 L w 4@h > 0 0 K Y N RARITAN BAY PROJECT CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION Z15 IN %.;MAY,1963; DEPTH -5 FEET m TEMP. 14.0�1.5- C 8 TIDF-LATE ED[) TO EARLY FLOOD z WIND WEST srA7*EN ISLAND' c 0 00 03 .0 M @z C-) z < 0 < z (D @o Kirl m L4.) 0 z C) (D: 1375 c+ -z -5 0) M, 0 r+ 0 (D 13.00 C+ -n let; 5 (D -S 2.50 12.25 13.00 < r+ r) :3 12.75 (D 1250 ko 12.25 13.75 12.00 Ln 13.2 w . MOO., > C+ ko LTI -4 -M WLES rD (D NEW E R S y m C+ 3 5 1 0 z CONTOUR INTERVAL 0.25 0. bb, cl) RARITAN BAY PROJECT B. A, 0 0 X L Y N 0 0 CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION j. 0 IN%.*. JUNE-JULY,196Z; DEPTH - 5 FEET FROM BOTTOM TEMP.-2QOtI.5t' C TIDE-LATE EBB TO EARLY FLOOD WIND -EAST z S.TArEN ISLAND C C) m ely -.h C-) %n -s =r Z un 0 - < C -3 0 A) 0 C) CL z f .00 rt- fD tn C+ c_n 0C-) m -4 0 z 14.50 :03 C) =5 (D C. C+ < 1w c+ Z 0 ko 14.50 14 25 0 loo cr C+', 140 0 0) ............. so. :5 z (D C" 0) ru _j c+ zr 0) &50 > 1315 @7 < 0 MIUS /V & W E R S IV (D (D > D I Fo?oc. :0 1 1 :1 .1 4 5 C+ CON1 OUI? INTERVAL - 0.25 Oil L2 > 8 R 0 0 N L Y N, RARITAN BAY PROJECT 11c, CH ORIDE CONCENTRATION IN %.iOCTODER,1962 %DEPTH -5 FEET FROM BOTTOM m TEMP.-I8.0ti-S' C TIDE-LATE EBB TO EARLY FLOOD z WIND SOUTHWEST SrA TEN ISLAND P. 0 dy CD n jr le 0 0 cr -7 (D CL (D 18.00 t.0 C-) 15.50 law mo z rD 15.25 a c+ Cr -5 18.60 c+ Z -13.25 DO 10.00 14.00 IUD C+ 0 =r (D c+ < .................. 0 rD,W 13.5 .00 Ln c) MILES N E 1, tdl E R 5 y C, SURFACE tEMPERATURES. JIF A, SUMMER SLACK BEFORE FLOOD k 73, -40" d73750 C17 T Ck 73" r T20 VNI @700 690 N <690 0 TRUE 700 V.- -C;v + 74* 6* -C70 '@-730 p @ 3 790 IF + 30, )7 N 7C"7rTre 70 It IIII 76* 7.34 N E W JERSEY 0 + 1 2 3 4 + + + 0* N It, U T! L M I L E 10' o5l 74' A SOCIO-ECONQMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRF.0 I FIGURE I Surface Isotherms for New York Harbor - Summer 4-335 4-192 Slack Before Flood (Public*Health Service 1953 & 1957)1 A:r SURFACE TEMPERAT-URES, *F A, SUMMER SLACK BEFORE EBB Ike C2 + -40' 7 C2 7 CD 70* Z\ 69a 0 N TRUE. + 6* + + -35' o7T (:270- % 700 %%% Al 7_ C.7 >700 7') 70* >70* 40* + + 30, 70* <709 070* 0 700 V 7`z* 75* 73 77* 76* 74* T5* NEW-.JERSEY + + 25' 0 1 4 ,AL MILES I!AUTIC C1151 74* A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTHATLANTIC, REGION] FIGURE Surface Isotherms for New York Harbor - Summer - 4-193 Slack Before Ebb (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) 4-336NW A@ SURFACE TEMPERATURES. OF W1 N T E R. SLACK BEFORE FLOOD 4@Z, N + 1-Y 41 7:3o 4, N TRUE C*) 42'-@" 4z. + + 1? 4 46;/--\ 46* 47o 47 C2 4@ c48* + + 46 1 0 44 4 o14 46 N E W JERSEY + + + 0 1 2 3 4 NAUTICAL MILES 05, 74- nN A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REG@- FIGURE I Su TR rface Isotherms for New York Harbor - Winter ? 4-194 Slack Before Flood (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957),l SURFACE TEMPERATURES. OF 380 Iz- WINTER 3,8. --Z@ SLACK BEFORE EBB C- + + --40' C311 V, .00 go 41* 4' 39 N 40 5* T UE rp 4 + + -35' TO 46,0/- > 460 460- - .450. 480 4, 500 <45, 50* 90 + --40* 30' 5* N E W JERSEY + + + + 0 1 2 3 4 A U TC A L 1 L C i 0 74* A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Surface Isotherms for New York Ha .rbor - Winter - 4-338 4-T95 Slack Before Ebb (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) n4* 7 1* k 69* 7 71* -roe 710 CO C9 A@' C@, 4c/ SJRFACE TEINIFERATURES, *F V SU"MER SLACK EEFORE FLOOD 2 3 4 5 p NAUTICAL MILES A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] FIGURE Surface Isotherms for New York Harbor - Summer 4-196 Slack Before Flood (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) 4-339 40 50 6 72* 4* <690 <710 do 00 co C, A@' A.. 71* IL SURF CE TEil, PERATURE, -F k 7,--,* SU 'I'> 11.@ E'R SLACK -,-Z-FORE EBB 72 1 2 3 4 5 H'AUTICAL MILES @kl y A "M'IO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION 4- 3@ FIGURE Surface Isotherms for New York Harbor - Summer - 4-197 Slack Before Ebb (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) lop JI >400 < 400 It's 40. 4v 0 /7 37- QO CO CO AV Nsr' A, ya X, SURFACE TEMPERATURES, *F WINTER SLACK BEFORE EBB Q 1 3 4 I" 1-. L I---- L I -N A U T IAL MILLS 0 IT A SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANDENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTICREGION FIGURE I Surface Is.otherms for New York Harbor - Winter - 4-341 4,198 Slack Before Ebb (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) A, 23 SURFACE SALINITY.%*. SUMMER SLACK BEFORE FLOOD 4V @j 9 20. 21 --40' V-, 2 22 21 N/ N TRUE 1c; + -23 %-24 26, -26.5' > 2 T5 @;,@ 26-5 >26.5 6 27-, 21 -.404 ? + >27 + 30, >26 25 <27 24.5 23fz--,---- 24 26-5 27 5 25.5 275 NEW JERSEY 29 + + + 0 4 310 NAUTICAL M L E S 05, 74* TIC REGION] A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN F E I Sur IGUR face Isohalines for New York Harbor - Summer 1 4-19 4-342 9 Slack Before Flood (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) A. SURFACE SALINITY, %9 SUMMER, 0 SLACK BEFORE EBB 20 21 + + 2 -40* 21 2 5 T UE V. M5 T. 4 + + 35' 28.5 29 29.5 CD + AOO. 2 5.5 ---29.5 2&5- 21 23- -26.5, 3. 2 Z 275 22 23@1 2 5., 24 25 23, 26Z 5, 7 -28- N E W JERSEY 0 +1 2 3 4 + + N 11, U T iLf-A I L. F S 74* A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE 1K Surface Isohalines for New York Harbor - Summer - 4-200 Slack Before Ebb (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) 4--343 14, 13- A. SURFACE SALINITY, %0 16. A, WINTER 7* SLACK BEFORE. FLOOD -k. 21 0 <2 20 + 22 21% -40' 23 N TRUE -23 + 24 <25 -25 26 27 275 28 e Al C:) >- 25 % %+ 40* 30, % 24 251% 21z --'2 4 N E @Y JERSEY 26 + + + 2 7, 0 1 3 4 A U T; C A Lfit I L E S C5. 74- A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Surface Isohalines for New York Harbor - Winter 4 344N W 1 4-201 Slack Befo.re Flood (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) 15 -16 A@r A, SURFACE. SALINITY.%* WINTER 2 ,SLACK BEFORE EBB CID '22 - + -40* V. C12 N 23-/- TRUE + -35' 25,' 24 26 27 2 2 A. C:) >25 -40* + 30' 2 25 26 N E W JERSEY + + 25' 0 3 4 NAUTICAL M i LE S 4 05, 74* A SOC10-ECONOMIC -AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Surface Isohalines for New York Harbor -m Winter - 4-345 4-202 1 Slack Before Ebb (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) 1 4r A., @@@2 7 >27 <27 12 14 16, 17 6 19 "v 0 )< 21 25 2 25 0 'Q@ >( 2324 N/ C9 24.5 C12 A@Z A, ;24 CD old 23 k . OOW SURFACE SALWTY 0/6, 2 SUMMER 1< SLACK BEFORE FLOOC 3 4 5 J-L- ",'2 NAUTICAL MILES 0. C, A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Surface Isohalines for New York Harbor - Summer ..47346 4-203 Slack Before Flood (Public Health'Service 1953 & - I W&W -1957)1 db 5 6 T IT IT to Is 24 5 21 18 19 0 21 4v A@' 0 c1d 4V 22 SURFACE SALINITY. SUMMER SLACK BEFORE EBB 0 @20 /Nli 3 4 NAUTI',.'- MiLLS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRI&gd I FIGURE I Surface Isohalines for New York Harbor - Summer - 4-347 4-204 Slack Before Ebb (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) 1 Al 4v 26.5 4 5-- 10 >1 26 15 .25 20 100 3 Cl) 4v 0.7 10 'JA N" -61 NI/ k .14 :.,16 SURFACE SALINITY' WINTER SLACK BEFORE FLOOD I it "220 2 0,---) 3 4 5 r-0 J NAUT!'-,AL MILL.S A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLMM REGI 4-348 I R" I FIGURE Surface Isohalines for New York Harbor - Winter A 4-205 1 Slack Before Flood (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) 25 4V 2 5 'po. 10 15 20 4v --g, 02 -10 A, 23 ek/ 15 3( 17''-) SURFACE SAL11 1-1 Y. WINTER o" >< SLACK BEFORE EBB 22 2 3 4 5 -1 NAUTI@;AL MILt.5 j- I A SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANDENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Surface Isohalines for New York Harbor - Winter - 4-349 4-206 Slack Before Ebb (Public Health Service 1953 & 1957) Chapter MaJor Sound and Ebayments Page Chapter 4.3 Chemical Oceanography of Coastal Waters 4 3.1 Areas of Cape Cod 4-352 Continental Shel f -South of Long Island 4-352 4.3.2 New York Bight 4-354 4.3.3 Raritan Bay 4-364 4.3.4 Long Island Sound 4-364 4.3.5 Narragan Bay 4-370 4.3.6 Massachusetts Bay 4-377 4.3.7 Cape Ann to Cape Elizabeth 4-379 4.3.8 Casco Bay to Eastport 4-395 4.3.9 References 4-406 4-351 4.3 COASTAL WATERS- 4.3.1 AREAS SOUTH OF CAPE COD Continental Shelf South of Long Island The continental shelf discussed here 1s that area@east of New Jersey and south of Long Island to Cape Cod and to a depth of about 200 meters. A review of the distribution of dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and other chemical parameters has been discussed by Kester and Courant (1973) and Smayda (1973). 'Much of their data'*was"taken from that collected in September, 1969, by the R/V Atlantis II:and summarized in a compre- hensive data report by Corwin (1970). Colton, Marak, Nickerson and. Stoddard (1968) reported dissolved oxygen data for some of this area collected by R/V Albatross IV (Figures 4-188 to 4-191). Nutrient data for a triangular set of 25 stations south of New York.have been re- ported by Ketchum, Ryther., Yentsch, and Corwin (1958); and Vaccaro (1963). Ryther and Dunstan (1971) reported some nutrient and particulate organic carbon data for surface waters on-..three transects from the New York Bight (Figure 4-43 of this report). A detailed study of the concentra- tion of urea and inorganic nitrogen Was;reported by Remson (1971), who found an average surface layer concentration of 1.32 iig-at Urea-N/liter. Harvey, Steinhauer, and Teal (1973b) reports one PCB'(polychlorinated biphenyl) concentration (29 mg/1) for surface water in the area south -of Cape Cod. Although trace metal analyses,must have been run on water from this area, none were found in our literature search. The suspended matter in the surface waters on the Atlantic continental margin has been summarized by Manh 'eim, Meade and Bond (1970). Their study was conducted during May and June, 1965, and aimed at determining the concentration by weight and composition of the suspended matter. Of the 600 total stations, 72 stations were occupied in the waters south of Cape Cod to Sandy Hook (figure 4-207). Only within a few kilometers off the coast were concentrations greater than 1.0 mg/l found. Concentrations of suspended matter in the off- shore surface waters were 0.1 mg/l or less. In general during these months, particles that escaped the estuaries tended to travel long- shoreward rather than seaward (Manheim et al. 1970). The composition of the offshore particles was greater than 65 percent cumbu'stible organic matter by:weight, and chiefly composed of amor- phou-s organic particles with widespread occurrences of soot, fly-ash, processed cellulose and other pollutants. Manheim et al. (1970) did, any quantitative data on the percentage of suspende 'd mate- rial that was pollutants, but did remark that they were particularly evident in the New York Bight area. 4-352 Cape Cod .0 P6 L -\-N y Ok -Jersey- It ape.' May .0. Y1 chasupedir Ljj@- i0o km W ape Henry A;iv,@ r Sn un d. Vito Wipe Hatteras j. . . .... . Lookout -.Capq*Fear ,P 2 Char z-- 46 0 250 f 4- TOTAL _.00 2 SUSPENDED COMBUSTIBLE MATTER ORGANIC 44j 250 1 16 (Mg/lifer) MATTER -4.0 (WEIGHT %) MINERAL -2.0 GRAIN 65 SIZE ---40 .5 :25 .425 \tq" aoe Cdnaveral, 0 Key West."' A A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Distribution of suspended matter, combustible organic 4-207 matter and particle size, N. Y. Bight to'Cape Cod (Manheim, et. al., 1970) 4-353 4.3.2 NEW YORK BIGHT The New York Bight is part of the coastal ocean overlying the continen- tal shelf between Cape May, New Jersey,and Montauk, Long Island (Figure 4-208). The Inner New York Bight covers an area of about 650 sq km (Figure 4-208) and is of major interest because of the extensive dump- ing in this area. The New York Harbor with its mouth between the sand spits on the New Jersey and Long Island coasts has an area of about 390 sq km (Gross, 1972). The flow of the two major rivers (Hudson and Raritan) into the Bight v&ries seasonally from less than 0.6 x 109 to greater than 3.68 x 107 mJ per day (Pararas- Carayannis, 1973). About 50 percent of the annual total river discharge occurs in,the spring between late March and the end of May. A study by Ketchum, Redfield and Ayers (1951) showed that when the river flow is high there are steadystate, predict- able oceanographic conditions; whereas when river flow is low, the patterns are changeable and unpredictable. Surface waters in the Bight generally move southward, more or less parallel to the shoreline (Bumpus and Lauzier, 1965); while near-bottom water movement over the inner shelf is directed toward the New York Harbor or nearby shoreline (Bumpus, 1965). Ketchum et al. (1951) found that there is an active circulation pattern in the bight that tends to.remove pollutants from the area. They estimated the flushing rate to be on the order of 6 to 10 days. It appears to be dependent upon the tidal oscillations, but independent of the river flow. This is not surprising, since the water flow through this area is 50 to more than 200 times the incoming river flow. For a detailed summary of the circulation in the Bight area see Pararas- Carayannis (1973). The New Yor',@ area has been a region of intensive oceanographic sLudy because of man's dumping activities and the proximity of numerous laboratories. Over 900 publications are available relating to this area (Ali, Hardy,.Baylor, and Gross, 1973). Some 'of the most recent studies include the Technical Reports from SUNY at Stony Brook (Bowman and,Weyl, 1972), the reports from the Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory (1972), and an excellent survey-summary from the Army Corps of Engineers (Pararas- Carayannis, 1973). Physical-chemical studies of this area, including.temperature, salinity, dissolved oxygen, and iron were done by Ketchum et 61.. (1951). Some of this data is shown in Figure 4-209. The most recent, detailed study of the chemistry of the area has been done by Sandy Hook Laboratory (1972). They determined concentration of total iron., chlorophyll, ni- trate, phosphate (ortho-, organic, meta-, and total), dissolved oxygen, pH for the water column, as well as trace metal concentration in sedi- ment. Station locations for the Sandy Hook Laboratory study and loca- tion of the va.rious dump areas are given in Figure 4-208. The ranges they found for individual parameters are given in Table 4-39. 4-354 MASSACHUSETTS 42- CONNECTICUT is 69 NEW YORK PENNSYLVANIA STATEN BROOKLYN IS kl." LONG BEACH NEW SERSEY 0"I LOWER SAY SANDY Art,##rlc ocrA# HOOK @DIEI,A*JiRE NIA,RYL ANDL- - - - - - ATLANTIC HIGHLANDS C)\ 7- + VA LONG BRANCH ?A- 70. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RE ION] 7G 1 FIGURE New York Bight 4-208 (Williams and Dunne, 1969) 4-355 The concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the area around the Bight dumping grounds varies with proximity to dump sites and seasonally (Figures 4-209 and,4-210). The reduction of DO in the bot- tom waters has been correlated with the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of organic-rich waste materials (Pararas-Carayannis, 1973). According to the Sandy Hook Laboratory study (1972) the range of DO is from less than 2.0 to 15.2 ppm during the year with the lowest values found near the bottom during the late summer and the highest values during late winter early spring. The lower level is insufficient to support many forms of life. As with DO, the nutrient concentrations vary in the Bight area de- pending on the season and proximity to dump areas. The concentration range for the nitrate and the phosphate nutrients found by Sandy Hook Laboratory are given in Table 4-39. The input of nutrients to the Bight area are included in the 4 billion kiloliters of waste material that enter the New York Bight on a daily basis. This includes some 90 metric tons of nitrogen and 36 metric tons of phosphorus (Ryther and Dunstan, 1971). Approximately half of the phosphorus entering the system is in excess of that amount required by the phytoplankton. As a consequence, phosphate can be used as a convenient index of organic pollution (Ryther and Dunstan, 1971).. Phosphorous is abundant in the sewage sludges, where much of it comes from domestic detergents, and can be used in following movements of contaminated water.. Because of the prevailing currents, the concentra- tion of phosphate remains high along the New Jersey coast (Figure 4-211 ). Concentrations of orthophosphate have been found up to 5.6 pg-at POrP liters in some dump areas while outside the dumping grounds values o 0.2 to 0.9 pg-at P04-P liters were found (Sandy Hook Labora- tory 1972). The concentration of nitrate-nitrogen sometimes approaches zero in surface waters even though there is still phosphorus remaining in the water. The available nitrogen (as nitrate, nitrite and ammonia) seems to be utilized by microorganisms in the Bight as quickly as it becomes available, and the only really high values are seen in New York Harbor and Raritan Bay. The ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus (by atoms) is commonly 12:1 to 15:1 for offshore waters and the average phytoplankton cell has a ratio of 15:1. The N:P ratios for dumping areas are lower, on the average, than elsewhere in the Bight, ranging from 0 to 14.4 for surface waters and 0 to 7.7 for bottom waters. Sewage itself, depending on the extent of primary or secondary treatment, has N:P ratios (by atom) of 5.4:1 to 5.8:1 (Ryther and Dunstan, 1971). The low ratios are due to higher phosphate concentrations rather than to.lower nitrogen values (Pararas- Carayannis, 1973). 4-356 The concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the area around the Bight dumping grounds varies with proximity to dump sites and seasonally (Figures 4-209 and 4-210). The reduction of DO in the bot- tom waters has been correlated with the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of organic-rich waste materials (Pararas-Carayannis, 1973). According to the Sandy Hook Laboratory study ('1972) the range of DOis from less than 2.0 to 15.2 ppm during the year with the lowest values during late winter early spring. The lower level is insufficient to support many forms of life. As with DO, the nutrient concentrations vary in the-Bight area de- pending on the season and proximity to dump areas. The concentration range for the nitrate and the phosphate nutrients found by Sandy Hook Laboratory are given in Table 4-39. The'input of nutrients to the Bight area are included in the 4 Billion kiloliters of waste material that enter the New York Bight on a daily basis. This includes some 90 metric tons of nitrogen and 36 metric tons of phosphorus (Ryther and Dunstan, 1971). Approximately half of the phosphorus entering The system is in excess of that amount required by the phytoplankton. As a consequence, phosphate can be used as a convenient Index of organic pollution (Ryther and Dunstan, 1971). Phosphorus is abundant in the sewage-sludges, where much of it comes from domestic detergents, and can be used in following movements of contaminated water. Because of the prevailing currents, the concentra- tion of phosphate remains high along the new Jersey coast (Figure 4-211). Concentrations of orthophosphate have been found up to 5.6 1_357 34 - SCOTLAND LIGHT SOUTHEAST CORNER 0 32 - 30 - -j 28 Cn 26 20 0 W 15 ir 10 Uj CL 7 E z Uj 6 x 0 Z 120 0 Z Uj (X 100 0 (n so 75 50 z 0 25 * SURFACE * BOTTOM 0 r I I . -- . -1 1 1 1 1 1 1 'L -1 -L .A. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV. FEB. MAR. APR. MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT. OCT. NOV, -0"'@@SOU@THEAST @CORN@ER [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANT FIGURE Seasonal Variations of Certain Physical Properties at Two Stations in the New York Bight A n 4-209 (Ketchum et al., 1951) U -0-35 0 5 0 DEPTH 100 9.01 SURFACE D15,50L VE-D OXYGEN 0 27 AUG. 1969 0 0 0.0- N0.,-0 OSLICK 6 0 --@- 0 0 4 BOTTOM" 2 SPOIL SLUDGE AREA 01 5 10 M1LE5F1?01V Nd SHOI?E A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Dissolved Oxygen Content of Surface Water and Water 4-210 3 Feet Off Bottom Tlwl (Ketchum et al., 1970) 4r 76, 74* Yr 70, J'' of 1507., 1503 J502 1501 1500 50 1505. 1540 Or - 1506 1516 1514 1517 oop 1547 1524 A A 76* 74' Ir 70' *0 30 Seetkn 2 to section 2 Soctio" 3 Section 3 . .. ....... 50 100 150 200 "m m*mr York "Qrbw so ISO 200 Win from N" York Harbor Stetion 3 4 Section 2 0 100 ISO 200 Was from New York Harbor 50' 1-3 3 E C S.Itiol 3 A SOCIIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION JRJ@R FIGURE Distribution of Phosphate Inorganic Nitrogen and 4-360 Particulate-Organic Carbon (Ry'ther, J. H. and 4-21.1 E'. Dunstan, 1971') Table. 4 -39 Ranges o[Chernical Data -Measurements Near the New York Durnping, Grounds. Chemical Variable i! Ranoe Total iron 0 to 37.3 pg-at/1* ChlorophN 11-a 0.38 to 33.3 gg-at/1 Nitrate 0 to 3.28 Wg-atj1 Orthophosphate 0.02 to 5.64 pg-at/1 Organic phosphate 0.04 to 2.28 p-at/1 IvIletap1hosphate 0.01 to 2.35 pg-at/1 Total phosphate 0.84 to 7.48 Mg-at/1 Dissolved oxygen 2.0 to 15.2 ppm t pH 7.1-0 to 8.40 Lead in sedinient 0.55 to 249 ppin. if Copper in sediment ;1 1 0.013 to. 31338 ppm N -.11iOnIlUni ii sediment 0.25 to 197 ppm micro -gra ni-at or"I per 'Liter after SHL.1972 t parts per rri-1110.11 4-361 A number of other chemical species have been measured in the New York Bight area. Iron, for example, is contained in acid wastes (8.5 per- cent sulfuric acid and 10 percent.ferrous sulfate in solution) that are dumped in the Bight. The acid is quickly neutralized by seawater and the ferrous iron is oxidized to ferric iron and precipitates as an iron hydroxide. The amount of iron dumped in the area has increased from 60 tons per day in 1948 to 229 tons per day in 1969 and 1970 with subsequent maximum dissolved iron concentrations of 1 jig-at/1 in 1950 to 8.9 pg-at/l in 1969 and 1970 (Pararas-Carayannis, 1973). Sandy Hook Laboratory (1972) found the total concentration of iron for surface, mid-depth and bottom water to average 0.46 to 3.42 pg-at Fe/l with the highest values in the bottom water. The iron-rich deposits appear to be spread along the bottom by bottom currents which are associated with an increase in bottom turbidity. The average iron concentration at mid- depth is shown in Figure 4-212. The concentrations of many trace metals in sewage sludge, spoils and other waste materials are known (Gross, 1970; Train, Cahn and Mac- Donald, 1970). Their concentrations have been measured in the sedi- ments of the Bight dumping area by Gross, Black, Kalin, Schramel and Smith (1971) who felt that because of the low extraction efficiency of trace metals from sediments using hot hydrochloric acid, very little amounts of trace metals in sediments would move in-to the water column above. Although Sandy Hook Laboratory (1972) reports that some metals in the water column such as copper, lead, chromium, and mercury appear to originate from the dump sites, this conclusion appears to,be a matter of debate (Pararas-Carayannis, 1973). The concentrations of polychlorinated bi.phenyls (PCB) in near surface waters in 1971 have been reported to be in the range of 0.12 to 0.49 pg/liter (Dr. Terry Bidleman, URI, personal communication). The aver- age concentration in the surface layers was 0.43 pg/liter (ppb) while subsurface concentrations were less, with an average of 0.20 pg/liter. Bidleman feels that the values today are probably substantially lower than those reported for 1971. Particulate matter studies in the New York Bight area have been re- stricted to dissolved iron @(Ketchum, et al, 1951; and Redfield and Walford, 1951). Studies conducted by the Sandy Hook Laboratory (1972) have included total iron and turbidity. Walter (1961) analyzed the organic components of suspended solid material in sewage sludge dumped in this area. These studies have been summarized in Pararas-Carayannis (1973). He concludes that turbidity in the New York Bight waters is due to both fine-grained suspended matter (clay, silt and finely- divided organic matter) and ferric hydroxide floc from the disposal of acid wastes. The effects of increased turbidity due to the ocean dumping of waste material on the water quality and the primary produc- tivity of the New York Bight were not considered adverse or lasting , (Pararas-Carayannis, 1973). The greatest source of settleable solids to 4-362 r AMBROSE 0 400 30'N - 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0,9 2.0 0.9 019 1.0 0 40 400 70'N 740 00'W 0 A 7 3 0 30'W A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE [Total Iron Mid-Water'Depth Average by Station 4-212 (SHL, 1972) 4-363 the New York Bight area is ocean dumping (Gross, 1970). Fine-grained dredge wastes, which constitute about 76 percent of the total wastes dumped (Gross, 1972), exceed the input of any river on the U. S. Atlantic coast (Holeman, 1968). The distribution of particulate organic carbon for surface waters of the New York Bight and adjacent continental shelf areas indicates a rapid decrease in the weight of DOC per liter in an offshore direction, but a high level of concentration along the New Jersey shore (Figure 4-211d). 4.3.3 RARITAN BAY Raritan Bay is a heavily polluted estuary surrounded by an intensely developed area. It is a triangular-shaped bay, occupying about 190 sq km, consisting of the Raritan River and Arthur Kill to the west, the bay itself and the Narrows to the east. This area receives about 1,500 million gallons of wastes per day containing over 1,300,000 pounds of BOD. Although most of the waste volume is from industry (about 75 per- cent), the major impact on the estuary is from the nutrient and bacteri- ological content of the municipal sewage (Anon., 1970). As a consequence of this pollution, Raritan Bay has high concentrations of nutrients, and very low dissolved oxygen values which reach zero in parts of the rivers during the summer. It is assumed that little of the suspended sediment in the outflows of the Raritan River reaches the New York Bight; however, this may not be true under heavy rainfall and storm conditions (Pararas-,Carayannis, 1973). Jefferies (1962) studied both chemical and physical aspects of the Bay on a seasonal basis. His data and others are summarized by Kester and Courant (1973) and Smayda (1973). The pollution problem of Raritan Bay has been discussed in more detail by Anon. (1967). 4.3.4 LONG ISLAND SOUND, Long Island Sound is a semi-enclosed body of water approximately 166 nautical km long and a maximum of 28 km wide. It has an area of about 2413 sq km (Riley, 1955). The mean depth is 20 m, with a maximum depth up to 35 m in the west and central basins and up to 100 m in the eastern Sound. The major.rivers, the Connecticut and the Thames are along the north shore. There is a net-surface flow of water toward the eastern end of the Sound due to these rivers which discharge along the northern shore. Compensating bottom currents flow into the Sound from the eastern end. The distribution of hydrographic parameters, dissolved oxygen, and nutrients in Long Island Sound were studied in detail by G. A. Riley and his co-workers at the Bingham Oceanographic Laboratory of Yale University during the 1950's (Riley 1952, 1955, 1959). The SUNY at 4-364 Stony Brook Technical Report Series (Hardy, 1972,.and others) pro- vide more recent data on the Sound. Kester and Courant (1973) and Smayda (1973) have reviewed the dissolved oxygen and nutrient distri- butions in the API Report. The seasonal variations of several chemical parameters are shown in Figure 4-213 and summarized in Table 4-40. Table 4-40 Comparison of chemical data obtained in Long Island Sound in 1952 and 1969. Riley and Conover (1956) Hardy (1970) Constituent June 1952 October 1952 July 1969 October 1969 Phosphate (jig at/l 0.2 0.5 0.5 - 2.5 0.9 - 1.6 1.0 3.0 Nitrate (jig at/l 0.2 - '@3.0 1 - 15 0.9 - 2.0 1.8 6.0 Chlorophyll a (jig/l) 3 - 15 2 - 4 3 -15 3 7 There is a major influx of nutrients and high BOD material at the west- ern end of the Sound from sewage that is emptied into the East River. There is a similar but lesser input of sewage at the mouth of the Con- necticut River. Szechtman (1972) found that the East River is the major source of phosphate to the Sound (62 percent of the total; 57.5 percent comes from New York City Sewage Treatment plants) compared with the sewage treatment plants around the Sound which input 19.2 percent, and land runoff input of 18.8 percent. During the summer of 1969 con- centrations of phosphate ranged from 11.6 jig-at P04-P/1 at the narrow western end of the Sound, about 6 jig/at P04-P/1 south of Greenwich, Connecticut, and dropped down to about 1 jig-at P04-P/liter at the ex- treme east end of the Sound (Szechtman, 1972). Although Kester and Courant (1973) suggested that there does not appear to have been signi- ficant changes in nutrient data since the 1950's (Table 4-40), Szechtman (1972) found a 100 percent or more increase in phosphate con- centration throughout t.he Sound since 1952. This is shown graphically in Figure 4-214 for the summer phosphate data; similar trends were seen for the fall data. Other chemical components in the Long Island Sound waters have been studied. Wangersky (1959) studied the concentrations of dissolved 4-365 'SURFACE VALUES 10 OXYGEN (MI/1) 8 6 4 2 0 3 PHOSPHATE 2 (jig-at/l) 1 0 NITRATE 15 (jig-at 10 5 0 30 -CHLOROPHYLL 20 (jig at /1) 10 @O MAMJJA SO N D J FM A MJ J ASO N D J FM 1952 1953 1954 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION IRrfa FIGURE I Seasonal Variations in Chemical Parameters in Long 4-213 Island Sound (Riley and Conover, 1956) 4-366 SUMMER PHOSPHATE GRADIENT .............. .1969 STONYBROOK,DATA 1952 RILEY DATA 3 AL CL 2 Cl. .............. .................................... 0 4J ........... A ........... 50' 40' 30' 20' 10, 730-00' 50', 40' 30' 20' LONGITUDE A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Summer Phosphate Gradient 4-214 4-367' carbohydrates and found none during the spring diatom bloom but found values of 0.5 to 1.5 mg/l in late July after dinoflagellate bloom. He concluded that carbohydrates are probably used as fast as they are re- leased. Turekian (1971) discussed the silicon budget of Long Island Sound and found that silicon is being "pumped" from the open ocean by currents into the sediments of the Sound, presumably by biological removal. He also studied the specific alkalinity and found a slight increase with decreasing chlorosity, showing the influence of dilution by streams. He was unable to detect alkalinity removal by clay mineral reactions by using the specific alkalinity measurements. There are numerous inlets and coastal salt ponds along both the north and south coasts of Long Island Sound. The biology and chemistry of many of these have been covere'd in Smayda (1973). The water quality of a number of the harbor areas along the north shore of Long Island during the summer and fall has been reported by Gross, Davies, Lin, and Loeffler (1972). They concluded that ammonia and dissolved oxygen were the two most useful chemical parameters in measuring water quality; they also measured nitrate, nitrite, and phosphate. For ammonia, they reported average values ranging from 2.9 to 35 pg-at NH3-N/liter. All s'even harbors studied have some local ammonia sources. Pollution problems of Great South Bay.on the north east end of Long Island are discussed by Foehrenbach (1969).. The distribution of trace metals in Long Island Sound have been studied in detail by Turekian (1971) and Fitzgerald, Hunt, Lyons and Szechtman (1973). Fitzgerald et al. (1973) studied the distribution of'copper, lead, cadmium, nickel, and zinc in the eastern region of Long Island Sound. The distribution of these trace metals was controlled by the water circulation dynamics. They found that the most significant input was from the Connecticut River with little input from the central Sound waters. Lead and copper appear to be released from suspended matter and are organically associated. The concentrations and the distribu- tion of the trace metals was comparable to other well-flushed conti- nental shelf regions of the eastern U. S. (Fitzgerald et al., 1973). Lead and cadmium concentrations off the mouth of the Connecticut River appear to be lower than the typical world river concentrations (Riley and Chester, 1971), while the copper concentrations are average for the typical river. Concentrations in the Sound during August, 1972 and February, 1973 were about 1.!A Cu/liter, o.3 pg Pb/liter and 0.1 pg Cd/liter. A significant fraction of the copper, about 50 percent, in the Sound and Connecticut River is associated with acid leachable material, 4-368 while 20 to 30 percent of the copper is organically associated, which agrees with Williams (1969); the remainder is in a soluble form. Lead concentrations in the Eastern Sound are higher than in the open ocean, 0.3 ijg Pb/l''versus 0.07 lig Pb/l (Chow and Patterson, 1966). This increased amount appears to be related to the input of freshwater. About 80 percent is associated with leachable material and the rest as soluble forms. Cadmium concentrations in the Sound compare with other nearshore waters. Preston, Jefferies, Dutton, Harvey and.Steele (1972) found little association with suspended matter. Fitzgerald et al. (1973) have summarized the transport and removal mechanisms for trace elements in the Eastern Sound. They found that a major fraction of the copper is transported within the crystalline. structure of suspended sediments; this is in agreement with Gibbs (1973). Fitzgerald et al. (1973) found that low suspended sediment concentra- tions were associated with low metal concentrations. The relationships between lead and copper concentrations, and salinity suggest that the most important removal process of copper is by settlement of the mate- rial carrying the metal. Concentrations of nickel and zinc in the Eastern Long Island Sound were studied in October, 1972 (Fitzgerald et al., 1973). Average con- centrations were 1.7 pg Ni/l (with a range of 1.0 to 2.0 pg Ni/1) and 3.0 pg Zn/l (with a range of 0.8 to 6.4 pg Zn/1) respectively. These concentrations compare favorably with those reported in the Gulf of Maine by Spencer and Brewer (1968). The distribution of Ni has been studied by Turekian (1971) in Long Island Sound in which he found higher concentrations than Fitzgerald et al.. (1973) for the eastern Sound (1.9 to 5.9 lig/1 versus 1.0 to 2.0 pg/1). Turekian found a range of 0.13 to 10 11g/l in western Long Island Sound and 3.9 to 5.0 pg/1 in the central Sound for nickel. Turekian (1971) indicates the Sound is a sink for nickel with an input from Block Island Sound. This conclusion has been disputed by Fitz- gerald et al. (1973). Total mercury concentrations in the eastern Sound ranged from 0.045 to 0.078 pg/l (Fitzgerald et al., 1973). They found that 50 to 60 percent of the mercury may exist either in association with organic matter or as organic compounds. The transport and removal mechanisms for trace metals in sea water are complex and the ultimate fate of mercury, as well as the other metals, will depend upon their physical and chemical form (Fitzgerald et al., 1973). The effects of trace metals on marine phytoplankton have been sum- marized by Rice, Leighty, and McLeod (1973) in an excellent review paper which covers work conducted in this area as well as the rest of the world. 369 Measurements of suspended matter have been made in Long Island Sound by Riley (1959), Riley and Schurr (1959), and Bohlen (1973). Riley (1959) found that particulate-ma-tter concentrations for the south-central Long Island'Sound in 35 m of water varied from about 2.0 mg/l to 7.5 mg/l. Particulate organic matter varied within narrow limits (1.2 to 3.1 mg/1). The fraction of living organic matter, as indicated by chlorophyll concentrations, varied from 70 percent during blooms in February and September to an average of 37 percent during April to July. From Fig. 4-215 it appears that the organic matter fraction (living and detritus) make up only about 50 percent by weight of the total suspended matter population in Long Island Sound. A total of 888 Secchi-disc readings were analyzed by Riley (1956) and Riley and Schurr (1959). Secchi-disc readings varied in general from 1 to 5 m. Minimal readings recorded were as little as 0.2 m during heavy plankton blooms and during high runoff. Maximum values recorded were about 9 m. The clearest water was found in the eastern end.of the Sound whereas Secchi-disc readings of less than 0.5 m are common in the East River at the western end of the Sound (Bowman, personal communication, 1973). Riley (1956) found in preliminary analyses that phytoplankton account- ed for 33 percent of the total light extinction. The remaining two- thirds he attributed to effects of dissolved substances, river-de- rived silt, bottom sediment in suspension, and the water itself. Bohlen (1973) conducted a baseline investigation of near-surface and near-bottom, suspended-matter transport in Eastern Long Island Sound (Fig. 4-216). Average concentrations ranged from 15mg/l near the Connecticut River to less than 5 mg/l in the deeper waters of the Sound (Fig. 4-217). From Bohlen's data a simple seasonal cycle of suspended matter was not evident. periodic storm events were gen- erally the cause for the increased concentrations of suspended matter. In general the bottom concentrations by weight were higher than cor- responding surface values. 4.3.5 NARRAGANSETT BAY Narragansett Bay has an area of about 100 sq. miles with a north-south length of about 26 miles and an east-west width of about 4 to 5 miles. The mean depths for the Bay are 10 m overall, 7 m for West Passage and 18 m for East Passage (Hicks, 1959). Kester and Courant (1973) and Smayda (1973) have summarized the available dissolved oxygen, nutrient and trace-metal information on Narragansett Bay. Consequently only a few trends are reported herein. The east-west gradients of various parameters are small compared to TOTAL 6 4 ORGANIC MATTER I.0 4k 2 St 111100* 0 30 20 10 0 1 F M A m A s 0 N D i 1957 1956 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC @TR FIGURE I leasonal Cycle of Total Particulate Matter and Organic 4-215 Matter and Chlorophyll (Riley, G. A., 1959) 4-371 > 0 0 C) N) CON N ECTICUT 0 C+ C-+ CD STUDY L ONG /s@ AREA A /VD @ftNj .j Ln (D r- too- 200. STATION 4 STATION 4 too- SURIFACE 1W BOTTOM to- O'N D' J'F'M'A M'J A'S'O'N'D',J 0'N'DVF'W AW XJ A'S'O'N'D'J r zoo- 200- too. too. STATION 6 STATION 6 S U R FA CE BOTTOM cn P 10 to- elf Z: 'F'M @3 O'N'D'7 0'N'0'J'F'k A N'D J' zoo- too - too- too- STATION 7 STATION 7 SURFACE BOTTOM to- to- VN b @J T' 'M'J TJ'A'S'U"-N -DV 0'N'DiJ'FVA'M'J'J'A'-S 0 'ND J 200- zoo- too- foo- STATION 10 STATION 10 SURFACE BOTTOM to- to- O'NfD J'F i@-4 jZJ'J A'S'O N'D'J' O'N'D'J 'M'A'M'J'J'A'.-)'drt-4 @DJ MONTH 1971-1972 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTICC REGON PGUR E Suspended Material Concentr ations 4-217 1 (Bohlen, 1973) north-south variations. There is greater biological activity at the head of the Bay resulting in higher surface oxygen values than at the mouth. There is excess phosphate added to the Bay and values are high at the head and seasonably variable (often higher in summer than in winter). Nitrate may be a limiting nutrient at certain times of the year. Silicate is not detectable during winter and spring and then reaches an annual maximum during-July. The annual nutrient distribu- tion is atypical for coastal waters and is discussed in more detail by Smayda (1973) and Pratt (1965). The annual cycle of biologically active components off Narragansett are more typical of coastal waters and are discussed by Smayda (1973). Kester and Courant (1973) report that there is a significant increase in concentrations of manganese, nickel, copper, and zinc near the head-of the Bay as a result of in- dustrial and domestic input. Morton (1967) studied the distribution of suspended-matter concentra- tions by weight in Narragansett Bay and Rhode Island Sound. The Narragansett Bay data were collected during October and November, 1965; whereas the Rhode Island Sound data were collected during January, 1966. A water turbidity study of Narragansett Bay was made by Schenck and Davis (1973) during the summer months (July-August) of 1971. Morton (1967) found that the spatial distribution varied 4.5 times greater than the tidal distribution; therefore, he felt his data were representative of the autumn months and not significantly affected by short-period tidal variations. The distribution of suspended- matter concentrations by weight showed a seaward decrease in the East and West Passages with concentrations ranging from 4.7 mg/l at PR-2 to 0.86 mg/l at EP-3 and 1.5 mg1l at WP-4 (Fig-. 4-218b). The Sakonnet River, on the other hand, had large fluctuations of sediment concen- trations in the central portion of the Bay with low concentrations in the Tauton River and seaward extent of the Bay. In the central por- tion of the Bay concentrations ranged from 2.3 mg/l to 6.2 mg1l (Fig. 4-218b). The tidal data presented by Morton (1967) suggest the con- centration fluctuations are because of tidal motion (Fig..4-218a). The suface concentrations are generally highest near low tide and lowest near high tide. This is due to a horizontal concentration gra- dient in the surface water. The bottom concentrations appear to be controlled by bottom-current speeds rather than by tidal height. Schenck and Davis (1973) observed similar spatial changes in water turbidity for Narragansett Bay and also noted wedges of clear water at intermediate depths. These wedges were most prevalent at the southern end of the Bay. Suspended-sediment samples (8) coll.ected in Rhode Island Sound indicate a relatively large amount of suspended matter is bypassing the Bay environment (Morton, 1967). The surface concentrations appear to be 4-374 TAUNTON RIVER SAKONNET RIVER A- 2- YOH T -2 SA-0 Ift-2 M1-I 0 PROVIDENCE @IVER EAST PASSAGE 00- 4- ZO "-I PR-z "-3 ap-I 0 1 @;GA . M-I 12- PROVIDENC RIVER WEST PASSAGE 10- SURFACE 41- BOTTOM 6- 4 PR-2 2 Ll- 41049' 40745" 4 1 @740' I 41@0- 1 4102.5' MINUTES OF LATITUDE A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORYOF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION -T "-3 FIGURE Spatial Distribution of Suspended Sediment 4-218b (Morton, R. W., 1967) !1-375 4 SURFACE BOTTOM o 2- TIDE -.5!: 0- 0 or 0800 1200 '00 2000 2400 0400 0800 1200 1600 NOV 1. 1965 TIME (hml NOV. 2, 1965 -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC A SOCIO REGION TR FIGURE 1me Variation of Suspended Sediment 4-218a (Morton, R. W., 1967) largely controlled by the cyclonic circulation pattern observed by McMaster (1960). Most of the more turbid water probably originated in Buzzards Bay (Fig. 4-219). Turbid water originating from Narragan- sett Bay is probably transported westward by this current pattern (Morton, 1967). The estuaries feeding into the Gulf of Maine can be categorized into two major groups. Those north of Casco Bay are generally deep with only minor marginal tidal-flat areas. The estuaries south of Casco- Bay are generally shallower with extensive tidal flats or marshlands. Because they are semi-sheltered, these coastal bays and estuaries are subject to a greater range of physical and chemical changes during the year than deeper waters offshore. There are large seasonal influxes of fresh water from local rivers that will vary the salinity and temperature. As a result, there are changes in the suspended matter, large seasonal amounts of nutrients, and pollutants added to these waters. The turbidity in the shallow types of estuaries is complex as resus- pension by wind-wave activity is significant (Anderson, 1973). In salt marsh estuaries organic matter and local productivity are important sources of the suspended matter (Odum and de la Cruz, 1967). In the .estuaries north of Casco Bay the primary sources, river discharge, pro- ductivity, and saltwater intrusion, generally control the distribution of suspended sediment and its periodicity. Because the inshore waters tend to warm rapidly in the early spring, the plankton blooms start there and move offshore as the water columns become stratified. In some of these waters very strong thermal stratification may occur dur- ing summer and nutrients may become limiting. Exceptions to this are the estuaries that have strong tidal currents which tend to keep the water column well mixed (for example, the Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire). This happens in many of the estuaries north of Cape Ann because of the increased tidal ranges toward the Bay of Fundy. 4.3.6 MASSACHUSETTS BAY Massachusetts Bay is bordered on the south by Cape Cod and on the north by Cape Ann. Chemical oceanographic parameters have been mea- sured by MIT from 1970 to 1973 (Frankel and Pearce, 1973). Water- quality measurements of Boston Harbor have been collected by the New England Aquarium (McLeod, 1973). Limited water-quality data for.Quincy Bay (Jerome, Chesmore and Anderson, 1966), Dorchester Bay (Chesmore, Testaverde and Richards, 1971), and Lynn-Saugus Harbor (Chesmore, Brown and Anderson, 1972) has been collected by the Massachusetts Department of Natural Resources, Division of Marine Fisheries. Both nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations are hiqhest in the Inner Boston Harbor. This is because of the high amount of untreated sewage 4-377 Conan tit Istind)... Aqui6.f -4d@ Island lot, x x Pt. Judith x 3 x x x X"@ A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION]' TRJ(@W FIGURE @Distribution of Suspended Sediment in,Rhode Island P Sound 4-219 (Morton, R. W., 1967) in the Mystic, Charles and Chelsea Rivers (McLeod. 1973). There is a' seasonal cycle of nitrogen and phosphorus which is associated with phytoplankton productivity (Fig. 4-220). The spring bloom (high con- centrations of chlorophyll) depletes the nutrient level, with nitrates becoming the limiting nutrient. Annual ranges for nutrients, dis- solved oxygen and biological parameters are reported in Table 4-41 and 4-42. The waters in the Outer Harbor are generally well mixed with-respect to dissolved oxygen. However, supersaturation conditions are some- times found as a result of photosynthetic activity and are associated with high chlorophyll concentrations. The dissolved-oxygen content in the Inner Harbor waters is complex because of the input of freshwater and its subsequent effects. Data from Quincy Bay and Dorchester Bay fall within similar ranges as those found by McLeod (1973) for Boston Harbor. Extensive nutrient, total suspended solids with percent organics, and turbidity data have been presented in a data report prepared by Frankel and Pearce (1973). The data-were collected for the New England Off- shore Mining Environment Study (NOMES) and a baseline study of Massa- chusetts Bay waters (Fig. 4-221). Collections were made in February through June, and August, 1973. Nutrient concentrations decreased in an offshore direction from Boston Harbor (Fig. 4-222). This trend is complicated by seasonal variations associated with the cycle of phytoplankton growth (Fig. 4-223). The lowest concentrations occurred during t 'he spring phytoplankton bloom in late April. Nitrate,was found to be the limiting nutrient. These observations are cons Iistent with those observed in other coastal envi- ronments of New England. The suspended-matter concentrations ranged from about 8 mg/l to 0.5 mg/l in an offshore direction (Fig. 4-224). Outside Boston Harbor the month to month variability of concentrations at any particular station was about 3 mg/l. Near Boston Harbor tidal variations were evident with ranges similar to those observed by McLeod (1973). (Table 4-43). 4.3.7 CAPE ANN TO CAPE ELIZABETH The coastal area northof Cape Ann to Cape Elizabeth has two major estuaries, the Merrimack and the Great Bay, which are located near Cape Ann. North of the New Hampshire coast, there are few estuaries and the coastline is generally,a mixture of rocky coast and sand beaches. Limited dissolved oxygen and nutrient,data are, available,for the New 4-379 STATION 7 SURFACE 1970-1971 DISSOLVED OXYGEN -T- 14- 12- 10. CD E 6- 4- Measured values of dissolved oxygen in sea water Saturation values of dissolved oxygen 2 in sea water from normal dry atmosphere JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC JW FEB MAR APR MAY TIME IN MONTHS STATION 7 SURFACE 1971-1972 ORTHOPHOSPHATE 0.18- 0.16- 0.14- -J 0.12 - CY) E 0.10- 0.0s- OM6 (NO DATA) 0.04- 0.02- SEPT OCT AUG NOV DEC 1 JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUNE TIME IN MONTHS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTA;, INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE w 4-220 Phytoplankton Productivity in the Inner Boston Harbor 4-380 a/b (McLeod, G., 1973) STATION 7 SURFACE 1971-1972 NITRATE 0.8- 0.7- 0.6- z 0.5- E 0.4- (no data) 03- 0.2- oj - JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV I DEC I JAN FEB MAR APR MAY J TIME IN MONTHS STATION 7 SURFACE 1971-1972 CHLOROPHYLL A 40- 30- _j =L 20- 10- (no data) JULY AUG SEPT OCT I NOV I DEC JAN FEB MAR I APR MAY I 55NE TIME IN MONTHS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE TRq a 4-220 Phytoplankton Productivity in the Inner Boston Ha or c/d (McLeod, G,, 1973)@. 4- 381 TAWX 4 4 BOSTON HARBOR SURVEYS 1967-1969 Maximum-Minimum Values @hyqical Parametern 1967 1968 1969 Little seasonal charge. Are at a Turbidity maximum in vicinity of sewage Color outfalls Suspended Solids T' C. Salinity 27-28.5% 29.7-31.3 - Chemical 5.0 - 615 5.0 6.5 5.7 9.1 D.O. (ppm) Nitro@.,en mqll. Amonia - N 0.1 - 0.3 Nitrate - N <0.1 0.03-0.08 0.03-0.11 Organic - N 00.5 Pho sphorus rrq/l. Total - P 0.06-0.12, 0.07-0-15 soluble - 0 0.03-0.08 Orthophosphate 0.12-0.65 Organic Carbon % (Bottom Deposits) 4% Radioactivity Uranium mg/l. 2.7-4.4 Radium pico- curies/I. Strontium , pico- curies/I. 19-85 Lead picocuries A. barely detectable Biological phytoplank,ton >1000/ml 50-0/hil Sent'hic Population 5165/sq.ft. 179/sq.ft. Bacterial Cts. (Coliform) TA-9 LE 4-42 NEA DATA SET 1970-1972 Mininum-vaxi:7.un Valoes Khylical Parameteri River Corz>_!eX Cuter Fartpr Out%ide HArbor T*, C. 0-21 0-22 0-20.5 Salinity, ppt 4-32 21-34 29-34 Chemical D.O., PPM 2.41-11.49 6.02-14.0 6.48-12.65 Nitrogen Mg/I A::=.nia N 0.01-i.10 0.01-1.02 0.01-0.40 Nitrate N .002-1.24 .001-.5io .002-.940 Organic U Phosphorus mg./l Total 0.05-1.02 .024-1.33 .010-.133 Ortho .007-.924 .010-1.17 .018-.082 Bioloaical Bacterial cts. (coliform) 0-96,000 0-10,000 0-4,200 It-382 ?04 MASSACHUSETTS BAY PROJECT- WATER OUALITY DATA dot. 42' 23' -0- (8) Whistle 5 (11) (13) (14) +(5) + Gong NC A2 Al A4 Finns +(12) Ledge (6) Ligit Ship [f osftion (new) No 0: m m:E Buo + (10) A An It E 13 1 eerlsland 3 1/2 Fat om EA 42' 20' (3) Ledge + (15) (2) Li@ht Ship + + + lRecta Poiition (old) l.an G a 1. + (9) p I Island Thieve s + Ledge Alle ton c_@ (7) QUINCY DAY A1 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Chart of Positions for Concentrations vs. Distance 4-221 1 (Frankel, S. L. and B. R. Pearce, 1973) 4-383 Kareb 21 7 6 5 Aug. 16 4 3 Xky 5 A. .9 2 Ebb Tide may 19 June 19 .26 Flood Tide E Tide n 0 j L 5 6 1 a 9 10 11 12 13 fZ' 15 Stations A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Concentration of N03 as a Function of'Increasing TRI Distance from Boston Harbor (Frankel, S. L. and 4-334 - P@w 1 4-222 1 B. R. Pearce, 1 .973) NO- -0-o--0- 3 5 -a-@ P04 V N02 4 Suspended Solids r-4 0 (milligram/liter) V 4 - 00 w 0 00 3 2 0 0 0 U 0 U 0 U FJv.- March April May June July Aug. Sept. Time (months) [_A SCr,10-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL @INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRjj@W FIGURE Concentrations of Various Nutrients and Total Suspended Solids vs. Time (Frankel, S. L. and 4-223 B. R. Pearce, 1973) 4-385 I r 9 Aug. 16 Ebb 7 Total Suspended Solids .,4 6 w 0 Ebb R A % 5 June 19 AF July 25-26 00 - ood 3 June 2 2 June 30 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A 1'2 23 14 15 Poaktions LA SOCO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Suspended Solids vs. Relative Distance from the Harbor (Frankel, S. L. and B. R. Pearce, 1973) 4-224 4-37YR Table 4-43 Diurnal Study Feb. 16-17, 1972 Parameter Concentration Range During Tidal Cycle Temp. OC. 1.9 - 2.8 Salinity O/oo 31 - 34 pH 7.70 - 7.88 Turbidity mg Si02/1 2.7 - 10.3 D.O. mg/ 1. 10.3 - 11.0 N03- pg N/1 137 - 177 N02- pg N/1 2.8 - 11.6 Ortho P mg/l 0.05 - 0.61 Chlorophyll-a jig/l 0.9 - 6.6, Coliform Bacteria/100 ml 15 - 220 4-38? Hampshire coastal area. The dissolved oxygen content at a station 11 km off the New Hampshire coast near the Isles of Shoals was reported to range from,4.@6 to 8.5 ml/l with near-saturated to slightly super- saturated conditions.existing year around (Loder, Anderson, and Shevenell, 1973). Phosphate data taken at the same station ranged between near zero to between I and 2 pg-at P04-P/l during most of the year (July to March) but showed a large peak of greater than 3 pg-at P04-P/l just prior to the fall bloom. Shevenell (1973) found that the surface transparency of the water off the New Hampshire coast was lowest during the late summer to early fall and the greatest during the late winter in January to March. The change in surface transparencies was primarily a function of the sea-. sonal cycle of phytoplankton observed in the Gulf of Maine. Inorganic- sediment content in the surface.water also varied seasonally with greatest input during the late fall and during the spring runoff. The effect of this input was observed offshore to a distance of about 10 km (Fig. 4-225). The vertical distribution of turbidity is characterized by a near- .surface turbid layer which is maintained in the mixed zone. The sources of suspended matter are the.estuary and biological producti- vity. A turbid layer is also present near the bottom, primarily the result of resuspension of bottom sediments (Shevenell, 1973). There are seasonal changes in the intensity of these turbid zones (Figure 4-226%). Winter suspended matter concentrations, determined by weight, are comparable to those observed in the summer; however, the water is much less turbid (Fig. 4-226'). This is because of a high concentra- tion of low-density, organic matter in the water during the summer months. In the winter the suspended matter is primarily inorganic sediment. Water quality in Essex Bay has been monitored by the Massachusetts Department of Natural Resources, Division of Marine Fisheries (Ches- more et al, 1973). Dissolved oxygen, pH, and carbon dioxide were measuT-ed-monthly from May to December, 1969, at 5 locations around the edge of the Bay. Table 4-44 summarizes the range of data recorded. Minimum readings of pH were associated with low salinity. At that time Essex Bay was found to be relatively free from domestic and industrial pollution. The hydrograp hy of the Merrimack River estuary incl uding suspended sediment, has been studied by Hartwell and Hayes (1969). Data were collected in August, 1968. Concentrations measured during the tidal cycle at a point 2.4 km from the mouth ranged from greater than 15 mg/1 at low tide to less than 2 mg/l on the flooding tide near high-tide level. The maximum concentration was 19 mg/l in the fresh river water. 4-388 SUMMER FALL INTER SPRING Tw 2.0 KM 6 KM .5 12.0 KM cc 16.5 KM w 4- F- 3- ESTUARY.. w .(Ebb) 74 D cr- iL 0-- J A S O.N D J F M A m i 1972 1973 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION]: FIGURE Average P.M. Concentrations of Ebbing Coastal and IRWM Estuarine Waters (Shevenell, T. C., 1973) 4-225 4-389 06C-t, (EL6L"o 'i 'LL@UaAO4S) 44p[qini 10 UOL4nqpqs'-O Le-OL;JaA-uL sa6ue4O LPUOSPaS 33nou N01038 OIINVIiV H18ON 3HI :30 MOiN3ANI WiN3NN081AN3 (INV OIV40NO03-OIDOS VI V z m .... 4m 4w 0 Z 3 M 0 CD 0 0 0 m rn Ln rn A 0 4w co ca ........... .... 4C) 4 OD 6 o 0 9 0 .0 Suspended load data for the Merrimack River for 1967 ranged from 2860 tons/day in April to 46 tons/day in September (Water Resources Data, USGS, 1967). In light of the circulation patterns Hartwell and Hayes felt much of -the suspended load was deposited on Joppa Flats. A significant por- tion of the sediments there contain pollutants from the river and possibly effluent from sewage plants (Hartwell and Hayes, 1969). Suspended-sediment concentrations and water turbidity have been studied in the Great Bay estuarine system by Anderson (1970, 1972, 1973, and 1974), Shevenell (1973.), and Normandeau Associates, Inc. (data reports to the Public Service Co. of New Hampshire, 1973@. Studies by Anderson were located at the mouth of the Bellamy River estuary and at the entrance to Great Bay proper. The tidal station used by Shevenell was located in Portsmouth Harbor at the mouth of the estuarine system (Fig. 4-227). Data were collected during the tidal cycle and seasonally. Water depth ranged from 15 to 20 m at the inner stations and 75 to 80 m for the outer stations as shown in Fiq. 4-227. Periodic variation in suspended-sediment concentration during the tidal cycle, as well as during the season was observed at these loca- tions. Most of the material in suspension is the result of erosion of tidal-flat sediments. This is because this estuary is shallow with 50 percent of the area exposed at low tide. The resuspension may be periodically controlled by tidal currents, or aperiodically as the result of wind-wave resuspension (Anderson, 1973). Anderson (19741 found that water waves from boats may also be a significant factor in increasing the suspended load. Shevenell (1973) observed that the concentration of suspended matter ebbing out of the Great Bay system changed periodically during'the seasons (Fig. 4-225). Average concentrations in the ebbing water ranged from one mg/1 in August to 6.5 mg/1 in December. A tidal periodi- city was ob-served in Portsmouth Harbor because of the increase in suspended sediment concentrations up the estuary. The highest surface concentrations occurred just before low tide. This tidal periodicity was observed for all months of the year. At the Bellamy River station the tidal periodicity broke down during the winter months (Anderson, 1970). However, at the Portsmouth Harbor-station the periodi- city was,during summer months (Shevenell, unpublished manuscript, 1974) (Fig. 228). Secchi-disc measurements have been made in the main channel of the Great Bay System and in Portsmouth Harbor using a one-meter-pathlength, beam-transmissometer (Shevenell, unpublished manuscript, 1974). Secchi- disc measurements range from 4.9 to 0.9 m (Normandeau Associates, Inc., personal communication) with the most turbid waters in the upper extremes of Great Bay where resuspension from the mud flats occurs. 4-391 MAINE Great GULF of Bay MAINE Boston"" Cape @N Cod KILOMETER NK=30KZM 0 so DURHAM MAINE TIDAL 10 REAT BAY jj PORTSMO 0 2 4 ISLES :@m OF @N SHOALS NEW HAMPSHIRE A HAMPTON... A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE Index Map of Study Area 4-227 (Shevenell, T. C., 1973) 4-392 10 9- 8- 7- 0 6- 5- 4- 0 3- 0 0 2- T 0 T 0 0 0 o T T 0 0 i j A S 0 N D A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI TR@W FIGURE Range of Particulate Matter Over the Fidal Cycle at 4-228 Portsmouth Harbor (Shevenell, unpublished manuscript 1974) 4-393 Table 4-44 ParigesforteMDerafUre, salinitv. and water quality measurementifor Essex Bay., 1969. Temperature (F) Salinity Dissolved Oxygen Carbon Dioxide Sampling Water Air (0 00) PH (Ppm) (ppm) Station Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Ave. Min- Max. Ave. Min. Max. Ave. Min. Max. Ave. Castle Neck River 32 65 29 72 22.0 31.5 27.5 7.0 .8.5 7.9 5.0 10.0 8.0 5.0 20.0 11.2 Island Road 31 68 29 76 20.5 29.0 25.6 7.5 8.0 7.8 5.0 11.0 7.1 5.0 20.0 12.5 Clay Point 34 67 30 71 3.0 29.0 23.2 7.0 8.5 -7.9 6.0 11.0 7.8 5.0 15.0 10.6 Conorno, Point 27 63 30 68 25.0 32.0 28.8 8.0 8.0 8.0 5.0 10.0 8.0 5.0 15.0 10.0 FaTM Creek 33 65 28 68 25@O 30.0 8.0 8.5 8.1 15.0 11.0 8.1 5.0 25.0 10.6 4-394 4.3.8 CASCO BAY TO EASTPORT Nutrients in Maine coastal waters have been studied since late 1969 by Apollonio and Applin (1972) on a one to two-month basis. The data include nitrates, phosphates, and,silicates with accompanying tempera- ture, salinity, and chlorophyll data. The concentrations and seasonal cycles of the nutrients fall within the expected ranges for this area of the Gulf of Maine. The nutrient distribution is controlled by the coastalcirculation patterns. Graham (1970b) found that upwelling was a prominent feature in these coastal waters. Apollonio and Applin observed a tongue of nutrient-rich water'approximately 18 km off the coast during the summer (Fig. 4-229). Associated with the tongue is relatively colder water which may be an upwelling of deeper, nutrient- rich water. This relatively high-nutrient water mass is not maintained during the periods of winter mixing. In the vicinity of the Penobscot Rivdr, enriching effects during January are evident. The assessment of the control of nutrient distribution by dynamic, physical and bio7 logical factors has not, at present, been made (Apollonio-and Applin, 1972). Studies on the annual cycles of nutrients in the estuarine environment are sparse (McAlice, 1971). The best known estuaries and bays which make up the inshore waters of coastal Maine are Casco Bay, the Sheep- scot River and adjoining Montsweag Bay. The distribution of,nutrients in Casco Bay for the months of March to July and November, 1966,,to 1968, has been studied by Hulburt and Cor- win (1970). Concentrations of inorganic phosphate and inorganic nitrate from a series of stations into Casco Bay indicate that nutrient renewal from ocean sources is restricted to Outer Casco Bay (Fig. 4-230). After depletion of inorganic nitrate during the spring bloom, nitrate con- centrations in the Inner Bay are not renewed as rapidly as would be expected if there was this influx of nutrient-rich, ocean, water. Monthly dissolved oxygen, nitrate, phosphate and silicate data, along with supporting hydrographic and turbidity data, were collected at three stations in Montsweag Bay and from a station in the Sheepscot River (Fig. 4-231) from 1969 to 1972 (McAlice, 1972). The annual nitrate cycle has a form typical of inshore waters. High winter levels decrease during the spring phytoplankton bloom;,late in the summer they build up to a secondary maximum which is depleted by a fall plankton bloom'. By late fall high concentrations are observed. McAlice (1972) found stations in the Bay surprisingly low in oxidized inorganic nitrogen. The Sheepscot River genet-ally contained higher supplies of nitrate than the Bay (F%14-231). Concentrations, in general, were less than 5 pg-at N03- in both the Sheepscot River and Montsweag Bay. The nitrate concentrations in the coastal waters 4-395 1> 01 0.9, PHOSPHATE (yqA/I) at Om AUG. 31-SEPT. 1, 1911 9/15/71 IV, 17 0.5 (D F11TRAtE (peAll), 00 AUG. 31 - SEPT. 1, 1971 1b. 0 7.0- -_-S0 60 0 6 0 0 50---. m0 DATA 1.0 SILICATE (.UgAll) at O@ Zo 9 AUG 31-SEPT 1, 1971 9/15/71 @A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] TRr:W I FIGURE I Nutrient Concentrations in the Western Gulf of A-396 p 4-229 Maine (Apollonio, S. and Appl in, H. H. Jr. , 1972) fit, ii-d Al pm o-A B C D E F 8 C D E F A B C D E F B C D E F o.8 o. ) ." ' I 'I - ' I lo 4 6 2o- -@"o 1. 3o-. N, 0 V 10 MAR.2 2o 4G- 967 1968 3o - NOV 10 MAR.2 1967 1968 40 o. lo- o --o.6. lo, 20- a8 4\- c= 3o- MAY7 APR.18 20 1-- 1967 A 1968 3o APR 18 L" 4o- 19 7 19F8 -04 oL. -et a4 lo- 2o--o.6 30-;---\ JUN. -z 40- 196 3o JUN 10 1967 5o- 0.4 12 o- B C D E F CG? 11 IN I j C D E F 8 1 C D E 5o 'o6 D EIB C 'o 8 o' o@ C o6 . . . 1,26 3o-' JUL. a o 23.25 2o- lo - o95 40- @o A. 6 1966 _" . 'UL IJUL 2' 1 67 6.17 L jUl 9 1968 4o- 1%6 .7 35 19' X 7 /"1j96Uf'1LS .'A R '9 W @\@\ @.A R 22 .-4 /' m y APR 1. 6 "'68 '/,*U9'6 j -o- jU ;/2 3 25 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Distribution of Inorganic Phosphate and Nitrate 4-230 (Hulbert, E. M., J. Corwin, 1970) 1-397 '00 11 17 "2 0 '0@ ""e@ ICE ICE ICE M4 0 0 ux@ sl ------- so. 0 N D J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J F M A M J J A S 1989 1970 1971 1972 Z M7 2 ICE ICE ICE M4 J si 2 N'0'J'F.WA'M-J'J'A'S 0 N D'J 'F'M'A'M'J'J 'A S'C)'N-D J F M'A M J i AS 1960 1970 1971 1972 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONME.NTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC 7R7E7GI@@] IGURE I Annual Changes in,Dissolved Oxygen, Phosphate,, 4 231 Nitrate and Silicate Concentration 4-3 ra b (McAl.icej: , [email protected],- 1972) M7 Z M2 ICE ICE ICE M4 S1 0 N D J - FMA -M J J A S 0 N D J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J F m A 'm' J 7 -AS 1969 1970 1971 1972 80 60 ,40 V@ 20, 0 60 40 ICE 'M2 ICE @@,CE 21 0 6 4 - --------------- .20 M4 ---- ---- 0. 60 4G 20, 0' 0 N D J F M A'M'J J A S 0 N D'J'F M A M J J A S 0 N D J F M A M J J A S 1969 1970 1971 1972 A SMIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL'INVENTORY OF, THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Annual Changes in Dissolved Oxygen, Phosphate, 4-231 Nitrate and Silicate Concentration c/d-- (McAlice, B.J., 1972) 4-J99 off the entrance to the Sheepscot River range from 11 to 12 pg-at NO 3- N/1 in the winter to 0.5 pg-at N03-N/l in the summer (Bigelow, Lillick and Sears, 1940). Phosphate concentrations show little seasonal periodicity (Fig. 4-231). In general, higher concentrations of phosphate are found in both the winter, which is typical, and in the summer, which is atypical but observed in Naragansett Bay (Smayda, 1973). Concentrations of phos- phate range between 0.5-1.5 pg-at P04-P/l. Annual changes in the N:P ratio largely reflect the nitrate changes. The ratio is generally less than 8:1, thus being lower than the 15:1 ratio in plankton (McAlice, 1971). Like other near coastal areas nitrogen is the limiting nutrient. The lack of an annual phosphate cycle in estuarine waters is not un- usual. Short-term changes i1n the supply of phosphate to the area may exceed the amount utilized by biologic activity (McAlice, 1971). The silicate concentrations indicate a seasonal distribution of diatom species. The lowest concentrations were late spring to late summer with a range of about 20 to 60 pg-at Si04-Si/l (Fig. 4-231). Concen- trations in the Sheepscot River were generally lower than those seen in the Bay with an average around 20 pg-at Si04-Si/l. The lowest con- centration seen in the Sheepscot station was about 4 pg-at Si04-Si/l and occurred after spring diatom blooms, Percent saturation of dissolved oxygen in Montsweag Bay and Sheepscot River water varies in response to respiratory demands and reduced oxygen input because of decreases in freshwater and low wind-wave activity (McAlice, 1972). During the summer months the lowest dis- solved oxygen values and percent saturation values are observed (Fig. 4-231). Throughout the remainder of the year the dissolved oxygen content exceeds 75 percent saturation. The seasonal fluctuations in the amount of dissolved oxygen saturation is greater in Montsweag Bay than in the Sheepscot River. Supersaturation rarely occurs and never approaches the supersaturated values reported by Stickney (1968) in Boothbay Harbor. The lowest values of dissolved oxygen are not as low as those reported for the Penobscot River estuary by Haefner (1967). Stickney (1968) reported dissolved oxygen concentrations in the coastal waters off Boothbay Harbor. He found 120 to 150 percent supersatura- tion during the spring and summer. These coastal waters were more highly saturated than nearby offshore waters. Concentrations of nitro- gen gas were also found to be occasionally supersaturated during late spring and sometimes in mid-summer, suggesting that some of the super- saturation is because of physical causes, such as warming in shallow embayments and strong tidal mixing of saturated waters. As the coastline is approached, the waters of the Gulf of Maine become 4-400 more dynamic and as a result, the suspended-matter distribution (spatially and temporally) becomes more complex. These waters are generally less than 100 m deep, and therefore, are commonly well mixed to the bottom during the winter months. The seasonal thermocline varies in depth from 10 to 30 m, and is generally deepest in the late summer-early fall. Surface Secchi-disc and photometer measurements taken in conjunction with temperature and salinity profile data for the coastal waters of the Gulf of Maine from 1962 to 1965 have been summarized by Graham (1970a). Transparencies in these areas ranged from 0.400 to 0.062 for reciprocals (I/D), and 0.442 to 0.089 for extinction coefficients (K). Off the Maine coast Graham (1970a) found the surface water was most transparent during the spring (average K=0.167 and average I/D=0.106).. The least-transparent water was found during the fall and winter (average K-0.245 and average 1/D-0.209) (Fig. 4-232). Graham (1970a) observed that there was an offshore increase in trans- parency, and at times it was closely related to the surface tempera- ture. The transparency of the surface water in this area depends on both the amount of sediment discharged from the inner bays and estu- aries, and the relative abundance of phytoplankton (Brayton and Camp- bell, 1953). The Narragansett Marine Laboratory (1953 to 1954) conducted a seasonal survey of physical oceanography off Casco Bay and Portland. Data reports for the summer and fall, 1953, and winter of 1954 include transparency data using black and white Secchi discs, as well as tem- perature, salinity, sound velocity, and weather data. The range of white disc depths during the summer (July 27-28, 1953) was 3 to 8 m with a general decrease in turbidity in an offshore direction (Fig. 4-233). A similar range in turbidity for the summer months was observ- ed by Hulburt and Corwin (1970) for waters off Casco Bay. Studies of water turbidity in Montsweag Bay have been conducted from 1970 to the present with the results summarized in the annual reports of Environment Studies by the Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company (1970, 1971, 1972). Secchi-disc depths ranged from less than 0.5 m to great- er than 4.5 m. The turbidity in this area was affected by seasonal increases in runoff, by tidal-current action, by wind-wave activity on tidal flats, and the spring and fall overturns. Haefner (1967) found a similar range of transparencies for the Penobs- cot River estuary. Sampling was during the spring through the fall months, 1963 to 1965. At the most landward station near Bangor, Secchi disc depths ranged from 0.75 to 1.25 m during the study period. The most seaward station, near Searsport, exhibited a range in trans- 4--1'01 5@@Jl @ib -'Water Clarity -K) Slope ( K) z OCT 1963 Water Clarity Slope (-K). fir v JAN-FES 1964 R-1-64 R-2-64 dIr s) Wo!erCl6rily Slope (-K) M, AY 965 Jk-,, N) "j, 1 Water Clarify js Slope(-K) AUGUST/ G U L F 0 f:: M A I.N E 19G4 C'. y arily Ky) T/ A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I Water Transparency, Extinction Coefficients 4-232 (Graham, J. J., 1970a) @-402 parency of 2.75 to 3.00 m. Suspended-matter concentrations have been measured in Somes Sound on Mount Desert Island by Folger, Meade, Jones and Corey (1972). Suspended matter in the near surface waters ranged from 0.6 to 1.6 mg/l; the bottom waters were slightly more turbid, having a range of 1.0 to 4.1 mg/l. In the near-bottom samples they found a correlation between the bottom-sediment texture and the concentration of suspended material. .Toxic trace-metal concentrations have been studied by the Department of Sea and Shore Fisheries of Maine near the Castine-Blue Hill Peninsula (Dow, 1969, 1970). Copper, zinc, cadmium, lead, cobalt, iron, chromium, manganese and nickel concentrations were measured at 13 stations around the peninsula (Fig. 4-234). The stations were located near known sul- fide outcrops, previously worked surface mines and at sites away from those types of areas. The concentrations are extremely high when compared to open ocean con- centrations and maximum concentrations in Atlantic Coastal areas (Table 4-45). Table 4-45 Comparison of Toxic Metals in the Maine Marine Environment and from other Atlantic Coastal Areas (ppm) (from Dow, 1970). Metal Maximum of Range Elsewhere Maximum at Cape Rosier Zinc 28.00 69.58 Copper 90.00 8.41 Iron 1710.00 2471.50 Manganese 29.90 341.20 Cadmium .90 .85 Lead- .10.20 19.50 Chromium 5.00 6.78 Nickel 2.30 2.67 Cobalt .20 1.49 4-403 A Cl POR AND SOUTH 7 7 ORTLAND 4 4 4 CAPE ELIZABETH 7 CASCO BAY CRUISE- I Depth at Disappearance of White Secchi Disk in Meters 15' lb, 76* 575' A SOCIO-EGONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Turbidity in Casco Bay 4-233 (Narragansett Marine Laboratory 1953-1954) 4-404 SAMPLING STATIONS CASTINE-BLUE HILL PENINSULA Bhw Hill 21 9 -12 13-,-,- Pe lb do 4 cb % ID r are 4a 4b 69 4P4 BA Y% _j A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVE NTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Sampling Stations Castine Blue Hill Peninsula TR 4-234 Dow, R. L., 1969) Pa "l 4 0 4.3.9 REFERENCES Ali, Sayed A., Charles D. Hardy, Edward L. Baylor, and M. Grant Gross. 1973. 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SUNY-SB, Marine Sciences Research Center Technical Rept. No. 14. 4-408 Haefner, P.A., Jr. 1967. Hydrography of the Penobscot River (Maine) estuary. Canada Fisheries Res. Board Jour. 24:1553-1571. Hardy, C.D. 1970. Hydrographic data report, Long Island Sound. 1969. Marine Sciences Research Center, State Univ.'of New York, Stony Brook, Tech. Rept. No. 4. 1972. Hydrographic data report, Long Island Sound, 1970, Part II. Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board. Hartwell, A.D. and M.O. Hayes. 1969. Hydrography of the Merrimack River estuary. In Coastal Environments, Massachusetts and New Hampshire. Fieff-Trip Guide Booki Eastern Section, SEPM, May 9-11, 1968. Harvey, G.R., W.G. Steinhauer, and J.M. Teal. 1973b. Polychloro- biphenyls in North Atlantic Ocean water. Science, 180:643-644. Hicks,, S.D. 1959. The physical oceanography of Narragansett Bay. Limnol. Oceanogr. 4:316-328. Holeman, J.N. 1968. The sediment yield of major rivers of the world. Water Resources Research, 4:737-747. Hulbert, E.M. and J. Corwin. 1970. Relation of the phytoplankton to turbulence and nutrient renewal in Casco Bay, Maine. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 27:2081-2090. Jefferies, H.P. 1962. Environmental characteristics of Raritan Bay, a polluted estuary. Limnol. Oceanogr. 7(l):21-32. Jerome,, W.C., Jr., A.P. Chesmore, and C.D. Anderson, Jr. 1966. A study of the marine resources of Quincy Bay. Division of Marine Fisheries, Dept. of Natural Resources, The Commonwealth of Mass., Monograph Series No. 2. . Ketchum, B.H. 1970. Ecological effects of sewer sludge disposal at sea. Paper presented at the Water Pollution Control Federation Convention, Session No. 16, Boston, Oct. 1970. Ketchum, B.H., A.C. Redfield, and J.C. Ayers. 1951. The oceanography of the New York Bight. Papers on Physical Oceanography and Meteorology, 12:4-46. Ketchum,, B.H., J.C. Ryther, C.S. Yentsch3 and N. Corwin. 1958., Pro- ductivity in relation to nutrients. Rapp. Cons. Explor. Mer. 144:132-140. 4-409 Ketchum, B.H., R.F. Vaccaro, and N. Corwin. 1958. The annual cycle. of phosphorus and nitrogen in New England coastal waters. Jour. Mar. Res. 17:282-301. Kester, D.R. and R.A. Courant. 1973. A summary of chemical oceano- graphic conditions: Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoals. In Coastal and offshore-inventory: Cape Hatteras to NantuckJ Shoals. Marine Experiment Station, Graduate School of Oceano- graphy, U.R.I., Marine Publication Series, 2-1 to 2-36. Loder, T.C., F.E. Anderson, T.C. Shevenell. 1973. Sea monitoring of emplaced baled solid waste. Dept. of Earth Sciences, Univ. of New Hampshire, Report UNH SG-118'. - Maine Yankee Atomic Power Co. 1970, 1971, 1972. Annual rep orts of environment studies. Manheim, F.T., R.H. Meade, and G.C. Bond. 1970. Suspended matter in surface waters of the Atlantic continental margin from Cape Cod to the Florida Keys. Science, 167:371-376. McAlice, B.J. 1971, Environmental.factors. In Third Annual Report. Environmental Studies, Maine Yankee Atomi-c-Power Company. 1972. Environmental factors. In Fourth Annual Report, Environmental Studies, Maine Yankee Atomic Power Company. .McLeod, G. 1973. Water quality measurements of Boston Harbor. New England Aquarium, Res. Dept., Vol. 1, 55 p. McMaster, R.L. 1960. Sediments of Narragansett Bay system, Rhode Island Sound,, Rhode Island. Jour. Sed. Pet. 30:249-274. Morton, R.W. 1967. Spatial and temporal observations of suspended sediment: Narragansett Bay,and Rhode Island Sound. Naval Under- water Weapons Res. and Engineering Station, Newport, R. I., TM No. 396. Narragansett Marine Lab. 1953-1954. Inshore survey project, Casco Bay data reports, Physical Oceanography, Data Report No. 1, 2, 3. Ref. No. 53-22, 54-4, 54-5. Submitted to Oceanographic Division, U.S. Navy Hydrographic Office under contract No. N1405-46173B. Normandeau Associates, Inc. 1971. Seabrook ecological study: Phase 1, 1969-1970, Hampton-Seabrook Estuary, New Hampshire. For Public Service Co. of New Hampshire. Normandeau Assoc. Inc., Manchester, N.H., 313 p. 4-410 Odum, E.P. and A. de la Cruz. 1967. Particulate organic detritus in a Georgia salt marsh estuarine ecosystem. In Estuaries, G.H. Lauff (ed.), Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Pub. 83-.383-388. Pararas-Carayannis, G. 1973. Ocean dumping in the New York Bight: An assessment of environmental studies. Tech. Memorandum No. 39, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center. Pratt, D.M. 1965. The winter-spring diatom flowering in Narragansett Bay. Limnol. Oceanogr. 10(2):173-184. Preston, A., D.F. Jefferies, J.W.R. Dutton, B.R. Harvey, and A.K. Steele. 1972. British Isles coastal waters: The concentrations of selected heavy metals in sea water, suspended matter and bio- logical indicators. A pilot study, IDOE Baseline Study, Brook- hauer National Laboratory, Brookhauer, N.Y., May 1972. Redfield, A.C. and L.A. Walford. 1951. A study of the disposal of chemical wastes at sea. National Acad. of Sci. National Council, Publ. No. 201. Remson, C.C. 1971. The distribution of urea in coastal and oceanic waters. Limnol. Oceanogr. 16(5):732-740. Rice, H.V., D.A. Leighty, and D.C. McLeod. 1973. The effects of some trace metals on marine phytoplankton. CRC Critical Reviews in Microbiology, Sept. 1973, p. 27-49. . 1952. Hydrography of Long Island and Block Island Sounds. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 8(3):6-39. Riley,.G.A. 1955. Review of the oceanography of Long Island Sound. Deep Sea Res. Suppl. 3:224-238. 1956. Oceanography of Long Island Sound, 1952-1954, IX. .Fr-o-cTu-ction and utilization of organic matter. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 15:324-344. 1959. Note on particulate matter in Long Island Sound. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 17:83-85. Riley, G.A. and S.A.M. Conover. 1956. Oceanography of Long Island 1952-1954, 111. Chemical Oceanography. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 15:47-61. Riley, G.A. and H.M. Schurr. 1959. Transparency of Long Island Sound waters. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll. 17(l):66-82. 4-411 Riley, J.P. and R. Chester. 1971. Introduction of marine chemistry. Academic Press, London. 465 p. Ryther, J.H. and E. Dunstan. 1971. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and eutro- phication in the coastal marineenvironment. Science, 171:1008- 1013. Ryther, J.H. and C.S. Yentsch. 1958. Primary production of contin- ental shelf waters off New York. Limnol. Oceanogr. 3:327-335. Sandy Hook Marine Laboratory. 1972. The effects of waste disposal in the New York Bight. Nine sections (NITS Acquisition No. AD 739531 through AD 739539), Summary,Final,Rept. (AD 743936). Schenck, H. and A. Davis. 1973. A turbidity survey of Narragansett Bay. Ocean Engineering, 2:169-178. Shevenell, T.C. 1973. Distribution and dispersal of particulate matter in a temprate coastal shelf environment. International Symposium on Interrelationships of Estuarine and Continental Shelf Sedimen- tation, Bordeaux, France, July, 1973. Smayda, T.J. 1973. A survey of phytoplankton dynamics in the coastal waters from Cape Hatteras to Nantucket. In Coastal and offshore environmental inventory: Cape Hatteras t-o-Nantucket Shoals. U.R.I. Marine Publication Series 3-1, 3-100. Spencer, D.W. and P.G. Brewer. 1968. The distribution.of copper, zinc, and nickel in sea water. of the Gulf of Maine and the Sargasso Sea. Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta, 33(3):325-339. Stickney, A.P. 1968. Supersaturation of atmospheric gases in the coastal waters of the Gulf of Maine. Fish. Bull. Bur. Comm. Fish., U.S.F.W.S. 67(l):117-123. Szechtman, R.J. 1972.. Phosphates in Long Island Sound. Master's thesis. New York University. Train, R.E., R. Cahn, and G.J. MacDonald. 1970. Ocean dumping. Council on Environmental Quality, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Turekian, K.K. 1971. Rivers, tributaries, and estuaries. In The impingement of man on the oceans, D.W. Hood (ed.), John-Wiley and Sons, Inc., N.Y. U.S. Geological Survey. 1968. Water resources data for Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont - 1967. Water Resources Div., U.S.G.S., Dept. of the Interior. 305 p. 4-412 Vaccaro, R.F. 1963. Available nitrogen and phosphorus and the bio- chemical cycle in the Atlantic off New England. Jour. Mar. Res. 21:284-301. Walter, L. 1961. Composition of sewage and sewage effluents. Water and Sewage Works, Part 2, p. 478. Wangersky, P.J. 1959. Dissolved carbohydrates in Long Island Sound, 1956-1958. Bull. Bingham Oceanogr. Coll.- 17:89-94. Williams, P.M. 1969. The association'of copper with dissolved organic matter in sea water. Limnol. Oceanogr. 14:156. 4-413 Chapter Major Sounds and Embayments Page Chapter 4.A Meteorology and Climate 4.4.1 Introduction 4-41-6 4.4.2 Southern Sub-Region 4-416 Precipitation 4-418 Temperature 4-420 Humidity 4-420. Data from Environmental Impact Statements 4-420 4.4.3 Northern, Sub-Region 4-429 Preci pi tati on 4-436 Temperature 4-436 Data from Environmental Impact Statements 4-436 4.4.4 Storms 4-452 Introduction 4-452 Tropical Cyclones 4-452 4.4.5 References 4-502 4-415 4.4 METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE 4.4.1 INTRODUCTION The following section presents a characterization of coastal and lo- cal weather conditions in somewhat more detail than the regional over- view with occasional focus on sites studied in greater detail for the location of power plants. Little attempt was made to review the fair- ly extensive literature of the entire coastal region, but many data were extracted from atlases and summary reports such as U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1972) and Havens, Shaw, and Levine (1974), A list of Environmental Impact Statements used and the attendant avail- able data for all types can be found in Appendix A-3. A more detailed description of storms for the whole coast is presented in the follow- ing Section 4.4.4. 4.4.2 SOUTHERN SUB-REGION The southern sub-region, beginning at Long Island and including New York Bight (Westinghouse, 1972) has relatively sparse numbers of meteorological stations. Stations used by the North Atlantic Report (U. S. Army Corp$, 1972) are shown on Figure 4-236.. Only a few of these record all three parameters of temperature, precipitation, and wind. The marine climate in New,York Bight and stretching to Cape Cod is characterized by the prevailing westerly belt of'winds along the east coast of the continent. There is a modified continental climate. Lying in the paths of extratropical cyclones, this area experiences frequent and abrupt changesof wind, temperature, and clouds in win- ter. Tropical cyclones bring stormy weather in summer and fall. The cold Labrador Current flowing along the coast and the warm Gulf Stream to the eastward have strong effects on the weather. During the winter the area lies between the Icelandic Low and the North American High, and in summer it lies under the northwest quandrant of the Bermuda High. There is little seasonal variation in barometric pressure, but there may be wide day-to-day fluctuations, especially in winter. The temperatures are affected by maritime influences. In spring and summer, sea breezes reduce temperatures and in fall and winter, raise them. Changes in wind direction in any season can cause large fluc- tuations in temperature. In winter south and southwest winds @bring mild temperatures, and northwest winds bring cold. In summer, south- west and west winds bring warmer temperatures,.and northeast winds bring cooler. Air temperature over the New York Bight averages 2.5 C to 5 C higher than those ashore in January and 1 C to 3 C lower in July. 4-416 LEQENO 0 PRECIPITATION, PRECIP. a TEIAP. <> PRECIP. G SHOW -(@- PRECIP..TEMP. G SNOW 0 SNOW STREAMFLOW STATIONS % Igo 4!..- 4v S 52 124 01 TO 7 re ant, V A-A 43 6 '9 _M@ATAQUA J, 4 ER@k CK CItONNEC U 10 0 10. to so SCALE IN MILES 160 15 "i4 OUSA7,t A' j r ONIC 7 102 avow A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION71 FIGURE I Meteorologic and Stream Flow Stations - Sub-Region TRG pa 1 4-235 B (NAR, . 1972) 4-417 Relative humidity in the region is high throughout the year, especially in summer. It is high in the morning and lower in the afternoon. Also, relative humidity is higher with onshore winds and lower with offshore winds. Cyclones passing off the coast in winter usually bring snow in November through April. On rare occasions freezing rain may occur. Precipita- tion is reported 25 percent of the time in February and 10 percent in July. During May through September, rain is mostly in local brief showers and thunderstorms. The latter occur mostly in afternoon and evening and may obscure visibility significantly. In winter overcast occurs 40 to 60 percent of the time; in summer, 30 percent. Visibility may be restricted by fog, haze, rain, or snow, but advection fog is most common. Fog occurs about 30 percent of the time in late spring and early summer when south and southwesterly winds move moist air over the cooler waters of the Labrador Current. However, fog may occur any time of the year and may persist several weeks. Sea smoke or steam fog forms occasionally in winter. Tropical cyclones and hurricanes occasionally move into the area in late summer and fall, but may occur-as early as May or as late as Nov-. ember. They usually move on a northeasterly course, usually are more severe and destructive than the extratropical cyclones, and have been reported to have winds of 80 m.p,h. or more. PRECIPITATION Based on meteorologic and hydrologic data summarized by U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1972) in Table 4-46, there is a fairly uniform dis- tribution of average annual precipitation throughout the southern region, as well as relatively even monthly and seasonal distributions. The average annual precipitation, based on the 30-year records of 40 sta- tions, is 110 cm, varying from a maximum of about 190 cm at Mt. Washing- ton in New Hampshire to a minimum of about 92 cm at St. Johnsbury, Vermont. During@the winter season (December, January and Feb 'ruary), there is an average of 26 cm of precipitation and the Sub-region re- ceives nearly equal amounts of rainfall (29 cm) in the spring, summer and fall seasons. Extreme monthly variations have ranged from 63,cm in August at Barkham- sted, Connecticut, to 0.2 cm in June at Nantucket Island, Massachusetts, and traces at Block Island, Rhode Island, Table 4-46 summarizes precipi- tation data for the area. The region receives a substantial amount of snow, generally from late November to late March, with ranges of from 38 to 75 cm at the southern coast to 205 to 254 cm in the northern interior. As expected, snowfall A-413 61 t to n @v 0 0 0P@ c1-4 C, C. I":; .1 0 0 0 0 < 0 a9. 0 m0 CD En cr :3 0 00 0 rl ol %D C> -J @D WL4 tj L. co co OD 10 co 05 a, rD rp C@ L, () 13 Lp I o0 ft I ICk. P.- Ic, 10 LP 10 0. C@ Cl. 0@ ol 0 cr, ol w Ol XN J., ol I'D ft x cr x (D D@ X 5 c:r :J m 1:0 C' 0' c-, X- Cr, 'C', L,@ W S., CD L, Cc . . I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lb 'cl,"ol IT, ol ol 1@1 kp O@ po P. Ww 0.- c" co (D co r- C. jw jj C7, W."i,V.@ 10 W OJW c, L-,w C@ @-Ijw- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C> Co co Ij CC CO @ wC@ a, 'o ",4- co 4.L 0- pr cz@ 4" O-j " ol 000 C, W Lj Cc Cc Lj MC) 4"1 LAa w 0, C-- lb 4' CY, Nj@ w@t C@, C@l -, C@ :4 @cj@o 'j, t" 'o CD 'D L. CN C@0%0 C);@ L@ 0% w IQ "I@ 0, 'o C.; 01 r@ w C@ w 0 10w 0cc -i ko W <3 Lj kA 9- C7% ON k@ L4 %0 O@ co ""o C. 00 01W 0, I.A :.J@ C> W ODW('o 4' '4 C) C) Lj V- 00wwj@- 0' 0'- 9,0 :0 a' 01 0 b b L, a, w01 cl@ c,I, 0 03 LJ 1-1 IJ W 0 Cr,0WiW L. L) cu -;(71 C, W In C. L, a tj n (3, C- w -jwV, -J 00 CC @:, , co '00 10 %A CO Ll 41 th C, 4- C, 10 Ll 10 10 increases with elevation in the interior to a maximum annual average of 470 cm at the summit of Mt. Washington, New Hampshire (gage ele- vation 1,909 m). Summaries by U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (1972) showed ranges from 66 cm in Bridgeport, Connecticut,to 180 cm in Port- land on an annual average. TEMPERATURE The average annual temperature varies from 10 C in the southern coastal region to 5 C in the northern part of the region. The average annual temperatures are influenced not only by proximity to the ocean, and its moderating influence, but also by differences in elevation, particu- larly in the interior of the Sub-region. The temperature range is greatest during the winter months, varying approximately 10 C degrees, from an average of -8 C in the north to 0 C on the coast. The extremes of temperature recorded in the Sub- region range from -45 C to 41 C, with approximately 10 days per year of temperatures above 32 C. Days with less than -20 C temperatures are more common, averaging 25 to 50 per year, inland. Table 4-47 summarizes mean temperature data at selected stations. HUMIDITY Mean relative humidity generally averages about 75 percent in.January and 70 percent in July. The mean annual is about 70 percent. The mean annual humidity at Boston, Massachusetts, and Hartford, Connecticut, at 1 p.m., is 56 percent, while at 7 a.m. it is 71 percent and 76 per- cent, respectively, at these location. Mean dew point temperatures range from -12 C to -6.5 C in January, from 10 C to 18 C in July, and are between -1 C and 4.4 C annually. The annual average dew point is 2.2 C at Concord, New Hampshire, and 6 C at New Haven, Connecticut. DATA FROM ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENTS Millstone Environment Impact Statement Data presented in the Millstone Nuclear Power Station Unit 3 Environ- ment Report (1973) provide a detailed look at the area of Bridgeport and New Haven, Connecticut. Figure 4-236 shows area location. The station site is located in the northern temperate climatic zone. The major local influence on the climate is due to the proximity to Long Island and the Atlantic Ocean. Climatological records are available from a number of stations in Connecticut, the most representative be- ing New Haven and Bridgeport, located to the west, about 35 to 50 miles along the coast. A summary of the climatology for this coastal region, based on the Bridgeport records, is presented in Table 4-48. 4-420 All LV 7@ r) -j L" 0A@ 0 0 mm 0 21MC) ft z C6 7v CL CD cr t=f 0 tv co 0 co a- I 10 10 ID 10 Ir, In 10 c" CY, C7, 14 (71 01 fb < 0 0 01 (Dw C, %C >%> X XX >x> >X X> > t- < :< :3 mvxjw 0 17 -1 1', :1 :< IT, < @<: @ -< @<<1.< < x uet r, r-, rt r@ @v 1Dmr- tvmmeDm ?t f,mMMmMf` rbM4 u n ;, Q, C, Z., r, ;., @; C', 91 w ft 'S .Q c,:- rip ?D !4 co w :D ;D C. NA 1@ 0, L. 0, f@ w oalwC@w10wrn >x>3:x> >X >>> >>> x x 1(" << < mnrb :3x11 -Cx-C. -.c :x n: -3:x OOOOCIO4,000c@ooc'..-Ccccc!@)@:.o :3D DD C;00 00G0000000 fb w C@0 C, ID, 10 C, conC4 w10 a, co0&- M 0%.- N4, "C 0L@ to r W4 WZ Zl-wZ, WWt-i wr- w wwwC@ X- l, 4- L- @o Z,-I- Q'o 3, 71 -4 @j rir @o r 1!@F @v 'o '0 10 Z, cl, co J.- Cl 4-0D. 10 Z. 10 Z- W. 1, V, 0, 01 1.M cl, 4- -.1 C, %P 0, 1 "' "'wi - C,c C*o z, a- P4 CO :4 01 01 a, 7, 7, -IC7, 0, a, cl@ .7, cx 'a@ -i a, 0, 01 1-1 cl, 'A 01 a, . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 0, @o0S- C> 0, cal- co t-W a e_, @1_ C1 -j 01 CO, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, -1,7, cl, a, a, -s 0, 0@ -4 10 a, ;o co U, ca L,IMj w 01, Cy, 01 CP, a, 17, 0, 0, 0, 01 a, C, C'. Lj 0- 01 %M C=w-x, L,wA- @1. S- ok.C* cowb@j @j L, <71 01 a, a, C7, Cl: C, a, Ll Cy, 0- 1-1 Cl, (71 (71 0- a@ 47, a' C' F, V, a, t. wX- 'om 00 00 o- 'D al0ww 'o ?,a J.-w 11 a, @P C,1@ U@ Z- 0' %P141 4-- X- J- ID0 It, m 0 :@- 91 10 k" 00 w0 L, Z- Z- 6, 0, w L, "ww C* CX r- r@A @z 0 ;j, CC C, 4- Z@ -7, 01 :0 ;Zib 01 ico @jb @o 6, 0@ C) '01 t,J -Ir- @, @,@ L, 'co '0" 'w 'r, S" 'D -1wo'D 0 00 -.0 Q* 0%0 40 ml HARTFORD a 30 mi S2, U) z NEW INWAIN I _v, z 0 20 MI WATERIMMY NIEFADEN EAST HADDLAMM NEW LONDON ml TONE POINT HAVEN kimy .. . ......... ......... ..... SA@ .... ................... ........... IroLmD SOU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LONG tSLAND a HAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY . .... ..... ............... .......... A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I 4-422 4-286 Location of Millstone Nuclear Power Plant. 0 > eD ca z (T o n m a r. rr n < r? pa cm @-d m t14 c 110 m m 0 rt r- %4 c 0 m 0) ri 9 L9 cr m rA w 0 Z F- 0' CrM B r? (D m rl cr 4::- m r?, 000 Pi rr ia. I. ::" -0 M co < m 0 0 CN cy@ --j co co a% Ln JI- -4 W C) %li 0: @j a% 00 -1.- oC50 1:6 tn 0% w %0 @o 0 GQ m m ".> 0 CL. 10 0 rl 0 rT, %0%0 Z- Ln -C, w NJ t1a ma Eg !@ -4 w Un ul Z, Un Ila w 1-4 @4 CO k.0 fl..) 0rl tv 1-40 (D Z'@ " " @o 'll " m z 1 @4 co m C*j cr OQ0 0 0 m m 0 0 @o %0 w W Z- w w w W 0 0 m 0% co r-j cp% -@j 00 41- :3 2) m :3 (@A w ."w pi w Li ki Pi rt rp m kA Ili (no w a% %0%0 oo n -4 -J I-n rl.) rT 0 03 1-3 M0 w -4 Ln 0 0 00 0 Ln CO -4 Pi M 0 m %4 :@4 Z, 6 om Z, Z, Z, ;@ :j 0 n ;04 t-4 0 :r m 0 a% 14 M-co m Cc @j -4 -,1 C\ c Z I-n 00 0 C) 0 m 0 0 0 n (D tV fu rt ON 14 ri W 03 C% C\ C% CN a\ C71% CN vi 0Ln 01% In 0- m - C) w C) 0 CD \0 p. 00 CD %0 0m Ia. J16 Ne 10 r? w > 0 C: t-n P" CO CN -4 CD %D Z.,l :4 6@l @A ZO 0 C-4 pi I 0 C/) 0 ul M cn (D CL w m C? 00. 0 r? go 0 zIm C? 0m0 W -C@ w w w cl m m:3 l<00 Extremes in temperatures are moderated by the proximity of Long Island Sound. Mean daily maximum and minimum air temperatures during the warm- est month (July) are about 28.3 C and 17.4 C, respectively. January is the coldest month with mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures of about 1.6 C and -5.5 C. The record high temperatures for the coastal area include 39 C at Bridgeport and 37 C at New Haven while the record low temperatures include -29 C and -26 C at Bridgeport and New Haven. Table 4-49 presents the means and extremes for the general area. On the average, precipitation is well distributed over the year. For example, New Haven records show March with the greatest average rain- fall of 11.5 cm and October the least with 8.5 cm, based on the record period 1931-1960. The pattern of rainfall is quite variable from year to year; the extremes in precipitation'ranging from a record minimum of .30 cm to a maximum of 44 cm per month. Summer precipitation is associated mainly with thunderstorms and smaller convective storms. Coastal storms moving up the coast can bring heavy precipitation and strong winds during other seasons. The maximum 24-hour snowfall record on this coastal region is about 48 cm. Table 4-50 presents the means. and extremes of precipitation for the general area. The site is located in an area occasionally traversed by hurricanes. According to observations from Mont-auk Point,which is located about 37 km southeast of Millstone Point on the eastern tip of Long Island, the maximum reported wind speed associated with the passage of a hurri- cane is 185 km/h with short term gusts of up to 225 km/h. Hurricane Diane, which occurred in August of 1955, was notable for its heavy precipitation which caused extensive flood damage in northern Connecticut but had little effect on the coast. Maximum rainfall at the site resulting from this hurricane was less than 10 cm compared to 25 cm over Providence, Rhode Island, and 41 cm in the hills of northern Connecticut. High tides due to hurricane winds were considered for the Millstone Station. Since Millstone Point is a peninsula which projects into Long Island Sound, it is subjected to tidal flooding from severe storms. The highest such flooding has resulted from the passage of hurricanes. The literature (U. S. Army. Corps of Engineers (1965), Harris (1963), and Redfield and Miller (1957), indicated that twelve severe hurricanes have crossed coastal southern New England since 1635 and that four of ,these storms occurred in the past 35 years. These most recent storms include the hurricanes on September 21, 1938; September 14, 1944; August 31, 1954, and September 12, 1960. The center of the September, 1938 storm crossed the Connecticut coast about 24 km east of New Haven and about 32 km west of Millstone Point. The center of the 1944 hurri- cane passed inland between Charlestown and Point Judith, Rhode Island, about 56 km east of Millstone Point. The center of the August, 1954 storm crossed the Connecticut coast in the vicinity of Millstone Point. 4-424 -0 u Q k@ 14 L4 M to 0 If' C,- C@l -t R; m n cr 9 m 0 C6 m rl w m pi 0 CA 0 z P" 0 0 Ln x Oo 14 li ON ON I- %a 03 09 rt CD w -r- tA 0% 0% Ln 41 41 41 OD OD Ln w @4 14 %0 09 m 0 I- 0 0 00 x 14 t- 0% -4 co %a %0 %a ka -A C7, Ln IT %C %0 Un (71 .61 w w 0% a, w li CPI m rt 41 rt a, 0% 00 t.R t" LA IL C -1 -4 00 14 ON 41 -:j 41 00 %0 %0 0 0% 0@ w 41 Ili PI (D f, %a hi OD *I OQ m ID ON 14 00 ko 00 00 @4 ak (7% x 11 Cr 41 0% C% W 41 PI IJ 41 41@:- 4@- Ul C) -4 am -.4 at 0% m 41 Ln In 4. LO t-j 1-4 93 4.A 00 %0 w @4 w -4 m t- 40 09 0 %D ko @4 OD %0 %0 %0 %0 %0 co ON to w @4 4- CN %A (D W 41 41 Z, w ct 0% %a 41 vi at (Y@ 41 x m CA No 1A n Z :4 @J lb OQ fp ON a, La 01 0 m @j f4 11 0 cc o3 n m 09 pr M to M @A -4 OD OD %0 ko M li 0% vi Ln .4 @4 OD 42. Q 60 co t4 co 92V-tl cm C. L. e v o P4 th Ln 0 b. 0 L" cc a-. -11 4m w 1 0 C% OQ %0%0 li 14 0 li w )Q 0 41 . m Go Un :4 4- Zj cc in 0 40 t- I-A 1021, z 0 4A C% n V3 I-A 0 w @& @4 co 0 0.4 47. 41 co %J P. 6 m :I M LO 0 40 lu ca ct CD q;j p. w #A P. TA 0-M :4 0% %A -.j 1.& 106. ID 0 0 1:4 zr 0 0 0 co cc Ch 0% 47@ co 0% 0% li LA H The center of the September, 1960 storm also crossed the coast in the vicinity of Millstone Point. The maximum flood tide levels recorded in the vicinity of Millstone Point during these storms are indicated below: HURRICANES MAXIMUM FLOOD TIDE LEVELS (MSL) September 21, 1938 2.9 m September 14, 1944 1.9 m August 31, 1954 2.7 m September 12, 1960 1.8 m The design storm surge level at the site was computed using the prob- able maximum hurricane (PMH), as reported by the U. S. National Ocean- ic and Atmospheric,Administration (NOAA) in their unpublished report HUR 7-97 which describes the PMH as "...a hypothetical hurricane hav- ing that combinat iion of characteristics which will make it the most severe that can probably occur in the particular region involved". The characteristics of the PMH used in computing the maximum surge levels were: 1. Central Pressure Index = ,94 kg/sq cm 2. Radius of Maximum Wind = 8.9 km 3. Forward Speed = 28 km/hr 4. Maximum Gradient Wind = 205 km/hr 5. Peripheral Pressure = 1.05 kg/sq cm The locus,of maximum winds of the PMH was brought inshore along a track which passes just to the east of the east of the eastern end of Long Island. This calculated maximum surge height is El. 5.5 m MSL. The total surge includes .7 m of astronomical tide, .3 m of forerunner or initial rise, .68 m of rise due to barometric pressure drop, and 3.9 m of wind setup. Intense rainfall will be produced by severe tropical storms, severe nontropical cyclones, and occasionally by thunderstorms. The return period of extreme short interval rainfall for Block Island, Rhode Island (located 57 km to the east-southeast of Millstone Point), which is expected to be representative of that at the site, is shown in Figure 4-237. Tornadoes have been reported in Connecticut on 15 occasions during the period from 1953 to 1962. No wind speed measurements are available. Only one tornado has been reported in.New London County during the period from 1916 to 1965. Thus, the probability of.experiencing a 4-427 BLOCK ISLAND, RHODE ISLAND 20.0 1903-1948 15.0 11 NOrE 10.0 FREOUENCYANALYSISBYMEWDOF EXrREME L AF rER GWSEL 8.0 6,0 4.0 lop* 2. 0 '@00 INS rX :WE 1.0 U >_ 0.6 w 0.4 N Z_ 0.2 4 Cr 0.1 .06 .06 .04 .02 5 10 15 20 30 40 5060 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 18 24 MINUTES DURATION HOURS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE Return Period of Extreme Short-Interval Rainfall 4-237 Block Island, Rhode Island 4-428 tornado at the site is quite small. Based on a method suggested by Thom (1963), it is estimated that the probability is less than one per 1,250 years. A summary of severe weather for the area is shown on Table 4-51. Fog. Most of the fog in the Millstone area is an advection type caused by the passage of warm moist air over relatively cold water; hence, it is more pronounced during the summer months. The line of demarcation between fog and no fog is frequently very sharp depend- ing upon whether cold water is immediately adjacent to the site. For this reason, it is closely associated with tidal stages and currents. Table 4-52 compares the number of fog days by month at the four sur- rounding locations. Heavy fog has been reported on an average of 29 days per year at Bridgeport with slightly greater occurrence of heavy fog during winter and spring. The average range of relative humidity in January is 69 percent at 7 a.m. EST, and 59 percent at I p.m. EST. In July the range is 77 percent and 60 percent for the same hours. The diffusion climatology of Millstone Point is influenced mainlv bv land-sea meteorological interactions. The site is located on the north coast of Long Island Sound, which runs generally east-west. Offshore NW winds predominate in the winter,and onshore SW winds predominate in the summer months. The station is situated such that any wind from east to west or clockwise will have an upwind over-water trajectory, and a downwind overland trajectory within about 2.8 km of the site. Wind speed and direction data for 1965-1972 are summarized in Figure 4-238. A shift in the predominating wind direction from SW to NW appears to have occurred when this summary is compared to the wind rose in the environmental report based on three years of data. How- ever, National Weather Service records for nearby coastal stations in- dicate that directional shifts of up to 900 in annual predominating winds can occur from year to ye-ar. Stability results of wind measurements are analyzed for the period from December 1965 thro-ugh November 1966. The onshore and offshore wind frequencies for the stable cases show the average annual wind speed at the site is 17 km/hr and the most frequent direction is WSW. The site has onshore winds 59.6 percent of the time. An additional summary of climatological data for New York, Bridgeport, New Haven, Block Island, Providence, and Nantucket is given on Table 4-53. 4.4.3 NORTHERN SUB-REGION Co nsistent with the division made in most of the topical treatments of this report there is a natural partition caused by the land mass of Cape Cod which affects water movement, animal distribution, and probably to a lesser degree, the climate. Since the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers NAR study was based on river basins the division is different and the southern region continues part way into Maine to the 4-429 Table 4-5 CD SEVERE WEATHER Maximum 24-Hour Precipitation (inches Mean Number of Thunderstom-pm-s Bridgeport New Haven Providence Block Tsland Brl4j"oi@t. New Haven Providence Block Island January 2.42 2.85 3.34 4.06 February 2.31 2.76 2.72 2.01 March 2.74 3.11 4.53 3.63 1 1 1 April 2.54 2.81 2.82 2.50 2 2 2 2 May 3.23 3.09 3.76 2.35 3 4 3 2 June 2.02 2.69 1.99 2.25 4 5 4 2 July 5.95 4.29 2.80 2.66 5 6 5 4 August 3.97 3.90 5.47 4.86 4 4 4. 4 September 4.67 5.55 4.89 .8.52 2 3 2 1 October 2.39 3.81 6.63 6.63 1 November 4.07 4.68 3.04 3.96 December 3.69 4.25 3.85 4.39 Period of 1948- 1943- 1953- 1950- 1948- 1947- 1953- 1957- Record 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 1971 Extreme Maximum 24-Hour Snowfall (inches) Bridgeport 16.7 (1948-1971) Providence 18.3 (1953-1971) Block Island 16.9 (1950-1971) New Haven 17.2 (1943-1971) *Less than 1/2 Revised 1/2/73 TABLE 4-52 -FOG FREQUENCY (Number of Days With Heavy Fog (Visibility!Cl/4 Ydle)Y Bridgeport New Haven Providence Block Isl&md, January 3 3 2 4 February 3 2 2 4 March 3 3 2 5 April 3 3 2 9 May 4 4 2 June 3 3 2 July 2 2 2 12 August 2 2 September 1 2 2 5 October 2 2 4 4 November 2 2 2 3 December 2 1 2 3 Period of 1948- 1947- 1953- 1957- Record 1971 1971 1971 1971 FROM: Millstone ER- Revised 1/2/73 4-431 aSO@ PULM 4ULOd au04SMW LpnuuV 8CZ-V 3binou NOIE)3d OUNVUV HIHON 3Hi JO AdOiN3ANI IViN3VYNOdIAN3 ONV OINON003-0130S V r, Ln -n co ca M 4@b C) C) C-) ?o C@ M 00 I M W 00 %d fm oz r C 14 V 2 0 EA Month M Z onth 94 M 0 0 n M .7 a Pi n < 04 Cr 00 F :G F !. r !. - W 0) q@ @ M M -3 Im CA W Dally maximum r" r @' F :11 F F @j F* 0. Dal ly maxi to Dally minimum n W W A, C, M 0 CP A. W W p Daily min F, Monthly Monthly F FO r- W-M M W 0 @ M M I- W W 0 & W M M C. CA Record hi 0, CO '0(05 W to 0. @ M M ghest A, 00 co w w W W Record hi Record lowest u, Record lo C% 0 W 0 10 a, Normal total !0 @a 0-0 to 5(0 0 Normal to IL Maximum 24 hre. !0 Maximum 0.02 0. W W 00 M W 10@w W Snow. sleet M 0 coo 0 0 0 Snow, sle (0 W W 'o W 0 0 10 ,,,,an total mean tota -4 7 a.m. EST W 0. 7 a. in. E 0. M 41 W Q 1 p.m. EST 3 > I p.m. E -4 W W M 10 W M CO CO P !0 F* P:- Mean speed Mean spee W M 0 A. N) a CA 7@ z @4 t4 CA U) (A M z V 7 Prevailin 9 Prevailin direction direction 0 W W W A. M m@ Maximum speed WA. W .0, It W CO @P. W 0 W CO 0 CO Maximum V :9 and direction V :@ :i @4 :@ :@ :8 (A C4 ul t4 t-I CA :1 ' and direct ui in Percent of possible Pet-cent o sunshine sunshine P P F F, P r" @n Mean sky cover I F, F, F F F @" ?I an @n @n Mean sky sunrise to sunset a 0 1, CO W 0 0 to 0 C. W sunrise to a* 0' W W Clear - to - Clear 0CA Partly cloud) w'O @O CO co co Partly clo 11 Cloudy 0 CE 5 w w & ;5 Cloudy Precipitation 47 a a W to- Precipitat 01 inch or more 00 CO to W @ .01 inch o 000 0 0 Silow, sleet Snow, sle 1. 0 inch or more LIn 0 0 C) 0 0 ci W bi 1. 0 inch o LJ .0; Thunderstorms W - - - - - - Thunderst W&W WWW W W ^WW WWW Heavy fog - - - - - - tj Heavy fog cn > r X Month 0' >r 'r 'r Month z r P M 0 -3 0' 0' V W W W -3 CO -3 M W W W !4 !" :4 Daily maximum 9 Daily maxim tj 01 10 0 00 W -4 W W CO to 010 un Ch CA W W :4 :4 ?0 !A F1 Daily minimum 01 CA M M U, & W M M & W 9 LA & 'N & :a :j po r, t@ Daily minimum CO - 0 Monthly qj w tn -4 0 .01 W W W @' @' P @n ?I F Monthly W W t. 0 M W W (A -3 W P t 0 to C, W W W 10 1000) Record highest K Record highest .0@ 0 -4 Cc 0 W W 0 0 Record lowest 10, OW Record luwest > Normal total Normal total Maximum 24 Ma@imum 24 a. n h hr 7 kv 00 !@ a > Snow, sleet 0 Snow, sleet 000 :3 '1 coo @4 @a mean total w 11 mean total C. OD co W 7 a. m. FST 7 a, m. EST r n I p. m. EST 1 p.m. EST 2 W CA Mean speed Mean speed S% 041 Prevailing Prevailing direction direction CL Maximum speed W 0 C. M C. 0 CO a M (0 Maximum spee and direction M td !2: cn M Cn Ifi and direction Percent of possible I 'A K@'M M M M M - M Percent of pos W W M CO 0 a 0 to CA sunshine sunshine 3 Mean sky cover 0 Mean sky cove fn ?I F F P 01 In 'A I M C- C. sunrise to sunset sunrise to sun -4 10 CO (0 W Go Clear M 0 Clear 0 'I CO M 'D M M Partly cloud) W -0 w 10 1* Partly cloud) S C- Cloudy @ft Cloudy r Z w Precipitation Precipitation CO 0 a 0 ID 0 . 01 inch or more 01 inch or m Snow, sleet 0 W coo 0 a W W W Snow, sleet 0 M 1. 0 inch or more 9X 1. 0 inch or m 04 W Thunderstorms A. W Thunderstorm Heavy fog TI N t4 W W W W & Ca W W Heavy fog 2 0 ch ;0; 1- L.> V-1 11-t- X 0 M mo m cr@ r m0 Month M M 0 M Month 01, 1- 1- G!Q -.4 U. 0 0 U, F Daily maximum Daily maxi W to WW U. 0' to 0 . 0 Q,W to to to w to to @o 0 Daily minimum Daily min n M 1, p @' F, r in W to M c, -1 -1 1@ to at I@ W 171 Monthly n 0 W to to -1 to M - o' W W M 0 W@@ W UI CA -1 tecord highest Record high 0 1 0 'D 0 Recoid lowest .1 to w o, to rD to Record low if L' 10 (to, W@ U) to J. 0 to 0 0 W 0 Normal total 0 -1 Norioul tot 0 01 to to U, to W to to !o Maximuin 24 hi-s. Muxilnuln 2 U W '0 to to U, W -1 to W W Snow, slee Snow, slee 0 0 0 0 0 c, mean total X @rj Cj 0 0 0 C, 0 10 eau wtal 0., @O t7 M In W t@ ID --J -I -m 7 a.m. EST > 7@! 0 to I -I W 00 0 @O 7 a, in. F," C' 00 M r: 71 1 P. m. M 27 0 -, 11 1 - -, -,I - M a, "1 11 1 p, n E.; W a a C) -1 4@W 0 -1 .1 . L@ -i @O oll @O P @s to !o W !:1 wan speed to spe"d Ln M U) Lr v) @A --n -P (n Cn rj@ cn ZP. (n III Vail Ing PI djVCL:ti0T1 (hrectioll 0 Do' W W 1. 0- W I W Maximum bpeed to Maxiolutil s :3. n .1 - I to 01- U1 Lh 0 ilitecti, 'n -ji M 'I cf, -J) CO 4) L') alid direcliull N ri .n CA r-1 Q, .1 .1 Percent of Possible Per-C-11L of C sunshirle Z ZI S' - tj Mean @;ky cover fn M 11 11 1 to Mvan sky c Ff, 0 Sunrise to 0 to C. lo .1 Mto sunrise to sunset 0 qq C X Clvar 0 M .1 Clezir 0 0 )u 0- l'artly cloud@ Z' Partly cl< 0 to Clo"dv D Cloudy PrecipiLati 1, 1, v ipi [a I I Un W W ID M 4- 0 1 inch )I, more 0 1 inch or tilecl U) Snow, slee 1. () inch or W 1. 0 inch or in, I. I to to - 'I'll"Od"k 61'W"'s hundersto to -to :7, 11CIAV) fL)9 -t z:, lleav) f@@g UQ Androscoggin River, east of Portland. Therefore there is some over- lap between the NAR presentation and the north and south division used in the present report. Locations of the stations for meteorological measurements are shown on Figure 4-2,39. PRECIPITATION There appears to be little difference in the annual precipitation in the two sub-regions described by Q. S. Army Corps of Engineering with an average of 112 cm in both areas. Sharp increases occur inland in mountainous areas along the Maine-New Hampshire border as well as along a narrow coastal band. Table 4-54 gives a sub7region precipitation for representative stations in Maine. TEMPERATURE There is a decided.change in the temperature for the northern sub- region where the average annual temperature varies from about 7.2 C near the coast to 3.2 C in the northern headwaters. During a normal winter, the temperature averages about -9.4 C, with temperatures below -17.5 C on approximately 30 days each year. The number of days with temperatures below -17 C increases,.rapidly with distance from the coast, and is more.than 50 days,in the St. John Basin and in the highest ele- vations near the northern Maine-New Hampshire border. Temperature data at selected stations are shown.in Table 4755. DATA FROM ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENTS Pilgrim Environmental Impact Statement The first available detailed data found north of Cape Cod are from the Pilgrim Station. The final Environmental Statement Pilgrim Nuclear Station (1972) provides the following data. The Station is located on the rocky, western shoreline of Cape Cod.Bay and is on the Bay side of the northeast end of Pine Hills. The main features of the weather of eastern Massachusetts are variety and changeability since it lies in a transition zone of westerly air currents which encompass the southward movement of polar air masses and northward movement of tropical air masses. The area is frequently sit-. uated in or near the tracks of low pressure systems during the fall, 'winter and spring seasons. As a result, the region has no dry season, with summer precipitation, coming in the form of showers or thunder- storms. The coastline location of the site results in seasonal temp- eratures which are less extreme than inland locations due to onshore winds in the summer (seabreezes) and the@presence of relatively warm water in the winter. The storm cycle in this area consists generally of northeasters in the winter and spring, and thunderstorms in late spring and summer. Hurricanes sometimes occur in the late summer and fall. -436 0 4. n .k 6 3 T-W fio 26 V ps IL KEWIIEC' 4 A N OGGIN, 0, 7 p. t.;4 LEGEMO 4 PRECIP. 15 TEMP. <> PRECAR a SNOW PRECIP.,TEMP. & SHOW 0 SNOW 6 STREAMPLOW STATIONS 10 0 10 20 30 @O SCALE IN MILES A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Meteorologic and Stream Flow Stations - Sub-Region A 4-239 V: -3 ri 0 rl tri = V_ 11 ! F@ W N 0 *.5 r. V CLI 0 @_4 110 Z rl CL F@ Lp Sa. w Ww L@ L@ LO Lj 01 0 0 .1 ol C, " 6 F@ F-@ F_ 01 10 co -1 -,) cc 0co co @.A cl, _X XIt m CD.D Cu .1 0 r@l N Vb NP) X ou riw fli @j (b 1-4 La @o PQ Lj tj to . . . . .. . . . . tm -i uj t" ti co C), 'r, C)N W Li 0, 0 w ?IJ w ON --j . . . P,> t-j 0 . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . 9 W W 0 -J Ot, 1- 41MK) 0 W r@ 10 X, It In -.i 0 W'i co t@ '.0 @A co -j r,,) '1 *1 t,) 01. ww 0, w w L, Li N) t1i 41 P" OU" - I . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0In L, W LA 0% C, C:) C@, Z. :., co ol co z 0 ]CO CD k- 4- _j V, I-M -1 w 1.0 (D 10 a, -j L.) a, 0 gn. > 0 wL@ 0 --1 i-I @o @j Ul co -4 f'., w L, (0@ C@ @j 4, a, 'D ID Co ki, r" I.J -4 WLJ @3 0- OD 00 (W 0 w o C\ w -.4 www w p-, WW w Z- Z, 4 L4 @o . . . ,. . , . . I. . . @4. ,@D LU L_ Ia. r, (D tp. -j co t j et) -i w.01 -4 Cl X_ w X@w I) t4 1-h 41 4ul lmo cc N@\ 14 www w -.4 Lo -p- a, L@ ol 03 @> :,, ;1_1 :1 CD l'- t,) *C) '40 , *00 f--@ - rl C) C_ I- co OD 0co -.4w 41- 0 C\ \-n __j 0 IL_ @j t.) 5) N@ 0 Ln w Ol w C% " 0\ wWOW w w W 00 . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . @ 1* . . . C -4w m 00 0 -_j a P_ 0@ co a, m 10 k.A 10 -j c",W a, @o Z. ul Z., CY, C) C) w w -4 w \0 w w @o ww Lo co %.A C- Un -4 flJ Cl %.A Wf@ Ln -4J CO C' -4 -1 ClW 01 C@ LI) L'i i Ljw w 4- F- J' Z@l 0 0@ 4- as <D C* @o -1 10 @q j @o rj tJ -A rJ Cl, Lj C. I- t" w 1:4 @bl . 0 C, 4 Fj IZ, w 0 C, lu"4 0\ to m w I.A JI X, %A Li . . . . . . . . . . . Z6 %0 0, 14 w @o 00 _j L@ tj -40 OD 0', A CO Ch "".60 0, c) W L.0 w co OD -I.- -Q C)06'.4 co w F, 41 C. w 41 Cl wui W Go 00 zo co K)0 "D w 00 VD P.mW0 9. 0 CL -0 cr 00 0pt :3 o co co -a ID m 0 all lo oll r,- c, "0 rn m 0c)o @D >> < P xI. 41 P- m rn w0 o% co-- -.D 41 ww >>> 35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XXXxx:c @t *t nr 'ot 11x o o o o Q o lw@ 0 cl D o u o o o :3 n :1 :5 > pi fo X, C) @v- plj ?I, t a, z > P., L, Ul w L@ 'oo Z, @rl 1@1 oo oo CL th ol.. w ca 0 w o, cD a, L- 'o -a 'I m C. m W F @r- k@ 41 1--- -n :10 @4 -4 0 cowmt@ :r m c@ ol a, cl 1.. 14 ::r Cl IJ 41 OD OJ t- i:@ 4, aDboom cl 0% pi L, z- lo lo coc lo.1-1 ,j L@ c, C, cl 'oww 41 41 cy, a, o, o, lo t@ z- wz.c0c_- 4-ww%J, .1 k. C) cc c, o,,- o, w1- Tornado ac tivity in eastern Massachusetts is uncommon. Meteorological data for the Pilgrim site have been collected from the site meteorological tower. The most frequent wind directions observed 'were from the SSW through WNW which are all offshore directions. The site experienced onshore winds 36 percent of the time, offshore winds 63.6 percent of the time, and calm conditions the remaining 0A percent of the time. Seabrook Environmental Impact Study The Seabrook Nuclear Power Plant is in-Seabrook, New Hampshire, two miles from the Atlantic Ocean. The Seabrook site is located between two National Weather Service Class A airport stations. The Boston, Massachusetts,,Logan International Airport is 60 km to the south- southwest, while the Portland (Maine) International Jetport is 94 km to the north-northeast. The Boston Airport is on a land fill that extends into Boston Harbor, which is part of the Atlantic Ocean. The Portland Airport is located just inland from the Atlantic Ocean. ,.Data from these stations were used to obtain climatological means and extremes for the Seabrook area. Climatological data from Ports- mouth, New Hampshire,and Pease AFB have also been used. Both stations are about 21 km NNE of the site. Portsmouth data are from the Depart- ment of Public Works, a cooperative weather observer,. Temperature. Temperature extremes are moderated by the proximity of the site to the Atlantic Ocean. This effect is more.pronounced during the summer when the sea breeze counters inland heating. Cold air outbreaks can produce low minimum temperatures, but the persistence of extreme values along the coast is less than for inland stations.Table 4-57. Precipitation. A mean monthly precipitation between 7 and 10 cm each month is expected for Seabrook, with a mean annual total close to III cm. Most summer rain is from showers and thunderstorms, which are less frequent along the coast than farther inland. Heavy precipita- tion between December and March is usually associated with stormy condi- tions caused by nor'easters moving up along the coast. Table 4-56.. On the average, there are about 130 days per year with more than a trace of precipitation (Lautzenheiser, 1967) and 79 days with over 0.2 cm. At Pease Air Force Base, October, the driest month, averages 9 days with measurable precipitation, while November, the wettest month, averages 12 days. Heavy precipitation at Seabrook usually occurs only with storm centers Ahat form along the east coast and move northeastward toward New 4-440 Table 4-56 PRECIPITATION (INCHES) Jan Feb May @pr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual Years Mean Monthly Boston 3.9 3.3 4.2 3.8 3.3 3.S 2.9 3.7 3.5 3.1 3.9 3.6 42.8 19.31 1960 Portland 4.4 3.8 4.3 3.7 3.4 3.2 2.9. 2.4 3.S 3.2 4.2 3.9 42.9 1931 1960 Portsmouth 4.2 4.0 3.4 3.6 2.8 2.7 3.4 2.7 3.8 4.1 4.6 3.5 42.6 1954 1967 Maximum Monthly Boston 9.5 7.1 11.0 9.1 13.4 9.1 11.7 17.1 10.9 8.8 11.3 9.7 1871 1972 Portland 9.4 6.8 10.0 6.S 7.7 6.3 5.9 8.3 9.8 12.3 9.8 9.7 1941 1972 Portsmouth 13.8 S.8 6.2 6.5 6.4 6.3 5.4 6.7 9.1 10.8 9.7 6.4 1954 1967 Minimum Monthly Boston 0.9 0.4 T 0.9 0.2 0.3 O.S 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.7 1872 - 1971 Portland 0.8 1.3 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.3 2.1 1.0 1941 - 1971 Portsmouth 0.9 1.3 1.7 1.4 1.0 0.8 1.3 1.4 I.S 1.9 2.4 1.0 1954 - 1961 Maximum 24 Hour Total Boston 3.2 4.4 4.1 3.2 S.7 S.4 6.0 8.4 S.6 4.9 5.4 4.2 1 871 -'1972 Portland 2.0 3.2 3.S 2.4 2.3 5.6 2.2 4.2 7.S 7.7 3.4 3.8 1941 - 1972 Portsmouth 2.6 3.4 1.8 1.7 1.8 2.4 2.4 2.2 6.6 S.6 2.8 2.0 19S4 - 1967 T less than 0.01 inches 4-441 Table 4-57 nAN Tl@@LITI@A S t@[) r-.XI'R[-NlFS (OF) 18-n Feb Mar APr May JIM I'll Aug Scp Oct @ov acc Annual Y en r s Mean Daily Maximum Boston 37 37 45 56 68 76 82 80 73 63 52 40 59.0 1931 - 1960 Portland 32 34 41 52 64 73 80 78 70 60 48 3S 55.6 1931 - 1960 Portsmouth 32 34 42 S3 66 75 90 78 70 6 1 49 35 56.4 1954 - 1967 Mean Daily Minirrwi Boston 23 23 31 40 50 S9 65 63 57 47 38 26 43.6 19111 - 1960 Portland 12 12 22 32 42 51 57 SS 47 37 29 16 34.4 1931 - 196n Portsmouth 13 13 22 32 41 51 56 S4 46 37 29 17 34.4 1954 - 1967 Record Lowest Boston -13 -18 -8 11 31 41 50 46 34 2S -2 -17 1872 - In72 Portland -26 -39 -21 8 23 33 40 33 23 IS 5 -21 1941 - 1972 Portsmouth -23 -IS -8 10 22 3S 40 33 26 i4 11 -12 1954 - 1967 Mean No. of Days with Minimum 00 or Be low Boston 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1954 - 1971 Portland 6 S 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 is 1941 - 1971 Portsmouth 4 S 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 11 19S4 - 1967 less than I day From; Seabrook EIS 4-442 England. These nor'easters usually have a small, intense circulation and move rapidly through the New England area. If the center passes sufficiently close to the site, considerable rain or snow can occur. A maximum monthly precipitation amount close to 25 cm could be expected at the site. Maximum 24 hour precipitation amounts will occur with thunderstorms during the summer or as a result of nearby hurricanes during the fall. Fog. The cool Atlantic waters can produce extensive advection fog when warmer, moist air is carried over the cool water. With any persistent eastern component in the wind direction, the fog that often lies just off shore during the summer can reach the Seabrook site. This situation is supported during the summer by local heating and a resulting sea breeze. All months of the year have a fairly consistent frequency of occurrence of fog. This is shown in the following table which lists the occurrence of fog at Pease AFB (USNWS, 1970), about 8 km inland. Although local- ized and contiguous fog is teen at Pease AFB about 15 percent of the time, it is dense enough to restrict visibility to two km or less about 3.5 percent of the time. ANNUAL FREQUENCY Of FOG AT PEASE AFB 1956-1961 Month Percent of Hours January 13.5 February 12.3 March 13.3 April 16.6 May 13.9 June 18.1 July 15.3 August 12.2 September 16.9 October 19.0 November 17.0 December 14.2 Annual 15.2 Wind. Wind directions were from sectors around WNW during the year of 1972 of collected data. During the winter, 55.6 percent of all winds at 10 m above ground were from the W through NW sectors. This peak is re- duced to 35.2 percent during the spring when 25.3 percent of the winds come from the NNE through E. Winds from the west and northwest pre- dominate, even during the summer, with winds from NE throuqh SE account- 4-443 ing for only 27.1 percent. On-shore winds are at a minimum during the winter months. Northeast winds, usually associated with a nor,easter moving up along the New England coast, show a peak during the spring. During the year, the maximum wind direction persistence in a 22.5 .percent sector was 20 hours with a WNW wind. There were ten occurrences of the wind direction remaining within a 45 percent sector over 48 hours. These occurred with winds from the SW westward through the NNW. Highest hourly.wind speeds during the year occurred with winds from the ENE and the NW. Strong Winds. The Boston and Portland climatology data show that wind speeds over 40 mph can occur during any month of the year. 'During the winter these high winds are normally caused by nor'easters that move up along the coast and are normally accompanied by moderate to heavy precipitation. During the warmer months, high winds are normally the result of thunder- storms or squall lines that move through the area. Hurricanes could produce high wind speeds during the late summer and early fall. Table 4-58 lists the fastest-mile wind speeds recorded at Boston and Portland (NOAA 1954, 1965, 1971). The Boston wind data are considered to be representative for the Seabrook area due to comparable exposure. Seasonal wind roses and the annual summary are given in FIgures 4-240 through 4-244. Table 4-58. FASTEST MILE WIND SPEED (MPH) Boston Portland January 52 52 February 56 58 March 57 76 April 56 57 May 58 50 June 63 44 July 64 45 August 65 69 September 61 62 October 58 45 November 58 76 December 49 62 Years 1926-1971 1941-1971 4-444 14% 12% 10% 8% 61% 4% SPRING S 0 -1.S 4. 1-6.0 >8.0 1.6-4.0 6.1-8.0 meters per second A SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANDENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGU SEABROOK POWER STATION, RE I Spring Wind Rose 30-Feet Level 4-240 4-445 12% 10% 8% N SUMMER 0 -1.S 4.1-6.0 >8.0 1.6-4.0 6.1-8.0 meters per second T A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVI RONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC R@EGION FIGURE 1EA110.01 POWER STATION' wo- 4-241 Summer Wind Rose 30 Feet Level 4-41 20% 18% 16% 14"/, 12% 6% 4% 8% FALL 0 -1.5 4.1-6.0 >8.0 NEW= 1.6-4.0 6.1-8.0 meters per second A SOC40-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I SEABROOK POWER STATION 4-242 Fall Wind Rose 80 Feet Level 4 447 22% 20% 18% 16% 14% N 12% 6% 10% 4% 2% 8% 100". 6% fb WINTER 0 -I.S 4.1-6.0 >8.0 1.6-4.0 6.1-8.0 meters Per second A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION J TR FIGURE SEABROOK POWER STATION 4-4 4-243 Winter Wind Rose 3-0-Feet Level 16% 14 12% 10% 8% 6% ANNUAL 0 -I.S 4.1-6.0 >8.0 1.6-4.0 6.1-8.0 meters-per second A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE SEABROOK P.OWER.STATION 4-2441 Annual Wind Rose 30 Feet Level 4-449 The annual extreme-mile at 10 m above ground for four recurrence inter- vals is as follows: ANNUAL EXTREME-MILE FOR 10 M ABOVE GROUND SEABROOK AREA Return Interval Speed --- (years) (mph) 10 70 25 80 50 90 100 95 From: Seabrook EIS Hurricanes. A review of all tropical cyclone events for the period 1886 through 1970 (Simpson & Lawrence, 1971) shows that no tropical storms or hurricanes have come onshore within the 185 km strip of coast line from 42.080N, 69.90OW north to 43.520N, 70.320W. The Seabrook site is located at 42.90N, 70.90W.- While no tropical storms or hurri- canes have come ashore in the Seabrook area, such storms that reach the New England area usually pass northward we 'st of the site or on a north- east track south of the site. Since, to date, the only hurricanes or tropical storms to reach the Seabrook area have had to travel a sub- stantial distance overland, the potential impact of such storms is significantly-reduced. One of the more critical aspects of tropical storms passing south of the site is the possibility of flooding caused by a substantial on- shore fetch. The record high tide for the New Hampshire coast associated with a hurricane was 2.3 m MSL recorded at Newburyport (U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1965). Tornadoes. Minor tornadoes have occurred in all of the New England states. The average annual number of tornadoes for the entire State of New Hampshire is 2.2 (Pautz, 1969). The 10 square from 42 - 430N and 71 - 720W that contains this Seabrook site shows a total number of only 4 tornadoes during the period 1955-1967 for an annual tornado probability of 0.308. Data for the 20 square from 42 - 440N and 70 - 720W for 1916-1968 give a total of 51 tornadoes over the 43 y8ars, for an annual fre- quency of 1.186 for the square. For the 1 square containing Sea- brook, this value is divided by 4 for an annual tornado probability in a.10 square of 0.296. Ice Storms. Freezing precipitation, or glaze ice, does occur in the -1-450 Seabrook area. Data for freezing rain at Pease AFB for 1956 through 1961 are presented on Table 4-59. TABLE 4-59 AVERAGE FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE (PERCENT OF HOURS) OF FREEZING RAIN AT PEASE AFB, NEW HAMPSHIRE Jan Feb Mar Apr Nov Dec Annual 0.9 0.5 0.3 0.0 0.2 1.0 0.3 Mapped data for the period 1925 - 1953 show 7 to 13 ice storms reported for the Seabrook area. For a 9 year period, 12 ice storms occurred resulting in ice,of a thickness of 0.62 cm or more, of which 8 storms had ice of I cm or more. The greatest radial thickness of ice on utility wires for the Seabrook region was between 4 cm and 5.1 cm. Thunderstorms and Hail. Thunderstorms have occurred in New Ergland during every month of the year, with the maximum number during the summer. Table 4-60 presents the mean number of days with thunderstorms. The days with thunderstorms at Seabrook are represented by the Pease AFB data. TABLE 4-60 MEAN NUMBER OF DAYS WITH THUNDERSTORMS Boston Portland Pease AFB January 0 0 February 0, March 0 April 1 1 0.8 May 2 2 2.5 June 4 4 3.2 July 5 4 5.4 August 4 4 3.4 September .2 2 1.5 October 1 1 0.4 November 0.1 December 0 Annual 19 18 17.3 Years 36. 31 10 *Less than 0.5 4-451 Wyman Environment Impact Statement. A proposed Unit 4 to be added to Wyman Power Station lying 16 km east of Portland, Maine, on Casco Bay has resulted in a compilation of wind data and uses Portland Airport meteoroloqical data for other elements. Table 4-61 presents a complete summary of Portland data. As with all nuclear and fossil fuel plants detailed direction and stability data as measured at the site are available. 4.4.4 STORMS INTRODUCTION The coastal region from Sandy Hook to the Bay of Fundy is often traversed by tropical and extra-tropical storms. This area straddles a land-water boundary and is often near the front between continental and maritime air masses. Storms can penetrate this region while still remaining in contact with their water and energy source, the Atlantic. Damage due to storms in the study area has been high in the period 1921-1964. The discussion of storms will begin with a description of tropical cyclones and their spatial and temporal distributions. Cyclogenesis along the U.S. East Coast is discussed, and primary and secondary extra-tropical storm tracts are presented for each month. Detailed storm climatologies of two coastal and two nearshore areas within the study area are included to illustrate storm occurrences on a smaller spatial scale. Finally, storm damage estimates are given for the U. S. East Coast and smaller coastal increments. TROPICAL CYCLONES The properties and features of tropical cyclones in the North Atlantic Ocean are discussed with reference to data from Cry and Haggard (1962) and Cry (1965). These data were taken primarily from storm locations published in the Monthly Weather Review. Winds traveling counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere around a center of low pressure are called cyclones. Tropical cyclones originate in the tropical Atlantic just north of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone where the trade winds are fairly uniform. Because of the homo- geneity of the surrounding water and air these systems are character- ized by a circular symmetry with diameters of up to 1000 km. Tropical cyclones experience a life cycle of development, intensification, maturity, modification, and decay. During this life cycle they may be classified by their maximum sustained wind speeds. Storms with closed isobars are classified as hurricanes for wind speed greater than .4-452 31V 0 X 0 to TP c- c- :9 30 2 In c- month %X up a. -4 -4 -4 .4 a- lA Ap, lap 40 Daily CO r- + Q. W a- as W J. %A P-A %A -4 Cm Maximum M W W .11@ %A %A %a S. W Ij 1- Daily 414 Lr A, 4. W a. 41 PQ PV -4 :j 0, Minimum 0 -3 k" kA I" CID C5 C@ Cz -3 0 02. W Monthly 0 43@ _j Cm @O C.4 10 10 10 Ce Qb 0. Record 2 4 @-, 0 R M X CL 0. W -3 highest :z 10 a 10 10 10 10 10 'o 10,010 CL .91 J. 4- A, .0. %A .0. %^ %A 0 W 0 Z Year' GR INS 0 W %A CMO 0- J. -4 0. -4 a tr 0 5- C" w car p W M K> 0.- 17' PI f's UO 4. Record 9 %X CO 4A Ua 0 W W Ca o 0, Pj lowest a 0 a 10 @o 1010 .0.0 04,0 10 In 01 Year P PI W. WO a- 41 o- .80, 0 W a-- -1 0 OZE P_ Normal heating degree U Tj 0. 0 V@ W IG: 1'. 4-00 lo%A- -4 -j .0, CD W 1- %P -4 am %A W IV W %p hj rj C days (Base 65*) W 41 U1 W W rv 10 "w 'p w Normal tw..] ;. :_ ;., Z., @, @. :@ - -:20. X JWA W %A %P @j 0 OIj rov. is l- up AV-0 -4 C ob Maximum P_ CL rT rv (7, CO #,P OP W Cp _j 4@ 10 _j 4- W :3 W log -.4 .0 C). a. 0, -1 0. 0.- V4 monthly 2 W 0 4D =r 10 4,0,0 @o 0 0 @o 10 10 10 10 .0 7-0 11 O@ -4 0, G@ 0, %.X @V_ km Q@ 41 0- %A -4 %A "M - Year :3 M .8-4. -0 LO 1,> 4@ Q@ l- -4 CO 1- W 4- Go 0 -am 0, C) 0 a 0 fl, CL Minimum o rb XW 'boo 0 0@ CD Cp o- C) -j 0 'D 0@ 0. mon*khlv C, 39 t._ M IKI X CIO 10 10 03 @o C) 10 @O 10 .0 a 10 CL CT 41-4 " __ Z_ 4r_ r, V@ 41 01 ;1 0- 0- -4 ;@ t 0 ;n -4. %A 0. -4 CD -4 %A " %A- %A (Do Year OQ Z- + rb %C 0 M -4 up to _j Ij %p " ri up W MO 0 to __F L. ZO 1. 1@ L ;0 Maximum CL 1W hj 10 .0 CD to CM W W -.j s- 41 in 24 hirs. ow D- 0 _G" C 0 0,0 - *_.@; 10 C-S 10 @o @O 10 10 a a a 10 t2i En 0. :r I 0-4 0@ " C@ %A C. a- %A a. 0@ Year 00 PO 0"" 41 Q@ .4 -4 Fla .11@ 1.111 4p. M 0 M X W 0 -= 0 rt C, C 0 m@T :3 OQ0 3 r- Mean total 0 0-1 3 a -4 16AWO 00 0OW Cn @_q no . Fr 0 = -4 1 0 0 V- a ra Z. Z. Z. Z.. Z1. W'. to C6 C Maximum C@ %X 1- 41 Q@ W (A 41 00 C@ -4 Li -d W monthly 0 OD -4 2 LA Cr t7' Year @O M a 10 @o 10 10,010,010 0, 131 _j -4 0. a- a- t-I '0. 0 T@j G) 10 %X -4 0- 0 01 4, Or- CKI Maximum 0 In' W to UJ 00 0 @j CD @ @.I- 11>3 eD . . . . . . W F@ f3 a 2 in 24 firs. C M a M Cip C, 00 0 0 _j =4 %.Xfj W j tz 4 " 0 M _0 Mm 0 c:: @O_mv = M _U Cn a. '0 M a 10 @o 10 4 .01010 rr -4 0@ 4- Year 0 -4 n _j _j 0 UPI 4% B 0. 0 ?%@ 10 @o I.J @o .9. rr + .3 00 -4 03 CO @o 10 OD CO Q* -j -j -4 W Hour 0 tj 10 W Q, C> 0 10 %L" 0 C. 01 0, C> CIO CIP Ca CIP go CO C.V -J -4 -4 -4 -J -J Hour o C> A %W U. W C; -4 W t.- Op. Ob O@ 0. 43@ %A %A a- %A %X %p a- Hour CT 0 ri 4@ 0 " 0 -0 0 -4 %A a a N ro a lb rr ----z " M -4 _j _j _j CO _j -4 _j -4 -4 -4 0 -4 W Hour 1,. .9. 4P.__S 10 Cp 4W NA 10 10 n 0 th 118 km/hr, tropical storms for wind speeds between 62 km/hr and 116 km/hr and tropical depressions for speed less than 62 km/hr. The development of these storms and their passage through the various categories depends on the surrounding environment. Modification may be due to admixture of colder northern air masses. This would result.in an extra-tropical cyclone. Movement over land masses is another reason for modification since its energy source would be sharply reduced and surface friction greatly increased. Storm Characteristics The tropical cyclone season covers the interval from June through November with September having the maximum number of storms reaching hurricane intensity. For the years 1901 through 1963, 290 full- fledged hurricanes have been recorded. This number is roughly 58 percent of the total number of tropical cyclones tracked for that period. Most of these storms originated between 10ON and 20ON latitude. During June, formation occurs mainly in the western Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico. In July the preferred points of origin move eastward to the lesser Antilles and the southwest Atlantic. Storms are active over the largest area during August and September, particularly in the southwest Atlantic east of the Bahamas and West Indies. The points of origin shift back to the western portion of the Caribbean as the season wanes, The atWnment of 0hurricane intensity occurs principally between 50OW and 80 W along 20 N. This may be seen in Figure 4-243 which is a compilation.of the positions where all hurricanes reported during the month of September first reached hurricane intensity. The track taken by tropical cyclones is affected by atmospheric conditions from the sea surface to about 15 km; hence, large scale atmospheric circulation is a major determinant of storm travel. Most tropical cyclones begin in a northwesterly direction and then veer toward the northeast upon coming under the influence of the Westerlies. The point of recurvature is defined as the position where the storm track changes direction with respect to longitude. More simply, the point of recurvature is the westernmost position that the storm occupied. Although this clockwise sense of travel is the dominant mode, occasionally storms will transcribe a closed loop due to the influence of two interacting wind regimes. Figure 4-246 gives the points of recurvature and loops for all September tropical cyclones reported from 1901-1963. As in the case of storm origins, the points of recurvature shift eastward from June to September and then westward from September to November. Most recurvature points are seen to be centered between 20ON and 350N latitude. Temperal and Spatial Distribution. Figure 4-247 is an historical display of all reported tropical cyclones from 1871 to 1963 and those reaching hurricane intensity from 1886 to 1963. The shading indicates the type of movement. Note that about 60 percent of all hurricanes 4-454 c o IM C-) 0 57 V) 10, cr 16 13 O'D 39 11 03 019, 12: 21 3, 13. 50, 06 310 Is * r 1 4 r S . 0 31 6% 17 --- CD Ln #51 5*3 2109 55 c o 37 er C-) 0 5w'),1 1*3 26 57 ko 0 i'e 43 0 0' .0 C.. 01, t- 29 0 20 tl -S Q) 24 2*2 02 37 L:D7. :9, C+ 10 .1v (996L 'kJO) LtZ-t SaUP3LjjnH PuP S@UOLOkO @o kouanbauj 3unu F@073H OIINV-IIV HIHON 3HI =10 MOIN3ANI -lVIN31NNO81AN3 ONV OMON003-01om V 0 FREQUENCY 0 0 co ID 40 .10 recurve. Although periods of maximum and minimum storm occurrence can be detected subjectively, the record length of about 90 years is too short with respect to the bandwidth of storm frequency fluctuations to arrive at any prediction of future storm trends. Figure 4-248 shows the annual frequency of tropical cyclones and hurricanes for theyears 1901-1963., The mean number of hurricanes per year is 4.6 with the maximum number occurring in any,given year being 11. Since the distribution is skewed positively, the mode, 3 hurri- canes per year, is perhaps more important than the mean. Turning now from yearly totals to daily distributions, Figure 4-249 illustrates the extent of the tropical'cyclone season. The number of tropical storms and hurricanes in existence for each calendar day during the years 1901-1963 is plotted. August, September, and October are the most significant months with the maximum number of storms and hurricanes.occurring around September 10. The peaks during October are attributed to storms occurring in the Western Caribbean. Table 4-62 gives the frequency of occurrence, by months, of the 63 North Atlantic hurricanes record-ed during 1901-1963. From this table an observed probability of occurrence.may be obtained. This is shown in Table 4-63 for both tropical cyclones and hurricanes. There is only a 5 percent probability of hurricane occurrence outside the season of June through November- Figure 4-250 The spatial distribution of tropical cyclones affecting the states along the Gulf of Mexico and East Coast is shown in Figure 4-251. Texas, the middle Gulf coast, Florida, and the Carolinas receive the brunt effect. Although New England and the Middle Atlantic states experience fewer tropical cyclones, many have had disastrous conse- quences due to their paths of approach and points of.landfall. As an example, Figure 4-252 shows the tracks of hurricanes reported .during 1954. The two hurricanes crossing the New England states were of particular destructive significance. Individual hurricane tracks have a very broad geographical distribution. An example of their complexity may be seen in Figure 4-253 which shows the tracks of all hurricanes reported from September 1-10 during the years 1901-1963. Clearly, the definition of a mean track line is of little value due to the large variance of the individual tracks. The majority of these hurricane tracks veer off into the,Atlantic and do not.intersect the New England states. A further compilation of all hurricane tracks from 1901-1963, on an approximate ten-day basis, spanning the peak of the tropica'i cyclone season, is given in.Figures 4-254 through 4-262. 4-458 ALL STORMS HURRICANES 011 77 g 0- wimeg" OF STORMS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Frequency Distribution of Cyclones and Hurricanes 4-248 (Cry, 1965) 4-459 (996L 'JQ3) W-t .PIRO LuuOsP9S wJO4S LP3Ldojj/auP3LA.AnH aunow N01E)3H 01-LNV-11V Hi8ON 3Hi -10 AHMN3ANI IVINNYWHIAN3 ONV OIV40NO03-OIDOS V w N .4 m rn z z z C) rn 0Z rn .j3 0 C 40- CD C3 M Z 0 < m HURRICANES tWinds 74 otph. or over). 0 CENTER MOVE IDINLAND IN INDICATED AREA 12TROPICAL STORMS(Winds 3977J m.A*j 0 CENTER REMAINED OFFSHORE OR MOVED INLAND DEPRESSIONS IN ANOTHER AR EA -5 PIS (a a m -0 5- -S .0 0- 5- 0 IPM -0 0 r =0 5- . ..... 5 0- Z-0 IVA mmQ -0 1 10- 710 ANNUAL P41JPABEA 75 OF TROPICAL C Y LONE C S NTERS E C 7, 77 @rz: BIT J-17 PA SING W I"L AND 0- -0 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION'i A SOCK) ----- FIGURE Hurricanes Significantly Affecting Coastal Areas IR5W 1 4-250 (Cry, 1965) - 4-461 ROP tCAL STO AMS p'U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMME,RCE. WEATHER BUREAU 19-M NORTH ATLANTIC HURRICh@@E TRACKING CHAR T 0 4-26 211. A@ 3'.3- 4 12 15.Zl 30."s 1955 m m C-) tD z z m z z < m z 2, 13- 4-11 5 5 25 21 -10 20"-_-_O- It m 31 z 0 33 > AF- mz ATLANTIC > 4ORT4 TROPICAL STOftMS D E-PA R T M E N T OF C 0 Wi 14 R CE W E A r H BUREAU U s ATLANTIC HURRICAN@ TRACKING C@,PqT d SEPTEMOER Ho 0 1901-1963 z ro C 0 0 j _-4 M C-) -1 z 0 < 0) z A % Ln Ln m X/@ I C+ z 0 z < IT! (D z @v W r+ W (D rD M IT! C) z +) 0 > C) C+ Ic z REAU. > NORTH ATLAKTIC TROPICAL STORMS U IIERCE WEATHER BU S. D E PA R T V1 N T OF COIJ? NORTH ATLANTIC HURRIC.4NE TRACKING CHART 41 JULY i 6-31 0 z 1901-1963 in LTI M m z < z 110 Cn V) m c+ Z @z < c@ m 0 ch L m z ko C) C+ > o p > Lo Hurricanes, 1886-1900 Number of Storms June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.. Dec.-May 0 12 9 0 3 6 13 13 1 2 6 8 3 5 2 2 2 1 0 6 5 3 0 0 3 0 0 0 4 1 0 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 Hurricanes, 1901-1963 Number of Storms June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.-May 0 50 46 21 E 21 53 60 1 13 14 16 26 32 10 3 2 0 3 16 10 9 0 0 3 0 0 9 13 0 .0 0 4 0 0 4 1 0 0 5 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 Table-, Observed frequency of North Atlantic hurricane occurrences. 4-62 (From Cry, 1965). All Tropical Cyclones Other June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Months .At least 1 0..41 0.43 0.78 0.98 0.84 0.33 0.19 2 or more 0.09 0.13 0.57 0.71 0.57 0.02 0 3 or more 0.02 0.03 0.27 0.56 0.22 0 0 4 or more -0 0 0.10 0.32 0.06 0 0 Hurrican es Other June July 'Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Months At least 1 0.21 0.27 0.67 0.87 0.67 0.16 0.05 2 or more 0 - 0.05 0.41 0.46 0 0 3 or more 0. 0 0.16 0.30 0.02 0 0 4 or more 0 0 0.02 0.10 0.02 0 0 Table Ubserved probability of occurrence of North Atlantic tropical 4-63 cyclones 1901-1963. (From CrY@ 1965). C is and Extra-tropical Storms. Cyclogenesis -- the ycloqenes initi- ation of cyclonic circulation, or its strengthening around an existing low presstwe center -- is discussed by Miller (1946) and Andrews (1 963), among others, for the East Coast of the U. S. Numerous environmental conditions contribute to*the formation or intensification of low pressure systems in this region. @Andrews,(1963) summarized the following contributing factors: temperature contrasts between maritime and and continental air masses; the sharpeninq of atmospheric temperature gradients by the Gulf Stream; deformation of fronts by the Appalachian mountain range; differential heating between land and water surfaces; and the concave nature of the coastline north and south of Cape Hatteras. Cyclogenesis of extra-tropical storms js most intense during the period October through April, and is often associated with the presence of an upper air trough between the,Mississippi Valley and the coast. For the period of maximum cyclogenesis, Andrews recognizes three principal mechanisms for storm formation and gives examples of their.synoptic characteristics. The three types noted are: (a) A low pressure center first appears as a wave on a cold front. (b) A secondary cyclone develops near the middle Atlantic coast along the warm front of an older cyclone. (c) A blocked low forms off the coast which is closely re- lated to the breakdown of the large-scale planetary circulation in the upper westerlies. Extra-tropical cyclones are generally asymmetrical low pressure systems that form in non-tropical regions and have a frontal structure. Although associated winds can attain considerable speed, they are usually weaker than those associated with tropical disturbances. The frontal nature of extra-tropical cyclones causes marked wind shifts and temperature fluctuations. Figures 4-252 through 4-273, (U. S. Department of Commerce, 1959, reproduced here from Brower, Sisk, and Quayle, 1972) show primary and second Iary extra-tropical storm tracks for each month of the year. The offshore area from Sanoy Hook tothe, Bay of Fundy lies under the influence of primary tracks for all months except July, August, and September, During July and August a secondary storm track traverses the region. In September the study area is shown to be located between a primary and a secondary track. Selected coastal and nearshore areas. Brower, et al. (1972) discuss tropical and extra-tropical cyclones for ports 'Ehaf have been proposed as supertanker terminals. Included in their report are the coastal zones near Machiasport, Maine,and New York City. Also included in their discussion is a consideration of tropical storm penetration of 10 latitude by 1.50 longitude offshore areas for the Machiasport region, 4-467 00 NO.T. ATLWIC TROPICAL STORMS -4PIU. S. DE -@@Fco,=AER@CE, WE cn 7T 0 F A t ATHER BUREAU 4@A NORTH ATLANTIC HURRICANE TRACKING CHART AUGUST 1-10 0 z 1901-1963 G) ZNI N) c 0 LT1 4@b M 0 m z T z Al. Lo Zn Ul V) m Cl+ z 0 5 z < m z -n C) m <:Ic, w. 0 z ko c@ > C+ 0 > 9.0 z > MORT$ ATLANTIC TMOPJCA@ STORMS "J'U S DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE. WEA@@HER BUREAU NORTH ATLANTIC HURRICAN E TRA" NG CHAR T AUGUSTii -20 z C rn m C) -s z 0 < z m z 0 a z n rv 0 c:) > C+ Nt ko al T-1- r 4@ 4* > MONTH ATLANTIC TROPICAL STORMS IM, 11. %R TI.E 11 MENT OF C 5?AME RCE W T H R BUREAU ATLANTIC HURRIC/ANE. TR C0 _CHART AUGUST 21-31 1901-1963 41@b C ul M M --T z 5 0 < c z m ILn (A z W) z C+ -n m z ',D CD to 0 CA). > NOATN ATLANTIC TROPICAL STOM411 U. S. D E P A R 1*,M E N T OF Comm E WEATHER BUREAU .......... NORTH. ATL A N T IC HUPPIC ANE TRACKING CHART SEPUMBIER 11-20 1901-1963 z -4 M '27 5@1 C-,) -S 0 < Ln Ln C+ 0@ . . . . . . 44 z (D Cr (D m D m ko 0 m S;R- N cy) -4@ 14 A:.IA,.":'C,. IROI.CAI ST.I.S C 0 M E RCE@ RN > U.S. DEPARTMENT OF CIPUREAU 4 NE J@A T H F?" H R T NORTH AT L A N T I C H U R R I C A, KIN 'G 7- SEPTEMBER 21-30 1 -1963 9 01 -n 41 :X) co M M ---------- z -5 0 f X- V z Lo m z ci- z < m Ln z C+ (D (D cr (D -n X J. I CD z 84 11.0 r, .I . i I . . . -- . CD C-+ 0 :u NORTH ICAL .LI..": Tlo'P 'jw'o:TOR0AS DEP@RTMENT OF COMMERCE, WEAT.HCR BUREAU NORTH ATLANTIC HURPICANE TRACKING, CHART m 8 OCTOBER 1-10 z 1901-1963 -n 4@- c 0 M M 0 IT! z 0 < -0 // ".., 11 m z 1.0 M (A m z 0 < z m c:) z 0 c+ 0 Cr (D c:) M m z 0 0 to c@ > C+ > ko 0) m 4:- 1@j ra 41. > A 1111111 TROPICAL STORMS 'U.S. DE NT OF COMMERCE. WEATHER BUREAJU>,@ PARTME 0 0 NORTH AT L A N T I C H UR R I A N,@ T R A C K I NG1 C F3 0 OCTOBER 11-20 z C) M > z m -5 z ----------- 7, 0 < A., z LAD -11 k p m Ul (A C+ z z ................. z --\v z V V-7 > > c-f- Nw 0 Ir z I -A > D U.%R T H @N 15co) > DRI" ATLANTIC TROPICAL MANS U S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WEATHER BURE U NORTH ATLAN TIC HURRICANE TRACKING CHAR T 8 _(.I V. - -. , . ''. 11 1 . Y 0 I m 8 OCTOBER V-31 1901-1463 0 m IN 0 m z c+ V) < m C) z C+ n m 84 r > z --i -ic7_3I z 4'- 4@- STORM TRACKS JAN RY m C: 0 M 0 m z 00 C+ z CHART 0 -1 K :E (D rD 0) r+ 0 77 z < m Pi or n Swm T-k, Primo,y @@k, @6@g h,,h lfw. @m, b- @.h lh- -d d cwco@ of w.&v." mdw P04 w 40' 3W 20' 1& 0. Itr w w 4v L IT 37 > STORM TRACKS FEBRUARY -'I)- Iw SIT 10 57 1. 3v 2v T m k m z < C+ z CHART 0 :E (D (D 0 ct 77 m 7-s z rD N) 0) m z 51- Track, OR me P,i..,, long hich th... has been nro.i... ...... -0@ concentration of i,di,,d,,l jorm center paths. z Secondary track. along hich there has been -clarare concentrabon of indi,id-1 go,. center path,. .... ..... I ...... r. . .......L to- 2T 3w JARY 41 -r-@ I @ @ - -T@ > STORMS TRACKS' MARCH 2W -n KO cn M M �r 0 5 :E 2 (D (D Q) C+ lit, 7z, 0 N) =r or St.r. T-k, .AJ 10. ow ,.,k, l.ng -hi,h th.,. h., b- i.di d..1 a.- c.nl.r p.th, S ... @d.ry,,.,k, .6ng hichh.,. h@, b.- ..d.,@ -AL conc-t-le- ol ind,@id..l a.- .n,., P@h, Im 70. 5w to- v IV 009 20' STORM TRACKS APRIL W 70' W Q. 20' 0 z m- 4OW 41 C 0 cy) M M 0 6W& m z 0 z z C+ z Or 0 z A." St.- Track, 0 Primary truck, along which th.. has 6ststi --ims- concentraiian of individual ocern c.ntsr pols, S.,-day track: alono which thirre has bireft mod6vass -,ttwation of individual cow Pod- .... . ...... W W W W W 21P W a- to- 3WIP Orh I C QD U1Z0_ 00 MAY STORM TRACKS r, -lqw -T@ 0 z -n 0 4@-G) r@c z 0 m 1 0 0 CHART :-57 :3 m rD (D w C+ 0 1101< N) -n h., b.. ...... ...... d-I Wh. 1., 6- .d.- IV co,co-- ol,,dwdvol c Path, m IP 4w co 0 STORM TRACKS JUNE 0 0 w 7W 40. 3w T_ :3 d jw 03 C+ 5 0 ::E :3 rD Or ws (D P C_+ 0 c. @4 (D N) for 7 p, Storm Track. Zc: Primary trmk, along hich them has Issnen mo.imurn' ...... -centration of individual snarm -1w Pdhs. S.-dry ao,k. along hich thism I- b- --,In of indi,l"*l I I Li ... 01 W ar Sir 100 co W 4W > Cn 0 STORM TRACKS JULY 0 1 W 50, W W W I*- z e 0 d 4@1 G) K Q 0 Cn 00 M > z CC! rt -1 0 Ohs 0 (D 0) C+ () 77 0) I M C-, z a AFF a i-A to -s Oy 0 Storm Tracks Primary track, along which there has been mo,mnum 20 concentration of i,4'i@iducl storm cent,, poth, r 0.7 S ... d ry hock, along which there has bee, moderate > conce,:otion of i,di,id,al storm canto, poths 110 low W 410, 3111, ar 14P 0. to- 20, 4W 0. 0 z -T 1500-, AW > w 31W cn STORM TRACKS AUGUST 0 w 7o, W 40, 2W 10- Abi -n 4@- Old C7, :X) M -J. o A < ca cl+ 0 50 0 (D Or -50 (D 0) 77 -40 -Mo. C+ 0 n W7 It Storm T-ks Pim.,y ft.,k, o6,,g @hj,h thr. h., bit.n.-i- co-nivation of indi idual ftm Mrtittf PathL Z ol..q @hkh ". h., b-. ".4". S ... c1ciry trod, 10 concentration of individ-.1 d-mitr Park .. .......... ......... ......... w ., v 'I& ol IV 26- 1w w JIM 00 4@- ...... .... STORM TRACKS SEPTEMBER 1 100@ W ?y W W 4W ab -n C 14 CD z ------ < M i 0 1 W C-l' -1 0 CHA 0 -5 M :-V z )IF (D (D 0) CI+ 77 < Pee (D 40 I'D E3 a- rD 30 - M 11 Storm Track, X Primary track, along which there has been mo,im- ci,ric.mromn of individual star. center paths. Secondary trock, along which there has been moderate concentration of individual slonat center Paths. W to& 70. ... 4T 30. 2o. T to- 3(r z 40 aill, 31P AV STORM TRACKS OCTOBER Ca C+ 0 0 -5 Z (D s3i c-F 0 1.0 c-t- 40 N) 0- (D- 70 St- T-k, w Pn-ry t,-k. .1-9 hih th.. h.. b- -.Nlroti- @f indi,id..l ow. pohli. lip S.-d.y tr-k, ."q hkh *w. h., btloot, .9d-ft -wwitn @f Wi,id-l o- c PWK 100, am 7w GW S& 3W to- w Imp FICID. > M to- w STORM TRACKS NOVEMBER Z5 90, 3v 29. 10@ 49V C 0 14 W tk M zl> (A rt 0-5 z (D (D Q) C+ 0 77 0) (A @4 (D N) Cr (D POP Storm Track% Primary @hi6 there has b ... ma.wn,rm essess-es' concentrotio;,f individ-I storm center paths. Secondary track, olang.hkh her. has b..nad.,w. concentration oF individual storm center paths Illy ew W Im a- to- 20' 40 > STORM TRACKS DECEMBER I low w or IV w 4w 30. to, z -n T% N) C 0 33 Lo m C+ 0 :E (D (D 0) I- C-) 7q, (D 0 -4 (D (D 3W- -39 ere St.,. T,.ck, ,.ck, .1-9 -hi,h he,. h- been c.ncen,r.,... f,rdw.d..10- center PcIbl. ng S.c.nd.,y,,.ck, cl. @h,ch he,. h., b.. mcder.le co'ce.l"ti,, I ind md-l it,r, center pdNs, af 10. Iw 2w 30. V fn 03 and for Raritan Bay and Sandy Hook, N. J. (A) Machiasport, Maine area. Table 4-64 from Brower, @@t Al. (1972), compares the two most violent storm types occurring in Northern New England.--- "northeasters" and hurricanes. Machiasport (Figure 4-274 lies along the primary path of extra-tropical cyclones, wnich generally approach from the west or southwest. Storms approaching from the southwest (northeasters) are generally more severe, partially due to abundant moisture supply. Heavy rain or snow and strong winds often precede the storm center. Northeasters are particularly well-developed between September and April and usually occur within 100 miles of the coast between 300-400N. They typically move north northeastward and intensify near New England and the Maritime Provinces. Tropical cyclone strike probabilities for the Machiasport coastal zone are shown in Figure 4-275 (Brower, et al., 1972). Note the rather low strike probabilities. Tropic-al @y_clone centers generally move through the region in a northeasterly direction and are usually more violent than extra-tropical storms occurring during the same season. However, the storms have generally weakened during their travel from low latitudes. For the Machiasport region itself, as distinguished from the coastal zone, Table 4-65 shows tropical cyclone occurrences. Total number Average number of 1886-1971 years between occurrences Tropical cyclones 9 10 Hurricanes 4 21 (B) New York City area. The mean tracks of extra-tropical winter cyclones traverse the New York area (Figure 4-276). They usually enter the area from the west or southwest with the storm track it- self offshore. These storms can cause considerable damage due to coastal flooding. Rapid weather changes are associated with these winter cyclones. Probabilities of occurrence of tropical cyclones, hurricanes, and intense hurricanes (sustained winds greater than 200 km/hr) are summarized in Figure 4-277. Zone 2 (south shore of Long Island) has a higher probability of tropical cyclones and hurricanes than zone 1 (Raritan Bay). For the New York City area itself, the following table summarizes frequencies of tropical storms: 4-488 -PUPL6U3 M9N Uaa44JOU Ut SJaqSP@14j,,AOU PUP S@UPOLaanq jo UOSLiedwoo tq-t. @Lqpi to '15 En "i W M lo. > pv0 Lm cn0 0 ftj t; to 0 E3 C r.m m 0 10 < " 0 m -0 1- IN* " . (D 0 " P " H r? m :3 C < lb 1- " 0' 0 ;r OQ co" " fo 0 CIO 0 :71 z " 0 El ca 03 C: " 0 CA 09 ?- 9 0 a 0 0 z :3 0 n 0 10 :n co 0 :1 0 00 rt -0n 0 CL " :r 0 ram rt H r1r 0 0. 0 13 1- W 09 13 C n 1-1 rt r" CQ m CA C4 Co 0 m z co o 0 )-hm n V" v -.1 (@j rT p VQ 0 M t4 0 c V a 00 1"h rr 0 co rv 06 0 09 01 rn (b CPO C6 M rt 0 V 0-ft Qq Ai rt m 9 00 ?-1 ct 0 Ch o 10 0) m cr 0 rt 0 Z (A th rt rt 0. rt n rt rt th 0 0 n ic 09 0 m rt t-n to (D rt (A rt 0 13 1- 44 (D m 0 m rt %4 r? = n pt " H %0 to rt 0 %C I 9@ c rv P. rr to m cu oc@ < r? CL m P-1M n 0 rr a > 0 n > V 0 0 0 0 0)4 m n 0 r1t 0 p- :3 El I c OQ QQ r? (A %1) m fo P- (a cr oD 04 m La V7, 00 0) 0 ri)n 0 0 0 c " 0 41 r? m I.-A a ::r cr rt :; M r? 0 %0 txj = (t, *,4 m m OQ n .0 0 M n p .1 :1 D-- r o 0 14 ? rt III cy 0 0 c rt 41 0 m P.- OQ n 0, m 0 n 0 t- . ?-0 rv m CD m to r? 0 r rt 0- rp :5 n 0 0 09 0 CF. D, 0 C QQ o ri m ro ri m to cr n :3 m rA r. 4 le n m 0 m c 0 0 %0 n vi 0 -4 IV 0 0 0 r1p 680 670 660 0 45 45 Eastport ji, :X. i..*.@..*,-i.".-,..@i.:@:i:::::::::. .... ..... X ::::.:-:-X-X_:-:-:_X Mac port:.-. x. Machiasport, Maine f7 .......... ............ ............ ............ ........... .......... .......... .......... .......... 440 44 .......... 4 0. "430 3 - 0 680 670 66 1 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REG107N FIGURE Machiasport, Maine, Area Map TR 4-274 (Brower et al.., 19 72) 4-490 100* 95, 90* 85, 80* 75' 70* 65* 50' 50. 45' 45' W M.chmpo" 40* N'@ 7rk i 40' WEGOR WINI) SPEEI Coe ay I TROPICAL CYCLONE GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO 34-KNOTS HURRICANE GREATER THAN OR EQUAL To 6+ &ND-TS INTENSE HURRICANE GREATER THXN OR EQUAL To LQ9-KNOIS 35* 35' 30* N- Od- 1 130' Gal-ton 25-L- - 25' 100, 95* 90* 85* 80* 75* 70' 65* 1 AREA PROBABILITY 1'-,) OF AVERAGE NLNIBER TOTAL N1 %(BFR OCCUR RE%CE IN ANy OF YEARS OF OCCURRENCES ONE YEAR BETWEEN OCCURRENCES 1886-1970 TROPICAL CYCLONE 13@1 7 11 HURRICANE 5" 4 INTENSE HURRICANE A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION F @; @@4_ I,, FIGURE Tropical Cyclone Strike Zone and Probabilities for 4-275 Machiasport Area (Brower et al., 1972) 4-491 76- 750 740 410:-.--....' 73* .......... .......... .......... . .... 410 ......................... ........ ...... N City Office ......... .. . ... ..... Bal, Offshore Sandv Hook ......... ........ ... ........ ........ . . ..... .......... .......... ....... . .............. ...... .... ... ..... ............ .......... ................ ................. ............ .... .. 00 ............ ............ ........ 4 00 .......... . ................... ..... ...... ............. . ............. ............... .......... m ............ .......... wi!-ig ..... ....... ................. ....... ...... ... ...... .. ........ . ................... ... .......... ...... ....................... ........ t antic 1tv C' ... ... ....... ................ ....... .... ...... .... ........... .......... A, ..... . . . . ... Dover ............... . . Delaware Bty .......... ... ..................... Inside o .......... Cape Wai 9 0 3 ... .............. 39 ............... . .... ............ . .......... ......... . .................... . ..- .................. ....... ... ........ . Cape May ....... ............ . .................. - 1. .. ............ . .......... ....................... ... . ......... ............ ........ ....... I-- ........... @ @. 1. ....... .......... I * Five Fathom Bank ............. .... .......... .. .......... . ......... .. ........... .. ............... .. . .... Offyhort, Delaware Bay ......... ....... . .............. . ........... ...... ....... .. .......... . . ..... ....... ... ......................... .............. ......... . ............. ........ ..... .......... . .... .... ... . .... ....... . ............ ... ......... ................... -.. .... .......................... . . .... .....-........ ...................... ... . ..... . ......... . . .... ......... .. ...... ..... ........... ................ ........... ........ .. ....... . ................. ............... - - ......................... 380 -'3001 76o 750 740 73' A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC =REGION TR FIGU E New York and Delaware Bay Area map 4-276 (Brower et al., 1972) 4-492 75* 70' 65* 100* 95* 90* 85o 80* 50. 50* 45* 45* W 40* 2 -40' Ca" M-ylw-@* MAXIMUM SUSTAINED WIND SPEE TROPICAL CYCLONE GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO 34-KNQTS HURRICANE GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO (A- XNOTS INTENSE HURRICANE GREATER THAN OR EQUAL TO LQ9-KNOTS 35* 3 5** 30' New Orleans 30* Gal-lon 25* 25* 100* 95* 90. 85, 80* 75* 70* 65* AREA PROBABILITY W,) OF AVERAGE NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER OCCURRENCE IN ANY OF YEARS OF OCCURRENCES ONE YEAR BETWEEN OCCURRENCES 1886-1970 TROPICAL CYCLONE 15, 85 0 1 HURRICANE 1% .85 1 INTENSE HURRICANE <I% AREA PROBABILITY jq@ OF AVERAGE NUMBER TOTAL NUMBER OCCURRENCE IN ANY OF YEARS OF OCCURRENCES ONE YEAR BETWEEN OCCURRENCES 188&1970 TROPICAL CYCLONE 1114 9 9 HURRICANE 6% 17 5 INTENSE HURRICANE <1% A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION F7GuRE, Tropical Cyclone Strike Zone and Probabilities for TR13 _277 New York Area PM 4 Brower et al., 1972) 4-493 -Total number Average number of 1886-1971 years between occurrences Tropical cyclones 11 8 Hurricanes 4 21 Tropical cyclones generally occur in the New York area in late summer or autumn. They usually travel northeast towards Nova Scotia or out over the adjacent ocean. (C) Offshore areas. Brower, et al., (1972) include a study of occurrences of tropical cyclones that penetrated offshore areas near Machiasport (Figure 4-275) and Raritan Bay and offshore Sandy Hook (Figure 4-277). If a tropical cyclone penetrated any of these areas in any respect, it was tabulated. Maximum tropical cyclone activity occurred from June through September with September registering as the peak month. The chronological listings of Brower, et al. (1972), reproduced here as Tables ,4-65 and 4-66, for ja_c@-area were taken from a number of references, coded in the table and listed as follows: D = Dunn and Miller, Atlantic Hurricanes L = Ludlum, Early American Hurricanes 1492-1870 N = USAF, USMC, USN Annual Hurricane or Reports, 1950-1970 R = Cry, Technical Paper.No. 55, Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic 1871-1963 T = Tannehill, Hurricanes, Chapter XV W = Mariners Weather Log., Vol. 16, No. 1, January 1972. Storm intensity was classified according to the following: TS = Tropical Storm (sustained winds 62 to 115 km/hr) H = Hurricane (sustained winds 115/hr) 'The Machiasport subsquare, Figure 4-275, was penetrated by storms listed in Table 4-65. Cyclones prior to 1871 were considered to have penetrated if their passage east of Cape Cod from the south or over Massachusetts Bay appeared to follow the general cyclone paths indicated by Cry (1965). Table 4-66 presents similar data for Raritan Bay and off Sandy Hook. Brower, et al . (1972), inctuded in this listing any cyclone prior to 1871 passing the middle to northern New Jersey coast and western Long Island. Stormliamaye climatology of stormsdamaging to the U. S. East Coast is 4-494 Table 4-65 Machiasport Tropical Cyclone Penetrations. Year Date Intensity Ref. Found 1635 Mid Aug. D,L 1638 23-25 Sept. D,L 1675 Late Aug. L 1727 Sept. L 1806 Late Aug. L 1830 Mid Aug. L 1839 30-31 Aug L 1850 9-1.0 Sept. L 1858 Mid Sept. L 1867 3 Aug. L 1885 23 Sept. R Total: 11 Tropical Cyclones 1888 22 Aug. TS R 1888 12 Sept. TS R 1888 22 Sept. TS R 1.889 .25 Sept. H R 1940 2 Sept. TS R 1953 7 Sept. H N,R 1954 11 Sept. H Edna N, R 1969 10 Sept. H Gerda N 1971 14 Sept. TS Heida w Total: 9 Tropical Cyclones for the period 1886-1971 consisting of 5 Tropical Storms (TS) and 4 Hurricanes (H) Period 1635 to 1971: 20 recorded Tropical Cyclon es Period Aug. Sept. Total Before 1871 6 4 10 Tropical Cyclones 1871 - 1971 1 9 10 Tropical Cyclones 1886 - 1971 (1)(0) (4)(4) (5 Tropical Storms) (4 Hurricanes) 4-495 Table 4-66 Raritan Bay and Off Sandy Hook Subsquare Tropical Cyclone Penetrations. Year Date Intensity Ref. Found 1769 Early Sept. L 1788 19-20 Aug. D,L 1806 21-23 Aug. L 1815 22-23 Sept. D,L lK1 3 Sept. D,L 1874 29 Sept. R 1882 23 Sept. R Total: 7 Tropical Cyclones 1888 .11 Sept. TS R 1893 23-24 Aug. H D,R 1897 24 Sept. TS R 19'04 14 Sept. TS D,R 1944 14 Sept. H D,R 1954 31 Aug. H Carol D,R 1955 18 Aug. TS Diane D,N,R 1960 30 July TS.Brenda N,R 1960 12 Sept. H Donna N,R 1961 14 Sept. TS R 1971 27-28 Aug- TS Doria w Total: 11 Tropical Cyclones for the period 1886-1971 consisting of 7 Tropical.Storms (TS) and 4 Hurricanes (H) Period 1769 to 1971: 18 recorded Tropical Cyclones Period July Aug. Sept. -Total Before 187- 0 2, 3 5 Tropical Cyclones, 1871 - 1971 1 4 8 13 Tropical Cyclones 1886 -:1971 (1)(0) (2)(2) (4)(2) (7 Tropical Storms) (4 Hurricanes) 4-496 discussed by Burton, Kates, Mather, and Snead (1965). Using U.S. Weather Bureau publications as their primary source, the authors show a marked increase in the number of damaging storms during the period 1945-1965 (Figure 4-279). Coastal storms that occurred in the period 1921-1964 were divided into eight categories based upon origin, structure, and path of the storm as follows: 1. Hurricanes and severe tropical storms. 2. Wave developments forming in the Atlantic Ocean well east of the United.States mainland or in the vicinity.of Cuba. 3. Wave developments along cold or stationary fronts over the south-. east coastal states or in the Atlantic Ocean just off the south- east coast. 4. Wave developments along cold or stationary fronts in the Gulf of Mexico forming west of 85 W longitude. 5. Depressions moving across the southern hal.f of the United States that intensify upon reaching the Atlantic coast; no secondary development ahead of the storm center. 6. Depressions which develop as strong secondary cyclonic distur- bances along the coast (often in the Hatteras area) ahead of a trailing wave or occluded center. 7. Intense cyclonic storms whose origin and entire path of movement are over land surfaces so that the low center remains west of the coastal margin. 8. Strong cold fronts accompanied by squall lines and severe local weather. Weather maps are presented by the authors to illustrate each of the above categories. Table 4-67 (Burton, et al., 1965) presents the number of damaging coastal storms occurring in each east coastal state for the period 1921-1964. It should be noted that coastlines are not normalized in this table. Within the study area, the largest number of occurrences is experienced by coastal Massachusetts. Table 4-68 lists intensity and recurrence intervals for coastal storms for the period 1921-1964. Although the number of storms is generally greater for the more northern states, intensity is generally higher to the south. For the study area the average severity is highest for New York, and lowest.for New Jersey. T@he mean recurrence interval (com- puted for moderate and severe storms only) is shortest for Massa:ch:usetts, 0.8 years, where the coast is 'well oriented for coastal damage in two areas. The south facing shore of Cape Cod is particularly vulnerable to southeast and southwest winds; and the north shore of Cape Cod, and the shore north and south of Boston, are vulnerable to winds from the north through east. Storm damage records for the period 1935-1964 have been analyzed by 4-497 00 M cz -n (D to- Ct-0 m rD C 0- (D 0 =3 z LM 0 K C+ l< M cu z C+ 0 rD -h flo N) Qj < (n m 5 W(o 0 C ') 4:A n -0) 0 03 V) Z C+ -n P), C+ 0 (/) m 4 C+ 0 z (D -5 0 C+ M 0). V) C-+ CY) (D Cn -S 0 m 25 Z7 29 51 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 it 53 5s 57 59 61 63 0 Yea, ILJ 16 C- 1935 -1944 1945-1954 1955-1964 12 a 8 0 221 10 -n 2 to T, 0 R r@a C 20 -4 M 4 22 14 Y, 24 0 C-) ;z m 0 c z 4 iw 23 < 4 6 V) cr to 12 c-+ CD 2 4 0) -1 4 6 18 24 4 0 C) -h Pi M "a L'I z C+ 4 (a 0 4 (D 4 14 z 4 z ca C+ 0 6 14 4 C+ (a 0) -n --I \ - 4 M \ - P 2 2 M 4 4 6 t.0 12 darriaging Storms IM 35 damoging storms 4 71 damaging storms 4 C+ (D 2 4 2 42@ 2 > Number of storms grouped Q0 to neorest even number 1955-1964 1935-1944 1945-1954 00 C) z < c-+ CD M 0 -S 0 0 z (D m 1+ z O)o z cu 2 to m L62j, 'Tabie 4-67 N -Producing Storms, by Class and State, 1921-1964 umber of Damage Storni s Sta:e/'Class 1 2 3 .4 5 6 8 Total pei Year @laine. 9 5 0 13 6 15 8 55 L 25 e@k- Hampshire 8 2 8 1 1 3 5 4 41 .93 ,\lass .achusetts 22 4 1 1 16 7 14 7 4 88 2.00 Rhode Island 11 .1 11.) ILI 6 12 3 54 1.23 Connecticut 11 1 7 10 5 10 5 1 50 1. 14 Nev, York I I 1 10 8 4 9 4 47 1.07 Ne\% ;ersev is 3 lo 8 4 8 4 1 56 1. 27 Dela,@kare 8 1 4 1 2 21 48 klarviand 12 1 5 4 2 2 28 64@ .86 Virginia 22 7 7 38 .North Carohna 2 3 5 8 3 46 1.05 soudl Carolina 19 1 3 2 1 26 .59 Georgia 16 2 19 43 i'@Iorid-:., 26 5 3 2 38 .86 Table, 4-68 Intensity of Coastal Stornis and Recurrence Interval for Storms Bringing Moderate and Severe Damage, by State, 1921-.1964 Numbers of Storms Average* Mean Recurrence Light Modera t6 Severe Severity Interva'I (years). Maine 25 24 6 1.76 1. 5 New Hampshire is 21 5 1. 88 1. 7 Massachusetts 31 46 11 1.90 .8 'Rhode Island 24 24 6 1.78 1. 5 Connecticut 22 23 5 1.76 1. 6 N Iew Yo rk 14 24 9 2.09 1,3 New,jersey 25 26 5 1.73 1. 4 Delaware 7 13 1 1.76 3. 1 Maryland is 1 1. 61 2, 9 Virginia 11 22 5 1.97 1. 6 North Carolina 14 23 9 2.09 1.4 South Carolina 7 15 4 2.04 2. 3 (j'eorgia 5 14 0 1.74 3. 1 Ftorida 7 21 10 .2,34 1.4 Bascd on 1 for light damage, 2 for moderaie damage, and 4 for severe damage. Burton, et al. (1965).to determine damage frequency of the U. S. East Coast (eTcl@_ding interior shorelines) as far north as Eastport, Maine. Damage reports from -coastal and intlenor coastlines was supplemented, by tidal information to determine the extent of damage due to each of the 121 storm occurrences. The coast was divided into 40 km reaches; and maps of damage were prepared to determine the frequency of si.gnifi- cant damage for each coastal reach. The frequency of damaging storms for the three decades contained in the period 1935-1964 is presented in Figure 47280 (Burton,, et al., 1965). The overall frequency of damaging storms for the whole T-enTth of coast has increased from about one per year to eight per year in this 30 year period. Since 1945 the New York-New.Enqland coast-has been Siqni_fi- cantly more Affected by storm damage than more southerly areas. Within ''New England, the Rhode Island-Massachusetts coastline is especially prone to storm damage. On the average the storm damage south of New York is less than half the value for the New York.-New England Coast. The large increase in storm damage frequency over the 30-year period in all coastal reaches is partially attributed to the increased occupancy of the coastal zone. Burton, et al. (1965) believe that continued de- velopment of vulnerable coastaT-aTea can only further increase the potential for storm damage. 4.4.5 REFERENCES Andrews, J. F., 1963. Cyclogenesis along the Atlantic coast of the United States, Mariners Weather Log, 7 (2), 43-46. Boston Edison Company, 1972. Final environmental statement related to operation of Pilgrim Nuclear Power Station. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Div. of Radiological and Environmental Protection, Docket No. 50-293. Washington, D. C. 1973. Marine ecology studies related to operation of Pilgrim Station, Boston, Massachusetts, semi-annual report No. 2. Brower, W., D. D. Sisk, and R. G. Quayle, 1972. Environmental guide for seven U. S. ports and harbor approaches. Environmental Data Service, NOAA, 166 pp. Burton, I., R. W. Kates, J. R. Mather, and R. E. Sne ad, 1965. The shores of megalopolis: coastal occupance and human adjustment to flood hazard. Lab. Climatology, Pub. in Climatology, 18 (3) 603 pp. Central Maine Power Company. 1972. Environmental report., William F. Wyman Station, Yarmouth, Maine. 3 vols. Cry, G. W., 1965. Tropical cyclones of-the North Atlantic Ocean. S. Wea. Bur. Tech. Paper 55, 148 pp. 4-502 Cry, G. W. and W. H. Haggard, 1962. North Atlantic tropical cyclone activitv. 1901-1960. Mon-. Wea. Rev.. 90 (81, 341-349. Harris, D. L., 1963. Characteristics of the hurricane storm surge. U. S. Weather Bureau., Technical Paper No. 48. Havens, J. K., D. S. Shaw, and E. R. Levine, 1973. The offshore weather@and climate. For: American Petroleum Institute. Lautzenheise..r, Robert E..,. 1967. Climatological summary, Portsmouth, N. H. , Climatology of the United States. No. 20-27, ESSA, Asheville, N. C. Miller, J. E., 1946. Cyclogenesis in the Atlantic coastal region of the United States, J. Meteorol., 3(2). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Environmental Data Service, 1971. Local climatological data annual summary with coqtparative data,, Boston, Massachusetts. NOAA, Asheville, North Carolina. 1954 and oihers. 1971. Local climatological data annual summary with comparative data. NOAA, Asheville, North Carolina. 1965 and others. Normandeau Associates, Inc- 1973. Seabrook Station, environmental report. For: Public Service Company of New Hampshire. Pautz, Maurice E.. 1969. Severe local storm occurrences, 1955-1967. ESSA Tech. Memo WBTM FCST 12, Weather Analysis and Prediction Division, Silver Springs, Md. Redfield, A. C. and A. R. Miller, 1957. Water levels accompanying Atlantic Coast hurricanes. Meteorological Monographs, Vol. 2, No. 10, American Meteorological Society, Boston. Simpson, R. H. and Miles B. Lawrence., 1971. Atlantic hurricane frequen@cies along the U. S. Coastline, NOAA Technical Memorandum NWS TM SR-58, Fort Worth, Texas. Thom, H. C - S, 1968. New distributions of extreme winds in the United States, Journal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol. 94, No. ST7, Proc. Paper 6038, pp. 1787-1801. U. S. Army Corps of Engineers (NED), 1965. Hurricane Protection Project Design Memorandum No. 1, New London Hurrican Barrier. 4-503 U. S. Army Engineer Division, 1972. National shoreline study, regional inventory report - North Atlantic region, North Atlantic Corps of Engineers, New York, N. Y. 2 vols. U. S. Atomic Energy Commission, Directorate of Licensing, 1973. Final environmental statement related to the continuation of construction of unit 2 and the operation of units I and 2, Millstone Nuclear Power Station, Millstone Point Company. Washington, D. C. 4 vols. U. S. Department of Commerce, NOAA, National Ocean Survey, 1973. United States doast'Pilot 2, Atlantic Coast - Cape Cod to Sandy Hook. Washington, D. C. U. S. Naval Weather Service Command. 1970. Summary of synoptic meteorological observations, North American coastal marine areas, Vol 2, 632 pp. U. S. Naval Weather Service, 1970. World-Wide Airfield Summaries, Vol. III, Part 7, AD 703606, p. 409, Washington'. D. C. Westinghouse Electric Corporation, .1972. Final report, program development plan for the MESA-New York Bight'regional project, Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Oceanic Div., Annapolis, Maryland for U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D. C. 4-504 Chapter 4 Major Sounds . n M ym a d Z ba' eats Page Chapter 4.5 giological Oceanography .4.5.1 Mussel-Oyster Reefs 4-507 Habitat Definition Description 4-507 Habitat Dynamics 4-507 Effect of Man-ihduced Stresses 4-509 Biological Components 4-510 References 4-541 4.5.2 Worm-Clam Flats Habitat Definition bescription 4-544 Habitat Dynamics 4-544 Effect of Man-induced Stresses 4-548 Biological Components 4-550 References 4-566 4..5.3 Shal.low Salt Pond 41-569 Habitat Definition Description 4-569 Habitat Dynamics 4-569 Effect Of Man-induced Stresses 4-571 Biological Components 4-573 References 4-595 -596 4.5.4 Salt Marshes Habitat Definition Description 4-596 Habitat Dynamics 4-596 4-505 Page Effect of Man-induced Stresses 4 -59 8 Biological, Components 4-600 References, 4-617 4.5.5 Plankton-Based Pelagic,-Estuarine 4 - 618 Habitat Definition and Description 4 - 18 Habitat Dynamics, 4-618 Effect of Man-induced Stresses 4 - 62 1 Biological.Components 4 - 62 2 References 4-624 4-506 4.5 BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY 4.5.1 MUSSEL-OYSTER REEFS This section treats the biology of the mussel-oyster reef communi- ties. The habitat is defined, its function explained, man's in- fluence discussed, the organisms that inhabit it listed, and its areal distribution shown. The major biological components of.the habitat are the benthic invertebrates, the fish,and the macrophytes. For a detailed description of the life history and ecology of these taxonomic groups the reader is referred to Chapters 10.0 Benthic Invertebrates, 11.0 Macrophytes, and 12.0 Fishes. HABITAT DEFINITION AND DESCRIPTION The oyster-mussel reef is a fairly specialized habitat, based on accumulations-of the filter-feeding bivalves Mytilus edulis (blue .or edible mussel) and Crassostrea virginica.(oyster). -Both of these epifaunal bivalves will form.enormous aggregations wherever any small site of attachment exi@ts, because of the gregarious behavior of the larvae which will often settle wherever another of its kind exists. The mussel reefs are cemented by the byssal threads spun by individual bi,valves, while oysters cement their lower valve directly onto the shell of another. The surfaces, cracks,and crevices of both types of reefs harbor enormous numbers and a great diversity of other species. HABITAT DYNAMICS Environmental Conditions Mussel-oyster reefs form both subtidally and intertidally, but are most successful intertidally probably because there they escape from many of the predators (Wells, 1961). Reefs originate almost anywhere a small site of attachment (e.g., small rock, half-buried log) exists on a flat near low-tide level. Higher on the intertidal, dessication at high tide, lack of sufficient feeding, and perhaps stronger currents render conditions unsuitable (Emery, Steven-son,*and Hedg-peth, 1957). Elongate beds may form parallel to currents along the banks of tidal flat channels or crescent-shaped dams may form across narrow inlets at right angles to the current (Emery, et al., 1957). In either case, reefs are most successful when currents.are fairly strong, bringing food and carrying off wastes (Nixon, Oviatt, Rogers, and Taylor, 1971). Mussel-oyster reefs are estuarine (salinities of 13to 23 o/oo) in nature and subjected to wide variations in temperatures, salinities., and oxygen levels of estuarine conditions. 4-507 Oyster reefs are rare north of New Hampshire to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and ' when present, are fn poor condition. Oysters are especially rare.in Maine waters due to low water temperatures, generally high salinity, currents too strong for successful spat- fall, and the predominance of unsuitable substrates (rocky covered with competing or�anisms, or too soft; (Taxiarchis, Dow, and Baird, 1954). In contrast, mussel reefs are very common north of Cape Cod and are often of high commercial quality (Scattergood and Taylor, 1949; Logie, 1956). Microenvironments See discussion under General Distribution. Nutrient Cycles and Food Webs The most important members of the habitat, both in ciomass and numerically, are filter feeders (Nixon et al., 1971). Consequently, the main energy source is almost wholl; _i_mp@o_rted being extracted from the overlying waters and then passed through the filter feeders to the associated species. Experimentally derived filtering rates show that an acre of oysters can strain.9-16,000 metric tons of water a day and an acre of mussels 2-20,000 metric tons (Anon., 1973). The filter feeders provide abundant food for predators '(e.g., Carcinus maenas, Nassarius trivittatus, Eupleura candata, Urosalpinx cinerea of which the most disruptive is man, especially of oyster r@efs. Both oysters and mussels are capable of producing enormous quantities of feces and pseudofeces containing valuable nutrients. These feces and pseudofeces settle out in the cracks within the reef providing rich sediment for burrowing and deposit-feeding species. They also settle in great quantities on the surrounding sediment, changing its texture and often smothering the lower levels of the reef (Chestnut, 1969). The softer, siltier sediment resulting in the vi.cinity of the reef provides a food source for other deposit feeding species. Laird (1961) studied the epizootics of oyster reefs and described one of the first marine decomposer food chains known in detail. Oysters react to environmental stress by closing their valves. Since the oyster can no longer flush itself, metabolites accumulate within the shell and, if stressful conditions continue long enough, eventually become abundant enough to provide a medium for bacterial growth. The higher level of bacterial growth leads to invasion of the oyster by protozoa feeding on the bacteria (bacteriophagous and saprozoic flagellates, and carnivorous and bacteriophaqous ciliates). At some point, the oyster is so weakened that Hexamita inflata, a bacterio- and sapiophagous flagellate, invades tF@_IM6 T-5-50-Flood. This leads to the death of the organism and the establishment of a highly polysaprobic community of bacteria and protozoa. 4-508 PRODUCERS ZOOPLANKTON ffHYTOPLANKaNj SUSPENSION FEEDERS BENTHIC lessile coelenterates MICROFLORA Metridium, Cliona, hydroids Serpulid worm MACROPHYTES Hydroides bryozoans Lami nari a Gastropod Thondrus lula 1250 BivaTv nu cs Aytilus, Crassostrea Barnacle Balanus 7*7',: MEIOBENTHOS Protozoa Nematodes. Ostracods W. GRAZERS- SCAVENGERS Gastropods Littorina Bittium IMPORT DETRITUS" Mitrella DEPOSIT F FEEDERS ." Bivalve mollusc Nucula Gastropods BACTERIA Nassarjus. Hydrobi,a oychaete wo s P Polydora, Glycera ;,wc.;.. Amphipod Ampelisca PREDATOR SCAVENGERS Gastropods Thais pinx ulosal trail Carcinus DEATH iTo-de Ech Asterias R PREDATORY --n ES VERTEBRAT Fish ..4 Tautogolabrus Myoxocephalus EXPORT Bird s Gulls Mammals PELAGIC Man LARVAE ADULT MIGRATIONS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE 4-281 Food Web of Mussel-Oyster Reef Seasonal Cycles The most important cycle for the hlota in the mussel-oyster reef habitat is probably reproduction and recruitment withits associated cycle of growth. Both cycles are ultimately controlled by tempera- ture (see "Biology of Key Species" in Chapter 10). The spring and summer are dominated by the appearance and establishment of the small, newly settled spat whi-le the summer, fall and winter are periods of growth and gamete production. Natural Stress Because of their estuarine, predominantly intertidal environment, .mussel and oyster reefs are subjected to many stresses of which the following documents only a few. In the spring, freshets are common and create two adverse conditions .suddenly; radically lowered salinity and high turbidity (Laird, 1961; Thomas and White, 1969). During the wintbr, ice scouring can remove entire beds (pers. observation) and individuals may freeze solid (Brongersma-Sanders, 1957). Finally,..t'idal currents and.storm waves may scour or smother entire beds (Dare, 1973). EFFECT OF MAN-INDUCED STRESS Mussel and oyster reefs are also especially vulnerable to man-in- duced stresses. The following are only a few of the documented case.s of the effects of man's activities on this habitat. Entire reefs may become smothered with silt or be scoured away when .currents are altered due to dredging, erection of jetties or estab- lishment of marinas (R. Dow, per comm.). Filter-feeding organisms are especially vulnerable to water-borne pollutants. Mussels of otherwise acceptable commercial'quality become useless where hydrocarbon pollution results in "pearling" (hard i 'nclusions within the body; Scattergood and Taylor, 1949). The combination of oil and dispersant causes outright death in Mytilus (Griffith, 1972). Oysters have been shown to accumulate DDT (9-utler, Childress, and Wilson', 1972) which, at even very low concentrations, decreases qrowth rate (Butler, 1966; quoted in Chestnut, 1969). The ey 'trophication of estuarine waters alters the composition of the phytoplankton.- In Moriches Bay, Long Island, oysters were unable to utilize the new community of phytoplankton and .part of an industry vanished (O'Connor, 1972.). Finally, thermal pollution, by raising the water temperature above normal limits, causes abnormal development in Mytilus larvae and. could therefore interfere with successful recruitment (Davis, 1972). 4-509 BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS General Distribution The diversity of the mussel and oyster reef communities is a result of the many microenvironments present. The shell surface prqvidej a hard surface for sessile, attached algae (e.g. CKondru-s- cri-spus and invertebrates both burrowing (Cliona sp.) an-d epifaunal @(hjdro- zoans, Metridium, ectoproct; for other species in each microen- vironment, consult checklist). Within the reef, gradients of exposure to currents exist from the outermost edges to the inner- most cracks and crevices and from top of the reef to the substrate. Motile, epifaunal suspension feeders Q@) inhabit these cracks which offer protection, as well as access to currents of varying speeds. Also within the cracks, silty sediments rich in nutrients accumulate which are inhabited by motile deposit feeders (Hydrobia, TF__ Gammams so.) and tube-dwelling and burrowing deposit feeders etero- mastus, Amphithoe sp.). The silty bottom in the vicinity of the reef also harbors many deposit-feeding forms (Clymenella, Nucula. For each of these groups a set of carnivores exists, fuFth-erF-R-ding to the diversity. Tables. The following checklists of the fauna associated with oysters and mussels from the Bay of Fundy to Sandy Hook are com- pilations from available literature. Emphasis in the literature search was directed at publications that treated these habitats as units, and no concerted effort was made to sieve through litera- ture on the taxonomy or ecology of specific taxa which might record their findings on oyster or mussel beds. In general, there has been a lack of studies on these biotopes, and quantitative studies are all but lacking. The oyster beds are a much more complex and ecologically distinct habitat than are the mussel beds.' For this reason, ft was not unexpected to find many more species in associati-on with oysters than with mussels (215 vs. 61). So much emphasis has been placed on the predators and competitors of both of these species that even biologists are often surprised at the number of cohabiting species which have no direct effect on either the oyster or the mussel. Studies on the associated oyster fauna in New England include only one comprehensive study (Verrill and Smith, 1873). For this reason the author chose to include four recent studies just outside of the study area, two to the north (Hughes and Thomas, 1971, a.,b), and two to the south (Maurer and Watling, 1973, and Larsen, 1974). Species which were identifi ed as oyster associates from these studies, and which are also documented as occurring within the study area, are included in the checklist marked by asterisks. Once more complete surveys are accomplished in New England these 4-510 species will unquestionably be found to be oyster associates.in this re�ion,also. The fauna of mussel beds is principally based on three studies done in New Enqland. These studies are Field (1923), Newcombe (1935) and Rowe, '(1973). Several points should be emphasized.as to the scope and accuracy of these checklists. First, inclusion of a species in a checklist and reference to it as an oyster or mussel associate does not imply any functional interaction. In the vast majority of cases only co-occurrence can be assumed. Ranges of species are based on the best available published data, but still, one should not be shocked if they inadequately describe a species' distribution. This again is a function of the lack of sufficient survey work in this geo- graphic area. Likewise many species not included in these check- lists will undoubtedly be found as more intensive sampling is under- taken. The phyla, and higher taxa within each phylum, are arranged in phylogenetic order. Within the lowest taxon above the generic level however, species are listed in alphabetical order for the convenience of non-specialists. Table 4-69a.Annotated checklist of species occurring with the American Oyster, Crassostrea virginica Phylum Porifera Cliona celata Grant, 1926. The boring sponge most characteristic of areas of high, stable salinity. Occurs throughout study area. Filter feeder. Documented as oyster pest. Cliona lobata Hancock, 1849. Boring sponge somewhat tolerant to red Ee_dsalinity. Identified in Long Island Sound and probably occurs in southern part of study area. Filter feeder. Oyster pest. Cliona truitti Old, 1941. Most tolerant boring sponge to lowered nity. Range identical to C. lobata. Filter feeder. Oyster pest. Cliona vastifica Hancock, 1949. Boring sponge. Salinity tolerance between C. celata.and C. lobata. Range like C. lobata. Filter feeder. Oy7s-ter pest. Halichondria sp. Crumb-of-bread sponge. Genus represented in area by at least four species: H. bowerbanki, H. fibrosa, H. cenetrix, i@ and H. panicea. Conspicuou-s summer foulin-g organism. Filter feecFer. *Microciona prolifera Ellis and Solander, 1786. Red Finger Sponge. Occurs throughout stud@ area, especially in Long Island Sound. Year around. Filter feeder. No effect on oyster. *Prosuberties microscleru-s de Laubenfels, 1936. A small encrusting sponge occurring tFr-oughout study area. Uncommon. Filter fee'der. No effect on oyster. Tedania suctoria 0. Schmidt. An encrusting sponge occurring in northern part of study area. Uncommon. Filter feeder. No effect on oyster. Phylum Cnidaria Class Hydrozoa - All of the hydroids are carnivorous on zooplankton. They are epifaunal with preferred substrates including shells, rocks, pilings and Zostera blades. As a group they are uni- versally associated with oysters but their life form precludes 4-412 them from having a significant effect on oyster production.. They provide habitat space for several other taxa, especially Amphipoda. *Campanulina sp. van Beneden, 1,847. A taxonomically dynamic taxon' represented by several species in the study area. .*Cl tia hemisphaerica Linnaeus, 1767. Reaches abundance in oligo- haline areas from the Arctic to the Caribbean. *Cordylophora caspia Pallas, 1771. A low salinity species occurring along the entire Atlantic coast of the U.S. *Ectopleura dumortieri van Beneden, 1844. Occurs from Massachusetts southward. *Gonothyrea loveni Allman, 1859, A conspicuous winter species occur- ring throughout study area. Halecium gracile Verrill, 1874. Believed to be a tropical species although it ranges as far north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Hartlaubella 2elatinosa Pallas, 1766. Grows in large colonies (31 cm). Has been included in six genera; Verrill identified it as both Obelia qelatinosa and 0. pyriformis. Occurs throughout study Fundant in winter and area an is probably most a spring. *Hydractina echinata Fleming, 1828. A polyhaline species occurring from LabraJo-rto Gulf of Mexico. *Hydrallmania fulcata Linnaeus. A fernlike hydroid o ccurring from Long Island Soun7 northward. *Obelia bicuspidata Clark, 1876. A morphologically variable species probably known by several names. Is euryhaline and occurs,south- ward from Maine. *Obelia commisuralis 1-1cCrady, 1857. Up to 5 cm high. A summer form Maritime vinces to Florida. Obelia geniculate Linnaeus, 1758. A morphologically variable species with a cosmopolitan distribution. *Obelia lonqicvatha Allman, 1877. Up to 25 cm high. From Massachu- setts t6 C@ri an particularly in late summer and fall. Sertularia argentea Linnaeus, 1758. A polyhaline,,winter species occurring throughout the study area. 4-513 *Tubularia crocea L. Agassiz, 1862. A high salinity summer form occurring along entire east coast of the U.S. Class Anthozoa *Edwardsia elegans Verrill, 1869. An infaunal species in sand and sandy-mud substrates. Can withstand mesohaline conditions. Re- ported up to 400/m2. Carnivorous. Incidental in oyster assem- blage. *Haliplanella (Aiptasiomorpha) luciae Verrill, 1898. Small, common ,species throughouf study area. Epifaunal, carnivorous and in- ddental to oyster assemblage. rietridium senile Linnaeus, 1758. The large common anemone of New .England. Epifaunal. Carnivorous. Incidental to oyster assem- blage. Diadumene leucolena Verrill, 1866. Small, epifauna'l species which E-anbe extremely abundant on oysters. Carnivorous. Ranges south from Cape Cod. Phylum Platyhelminthes *Euplana gracilis Girard, 1850. A polyclad common among sponges and hydroids along the entire New England coast. A predator that has no impact on oyster. Procerodes littoralis (wheatlandi) Girard, 1850. A small triclad with at least an amphiAtlantic distribution. Tolerates low salinity. Predator. No effect on oyster. *Stylochus ellipticus (Girard, 1850. The oyster leech. Common throughout study area. Its predation on young oysters or bar- nacles is well documented. A problem in certain areas. Phylum Rhynchocoela - The nemerteans as a group are very active predators. .Most common prey probably are peracarid crustaceans and poly- chaetes. Although not abundant they are constant members of the oyster assemblage. *Amphiporus bioculatus- McIntosh, 1873. Occurs southward from Cape Cod. Amphiporus ocraceus Verrill, 1873. Up to 70 mm long. Occurs south- ward from Massachusetts Bay. 4-514 *Micrura rubra Verrill, 1892. Up to 25 mm long. Occurs throughout stu rea. Zygonemertes virescens Verrill, 1879. Up to 40 mm long. Locally very abundant. Wide geographic range on both U.S.' coasts. Lineus socialis Leidy, 1855. A co mmon', often gregarious species occurring tTroughout study area. Polinia glutinosa Verrill, 1873. A sma.11 species, 30 mm, described by Verrill from Vineyard Sound. This name is invalid and its valid name is unknown. *Tetrastemma elegans Girard, 1852. A locally abundant species up to 20 mm long. Occurs southward from Cape Cod. *Zygeupolia rubens (Coe, 1895). Up to 80 mm long. Abundant in sandy substrates in bays and estuaries. Occurs southward from Cape Cod. Phylum Entoprocta Pedicellina cernua Pallas, 1771. Small species growing on hard substrates. Suspension feeder. Ranges all along coastj es- pecially abundant'in southern New England. Incidental to oyster assemblage. Phylum Ectoprocta_- A group of small, suspension feeding, usually colo- nial organisms. They occur as free-standing or encrusting forms. It has been suggested that bryozoa affect oysters by consuming planktonic larvae and by covering shell surfaces that could other- 'wise be used by oyster spat. Neither supposition is sufficiently documented to label this group as oyster pests. *Aeverrillia armata Verrill, 1874. A nonencrusting species found principally in the southern half of the study area. Does not occur densely. Alcyonidium hirsutum Fleming, 1828. Forms gelatinous colonies through- out the sYu-dyarea. *Al-cyonidium polyoum Hassall, 1841. Encrusts on several substrate types throughout study area. *Alcyonidium verrilli Osburn, 1512. Forms erect branching colonies _5 up to 12 i6`ches @igh. Occurs uncommonly from Cape Cod southward. 4-515 Amathia vidovici Hel ler, 1867. Grows in erect branching colonies about 2 inches high. Occurs commonly on several substrates throughout the study area. *An2uinella palmata van Beneden, 1845. A small erect species re-. portedly common from Maine to the Carolinas but rare in the Woods Hole region. *Bowerbankia gracilis Leidy, 1855. Anonencrusting species occurring througfi-ott the study area. Bugul turrita Desor, 1848. Grows in colonies up to 12 inches in height. Distributed abundantly.from Casco Bay to North Carolina. MacKenzie (1970) suggested that secretions from species of this genus may be a cause of oyster spat mortality. *Electra crustulenta Pallas, 1766. A. cosmopolitan encrusting species which locally ca"n be very abundant. Withstands reduced salini- ties. Electra hastingsae Marcus, 1938. Encrusting species which occurs on rocks and shells throughout the study area. *Membranipora tenuis Desor, 1848. A common species south of Cape Cod encrusting stones and shells. Occurs in estuaries. Schizoporella unicornis Johnston, 1847. An encrusting form very common in Long Island Sound where it has been indicted as a cause of oyster spat mortality. *Victorella pavida Kent, 1870. A soft membranous form which occurs in bracki's-F-water south of Cape Cod. Phylum Mollusca Class Gastropoda Subclass Prosobranchia Bittium alternatum Say. Alternate Bittium. Very small, locally abundant. Occurs throughout study area. Feeds on diatoms, sponges and detritus. Bus con canaliculata Linnaeus, 1758. Channeled whelk. A large pre acious gastropod occurring principally south of Cape Cod. Is known to eat molluscs, annelids and dead fish. Locally can seriously deplete and oyster population. Under experimental conditions one conch.consumes about three adult oysters per week. 4-516 Busycon carica Gmelin, 1970. Knobbed whelk. Distribution and feed- ing hi-bits similar to B. canaliculata. *Cerithiopsis greeni C. B. Adams, 1839. Green's miniature cerith. Very small, locally abundant. Occurs from Cape Cod southward. Feeds on diatoms, sponges and detritus. Cingula aculeus Gould, 1841. A minute snai-l which can be locally abundant anywhere along the New England coast. Crepidula convexa Say, 1822. Convex slipper shell. A common speci,es on shells and eelgrass south of Cape Cod. Smaller than its congeners listed below it is also more tolerant to reduced salinity. A suspension feeder. Not a significant competitor to the oyster. Crepidula fornicata Linnaeus, 1767. Common Atlantic slipper shell. This species occurs in chains. Although it has occasionally been found to be abundant on American oyster grounds, it has never been shown to be detrimental to the oysters. It was ac- cidentally introduced into Europe where it has caused problems. During World War Il it was marketed for human consumption. A suspension feeder that occurs throughout the study area. Crepidula plana Say, 1822. Eastern white or flat slipper shell. Suspension feeder occurring throughout study area. Not deiri.- mental to oyster. *Epitonium rupicolum Kurtz, 1860. Brown-banded wentletrap. Ob- served to feed on sea anemones. Exudes purple dye when disturbed. Occurs from Massachusetts southward. Does not interact with oyster. *Eupleura caudata Say, 1822. Thick-lipped or rough oyster drill. Mu_nUant on o sters in polyhaline areas. Bores through mollusc shells by a mechanical-chemical process. One of the most im- portant oyster predators. Occurs from Cape Cod southward. *Hydrobia minuta Totten.. A minute species, especially abundant in meso- and oligohaline areas throughout the study area. Omnivore. Incidental to oyster assemblage. *Littorina littorea Linnaeus, 1758. Common European periwinkle. (Tc-curs '&n -intertidal oysters throughout the study area. Feeds on the diatomaceous surface film of rocks, shells and plants. Incidental to oyster assemblage. Mitrella lunata Say, 1826. Lunar dove shell. A constant and local- ly ab n aint member of the oyster assemblage throughout study area. 4-517 .Feeds on soft algae and animal detritus. Nassarius obsoletus Say, 1822. Eastern mud nassa. Common on muddy inf-ertidal areas all along Atlantic Coast. Omnivore. In- cidental to oyster assemblage. *Nassarius trivattatus Say, 1822. New England nassa. Common on sand-. Scavenger. Occurs throughout study area. Incidental to oyster assemblage. *Nassarius vibex Say, 1822. Common eastern nassa. Abundant or common in certain habitats with muddy-sand substrates, including oyster beds. Scavenges on animal remains. Occurs south of Cape Cod. *Polinices duplicatus Say, 1822. Atlantic moon snail. Mlost common on high-salinity, shallow-water sand bottoms throughout study area. Principally a predator on clams and probably has little impact on oyster assemblage. *Polinices immaculatus Totten. Immaculate moon snail. Habits and range similar to above species, but much smaller and prefers cooler water. Only coincidentally occurring with oysters. *Skeneopsis planorbis'Fabricus. Minute, locally abundant species. occurring throughout region. Omnivore. *Triphora nigrocincta C. B. Adams, 1839. Black-lined Triphora. Specialized for feeding on sponges. Locally common in shallow water areas south of Cape Cod. Little, if any, impact on oy- ster assemblage. Urosalpinx cinerea Say, 1822. Atlantic oyster drill. Most common -&u- and seri s oyster predator in this region. Bores through shells of molluscs by mechanical-chemical means. *Acteocina (Retusa).canaliculata Say, 1822. Channeled lathe shell. A minute, abundant species occurring throughout range. Selective deposit feeder. No direct relationship to oyster. *Cratena pilata Gould, 1870. A small, eolid nudibranch. Occurs throughout study area. Feeds on hydroids. Usually rare or un- common. Doridella obscura Verrill, 1870. A small, dorid nudibranch occurring south of Cape Cod. Probably most abundant nudibranch on oyster. assemblage. Feeds on bryozoa. *Eubranchus pallidus Alder and Hancock, 1842. Small, eolid nudibranch 4-518 occurring throughout study region, especially winter and spring. Feeds on hydroids. *Haminoa solitaria Say, 1822. 'Eastern paper bubble. Minute snail occurring south of Cape Cod. Reported to 3001m2. Carnivorous, but also known to feed on algae. Odos,tomi@a bisuturalis Say, 1821. Minute species occasionally found on oysters. Occurs throughout study area. An ectoparasite on one or several species. *Odostomi:a impressa Say, 1822. Impressed Odostome. Minute species often extremely abundant on oysters. Historically believed to be host specific to oysters; has been abundantly found in other habitats-. Ranges from Massachusetts southward. No evidence that their ectoparasitism is serious enough to classify them as an important oyster enemy. Odostomia trifida Totten, 1834. Another minute species occurring south of Cape Cod. Not as abundant as above species. Pyramidella fusca C. B. Adams,,1839. Brown pyram. Minute ecto- parasi -6-c--curring throughout study area. Density on oysters second only to 0. impressa. *Rictaxist(Acteon) punctostriatus C. B. Adams, 1840. Minute species which can occur abundantly south of Cape Cod. Selective deposit feeder. No direct relationship to oyster. *Terqipes despectus Johnston, 1835. An eolid nudibranch found through- out the study area. Feeds on hydroids. *Turbonilla interrupta Totten, 1835. Interrupted Turbonille. Minute species distributed from eastern Canada to Caribbean. Reported to 150/M2 on fine sand. Ectoparasite. Phyllum Mollu@sca Class Bivalvia Anadara ovalis Bruguiere, 1792. Blood ark. An infaunal suspension feeding species occurring southwards from Cape Cod in sandy mud. Locally very abundant, but relatively unimportant in oyster' .assemblage. Anadara transversa Say, 1822. Transverse ark. Smallest species of genus. Often epifauna attached to rocks. Suspension feeder. Occurs south of Cape Cod. Probably more abundant on oyster reefs than above species. 4-519 Anomia simplex Orbigny, 1822. Smooth jungle shell. Sedentary, epi- faunal suspension feeder, often attached to oyster shells. Occurs throughout study area. Does not occur in sufficient abundance to be a pest. *.Barnea truncata Say, 1822. Fallen angel wing. A boring clam. Nem- bers of this family dig into mud, stiff clay, hard shells and rocks. Barnea is common in intertidal clay from Maine southwards. Suspensi-6n -feeder. No effect on oyster. Brachiodontes recurvus Rafinesque, 1820. Hooked mussel. A small, epifaunal species occurring from Cape Cod southward. Sus- pension feeder. Occurs in high densities in estuarine areas. Crassostrea virginica Gmelin, 1792. The central species of this assemblage. *.Cumingia tellinoides Conrad. Tellin-like Cumingia. Small species living in mud throughout the study area. Infaunal. Probably suspension feeder. No relationship to oyster. *Cyrtopleura costata Linnaeus, 1758. Angel wing. Moderately common in-mud and clay south of Cape Cod. Suspension feeder. Probably never very abundant on oyster grounds. *.Gemma gemma Totten, 1834. Amethyst gem clam. Minute suspension feeder living in fine sand throughout study area. Can be very abundant. Known to buffer predatory stress on young hard clams. Incidental to oyster assemblage. *Lysonia hyalina Conrad, 1831. Glassy Lyonsia. Small, fragile, suspension feeder common in sandy mud throughout region. Re- ported to 1,200/m2. Occurs in estuaries. Common, but not abundant on oyster grounds. *Macoma balthica Linnaeus, 1758. Baltic Macoma. A dominant deposit feedEr 'inestuarine areas with fine sediments. Reported to 2,000/m2. Important fish food. Common throughout the study area. Doesn't reach high densities on oyster grounds. Hercenaria mercenaria Linnaeus, 1758. Hard clam, quahog. Large, heavy @fielled species. Important as commercial species. Sus- pension feeder. Very common throughout study area. Derelict oyster grounds often containdense populations of this species. *Modiolus demissus Dillwyn. Atlantic ribbed mussel. Large species ,common intertidally in brackish water throughout region. Epi- faunal'suspension feeder. Mlay compete with oyster in intertidal areas. 4-520 *Mulinia lateralis Say, 1822. Coot clam. Occurs in estuaries and disturbed area@ throughout study area. Sporadically abundant, up to 22,000/m . Infaunal, suspension feeder. No direct re- lationship to oyster.- *@Xa arenaria Linnaeus, 1758. Soft-shell clam. Important com- mercially throughout northeast U.S. Suspension feeder. Very common intertidally and often on oyster grounds where the oy- ster shells protect it from predation. *Mysella 'planulata Stimpson. Small species occurring in muddy sand from.Nova Scotia to Cape Hatteras. Often abundant. Suspension feeder. Not important member.of oyster assemblage. Mytilus edulis Linnaeus, 1758. Common blue mussel. Common inter- tidal ly throughout region. Important commercially in Europe. Suspension feeder. Could be a competitor to intertidal oysters. *Nucula proxima Say, 1822. Atlantic nut clam. Small, deposit feeder occurring throughout study area, in fine sediments. Up to 675/m2. Not as abundant on oyster grounds. Aquipecten irradians Lamarck, 1819. Atlantic bay scallop. Through- out study area. Epifaunal suspension feeder. No important on oyster grounds. *Petricola pholadiformis Lamarck, 1818. False angel wing. Common intertidally in stiff clay or peat all along east coast. Suspension feeder. Not important in oyster as-semblage. *Sole-n vi'ridis Say, 1821. Green jackknife clam. Infaunal, suspen- sion feeder occurring in patches from Rhode Island southwards;. on intertidal sand bars. Not important oyster associate. *Tagelus divisus Spengler, 1794. Purplish Tagelus. Locally abun- dant in sandy mud from Massachusetts southward. Feeding type debatable. Incidental to oyster assemblage. *.Tellina.agilis Stimpson, 1858. Northern dwarf tellin. Small de- posit-feeding clam occurring throughout study area in sandy mud. Locally common. Incidental to oyster assemblage. Phylum Anneli,da Class Polychaeta Arabella iricolor Montagu, 1804. A burrowing carnivore. Found in a number of shallow-water habitats including oyster and 4-521 mussel beds. Cosmopolitan in temperate regions. Reported to 121m2. *.Boccardia hamata Webster, 1879. A shell-boring, selective deposit feeder occurring throughout study area. Can be numerically domi- nant in mesohaline oyster assemblages. Cirratulus grandis Verrill, 1873. The fringed worm. Upto 6 .inches long. Lives in a variety of sediments throughout region. Up to 5751m2. Not as abundant on oyster grounds. Selective deposit feeder. *Clymenella torquata LI-idy, 1855.. An infaunal, tube-builder occur- ring throughout the study area in sheltered sandy substrates. Non-selective deposit feeder. To 400/m2. Incidental to oyster assemblages. *.Drilonereis filum Claparede, 1868. A burrowing carnivore. Common throughout study region in sand and mud. Enoplobranchus sanguineus Verrill, 1873. Infaunal, selective de- posit feeder occurring in mud and sand throughout study area. Up to 14 inches long. Probably not numerous on oyster grounds. Spirorbis sp. Identified as such by Verrill (1873), probably is S. borealis Daudin. This is an epifaunal, tube building, sus- pension feeder. Extremely common in New England. Eteone sp. Identified as such by Verrill (1873). At least 5 species occur in study area; two known to be oyster associates are listed below. *.Eteone heteropoda Hartman, 1951. Burrowing, carnivorous species in sand, mud, clay and shell bottoms. Occurs throughout study area and can be relatively abundant on oyster grounds. *.Eteone lactea Claparede, 1868. Burrowing carnivore in sand and mud. Occurs throughout region. Not as abundant as above species. Eulalia sp. Identified as such by Verrill (1873). At least three species, E. viridis, E. annulata and E. bilineata occur in study area. Bi@_loTy -simila-r to Eteone. E. .viridis is possibly an important oyster associate. *.Eumida sangrinea Oersted, 1843. Occurs abundantly among shells and in several other habitats throughout study area. Epifaunal. Carnivorous. Fabricia sabella Ehrenberg, 1837. Small, slender, epifaunal tube- 4-522 builder. Suspension feeder. Potentially an important fouling organism. Glycera americana Leidy, 1855. Blood worm. Found in sand, mud and in oyster beds. Often in brackish water. Carnivorous. Occurs principally south of Cape Cod. Glycera dibranchiata Ehlers, 1868. Blood worm. The abundant commercially vaT-uable bait species. Occurs in muddy bottoms throughout study area. Carnivorous. Probably not as common- with. oysters as above species. *G ptis vittata Webster and Benedi-ct, 1887. Carnivorous, probably epifaunal. Commonly found on shell bottoms. Found throughout study area. *Harmotho"e extenuata Grube, 1840. A scale worm. Widely distri- buted throughout study area in a great variety of habitats in- .cluding oyster grounds. Carnivore. Reported to 200/m2. *Harmoth6e imbricata Linnaeus, 1767. A scale worm. Widely dis- tributed and nearly ubiquitous within its range. Carnivorous. *Heteromastus filiformis Claparede, 1864. Locally abundant. Re- ported to 2,000/m4. Eurytopic. Non-selective deposit feeder. Important associate of oyster. Hydroides dianthus Verrill, 1873. A tube-building, epifaunal species. Suspension fe6der. Common throughout study region. Important member of fouling community. *HHypaniola grayi Pettibone, 1953. A selective deposit feeder occur- ring throughout study area. Common in low salinity areas. Lepidonotus squamatus Linnaeus, 1758. A scale worm. Can occur in great numbers in a variety of habitats in New England region. In brackish water. Carnivorous. Lepidonotus sublevis Verrill, 1873. Relatively rare. Often com- mensal with hermit crab,Pagurus pollicaris. On oyster.shells. Carnivorous. Massachusetts southward. Incidental to oyster assemblage. *Lumbrinereis fragi1is Q. F,v Mul Ter, 1,776. A fragi1e., burrowing carnivore. Found.,on a variety of bottom types. Occurs' through- out study area. *Maldanopsis elongata Verril-1. U to 12 inches long. Common in p New England coast in muddy sand. Non-selective deposit feeder. 4- 52-3 Incidental to oyster assemblage. Marphysa s4nguinea Montagu, 1815. Large predacious worm occurring southward from Cape Cod. Principally a burrower, but is known to leave burrow in.search of prey. Occurs in several bottom types. Nereis succinea Frey and Leuckart, 1847. An abundant ubiquitous species, especially in estuaries. Burrowing form. Omnivore. Important member of oyster community. Nereis virens Sars, 1835. The sand or clam worm. Important bait species. Burrows in sand and-mud in sheltered and estuarine areas throughout study area. Much larger than above species. Omnivore. Not important member of oyster assemblage. Nicolea simplex Verrill, 1873. A selective deposit feeder occur- ring southwards from Vineyard Sound. *Owenia fusiformis Della Chiaje. A tube-building, infaunal species. Ocurring in sand throughout study area. Deposit feeder. In- cidental to oyster assemblage. *Parahesione luteola Webster, 1880. Small, epifaunal,,carnivore occurring from Cape Cod southward. Characteristic, but not abundant, of oyster grounds. Pectinaria gouldii Verrill, 1873. Abundant in muddy-sand through- out region. Builds cone-shaped iube of sand grains. Selective deposit feeder. Phyllodoce sp. Identified as such by Verrill (1873). Six species occur in New England. Active, predacious, often epifaunal worms. Pista palmata Verrill, 1873. Occurs uncommonly from Cape Cod southward. Selective deposit feeder. Podarke obscura Verrill, 1873. Small, active, predator.found in several habitats from Cape Cod southward. Polycirrus eximus Leidy, 1855* Selective deposit.feeder occurring throughout study area. Reported to 2,900/m2. Probably not im- portant to oyster assemblage. Polydora ligni Webster, 1879. Small worm which builds mud tubes. Extremely abundant on oysters throughout study area. Brackish water. Selective de'osit feeder. Heavy sets of P..ligni have p caused oyster,mortality. 4-524 *Polydora websteri Hartman, 1943. Shell-boring species. Abundant on oysters throughout study area. Occurs in estuarine areas. Selective deposit feeder. Detrimental to oyster through its boring activity. Potamilla reniformis Linnaeus, 1758. Epifaunal tube-builder through- out study area. Suspension feeder. Probably never very abundant .in oysters. Sabella microphthalma Verrill, 1873.0/EVfaunal tube-builder through- out study area. Reported to 5,80 m . Suspension feeder. Im- portant fouling species on oysters and other hard substrates. Sabelaria vulgaris Verrill, 1873. Another epifaunal tube-builder. Occurs principally south of Cape Cod. Reported to 7,500/m2. Suspension feeder. Important fouling species on oysters and other hard substrates. *Scoleco.,lepides viridis Verrill, 1873. A common estuarine species throughout study area. Occurs in fine sediments and on oyster grounds. Selective deposit feeder. *Scoloplos fraqilis Verrill, 1873. A burrowing, non-selective de- posit feeder found in sand and sandy mud throughout study area. Occurs in estuaries. *Streblespio benedicti Webster, 1879. An extremely abundant selective deposit feeder in estuarine fine sediments through- out study area. A numerically dominant member of oyster as- semblage. Phylum Annelida Class Oligochaeta - There is no record of any oligochaete species oc- curring on New England oyster grounds. However, this important taxon is often overlooked by accident or design because of their small size and difficult taxonomy. These deposit feeders can be especially important i-n estuarinelareas and several species will u1ndoubte4ly be identified from oyster beds once this en vironment is more carefully examined:. PhylJum Arthropoda Subphylum Pycnogonida Class Pantopoda 4-525, *.Callipallene breviorostris Johnson, 1837. A rather small common species occurring throughout the study area. Feeds on hydroids. May occur in estuaries. Not important to oyster assemblage. Subphylum Chelicerata Class Merostomata *.Limulus polyphemus Linnaeus, 1758. Horseshoe crab. Common all along east coast in sand and mud. Plows through sediment in seach of small animals. Probably incidental to oyster assem- blage. Subphylum Mandibulata Class Insecta Chironomus oceanicus. Midge larvae. Selective detritus feeder. Several species may occur, especially in estuarine areas. Al- though they seldom if ever, become abundant on oyster grounds. Class Crustacea Subclass Copepoda *Acartia sp. Epifaunal, suspension feeding genus. Can be very abundant and euryhaline. Occurs throughout study area. *.Centropages hamatus Lilljeborg, 1853. Biology like above species. Winter-spring form throughout study area. Subclass Cirripedea Balanus balanoides Linnaeus, 1758. Rock barnacle. Very abundant throughout study area. Suspension feeder. Can be important fouler of oyster shells. *Balanus eburneus Gould, 1841. Ivory barnacle. Most abundant in intertidal southwards from Boston. Suspension feeder. Impor- tant fouler of oyster shells. Balanus improvisus Darwin, 1854. Most common barnacle on subtidal oysters in estuarine areas. Suspension feeder. Subclass Malacostraca Order Cumacea *Cyclaspis varians Calman, 1912. A brackish water selective deposit 4-526 feeder occurring southward from Cape Cod. Not abundant on, oyster grounds. *Leucon americanus Zimmer, 1943. A brackish water selective de- posit feeder occurring southward from Cape Cod. Not abundant on oyster grounds. *Oxyurastylis smithi Calman, 1912. A euryhaline selective deposit feeder. Occurs throughout study area. Not abundant on oyster grounds. Order Isopoda *Cyathura polita Stimpson, 1855. An infaunal tube-builder in areas of low salinity throughout study area. Omnivore. Common, but not abundant on oyster ground. Edotea triloba Say, 1818. A selective deposit feeder throughout study area. Often in estuaries. Not uncommon on oyster grounds. Order Amphipoda Ampelisca sp. Identified as such by Verrill (1873). Undoubtedly one of three species listed below. *Ampelisca abdita Mills, 1964. In fine sediments in marine and brackish water. Sheepscot Estuary southward. Selective de- posit feeder. Locally abundant. *Ampelisca vadorum Mills, 1963. In coarser sediments and more sheltered areas than above. Selective deposit feeder. Through- out study area. Locally abundant. *Ampelisca verrilli Mills, 1967. Abundant in coarse sand south of Cape Cod. Selective deposit feeder. .*Ampithoe lonqimana Smith, 1873. Tube-builder occurring throughout study area. Selective deposit feeder. Locally very abundant. *.Ampithoe valida Smith, 1873. Biology as above. Occurs principally in estuaries southward from New Hampshire. *Cerapus tubularis Say, 1818. In muddy sand south of Cape Cod. Probably sel-ective deposit feeder. *Corophium acherusicum Costa, 1857. Common in shallow, protected areas often with slightly reduced salinity. From central Maine southward. Suspension feeder. Builds epifaunal tubes. 4-527 Corophium Ins i di osum Crawford, .1.937. Tube-builder throughout study,,. area In, estuaries. Locally:common :Suspension feeder. *Corophium lacustre Vanhoften., 1911. Locally very abundant tube- builder throuqhout study area. In upper reaches of es tuar i e s Suspension feeder. *Corophium tuberculatum S hoema ker 1934. Throughout study area on sandy. mud bottoms in shallow bays and estuaries-. Suspension feeding, tube buider. Clymadusa compta Smith, 1873.. Epifaunal tubebuilder f rom central Maine southward. Common in shallow Water and estuaries.,,: Se lective deposit feeder. *Elasmopus.levis Smith,, 1873. Motile epifaunal species occurring in shallow water south of Cape Cod. Selective detritus feeder. *Gammarus mucronatus Say, 1818. Common species in estuaries through- out study area. Selective deposit feeder. Motile epifauna. *Gammarus tigrinus Sexton, 1939 A very common species in the upper reaches of estuaries throughout the study area. Motile epifauna. Selective deposit feeder. *Leptocheirus plumulosus Shoemaker, 1932. Infaunal tube-builder southward from Cape Cod. Principally estuarine. Suspension feeder. Melita nitida Smith, 1873. A mesohaline species occurring thr ughout study area. Motile epifauna, often among hydroids. Omnivore. Abundant on oyster grounds. *Microdeutopus gryllotalpa Costa, 1853. Occurs from Cape Cod south- ward on a variety of substrates including oyster beds. Selective deposit feeder. *Microprotopus raneyi Wigley, 1966. Infaunal tube-builder from Cape Cod southward. In sandy substrates. Feeding type unknown. *Monoculodes edwardsi Holmes, 1905. Free-infauna in fine sand through- out study area. Euryhaline. Selective deposit feeder. *Orchestia grillus Bosc, 1802. Intertidal along east coast. Amongst marsh grasses. Herbivore. Incidental to oyster assemblage. *Paracaprella tenuis Mayer, 1903. A caprellid. Occurs all along east coast. Motile epifauna amongst sponges and hydroids. Often estuarine. Carnivore. Common on oyster grounds. 4-528 *Parametopella cypris Holmes, 1905. Uncommon southward from Cape Cod. Polyhaline. Notile epifauna on hydroids, ectoprods and sponges.. *Pleusymtes (laber Boeck, 1861. Uncommon motile epifaunal species throughout study area. Omnivore. *Stenothoe minuta Holmes, 1905. Often abundant species from Cape Cod-sou-th-w-a-r-U. i'lotile epifauna in shallow bays and estuaries among hydroids and ectoprots. Selective deposit feeder. Unciola irrorata Say, 1818. Infaunal, tube-builder throughout study area. Common in estuarine and marine waters. Selective deposit feeder. Coarse to medium sand. Often shares tube of other organisms. *Unciola serrata Shoemaker, 1942. Tube-builder in sandy mud south- wards from Cape Cod. Order t,@ysidacea Neomysis americana Smith, 1873. Very common throughout study area. Often iF--estuaries. Suspension feeder. Incidental to oyster assemblage. Order Decapoda *Callinectes sapidus Rathbun, 1896. Blue crab. Large act-ive crab of commercial importance. Euryhaline. Occurs throughout study area. Omnivore. Will prey on oysters. Locally abundant. *Cancer borealis Stimpson, 1859. Jonah crab. Larae crab with com- mercial importance. Occurs throughout study area. Euhaline. Can prey on oysters. North of Cape Cod. Cancer irroratus Say, 1817. Rock crab. Biology as above. Carcinus meanas Linnaeus, 1758. Green crab. Common inshore crab throughout study area. Sporadically abundant. Potentially serious predator of oyster. :Cranqon,septemspinosa Say, 1818. Sand sh-rimp. Euryhaline, omni-. vore occurring, along ea-st coast. Sand burrow. Uncommon on'oyster grou.nds. Eurypanopeu,s depressus'Smith, 1869.. Flat mud crab. Small carni- vorous crab occurring from Massachusetts Bay southward. Declin- ing in abundance, possibly due to a disease. A minor predator on oyster spat. 4-529 Libinia emarginate 11ilne Edwards, 1834. Spider 'crab. Sluggish scavenger occurring throughout study area. Poly-euhaline. Often numerous.. Neopanope sayi Smith, 1869. Abundant, small, carnivore on mud and oyster bottoms. Occurs throughout study area. Pagurus longicarpus Say, 1817. Hermit crab. Small, common species, rost abundant south of Cape Cod in sheltered areas.. Omnivore. Not common on oyster grounds. Pagurus pollicaris Say, 1817. Hermit crab. The large species which occurs all along the east-coast. Omnivore. Not common on oyster grounds. *Palaemonetes pugio Holthuis, 1949. Motile, epifaunal omnivore of. brackish water. Occurs throughout study area. Not abundant on oyster,grounds. *Palaemonetes vulgaris Say, 1818. Common prawn. Mbtile, epifaunal species occurring from Cape Cod southward in salinities higher tkan above species. Omnivore. I'lot abundant on oyster reefs,. Panopeus herbstii Milne Edwards, 1834. Common mud crab. Large xant occurring southwards from Boston. Predator on adult oysters and spat. Pinnotheres ostreum Say, 1817. Oyster or pea crab. Small omnivore living within mantle cavit of oyster. Complex life cycle. y May be detrimental to oyster: *,RhithroDanopeus harrisi Gould, 1841. Small, carnivore numerous in low salinity areas throughout the study area. Probably not a serious predator on oyster spat. *Upogebia affinis Say, 1818. Burrows in estuarine mud flats and shallow estuaries from Cape Cod southward. Suspension feeder. Not abundant on oyster grounds. Phylum Echinodermata Asterias forbesi Desor, 1848. Common starfish. Principal distri- bution south of Cape Cod. A predator on molluscs. Serious predator on oyster reefs. Asterias vulgaris Verrill, 1866. Northern starfish. Occurs in sF`allow water only north of Cape Cod. biology as above. 4-530 Phylum Hemichordata Saccoglossus kowalewskyj A. Agassiz, 1873. The common hemichordate throughout theregion. Burrows in sand and sandy mud. lNot im- portant member of oyster assemblage. Phylum Chordata Subphylum Urochordata Molgula manhattensis DeKay, 1843. Sea grapes.. Very abundant sea squirt on oyster reefs from Cape Cod southward. Suspension feeder. Seasonal in occurrence. Ho evidence that its fouling is harmful to oysters. Styela partita Stimpson, 1852. Sea peach. Suspension feeder. occurring southwards from Cape Cod. Not influential in oyster assemblages. Table 4-69b Annotated checklist of species occurring with the blue mussel, Mytilus edulis Phylum Porifera, Microciona prolifera Ellis and Solander, 1786. Red finger sponge. Occurs throughout study area, especially in Long Island Sound. Year round. Suspension feeder. Probably never very dense in mussel beds. Phylum Cnidaria Class Hydrozoa Although only two taxa of these predators of zooplank- ton have been recorded from mussel beds of the New England region, several more probably exist. C, @ertularia sp. Reported as such by Newcombe (1935). Probably S. argentea Linnaeus, 1758; a polyhaline, winter species occurring tFr-oughout the region. Tubularia crocea L. Agassiz, 1862. A species known to occur on rF5ssel sheTTs as well as other substrates. Incidental to mussel assemblage. 4-531 Class Anthozoa Metridium senile Linnaeus, 1758. The large common anemone of New England " Epifaunal. Carnivorous. Not important in mussel assemblage. Phylum Rhynchocoela Lineus socialis Leidy, 1855. A common, often gregarious, species occurring throughout study area. Active predator, probably on polychaetes and paracarid crustaceans. Fhylum Ectoprocta Alcyonidium sp. identified as such by Newcombe (1935). At least six species of this.encrusting genus occur in the study region. r Oeveral species of this genus and other genera most likely occur in the mussel bed habitat. Phylum Mollusca Class Polyplacophora Tonicella marmorea Fabricius. Chiton. Common grazer from Massa- chusetts northward. Fairly common on mussel beds. Class Gastropoda Subclass Prosobranchia Acmaea testudinalis Linnaeus, 1758. Tortoise-shell limpet. A small grazer on hard substrates from Connecticut northward. Conspicuous on mussel beds in all seasons. Buccinum undatum Linnaeus, 1758. Channeled whelk. A large preda- cious gastropod occurring principally south of Cape Cod where it is a significant predator on mussel beds. Busycon carica Gmelin, 1790. Knobbed whelk. Distribution and feed- ing hi-bits similar to B. canaliculata. Littorina littorea Linnaeus, 1758. Common European periwinkle. Biology as above except-smaller and found higher in intertidal zone. 4-532 Littorina saxatilis Olivi. Northern rough periwinkle Like above except found even higher in intertidal zone. Up t@ 500/m2 on mussel beds. Lunatia heros Say. Common northern moon snail. Common in shallow water throughout study area. An uncommon predator on mussel beds. Nassarius obsoletus Say, 1822. Eastern mud nassa. Common on muddy intertidal areas all along Atlantic coast. Omnivore. Does not interact with mussels. Neptunea decemcostata Say. New England neptune. A common carni- vore northw ard from Massachusetts. Uncommonly on mussel beds. Thais (Nucella) lapillus Linnaeus, 1758. Atlantic dogwinkle. Common intertidal predator especially north of Cape Cod. ik drill. Principal predator of mussel beds where it feeds on mussels and barnacles. 20-40/m2. Urosalpinx cinerea Say, 1822.. Atlantic oyster drill. Common pre- dator th@o_ughout region. I,mpact on mussel beds limited to re- moval of juveniles. Subclass Opisthobranchia Odostomia sp. Identified as such by Hughes and Thomas (1971). A number of these ectoparasites probably occur on New'England mussel beds. Class Bival.via Anomia sp. Identified as such.by Newcombe (1935). Could be A@. aculeata Gmelin or A. simplex Orbigny. Latter is more common. Tncidental to musseT assemblage. I'lodiolaria discors. Reported as such by Field (1923). Valid name, therefore range, Unknown. AM epifaunal, suspension feeding, mussel-like species. Mulinia lateralis Say, 1822. Coot clam. Occurs in estuaries and disturbed areas throughout study area. Sporadically abundant, up to 22,000/m2. Infaunal suspension feeder. Frobably seldom important in Mussel beds. Mya arenaria Linnaeus, 1758. Soft-shell clam. Important commercially throughout northeast U.S. Infaunal suspension feeder. Overgrowth by mussels is detrimental to th,is species. 4-533 Mvtilus edulis Linnaeus, 1758. Common blue mussel. The central species of this assemblage. Retricola pholadiformis Lamarck, 1818. False angel wing. Common intertidally in stiff clay or peat all along east coast. Sus- pension feeder. Incidental to mussel assemblage. r Saxicava,ruqosa. ock borer. Reported as being uncommon in mussel b@ds y Newcombe (1935). Exact valid name unknown; pro- bably Hiatella arctica or H. striata both of which occur through- out region. Suspension fe@_de_r. Phylum Annelida Class Polychaeta Arabella iricolor Montagu, 1804. P. burrowing carnivore. Found in a number of shallow water habitats including mussel beds. Cosmopolitan in temperate regions. 12/m2. Eteone lactea Claparede, 1868., Burrowing carnivore in sand and mud. -occurs throughout study area. Eulalia viridis Linnaeus, 1767. Common throughout region in mussel beds Tm-ong other habitats. Motile, epifaunal predator. Glycera americana Leidy, 1855. Blood worm. Found in burrows in sand and mud. Often in brackish water. Carnivorous. Occurs principally south of Cape Cod. Glycera dibranchiata Ehlers,*1868. Blood worm. The abundant com- mercially valuable bait species. In muddy bottoms throughout study area. Carnivorous. Mussel beds incompatible with har-. vest of this species. Harmothoe extenuata Drube, 1840. A scale worm. Widely distri- buted in study area. Abundant in mussel beds. R"eported to 200/m2. Epifaunal carnivore. Harmothoe imbricata Linnaeus, 1767. A scale worm. Widely distri- ,huted a_n_d__ne_a_r7_y ubiquitous within region. Epifaunal carnivore. Heteromastus filiformis Claparede, 1864. Locally abundant. Re- ported to 2,000/mz. Eurytopic. Non-selective deposit feeder. boes not interact with mussels. Lepidonotus squamatus Linnaeus, 1758. A scale worm. Occurs in 4-534 great numbers in a variety of habitats in New England region. In brackish water. Carnivorous. Nereis virens Sars, 1835. The sand or clam worm. Important bait species. Burrows in sand and mud in sheltered estuarine areas throughout study area. Infaunal omnivore. Notomastus latereus Sars, 1851. Uncommon cosmopolitan species. A burrowing, non-selective deposit feeder. Not important member of mussel assemblage. Phyllodoce mucosa Oersted, 1843. Found on a variety of bottom types throughout study area. Carnivorous. Probably epifaunal. Polydora sp. Field (1923) identified as P. ciliata. As this species U_oes not occur in North America it is not c-Fe-ar what species he found.. Polydora ligni Webster, 1879. Tube-building selective deposit feed- er occurring throughout study area. Brackish water. Folydora socialis Schmarda, 1861. Tube-building selective deposit .feeder. tMay occur in dense beds. Distributed throughout study area. Not known to bore into mussel shells. Scoloplos fragilis Verrill, 1873. A burrowing non-selective deposit feeder found in sand and sandy mud throughout study area. Occurs in estuaries. Spio setosa Verrill, 1873. Common in sandy tubes on beaches. Selective deposit feeder. Class Oligochaeta Oligochaeta - Non-selective deposit feeder found in mussel bed. Not identified to species. Phylum Arthropoda Class Crustacea Subclass Cirripedea Balanus balanoides Linnaeus, 1758. Rock barnacle. Dominant'spectes in mussel beds. Occurs in densities of 3,000-5,000/m2. Sus- Pension feeder. 4-535 Subclass Malacostraca Order Isopoda Jaera marina Fabricius, 1780. Very common among weeds and mussels. Occurs 7tro-ughiout study area. Omnivore. Order Amphipoda Ampith8e rubricata Plontagu. Constructs nests among weeds and mus- from Long Island Sound northward. Selective deposit. feeder. .i.lammarus annulatus Smith, 1873. Trincipally pelagic species in coastal water and surf zone. Occurs throughout study area. Presumably a suspension feeder. Cammarus marinus. Reported as such by Newcombe (1935). Present synonymy unknown. Gammarus oceanicus Segerstrade, 1947. Dominant intertidal and shallow water species in region. Also in estuaries. Selective deposit feeder. Microdeutopus gryllotalpa Costa, 1853. Occurs from Cape Cod south- ward on a variety of substrates including mussel beds. Selec- tive deposit feeder. Order Decapoda Crangon septemspinosa Say, 1818. Sand shrimp. Euryhaline. Om- nivore occurring all along east coast. Burrows in sand. May be numerous among mussels. Neoparope sayi Smith, 1869. Abundant, small carnivore on mud bottoms. Often among mussels. Occurs throughout study area. Pagurus sp. Identified as such by Newcombe (1935) who noted it was only occasionally found with mussels. Omnivore. Phylum Echinodermata .Class Asteroidea Asterias forbesi Desor, 1848. Common starfish. Principal distri- Fu't1on_s_o_u_t_K-6f Cape Cod. A predator on molluscs. Probably limits mussel distribution to,intertidal areas. Asterias vulgaris Verrill, 1866. Northern starfish. Occurs in shallow water only north of Cape Cod. Biology as above. Crossaster papposus Linnaeus, 1758. The common or spiny sun-star. Large, colorful predator occurring throughout study area. 10- 12 arms. Probably not a serious threat to mussel beds. Henricia sanguinolenta 0. F. Muller. Blood sea-star. Small pre- .dator especially abundaryt---in our region. Not serious threat to mussel beds. Class Echinoidea Stronqylocentrotus droebachiensis 0. F. Muller, 1776. Green sea urchin. Only common urchin north of Cape Cod. Uncommon south- ward. '@'!ay be responsible for 20 percent of mussel mortality. Class Holothuroidea Cucumaria frondosa Gunnerus, 1770. Large northern sea-cucumber. From Nantucket northward. Especially abundant on rocky coast of Maine and northern Massachusetts. Non-selective deposit feeder. Incidental to mussel assemblage. Psolus fabricii Duben and Koren. The scarlet psolus. Uncommon. Occurs in R-aine. Non-selective deposit feeder. Incidental to mussel assemblage. Phylum Chordata Subphylum Urochordata Boltenia sp. Linnaeus. I'dentiffed as such by Newcombe (1935). Two species, B. ovifera and B. echinata are known to occur from 10 Cape Cod nort ward-.-,Suspens' n-fe-eder. Frequent on mussel beds. *Indicates species identified as oyster associates from studies con- ducted outside the study area which are also documented as occurring within the study area. 4-5-37 Fishes. The following is a list of fishes normally found in the mussel/oyster reefs habitat within the continental shelf area be-, tween Sandy Hook, New Jerseyland the Bay of Fundy, Because of their mobility, the assignment of a particular species to a habitat has, in some cases, been somewhat arbitrary, especially in assigning a particular species to either a pelagic or a demersal habit. In such cases the criterion has been the extent of the species'Jmpact on a particular habitat, (i.e., if a fish species feeds principally on pelagic animals, then it would be considered part of the pelagic community). The scientific names are those published by the Ameri- can Fisheries Society: A List of'Common and Scientific Names of Fishes, 1970 edition. The species notations in the checklist are defined as follows: I. 'Geographical disttibution and relative abundance A. The geographical distribution includes three categories North - Primarily distributed north and east.of a line from Ta-pe Cod and the Nantucket Shoals through Georges Bank. South - Primarily distributed south and.west of that line. Throughout - Distributed throughout the study area. B. The relative abundance is indicated by the terms: abundant, common, occasional and rare. These are meant to indicate rough, relative indices ind are in no way quantitative measures. In each case they refer to the abundance in,the area of primary distribution, i.e.,Inorth, south, or out. II. Depth distribution. The following terms are used to describe "the depth or the inshore-offshore, characteristics of the species. Fresh-water Brackish water Nears ore - coastline to 18 m Coastal out to 91 W. Offshor 91 m to the continental slope Ta-sin- deep basin of the Gulf of Maine Ta-nks - shallow, offshore bank areas, i.e., Georges Bank. Ocean c - Pelagic fish of open ocean habit. The species marked *** are considered as "key species" in that they are a primary constituent of the habitat, a commercially important species, or a rare or endangered species. The life history of these species will be treated in Chaper 12.0, Fishes. 4-538 TABLE 4-70 CHECKLIST OF FISHES: OYSTER, MUSSEL REEFS GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION DEPTH SPECIES ABUNDANCE DISTRIBUTION HABIT CODFISHES Pollock*** abundant north coastal,banks food-small fish, Pollachius virens to 180M crustaceans Tomcod common brackish to food-small Microgadus tomcod throughout nearshore crustaceans STICKLEBACKS Fourspine stickleback common throughout -fresh to food-copepods, Apeltes quadracus nearshore other small crustaceans.fish eggs and fry Threespine stickleback abundant fresh to food-copepods, Gasterosteus aculeatus throughout nearshore other small crustaceans,fish eggs and fry Blackspotted stickleback common throughout fresh to food-copepods, Gasterosteus wheatlandi nearshore other small crustaceans, fish eggs and fry Ninespine stickleback common fresh to food-copepods, Pungitus pungitus throughout nearshore other small crustaceans,fish eggs and fry PIPEFISHES Northern pipefish common north brackish to food-copepods, Syngnathus fuscus nearshore to amphipods,fish 31m eggs and fry Lined seahorse occasional brackish to food-copepods, Hippocampus erectus south nearshore mphipods, fish eggs and fry TEMPERATE BASSES Striped bass*** abundant nearshore to food-small fish Morone saxatilis throughout coastal invertebrates SCULPINS Grubby common nearshore to food-scavenger, Myoxocephalus aeneus throughout coastal fish,invertebrates 4-.539 Shorthorn sculpin common north nearshore to food-scavenger Myoxocephalusscorpius coastal fish,invertebrates Longhorn sculpin*** abundant brackish to food-scavenger, Myoxocephalus octodem- throughout coastal,banks fish,invertebrates spinosus to 180M Sea raven commontthroughout nearshore to food-scavenger Hemitripterus americanus 90M fish,invertebr;tes LUMPFISHES Lumpfish common north nears.hore to food-crustaceans; Cyclopterus lumpus coastal hard bottom Seasnail common north coastal,banks food-crustaceans, Liparis atlanticus to 90M molluscs;hard bottom Liparis inquilinus common coastal,banks food-crustaceans, throughout 10-180m molluscs;hard bottom CUNNERS Cunner*** abundant nearshore to food@omnivorous Tautogolabru adspersus throughout coastal,banks scavenger to 130m Tautog*** abundant brackish to food-mulluscs, Tautoga onitis south coastal to 36m other invertebrates GUNNELS Rock gunnel common north nearshore to food-molluscs, Pholis gunnellus coastal,banks crustaceans,hard to 180m bottom PRICKLEBACKS Radiated shanny common north nearshore to hard bottom Ul vari a s ubb if urcata basin to 145m WOLFrISHES Atlantic wolffish common north c6ast,banks food-molluscs, Anarhichus lupus to 162m ech i no derms crustaceans, hard bottom EEL POUTS Ocean pout*** abundant nearshore to food-molluscs, Macrozoarces americanus throughout coastal,banks crustaceans, basin 4-190m e.chinoderms 4-540 REFERENCES Anon, 1973. Mussel (Oyster) Reefs. pp. 41-45. In A Socio-economic and environmental inventory of the outer confl'nental shelf and adjacent waters. TRIGOM, Prelim. Report, unpubl. manusc. Brongersma-Sanders, M. 1957. Mass mortality in the sea. pp. 941- 1010.' In-J.W. Hedgpeth, ed. "Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleoecol-ogy". Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 67, Vol. 1 Butler, P.A. 1966. Pesticides in the marine environment. Appl. Ecol., 3 (Suppl.):253-9. Butler, P.A., R. Childress and A.J. Wilson. 1972. The association. of DDT residues with losses in marine productivity. pp. 262-266. In M. Ruivo, ed. "Marine Pollution and Sea Life". London: Fish- News (Books) Ltd. 624 pp. Chestnut, A.F. 1969. Oyster reefs. p. 663 1-695. In Odum, H.T., B.J. Copeland and E.A. McMahan (ed@. Coastal Ec-os-ystems of the United States. 3 Vol. A report to the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration. Unpubl. manusc. Dare, J. P. 1,973. The stocks of yound mussels in Morecombe Bay, Lancashire. Shel'lfish.Infbrmation Leaflet No 28. Ministry of Agricultu,re, Fisheries and Food (U.K.). Davis, C.C. 1972. The effects@of pollutants on the reproduction of marine organisms. pp. 305-311. In M. Ruvio, ed . "Marine Pollu- tion and SeaLif Ie":'. London: Fisf7ing News (Books) Ltd. 624 pp. Emery, K.O., R.E. Stevenson, and Joel W. Hedgpeth. 1957. Estuaries and lagoons. pp. 673-750. In J.W. Hedgpeth, ed. "Treatise on Marine Ecology and Paleoecology". Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 67. Vol. 1. Griffith, D. de G., 1972. Toxicity of crude oil and detergents to two species of edible mollusks under artificial tidal condi,tions.-Pp. 224-229. In M. Ruvio, ed. "Marine,PolTution and Sea Life." London: Fif-shing News (Books) Ltd. 624 pp. Field, I. A. 1923. Biology: and economic value of the sea mussel, edul i s., Bul I U, S. Bur. Ffsh,,. 38:127-259. 4-541 Hughes, R. N. and M. L. H. Thomas. 1971a. The classification and ord.ination of shallow-water benthic samples from Prince Edward Island, Canada. J. exp. mar. Biol. Ecol. 7:1-39. 1971b. Classification and ordination of benthic sam- ples from Bedeque Bay, an estuary in Prince Edward Island, Canada. Mar. Biol. 10:227-2135. Laird, M. 1961. Microecological factors in oyster epizootics. Can. J. Zool. 39:449-485. Larsen, P. F. 1974. Quantitative studies of the macrofauna associ- ated with the mesohaline oyster reefs of the James River Estuary, Virginia Ph.D. Dissertation. College of William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Logie, R.R... 1956. Oyster mortalities, old and new in the maritimes. Prog. Rep.Atlantic Coast Stations, Fish. Res. Bd. Can. No. 65: 3-11. Maurer, D. and L. Watling. 1973.. Studies on the oyster community in Delaware: the effect of the estuarine environment on the associ- ated fauna. Int. Rev. ges. Hydrobiol. 58:161-201. Newcomb, C. L. 1935. A study of the community relationships of the sea mussel, Mytilus edulis L. J. Ecol. 16:234-243. Nixon, S.W.,.and C.A. Oviatt, C. Rogers, K. Taylor.,1971. Mass and metabolism of a mussel bed. Oecologia, 8:21-30. O'Connor, J.S. . 1972. The benthic microfauna of Moriches Bay, New York. Biol. Bull. 142:84-102. Rowe, G. T. 1973. Benthic Biota. In Environmental Study in the Vicinity of Cousins Island, CasCo-Bay, Maine. Central Maine Power Company. *Scattergood, L.W. and C.C. Taylor. 1949. The mussel resources of the North Atlantic region. Part 1. The survey to discover the loca- tions and areas of the North Atlantic mussel-producing beds. Conemer. Fish. Rev., Ilf9):1-10. 4-542 Taxiarchis, L.S.., R.L. Dow and T.T. Baird, Jr. 1954. Survey of the oyster b-,eds (Crassostrea virqinica) in the Sheepscot River and its tributaries. SheepsCOt Area Kep. No. 1. Dept. Sea and Shore Fish., Augusta, Maine. Thomas, M.L.H. and G.N. White. 1969. Mass mortality of estuarine fauna at Bi-deford, P.E.I. associated with abnormally low salini- ties. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada. 26:701-704. Verri.11, A. E. and S. I. Smith. 1873. Report upon the invertebrate animals of Vineyard Sound and adjac 'ent waters. Rep- U. S. Comm Fish., 1871 and 1872. Washington, D. C. 478 pp. Wells, H.W. 1961. The fauna of oyster beds with special reference to the salinity factor. Ecol. Mono. 31:239-266. 4-543 4.5.2 WORM-CLAM FLATS This section treats the biology of the worm and clam flat community.* The habitat is defined, its function explained, man's influence dis- cussed, the organisms that inhabit it listed, and its areal distri- bution shown. The major biological components of the habitat are the benthic invertebrates and the fishes. For a detailed description,of the life history and ecology of these taxonomic groups the reader is referred to Chapters 10.0, Benthic Invertebrates and 12.0, Fishes. HABITAT DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION This habitat'includes all coastal and.estuarine areas of soft uncbn-. solidated, sediment from the intertidal to 20 m depth, with the ex- ception of high-energy sandy beaches (see Sandy-Shores). In general, worm.and clam bottoms are characterized by deposition of both silt and organic detritus and are therefore found in areas protected,.either by depth or by sheltering headlands or barrier beaches, from strong wave action. HABITAT DYNAMICS Environmental Conditions and Microenvironments Worm and clam bottoms are generally found in sheltered bays and estuaries, but they often also extend along exposed shores beyond the low-water surf zone and all the major substrate type in very large, but shallow booies of water (e.g., Long Island Sound, Narra- gansett, and Buzzards Bay). The environment is chiefly marked by several gradients. Worm and clam bottoms are found from the inter- tidal to 20 m'depth and the range of temperature changes varies accordingly. Sediments can be anything from fine silt-clay to a clean mixture of fine and coarse sands, but generally there is a constant flow of organic matter to the sediment from overlying water. Salinity ranges from nearly full of 30 O/oo near the coast to 0-.5 O/oo proceeding up the estuaries. The fauna of these bottoms is affected by these factors so that each combination of salinity, depth, tempera- ture, and substrate type will have a different biological association from other comvinations. Within each association will belfoUnd epi- faunal and infaunal species, as well as a newly described biome found beneath the aerobic layer - the sulfide biome of uniquely adaDted meiofauna (Fenchel and Reidl, 1970., Thus, the wormand clam habitat is one of thu more complex and varied marine habitats. Because of.its accessibility and ease of sampling, this habitat is one of the most well studied. There has,been no attempt to-review the literature thoroughly; the references cited will lead the reader to many studies not described here. 4-544 Nutrient Cycles The primary producers within the worm and clam habitat are the benthic diatoms and dinoflagellates, which are often migratory intertidally movin?Tayl to the surfaceat low tide and sinking below the surface at hiqh tide' or and Palmer, 1963). Phytoplankton and detritus also con- tribute importantly to the source of enerqy flow. The phytoplankton and detritus pass@ through filter-feeding sDecies, while the benthic flora and detritus are utilized by deposit feeders and meiobenthos. Nutrients are then recycled within the habitat through the meio- benthos and deposit feeders above the anaerobic layer and by the sulfide biome within that layer (Fenchel and Reidj 1970; see food webs) nutrients pass out of the habitat as pelagic larvae and bird and fish food. Seasonal Cycles Seasonal cycles are also marked in the worm and clam habitat. Sea water temperature varies seasonally but the range of variation in- creases in amplitude from 20 m depth (4-10 C) to the intertidal where seasonal changes are complicated by the daily exposure of the flats to the air. Salinity also varies seasonally, especially in estuaries where spring runoff and summer drought most commonly decrease or in- crease the averaqe salinity at a particular site. Due to differences in depth.confi _guration of the bottom and shores, turbulent tidal mixing' and amount of freshwater inflow among other factors, the characteris- tic circulation and patterns of salinity changes differ from one estuary to another (e.g., Bowden, 1967). Thus, the particular seasonal changes in salinity at any site must be determined individu- ally. Another seasonal cycle is the change in food availabilit This is especially marked.for suspension-feeders (Levinton, 1972@ldepending on the phytoplankton blooms (see Offshore and Estuarine Pelagic habi- tats). As a consequence of the seasonal changes in temperature and food availability, within the fauna there are related cycles of re- production and recruitment. These two events are generally physiologic- ally timed to coincide with periods of optimal food supply and most favorable condttiont for successful establishment of the young in the adult habitat. Food Webs Two studies in Scotland show the importance of soluble (1) carbon compounds and detritus as energy sources for sand and mud fauna. At Loch Ewe, McIntyre, Munro and Steele (1970) found that the energy. requirement of the ecosystem was 10 times that,proquced (expressed in) grams carbon per square meter peryear (g C m-'yr- ). Much of the requirement was due to the activity of the bacteria and meiofauna. 4-545 Laboratory studies showed that most of the carbon requ irement could be met by the soluble and suspended compounds (detritus) that is filtered out onto sand gr'ains as water circulates through the sediment. Leach (1970) found that the epibenthic algali production on a mud flat in the Ythan estuary was only one hal f the energy requirement of the fauna. He postulated therefore that detritus must be a very import- ant,food source. The source of the detritus is the algal production of the rocky shores, the Spartina salt marshes, and Z Iostera where abundant (see discussions under relevant habitats). The food web is diagrammed in Figure 4-282. Within the sediments, bacteria utilize the detritus and in tu rn are fed upon by meiofaunal and macrofaunal-deposit feeders. Marshall (1970) suggests that these two groups may compete for the available energy. He bases his hypotheses on the facts that worm and clam bottoms, specifically in south coastal New England, are highly productive in shellfish and fin fish and there is no organic accumu- lation. This implies that nutrients are very efficiently used and, in. areas where the macrofauna are eliminated, the meiofauna may be able to replace them. The deposit feeders and suspension-feeders in turn are food for a wide variety of predators, many of which are finally used by man (e.g., ducks and flounder). The meiofaunal food web has been partially described in European sediments by Fenchel (1969), and it,is assumed. that a similar web exists in this study area. Relative Productivity The accompanying table shows that, in general, sandy substrates are more productive of animal biomass than muddy ones. Conversely, it appears that mudflats have higher primary productivity than sand- flats. However,-in both environments, animal respiration is greater than primary production and the difference is made up by imported ..detritus. The infauna of sand sediments is marked by a predominance of filter-feeders (see General Distribution) and thus may be more efficient at extracting the extra detritus. The two orders of magnitude difference in animal numbers between. the more northerly rivers and the southern "Pocassett River and Barnstable Harbor, Massachusetts, may be in part due to differences in size of animals exami-ned (1.5 mm and 0.5 for the northern.rivers; 0.21 mm and 0.75 mm in Pocassett and Barnstable respectively). No doubt the north-south difference in primary production shown in Table 4-71 also affects the animal biomass. However, this does not explain the differences in productivity between Cape Cod and Buzzards Bay. Apparently this difference is not understood (Rhoads and Young, 1971). 4-546 PRODUCERS ZOOPLANKTON X. PHYTOPLANKTON . . . . . .SUSPENSION FEEDERS R., BENTHIC MICROFLORA x4 Bivalve molluscs Hantzschia Ensis, @ya, Gemma Navi cula Re-rcenaria Nitszchia V Chrysophyceans 12- MEIOBENTHOS Protozoa M-ti Nematodes Harpacticoids Y N Polychaete worms Arenicola, Clymenella IMPORT IDETRITUS Pectinaria Gastropods Nassarius, Hydobia Bivalve molluscs Tellina, Nucula Se Amphipods 'Corophium, Haustorius BACTERIA OMNIVORE SCAVENGERS Polychaete worms 1% A, vit'Z6 Nereis, Sand shrimp Crangon E IWAVIX PRI gg@- 6-6 SCAVENGERS Gastropod 'c . . . . . . . . . . . . O'y c DEATH Hor 'hoenZr!-6 Se Limulus crabs s, Cancer Carcinu Lobsle-r Homa-rus PREDATORY VERTEBRATES EXPORT Fl.h A'. An uilla, Liopsetta seudop eumnectes Birds d gulls. terns, sdn pipers ducks Mammals PELAGIC raccoon, man LARVAE 0- ADULT MIGRATIONS .. .. . .... A SOC40-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGIO s Clk'--n '11. Pec t1nr, a s :a :ee w rm c' ' A_en -c tr. rP. 0 d r4 ss 'us Hidb -s_ c.1a 'ust'r"' @7 a ar Ve uc e I - u P, Coro hTum,H FIGURE 4-282 Food Web of Worm/Clam Fl,,at T15W Table 4-71 ffelative,productivity., Measures of productivity in several locations. Locality Sed. type Primary Annual Source Product on bioma@s (g C m- Y-1) (no/m"-) Ythan R.1 mud 29 Leach, 1970 Scotland muddy sand 15 sand 5 Loch Ewel s .and 4-9 So. New England-., average of 300 Marshall, Coast all types 1970 Pocasset R. mud-up-estuary 107,000 Sanders, et al'. Mass. 1965 down estuary 36,000 Barnstable Harborl mud 174,000 Sanders, et al':. Mass. sand 250,000- 1962 350,000 Cape Cod Bay sand 16,000 Young and Rhoads, 1971 silty-sand 11,000 Sheepscot River- mud 1,500 Hanks, 1964 Penobscot River fine sand contaminated 3-4,000 Shorey, 1973 sandy gravel) by,,-14% 1-2,000 sawdust Buzzards Bay sandy ,(4,500 Sanders, 1958 muddy 4,000 I=intertidal 4-547 Dow (1966) has estimated the dollar value of certain flats in terms of their soft-shell clam bait or worm productivity. In 1965,,eigh.t acres of Scarboro marsh produced 19,500 kg of soft-shells making the flat worth $2,869 per acre. Over 20 yea'rs (1946-66), 26 acres,of Cod Cove, E.dgecomb produced an average of $3,750 worth of worms per acre. Natural Stress Worm and clam bottoms are subject to several natural stresses. One of the most common is a rapid change in salinity. Most species in this habitat have evolved one or more methods of adaptina.to such changes within their fairly wide salinity tolerance (Sanders, Manglesdorf, Hampson, 1965; Kinne, 1967) but if the dilution of salinity is too rapid, mass mortalities may result (Thomas and White, 1969). A second stress is that of temperature change. Again animals have evolved tolerances to temperatures within the normal range to be ,expected in their locality (Kennedy and Milrursky, 1971, 1972) but when temperatures@exceed these ranges, mortality again results. Bacterial populations in sediments adapt to seasonal temperature changes by changing their physiological composition' to strains that, for example, thrive in high temperatures.in the summer (Nedwell and Floodgate, 1971). Another stress is that of shifting sediments, especially during storms. Several species (e.g. Nucula, Yoldia) can sense the position of a new surface and adjust their position accordingly (Rhoads and Young, 1970). Many species, however, are not-solmobile and whole populations can'be smothered by rapid deposition of sediments during a storm (pers. obs.). EFFECT OF MAN-INDUCED.STRESS The effects of a large spill of Bunker C oil on the biota of Cheda- bucto Bay, Nova Scotia have been closely studied (Scarratt and Zitko, 1972; Thomas, 1973). A similar spil,l has also been studied in the southern part of the area at West Falmouth, Massachusetts,(Sanders, Grassle, and Hampson). Work by Maine Department of Marine Resources has been described by Dow, Hurst, Mayo, Cogger, Donovan, Gambardella, Jiang, Quan, and Yevich, 1974. Shortly after the spill at Chedabucto Bay, layers of oil several centimeters in thickness commonly covered large areas of the mud bottoms, especially intertidally where cover- age was total and often a firm pavement resulted from mixture with the sediment. Slightly over two years after the spill there was no evidence of oil degradation in the muddy areas. The Upper inter- tidal was still completely covered and the rest of the intertidal showed only a partial and erratic decline in coveraqe. Subtidally., 4-548 the oil was incorporated into the sediment. Weathering of the oil was confined to,only the surface layer; during warmer temperatures, oil seeps from under this layer and is redistributed elsewhere. Con- sequently, the Bay is at present still subject to continuous reoiling. Extensive mortality of Mya arenaria was observed in heavily oiled areas and these populations have not yet recovered. Both Mya and Placopecten magellanecus ingested and assimulated the Oil. brazing herbivores (Littorina littorea, Stronqylocentrotus droebachiensis.. and other filter feeders (Modiolus modiolus) showed high oil content at first, but later was greatly diminished. Oil is not, however, apparently being concentrated in the food chain; Cancer irroratus and Homarus-americanus showed very low-concentrations. Specific results, of hydrocarbon pollution have been found in quahogs. from the Providence River (Anon., 1972) Included in these effects are a smaller average size, shortened life span, darkened meat, kidneys plugged with a black organic residue, and a raised ridge along the palli&I sinus. In contrast, a s'.tudy of the effects of the effluent of -a new pulp mill using the Swedish Stora process on the bottom infauna showed no changes in the benthos not attributable to,normal fluctuation in spatfall success. The only change observed was an increase in the organic carbon content of sandy sediments (Pearson, 1971). Dredging, however, is a serious disruption.of worm and clam bottoms. Sykes and Hall (1970) found that both numbers of animals and of species were reduced drastically in dredged channels of Boca Ciega Bay, Florida. An average sample in dredged bottoms produced 1.1 individuals and 0.6 species as compared with 60.5 individuals and .3.8 species in undredged areas. Such effects would probably be even more severe in northern areas where diversity is lower. Dow (1972) found that while soft-shell clams (Mya) can rid themselves of DDT residues if application ceases, lobsters continue to accumu- late them. Consequently, lobster mortality is considerably increased in areas of pesticide application. Dean and Haskin (1964) studied the Raritan River estuary as an example of how an estuary recovers after pollution abatement. After four years, the estuary-had recovered the usual estuarine distribu- tion of species. The freshwater species showed the most marked recovery; from no organisms present at the time of abatement in a very heavily polluted area, members increased to 17 species. Marine species showed a range of response. Pioneering species either re- mained as permanent residents, or after.a brief success, vanished with- in 2 years. Other species showed secondary, brief successes. Finally, several slowly extended their distribution up the estuary to become permanent residents. 4-549 BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS General Distribution Salinity and sediment type are two physical factors of great im- portance in determining the distribution of biota in this habitat. In general, the number of species shows a v-shaped curve (Dean and .Haskin, 1964) as one proceeds from marine to freshwater up an estuary. Relatively few species are adapted to the highly variable salinity in mid-estuary so diversity is reduced. Stickney (1959) presents a thorough breakdown by salinity of the distribution of the more common representatives of the worm and clam biota in the Sheepscot River estuary. Sanders, et a]. (1965), studied the same type of distribution in greater, qu-i-nfi-tative detail for the Pocasset River. Their study showed that, in general, there are three types of species; those occurring only in the stations experiencing the lowest salinity (Gammarus tigrinus, Leptocheirus plumulosus): those that first appear in mid-estuary and occur to the mouth (Gemma gemma, Hydrobia sp.); and those present only at mid-estuary (Edotea tulobata, Streblospio benedicti). The study also showed that epifauna are suEject @o far gF-eater salinity variation than the infauna due to the buffering action of the sediment water. Sediment composition has several effects. Bader (1954) found that pelecypod densities are greatest at an intermediate percent organic content (1.5-3.5 percent). Above-that sediments are too anaerobic and below too low in available food to support high densities. Where sediments are anaerobic whether at the surface or some distance below it the sulfide biome is present and may prove to be of great signifi- cance in energy flow (Fenchel and Riedl , 1970). In general, suspension feeders dominate sandy sediments while deposit feeders dominate in muddier ones (Shorey, 1973; Sanders, 1958; Driscoll, 1967; Rhoads and Young, 1971; Young and Rhoads, 1971). In part this is due to the differences in available food type. Currents are swifter and more constant over sandier bottoms, assuring an adequate food supply. Food for deposit feeders is corrrespondingly more abundant in muddier sediments (Sanders, 1958). Another influence is the development of a flocculent layer above the sediment surface where the bottom is intensively worked by deposit feeders. The flocculence clogs the filtering apparatus of suspension feeder and may smother their larvae, thus excluding this class from such.sediments (R oAds indt Young, 1970). This hypothesis has recently been modifM ue o he finding that suspension feeders may be present in 'muddy bottoms stabilized by the tubes of certain deposit feeders (Rhoads and Young, 1971). Driscoll (1967) discovered another biotic interaction influencing the distribution of eDifaunal suspension feeders in Buzzards Bay. 4-550 This class of species (e.g., Anomia siMplex CreidUla sp. Chaetopl eura apicUlata) is found in.shell-rich areas of level bottoms, the shells providing an attachment site. When Cliona celata, a burrowing sponge,, however, invades shells, it eventually destroys the shell and, con- comitantly, the attachment-site for other epi-suspension feeders. Thus, the larger form of this sponge which can persist without an attachment site is often the only epifaunal suspension feeder in a shell-poor bottom. Species CheCklist. The following are checklists of benthic inverte- brates and fishes considered to be regular inhabitants of worm and clam flat habitat: 4-551 Table 4-72 Benthic invertebrates check list Checklist Worm-Clam Bottoms Key: Range: N = north of Cape Cod S = south of Cape Cod N+= range mainly north, some found south of Cape Cod S+= range mainly South, some found north of Cape Cod B = found throughout study area Depth: I = intertidal S = subtidal Sediment type: S = sand SS = silty sand M = mud, silt-clay G = gravel, shell, etc. Epi = epifauna, often on rocky areas Living style: S = sessile T = tubicolous B = active burrower or burrower that doesn't form a tube M = motile, on surface often C = commensal Feeding type: SF = suspension feeder DF = deposit feeder C = carnivore 4-552 Omni omnivore, i.e. often switches feeding habit with season or food availability carnivorous at times G = grazer Scav = scavenger rarely carnivorous 4-553 Polychaetes Species Range Depth Sediment Style Feeding type type Aglaopelamus sp.' N+ S S B,M C Ammotrypane aulogaster N S,I M B DF Ampharete acutifrons B S S T DF Ampharete arctica N S M T DF Amphitrite ornata S I M T Omni Arabella iricolor S S,I M B C? Arenicola marina I M T DF Aricidea jeffreysii N+ S G,M B? DF Aricidea quadrilobata N S M B? DF Asabellides oculata S SISS T DF Capitella capitata B S,I S'SS'M B DF Clymenella-torquata B I S T DF Diopatra cupea S I S T Omni Diplocirrus hirsutus B S M T? DF Drilonereis longa S S,I M'S B C Eteone heteropoda B S,I M M DF Euchone incolor N+ S M T SF S,I Flabelligera affinis N+ M T Glycera dibranchiata S S,I S B Omni Hartmania moorei N Sli M M@ Heteromastus filiformis B I S,M T: DF 4-554 Species Range Depth Sediment Style Feeding type type Hypaniola grayi S? I M T DF Lumbrinereis tenuis B S,I S,M B DF Lumbrinereis fraqilis B Sli M T DF Maldane sarsi N S S,M T DF Maldanopsis elongata S S,I M T DF Melinna cristata B S,I M T DF Neph@ys caeca N+ I'S M B,M C Nephtys incisa N+ S,I S B,M C Nereis caudata ? I S ? DF Nereis diversicolor N SiI M'S B Omni Nereis virens N+ S,I M B Omni Ninoe nigripes B S SISSIM T DF Paraonis gracilis N S S'SS'M B OF Pectinaria gouldii S Sli S T DF Pectinaria twerborea N I S,M T DF Pherusa plumosa N S M B DF Pholoe minuta N+ S,I S B ?C Phyllodoce qroenlandica B S,I M M DF? Polydora sp. N S S,G T DF Praxillela sp. N S S,M T DF Prionospio malmqreni N S G T OF Pygospio eleqans,, N+ I S,M T DF 4-555 Species Range Depth Sediment Style Feeding type type Rhodine loveni N S M T DF Scalibregma inflatum B S S,M B DF Scolecolepides viridis S S,I S,G T DF Scolop os armiger N+ S,I SS'M B ?DF Scolopus fraqilis B I S!PM B DF Spio limnicola B S S'SS'M T DF filicornis B S,I M T DF Spio setosa S I S,G T DF Stereonereis caeca N+ S,I M M,B C? Streblospio benedicti B I S,M T DF Sternaps's sp. N S M ? ? Terebellides stroemi N S M T DF Thanyx.sp. N S S'SS'M B. DF Trichobranchus sp. N+ S11 M T DF 4-556 Mol I usca Species Range Depth Sediment Style Feeding type type Pelecypoda: Aequipecten irradiens B S S M SF Anomia simplex B Sli Epi S SF Astarte borealis N S S B SF A. undata N+ S S B SF Arctica islandica B S S S SF Callocardia morrhuana B S M B SF Cerastoderma pinnulatum B S M M SF Clinocardium ciTiatum S S S ? SF Crassostre virginica B S,I Epi S SF Crenella decussata B S M ? ? Crenella glandula B S S Epi SF Cyrtopleura costata S I M B SF Ensis directus B I S B SF Gemma gemma B S11 S,M S SF Macoma balthica B S,I M B DF Macoma tenta B Sli M B DF Modiolus demissus B I Epi S SF Mulinia lateralis B S S B SF Mya arenaria B I G,M B SF Nucula delphiodonta N+ S SISS B DF N. proxima S S S B DF 4-557 Species Range Depth Sedi e'mnt Style Feeding type type Placopecten S S S M SF magellanicus Solemya velum B I S -@B SF Tagelus plebius S. S,I SIM B SF Tellina agilis B Sli S B -DF Thracia myopsis N S S; B SF Thyasira gouldi N+ S M ? SF Venus mercenaria B S,I S S SF Yoldia limatula B S,I M B DF Yoldia sapotilla B S M ,Bt- - DF Gastropoda: Acteon punctostriatus S S,I M M ? Cingula aculeus Nt S,1 M,G M DF? Colus sp. S SIM M ? Cyclichna orzya Nt S M M ? Hydrobia sp. B I SIM M .DF flyanassa obsoleta B, I SIM, M DF Lacuna vincta N+ S,I M. M G, Lora scalaris N S M ? 'Lunatia triseriata B S,I S. M C Nassarius trivittatus B. S S! MIS DF Odostomia trifida B S,I SIM C? -C? 4-558 Species Range Depth Sediment Style Feeding type type Polinices,duplicata S,j S,M M C Retusa caniculata B S M M C? Retusa obtusa B S M M C? Turbonilla sp., B 5 M M ?DF Urosalpinx cinerea, B S,I Epi M C 4-559 ARTHROPODA Species Range Depth Sediment Style Feeding type type Crustacea Amphipod Acanthohaustorius millsi S+ S S B,A DF Aeginina longicornis B S S,M M S,F Ampelisca macrocephela N S S,M ? DF Ampelisca spinipes S S M ? SF Ampelisca vadorum B S,I S ? DF Anonyx lilljeborgi N S,I S B DF Byblis serrata B+ S,I M ? ? Carinogammarus mucronatus B S M? DF Casco bigelowi N S,I M B ? Corophiu crassicorne N S T DF Corophium volutator N G,S T DF Dulichi sp. N S M T DF? Gammarus lawrencianus N S,I G ? DF? Gammarus tigrinus B S,I M B,A DF? Haustorius canadensis S+ S B,A DF Leptocheirus pingui N+ Sli M ? ? Leptocheirus plumulosis S S,I M ? ? Neohaustorius biar-t-i-c-uTa-tus S S B,A DF Species Range Depth Sediment Style Feeding type type Orchomonella pinguis N+ S'I M ? ? Phoxocephalus halbolli N+ Sli M DF Unicola irrorata S Sli S,M- C,T DF Isopod Cyathura carinata N+- SII S'M M Omni Cyathura polita B Sli S'M M Scav Edotea,montosa B Sli S,G T Omni? Edotea trilobata,. N+ S11 M M Scav Decapod crab (Brachyura) Callinectes sapidus S S'I S'M M C Cancer borealis B S,I S'M M C Cancer irroratus B Sli Rock M C Carcinus maenas B sli M M C Hyas araneus N+ S. S'M M Scav?. Neopanbpe texana -B S9I M M C Caridean shrimp, (Carid,ea) Crangon septemspinosa B S"I S'M M Omni Pandalus borealis N S S'M ? ? Mud shrimp (Anomura) Upogebia affinis S SII M B DF Hermit crabs (Anomura) Pagurus acadianus @N+ S S'M M Sicav Pagurus lonqicarpus S S'I S, M Scav 4-561 Species Range Depth Sediment Style Feeding type type Cephalocarida Hutchihsoniella macracantha S S M M DF Tanaid. Leptocelia sp. S. M T DF mysid shrimp (Mysidacea) Neomysis americana B S S,M M SF Horseshoe crabs (Merostomata) Limulus polyphemus S+ S"I S,M M DF Ostacoda spp. B Sli S'M B,M Omni Cumacea Almyracuma proximoculi B I M B SF Diastylis quadrispinosa B S S,M B SF Eudorella sp. B S S,M B SF 4-562 Other Phyla Species Range 'Depth Sediment Style Feeding type type Echinodermata Asterias forbesi S. S,I SIM M C Caudina arenata N S,I SIM T DF Echinarachinus parma B S,I S M DF Leposynapta inhaerens B S,I S B Omni Ophiura robusta N S SIM M Omni Nemertinea Amphiporus sp., B S,1 SIM B,M DF Micrura leidyi S+ I M B,M C Tubulanus pellucidus S S., M B,M C? Enteropneusta Dolichoglossus kowaleyskii S a c o g To-s-s-u s-) ST S,1 M T S-DF Stereobalanus canadensis N S M T S-DF Tunicata Bostrichobranchus pilularis B S M Epi SF Aschelminthes Priapulus candatus N+ S M B C Coelenterates Ceriantheopsis americanus S S,I M T SF Acaulis primarius N S Epi S SF Edwardsia elegans N S,I G,S? BIT? SF 4-563 Fishes. The following is a list of fishes normally found in the worm- clam flats habitat within the continental.shelf area between Sandy Hook, New Jersey,and the Bay of Fundy.@, Because of their mobility, the assignment of a particular species to a habitat has, in some cases, been somewhat arbitrary, especially in assigning a particular species to either a pelagic or a demersal habit. In such cases the criterion has been the extent of the species' impact on a particular habitat, i.e., if a fish species feeds principally on pelagic animals, then it would be considered part of the pelagic community. The scienti- fic names are those published by the American Fisheries Society: A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes,.1970 edition. The species notationsin the checklist.are defined as follows: I. Geographical.distribution and relative abundance A. The geographical distribution includes three categories North Primarily distributed north and east of a line from Ca-pe Cod and the Nantucket Shoals through Georges Bank. South - Primarily distributed south and west to that line Throughout Distributed throughout the study area. B. The relative abundance is indicated by the terms: abundant, common, occasional and rare. These are meant to indicate .rough, relative indices are in no way quantitative measures. In each case they refer to the abundance in the area of primary distribution, i.e.,, north, south, or throughout. II Depth distribution. The following terms are used to describe the depth or the inshore-offshore, characteristics of the species. Fresh-water Brackish water Nearshore - coastline to 18 m Coastal out to 91 m Offshore 91 m to the continental slope Basin,- deep basin of the Gulf of Maine Banks shallow, offshore bank areas, i.e., Georges Bank. Oceanic-_ pelagic fish of open ocean habit 4-564 The species marked are considered as "key species." in that they are a primary constituent to the habitat, a commercially important species or a rar 'e or.enda.ngered species. The life history of these species will be treated in Chaper 12.0, Fishes. TABLE 4-73 CHECKLIST OF FISHES: ,WORM AND CLAM FLATS GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION DEPTH SPECLES ABUNDANCE DISTRIBUTION HABIT SMELTS Rainbow s;melt*** abundant brackish to food-small fish, Osmerus mordax throughout nearshore crustaceans,spawns brackish EELS American Eel*** common fresh to food-scavenger, Anguilla rostrata throughout oc-eanic living and dead animals,catadromous KILLIFISHiES Mummichog,*** abundant fresh to food-omnivorous Fundulus heterocli.tus throughout nearshore plant and small animals,scavengers Striped killifish abundant nearshore food-small Fundulus majalis south animals Sheepsheaid minnow common south brackish to food-small Cyprinodo,n variegitus nearshore animals. .CODFISHES Tomcod common brackish to food-small Microgadus tomcod throughout nearshore crustaceans FLOUNDERS Winter flounder*** abundant throughout brackish to food-small bottom Pseudopleurongctes coastal banks, to invertebrates americanus 130 m Smooth flounder abundant north brackish to food-small bottom Liopsetta putnami coastal to 30m invertebrates soft bottom PRICKLEBACKS Snakeblenny common north nearshore to food:ismall Lumpenus T eta@e- coastal to 90m crustaceans -fo r m -Is WRYMOUTHS Wrymouth common north nearshore to food-fish.'bottom Cryptacanthodes basin to 180M invertebrates maculatus TOADFISHES Oyster toadfish common south nearshore to food-fish Opsanus tau coastal invertebrates,sand, mud bottom 4-565 REFERENCES Anon. 1972. Clams from polluted areas show measurable signs of stress. Maritimes 16 (2): 15-16. Badger, R. G. 1954. The role of organic matter in determin ing the distribution of pelecypods in marine sediments. J. Mar. Res' 13:32-47. Bowden, K. F. 1967. Circulation and diffusion. pp. 15-36. In G. H. Lauff, ed. "Estuaries". AAS publ. No. 83. 757 pp. Dean, D. and H. H. Haskin. 1964. Benthic repop6lation of the Raritan River 2sturay following pollution abatement. Limnol. Oceanogr. 9:551-563. Dow, R. L. 1966. Some economic and educational values of estuaries. Atl. States Mar. Fish. Comm., unpubl. manusc. 1972. Pesticides in Fish and Shellfish. Maine Sea and Shore Fisheries Res. Bull. #32. Dow, R., J. Hurst, D. W. Mayo, C. G. Cogger, D. J. Donovan, R. A. Gambardella, L. C. Jiang, J. Quam, and P. P..Yevich. 1974. The ecological, chemical, and histopathological evaluation of an oil spill site. Unpublished manuscript to be presented at the March 25-27, 1975 Conference at San Francisco on Prevention and Control of Oil Pollution. Sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the U.S. Coast Guard.' Driscoll, E. G. 1967. Attached epifauna-substrate-relations. Limnol. Oceanogr., 12:638-641. Fenchel, T. 1969. The ecology of marine microbenthos. IV Structure and function of the benthic ecosystem, its chemical and physical factors and the microfauna communities with special reference to the ciliated protozoa. Opelia, 6:1-182. Fenchel, T. M. and R. J. Reidl. 1970. The sulfide system; a new biotic community underneath the oxidized layer of marine sand bottoms. Mar. Biol. 7:255-268. Hanks., R. W. 1964. A benthic community in the Sheepscot River estuary, Maine. Fish. Bull., 63:343-353. 4-566 Kennedy, V.S. and J.A. Milrursky. 1971. Upper temperature toler- ances of some estuarine bivalves. Ches. Sci.. 12:193-204. 1972. Effects of temperature on the respiratory metabolism of three Chesapeake Bay bivalves. Ches.-Sci. 13:1-22. Kinne, 0. 1967. Physiology of estuarine organisms with,special reference to salinity and temperature: General aspects, pp 525- 54G,. In G.H. Lauff, ed.. "Estuaries" AAAS publ. No. 83. 757 pp. Leach, J.H. 1970. Epibentlilc algal production in an intertidal mudflat. Limnol. Oceanog. 15:514-521. Levinton, J. 1972. Stability and trophic structure in deposit- fee-ding and suspension-feeding communities. Amer. Nat., 106: 472486. McIntyre, A.D., A.L.S. Munro and J.H. Steele. 1970. Energy flow in a sand ecosystem, pp. 19-31. In J.H. Steele, ed. "Marine Food Chains". Berkeley: Univ.-CaTif. Press. 552 pp. Marshall, N. 1970. Food transfer through the lower trophic levels of the benthic environment. pp. 52-66. In J.H. Steele, ed. "Marine Food Chains". Berkeley: Univ. CaTif. Press. 552 pp. Nedwell, D.B. and G.D. Floodgate. 1971. The seasonal selection by temperature of heterotrophic bacteria in an intertidal sediment. Mar. Biol. 11:306-310. Pearson, T.H. 1971. The Benthic Ecology of Loch Linnhe and Loch Eel, a sea-lock system on the west coast of -Scotland III The effect on the benthic fauna of the introduction of pulp mill effluent. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 6:211-233. Rhoads, D.C. and D.K. Young. 1970. The influence of deposit-feeding organisms on sediment stability and community trophic structure. J. Mar. Res., 28:150-178. Rhoa ds, D.C.,and D.K. Young. 1971. Animal-sediment relations in Cape Cod Bay,-Massachusetts@.. II Reworking by Molpodia oolitica :(Ho.Toth,uroidea).. Mar., Biol. 11:255-261. Sanders.1H.L. 1958 -Benthic tudies in Buzzards Bay. 1. Animal- 9 s Sedfment relati;n!5hi:ps. Limnol. Oceanogr., 3:245-258. 4-567 Sanders, H.L., E.M. Goudsmit, E.L. Mills, and G.E. Hampson 1962. A study of the intertidal fauna of Barnstable Harbor, Massachu- setts. Limnol. Oceanogr. 7:63-79. Sanders, H.L., P.C. Mangelsdorf, Jr., and G.R. Hampson 1965. Salinity and faunal distribution in the Pocasset River, Massachu- setts. Lenin. Oceanogr. 10 (suppl.): R216-R229. Sanders, H.L., J.F. Grassle, and G.R. Hampson 1972. The West Falmouth Oil Spill 1. Biology II. WHOI Tecli. Rept. WHOI 27-20. Unpubl. Manusc. Scaratt, D.J. and V. Zitko 1972. Bunker C oil in sediments and benthic animals from shallow depths in Chedabucto Bay, N.S. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Ca. 29:1347-1350. Shorey, Wayne K. 1973. Macrobenthic ecology of a sawdust-bearing substrate in the Penobscot River Estuary. Jour. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada, 30(4):493-497. Stickney, A.P. 1959. Ecology of the Sheepscot River Estuary. USFWS Spec. Sci. Report Fish. No. 309: 1-211. Sykes, James E. and J.R. Hall 1970. Comparative dist@ibution of mollusks in dredged and undredged portions of an estuary with a systematic list of species. Fish. Bull. 68:299-306. Taylor, W.R. and J.P. Palmer. 1963. The relationship between light and photosynthesis in intertidal benthic diatoms. (abstr . Biol. Bull. 125:395. Thomas, M.L.H. and G.N. White. 1969. Mass mortality of estuarine fauna at Biddeford, P.E.I. associated with abnormally low salini- ties. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 26:701-704. Thomas, Martin L.H. 1973. Effects of Bunker C oil on intertidal and lagoonal biota in Chedabucto Bay, N.S. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can. 30(l):83-90. Young, D.K. and D.C. Rhoads 1971. Animal-sediment relations in Cape Cod Bay, Massachusetts. Mar. Biol. 11:242-254. 4-568 4.5.3 SALT PONDS This section treats.th-e biology of the salt pond community. The habitat is defined, its function explained, man's influence dis- cussed, the organisms that inhabit it listed and i.ts areal distri- bution shown. The major biological components of the habitat are the benthic invertebrates, macrophytes, fishes and birds. For a detailed description of the life history and ecology of these taxonomic groups the reader is referred to the Plant and Animal Pro- files.presented in Chapers 10.0, Benthic Invertebrates, 11.0, .Macrophytes, 12.0 Fishes, and 13.0 Birds. HABITAT DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION Salt Ponds are shallow coastal embayments separated from the open coastal waters by a barrier beach through which tidal exchange with those waters is usually maintained by an inlet. Salt ponds are common along the southern New England coast where alongshore currents have sealed off the mouths of many small rivers and indentations, but rare north of Cape Cod. One exception will be discussed in Biological Comoonents. General Disiribution. Because of their very high productivity, especially of species of commercial value, these ponds have been quite thoroughly studied. Smayda (1973) has summarized much of the existing literature. HABITAT DYNAMICS Environmental Conditions Salt Ponds are generally shallow so that light penetrates to the bottom, allowing abundant growth of spermatophytes and macroalgae. The influence of freshwater, arising from,river outflow, ground- water seepage, or runoff, results in variable salinity and tempera- ture and contributes considerable amounts of nutrients to the pond. The tidal regime is considerably dampened in comparison to that in coastal waters because of the effect of the small tidal inlet. This results in a small intertidal area,'and a reduced flushing rate. The barrier beach also buffers the pond from the'full effect of storms, reducing wave and current action. Both the reduced tidal-regime and wave action results in very weak circulation or mixing of waters. In Salt Pond (Kim and Emery, 1971) and 0 ster Pond (Emery, 1969), Falmouth, Mass., highly reducing (anox4 conditions persist in the .deeper basins throughout the year. In several ponds in spite of a .relatively low freshwater inflow, the waters are distinctly two- layered with the fresh-water flow seaward on the surface and the more saline water flowing landward on the bottom. Examples of 4-569 this occurrence can be seen in the Maritic River, Coner Pond, and Great Pond, Falmouth, Massachusetts. Salt ponds are not a truly distinct habitat: they are unique chiefly- for their very high productivity (as will' be discussed later under Relative Productivity). Rather they are-a mos aic of'se'Veral habitats considered in this report: worm:and clam bottoms, salt marsh,-estuar- ine pelagic, and rocky,shores: Consequently all the microenvironments found in these habitats are also present in a salt:pond With a con- comitantly high overall diversity. One habitat not discussed elsewhere, and very well-developed in salt ponds-, is the eel grass (Zostera marina) bed. Within the bed, species can live on the blades, among them on the sediment surface,- and -under that surface. --A more complete discussion Of the fauna of eel-grass- beds is presented, under-Biological Components. General Distribution. Nutrient, Cycles and-Seasonal Cycles Nutrients are transported into the pond both by the sea and fresh water. The circulation of the pond acts as a nutrient trap; nutrients being carried out of the pond by the fresh-water are mixed with those of the sea-wter which has a net landward flow, the ebb tide being generally uch weaker and prolonged than flood tide. This type of circulation is found in many estuaries (Ketchum, 1967). Due to the annual cycle of planktonic blooms and marine plant growth, nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, show a seasonal cycle. In Great Pond, Falmouth, Massachusetts, for example, these nutrients are utilized rapidly during the summer blooms and so are found in far less concentrations in the surface pond waters than in the water flowing into the pond. The phytoplankton sinks upon death and a high concentration of these nutrients occurs on the bottom and bottom waters. Thus, through the rapid uptake of nutri- ents brought into the pond from two sources by the primary producers, the benthic invertebrates are assured of an abundant food source both as detritus and plankton. The seasonal cycle of growth and decay in Spartina has already been described in Salt Marshes. Zostera shows a similar cycle. the grass grows to 1.2 to 2 m height during spring and summer. During the fall, the blades break off at the base, leaving the underground rhizome to produce the next year's crop. The blades then undergo breakup and decay, providing food for deposit feeders, beach scavengers, (when in windows), and finally, with complete remineralization, for phytoplankton. 4-570 Bird populations show marked seasonal cycles: Salt ponds are traditional landing stops for migrating birds and nesting sites for many ducks and shorebirds. The benthic fauna also undergo, seasonal cycles of reproduction and recruitment. Food'Webs The accompanying food web diagram is a very generalized one. More specific, detailed webs, along with comments, may be found under separate habitats. Relative Productivity The following tables, 4-74 and 4-75, illustrate the contributions of the separate primary producers to the very high benthic pro- ductivity of salt ponds and compare the productivity of several ponds and contrast it with nearby coastal waters. From these values, it is clear that macrophytic productivity is a very important determinant of primary productivity and along with benthic microflora, a major determinant of available food to the benthic populations. Natural Stress The most persistent natural stress in salt ponds is variable salinity. However, due to the dampened tidal regime, the range in salinity may be fairly slight (Emery, 1969). During storms, salinity change may be very sudden and dramatic due to runoff or widening of the inlet. Winter ice scour may also cause severe damage. Due to the shallow depth,of most ponds, sediments may be extensively shifted during heavy storms. If the inlet should become closed during a storm, salinity will slowly decrease to almost fresh-water in the more shallow parts, leading to a drastic change in resident populations (.e.g., Oyster Pond, Emery, 1969). EFFECT OF MAN-INDUCED STRESS Because of their proximity to heavily populated-areas, salt ponds are subject to many kinds of water-borne pollution. Because of their capacity to trap nutrients, pollutants, such as domestic sewage and agricultural waste, become highly concentrated and cause dramatic changes in contaminated ponds. One such pond that has been well- studied is Moriches.Bay, on the south shore of Long Island. Along the'shores of Forge River a tributary river of this bay, are several duck farms which contribute great quantities of duck wastes. This has led to a chanqe in the dominant phytoplankton farms from diatoms to small chlorophy-tes, Nannochloris and Stichococcus, generally 4-571 Table 4-74 Contribution of sources of organic carbon to the substrate (Marshall , 1970) source Organiq carbon g.C .'L ly Macroflora (Zostera and macroalgae 125 Benthic microflora 90 Deposition of phytoplankton 50 Allochthonous matter detritus from river, etr) 0 -10 Total 265-275 Table 4-75 Productivity of some salt ponds (taken from Smayda, 1973, who lists the primary sources) and nearby coastal waters. Production (g C/m 2/yr) Locality Gross Oyster Pond: phytoplankton 350-400 macrophytes 50 Charleston, R.I. Green Hill Pond: phytoplankton 138 51 Zostera 128 0 Nia@n-ticRiver, Conn. phytoplankton 41 benthic microflora 80 Moriches Bay: Total 178 phytoplankton 56 macrophytes 122 Long Island Sound 470 205 Continental Shelf inshore (50 m depth) 160 - 4-572 PRODUCERS ZOOPLANKTON PHYTOPLANKTON SUSPEN SION FEEDERS .BENTHIC Bivalve molluscs MICROFLORA @g Mytilus, Mya, Spisula, Gemma. Ensis, Modialus, IMAC-ROPHYTESI Mercenaria Crassostrea :'S Serpulid worm Zostera + Aufwuchs Hydroides Spartina a MEIOBENTHOS M croalgae ............... Nematodes Ciliates GRAZERS g g", Gastropods Lacunia, Aydrobia Tittori6a, Bittium Amphipods A _p m elisca, Orchestia Insecta IMPORT A. Folychaete worms 1:ctjnarj,,, Capitella, @ry's s Gas'lFro-pod ISopod .zL Nassarius Leptochelia ,1N 84va ve molluscs Tellina, hucuia, DETRITUS Macona At PREDATOR SCAVENGERS Horseshoe crab Limulus SanTsErfmp ran an BACTERIA CJ@_ Carcinus, Callinectas Ech- inoderm Asterias oo, PREDATO RY Z' VERTEBR@ JES DEATH OMNIVORES Fish Menidia, Fundulus, Pseudopleurohectes, Anguilla Birds Gulls, ducks, heron . . . . . . . . . . . EXPORT A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION .9] TR FIGURE 4-283 Food Web of the Salt Pond unsuitable as oyster food. Great quantities of the waste along with decaying plants cover areas of the bay producing substrate conditions unsuitable for many benthic invertebrates (organic content 10 percent by weight). Finally, highly anaerobic condi- tions in the Forge River, and presumably parts of Moriches Bay, have often resulted during the summer from the very high BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) due to decomposition of the duck wastes and abnormally excessive phytoplankton blooms stimulated by the wastes. All of these stresses have directly affected the benthic invertebrates so that, in spite of very high net primary productivity (178 g C m-2 yr-1), the standing crop of benthic invertebrates is lower (5 g m-2 ash-free dry weight) than in other areas with lower productivity (all foregoing from O'Connor, 1972). Oyster production has also been eliminated. Another man-induced stress affecting most of the salt ponds is dredg- ing to maintain boat channels and marinas. O'Connor (1972) demon- strated that diversity in these channels is very low. BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS General Distribution The distribution of species within each habitat is similar to that already described under the specific habitat. O'Connor (1972) found a clear-cut association of suspension feeders with sandy sediments and deposit-feeders in muddy substrates as would be expected from work on worm and clam bottoms. The following table, 4-76, presents the dominant species O'Connor found in various substrata. The presence or absence of Zostera marina has a marked influence on the benthic fauna of a particular site. When a large bed near Woods Hole, Massachusetts, disappeared in 1931, due to a mycetozoan parasite, Stauffer (1937) found that those species living on or among the blades of grass vanished, while those living in or on the sediments were unaffected. These remaining species often showed changes in abun- dance, e.g., Lumbrinereis tenuis and Spio setosa markedly increased in abundance while Glycera sp, Mya arenaria, and Leptosynapta de- creased markedly. Dexter (1950) found the following species to be abundant in a newly restored bed of eel grass in Goose Cove, Cape Anne, Massachusetts: the three Littorina sp., Lacuna vincta, Gemma gemma,, Mytilus edulis, Idothea baltica, Cragnon, Spirorbis, lobsters, eels, Fundulus, and the 3 spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Marshall and Lukas (1970) demonstrated that the sediment under a bed of eel grass has a higher silt and organic carbon content in the top 1 cm than nearby sediments. The eel grass slows currents, creating greater silt deposition and, perhaps, lower oxygen content slowing utilization of carbon at the sediment surface. 4-573 Table 4-76 Association of certain taxa with particular substrates (O'Connor, 1972) in Moriches Bay. Sand Transitional clay-silt Vegetation Mercenaria Mercenaria Clymenella Mytilus Gemma Mytilus Bostuchobranchus Nassarius obsoletus Tellina Clymehella Molgula Neopanope Neopanope Tellina Nereis sUCcinea Laevicardium Laevicardium Pitar Glycera Nereis virens Laevicardium Pitar Botryllus Heteromastus Urosalpinx Laevicardium Platynereis Mulinea Crangon Salt Ponds north of Cape Cod are very uncommon. One does occur, however, in a landlocked estuary near Blue Hill, Maine. Read (1972) described the fauna of Salt Pond, Maine. There are two habitats: the shallows are very warm, especially in the summer, supporting a warm-water fauna while a deep water basin remains cool and supports a boreal fauna., Within the basin is a peat bank supporting a unique .association of burrowers. Table 4-77 lists some components of these two fauna. Table 4-77 Fauna of Salt Pond, Maine (Read, 1972) Shallow Basin Peat Bank Aurelia aurita Cerianthid Anemones Myxicola aeolid nudibranchs Placopecte terebellied worms Mysids Myxicola infindibulum Zirfaed crispata Gonionemus Henricia sanguinolenta lobster Mercenaria mercenaria Holocynthia pyriformis lumpfish Modiolus modiolus squirrel hake Cylichna occulta sea ravens Pitar morrhuna Lunatia duplicata Asterias vulgaris Species checkl is t The following are checklists of the benthic invertebrates, macrophytes, fishes and birds considered to be regular inhabitants of the salt pond habitat. -I x -3 -5 (D 0) Qj iw CL rf. (D C-P CU C+ Cr =r -1 (D rD 0) Q) 01 :5 (D ru =r 0 -5 (D C7 m C+ 4@b ru LA Q) 00 < C+ 0 =3 -ns) 03 CUD) Or- 'IbD 0 0) cl (D :3 V) st C+ 0 - 9 'D 'D c+ (D 0 =r a ID =5 0 V) r+ Q; 0) 0 C+ CD 0 -S C+ cr 02 (D :3 c+ CD -0 D:. :t;. .-r. 0 -a 0 =. (D (D E3 a Ea CD a < l< 0 C) cl 0 0 0 0 0 (D CD = I = :E -S 0) 0) CL P, cv a) 0 0) 0. .(D CD M C+ (D CD (D (D CD -1 (D CD c+ C-F c+ c+ c+ C+ (7 CD CD 0 CD (D (D (D C+ (D C+ co --h --@h CA m -4$ co -h 03 -lh C" --h C" C+ CA 0) @O ni -0 0) -0 Qj -0 a fD C fD (D C. fD C (D C rD C fD C: -1 =C C+ - C+ w c+ 0) C+ 0) 0- CD -s (D . 5 r+ -5 (D -5 CD (D -5 CD -5 c+ 0) c+ -5 c4- -5 IDL -S M.-S CL -5 o- -5 P, = 0) e+ 0) r+. V) CL CD 0 (D 0- rD 0 CD 0 rb 0 M 0 a ;lz* n 4.1. 0-. 0 V, -I :E: -5 ct. V) -5 :@E -5 :E -S :E -I ::E W CA C-P =1 n. =1 0 =1 a. M 0 CD a m c M < --h 1+ CL rL w (D 0 M 0) C Pj 0-) CL -h CL 0- M. in. CD Z V" c+ c+ c+ CD 06. e+ CD rD (D M 06 (D U, CD m CD (A CD Ln (D (D _0 -a -0 CD 0; ul m CD Ln ID (D 0 a c+ 0 0 0 0 -1 (D tn CL V) -.+% V) -+@ Ln 0 r- (A W tA (A 0 (A (D (D. (A' m LA CD 12.0- - - -t, - -5 (D --' CD -- CD (D C+ C+ C+ (D 0- -a- @ CL I C+ (A (D M CD CD CD (D (D C') C-) -n -n C") C-) (D o- 0 0 0) aj 0 0 (D (D (D N)O l< W CL 0 0 0 0 C.+ 0 C) 0 mi 0 0 E3 4t., (A a =-I s Ul c. 0 14 a :-:I fD 0 C) 00 -- 0 0 0 MI .73 0) 0 C2 c- M m C-1) m Ln m M LI) m Ln r- m: 0 0) 0 =3 (0 = 0 = 0 = 0 = 0 fD a) (D Q@ (D M 2) (n CA Ua 0 140 = to c @o c Lo c 3E E3 (A j;;@ C+ C+ - C+ - 4r+ cn (D 0 0 C+ =r 0) =r Oj =1 m a) 0) C- rD m m m :E -43 'a O@ 2, ID (D = (D rD =$ - I CA. (D =3 a, -5 Q, -5 CL -5 (.0 0 0 -1 f+ LQ r+ C: 0 C@ -n 6, 0 (D r_ 13, 0) r+ (D M! M C+ 0@ Oj CD (D (D (D C, a, 0 Q. o. =S :c X C+ (A C+ (A tA "a (A r- c- -XI I 0@ Qj (D 0) M ru c (A 0 Q) a -1 --x 0) r+ 0 -% - 0 C., 0) I -% = Q) C-+ a- CIL CL c :3 Q. 0) (D C+ 0 a, - c+ - (D 0. -S (M (D 0) r1l) 06 01-0 C) -,, c+ @ a CL -5 0 - co@< - =r (D' :F. 7r, =$ 0 c+ 0 -1 ul (n (D' IV) a, U:l . F r) 0) CA S 0 < ril (A W . Cl+ (n Cf, -a :c a O'n rD 0--% -S Ln -h 0 @a -5 C-+ 13) --1 :E B rQ < =j Q) r) 0 CD (D P, a :1 - , - - *.-r CD CD C+ c+ V) , -h m c (D (D < 0 M (A CA LA m Q. V) V) C ul (-) to 297 Is M -1 -h Ul c+ 0. 0 7c, 0 . - - 0 (D r) 0 -5 (D U3 V) I .U) -h =5 0P- -1 0 ru E3 r :3 -5 Ej 0) Eg CL) Ln CD (D ke) (A cr 1.14 CD 0) -S (D :3 00 rD V) CD C+ LA -1 0. 0 0- (A m 0 tA c+ 0 CD rD w CL 0 sw r" -1 17' ID 0 LM fD I (D n. -5 cli 0 LA CD 0 Qj rD @w o- Z 0 0) 0) n Ln :3 sw U) Ln 0 m - 0 0- m Q), CD C: a, @tn cr. 0 LA 0. r+ lw in) X C+ fl+ CD 0 c -h rD M C+ N (D :5 - - pi S)i -a -T:7 -1 C-) _0 -0 (A -,1 -:7 -0 0- 00 0 0 0 0 C) 0 ;E3 Qj - I - 0 0 -< E3E a I--, @< @< ,:;@ ::@ a 0 0 0 0 0 0 C') CD r) 0 0 CD Qj 0) Q) CD CD 0 -S @m rD (D (D 0 CD (D (D C+ Cl+ C+ C+ C+ C-+ C+ C+ C+ C+ 0 M (D (D (D (D CD CD (D@ (D (D (D -h La _f, 03 C-) co (A co m c (D c 0 rDc c C (D c ro c c c g _-T CD -1 (D -1 75 (D -5 (D CD -1 CD 0" .(D -I -S -5 0, (D -5 ro c- VJ 0- -5 OL-1 0--i CL D- -5 ..a- CD 0.-1 '"s .11 c+ (D CL -S rD oi CD 0 (D 0 rD0 (D 0 CD 0 (D rD 0 0, 0 m (D 0 0- -1 -S :;E: ru -5 -1 :@: -5 :@E -5 CL _5 ZE :E :E -,I CL -1 @E Ln CL w LI) :E: Ul V) Ln (A (D --h (D 9w 0 -0 0-0 ul M - - < 0) CL M- 0) 0. L@ CL "o 70 (D - . ' CL LO (D -1 (D rD :3 (D rD CD (D -1 Cl. rD (D 51@ -1 0 _0 _0 CL -Z) -0 -5 -0 M rD CD -S -0 (D Ln 0 0 0 0 0 0 0. CL -1 0 CL C+ w (A Cl+ Ln Ln 0) Qj V@ (D - ;@ r- - .t. C+ = 'L C+ C+ cr C+ C4, 0' 0 C4. C+ 4r+ (D C-@ C-) C-) 0- 0 0 0 0 O@ ro 0 0 0 0 C@ c E3 E3 E3 E3 m --3 E3 a C3 (3- CL 0 Cl. 0 0 0 0 0 0 w 0i w Mo :03 z :3 rl3cl+ C+ 4@- C) 00 4@- m LO 0 0 C) C) ca 14 M3 C) rn V) rri V) r- nc rn Ln 61-(/) 0 =3 0 rD :3 - 5:v -0) :5 0 -102 0; CD W CD CD 0 Qj (M c Cr" 0 - (,(@ a 0-o :E :E c (A - C-+ -S -5 = - C+ -s (11) 0) C+ C+ 0) m CD 0) (D 51) (D :E rD M m =r 0) (D 0) (D =3 ::E OL :3 (D CL 0) C+ :E, CL -1 to CL a 0) C4. CL -5 13) 0 -1 (M to -1 C) 0 =3 -3 0 0 VD 0 :3 M oj 2 C+ In in ti) a- rD 0i I tA :E r" 0) r+ -0 0 Ln n L/) r- C., (A .=r :5 -1 = ro t rD oj 0) 0 --h iw 0) 0 C+ 0) r@ C+ Q--l -S a) ai a@ = C (D @3 X (D l< C+ a- (D fD ;Kl 0. 0. 0) CL l< SW CD = 1-5 , t< .I.-- C+ % 0 C+ CLO -Qj 0 0) La U, -1 rQ - :z ZE a -3 cr C+ (A CD- a) vi cr (D Q. (D 00 Qj E3 C+ 0 c (D (A 0) :z in 0 0 C4* CA fo .9.0) 9= 7v = @O LA U3 C+ aj C-t.. I Oul @o CL - 0) to CD Cl+ m (D zr C+ C-+ Ln (A -1 CD C+ C-+ oj I-Z. c :E @3 A, -5 -1 (D C+ V) Cl+ Cr Pi La 0) M 0 V) (.n (D @+ 11 "1 1-5 (1) Ul (D (D CD CL (D 10 m 0) 77 C+ =r = 0OL -1 Ln . -0 a) rD (A 0- =r (A 0) fD 0) Q- Polychaete Verticle burrow Common 587/m2 New England Estuaries, often in mud in clay or mud -or clay tetrabranchia. Polychaete Burrows, deposit Abundant 42/m2 Rhode Island, Usually in mud feeder flassachusetts Prionospio ma1mgren Polychaete Burrows, deposit Abundant 7/116/m2 New England Sandy areas at low water feeder mark Snio.setosa Polychaete Builds fragile Common 176/m2 Woods Hole to Sandy bottom at low chimney-like tubes Long Island tide mark S. filicornis Polychaete Burrows', deposit Common 170/m2 Usually in mud feeder Cerebratulus lacteus Nemertean Very.large,often to Very common Mai.ne to New- Sand or mud in quiet -worm, ribbon -7 m in length & 2.5 'Jersey waters, %..ell into marsh. worm cm wide; burrows in. -below high tide line sand or mud, swims at night, Aequipecten irradians Common bay Burrows, roves by Abundant locally -Cape Cod to Sandy bottoms, both scallop shell moveme6t, fil- North Caro- i,nsbore and offshore ter feeder lina often with eelgrass in lagoons exposed or sub- tidal Anomi.a simplex. 'Smooth jingle Attacheds to hard Common Nova Scotia Near low water on shell substrate, filter to West rocks, shells,etc. feeder, Indies Corbula contracta Contracted Burrows, filter Abundant 258/m2 Cape Cod to Sandy or muddy shallows basket shell feeder Jamaica Crassostrea virginica American Attached to shell Abundant locally; Mass. .to Gulf Estuarine, in regions of oyster debris, rocks, fil- subject to over- of Mexico low water mark to 12.2 m ter feeder fishing below Ensis directus. C.ommon Rapid vertical bur- Common Labrador to. Lives on sandy bottom at razor clam rowOr in sand, fil@ Florida low,water mark ter feeder qemma Gem clam Burrows slightly in Abu ndant 13,083/m2 Labrador to Shallow waters, sand or 41::- sand 7-17 cm; filter Cape Hatteras fine mud coves along feeder shores or in tidal flats to 2 m below low tide 00 Laevicardium mortoni i4orton's Free unattached, Abundant 357/m2 Martha's Muddy sand, occasionally cockle burrows slightly, Vineyard to with eelgrass, in shel- filter feeder Long Island tered shallow water Lyonsia hyalina Glassy lyon- Burrows, filter Common to uncommon Gulf St. Law- Shallow -s.Andy bottom 5ia. feeder 150/M2 rence to Tex. Macom6 balthica TIhe little Deposit feederin Common 18 1/m2 Arctic to Ga. Sand or mud, sheltered macoma organic muds to 6 cin bays ,Aagoons just below low water mark. Mercenaria mercenaria Quahog..or Burrows in sand or _Vp abundant 93/ Gulf of St. Intertidal flats and little neck mud, filter feeder m Law. to Mex. lagoons with sand-mud or hard shell bottom exposed at low clam tide Modiolus demissus Ribbed mussel Attached by byssal Abundant 10/m2 Prince Edward Mud flats and sand spit threads upright to Island to S.C. often exposed at low tide substrate, filter characteristic of marsh feeder M;41inia lateralis Coot c. lam, Burro'Ws, suspension Common 77?m2 New Bruns. to Shallows in mud or.clay; little surf feeder; prey of fish Texas occasionally in sand clam beachin surf A arenaria Soft shell Burrows in sand 30 cm Abundant 164/m2 Arctic to N. Intertidal sand flats and clam, long or more with siphon Carolina shores exposed during neck clam to surface; filter low tide feeder Mytilus edulis Blue mussel Attached to sub- Abundant 227/m2. Arctic to N. Found in marine waters edible mussel strate by byssal Carolina on rocks, pilings, gravel, threads; filter fdr. any hard substrate, mid- tide to low tide level Nucula delphinodonta Nut clam Burrows; filter fdr. Common 83/m2 Arctic to Subt idal i'n mud New Jersey Tetricola pholadiformis Rock borer Bores into clay or Common 170/m2 PEI to Texas Bores in clay and soft false angel soft rock or peat; rock around low tide wing modified deposit fdr. mark Solemya velum Clam Usually buried; may Fairly common Nova Scotia to Intertidal mud flats and swim about Florida mud subtidally Spisula solidissima Surf clam or Suspension feeder, Abundant 105/m2 Gulf Qf St. Lives in surf just under hen clam partially buried Law. to Cape sand of beach below low Hatteras water mark on exposed beaches Tellina agilis (tenera) Delicate Deposit feeder in Common 283/m2 PEI to Gulf Sandy bottoms below water tellin fine sand or muddy of Mex. on intertidal fauna sand Bittium alternatum Gastropod Grazer on hard sur- Common -ext. abund. PEI to N.C. Tidal flats and in shal- faces and eelgrass 2,115/m2 low water offshore Busyc6n canaliculatum Channeled Grazer and predator Abundant S. New E". to Sandy bottoms in shallow whelk by boring other N. Florida waters molluscs Busycon carica Knobbed Predacious carni- Fairly common N.E. to Cape Shallow sandy bottoms whelk vore of oysters and Hatteras clams Crepi dula convexa Gray slipper Suspension feeder Fairl common Nova Scotia Attached to shells of shell 292/m@ to Fla. other molluscs, seaweed, rocks or other hard substrate, littoral Crepidula fornicata Boat shell, Suspension feeder, Abundant PEI to Texas Littoral and offshore; slipper shell largest of local attached to other species; forms shells" stacks Eupleura caudata Thick-lipped Predacious carni- Common 'Mass. to Fla. [lard substrate, lower drill vore, boring littoral and subtidal organ Hamihoea solitaria Gastropod Common 371/m2 New England Mainly in muddier inlet with eelgrass Hydrobia sp. Spire shell Minute microphagus Fairly common Lab. to N.J. Marine to brackish water feeder often in salt marshes Lacuna vincta Little chink Microphagus herbi- Often abundant Lab. to N.J. Lower littoral and shallo4 shell vore, mostly algae water, found entangled with Laminaria U1 Ln CD Littorina littorea Common Microphagus herbi- Very abundant 50/m2 Canada to N.J. At all tide levels, mar- periwinkle vore, mostly algae shes, rocks, mud and sand flats Littorina saxatilis Rough Microphagus feeder, Fairly common Lab. to N.J. Withstands dessication, periwinkle herbivore extends to upper limits of tidal zone in marshes Lunatia (=Polinices) heros Common moon Predacious carnivore, Common Gulf of St. I'liarine, sensitive to low shell bores other molluscs, Law. to N.C. salinity, sand and mud burrows in'sand flats in shallow,waters Mitralla lunata Lunar colum- Predacious carnivore Very abundant PEI to Gulf Low water mark and shal- bella 214/m2 of Mexico lows, mud and sand dous carni -Scotia Common on intertidal 1,assarius obsoletus Mud snail Preda * Very abundant Nova vore, bores other 351m2 to Florida mud flats and shallows molluscs subtidally, estuarine Odostomia bisuturalis Pyramid shell Ectoparasite on Fairl common Gulf of St. Lives on shells of other shells; gra- 400/m Law. to Del. Crepidula zer bay Folinices duplicatus Shark eye Predacious carni-- Abundant Mass. Bay to Burrows in sandy bottoms vore, bores other Gulf of Mex. of shallows, intertidal, molluscs survives low salinity-and high temperature Retusa canaliculata Lathe shell Crawls, scavenger Very common New Eng. to Sand and mud flats inter- Fla. tidally in shallow water Urosalpinx cinerea Oyster drill. Boring gastropod, Very common PEI to Fla. Oyster beds, intolerant feeds on molluscs of low salinities, seek and barnacles hard substrates Mysis stenolepis Mysid Swims and creeps Common N. Eng. south Usually found in eelgrass Sarsiella americana Ostracod Filter feeder Common 1793/m2 Woods Hole Eelgrass-and hydroids Cytheridea americana Ostracod Filter feeder Fairly common 89/m2 S. New Eng]. Shallow marine waters Diastylis polita Cumacean Swimming Fairly common 133/ Nova Scotia Soft mud or sand m2 to Bahamas Cylindroleberis mariae Ostracod Filter feeder Fairly common Southern N.E. Among eelgrass and 6,327/m2 hydroids r- C- M rn n m C-) :7@ -@l m tv -5 CL 0) 0 a X C3 ro 0 0 0 a) 0 r- '0 1< ct C-t- n n 1-1, ct -5 tA =r (D a =r ---r :=, _-x IV 0 Clf. - - -5 (A (D rD 0 Ln no 0. 0 C+ - 0 --x 1@3 QJ lu 0 0 -5 CD -5. V3 Ul oj C+ CD 0) 0 V) a ro -0 01 (n 0) of C+ rD CD rD -S. -1 C+l -h :3 0 a 0 O-j 0 Ln - 9w (A LA V) (n #A 3 Ln 0 0 0 0 Lo 0 0 'D 'a 'a 'a _0 -0 @o 0 0 0 0 0 0 ta. CL m CL co CL C36 CL -0 a @a (DI 0 0 0 00 0 @v tA CL cx CL -0 CL CL M: 0 -a fD CA (A V) (A (M (n Le) V) (,n --h ;o C+ r- W (A C-) V) 0 0m :E -0) C - 0 :E -S 0) V _0 --a r-r < JW ro < <0 C+ (D CD < CD m CD V) Ea CD CL (A tn CD (A '0 m m rD CD CD (D CD -5 = . (n Im C+ tr La m (D -h --h a M 0 -1 (D -S -S -1 9* M W Ln (n th (A V) 4A CA CD -5 0) (A (D m 0 0 C") 0 0 0 Cl) 0 CL 0 < 0 (D -C (A CL 0) %U 1w cu aj mi sw (D :r (D --+, -0 (D :Em < < < < < < < C+ (A @m CD rD (D CD CD m m M CD =3 :3 :3 :3 CD C+ to (a to (m un -S al m CD CD (D m m (D (D C+ 0 :t:- :rm C-,) C-) C-,) n C-) Cl) n C-) n C-) LI) -n cr cr 0 0 0 a CR 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 @3 a F3 0 @El a a CL CL 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a) C+ C+ to (.0 (n 4:b 4@b Lrl 0 w Ln to 4@- CD -ph 4@-- (n - al cn N3 Ul ON 03 .20, M -4 a r*3 r%3 rl) C-) r- C-) m C+ C) (A (A C+ ZE (D r- a) V) CD 0) 0) 0 0 a 0 r- 00 -1 tu 0 (D 0) CD 0 m -1 cu 0) :E -0 cr = - - < cr 0-0 :E r- 0 (n (D = = -h -h 0; -5 (D Cl+ 0 cl+ (-I) , rri C- m m rri rn 0 cm C- =r a - 0 CD C-) C+ 0 V) = tn (D C+ m - C--) (D Q) 0 10 0 C+ C+ r+ 0 to 0 :rZ 0 0) 0 -5 = (n M a tn CL 0 0 -0 0- (A rrl r+ sw w (D -S 0) 03 C+ 0 CA I--- C+ . r- V) cn V) - = 0 cv C* C-t 0 C+ CD sw ai C+ rt, aj (Q r- 0 0 C+ = C+ 0 rn =r 0M (7 > -S C) Dt. C+ --i i@ :E CA 0 crw 0 -h (A M (A a Z. C4rD o 0 0-. 0) 0) =r 0) C -S a) _-r (D 0 a- Q.. -1- a- C+ 0 0 0 0 :E -5 0- fD Cl. 0 1+ = 0) (n 0 CD C7'fD -h tn Pi C+ = .;T" = C+ 0) 0) -1 = (D CL - (D El (D - EO C+l -1 0) -5 0 to V) to ca :E - V) o CQ - La- a (+ -I 000 a 0 00 V) C- (D CD lw tA mIA N V) :E 53) Q. 0 C- tA W3 V) -S V) C.+ Lo 0 m C+ m (D m -1 -h U) (D @O CD (A CL CT 0 =5 co - - -1 -h 0) 0) 0 :E CD 0, (D m z i2o m CL fn (M - - - :z -1 SU CD --h 0 0 0 (1) = I (A to -1 "1 E3 = = 0 M m C+ - C+ -@. W -1 0 Ln -0. P) 93) 0) Q) (D oh (D W (D (M aj -1 F3 (n (A EA -S cjz@ -.01- rt, (D S (A 0 =5 m Ln 0 77 W (D tn (A c -0) c 0) =5 C-11 0) . 0) 4A.0) w cr (A CL 00 to tim ZE 0) 0) a) (A (D L :E 0 0) 0 (D CL C) IW ap CL rL CD < CD CL La. -h @ C+ (D CL to cr = (M 0 Cl+ 0) tn 0 0. (D M -1 0) (D C C+ w :3 (.0 40 0 C+ < Q. 130 0) zz CL 0 fD (D (D U) =3 co N) Limulus polyphemus Horseshoe Burrows, feeds Common Nova Scotia Lives in shallows of mud crab on worms in soft to Florida and sand on intertidal bottoms flats and lagoons Callinectes sapidus Blue crab Swimming crab, Abundant Cape Cod to Common in grassy bays and carnivorous commercially sought Florida salt water ponds, eury- haline Carcin.us maenus Green crab'' Swimming crab, Very common NE to NJ Shallow marine and carnivorous brackish water, under, rocks, algae, grasses Libinia dubia Spider crab Crawls, uses, Abundant Cape Cod south Common on oyster beds and camouflage other muddy bottoms Libinia emarginata Common spider Crawls, uses Common Maine to Fla. -Common on oyster beds and crab camouflage, sca- other muddy bottoms venger Ovalipes ocellatus Lady crab, Scavenger, swims, Common Cape Cod to Sandy bottoms at low calico crab may partially bury S. Carolina waterand subtidally Pagurus longicarpus Hermit crab Motile, crawls, in- Abundant Cape Cod to Found in rock pools, habits shells aban- S. Carolina intertidal flats, both doned sand and mud, marshes Panooeus herbstii Nud crabs Stout built carni- Common Boston to Common on oyster beds vores Brazil and other muddy,bottoms with shells or rocks Golfingia gouldii Sipunculid Detritus feeders, Fairly common Southern NE Sandy intertidal and ciliary mucous shallow waters system Chiridota laevis Holothurian Feeds on plankton, Abundant 311/m2 Cape Cod to Shallow waters with sand burrows in sand Arctic bottom Leptotynapta tenuis Holothurian Burrows in sand or Common Maine to S. Sand, mud or gravel clear mud, deposit Carolina between tides into sub- feeder littoral Botryllus schlosseri Ascidian Filter feeder, co- Very common Massachusetts On eelgrass, pilings, lonial mass on hard southward hydroid stems, rocks surfaces C+ (D LO CD C7 F1 (D C+ XD 0 C+ (n ID =r XD :E CA ca 0 (D LA -0 C+ -11 0 0 C -% o 0 E3 -s 0 CD iw -S 0, =r (D < -S ET - a- = -,r+ (A co 0 0 = a -0) a) @< irD =5 :E 0 (A n -5 1 --s U3 (A - C) C7 CL (D M (A 81 ,, - --h iw,-s < r- 7r:(D 0) W (D rD < C7. 0) -*b u) @D m cu CL -5 rD -lh ct su (D = (D -1 clt Q. 0. 0) (D sw rt, (D tA 0 0 D. C+ 0) (D 0 (M 0 (D CD (A V) V) 0 =5 CL rn D::- cr rD 0 CL no 0) "0 C+ CL - 0 0 C-P Q# l< 0 :-2: 0 @,Qj a AA C-t..L" CD (D =r ip) CL x CD "I :E tu 0 0) C+ 0 -h -h w CA rt. V) CDP ri- (D CL 0) o C+ a CD T+ C-. = s -5 - r+ c1t 0) ca. ON lw V) CD (.0 ;0) n C) -1. 0) (n -S r) CD --h (D =S 0; :=- a, m (A .fD V) C+ 0 C-tl (A 0 r10 a -S 0 Q) (A 0 0 0 -0) n 0- "0 0 (A C4. r+ C+ AA Qj c (n aj -S C+ C7 0 w CD I I@.=r =r -S ID 4@- 00 4@b -T-ahle 4-79 Shallow Salt Pond (Pelagic & Shore si)ecies) COMMON RELATIVE HABITAT SPECIES NAME HABIT DOMINANCE DISTRIBUTION PREFERENCE Zostera marina eelgrass submerged abundant-summer Maine to N.C. shallow sand-mud bottom beyond low tide mark in bays and estu- aries Ruppia maritima ditch grass tops emergent abundant-summer cosmopolitan mud marsh em- bayments Ulva lactuca sea lettuce floating or at- common-yearround Maine to Fla. euryhaline,shal- tached up to .7m SpSF abundant low embayments high between tidal limits. Enteromorpha sp. green algae attached up to SpF abundant- Maine to GA. sand bottoms or 3m high occurs yearround rocks. Agardhiella tenera red algae attached,20cm abundant-summer Cape Cod to sand bottoms or h.igh,bushy Fla. rocks. Cladophora sp. green algae attached,fil- dominant summer amentous 3m abundant SVF Maine to Va. sand or mud bot- I engths toms. Codium fragile green algae attached common yearround Cape Cod to rocks or shell C. debris. Survives low salinity in winter. Ascophyllum nodosum brown algae- attached common yearround Maine to Ches. rocks or shell wrack Bay debris -Ceram i um rubrum red algae 13cm attached abundant summer Maine to Fla. marine, euryha- or free yearround line in winter, low tide mark & below Fucus vesiculosis brown algae attached 3-1m yearround,winter Maine to N.J. euryhaline,rocks rockweed long dominant and shell debris in. upper tidal region Laminaria agarhii kelp,brown algae attached 2m yearround Maine to Del. rocks below low long tide. Punctaria plant,a- brown algae attached,large common, winter eu ryhA 11 rLe gTnea blades Rhodymenia palmata dulce,red algae attached yearround Maine to Del. deeper waters, marine Scytosiphon loment- brown algae attached,num. common winter cosmopolitan aria narrow blades Polysiphon.ia sp. red algae attached on abundant summer Maine to Del, euryhaline Ascophyllum Lyngbya sp. mermaid's flair filamentous 1 m common abundant Maine to S.C. tidal creeks on long summer mud soil stabili- zer upper inter- tidal. $pyridi filamen- common abundant euryhaline,winter tosa summer Gracilaria ver- red algae attached common abundant marine euryha- rucosa summer line winter Chondrus crispus Irish moss, attached 5-15cm common grows active-Maine to Del. marine, rocks red algae ly yearround or shell debris in tidal pools or standing water. Skeletonema c os- diatom plankton abundant 1BX10 6 L Cosmopolitan marine,shallow tatum photic zone. Leptccylincrus diatom plankton abundant cosmopolitan marine,photic minimus zone. Chaetoceros sp. abundant 8X106 /L Aste ri onel I a common 6X106 japonica Nitzchia sp. common .03XlO 6/L Thalassiosira sp common .84XIO 6/L it Ln Cr, 989 -1 m @n x. CL :K cd ;c-- @0, cl -0 m D-. C C 1 2 0) rD 0 @Q) Qj a), rD a < rD (D :3 -1 -1 C-@ F= ol + (n u -5 @* - -5 0- r+ -S c CL 0 0 CD 0 -5 -.0 + Er C+ 0 la, a- CL. 10 ca. 0_ (D 0 :3 @rl E5 -1 $3, 0 CD 0 '0 C+ 0 CD cu W %W 0 0 1. 0, 2, w @* 0 f 0 n E3 -5 CD 0 0 cn CD W -0 =3 ia. c lw C+ 41, C+ CL 0 rD -0 CD 0 0 -h LO N 0 (D 0 a, (D C+ (D a In rt t< 0 0 13) w 0 @v Q@ 0) a, a, CD 0 0 0 cr rr 0 0- u- cr c- 0@ s E@ E3 El -5 0 0 0 rL 0- 0 0- CL CL. CL CL 0 =3 =3 :3 w sw z Qj 0) w a, c ::3 1+ C-t. 1+ C+ 1+ r+l C+ rL vi a C/) -0 4@ 47, N) V) ;zl CD CD CD 0 V) =1 0 ta- rD N E3 0 lw 0 0) 1+ "1 :3 C+ l< CD 0 =r I = 0) (D :E rD 0 C+ V) C+ Ln o @< . Q) %U @(D 0 CD -,o En C+ CD 01 0 -3 M 01 (D 0, aj -1 C+ 0 (A 0 C+ a 1+ sw W rD W rD 0 C+ 0 -5 0 (A o (D 0 (A a' --S EA C+ cu 2. S. tw m a, c+ c+ In cr -5 -1 CD 0 pj w C+ V) -5 C7- cu C+ l< C-. D - = -5 M = =0 -1 < 0 2. =r (D m _0 12) (n In 0 fb rD in. C+ rD !E :E. cT lw -h 0) -h -h C) -5 (D (D @ -5 = -5 = -S -5 4A zlz rD 0 (D CD C- M a- rD (D (D C+ V) C+ rD c+ CL e+ (D M rD rD rD 0 CD cx (A M CL Ln -5w (A -n (A 0 (A 0 (A (A CIF o o rD W 0 0 (D M n CD c-F -h ES 0- -h a LD C) w CD - in CD -5 ct Z: (D (a rD (a (a 0 (A CL -5 CL -5 (D W C+ 0(D 0 (D :3 :3 (A 0 Q, 0) sw C-) IW 0 t7 .0- t7 0 rr 0 0 cx D@ CL 0 V) c+ 1+ 1+ V) (A Ln %W In Z3 0 CL ;o M -n IW 0 sw "T7 Jw < . - -t:@ 0 0) 0) 0 rD rD ct 0 0 CL 0 oj 0 a Ln t+ + (A =r S -h E3 D- (+ "0 c+ 0 -0 :E B :E a ool 0) -1 w 0 =r M cu sw tn 0 = 0 m fl, Qj =;@ -1 (D -S :3 V) (D 1+ -5 CL (A Ln (A Cc: n-, c(D+ :0:3j, 0 -- X-(M fD =r =r to 0 -3 Lo -S (D E3 & @@f -h 0 Lm (A - =3' (D 0) in = In cl+ 0 @ C') --h (D< 0 --h p-S @r CD 0) (n 0-1 (D 'a -5 -1 =LA -3 (A @(= 0, 0) '1 =7 (D -1 CLfr a & w c+ (D = fD = lw :E 0 CD lw CT (A cl+ m 0. -5 fu -h - V- 0 (A . r+ w .0 rm, ib IA -1 a) cr (D (D I :E - c< 0) = M 10 M -5 K in w Q. CL :3 cri co 00 Anas.rubripes black duck breeds, migrates abundant Nfoundland-Va salt ponds, winters, 75% ve- marshes, swampt, getation 25% animals gathers in est- includes e@lgrass uaries,mud flats cl ams .Ardea herodias great blue resident, migrates common Mass.southward shallow water, heron winters feeds on shores of marshes fish insects, ve- bays, tidal flats getation sandbars,marine or brackish .Aythya marila greater scaup migrates,winters abundant 2500/ Quebec-Fla. bays, salt water feeds on seeds, flock recorded ponds estuaries, clams-grass marshes - .Branta cana- Canada goose breeds,migrates, abundant S.N.Eng.north sand and mud Jensis winters, feeds ward flats,marshes, main,ly on vege- gra-ze in upland tation marsh coastal bay ,grasses eelgrass@, etc. ..Bucephala clan- common golden migrates,winters, abundant Cape Cod to broad estuaries -gula eye feeds on clams, N . C and bay regular -crustaceans, on p'onds during worms. migration Butorides vire- green heron breeds,migrates common local- Mairte to Fla. fresh and salt .scens winters feeds an ly abundant water ponds f i s h Chlidonias niger black tern breeds,migrates common Maine to Fla. marshes and coast. feeds :)n fish al waters .Clangula hy- oldsquaw migrates,winters abundant Nfoundland- shallow offshore emalis feeds on mussels N.C. waters sandy fish aquatic bottoms,mussel plants beds,estuaries -Cygnus olor mute swan breeds winters common loc- R,I., Conn., marshes,ponds a 11 y N . J . of southern New England Lar,us argentatus herring gull breeds,winters abundant breeds.L.I. lakes,bays,es- migrates,feeds @Northward, mi- tuaries beaches, on carrion,fish grates entire tidal flats crustaceans ur- Atlantic coast chins Larus atricilla laughing gull breeds,winters common Nova Scotia to salt mar@b, migrates,feeds N.C. ocean beaches on garbage,fish bays clams crustaceans Larus delawar- breeds,summers common Nfoundland to often along _ns -is ring-billed winters,mig. fish Fl a. coastal ponds, gull and scavengers and inland Larus marinus great black breeds,summers common Greenland to beaches harbors backed gull winters,feeds on Va. ponds,tidal fish,clams rivers crustaceans Mareca ameri- American yearround,winters common New Eng. -FI a. along shores, cana widgeon feeds on vege- ponds,marshes tation grains -Me-lanitta de- White wing winters,summers abundant Gulf, St. Law.- shallow salt g I a n d i scoter migrates,feeds S. C. water estuaries on mussels,eel- to ocean,flats grass,clams Merqu merg common mer- winters,migrates common New Bruns- mostly fresh ansa ganser feeds on fish wick to N.C. water,upper parts of salt ponds Pandion hali- aetus osprey b ree ds wi n ters , rare to un- Nfoundland to lakes.bays,es- migrates,feeds common F I a tuaries on surface or shallow water f i s h co CZ) Sterna albifrons least tern summer resident, common N. Eng. to sandy beaches winters, feeds on Fla. and ponds small fish, insects Sterna hirundo common tern breeds, migrates, abundant Nfoundland off shore to winters, feeds on to N.C. protected small fish, ale- beaches and wives, herring, marshes crustaceans Fishes The following is a list of fishes normally found in the Salt Pond habitat within the continental shelf area between Sandy Hook, New Jersey,and the Bay of Fundy. Because of,their mobility, the assign- ment of a particular species to a habitat has, in some cases, been somewhat arbitrary, especially in assigning a particular species to either a pelagic or a demersal habit. In such cases the criterion has been the extent of the species' impact on a particular habitat, i.e., if a fish species feeds principally on pelagic animals, then it would be considered part of the pelagic community. The scientific names are those published by the American Fisheries Society: A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishies, 1970 edition. The species notations in the checklist are defined as follows: I. Geographical distribution and relative abundance A. The geographical distribution includes three categories North Primarily distributed north and east of a line from Cape Cod and the Nantucket Shoals through Georges Bank.. South - Primarily distributed south and west of that line. Throu2hout - Distributed throughout the study area. B. The relative abundance is indicated by the terms: abundant, common, occasional and rare. These are meant to in @IcafTe rough, relative indices nd.are in no way quantitative measures. In each case they refer to the abundance in the area of primary distribution, i.e., north, south, or throughout. II. Depth@, distribution. The following terms are used to describe the dept4,or the inshore-offshore, characteristics of the species. Fresh-water Brackish water Nearshore - coastline to 10 fms Coastal --out to 50 fms Offshore 50 fms to the continental slope Basin - deep basin of the Gulf of Maine 4-591 Banks shallow-offshore bank areas, i.e., Georges Bank Oceanic - pelagic fish of open ocean habit The species marked *@I* are considered as "key species" in that they are a primary constituent to the habitat, a commercially important species or a rare or endangered species. The life history of these species will be treated in Chapter 12.0. 4-592 TABLE 4-80 CHECKLIST OF FISHES: SALT PONDS GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION DEPTH SPECIES ABUNDANCE DISTRIBUTION HABIT HERRING AND TARPONS Alewife abundant fresh water food-zoopl an kton, Alos@ pseudoharengus throughout to coastal anadromous SMELTS Rainbow smelt*** abundant brackish to food-small fish Osmerus mordax throughout nearshore crustaceans,spawns brackish EELS American eel*** common fresh to food-scavenger, Anguill rostrata throughout oceanic liv ing and dead animals,,catadromous KILLIFISHES Mummichog*** abundant fresh to food-omnivorous, Fundulus heteroclitus throughout nearshore plant and small animals,scavengers Striped killifish abundant nearshore food-small Fundulus majalis south animals Banded killifish common south brackish to food-small Fundulus diaphanus nearshore animals Rainwater killifish common south brackish to food-small Lucania parva nearshore animals Sheepshead minnow common south brackish to food-small Cyprinodon variegatus nearshore animals CODFISHES Tomcod common brackish to food-small Microgadus tomcod throughout nearshore crustaceans FLOUNDERS Winter flounder*** abundant throughout brackish to food-small bottom Pseu op leuronectes coastal,banks to invertebrates 'us america 128 m Hogchoker occasional south fresh to food-annelid worms, Trinectes maculatus brackish small crustaceans 4-593 SILVERSIDES Silversides*** abundant south brackish to food-small Menidia menidia nearshore crustaceans,fish eggs,invertebrate larVae,vegetable matter Tidewater silversides common south fresh to food-small crust- Menidia beryllina nearshore aceans,fish eggs, invertebrate larvae STICKLEBACKS Ninespined stickleback common fresh to food-copepods, Pungitus pungitus throughout nearshore other small crustaceans,fish eggs and fry Threespined stickleback abundant fresh to food-copepods,other Gasterosteus aculeatus through out nearshore small crustaceans, fish eggs and fry Fourspined stickleback common fresh to food-copepods,other Apeltes quadracus throughout nearshore small crustaceans fish eggs and fry Blackspotted stickleback common fresh to food-copepods,other Gasterosteus wheatlandi throughout nearshore small crustaceans, fish eggs and fry PIPEFISHES Northern pipefish common north brackish to food-copepods, Syngnathus fuscus nearshore to 31m amphipods,fish eggs and fry Lined seahorse occasional brackish to foo-copepods, Hippocampus e.rectus south nearshore amphipods,fish eggs and fry TEMPERATE BASSES White perch common fresh to food-small Morone americana throughout nearshore crustaceans,fish fry CUNNERS Tautog Abundant south brackish to food-molluscs,other Tautoga onitis coastal to 37m invertebrates Cunner abundant nearshore to food-omnivorous Tautogolabrus throughout coastal,banks scavenger adspersus to 128m 4-594- REFERENCES Dexter, R. W. 1950. Restoration of the Zostera faciation at Cape Ann, Massachusetts. Ecol. 31:286-288. Emery, K. 0. 1969. A coastal pond studied by oceanographic methods. New York: American Elesvier Publ. Co. 80 pp. Ketchum, B.. H. 1967. Phytoplankton nutrients in estuaries. pp. 32.9-335. In G. H. Lauff, ed. "Estuaries". AAAS publ. No. 83. 757 pp. Kim, C. M. and K. 0. Emery 1971. Salt Pond Topography, Sediments and water. Salt Pond Areas Bird Sancturaies, Inc. Annual Report, 1971: 4-6. Marshall, N. and K. Lukas. 1970. Preliminary observations on the properties of bottom sediments with and without eelgrass, Zostera marina, cover. Proceed Nat. Shellfish Assoc. 60:107-111. Marshall, N. 1970. Food transfer through the lower trophic levels of the benthic environment. pp. 52-66. In J. H. Steele, ed. "Marine Food Chains." Berkeley: Univ. Ca7if. Press. 552 pp. O'Connor,,Joel S. 1972. The benthic macrofauna of Moriches Bay, New York Biol. Bull. 142:84-102. Read, K. R. H. 1972. The Salt Pond. Oceans, 5:10-23. Smayda, T. J. 1973. Phytoplankton, Chapter 3, In Saila, ed. Coastal and Offshore Inventory: Cape Hatteras to Na-@tucket Shoals. Marine Publ. Ser. No. 2. Stauffer, R. C. 1937. Changes in the invertebrate community of a lagoon after the disappearance of the eel grass. Ecol. 18: 427-431. 4-595 4.5.4 SALT MARSH This section treats the biology of the salt marsh community. The habitat is defined, its function explained, man's influence discussed,' the organisms that inhabit it listed and its areal distribution shown. The major biological components of the habitat are the benthic inverte- brates, macrophytes, fishes and birds. For a detailed description of the life history and ecology of these taxonomic groups the reader is referred to the Plant and Animal Profiles, Chapters 10.0. Benthi.c Invertebrates; 11.0, Macrophytes; 12.0. Fishes; 12.0, Birds. 'HABITAT DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION Salt marshes are those areas protected from wave action between high and mid-tide levels, where the salt-resistant grasses Spartina alterni- flora and S. patens have colonized the mud surface. As the grasses grow from year to year, the mud-flat area becomes reduced to meander- ing tidal channels or creeks flowing through beds of Spartina. In a well-developed salt marsh, the Spartina inhabits large islands of peat separated by tidal channels @see e.g., Hay and Farb, 1966 or Leonard, 1972 for popularized description of this habitat). HABITAT DYNAMICS Environmental Conditions In the salt marsh itself the most important environmental character- istic is the daily tidal fluctuation. Because the marsh lies above MTL, exposure alternates with immersion twice each day. The level of tidal rise and fall determines the boundaries of the marsh and the distribution of species within it, due to differing physiological tolerances for immersion, or des.sication. A second characteristic is the steady accumulation of si1t on the marsh surface due to the reduction of current speed as it passes through the grass stems. This results in a steady increase in peat thickness. Accompanying this accumulation is a steady export of plant detritus on ebb tides. Microenvironments In the salt marsh itself, several microenvironments can be found. Along the blades of Spartina grows a garden of diatoms and other microepifauna. Grazers utilize this growth. On and under the mud surface live many types of deposit feeders. On the peat bank at the edge of the tidal creek can live epifauna. Adjacent to the marsh, two microenvironments are found in and under the bottom of the channel. Proceeding inland from the salt marsh edge, there is increasing irregularity of the amount of tidal cover because of the unequal heights of the two high tides per day compounded by the bimonthly rise and fall of tidal range. Consequently 4-596., there is a gradient of increasing exposure to dessication moving inland or, conversely, of immersion moving seaward. This gradient is reflected in the distribution of species within the microenviron- ments. Recently a study of a New England salt marsh, Bissel Cove, off Narragansett Bay, R.I., has appeared (Nixon and Oviatt, 1973). The authors found several fundamental differences in the way this marsh functions in comparison with the Georgia marshes which were previously .most thoroughly studied on the East Coast, and so had been used as models for the whole coast. Because of that finding,.as well as the study's completeness, uniqueness, and relevancy to the present study area, the following discussion will be.based on Nixon and Oviatt's (1973) study, except where noted. Nutrient Cycles and Seasonal Cycles A salt marsh is markedly affected by seasonal changes. Spartina itself undergoes seasonal changes in growth and decay. From spring through summer, the grass grows. In late summer, reproduction occurs and by late fall the grass becomes dormant. Winter ice and storms shear off the dead blades, making way for the new spring shoots. Salt marshes export much of their production - 90 percent in Georgia (de la Cruzi 1973) and 10 to 30 percent in Bissel Cove as either dead grass stems or as smaller, more decomposed detritus. In Bissel Cove, the stems are exported in two bursts; one in the spring following ice melt and one during a February thaw. The fine particles of detritus were exported at a steady rate throughout the year, but at values much below that for southern marshes. There is a markedly seasonal shift in animal populations in the marsh and adjoining flats. Some species were present all year (e.g., black duck, Anas rubripes, but in general, shrimp (e.g., Palaemonetes pugio)-a-n-cT Ti-sh (e.g., Fundulus) were most abundant in the fall and birds in the winter and spring. Herring gulls r and terns showed a pattern of seasonal replacement; qulls were abund- ant during the fall and winter until the common terms arrived in the early spring. The common terns were replaced by the least tern during the summer which remained until the gulls returned. Finally respiration and production also show a seasonal change. These two measures of metabolism rise in March to a "summer" level by mid-April and then fall again in November to the winter minimum. Food Webs The food web diagram (Fig. 4-284) is modified from Nixon and Oviatt, 4-597 (1973). The authors noted one specific interaction that deserves mention. The diet of the shrimp, P. pugio, was found to be omni- vorous, consisting of fish and smaTl crustaceans and pieces of plant detritus. Their-manipulation of the detritus helps break down the cellulose walls of the plant tissue allowing invasion by diatoms and decomposers. The shrimp waste also seemed to fertilize the detritus, increasing the heterotrophic activity. Relative Productivity Northern salt marshes are considerably less productive than southern ones, but are nevertheless very productive with relation to other ecosystems. The overall efficiency of.net production for all marsh grasses is 0.24 percent in Bissel Cove, while the same measure is 1.1 percent in Georgia marshes, and 0.1 percent in the tundra and subtropical ocean waters. The following tables, 4-81 to 4-83, (taken from Nixon and Oviatt, 1973) present some measures of several components of productivity. Natural Stress The major stresses in the salt marsh are due to the wide variations, diurnal and seasonal,in salinity, temperature, and dissolved oxygen. Salinity varies from 1 to 28 percent over the year and can show a 6 percent change during a day. Temperature ranges up to 10 C daily and from -0.5 C to 30.5 C over a year. Although the water never becomes anaerobic, dissolved oxygen can vary from 4 mg h-l to 12 mg h-l over 24 hours. Added to these stresses are the threat of dessication from the summer sun during daytime low tides and ice scour during the winter. Nixon and Oviatt (1973) observed mass mortalities of shrimp during heavy ice cover. EFFECT OF MAN-INDUCED STRESS Oil s ills have a major effect on contaminated marshes. Thomas (1973@, studying a large Bunker C oil spill in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, reported that Spartina alterniflora was eliminated in very heavily oiled areas. He noted thaf destruction of the blades above ground by oil had been observed before, but the shoots generally regenerated the following year from the underground rhizomes. At Chedabucto Bay, however, large quantities of the oil remained on the adjacent flats for at least two years due to the cool climate, and seeped from there onto the salt-marsh peat repeatedly. The repeated oilings killed the rhizomes, presumably by preventing oxygen from diffusing to them, and eliminated the salt marsh. Such results of an oil spill can be expected throughout most of the present study area because of a similarly cool climate. Any other pollutant that prevented diffusion to the rhizomes would also re- sult in death of the grass. 4-593 PRODUCERS ZOOPLANKTON PHYTOPLANKTON SUSPENSION IMACRO =HYTES FEEDERS Spartina + Aufwuchs Bivalve mollusc Ruppia Modiolus Ulva RAZERS Enteromorpha MNIVORES Gastropods BENTHIC ALGAL MAT Littorina, Melampus PolycFaete worm Nereis IsopZ-d Cyth ura Amph-1pod Orchestia Insecta us DEPOSIT FEEDERS Nematodes Amphipods Crabs Uca BACTERIA . . . . . . . . . . I PO Tz@l PREDATOR- T SCAVENGERSJ Crabs Carcinus Callinectes PREDATORY VERTEBRATES- OMNIVORES DEATH .4 Fish Anquilla ..13 dulus Fun Gasterosteus Birds EXPORT Mallards terns gulls sandpiper PELAGIC Mammals LARVAE 'Raccoon ADULT- . . . . . . . . MIGRATIONS A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE 4-284 Food Web of the Salt Marsh Table 4-81 Biomass of @@tin@a alterniflo-ra at end of growing season MarshLocality Biomass, 2 (g dry weight m- Georgia 1290 Virginia 1332 New Jersey 1600 Long Island 827 Rhode Island 840 Petpsewich, Nova Scotia 580 Table 4-82 Net phytoplankton production in some salt-marsh influenced areas System Net Pr2ducti on g 02m y - r Georgia estuary 648 Long Island 251 (gross) salt marsh creeks Rhode Island 180 Table 4-83 Biomass of shrimp and fish in some aquatic ecosystems System Biomass (g_dry wt. m7 2 PalaemOnetes pUgio fish Turtle grass community, Texas 1.75 0.08-0.5 Experimental estuarine pond, N.C. with sewage summer 2.9 3-11 fall 4.1 4-15 Bissel Cove, R.I. summer 0.1 0.3-8 fall 15.3 7-14 winter 2.7 5 4-599 Persistent pesticides are a major problem in salt marshes because of the constant accumulation of detritus and the number of species that consume this detritus. Odum, Woodwell, and Wurster (l 969) found that detrital particles (0-4000 p) from a heavily sprayed marsh contained up to 50 ppm DDT residues. Fiddler crabs, Uca pubnax, that ate this detritus developed in five days an awk-ward land sluggish behavior that was detrimental to survival. Possibly this behavior could occur in other deposit-feeding organisms. Dredging and filling of salt marshes is probably the major man- induced stress. Such activities destroy the marsh permanently. As an example of the magnitude of this problem, in one ten-mile stretch of Great South Bay, New York (Nassau-Suffolk County line to Captree Bridge), over 1100 acres of marsh were destroyed or degraded by dredging and filling from 1960-1966. (USFWS, 1970, vol. 3) "Significantly the six uses (of estuaries)found to cause the greatest problems are not particularly dependent on estuaries; these are: industry, mining, pest control, urbanization, waste disposal, and water supply" (USFWS, 1970, vol. 2). In other words, such uses could easily be located elsewhere. BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS General Distribution Zonation of plants in the salt marsh and adjacent flats is marked. Spartina Ialterniflora occupies the lower marsh to the tidal creeks. Spartina patens replaces alterhifl-era on high marsh and drier ground. Plants bordering the marsh are determined by the surrounding environ- ment. If the marsh extends toward a sandy area, Iva frustescens (marsh elder) occurs next to the marsh and Panitum virgatium (tall parie grass) occurs next to t4e sand. If -marsh extends toward .areas of.copious fresli-water seepage, S. @ettlnata (tall cordgrass), Scirpeas americanus (three-square bulrush) and .PfirAomites. communis (tall reed) are fou-nd in the seepages (Palmatier, 1973). Within the marsh, Distichlit spe@cata is found around tide pools and $Ali- cornia europea in salt pans. On the adjacent flat, Ruppia hiaritima is found wh@re salinities are lower and Ulva lactuca and Enteromorpha in higher, more constant salinity (Nixon__a__n_cT Tviatt, 1973). Animals are also highly zoned.' Fiddler crabs and Melam@us bidentatus are found in the high marsh on the sediment surface. Littorina littorea is found in the upper marsh both on tK6 ground and grazing on _Sp@tina blades. Burrowing in the peat are myriads of insect larvae. Along the edges of the peat banks bordering creeks, Modiolus demessus occurs often in large clumps. The fauna of the tidal creek bottoms is very depauperate in New England marshes, presumably because of the very soft, anaerobic 4-600 sediments. Nematodes are the most important infauna, both in numbers and biomass. Epifaunal amphipods occur in the detrital mat and often crabs, such as Carcinus maenas (green crab) and CallinOctes saoidu (blue crab), are -abundanT.-Fish (e.g., Fundulus sp.) and shrimp are the most conspicuous and abundant in waters adjacent to salt marshes. Species Checklist The following are checklists of the benthic invertebrates, macro- phytes, fishes and birds considered to be regular inhabitants of the salt marsh habitat. 4-601 NO Takble 4-84 Salt marsh benthic invertebrates Common Relative Species Name Habit Dominance Distribution Habitat Preference Haliplanella luciae sea anemone attached to hard common southern N. marshes, mussel beds substrates England brackish water -Hydractinia echinata hydroid plankton feeder, v. common Lab. to N.C. patches on rocks and attached shells of living hermit crabs Cerebratulus lacteus nemertean worm, very large, often to v., common Maine to N.J. sand or mud in quiet ribbon.worm 7m in length & waters, well into 2.5cm wide, burrows marsh below high tide in sand or mud, line swims at night Ampharete arctica polychaete builds tubes of mud common New England mud, estuaries, marsh shell and algae, detritus feeder Axiothella catenata polychaete burrows, deposit fairly commor, southern N. mud, marsh, estuary feeder Eng and Arcteobia anticostiensis polychaete burrows, deposit fairly common usually in mud, marsh feeder Capitell@ capitata polychaete burrows, deposit abundant cosmopolitan in gravel, mud or feeder sand near low tide mark, well into marsh Clymenella torquata polychaete builds sand, mu- v. common Bay of Fundy sand or fine mud, cous tubes to N.J. sheltered spots in coves or marsh Harmath oe extenuata polychaete voracious preda- common Maine to Del. under stones, algae tors, active cree- pers, swimmers, rock crevice livers H. imbricata polychaete voracious preda- v, common Maine to N.J. often among mussels tors, active cree@ pers, swimmers, rock crevice livers Heteromastus filiformis polychaete burrows, deposit common mud, in low 02 areas feeder Nereis sUccinea polychaete burrows in peaty common Maine to Fla. brackish water, banks, smaller than marsh N. virens Phyllodocegroenlandica polychaete burrows, deposit common New England mud feeder Callinectes sapidus blue crab 'swimming crab, but v. abundant Cape Cod to mid-littoral to well may burrow slightly Fla. below low tide, grass in sand, predatory bottoms, bays, adja- euryhaline cent to marshes Carcinus maenus green crab swimming, crawl-Ing v. abundant Maine to Del. in vegetation and carnivorous banks in brackish waters near low tide in marshes Neopanope texana sayi mud crab crawls, slow, hides v. common Canada to Fla. muddy bottoms in in vegetation, shells lower salt marshes omnivorous Pagurus longicarpus hermit crab crawls, lives in v. abundant NovA Scotia to mud flats, intertidal abandoned mollusks Fla. sand or marsh shells (gastropod) diet of diatoms, detritus and algae Panop eus herbstii @iud crab stoutly built, common Mass. to muddy bottoms, shells crawls,feeds on oysters, Brazil in higher marshes barnacles often with Sesarma & Uca, estuarine Sesarma reticulatum marsh crab burrows in salt v. common Mass. to Texas found in marshes to marshes, diet is the landward, mud mainly Spartina, oc- substrate casionally fiddler crab Uca RaLlator china-back burrows in mud and v. abundant Boston to Tex as prefers drier region fiddler crab sand of salt marsh of marsh, Salicornia omnivorous, bacteria in often adjacent detritus areas where fresh- water flooding may CO occur 4@- CD 4@- U. pugnax mud or marsh burrows about .8rn be- v. abundant Cape Cod to wetter regions of fiddler crab low high tide mark in Fla. marsh, mud and sand mud or clay among often in marsh roots of Spartina Vegetation plugs burrows during high tide. Feeds un- derwater on bacteria organic det@itus Poly dora tetrabranchia polychaete burrows, deposit abundant Mass, R.I. mud feeder Spio filicornis polychaete burrows, deposit common mud feeder Ensis directus common razor rapid vertical common Lab. to Fla. sand, mud flats ..clam burrower in sand, adjacent to lower filter feeder marsh Modiolus demissus ribbed mussel attached 'to sub- abundant, PEI to S.C. salt marsh, sand- strate by byssal dominant bi- mud flats around threads valve in roots of vegetation marsh Mya arenaria soft shell burrows in muddy abundant Arctic to intertidal mud flats' clam shallow bottoms, Cape Hatteras and shores exposed filter feeder at low tide, usually adjacent to lower marsh Tellina agilis delicate tellin deposit feeder in common PEI to Gulf intertidal mud flats sand or fine mud of Mexico adjacent to lower marsh Hydrobia sp. spire shell minute micrnpha- fairly com@on Lab. to N.J. marine to brackish gous feeder water, often in marsh Lacuna vincta chink shell microphagous feeder often abundant Lab. to N.J. lower littoral in vegetation Littorina littorea common peri- herbivore, micro- winkle phagous feeder V. abundant Canada to N.J. at all tide levels, a dominant gas@ mud, marsh and sand tropod in marshes L saxatilis rough peri- herbivore, micro- fairly common Lab. to N.J. upper limits of winkle phagous feeder tidal zone, marshes, flats Melampus bidentatus salt marsh pulmonate snail, abundant Nova Scotia to crawls on stems snail feeds on algal Texas leaves of S.'@Iter- detritus and grass n.iflora, salt hay stems in-ihe higir marshes Amphithoe rubricata amphipod creeping, hopping common Lab. to L.I. under rocks, algae may build tubes (a source of food) at bases of vegeta- mud of marsh tion Gammarus oceanicus amphipod creeps, hops, feeds common Maine to south- marine & brackish on detritus and ern N. Eng. water in vegetation algae G. tigrinus amphipod creeps, hops, feeds common Maine to south- marine & brackish. on detritus and ern N. Eng. water in vegetation algae Cyathura polita isopod scavenger, lives in abundant Greenland to low salinity, drain- vegetation which pro- Virginia age areas or tidal vides food flats usually in algae or grasses Limnorii lignorum isopod, scavenger, bores common Maine to s. #ibble into pilings or Cape Cod at low tide in marshes wood debris often under debris Orchestia platensis amphipod, creeping, hopping, common N.H. to Fla. among grasses, weeds beach hopper scavenger mid-littoral to below low tide mark 0-. uhleri amp.hipod, creeping, hopping, common New England among grasses, weeds beach hopper scavenger mid-littoral to below low tide mark Philo cfa vittata isopod scavenger abundant s. New. Eng. under stones, weeds rubbish near the high water mark Neomys americana mysid,.opossum shrimp-like common Gulf. St.Law. inhabits rock pools, shrimp to Virginia tidal streams in marshes Grangon septemspinosus sand shrimp burrows in sand, ext. abundant Baffin Bay to silt marshes and scavenger, feeds FIA. adjacent tidal streams, on worms, larvae, Jlats below lower eggs marsh Limulut polyphemus horseshoe crab burrows, feeds on abundant Maine to Fla. 'mid-littora'l to worms in soft below low tide mark, bottoms adjacent to marshes Balanus eburneus barnacle attached to hard common Maine to s. on mussels, shells, substrate, filter Cape Cod in marsh feeder B. improvisus barnacle attached to hard common Maine to N.C. on mussels, shells, substrate, filter in marsh feeder Palaemonetes grass shrimp creeps on vegeta- abundant N.H. to Fla. brackish to fresh tion in pools water, marshes P. vulgaris com. grass cree ps on vegeta- abundant N.H. to Fla. prefers higher sal- shrimp tion in pools inity than P. Raj!@ Aedes sp. larvae mosquito feeds on organisms abundant ubiquitous brackish pools near detritus extreme high tide level Chironomid larvae probably feed.s on abundant ubiquitous mud in drainage detritus ditches or mud flats where water is brackish Table 4-85 Macrophytes Common Relative Species Name Habit Dominance Di'stri buti on Habitat Preference Spartina alterniflora smooth cord- 10cm.to 2m high, cosmopolitan Maine to S.C. intertidal zone, grass high protein pro- dominant grass borders all salt duction in lower marsh marshes, covers the low'marshi grows best in'wet, high salinity.s.oil regu- larly flooded Spartina patens salt meadow 15cm to 75 cm dominant grass Maine to S.C. high marsh, grows grass, salt on fringe of best in drier parts hay marsh high marsh of the marsh, typ- grass ically forms a mat as it dies seasonally Distichlis spicata spike grass 10cm to 1.2m abundant Maine to Fla;. grows in clumps perennial locally around edges of tide pools along tidal creeks and where there is considerable salt Juncus gerardi black grass 15cm to 80cm abundant Maine to Fla. found in high marsh rush June-Sept in drier soil,, main growth grows luxuriantly toward the upland Typha latifolia cattail 1-2.5m May-July abundant Maine to Fla. indicates fresh main growth, per- water in upland ennial portions of the marsh Phragmites communis tall reed 1-4m tall per- abundant Maine to Fla. commonly grows ennial along ditches Salicornia europea glasswort, lcm to 10cm. tall, common Maine to Ga. grows well in salt chicken claws Aug.-Nov. annual, pannes or depres- turns red in fall sions in marsh 41@ C71 CD 00 .Limonium carolinianum sea lavender 15cm to 60 cm common Cape Cod to high marsh plant marsh rosemary July-Oct. Fla. Baccharis halimifolia sea myrtle 1m to 3m high common Cape Cod to upland fringe, outer Aug.-Sept. per- Fla. edge of marsh into ennial upI ,and Solid.ago.sempervirens seaside golden 20cm to 2m high, common Maine to Cape upland fringe rod July-Nov. Hatt. Scirpus maritimus bulrushes 30cm to 1m high, abundant Maine to Cape above high tide mark July-Oct Hatt. perennial -Iva frustescens marsh elder up to 3m, shrub, common Maine to Cape outer edge of marsh perennial Hatt. and high up on beach Callothrix sp. blue green filamentous 25mm common Maine to Fla. above high tide mark algae forms black-brown mat on rocks Chaetomorpha sp. green algae up to .3m long common N.J. to Maine lower intertidal area of marsh Cladophora gracilis green algae 30 cm or more in abundant Maine to Va. lower intertidal length .-Codium firaqile green algae up to lm long, abundant Cape Cod to mid to lower inter- attached N.C. tidal on rocks or shell debris Enteromorpha intestinalis green algae fronds up to 30cm abundant Maine to Ga. shallow water and 15cm wide tidal pools E. linza green algae up to 37cm, looks abundant Maine to S.C. shallow water like Ulva Lyngbya majuscul mermaid's hair threads up to Im common Maine to S.C. soft mud or marshes forms root-hold on upper in'tertidal, mud for other plants stabil izes soils often floating Monostroma oxyspermum green algae 2-10cm, in common Maine to Ches. shallow brackish A protected pools Bay water of marsh creeks up to 60cm some freshwater out- flow necessary Rhizoclonium sp. green algae filamentous 7-10cm common Maine to N.C. mud or sand flats intertidal brackish water Rivularia atra blue green filamentous 5-7cm cor nion Maine to Ga. tidal creek banks algae colonial and under dried salt marsh grass in upper intertidal Ulva lactuca sea lettuce up to 60cm long, abundant Maine to Fla. grows between tide attached or free limits and in shallow floating embayments on sand or mud Vaucheria sp. yellow-green microscopid; soil common Maine to Fla. salt flats, forms algae former in salt holds for other marshes, forms a plants@ mat on marsh flats Pennate diatoms mud algae found on surfaces abundant cosmopolitan marine or brackish Green flagellates of mud on marsh, water forms, live on Dinoflagellates microscopic mud-soil surfaces which are regularly inundated or sub-tidal Fishes The following is a list of fishes normally found in the salt marsh habitat within the continental shelf area between Sandy Hook, New Jersey and the Bay of Fundy. Because of their mobility, the assign- ment of a particular species to a habitat has, in some cases, been somewhat arbitrary, especially in assigning a particular species to either a pelagic or a demersal habit. In such eases the criterion has been the extent of the species' impact on a particular habitat, i.e., if a fish species feeds principally on pelagic animals; then it would be considered part of the pelagic community. The scienti- fic names are those published by the American Fisheries Society: A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes, 1970 edition. The species notations in the checklist are defined as follows: I Geographical distribution and relative abundance. 'A. The geographical distribution includes three categories North - Primarily-distributed north and east of a line from Cape Cod and the Nantucket Shoals through Georges Bank. South - Primarily distributed south and west to that line Thr oughout - Distributed throughout the study area. B. The relative abundance,is indicated by the terms: abundant, common, occasional and rare. These are meant to indica_te__r_o_u_gF, relative indices and are in no way quantitative measures. In each case they refer to the abundance in the area of primary distribu- tion, i.e., north, south, or throughout. II Depth distribution. The following terms are used to describe the depth or the inshore-offshore, characteristics of the species. Fresh-water Brackish water Nearshore - coastline to 18 m CoastaT-- out to 91 m Offshore - 91 m to the continental slope Basin - deep basin of the Gulf of Maine Banks - shallow, offshore bank areas, i.e., Georges Bank. Oceanic - pelagic fish of open ocean habit The species marked are considered as "key species" in that they are a primary constituent of the habitat, a commercially important species or a rare or endangered species. The life.history of these species will be treated in Chapter 12.0. 4-610 Table 4-86 Checklist of Fishes. Salt Marsh Species Geographical Depth Habit' Distribution, Distribution Abundance Skates Winter skate common nearshore to food-fish, small Raja oceIlata t1iroughout 91 m invertebrates Little skate abundant nearshore to food-small fish, Raja erinacea throughout 137 m invertebrates; sandy-pebbly bottom Smelts Rainbow smelt abundant brackish to food-small fish, Osmerus hiordax throughout nearshore crustaceans; spawns brackis6 Eels American eel common fresh to food-scavenger, Anguill rostr'ata, throughout oceanic living and dead animals; catadromous Killifishes Mummichog abundant fresh to food-omnivorous, Fundulus heteroclitus throughout nearshore plant and small animals, scavengers Striped killifish abundant south nearshore food-small animals Fundulus majalis Banded killifish common south brackish to food-small animals Fundulus diaphanus nearshore Rainwater killifish common south brackish to food-small animals Lucania parva nearshore Sheepshead minnow common south brackish to food-small animals Cyprinodon variegatus nearshore Codfishes Tomcod common brackish to food-small Microgadus tomcod throughout nearshore crustaceans 4-611 Table 4-86 (continued) Species Geographical Depth Habit Distribution, Distribution Abundance Flounders Winter flounder abundant brackish to food-small Pseudopleuronectes throughout coastal, banks bottom americanus to 128 m invertebrates Smooth founder abundant brackish to food-small Liopsetta putnami north coastal, to bottom 27 m invertebrates; soft bottom Silversides Silversides abundant brackish to food-small Menidia menidia south flearshore crustaceans, fish eggs, invertebrate larvae, veget- able matter Tidewater silverside common fresh to food-small Menidia beryllina south nearshore crustaceans fish eggs, invertebrate larvae Sti ckl ebacks Ninespined stickleback common fresh to food-copepods, Pungitus pungitus -throughout nearshore other small crustaceans, fish eggs and fry Threespined stickle- abundant fresh to food-copepods, back throughout, nears.@ore other small Gasterosteus aculeatus crustaceans, fish eggs and fry Fourspined stickleback common fresh to food-copepods, Apeltes quadracus throughout nearshore other small crustaceans, fish eggs and fry 4-612 Table 4-86 (continued) Species GeographicO Depth Habit Distribution, Distribution Abundance Blacks.potted common fresh to food-copepods, stickleback throughout nearshore other small Gasterosteus wh.eatlahdi crustaceans, fish eggs and fry Pipefishes Northern pipefish common brackish to food-copepods Syngnathus fuscus north nearshore to amphipods, 31 m fish eggs and fry Lined seahorse occasional brackish to food-copepods, Hippocampus erectus south nearshore amphipods, fish eggs and Mullets f ry White mullet common brackish to food-plankton, Mugil curema south coastal marine plants Temperate basses White perch common fresh to food-small Morone americana throughout nearshore crustaceans, fish fry Drums Weakfish common brackish to food-small Cynoscio regalis south coastal schooling fish, 4 invertebrates; Toadfi.shes. sandy bottom Toadfish common nearshore to food-fish, Opsanu tau south- coastal invertebrates; sand, mud bottom Gobies Naked goby occasional nearshore Gobiosoma bosci south 4-613 Tabl.e 4-86 (continue.d) Species Geographical Depth Habit Distribution, Distribution Abundance Blennies Striped blenny occasional nearshore Chasmodes bosquianus south 4-614 Table 4-87 Birds and mammals Common Relative Speci es Name Habi t Dominance Distribution Habitat Preference Agelaius -Phoenicus red-wing breeds, migrates, common Nova Scotia to marshes, salt & blackbird winters, feeds on Fla. fresh, nests in weed seeds, insects marsh shrubs Anas platyrhychos mallard breeds,- migrates, common Maine, Mass., salt marsh, ponds winters, feeds on R.I. southward and bays 90% vegetable, nests on ground Anas rubripes black duck breeds, migrates, abundant Nfoundland- salt ponds, marshes winters, 75% veg. Va. swamps, gathers in includes eelgrass, estuaries, mud flats mullusks Larus argentatus herring gull breeds, migrates, abundant entire Atl. lakes, bays, estu- winters, feeds on coast, breeds aries, tidal flats, carrion, fish, LI northward marsh-visitor crustaceans, urchins Rallus longirostris clapper rail feeds on marsh & abundant Cape Cod to salt marsh inhabitant fiddler crabs, Texas active both day and snails on banks at night ebbing tides Sterna hirundo common tern breeds, migrates, abundant Nfoundland to offshore to protected feeds on small -fish N.C. bays and marshes alewives, herring, feeds on low tide areas. Chrysemys picta painted turtle forages for plants common Maine to N.C. quiet brackish insects, mollusks waters MalacleffLys terrapin diamond back carnivorous, dead comImon Cape Cod to hibernates in muds terrapin fish, woms, crabs Fla. off marsh bank. eggs laid in high sand areas above 4@- Microtus pennsylvanicus meadow vole feeds on vegetation abundant Maine to N.C. grassy meadows in meadow hay and high marshes Ondatra zibethica muskrat feeds on marsh common Mainq to Ga. large colonies in vegetation, bul- coastal marshes rush and cattail Procyon lotor raccoon feeds on mussels, common North America marsh visitors crabs REFERENCES De la Cruz, A.A. 1973. The role of tidal marshes in the pro- ductivity of coastal waters. Assoc. of Southeastern Biol. Bull., 20:147-156. Hay, J. and P. Farb. 1966. The Atlantic Shore. New York: Harper and Row. 246 pp. Leonard, J.H. 1972. Atlantic Beaches. New York: Time-Life Books. Nixon, S.W. and C.A. Oviatt. 1973. Ecology of a New England salt marsh. Ecol. Monogr., 43:463-498. Odum, W.E., G.M.Woodwell and C.F. Wurster. 1969. DDT residues absorbed from organic detritus by fiddler crabs. Science, 164:576-577. Palmatier, E. A. 1973. Benefits the tidal marsh. Maritimes, 17(l): Thomas, M.L. 1973. Effects of Bunker C oil on intertidal and lagoonal biota in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 30:83-90. USFWS. 1970. National Estuary Study, Washington: Superin- tendent of Documents. 4 vol. 4-617 4.5.5 PLANKTON-BASED PELAGIC -ESTUARINE The pelagic environments of the sounds and embayments with significant fresh water dilution are considered unique enough from a biological standpoint to be treated separately. In this section the habitat is defined, its dynamics discussed and its important biological com- ponents listed. The major taxonomic groups that inhabit this environ- ment are the same as those in the offshore pelagic habitat; phyto- plankton, zooplankton, fishes, birds, and mammals. For a dis- cussion of the life history and ecology of these groups the reader is referred to Chapters 8.0 Phytoplankton, 9.0 Zooplankton, 12.0 Fishes, 13.0 Birds, and 14.0 Marine Mammals, HABITAT DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION The estuarine pelagic habitat is the water column of any semi- enclosed coastal body of water having a free connection with the sea and within which sea water is measurably diluted with fresh water derived from land drainage (Pritchard, 1967). This habitat is considered separately from the offshore pelagic habitat because the variations in temperature and salinity character- izing estuarine waters result in considerably different planktonic and nektonic populations and seasonal and nutrient cycles than are found offshore. HABITAT DYNAMICS Environmental Conditions and Microenvironments For this report, estuarine waters include those found from the 0.5 percent halocline to the headlands at the mouth of the river as well as waters in large embayments, such as Narragansett Bay and Long Island Sound, that are diluted by fresh water. Conse- quently these bodies are marked by a salinity gradient that fluctuates in position and steepness with season and fresh water. runoff. Also due to the influence of fresh water runoff, as well as the overall shallowness of estuarine waters, temperature fluctuations are wide and often a down-estuary gradient of de.- creasing temperature occurs in the spring and summer. Tempera- ture and salinity gradients, from surface to bottom waters are also found under certain conditions. The resulting mosaic of temperature and salinity conditions provides widely differing microenvironments which shift from place to place seasonally, and often may disappear altogether. For example, conditions of relatively high s@linity and low temperatures may exist in the upper estuary only durina the winter, being replaced by lowered salinity and higher temperatures during the spring and early summer. Thus pelagic populations preferring the former conditions become pushed farther toward the mouth of the estuary where such conditions still per- sist. 4-618 The semi-enclosed nature of most estuarine waters combined with a constant renewal of nutrients from both fresh and sea water causes estuarine waters to be generally highly fertile (Riley, 1967). Nutrients from both sources tend to become "trapped" in estuaries due to reduced flushing rates and, often, a-two-layered transport system where fresh water nutrients flowing seaward in surface waters are returned in the deeper, more saline layer flowing landward. Characteristically, however, nutrients are utilized as rapidTy as they become available so that the rate of cycling rather than the abundance of a nutrient controls population abundance (Riley, 1967). Nutrient.Cycle.s. and'Seasonal*Cycles The seasonal cycles in planktonic abundance and nutrient concentration appear to be linked in estuarine waters (Martin, 1965). During the winter (January-April), zooplankton are very scarce presumably because temperatures are too low for success- ful reproduction. Phytoplankton, meanwhile, reach their peak of abundance and apparently deplete the available nutrients es- pecially of phosphate, silicate, and nitrate. The cause of the flowering is either the vernal increase in light intensity (Riley, 1967) or the relaxation of zooplankton grazing as discussed later (Martin, 1965) or both (Smayda, 1973). As spring temperatures rise, the copepod pppu'lations increase, reaching high abundances during June through November (Martin, 1965). The late spring phytoplankton populations decline steeply. Evidence exists, however, that primary productivity may continue at high levels throughout the summer in contrast to offshore waters where the level is quite low (Riley, 1967). The standing prop in inshore waters is kept very low by intensive grazing pressure of the zooplankton. During the months of zooplankton abundance nutri- ent levels show a higher level than in winter months presumably due to the excretory products of the zooplankton. As water , temperatures cool during the fall, the zooplankton populations slowly decline while the phytoplankton, released from grazing pressure and respondinq to the high levels of nutrients, increases. These cycles differ in intensity from one estuary to another and between the upper and lower levels of one estuary. For example, the winter phytoplankton bloom persi- sts unusually long in Narragansett Bay while in Long Island Sound, where Acartia clausi occurs more abundantly during the winter, the bloom is very short- lived (Martin, 1965). Martin found that zooplankton populations are much,higher during the fall at the upper part of Narragansett Bay than at the lower, more seaward part. Concomitantly the phyto- plankton was more abundant at the lower than the upper part. Another cycle characteristic of estuarine waters is the seasonal alternation in abundance of congeneric species associates. The most clear-cut example is the replacement of Acartia clausi, the dominant copepod during the winter and spring, by A. tonsa during the summer and fall. Acartia clausi requires lower@_temperatures for reproduction and is more sensitive to lowered salinities than A. tonsa. Thus during the winter months when salinities tend to be higher and temperatures are cool ' A. tlausi dominates. During the spring, as salinity lowers at the-head -of the estuary A. tonsa first outcompetes A.*OaUsi. As water temperatures increase, A. tonsa slowly spreads in a seaward direction while the A. clausi population shrinks to the mouth of the estuary where temperatures remain cool enough for successful reproduction (Jeffries, 1967; Jeffries and Johnson, 1973; Martin, 1965). Similar cycles occur for other congeneric pairs pf species (Jeffries, 1967; Martin, 1965) and for many species of phytoplankton (Smayda, 1973; Riley, 1967). Such cycles insure that despite widely fluctuating environmental conditions, the habitat is utilized throughout the year (Jeffries, 1967). Besides these seasonal cycles of species that can be considered characteristica 'lly estuarine, there is a seasonal augmentation by populations originating elsewhere than in the estuarine pelagic habitat. Many copepod species, such as Calanus finma-rchicus, cannot reproduce in lowered salinity but are present in estuarine waters in very large numbers and constitute an important fish food. Such populations are the result of offshore reproduction. The meroplankton, generally larvae of benthic populations,,are abundant at irregular intervals. For example, barnacle larvae are abundant during the winter in Narragansett Bay, while decapod and gastropod larvae are found only during the summer (Martin, 1965). Their importance also varies from one estuarine body to another (Jeffries, 1967). Food Webs The outstanding characteristic in estuarine food webs is the importance of the diatom Skeletonema costatum as the basic primary producer. This species occurs abun nt y in almost all estuarine waters and is efficiently grazed by the dominant copepods, thus forming the fundamental support of the food web. The estuarine food web is essentially the same as the offshore pelagic except that species found under the several headings would be different (see Biota). Relative Productivity Refer to Table 4-75 of the Salt Pond habitat. 4-620 Natural Stress The estuarine pelagic habitat is normally a very stressful habitat; fluctuations of salinity and temperature have been discussed above. Estuarine populations have.evolved methods of-dealing with such regularlly occuring stresses. Irregular stresses include sudden 'increased turbidity and lowered salinity as a result of heavy rainfall or raised salinity due to onshore storm winds. Because estuarine organisms are mobile,.however, most populations can usually escape such.stresses. EFFECT GIF MAN-INDUCED STRESS Because of the ability of many estuarine waters to concentrate nutrients, and the proximity of these areas to high-density populations, estuaries are especially vulnerable to man-made disruptions. Of current concern is the effect of oil spills on estuarine waters. Gordon and Michalik (1971) report that within a few weeks after a large Bunker C.fuel oil spill in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, oil particles (511 - 2mm) were dispersed through- out the water column in concentrations of 10-20 b Fourteen months later, the concentration of oil (1.5 ppb.@Pav-eraged that typically found in shelf waters, indicating no oil from the spill remained in the water column. At the same time, oil-covered sedi- ments persisted throughout the spill area. One agent of oil re- moval from the water column appears to be the zooplankton. Conover (1971) reports that perhaps 20 percent of the oil was sedimented as zooplankton feces without any apparent effect on the organisms. DDT has been extensively studied as a model of how a long-lived pollutant can affect an organism. Since DDT has a very low solubility in water, only traces are usually found in the water column. Nevertheless, organisms store it in their fat deposits, in which it is very soluble, and thus can concentrate it to very high levels. As the DDT is removed from the water by organisms, more pesticide becomes dissolved from the large reservoirs in the sediment (Woodwell, 1967). A similar cycle takes place with heavy metals (Wolfe and Rice, 1972). The biogenic activity of Spartina roots and burrowing animals constantly expose new supplies of these pollutants to the water column and ultimately the food chain. Al- though most heavy metals are only of low water solubility, the holding capacity of estuarine waters is further increased by the formation of soluble organic-metal complexes (Wolfe & Rice, 1972), also making the metals more available as food. The estuarine pelagic habitat acts therefore as a route through which many pollutants pass to become concentrated elsewhere.- e.g., in benthic animals or in predatory animals. In fact, Mileikovsky (1970) reports that pelagic larvae show very little 4-621 adverse effect under polluted field conditions that would quickly kill them in the laboratory. Presumably, such larvae can escape the pollution in the field while..they cannot in closed laboratory containers. These larvae, however, may die very quickly when attempting to settle because of polluted sediments. Eutrophication, either from duck wastes as in Moriches Bay (O'Connor, 1972) or sewage (Mileikovsky, 1970), will affect the composition and abundance of the phytoplankton. In Moriches Bay., the normal diatom-dinoflagellate population was replaced by ab- normally large blooms of tiny chlorophytes. The importance of Skeletonema has already been pointed out. Such a replacement in the major primary.producer has important effects throughout the food chain, and, in Moriches Bay, results in lowered secondary production.. Mileikovsky- (1970) reports a study which showed that in a polluted. area an abnormal early bloom of small flagellates triggered barnacle spawning usually occurring in response to the normal sprinq diatom bloom, the food ot barnacle larvae. Thus the larvae were -produced at a time when their food was in insufficient quantity and they probably starved. Such events disrupt the normal succession of planktonic forms and thus cause both inadequate recruitment of benthic population.and distortion of food chains. BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS General Distribution In general there are few truly estuarine forms, but these occur very abundantly. Table 4-87 lists the dominant forms of phyto- and zooplankton of estuarine waters. Table 4-88 illustrates the effect of salinity on the phytoplankton composition of different bodies of water. Oyster Pond has very low salinity (3-12 percent) while a neighboring body, Great Pond, Falmouth, Massachusetts, has a wider @but overall higher range of S'alinity (7-32 percent in summer, 18-32 percent in winter) (Smayda, 1973). One effect of salinity on zooplankton composition has already been discussed (see seasonal cycles). For detailed case-by.-case description of the phytoplankton and zooplankton of waters south of.Cape Cod, see Smayda (1973) and Jeffries and Johnson (1973) and for zooplankton north of the Cape, see Sherman (1966 & 1968). 4-622 Table 4-87 List-of dominant estuarine phytoplanktonic and zooplanktonic species Phytoplankton Zooplankton (Riley, 1967) South North (Jeffries & Johnson, (Sherman, 1966 1973) 1968) Skeletonema costatum Acartia clausi C. finmarchicus Thalassionema nitzschivides A. ton a T. longicornis Paralia Sulcata Calanus finmarchicus C. typicus Shroderella deliculata Centropages hamatus P. minutus Thalassiosira decipiens C. typicus O. similis T. gravida Pseudocalanus minutus 0. longiremis T. nordenskioeldii Temora longicornis T. discaudatus Rhizosolenia setigera Labidocera aestiva Metridia lucens Peridinium tochoideum Tortanus discaudatus Prorocentrum scutellum Sagitta elegans P. tiestinum Oithoma brevicornis Exuviella apora O. similis Table 4-88 Important phytoplanktonic species in two southern estuarine ponds of different salinity (Smayda, 1973) Oyster Pond Great Pond (1-12 percent) (7-32 percent, 18-32 percent) Bluegreen Algae: Diatoms: Anabaina Leptocylindrus minimus Merismopedia Skeletonema costatum Microcystis Oscillatoria Microflagellates: Nephrochloris salina Diatom: Bipedinomonas pyriformis Chaetoceros Peridinium tiouetum Massartia rotundata .Photosynthetic Bacteria: Chlamydomona Chlorobium 4-623 REFERENCES Conover, R. J. 1971. Some relations between zooplankton and Bunker C oil in Chedabucto Bay following the wreck of the tanker "Arrow". J. Fish. Res. Bd. Can., 28:1327-1330. Gordon, D. C., Jr., and P. A. Michalik. 1971 * Concen tration'of Bunker C Fuel oil in the waters of Chedabucto Bay, April, 1971. J. Fish.. Res. Bd. Can., 28:1912-1914. Jeffries, H. P. 1967. Saturation of estuarine zooplankton by congeneric associates. pp. 500-508. In G. H. Lauff, ed. "Estuaries". AAS Pub. No. 83. Jeffries, H. P. and W. C. Johnson. 1973. Zooplankton. Chapter 4. In S. B. Saila, ed. Coastal and offshore environmental inven- tory: Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoals. Univ. of Rhode Island, Mar. Pub. Ser. No. 2. Martin, J. H. 1965. Phytoplankton-zooplankton relationships in Narragansett Bay. Limnol. Oceanogr., 10:185-191. Mileikovsky, S. A. 1970. The influence of pollution on pelagic larvae of bottom invertebrates in marine nearshore and estuarine waters. Mar. Biol., 6:350-356. O'Connor, J. S. 1972. The benthic macrofauna of Moriches Bay, New York. Biol. Bull.,-142:84-102. Pritchard, D. W. 1967. What is an estuary: physical viewpoint. pp. 3-5 In G. H. Lauff, ed. "Estuaries". AAAS publ. No. 83. Riley, G. A. 1967. The plankton,of estuaries. pp. 316-326 In G. H. Lauff, ed. "Estuaries". AAAS pub. No. 83. Sherman, K. 1966. Seasonal and areal distribution of zooplankton in coastal waters of the Gulf of Maine, 1964. USFWS spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. No. 530:1-11. . 1968. Seasonal and areal distribution of.zooplankton in coastal waters of the Gulf of Maine, 1965 and 1966. USFWS Spec. Sci. Rept. Fish. No. 562:1-11. Smayda, T. J. 1973. Phytoplankton. Chapter 3 In S. B. Saila, ed., Coastal and offshore environmental inve_@_tory: Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoals. Univ. of Rhode Island, Mar. Pub. Ser. No. 2. 4-624 Wolfe, D.A. and T.R. Rice. 1972. Cycling of elements in estuaries. Fis4. Bull. 70(3):959-972. Woodwell, G.M. 1967. Toxic substances and ecological cycles. Sci. Amer., 216:24-31. 4-625 Chapter 5 Exposed Shorelines Page Chapter 5..0 Exposed Shorelines 5.1 Geology of,Sand Beaches Maine to Cape Cod 5-4 5.1.1 Physiography 5-4 Bedrock Land Structure Control 5-4 Submergence and Formation of Second- Order Physiographic Shoreline Features 5-5 Late-Pleistocene Glaciation/.Post Pleistocene Sea Level Chanqes, Gulf of Maine 5-5 Sources of Sediment 5-12 5.1.2 New England Beaches 5-19 Barrier Beaches 5-19 Pocket Beaches 5-24 Standplain Beaches 5-25 Tombolos and Spits 5-25 Beach Erosion-Accretion 5-25 5.1.3 Maine Beaches 5-32 Popham Beaches - Phippsbura 5-32 Old Orchard Beach Biddeford 5-33 Saco Bay Sediments Saco 5-41 Wells-Kennebunk Area - Ogunquit 5-49 Long Sands/Short Sands Beaches York 5-55 Paqe 5.1.4 New Hampshire Beaches 5-58 Rye Gravel Beach - Rye 5-58 Hampton/Seabrook Beaches Hampton, Seabrook 5.1.5 Massachusetts Beaches 5-64 Salisbury Beach - Salisbury 5-64 Plum Island - Newburyport 5-64 Crane Beach - Ipswich 5-77 Coffin Beach - Essex 5-84 Cape Ann Beaches - Gloucester, RockLort 5-86 Boston Basin Beaches 5-88 White Cliffs to Nobscusset.Point - Plymouth 5-101 North Dennis Beaches Dennis 5-107 Brewster, Eastham, Wellfleet Beaches Dennis, Brewster, Eastham, Wellfleet 5-107 Outer Cape Cod Beaches Provincetown to Monomoy Island 5-113 5.1.6 References 5-140 5.2 Wind and Wave Climate 5-148 5.2.1 Winds 5-148 5.3 BiologicalOceanography 5-155 5.3.1 Sandy Shores Habitat 5-155 Habitat Definitibn/Description 5-155 Habitat Dynamics 5-155 Effect of Man-I nduced Stresses 5-158 5-2 Page 'Biological Components 5-158 References 5-163 5.3.2 Rocky Shores Habitat 5-164 Habitat 6efinition/Description 5-164 Habitat Dynamics 5-164 Effects of Man-Induced Stresses, 5-168 Biological Components 5-169 References 5-179 5-3 The following is a presentation of the Exposed Shorelines. This region i.s dealt with in two principal divisions: the unconsolidated shores or sandy beaches in which the focus is on the geology of sand beaches and biology of sandy beaches; and the consolidated with major treatment of the biology of rocky shores. There is no specific treatment of the geology of rocky shores. Readers inter- ested in the areal extent of these two high energy exposed shores are directed to Appendix E in which we have made a detailed inventory and map. 5.1 GEOLOGY OF SAND BEACHES - MAINE TO CAPE COD 5.1.1 PHYSIOGRAPHY BEDROCK LAND STRUCTURE CONTROL The seaboard section of New England is a physiographic sub-unit of the New England-Canadian Maritime Province where the relief does not exceed 150 m. The low-relief has been interpreted to be the result of fluvial peneplanation (Sharp, 1929; Johnson, 1938) - or ,as the result of marine erosion in post-Miocene time (Olmstead and Little, 1956). Bedrock type and structure are the first-order features that control the shoreline configuration bordering the Gulf of Maine. From Boston Harbor north to the International Boundary, estuarine and neutral tidal embayments occupy various fault basins, fault zones, and folded bedrock zones where differential erosion of resistant and non-resistant lithologies has produced linear and curvi-linear topo- graphic lows. Fluvial and glacial erosion and marine submergence have enhanced the shoreline complexity. The most conspicuous shoreline features controlled by bedrock type and structure are the Boston Basin, a fault basin occupied by soft, sedi- mentary Carboniferous rocks; Cape Ann, a resistant headland underlain by the Quincy granite batholith (Clapp, 1921); Casco Bay, a complex of structure-controlled islands. and embayments underlain by Siluro- Devonian metasediments; the Bays of Maine complex in the Mt. Desert area of Maine, a series of islands and bays controlled by Devonian igneous bodies forcefully intruded into lower Paleozoic metamorphic rocks; and the faulted Paleozoic volcanic area of "Downeast" Maine, Washington County (Doyle, 1967). The Cape Cod peninsula shoreline is primarily controlled by the dis- tribution and thickness of Pleistocene recessional and interlobate moraine and outwash sediments (Woodworth & Wiggleworth, 1934). Crystalline bedrock lies 106.6 m below sea-level or deeper (Oldal.e and Tuttle, 1964; Koteff and Cotton, 1962). The northern shore of the Inner Cape is positioned along the edge of the Sandwich Moraine, the backbone element of Cape Cod, while the forearm of the Cape is 5-4 positioned along an interlobate moraine (See Figure 5-1). Subsequent submergence during post-Pleistocene times and recent marine reworking has altered the configuration of the unconsolidated glacial deposits considerably. SUBMERGENCE AND FORMATION OF SECOND-ORDER PHYSIOGRAPHIC SHORELINE FEATURES Submergence of the New England coast for at least the last 6000 years (Kaye and Barghoon, 1964) has allowed reworking of bedrock and sur- ficial sediments by ocean waves and currents. The resultant of marine reworking of unconsolidated sediments has been the formation of second- order physiographic features such as spits, barrier islands, lagoons, tombolos, and large salt-marsh tracts. Barrier beaches and accompanying landward saltimarsh tracks have been built by spit accretion enclosing low tidal@embayments such as the barrier complex of Barnstable Harbor (Redfield, 1965, 1961)(See Figure 5-2) or by vertical accretion of the barrier island from a strand beach such as the Plum Island - Merrimack River and Parker River estuary embayments (McIntire and.Morgan, 1963) (See Figure 5-3). Spit accretion along Outer Cape Cod has resulted in formation of the Provincetown Provincelands (See Figure 5-4). Sand and gravel eroded from the Highlands on the east and transported north by littoral currents has formed four successive recurved spits.. Sand transported south along the outer Cape has formed the Nauset and Chatham barrier island beaches and Monomoy Island which has been accreting southward' toward Georges Banks by successive recurved spit growth (Goldsmith, 1972). Marine reworking of drumlin islands in Bostpn Harbor has produced a complex of spits and tombolos restricting tidal circulation within the embayment (Johnson, 1925). A detailed account of the processes which now effect the second-order physiographic features is the subject of the sections on beaches and estuaries. LATE-PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION AND POST-PLEISTOCENE SEA-LEVEL CHANGES IN THE GULF OF MAINE The present configuration of the New England coastline bordering the Gulf of Maine is due to geologic events during and subsequent to the late Wisconsin glacial advance, with the exception that bedrock-con- trolled coastal topography may well have been shaped by fluvial erosion prior to the last glaciation. Maximum advance of glacier lobes probably occurred sometime between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago, based on radiometic dating of marine shells 5-5 North Truro Plain Wellfleet Plain 10 Mliles Eastharn 16- --@j Plain S3ndoiich Moraine Buz Fin, 1.1@11so 111@ Morairile Mia, s h p e e Outwash Plain Nantucket raine '5- Mo Outwash phn Outwash plain '.e .h A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Generalized Glacial Sediment of Cape Cod 5-1 (Strahler, 1966) 5-6 .......... ........... 1300 BC 4 1 MHW -6m ....... .......... ..................................... I A r 1: A D 200 2 km '14" A MHW -2 m ...................... ......... ... ........ ........... ........ ........... H A 13 F? I A AD 1950 MHW Om SAND INTERTIDAL DUNES MARSH UPLAND HIGH MARSH [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRr:W FIGURE Origin of Sandy Neck and Barnstable Marsh p 5-2 (Meade, 1971) 5-7 Present High Tide Line Sao Rising Land Stable Present MHTJ L About 7000 BP West East Sea Rising Land Subsiding About 6000 BP Marsh Do 'osits Sea p Level Stable Land Subsiding About 3000 BP Sea Plum lslartd Love I Stable Land Subsiding Present Mean High'Tide ion] A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND EN\ARONMENTAL INVENTORY-OF THE- NORTH [email protected]. FIGURE, Vertical Aceretion and Transgression of the Plum 5-3 Island Barrier (McIntire & Morgan, 1963) 5-8 Atlant,c ocean Race 'U h.d m PROVINCELANDS Ea,,y 0lcb S"I'd Ha.,bo( c 'y ring h. Ver Ccve Light C3;,,e Lcrj, Po@nt Cod E!3y 0 1 3 I.Tes ... ....... A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] FIGURE Growth of the Provincelands 5-4 (Strahler, 1966) 5-9 caught up in the ice advance over Cape Cod (Hartshorn, Oldale, and Koteff, 1967) and a radiocarbon date from Martha's Vineyard (Kaye, 1964). If the maximum lowering of sea level changes to a level 125 m below the,present level was coincident with maximum glacial advance, then glaciation reached its limit just prior to 15,000 years ago (Milliman and Emery, 1968). All of Cape Cod and the New England coast to the north was covered by ice (Schlee, 1970) before the glacier receded. As the glacier front retreated, it was'followed by a rapid marine transgression over most of the Gulf of Maine (Emery and Garrison, 1967). The edge of the marine transgression probably kept pace with ice-front ablation for much of its retreat across the Gulf of Maine as the@ edge of the continental crust, depressed from the weight of the continental glaciers, did not rebound at rates comparable to the marine advance. There is no evidence, however, to suggest that the transgression , kept pace with ice retreat over George's Bank and Cape Cod. A pause in glacier retreat along the north shore of the inner Cape occurred long enough to build a large moraine and outwash plain with an ice- contact head (Hartshorn, et al., 1967) (See Figure 5-5). These glacial deposits show no evidence of marine reworking except by present day processes along the coastline. The Laurentide glacier mass retreated to about the present coast- line of Maine about 13,500 years ago (Borns, 1963). Ablation and submergence continued until at least 13,000 B.P. where the ice front stood well north of the present coastline of southwestern Maine (Bloom, 1960). Coarse outwash sediments poured out from the ice front to form moraines, deltas,and kame deposits. Rock flour was carried beyond upland areas to marginal marine and offshore areas where it formed thick (18 m to 30.4 m) deposits of blue-grey glacio- marine clays. Sea level stood approximately 70 m above present levels in southwestern Maine (Bloom, 1960). Borns and Hager (1965) have found evidence that the ice margin dissipated faster along the south- eastern coast of Maine than along the southwestern coast. A radio- metic date from estuarine shells from Bingham, Maine, suggests that the maximum transgression of the early post-glacial sea occurred approximately 12,930 B.P. at Bingham, Maine. Crustal rebound in Maine later than 12,000 B.P. apparently accelerated to rates exceeding eustatic rise of sea level. A marine regression ensued as the glacier front farther receded in New England. Emergence continued in southwestern Maine with brief halts of the regression until sometime between 4,000 - 7,000 B.P. where sea levels stood below present levels by at least 18 m (Farrell, 1972). Similar records by shoreline emergence are evident along the coast of southeastern Maine (Harold Borns, personal communication) and probably along the coasts of New Hampshire and Massachusetts to the soutn of Boston, although particular events of the emergence and limits of regression have not been detailed. 5-10 END MORAINE r771 MOSTLY OUTWASH Lj A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTC REGION FIGURE I Formation of Cape Cod 5-5 (Meade, 1971) 5-11 The present general configuration of the New England coastline is due to submergence which commenced prior to 5,000 B.P. Submer- gence has been caused both by a constant eustatic sea-level rise .and differential rates of crustal subsidence along the entire North Atlantic coast (See Figure 5-6). A detailed chronology of the submergence has been documented through radiometic dating of a continuous salt marsh peat record and extremely precise elevation surveys over.the past fifty years. Redfield (1967) has shown that prior to 4,000 B.P. the entire Atlantic coast of North America was subsiding at a rate of about 3.4 mm per year. About 4,000 years ago, eustatic rise of sea level decreased to about 0.8 mm per year from a previously higher rate of rise. In the eastern Massachusetts area, local subsidence continued until about 2,500 years ago, after which it slowed to about 0.3 mm per year. Sea level rise and subsidence totals a relative submergence of 1.1 mm per year. The Bay of Fundy area is being submerged at a rate of 1.4 mm per year. Recent measurements by NOAA surveyors indicate that submergence has accelerated along the New England coast in the past eight years to A rate of about 9 mm per year. Assuming the eustatic rise of sea level remains at 0.8 mm per year as determined by Redfield, an increased rate of coastline subsidence must be called upon to produce the present high rate of submergence. Increased subsidence may be due mostly to coastal warping by water loading over the adjacent shelf areas (Bloom, 1967; Newman and March, 1968). The change from emergence to submergence and the deceleration of eustatic sea-level rise and subsidence have all been recorded as initiation periods for major barrier beach and salt marsh peat growth along the margin of the Gulf of Maine (McIntire and Morgan, 1962; Redfield, 1967; Hussey, 1959; Bloom, 1960; and Farrell, 1972). Where sediment supply either from or adjacent to rivers was deficient, the submergence drowned the lower portions of the river valleys to form the relatively deep, linear estuaries typical of the south- central and southeastern coasts of Maine. SOURCES OF SEDIMENT Sediments available to supply beaches and estuaries are fluvial sedi- ments transported to the coastal zone from mechanically - and chemi- cally - eroded upland surficiAl sediments and exposed bedrock, off- shore sediments transported onshore by waves and tidal currents, and surficial and bedrock sources attacked by waves immediately adjacent to the shoreline (Meade, 1971). Sediments supplied to the coastal zone from rivers is minor compared to other portions of the continental United States. Rivers draining the upland areas of Maine, New Hampshire and Massachusetts and flowing into the Gulf of Maine contribute 1.,650,000 metric tons of suspended sediment annually (Curtis, Culbertson and Chase, 1973). Most of this 5-12 THOUSANDS OF YEARS AGO 5 4 3 2 1 0 D 10 x A x c 0" do- 6V x V w x x 0 ZNW 0 4000 YEAR DATUM OR 4 0 WA xz 0 r4p 'A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRJO@ I FIGLJRTge and Depth of Peat in Coastal Marshes 5-6 Emery & Uchupi, 1972) 5-13 40 20 0 Dom ei 20 %ev Ses 40 59m "'@@Maximum Emergence 60 ou Georges Bank .C too -C '.-@Marine Retreat to Present Coastline CL 120 - *00000@ 140 - 160 122m 200 Maximum Submergence 220 240 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Thousands of Years B.P A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC I FIGURE Cru tal Rebound Curve of the Gulf of Maine 5-7 (Schnitker, 1974) 5-14TW suspended load is deposited within the estuaries along the coast, but the major rivers deliver sediment to the innershelf of the Gulf of Maine probably during spring freshets (Hartwell, 1970; Ross, 1970; Timson, unpublished data). The Penobscot, Kennebec, Androscoggin, Saco.and Merrimack Rivers deliver about 70 percent of the runoff entering the Gulf of Maine (Bue, 1970; Curtis et al-, 1973) (See Figure 5-8). They probably deliver about 70 percent of the suspended load to their estuaries and inner margins of the Gulf'of Maine. Much of the bedload (sand-sized material) does not reach the ocean because it is retained behind man-made, dams. Some bedload does reach the ocean and contributes to adjacent beaches at the mouths of estuaries. Farrell (1970) has indicated that most of the Saco embayment beaches are composed of sand delivered by the Saco River. The Merrimack River contributes to the Plum Island barrier system (Hartwell, 1970; Anan, 1971; Hayes, Owens, Hubbard.-and Abele. 1973). The Kennebec River discharge maintains the Popham Beach barrier system. River sediment contributes little to the beaches of New England, with exception of those mentioned above. In general, however, river sedi- ments contribute substantially to the filling of estuaries. River sediments may bypass through one estuary and be transported up another (Timson, unpublished data). Sediments derived from relict glacial sediments on the floor of the Gulf of Maine may also contribute to beaches and estuaries. No evidence exists that terrigenous (inorganic) sediments of beaches and estuaries originate from offshore shelf-bottom sediments. Raymond and Stetson (1932) described a carbonate beach on Little Cranberry Island south of Mt. Desert Island composed largely of shells of deep water benthic fauna. Shell fragments are being transported from the offshore to the beach by storm waves. Valves of the hard clam Mercenaria mercenaria have been found in shell berms atop intertidal flats adjacent to lower estuarine channels in Casco Bay. Storm waves and currents have transported the shell fragments from deeper areas of the Bay into channels and up onto marginal flats. If whole, large valves of shellfish are transported onshore by storm activity, then sand-sized terrigenous sediments are probably being transported onshore in some areas. Offshore sediments, however, probably contribute very little to beach and estuarine environments; their transport has to be infrequent and intermittent. Wave-eroded coastlines are the major local supply of gravel and sand- sized sediments to New England beaches (Timson, 1969; Zeigler, Hayes and Tuttle, 1959; Schalk, 1938; Johnson, 1925; Hartshorn, et al, 1967; Hobbs, 1972; Kaye, 1967; Bloom, 1960; Cunningham and Fox, unpublished manuscript). 5-15 AN (Rol 0(1 Aic L11 0elD ec ..20 17- 0 e ? e(JOD SC, 01)@o' 7 15 13 32 5 0 k M'3 FRESH-WATER 0 per yr. INFLOW [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-nc REGION I TRP:PV I FIGURE Ave. Annual Freshwater Inflow to Coastal Waters 5-16 5-8 in New England (Meade, 1971) Mineralogical studies by Farrell (1970) and Greer (1969) indicate that local beach sediments may be transported into the lower portions of estuaries. Bedform directional studies by many ofthe Coastal Research Group also show that estuaries receive sediment from adjacent beaches by longshore currents and strong.flood tidal currents. Glacial and post-glacial sediments are the major source of coastline sediments for beaches. Sediment type, distribution,and proximity to wave attack determine the location and sediment-size range of beaches. The entire coastline of Cape Cod from the Plymouth area to Chatham is made up of glacial moraine sands, gravels, and boulders and glacial outwash sands and gravels (See Figure,5-9). The beaches of Cape Cod are sandy and extensive except where contiguous upland moraine exposures contribute gravel and boulders to the strand. From the Plymouth, Massachusetts area north to the Massachusetts-New Hampshire border the major coastal surficial sediments are drumlin ,tills and ground moraine lodgment tills (Chute, 1965a, 1965b; Johnson, .1925; Crosby, 1934; Kaye, 1967; Farquhar, 1967). Strand beaches along this portion of the shoreline are extensive but gravelly and bouldery. Sandy beaches with dune ridges occur on spits, tombolos, and barrier islands where beach deposits do not abut upland glacial deposits. Much of the coasts of New Hampshire and Maine are' rock ledge, but beaches occur where surficial sediments exist below mean high water Much of the southwestern coast of Maine is veneered by glacio-marin@ blue clays covered by sandy stratified drift. The major sandy beaches of Maine occur where outwash sediments are reworked by ocean waves. Elsewhere in Maine and New Hampshire pocket beaches occasionally break up the rocky shoreline where drift, ice-contact drift, and lodgment till lie adjacent to the shoreline, filling bedrock lows. Bedrock exposures contribute little sediment to beaches and estuaries either as single grains, composite grains, or large rock fragments - Exposed ledge surfaces'open to wave attack still retain glacial striations on smoothed surfaces (Hussey, 1970) and coarse-grained granites exhibit pitted surface where mafic and feldpathic minerals have been chemically- eroded, yielding clay-sized sediments. Locally bedrock fragments are contributed to littoral beaches by mechanical break-up along bedding .or joint surfaces. Chapman (1962) has described massive granite slab beach ridges along the southern shoreline of Baker Island southeast of Mount Desert Island. The slabs have separated from exfoliation sur- faces exposed to open ocean storm waves. 5.-17 DUCH a WNIE Fl. El El El El El llr:i@) "i-Z.!.;i H13.;L!.ND El-Sl--w- WELVUO L A XE c, PLAIN PLAI'N DEPOSiTS DEPOITS DEP05110 PEP0,11TS NAVSSt HE104TS DEPOSi7S PLA 114 DEPOSIT3 Ob M CAPE COLD Ge 4kl-LANTI C OCEAN 140 AM-A@ELE 06 Ob 0 0 KM A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] TR FIGURE I Surficial Geologic Map of Eastern Cape Cod 5_ 9 .5.1.2 NEW ENGLAND BEACHES Barrier beaches, pocket beaches, strandplain beaches..and tombolos and spits comprise most of the beaches along the coast of the Gulf of Maine. These beach "types" vary morphologically as to their constituent sub-environments froin one another, as well as exhibiting differences within type. Variations within type occur primari-ly with changes of sediment supply and sediment size. BARRIER BEACHES Barrier beaches are usually elongate island complexes comprised of beach, dune, interdune, washover, and.occasionally, wind-tidal flat environments. The beach consists of three elements: the shoreface, the foreshore, and the backshore. (See Figure 5-10). The shoreface is the seaward- sloping submarine portion of the beach first affected by-wave trans- lation motion. The shoreface is seaward of longshore or offshore bars where coarse to medium sand is constantly supplied to the beach. zone, immediately seaward of the low-tide terrace where offshore bars are absent, and absent from many gravel beaches. One or more long- shore bars exist landward of the shoreface and tens of meters sea- ward of the backshore where sediment supply is large. The tops of longshore bars may be exposed at low water, their existence and orientation revealed by wave surf. Multiple. bars apparently occur where waves break and reform to break again when wave steepness exceeds a slope of .14, depositing its sediment load and, thus, creating another bar. Multiple parallel bars up to thirty in number occur off Eastham, Cape Cod (Nilsson, 1973), whereas one or two con- stantly occur offshore from Plum Island just south of the Merrimack River inlet. Goldsmith (1972) has described offshore bars oriented at oblique angles to the shore along Monomoy Island. Sediment size decreases from interbar lows to bar crests where constant wave activity sorts and isolates finer particles. Bar lows contain poorly- sorted, coarse particles that are incapable of being transported to the crests by normal wave activity (Hayes, 1973; Goldsmith, 1972). Seaweeds and other loose organic materials are frequently trapped in bar troughs (Nilsson, 1972). Longshore or offshore bars are absent, off gravel, fine-grained, and sediment-deficient beaches. Longshore bars are the seaward element of the foreshore. Shoreward of the offshore bars is a broad flat area exposed at low water - the low-tide terrace. The terrace surface consists of small- scale oscillatory (symmetrical), asymmetrical ripples formed by waves, and ground-water rills. The low-tide terrace may exhibit low mounds or tabular ridges of sand which migrate shoreward across the terrace. The sand ridges isolate troughs between their landward margins and the beach face forming a ridge-and-runnel system. Ridges migrate shoreward with landward-facing slipfaces until they weld to the beach faces to form berms. Ridges are essentially intertidal swash bars that 5-19 ........... ...... .. .. *.iiiiiiii OCIS0 P .......... n e'n: t af:. 0 h e I f Shore ............... Zone ................ .... ..... Barrier LGgoon Dune or Beach Ridges Dunes lBack- F at ore Beach Foresh Lagoon Z:nLe shore r er ace E ... ... . . Longsh ol re Bar Delta Estucry Bay Barrier Delta Washover Delta Lcgoon r*h r".., Islon'd Inlet Longslwre <@= Drl'ft A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TW FIGURE I The Shore Zone and its Component Parts 5-20 5-10 (A.G.I., 1969) migrate by sand transport from the seaward margin of the bar over the bar crest by wave surge. Laminar flow conditions exist at the ridge crest where sediment is rapidly transported until it avalanches over the slip-face where water depths increase over the runnel. Runnels serve as lateral transport channels directing water drainage lateral to the beach during a falling tide. Channels cut between contiguous ridges direct runnel water seaward and may be analagous to rip-tide channels prevalent along the Pacific Coast. The landwardelement of the foreshore zone is the beach face, the seaward dipping face of the berm where waves swash during the rise and fall of the tide. Coarse-grained beaches exhibit steep faces while fine-grained beaches have gently-sloping beach faces. Some beaches, usually fine-grained ones, exhibit a gentle beach face which extends from the berm to the low-water level; others feature a gently-sloping terrace from the beach face to some point of the low-tide terrace. This feature, the beach face terrace, (Coastal Research Group, 1969) is an ephemeral feature formed when ridges weld onto the beach face at its base during neap tides. The backshore zone incorporates the beach environments from the crest. of the beach berm to the base of the foredune ridge and is the trans- ition zone between wave processes and wind processes. The backshore boundary is mean high water seaward and spring tide high water landward. Berms are linear sand bodies parallel to the shore. They are roughly triangular in cross-section with a gently dipping landward upper surface and a seaward sloping face, the beach face. Multiple berms may occur where wave accretion continues through different tide ranges. Generally two berms persist, a neap berm and a spring berm; but three or four distinct berms may be present. Coarser beaches exhibit numerous berms at various positions down the beach surface. A berm may form during neap tides.on the seaward slope of a ridge system, a phenomenon particular to beach areas adjacent to tidal inlets where sediment supply is abundant (Hine, 1972). Berm accretion may be initiated by migration of a ridge across the low-tide terrace to fuse with the beach face or from wave surge trans- port of sand from the lower levels of the beach back to the upper beach face. After extended periods of berm accretion, or widening of the beach, berm runnels are formed landward of the berm to provide runoff channels for water washed over the berm crest. Generally the berm surface abuts directly against a previously-eroded storm beach face or a steep scarp eroded i.nto the foredunes. The upper surface of the beach, from the berm crest to the dune line, .is also subjected to winds. Wind-transport of sand may occur onshore, offshore, -or alongshore. Small-scale wind ripples are ubiquitous along 5-21 the backshore during periods of strong winds. Continuous wind .deposition of sand along the back of the backshore may initiate the growth of beach grass in an attempt to build a new ridge of dunes along the beach. Dune fields are the remaining major element of barrier islands. Dune areas are the result of eolian processes and storm washovers from the seaward side of the barrier. The component environments of the dunes of New England barriers are, from beach to lagoon, fore-dune ridge, blowouts, dune lobes, interdune lows, dune ridge, and eolian flats. The foredune ridge is a regular or irr'egular line of dunes immediately adjacent to the backshore. Most foredune ridges and other dune field ridges represent former beach or berm ridges which have grown vert- ically and landward by accretion of wind-blown sand. Accretion is initiated when a beach ridge has increased its height by deposition of windblown sand to prevent erosion by storm waves through several Marram grass (Ammophila arenaria germination seasons. Small areas or clumps of grass induce entrapment of windblown sand heightening the grassy mounds and further enhancing more vegetation growth. Continued growth builds phytogenic dunes recognized by Goldsmith (1972) as the major dune type on Monomoy Island. Phytogenic dunes may also form by accretion of pyramidal dunes (McBride & Hayes, 1962), dunes created by accretion of sand in the lee of a vegetation clump. Most foredune ridges are irregular ridges interrupted by blowout lows or active dune lobes building out onto the backshore or frontal scarp erosion by storm waves. Blowouts, unvegetated lows breaking up the continuity of the ridge, are basically wind eroded channels through the foredune. The seaward end of the blowout may terminate in a large dune lobe accreting onto the upper berm surface where prevailing winds flow offshore. Onshore winds blow sand into the dune field. Blowouts whose seaward ends are not terminated by large dune lobes present opportunities for storm washovers to concentrate in the low areas. Storm washovers occur at low areas and terminate within the dune field or, when the dune field is narrow, they traverse the entire barrier to deposit former beach and dune sand on lagoon marsh, tidal flat, or wind flat areas. Washover channels terminate landward in broad arcuate fans - washover fans which are subsequently reworked by tidal or eolian processes. Interdune areas are unvegetated or vegetated low areas between dune ridges. Although interdune areas have been recognized on Plum Island (Larsen, 1969) and the Provincelands (Messenger, 1958; Hartshorn et al, 1967), most barrier islands within the study area have a single, irregular dune ridge or a dune field with scattered, isolated dunes. Interdune lows may be vegetated or unvegetated. Unvegetated areas act as sources of sand for the foredune ridge or backdune areas. These interdune deflation areas are coarser-grained than the dunes. Winds 5-22 winnow out the finer grades of sand leaving the coarse faction, including pebbles, deposited during storm washovers, behind. Dune flats and washover fan deposits define the landward boundary of barrier islands. These environments are now unrecognizable because of development along the backs of barriers in many locations. Dune flats are vegetated or unvegetated, low, landward-sloping sur- faces built by windblown sand from the dune areas. The flats are usually thick and overlie marsh deposits. In many areas, flats are veneered by algal mats in the intertidal or supratidal zone. The blue-green algae (such as Lyngbya majuscula) cover portions of the dune flats stabilizing the sandy surfaces from wind, storm waveor tidal current erosion. Washover fan deposits in New England have not been well described in the literature because back island development of summer homes has covered most fans. Larsen (1969) and Goldsmith (1972) have indicated that they do exist on Plum Island and Monomoy Island, respectively. The author has been told that washovers occurred at Ogunquit Beach, Maine, in February of 1972 during a damaging north- east storm, but most of the washover sediment was reworked into tidal channel and bar deposits immediately after the storm. Mention of recurved spits should be given here as they are, in part, a consequence of beach processes. 'Recurved spits are hooked ridges of sand occurring at the free, unconnected ends of a barrier island and they grow in resRonse to refracted waves around the end of the barrier, tidal currents generated in tidal inlets into which the spits intrude in most cases, and the delivery of sediment from the open face of the barrier beach by longshore drift. Growth of successive recurved spits is the means by which the barrier grows in length. Farrell (1969) has detailed the growth, sediments and processes of the recurved spit at the southern end of Plum Island. The spits are anchored to beach ridges at the end of a barrier and curve around into an inlet or, in the case of Monomoy Island, the open sea. The curvature of.the spit is induced by wave refraction from the open sea around the 6nd of the barrier, but, where spits grow into inlets, tidal currents aid to retain the curvature of the spits. Recurved spits grow in length and width by beach processes, wave swash and wave washover, and vertically by wave and wind processes (Farrell, 1969). The front face of the spit ,resembles the foreshore and backshore of the barrier beach prograding landward and alongshore by berm construction. Since recurved spits close off back-barrier tidal flats, wave washover on the spit occurs frequently, transporting sediment across the spit to induce lateral accretion over lagoonal deposits toward the back of the barrier island. Coarse spit sediments inter-finger with fine-grained muddy lagoon flat deposits behind the spit. Eolian processes rework and deposit fine sand on the top of spits, and eventually, after vegetation occurs, form a, curved dune ridge to stabilize the spit. Spit migration along the beaches rimming the Gulf of Maine have been documented by Johnson (1925), Goldsmith (1972), Nichols (1949), Farrell (1969) (1972), and Timson (1970). 5-23 POCKET BEACHES Pocket beaches are small, narrow beaches formed in a pocket, commonly crescentic in plan and concave toward the sea (AGI, 1969). They are also called bayhead barriers. This type of beach is common along the rocky shoreline of Maine where bedrock lows are filled with glacial deposits. Pocket beaches are commonly gravel beaches with minor amounts of sand and protect small plots of salt marsh behind high beach ridges or, where sediment supply is deficient and the beach has not extended across the entire reentrant, small, marsh-rimmed lagoons with inlets. Because of a relative deficiency of sediment and the coarseness of the available sediment supply, most pocket beaches are gravel pebbles, cobbles and boulders. Some beaches are sandy (Short Sands Beach, York, Maine) but where sand is present with gravel, the sand is.confined to the lower foreshore and shoreface. Pocket beaches generally lack offshore bars, low-tide terraces, and ridge and runnel systems apparently because of the lack of sediment supply, the average intense wave activity which keeps particles well up on the back ridge, and the coarseness of the constituent particles which allows a steep, stable beach face. Sandy beaches exhibit beach face terraces as the seaward-most environment.- Low swells or mounds of sediment may be evident on the lower terrace marking new deposition on the beach from offshore and mimicking the role of ridge and runnel systems described in the section on barrier beaches. Landward of the beach face terrace is the beach face exhibiting a number of poorly-developed berms - incipient berms (CRG, 1969). Sandy beaches exhibit the same environments land- ward as are common on barrier islands, but dune ridges are low and narrow and berm runnels are rare because of the poor berm development. Gravel beaches'exhibit steep beach faces which extend to the low-tide mark. Numerous gravel berms occur on the upper beach exhibiting sharp berm crests and faces. Gravel berms sit on a steep face leading up to a high gravel storm ridge, constructed during storms when the largest particles are lifted high on the beach. Storm ridges may grow to be over six meters in height above mean low sea-level. Gravel beach face slopes may be as high, or higher than 0.,20, but the slopes which characterize the backs of storm ridges commonly exceed 0.25. The steep backside of the storm ridge leads directly down to marsh, laqoon, or upland surfaces. In some instances, the weight of the beach ridge induces compaction of marsh peat behind the ridge leaving shallow basins filled with salt water. Gravel washover fans occur on the backside of storm ridges as low arcuate fans sometimes vegetated with weeds and shrubs. Washover channels incised into the storm ridge have never been viewed by this investigator. Either shallow channels are eroded.into the upper beach ridge, or gravel is simply thrown over the existing ridge along selected points where wave heights exceed those of the ridge. 5-24 STRANDPLAIN BEACHES Strandplain beaches lie immediately adjacent to the upland and are built seaward by waves and littoral currents, i.e., it is a pro- grading shoreline. Strandplain beaches may exhibit all of the environments of barrier beaches with the exception of dune flats, washover fans, and washover channels. Commonly dunes do not exist and the backshore environment lies immediately shoreward of upland cliffs or seawalls. Sediment supply is either from longshore drift or directly from the uplands eroded during storms. Strandplain beaches occur all along the New England coastline, but are extensive along the coast south of Plymouth, Massachusetts, and Cape Cod. Strandplain beaches which are not associated with barrier islands elsewhere along the New England coastline are undernourished, gently- sloping, fine-sand beaches which resemble sandy pocket beaches. These beaches would receive sediment from adjacent upland surficial deposits except that the upland is commonly developed.- seawalls and rip-rap pre- vent the new sediment from supplying the beaches. TOMBOLOS AND SPITS Tombolos and spits are, in most cases, intertidal sand or gravel bars extending from islands or points of land to the mainland or into open water, respectively. Some bars may accrete enough to be stabilized above mean high water. Both spits and tombolos are generated by refracting .waves around headlands or islands; most barrier islands originated as spits. Grain sizes decrease away from the landmass anchoring the bar because wave energy decreases along the length of the bar. Both sides of a spit or tombolo generally exhibit the foreshore and backshore features of pocket beaches depending upon the size of the beach material. The most noteworthy spits and tombolos along the coast occur in Boston Harbor and have been studied by Johnson (1925), Nichols (1949), Chute and Segerstrom (1949), Jones and Locke (1951), Farguhar (1967), and Kaye (1967). THE BEACH EROSION-ACCRETION CYCLE OF NEW ENGLAND SHORELINES Observations by a number of investigators in different locales along the New England coast indicate that beach changes follow a cyclical, evolutionary sequence of development after storm erosion. Hayes and Boothroyd (1969) have summarized these changes and proposed a classifi- cation of beach development morphology for sand beaches. Timson (1969) has published observations of storm and post-storm morphologic changes on a gravel beach in New Hampshire. Over five years of bi-weekly beach profiles by the Coastal Research Center of the University of Massachusetts on Plum Island-have indicated the following cycle of beach development during and after the passage of'northeast storms through the Gulf of Maine: 5-25 "(1) Early post-storm (up to three or four days after storm) - Profile is flat to concave and beach surface is generally smooth and uniformly medium-grained. Severest storms leave erosional dune scarps. (2) Early accretion (usually two days to six weeks after storm) - Small berms, beach cusps, and ridge- and-runnel systems are quick to form. (3) Late accreti,on, or maturity (six weeks or more after storm) - Landward-migrating ridges weld onto the backbeach to form broad, convex berms. On some beaches, welding does not occur and gigantic ridges (up to four feet in height) lie between the backbeach and the low- tide terrace." (Hayes and Boothroyd, 1969, p. 245) Abele (1973) after two months of daily observations in the summer and winter has amended and added detail to the classification of Hayes and Boothroyd: 110) Early pre-weld or post-storm profile (duration dependent upon severity of storm) - A flat concave upward beach profile with heavy-mineral concentration (garnet, hornblende, and magnetite) near the distal end of the storm' swash, which is commonly at the base of the dune scarp. According to Hayes and Boothroyd (1969), the grain size is uniformly medium sand. Small ridges (ampl. 20 cm) appear anytime from one day to one week after the storm passes and move quickly across the low-tide terrace. A beach step is rarely present. The gradient of the high-tide beach face varies between four and six degrees. (2) Late pre-weld accretional (up to six weeks after storm) - Late pre-weld beach profiles characteristically have small neap berms with beach cusps. A wide low-tide terrace is present across which ridge-and-runnel systems will migrate. The sand is generally uniformly fine on the low-tide terrace (.1.5-1.90) with-a coarse zone (often bimodal - 0.40 to +-0.80) at the beach step. Mean grain size measurements for the high-tide beach face vary between 0.50 and 1.00, with a zone of coarser sediment at the berm crest and finer sediment on the neap berm (1.10 - 1.60). Coarse aeolian ripples formed by strong offshore winds may exist on the berm and the-beach face. Zones of coarse. sediment also may occur in other areas of higher swash energy such as at the base of cusp bays. Large runoff channels between the ridge-and-runnel systems are also prevalent. As the landward-migrating ridges weld onto the back beach and form wide berms, the early post-weld stage is reached. 5-26 (3) Early post-weld (two to three days to several weeks after welding) - After the large berm has formed by ridge migration and welding of the ridges to the backbeach, a period exists during which the active high-tide beach face is landward of the berm. Small ridges may still migrate across the berm surface and weld onto the back beach. The gradient during the early post-weld period is steeper on the high-tide beach face than on the seaward side of the berm ridge. (4) Late post-weld - Late post-weld takes place after the active high-tide beach face is no longer landward of the berm, but exists on what wasJormerly the ridge beach face. High-tide swash does not overtop the berm crest during later maturity." (Abele, 1973, pp. 135 + 138). The morphology cycle is entirely dependent upon the passage of storms, not seasons, and the cycle may be interrupted by recurring storms. Since storms are more frequent during the-winter months, from September to March, erosion is more prevalent during these months and the beach profile commonly'remains in the early post-storm stage. (See Figure 5-11) The intensity of erosion and efficiency of reversion of a constructional beach to a post-storm profile are controlled by the following storm variables: (1) size and intensity of storm; (2) speed of storm move- ment; (3) tidal phase (spring or neap tide); (4) path of the storm with respect to the beach; and (5) time interval between storms (Hayes, 1969). The accretional cycle proposed by Hayes and Boothroyd appears to hold true for sand beaches with a large sediment supply. Observations by Tims.on indicate that sediment-deficient beaches follow the same general erosion-construction cycle with the exception that low mounds migrate up the beach face terrace to construct incipient berms; a well-defined ridge-and-runnel system on a low-tide terrace does not exist. Timson (1969) observed post-storm changes on Rye Beach, New Hampshire, a gravel beach. Because the beach face of gravel beaches is -relatively steep, post-storm construction is limited to berm growth at high tide. Ridges or mounds of sediment do not migrate across the gently-sloping lower beach; the lower beach does not exist on the gravel beach. Where mixed sand and gravel beaches exist, migrating mounds or ridges of sand form on the lower beach while gravel berms reform quickly on the upper portion of the profile. Continued cross-beach migration of sand and accretion will cover the lower gravel berms with sand which will form a convex-upward berm itself. Gravel beaches recuperate to a construct- ional condition more rapidly than a sand beach, sometimes reaching a mature stage in less than a week after a storm. 5-27 SUMMER ACCRETION 29 MAY- 7 SEPT 1967 STATION CBA, CRANE BEACH IPSWICH, MASS. 29 MAY Q JUN JULY 11 JULY 20 JULY 24 JULY 3 AUG 8 AUG 14 AUG 22 AUG 10 30 AUG 5 7 SEPT MLW 0 50 100 FEET JUU 400 FEET 0 100 200 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Typical Post-Storm Beach Profile Plum Island Mass. 5-28 PW I 5-11a (Hayes & Boothroyd, 1969) IEF@IFE('*T OF 271'-28 JAN 19 STORM STATION PLC PLUM ISL ND 0% EWBURY, 23 JAN 967 10 27 A 4. FR PM 26 -'PAN.-JAY.-A@ 5 0 )00 FEET 200 0 490 F71.- FIGURE 8 J7 A SOCIO-ECONOW AND EWRONMENTAL iNvENToRy OF THE NORTHATLANTIC REGION FIGURE The Constructional Beach Profile, Plum Island, Mass. 5-11b (Hayes & Boothroyd, 1969) 5 - ZI CONSTRUCTIONAL BEACH PROFILE STATION CBA, CRANE BEACH IPSWICH, MASS. ,--,,,,,DUNE RIDGE LOW-TIDE BERM RUNN.EL RIDGE TERRACE 10 MLW 5 0 50 100 FEET '0 0 100 ?_00 30 40 FEET .A SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] TR FIGURE-1 Erosional, Post-Storm Beach Profile Development, 5-30 5-11c Plum Isl and, Mass. (Hayes & Boothroyd, 1969) POST-STORM BEACH PROFILE STATION PLC, PLUM ISLAND NEWBURY, MASS. DUNE RIDGE GARNET LAYER 10 5 MLW -7 0 50 100 FEET 0 100 200 300 400 FEET [A SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE [post-Storm Recovery of Cranes Beach Profile , - 5-lid (Boothroyd, 1969) 5-311 5.1.3 MAINE BEACHES POPHAM BEACH, PHIPPSBURG SAGADAHOC COUNTY The Popham Beach area lies at the southern tip of the Phippsburg Peninsula and consists of four beaches from east to west: Popham Beach, Hunnewell Beach, Morse Beach.,and Small Point Beach. This littoral system lies on the western shore of the mouth of the Kennebec River and receives most of its sediment from the river system. Popham Beach extends south from Fort Baldwin headland 1.2 km where it continues as a tombolo to Wood Island. The beach is coarse- grained with a steep beach face that plunges directly to the Kennebec River channel. Low, vegetated dunes extend 50 m back from the beach to the upland. Erosion is severe along this beach during storms coincident with high tides and high river runoff (Timson, 1969). Hunnewell Beach, Morse Beach,and Small Point Beach extend south- westerly, in respective order, from the south end of Popham Beach. Hunnewell Beach i's arcuate in plan, facing the southeast, and extends .4 to .6 km seaward from the beach face at low tide. Several large ridges commonly occupy the wide loW-tide terrace, receiving sediment constantly from the Kennebec bedload. Hunnewell Beach is a barrier beach which has combined with Popham Beach in a cuspate foreland to completely isolate Silver Lake, a former lagoon. Erosion of a low, wide dune ridge field is common during northeast storms over its 2 km length. The southern end of the beach adjoins Morse Beach, a barrier beach with an extensive dune field. Morse Beach extends across and has cut off Atkins Bay, a portion of the tidal Kennebec, from the ocean. Morse Beach extends one km from the Popham State Beach area at the end of Hunnewell Beach to the inlet of the Morse River, a neutral tidal river. Both Hunne- well and Morse Beaches exhibit the typical erosion-accretion cycle discussed by Hayes and Boothroyd (1969), but the southern end of Morse Beach is influenced by the channel of the Morse River which shifts north and south across the lower beach environments. Offshore bars occur 1.2 km seaward of Hunnewell Beach, but are absent in front of Morse Beach. Small Point Beach extends 2.2 km from the Morse River inlet to the Sprague River inlet just northeast of the Cape Small inlet. The beach is a barrier spit composed of two relict, dune-vegetated beach ridges and an active ridge and beach, protecting an extensive salt- marsh embayment. The beach is composed of medium - to fine-grained quartzose sand and exhibits diminutive berms in the greatest of. accretional stages with an absence of a low-tide terrace and ridges. 5-32 The net transport direction, determined by direction of spit growth and observations of grain-size distribution is from northeast to southwest. Popham Beach is composed of coarse-grained.feldspath.ic sand while Small. Point Beach - fine-grained quartzose sand. Drift directions are from southwest to northeast during the summer months when southwest winds prevail. This drift direction is evident by the shift of the Morse River channel to the north across the face of Morse Beach. Severe erosion during northeast storms is limited to Popham and Hunnewell Beaches with minor erosion occurring on the southern beaches. Many residents have'remarked that wind erosion of the extensive dune fields backing Morse Beach has been increasingly severe over the past ten or fifteen years, probably due to increased pedestrian traffic and use across the dunes. The sediment source for the Popham Beaches is the Kennebec River drainage system with minor sediment volume contributed by local surficial deposits. OLD ORCHARD BEACH, BIDDEFORD, SACO, SCARBOROUGH YORK COUNTY Old Orchard Beach is an 11 km beach arc opening directly to the east into Saco Bay. The Saco River enters the Bay at the beach's southern end while the Scarborough River and its tributaries empty into the reentrant at the northern end. The bay system is isolated from the coast to the north and south by rock headlands (See Figure 5-12) Farrell (1970, 1972) has studied the coastal environments of Saco Bay extensively; much of what is reported here is a cond- ensation of his work. The beach system can be divided into three segments. The southern beach segment begins as a harbor spit in the Saco estuary (now trans- formed to an open beach ridge as the Saco River entrance is stabilized by jetties) and runs north to culminate in four barrier spits (three relict, one active) extending across the Goosefare Brook embayment. The Goosefare maintains a small tidal inlet across the beach system approximately 1/3 the distance from the Saco River to the Scarboro River. The middle ridge segment extends as a barrier beach from the Goosefare Brook inlet, past two rocky points and in front of the Little River marsh basin. The northern portion of this segment is backed by a siz- able dune field with three to five foot high dunes now covered by trees. A single beach ridge extends farther north from the second portion (former site of the Little River inlet, now closed off) to end in a series of spit-accretion ridges bending into the Scarboro harbor. The Scarboro inlet is also stabilized by jetties. 5-33 NONES" RIVER SACO BAY 100 200 MILES By 15X 10, IBBY RBOR RIVER RIVE 0011 LITTLE. PROUTS A) @IvIER; 002 NECK OLD ORCHARD BEACH 003 GOOKFARE SACO ',BROOK-7. lop RIVER 14 004 u SACO BAY, MAINE AFTER USCGS, CHART 231 jp -LOW TIDE MARGIN --- SALT MARSH LIMIT & I HYDROGRAPHIC STATIONS BIDDEFORD POOL 0 SAMPLE LOCATIONS q 22 m I. b u 'Po 131@DDEFRD A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION J'TR FIGURE I Physiography of Saco Bay Area Shoreline I Q7AW I S - 12 (Farrell- 1972) The barrier system has been modified extensively by man. The entire beach has been developed with amusements, concessions, homes,and motels. Two rock promontories have been removed near the center of the barrier arc and, as mentioned before, the two large inlets have been stabilized. No seawalls or groins have been built at present, but serious damage in the recent past at the southern end of the beach (Camp Ellis) may herald protective structures in the near future. Farrell (1972) studied beach changes at five localities along Old Orchard Beach. Two localities on the northern segment of the beach are characterized by white, medium-size quartz grains and long, low beach profiles. Berm and ridge features change seasonally, but these features are diminutive in size., The northern-most segment of the beach is protected by a swash bar complex offshore at the mouth of the Scarboro River. This swash bar complex migrated shore- ward from 1967 to 1971 but has not welded to the beach face (Figs. 5-1-3-16) The rest of the beach, from the Old Orchard Beach Amusement Park south, is composed of coarse, yellow, feldspathic sand in contrast to the finer quartz sand on the northern segment. Beach features are sharper and steeper along the beach and respond quickly to seasonal and storm conditions. Berms are common along this portion of the beach but ridge and runnel systems are absent. The beach segment adjacent to the Goosefare Brook inlet is actively affected by the inlet dynamics. The inlet channel may migrate back and forth across the beach over a 200 m lateral distance. A barrier spit grows northward during the summer months forcing the channel northward. A cuspate ebb-tidal delta occupies the low-tide terrace of the beach seaward of this inlet with attendant swash bars that migrate shoreward periodically. Farrell has noted no net loss to the beach system over four years time; the beach responds to climate changes through berm growth cycles where- by the beach advances up to 20 m and retreats during storms. Grain-size decreases northward from a median diameter of 0.75 mm at Camp Ellis to about 0.20 mm at Pine Point, Scarboro. The diameter of the beach sand decreases abruptly about 2/3 of the distance from the. Saco to the Scarboro River. Farrell (1969) explains the sediment distribution patterns along the beach as being the result of southeast and northeast wave interaction on the littoral zone (See Figure 5-17),. Net longshore drift is northward, induced by short-period, low waves ,from the southeast and long-period, refracted northeast waves whi:c'h transport littoral sand northward along the northern-most third of the: beach. Long-period swells generated by northeast storms impinge on ..:,Old Orchard essentially parallel to the beach along the southern two-' thirds portion of the reentrant. The southeast waves and refracted northeast waves are of low-energy transport capability, but capable, of transporting. the medium-grained quartz sand in a northerly direction 5-35 231 j.J 17 .11y 24 I @ ly 31 tU G. 14 ALIG. 2 3 S -: P T. 30 19-4-7 27' 2:5 20 I t V\ 10 Z. Z 23 0 50 100 23 ';ULY 10 -Y 2-11 A@J* 7 O@T. 13 toy. 1.4, Lo' JAX 2a 13 VAY 17 SEPT 10 IC, !A SOCIO- ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORYOF THE NORTH ATLANM" REGION' FIGURE 5-13 Old Orchard Beach Profiles, (Farrell., 1972) 5-36 @TW INTERTI DAL TOPOGRAPHY SCARBORO ESTUARY -@o SWASH BAR . .... A41 D* 04 -3.0 A3 -40 At .1110 roNToUR INTERVAL LO FT MAPPED JUNE 25@ 1967 SAMPLE GRID POINTS 0 W no 200 300 400 wo frt DATUM IS MEAN SEA LEVEL 6.k 6.1 6.1. 6@-A [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL. INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC R "Mi FIGURE Swash Bar Topography. Scarboro Ebb Tidal.Delta 5-14 (Farrell, 1972a) 5-37 2 3 .;@-Y 17 .-y 2@ L ........... G. 26 - ----------- - 4 27-- 20 10 FEET 2 lij LY 21 . ............ - ------------ OCT (3 NOV 2 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - VA-1 2 - - - - - - -- - - - - -- ------------ -@Ifj ......... A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION JR FIGURE Old Orchard Beach Profiles 5-@38 @5.-15 (Farrel 1 , 1 972b) 23 .t@U 24 ,@@Ly 3! V G. 2 SEPT ZO 27 %""%Z 29 FEE T 0 'A A G. 7 C^1T. 13 2 SER M A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE Old Orchard Beach Profiles 5-16 (Fa rrell, 1972b) 5m-39 FREQUENCY POCENT 0 7, C) CD CL K. m Ln cr (D b-7 S -n c+ =r (D rD Ln 0- N 7 (D (In CD c+ m along the entire beach. The equally-distributed high-energy kinetics of northeast waves on the southern and central portions of the beach restrict the coarser particle sizes to these portions of the system. The increase of grain-size to the south within the coarse zone is maintained by short-period northeast waves generated by local winds and fetch across Saco Bay itself. Maximum storm-wave energy is centered at Camp Ellis where only the coarsest sand gra-ins are capable of remaining on the beach. Camp Ellis, historically, has suffered storm damage as a result of the short-period wave genera- tion across the Bay coupling with long-period northeast swells generated in the ocean and propagating into the Bay (See Figure 5-18). Sediment supply to the Old Orchard Beach system is now 'limited to the wave-reworked, relict ebb-tidal delta of the Saco River inlet. Dam construction along the Saco River and jetty stabilization of the Inlet has prevented sand from being, delivered to the delta system over the past 30 to 40 years. Slow, but continuous, loss to the system occurs with sand transport into the Saco and Scarboro estuaries. SACO BAY SEDIMENTS - SACO Farrell (1972) has also studi-ed the sediments of Saco Bay. The Bay is 8.5 km long and 4 km deep from the tips of the headlands to Old Orchard Beach. Two islands, Bluff Island and Stratton Island, lie at the entrance and in the middle of the,bay, whil.e several small islands lie offshore from the Saco-River mouth. Depths within the Bay do not exceed 36 m. The entire bay floor is covered by sand except where bedrock ledge extends 6 to 8 m above the sandy floor. The bay bottom drops steeply away from the barrier beaches for the first kilometer, and this slope represents the beach shoreface. The floor slopes less steeply for the next 2.5 km and steepens again to continue seaward well beyond the bay mouth; the middle, gentler slope is a zone of wave planation. The bay sediments may be sub-divided into three groups. One group consists of fine, very light-yellow, moderately sorted quartz sand found in depths of less than 22.m. The second group is fine, light yellow, slightly muddy, poorly-sorted quartz sand found below depths of 22 m. A third group, coarse, well-to-poorly sorted, rock-fragment- rich sediment, is associated with :the subaqueous margins of islands, ledges, and the Scarboro ebb-tidal delta (See Figures 5-19 & 5-20). The fine sand veneering most of,the bay',s floor is derived from the winnowing of finer sand-sizes from the beach by waves. The fine sand remains in suspension after 9torms'pass to-be transported offshore where it is continually reworked by wave currents on the bottom to produce a sorted sediment cover. -Bel,ow 22 m storm waves are' 5-41 F r D! AG PZ SAI"O'O SAY WAVE RE. IRACTION I-L'.1 PERIOD n P-.,Ij FRON."! S22,5"-T:' > TIDE 0.0 FT y T I Z C5 00 c 0 V"'. M m n 13) z < < (D po (D -1 0 V C+ F\) Cr 0 u cm 5 .0 E3 Ln V) (D 0 (D 81 Z6 G % to to to C5 < (D tn V\ /A Ci oy L!J 13 C-) C) < U. I 8 9 K) 11 12 13 14 17 i S I D 2 1 2 2 2 2 -1 "C V 2 6 21) 3 1 Ld YA L-J 0 wv jy A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Wave Refraction Diagrams. 10 Second Period Waves 5-18 b (Farrell 1972b) 5-43 @q loll tZ(3 14:- 17 1 2021 @2@@ UJI U) tu LL. z tit 0 Ld X Ell 0 U.) 5 7 S 10 11 111 13 77 !3 T7 13 1@) 2@:) 21 @21 "G 27 zi "Y' uj mp .-A IA LQ 'N -el ? A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH AnANTIC REGION FIGURE I Wave Refraction Diagrams. 7.5 Second Period Waves 5-44 L 5-18c (Farrell 1972b) PROUT'S 0 0 20 20 40 001. 46 60-1 60 o,__ MUFF IS L 2 0 002 . ................ 40- 0 0 0 20 -20 003 40 40 Go- 60 .0 0 Ld 20 -20 40 0014 601 80 60 0 -,o 20 .20 005 40 .40 WOOD IS C6 GO 60 F"Y 1.0 0 10 so .80 N;LEG WvSH%w4 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI07NJ@ TR FIGURE Sato Bay Substrate Surface Profiles 15-19 (Farrell 1972b) 5-45 -AN SIACO ON(, 6_0170.A 11%1141- K J X G F E D C S A 2.7 2.2 1.7 1 2 4 3.1 L9 1,2 2.0 Ck 5 3-3 1." '2. 2.4 11.@3 12 22-05 7 8 32 -13 5.4 3A 3... 10 2.5 33 3.3 i-z' 41 3.4 '2. 7 ? .5 2B'f'/' 12 2.8. 3.3 3.3 3. 3 3 3.4 3.,'r 3.5 3.5 .3.5 2.6 13 14 3.5 3.5 15 3.6 3.G 3.3 qQ 3.4 3.5 3.5 17 18 1.0 2.6 32 20 2. 2> @1.' \I 2. @21 @3.0 21 22 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Textural Characteristics of Saco Bay Surface 5-20a Sediments-Graphic Mean (Farrell, 1972b) 5-46 EO TT SE-Er"I" 'T up H G F E 0 C 6 A 2.1 1.3 2-4 0 it ..et 3.3 31 3-5 3.6 1.6 0 (26) .7 /3,G 3.6 1A @5 1.1 0 4 0 C! vi 3.4 3.5 3.G 3.5 3.3 2@5 17 1.2 3.4) 3.1) ?.4 3@ 14. a5 :56 32 2A 22 (3.7) 3.5 3.4 3-G 5 .36 3.6 3 G 2.2 2.9 [email protected] 3.-, 1.4 3.6 3.6 37 .0 (0 2) 3LG -39, 17 19 2. 0 rn 1. 2 3 C 2 _3 3. 6 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Tex tural.Characteristics of Saco Bay S urface 5-20b Sediments-Mode Distribution (Farrell, 1972b) 5-47 A' P -VIA SA 0 L_L";'.1j_NTS i%.10. GRAPHIC S T D. D TION K j I,.H G F E D c El A 78 .48 S I .5S .39 .59 .63 15 2 A 3 .68 Z7 .4 8y A 0 .49 41 .60 77 .64 .50 .51 ..41 .37 .39 .46 .47 47. 67 54 @39 .38 .3r't Z 9 Al 7 3 .72 it' 20 .42 4 3 41 .3@ .3 8 .41 .41 40 .41 .55 1.03 13 3 5 6 22 41 .42 49 .53 .73 49 74 127 17 .41 4, R 21 19 "'A .35 .29.93 .47 .5 21 v v A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Textural Characteristics of Saco Bay Surface 5-20c Sediments-Sorting (Farrell, 1972b) incapable of generating bottom currents high enough to leave a single modal value of 3.0-3.5 phi characteristic of the inner bay floor. Below 22 m a substantial amount of silt exists with the fine sand. Farrell (1972) calculated that bottom, wave-induced currents must be incapable of reaching values of H-27 cm /sec frequently below the 22 m depth. Effective wave base within the bay is 22 m, a depth at which, according to Farrell, is compatibl.e with northeast wave swells of .75 to 1.0 m heights and 6.5 to 8.5 second wave periods observed as being capable of transmitting maximum wave energy into Saco Bay. WELLS-KENNEBUNK AREA, OGUNQUIT, WELLS, KENNEBUNK - YORK COUNTY The coastline of the Wells area contains over 14 km of beaches rimming a shallow reentrant between two,resistant headlands. Six major beaches make up this southeast-facing reentrant shoreline. From north to south, they are: Kennebunk Beach, Parson's Beach, Laudholm's Beach, Drakes Island Beach, Wells Beach,-and Ogunquit Beach. Kennebunk Beach is an intensely-developed, narrow, 1.5 km long barrier island protecting portions of the Kennebunk River estuary from the Atlantic Ocean. The beach faces directly south and can be divided into two segments, a westerly segment characterized by short beach arcs and intervening rocky points, and an eastern segment, an unbroken sandy barrier spit terminating at the mouth of the Kennebunk River. Beach is composed of medium, well-sorted quartz sand on the foreshore and pebble-to-cobble-sized gravel on the backshore. The back- shore is narrow and gravel berms abut directly against storm walls pro- tecting a road. The north portion of the beach is less gravelly than the southern portion which suffers severe erosion and seawall damage during northeast storms. Wave-refraction around the south portion of the headland concentrates storm wave energy on this south-facing shore- line. The beach makes up one-half of the reentrant northern shoreline between the Mousam River inlet and the Kennebunk River inlet. This segment is typical of an irregular shoreline of rocky points, gravelly beaches-, and shallow offshore ledges and boulder fields. Since both of the bordering*rivers are dammed, sediment supply is limited to wave erosion of thin .glac-ial deposits veneer-ing onshore and offshore ledges .,.,and the front face of A drumlin,.Great Hil,l,- lying at the mouth of the Mousam River. ..'Parson's Beach,extends 2.25,km. south from the Mousam River to a small @but dynamic in-let@of the Little River. The beach is halved by a prom- inent ledge that extends' 0.3-km offshore below mean low water. Both beaches are barrier spits'extendi,ng in front of the estuarine salt marshes at their free ends. The northern beach.is backed by low, well- vegetated dune ridges about 30 to 40 m wide and originates at its southern end at the prominentledges at the midpoint of the entire beach. 5-49 The southern end of this beach portion is backed by a wide dune field now covered by low pines. The relict, recurved beach ridges at the southern end of this dune field reveal the former inlet of the Mousam River. The inlet now exists between the northern spit of Parson's Beach and Great Hill, a consequence of human desire and engineering knowhow. The northern beach portion is coarse to medium-grained quartz and feldspar sand and decreases in size southward to the rock promontory. Littoral drift is from north to south along the beach, and although an abundant supply of sand and gravel is available to nourish the beach from the Great Hill drumlin, most of the sediment eroded from this source is transported into the Mousam River and stored in a flood tidal delta. In consequence the beach'is poorly nourished with poorly- developed berms and ridges during accretional stages and suffers heavy erosion Along the foredune during storms. The southerly portion of Parson's Beach, locally known as Cresent Surf, is characterized by coarse feldspar sand, an arcuate shape, a wide, vegetated, linear dune ridge, and a much older relict beach ridge 30 m behind the foredune. The northern portion of the beach is tiedto the rock prominence, while the southern tip is slightly curved into the Little River inlet. An active spit grows south in response to wave refraction around the Little River ebb tidal delta, forcing the estuary channel to loop southward. Storm erosion usually returns the main channel to a straight course through the beach, cutting back the spit. The southern end of the beach exhibits a mature beach profile continuously because of-the influence of the inlet. High, wide, steep berms and well-developed ridge-and-runnel systems occur adjacent to the inlet where local sediment is supplied to the ebb- tidal delta. Drift direction is from north to south through all seasons as the ebb-tidal delta and a shallow, offshore ledge system induce refraction of southeast waves to reverse their direction at the beach. The inlet is a striking example of a classical offset inlet described by Hayes, Goldsmith,and Hobbs (1970) because of the strong local reversal of drift direction on the updrift side of the inlet. The northern portion of Cresent Surf exhibits a steep beach face and well-developed berm throughout most of the year, but a ridge-and-runnel system has never been observed by this investigator. Drake's Island Beach extends south from the Little River inlet 2.0 km to the north jetty bounding the Webhannet River inlet. The southern portion of the beach fronts.the upland, Drake's Island, where summer home development has prompted the construction of seawalls along the entire beach. The southern tip is backed by a low dune field, the results of lateral and vertical accretion of the beach by entrapment of sand against the jetty (See Figure 5-21). The northern portion of the beach is undeveloped and supports a low foredune ridge and an irregular but vegetated dunefield about 80 m wide. The back dune mar- gin supports large pine trees. The beach terminates at the Little 5-50 N, . ... ....... . . ............. DRAKE'S Al .. ........ A JUNE 1965 MARCH /1963 0 .......... .......... .......... ............ ........ ................. ........................... 0 200 FT JUNt 1957 N A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE I Seaward Migration of Mean High Water Contour - 5-21 51 - 5 1 River inlet as a recurved spit topped by the highest dunes of the island - 2.5 m. The entire beach is composed of medium to fine-grained quartz-rich sand on the foreshore and cobbles on the backshore abutting the storm walls and foredune scarp to the north. The volume of gravel on the upper beach has increased dramatically over the past five year span and presents an aggravation to beach homes as they are pelted by wave- borne projectiles during northeast storms (Timson, 1971). Gravel berms occupy the thin backshore area while the forebeach, being relatively fine-grained is a monotonous concave-upward profile extending seaward about 40 m at low tide. A mature accretion profile has never been observed. The northern portion of the beach is coarser-grained than the southern portion, receiving sand from the Little River inlet. A wide berm and occasionally a ridge-and-runnel system develops here because of the proximity of the inlet ebb-tidal-delta. The southern beach portion has been modified over the past 17 years because of jetty construction on the Webhannet River inlet. The beach has prograded over 80 m after jetty construction. Irregular, low dunes now cover the backbeach area. A steep beach face and wide low-tide terrace are typical beach features through all seasons. Scattered boulders and a boulder swash bar occupy the low-tide terrace; they are remnants, apparently, of an eroded drumlin once a part of Drake's Island. Drift directions are from north to south along the southern 200 m of the beach. This direction prevails both during the summer when south- east-approaching waves are refracted around the jetty tips and during ,the winter when northeast-approaching waves are dominant. The remainder of the beach appears to receive equal wave energy for most of the year, but a low magnitude of northerly drift has been observed (Timson, unpublished data). Wells Beach occupies the center of the reentrant running a distance of about 5 km from Webhannet Inlet to Moody Point, a till-mantled bedrock headland. The entire beach is a barrier island, but development has covered or destroyed the backbeach environments. Wells Beach is divided into three beach portions by rock promontories. The southernmost beach is an arcuate beach approximately .4 km long. The beach is a mixture of boulders, cobbles, and pebbles backed by a seawall fortified by granite block riprap. The second,beach arc is also approximately .4 km in length, is backed by a seawall, and con- sists of pebbles, coarse-, and medium-sand. Coarse-grained, high, multiple berms are fronted by a coarse sand low-tide-terrace or beach face terrace. Sand may cover-the seaward gravel berms in July or August, but gravel is persistently present year round. The third beach portion, the longest beach, runs 2.5 km from a rocky point north to the Webhannet River inlet jetties. The median diameter of constituent beach material 5-52 decreases northward from coarse sand to medium-fine quartz sand adjacent to the jetty. The beach exhibits a variety of morphol- ogical stages throughout the year; the southern portion builds up very rapidly during the spring and summer months through berm and ridge-and-runnel sand bodies. This mature stage changes in a northerly direction reflecting a change in grain-size and sediment supply. The northern beach portions are wide and low and exhibit low berms. Few changes along this beach portion have been observed over the past five years other than a continual but gradual pro- gradation. Net sediment drift is to the north along Wells Beach. This has been determined by pebble diameter measurements (Timson and Belknap, unpublished data) and continual seaward growth of the beach on the updrift side of the inlet jetties (Timson, 1970). As of June, 1965, a minimum average yearly transport of 5,625 cubic yards of sand has been delivered to the northern end of Wells Beach. This is a minimum drift rate as sand is also transported into the harbor and around the jetties to Drake's Island. A drift rate three times the above figure would be an approximate estimate. Drift in a southern direction probably occurs during northeast storms. Ogunquit Beach extends south from Moody Point 4.25 km to the Ogunquit River inlet and the Cape Neddick headland. The beach, a barrier island, can be broken into two equal portions. The northern portion, Moody Beach, extends for 2.0 km south and is extensively developed and backed by a high seawall. Moody Beach is composed of coarse- grained feldspathic sand and exhibits the classical profile develop- ment of post-storm accretion described by Hayes and Boothroyd (1969). The author has also observed beach protuberances along Moody Beach during the summer months. Protuberances are shoreline lobate features flanked updrift by erosional zones and downdrift by accretional zones related to non-uniform zones of wave energy caused by wave refraction over irregular offshore or onshore bathymetry (Goldsmith and Colonell, 1970). Protuberances have been recognized on Plum Island and, most notably, along Monomoy Island (Goldsmith, 1972.). The author observed protuberance migration from south to north during the summer of 1971. Although protuberances have been noted al-ong the North Carolina shore as controlling zones of extensive barrier erosion (Dolan, 1970, 1971), the phenomenon along Moody Beach are non-existent during the storm season, of small magnitude, and unrelated to severe beach erosion. Net drift along Moody Beach is from north to south during northeast storms, but summer southeast waves induce northerly drift to period- ically renew the sediment transported south to Ogunquit Beach. Sedi- ment supply*to the beach is from Moody Point, a glacial till-mantled drumlin; but supply rates are probably low, and the beach relies on opposing drift directions to maintain net supply. 5-53 Ogunquit Beach extends 2.25 km from Moody Beach to Ogunquit spit. The barrier island, here, has remained undeveloped for most of its length except for motels.and a parking lot at the spit-end of the island. The sand over most of the beach is medium-to-fine-grained quartz and feldspar. Sediment becomes finer on the backshore to the south. The beach exhibits a typical post-storm morphological development, but is strongly influenced by the Ogunquit River inlet at its southern extremity. Here, a broad, low-tide terrace is constantly occupied by multiple ridges which eventually migrate up-beach or into the inlet. Littoral drift occurs in a northerly direction during the summer over the northern half of the beach, but this direction reverses itself and becomes a strong southerly drift toward the inlet. Refraction of southeast waves around the Cape Neddick headland induces southerly drift, a drift strong enough to stabilize the inlet position-between the beach spit_and the north margin of the headland. A southerly drift occurs during northeast storms. Ogunquit Beach receives minor amounts of sediment from Moody Point to the north, the Cape Neddick headland immediately.to the south, and a shallow, subaqueous sand sheet abutting the Cape Neddick headland. Northeast storms transport sediment from Ogunquit Beach around the northern half of the headland. Swells approaching from the southeast during the spring and summer months return a portion of the sand to the beach. A dune field of variable width and height backs Ogunquit Beach. Less than 40 percent of the dune surface is vegetated with Marram grass due mainly to heavy pedestrian traffic in the dune area during summer. Ogunquit Beach is a magnetic tourist attraction. Numerous blowouts and washover channels are present within the dune field, undoubtedly induced by the lack of stabilizing vegetation. Dunes are variable in height, reaching heights of about seven m. The highest dunes are located at the narrowest portion of the barrier where the Ogunquit River channel has eroded into the backdune area. These dunes are. longitudinal, seif dunes whose crest axes are oriented parallel to northwest winds, the prevailing winter winds. Dune sand is eroded from the landward facing ends of the dunes and deposited along the crest of the dune flanks, and where wide blowouts occur, on large dune lobes prograding onto the backshore. Washovers are concentrated here at the narrowest dune.section, about 1.25 km north of Ogunquit River inlet, and at an area by the Ogunquit spit where a tidal channel has migrated seaward and eroded the dunes. A dune reclamation project scheduled for 1974 promises to change the character of the dune field permanently. 5-54 LONG SANDS AND SHORT SANDS BEACHES, YORK - YORK COUNTY Short Sands and Long Sands Beaches lie immediately north and south, respectively, of the Cape Neddick promontory on the southwest coast of Maine. Short Sands Beach occupies a 400 m wide reentrant which opens directly to the northeast. The beach itself is composed of gravel and fine quartz sand (0.35 mm median diameter, sorting ranging from 1.1 to .47). The gravel is concentrated along the forebeach over the southern one-third of the beach. The beach is wider at the northern margin (25 m) and narrows to about 7 m at the southern end. The backbeach area is low and grassy and is utilized as a town park. A study by the Army Corps of Engineers (1970) indicates that beach drift is to the north during periods of southeast wave activity while drift is toward the center of the beach from both ends during east- northeasterly waves (Figure 5-22). Historical profile analysis indicates that the beach has retreated 16 m while an offshore sand sheet has prograded seaward 350 m. The beach is consistently low with very gentle slopes which extend seaward for over 500 m. Berms and ridge systems are lacking pointing to a lack of sediment supply. Sediment supply apparently has been limited to glacial deposits along the margins of the reentrant. These deposits have slowly been removed a's a source by the construction of wave protection structures in front of dwellings. Apparently only gravel is now added to the beach along its southern portion where a zone of beach gravel is slowly extending.itself to the north. Long Sands Beach extends for about 2,150 m south from Cape Neddick to another rocky headland, Prebble's Point. The beach is divided approximately in two halves by a small protruding rocky point. The beach is a strandplain beach backed by U.S. Highway 1A which is protected along the northern beach portion by riprap and along the southern beach by a low, naturally-formed gravel ridge. The beach faces east-southeast. The northern half of the beach varies in width from about 200 m on the north to 350 m at the dividing rocky point at mean low water. The beach material is consistently very fine sand (= 0.29 mm over most of the profile. The beach profile is consistently gentle and featureless throughout the year. The southern portion of Long Sands is covered by cobbles and pebbles and is about 300 m wide over the entire length of the beach. Extended periods of accretion may cover the gravel with a thin veneer of fine sand. Wave refraction diagrams (Figure 5-23) constructed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1971a) indicate that beach drift occurs from north 5- 55 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 MG 40 0 0 ENE ESE-0- 0 0 0 0 'Y_ 0 4z) C@l 0 C@ A, SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTI@ @REGION TRIGVM FIGURE Wave Refraction Diagrams-Short Sands Beach, York, Me. 15-22 1 (Army Corps of Engineers, 1970) 1+ 0 ENE 0 0 0 ESE --0-0- 0 0 0 0 0 -0 0 0 0 00 0 0 C5, 0 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI 1 FIGURE 1, Wave Refraction Diagrams-Long Sands Beach, York, Me. 5-23 (Armv Corps of Engineers, 1970) " - r, r, -7 to south during wave approach from all possible directions, but the beach is generally parallel to wave crests generated from the east- northeast. Historical studies of contour*changes along with the refraction analysis indicate that the beach is eroding slowly; with most of the beach sand moving offshore and to the south during north- east storms. Sediment supply has come from the glacial deposits veneering the margins of Cape Neddick to the north, but development of this shoreline now prevents sand from being removed to the beaches. Cobbles are supplied to the northern margin of the beach from area during storms. 5.1.4 NEW HAMPSHIRE BEACHES The coastline of New Hampshire is only 23 km long, of which about 70 percent is beach. Few investigations have been published on the beaches of New Hampshire and discussion, therefore, will be limited. Generally, seven beaches occur along the New Hampshire coast; most of the beaches are gravel beaches exhibiting very high storm ridges and steep berms (Timson, 1969; Johnson, 1925). Three sand beaches do occur, however, Wallis Sands Beach lies just south of the Piscataqua River mouth and is composed of fine quartz sand. Hampton Beach and Seabrook Beach occur on either side of the Hampton estuary on the southern coast. Studies have been done on Rye Gravel Beach, a gravel beach; and Hampton and Seabrook Beaches. These areas will be dis- cussed in detail. RYE GRAVEL BEACH, RYE - ROCKINGHAM COUNTY Rye Gravel Beach lies just south of Rye Harbor. The beach is a gravel ridge extending 200 m between two ledge headlands. The ridge is approximately 45 m wide, protects a portion of Rye Harbor saltmarsh, and faces directly to the east. The gravel ridge rises over 7 m above mean low water and 4 m above the salt-marsh surface. Two coalescing washover fans occur behind the northern end of the storm ridge. The' fan surfaces rise to an apex only a few tenths of meters below the crest of the gravel ridge. Fan slopes average about .15, storm ridge backface -.40. and ridge face, the beach face -.20. Gravel size decreases to the north along the beachface and down the ridge face. Average particle size is 16 mm, but boulder particles reside on the southern ridge crest and coarse sand occurs on the beach- face at the northern end during storms. Resident particle sizes decrease during storms, but returning particles are continuously larger in mean diameter (Timson, 1969) (See Figure 5-25). Particle-size distribution and washover fan location indicate that drift during storms is from north to south, while during calmer conditions, during southeast wave transport, the drift is from south to north. Berms, therefore, are well-developed along the southern beach and diminish in 5-58 Rye Gravel Prof He Fall 1968-SDring 1'969 Index Map mars v W profile tr- _ 4 In t Sample Location i3 Oct 16 No Snw\ V // I? I March ..00, N.. M. L. W. Snow *,,-Approx. 16March Scale in Feet 25 50 A SOCO-ECONOMIC AND EMARONIVIENTAL INVENTORY'OF THE NORTH -ATLANTIC REGION TRW&I, FIGURE 5-24 Rye Gravel Profile (Timson, 1969) 5-59 Mean. Size Mz Sorting E; A-1 8_1 -6 2.0 1.5 1.0 0 @units 6-2/ .2 0 A-2/ G-3 A-3 B-3 N Skewness Sk Kurtosis KG 2.5 -2.0 .5 .1.5 0 ridge crest -.5 /24 FT. -1.0 ..5 -0 beach step 9 FT. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL, INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Graphic Grain-Size Statistics-Rye Gravel Beach 5-25 (Timson, 1969) -60 TR height and width to the north. Extended periods of gentle waves from the southeast may extend berms across the entire ridge face. Gravel sediment is supplied to the beach from the till-mantled headlands to the north and south, and probably from the floor of the reentrant. New sediment, however, is probably minimal; the beach particles are con- tinuously eroded and returned to the beach as any longshore transport is limited to the embayment. HAMPTON AND SEABROOK BEACHES, HAMPTON AND SEABROOK - ROCKINGHAM COUNTY Hampton Beach is a sandy beach extending 2.25 km south from Great Boars Head, a resistant headland, to the inlet of the Hampton River, a stabilized channel. The beach is the northernmost segment of the Merri- mack Embayment barrier system extending 24 km from Hampton, New Hamp- shire, to Cape Ann, Massachusetts (See Figure 5-27). Hampton Beach barrier island is about .5 km at its widest point, but, because of the beach's popularity as a bathing area, heavy development has restricted natural environments to the forebeach area, a New Hampshire State Park. Four-fifths of the beach is backed by a road which i.s protected from wave energy@by a storm wall. The southern fifth of the beach is backed by a wide parking lot facility of the State Park. Hampton Beach has undergone severe erosion over the past three-four decades and has been the recipient of artificial nourishment in 1955 and 1965 under the direction of the Army Corps of.Engineers,(1955). Con- tinued erosion occurs at the northern end of the beach at an annual rate of approximately 19,878 cu m (Byrne, 1966); most of the loss is during northeast storms when sand is transported offshore and in a southerly direction by longshore drift. (Hayes, 1969) (See Figure 5-26). Grain size of beach sand decreases slightly from north to south along Hampton Beach. Median diameter of the beach sand is about .25 to .30 mm (Norton, in preparation). MineralogicWl studies by Greer (1969) suggest that beach sand from Hampton Beach is transported into Hampton Harbor on flood tides. Seabrook Beach extends 2.5 km. from Hampton Harbor Inlet south to the New Hampshire-Massachusetts state border where the name of the beach changes to Salisbury Beach. Seabrook Beach is a barrier spit which has extended north to enclose the southern half of Hampton Harbor. The barrier is backed by the marshes, tidal flats, and tidal channels of the lower, tidal-Blackwater River. The barrier spit is .5 km. wide at its northern end and narrows to about .25 km at its juncture with Salisbury Beach. Median diameters of beach sands are fairly uniform along the beach at .30 mm. 5-61 BEACH PROFILES STATION HBB, HAMPTON BEACH HAMPTON, N.H, ovv 10 SEPT 1967 18 NOV. 1965 NET LOSS. 18 NOV. 1965 TO 10 SEPT. 1967 4-t! 10 RbCK 30 SEPT1965 M. LW 1 MARCH 1969 NET LOSS 0 50 100 FEET 10 SEPT. 1967 TO 1 -MARCH 1969 0 100 200 500 4100FEET A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THENORTH ATLANTIC REG!0N Net Loss of Beach Sand-Hampton Beach, N.H. FIGURE 5-26 (Hayes, 1969a) 5-62 "rr% %P@__l HAMPT BEACH HAMPTON GULF ESTUARY OF MAINE --,,-'mERRIMACK RIVER NEWBURYPOR f 'A PARKER Jr ESTUARY N %7z'e tSSEX jr ESTUARY IPSWICH 'C' [I,- rf CAPE ANN SCALE 0 1 t 3 11M ESSEX GLOUCESTER 5 0 2 MiLES A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE rand Features of Merrimack Embay ment 5-27 1 (tayeds,et al., 1973) 5-63 5.1.5, MASSACHUSETTS BEACHES SALISBURY BEACH, SALISBURY - ESSEX COUNTY Salisbury Beach is a 6 km long barrier beach between Seabrook Beach and the Merrimack River inlet. It is separated from the upland by the upper reaches of the Blackwater River, a tidal creek draining north into Hampton Harbor, and Black Rock Creek which empties into the Merrimack River estuary to the south. The beach is narrow (.15 to .20 km ) at its northern end but widens to about 1.25 km at its south end because of the addition of recurved spit deposits accreting into the Merrimack estuary. The backbeach is entirely developed with summer cottages and an amusement center. Grain size increases in a southerly direction. PLUM ISLAND, NEWBURYPORT - ESSEX COUNTY Plum Island is a true barrier island 12.9 km long and up to 2.4 km wide in some places. The barrier has created the Merrimack estuary and the Parker River estuary. The intertidal environments of the Parker River estuary back the southern 4/5 of the island. The Plum Island barrier makes up the largest and mid-portion of the beaches of the Merrimack Embayment and faces about N 850 E into the open Gulf of Maine. The island is the site of the Plum Island Wildlife Refuge. The northern fifth of Plum Island is settled by a small year-round community that swells during the summer tourist seasons. Only several acres of foredune remain undeveloped near the Coast Guard property on the northern, seaward tip of the island. The northern portion of the barrier is divided into two barrier spits separated by a tidal lagoon. The two-pronged development by northward progradation has been detailed by Nichols (1964, p.32): "In 1827 the northern end of Plum Island was not forked. Between 1827 and 1851 the eastern side retrograded about half a mile southward. The western side was modified later to form the western prong. Following this period of retrograding southward, a spit, attached to the eastern side, prograded northward, so that by 1851 it was mote than a mile long. Since 1851 this spit, the eastern prong, has greatly increased in size. In 1942 it had an area of approximately .3 square mile." The inlet has been stabilized by jetties constructed in the late 1930's (See Figures 5-28). The northward progradation of this portion of the island appears con- trary to drift directions generated by northeast waves along this section of coastline. The northward growth is the direct result of 5-64 Salisbury Beach 0 1000 1916 Scale in feet Nk-\ North Jetty 1b cp Merrimack River :N,*.-Plum Island** Sout7Jetty N cp -S@b 0 0 1827 'Plum Island Shore Lines at Mean High Tide 1827, U.S. Army Engineers 185 1, U.S. Army Engineers 1916, U.S. Army Engineers 1940,R.L. Nichols (Plum Island only) Sc@le in fe or N%N th A SOCIO_r ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE'NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TW,1FIGURE I Development of Northern Tip of Plum Island 5-28 (Nichols, 1964) 5-65 refraction of northeast waves around the large lunate bar (ebb- tidal delta) off the mouth of the Merrimack River. Refraction induces wave crests to approach the north end of Plum Island from the southeast (Hayes, 1969b),(See Figures 5-29 and 5-30). The northernmost tip of the island faces directly into the north- east, and, although it is protected from the open ocean by a jetty, the bulbous section of the tip is severely eroded during storms because of wave-wash over the jetties. A Coast Guard Station located on this island salient has had to%be abandoned because of, the severe erosion. Acute erosi3n also occurs along the beach front of the northern portion of Plum Island, the developed por- tion, where cottages have been built on the front edge of the foredune (U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1967). This section of Plum Island is characterized by coarse to medium sand (t.-- .42 mm) and sometimes may contain granule-sized material. The coarseness of the sand induces a sharp, steep beach face extending to the mean low water level. High, wide, cuspate berms mark the accretional, mature profile; ridge-and-runnel systems are uncommon because of the beach slope, but Goldsmith (1969) has documented a 120 m onshore migration of an inshore bar (ebb-tidal delta swashbar) which eventually welded onto the beach. An offshore bar also exists seaward of the northern beach. The bar, as documented by Goldsmith (1969) is an integral part of the ebb-tidal delta system and has grown independently of onshore pro- file changes. The offshore bar is about 220 m offshore, 1.5 m high and extends south from the ebb-tidal delta for a distance of about 5 km. Goldsmith has linked migration of erosional zones on the beach to migration of offshore bar gaps and height of the offshore bars. The main portion of the Plum Island barrier is an 8.5 km beach backed by a dune system. The barrier is narrowest near the junction with the developed northern portion of the island being about 330 m wide, and widest at the mid-portion, being almost 700 m in width. The offshore bar system occurring seaward of the northern section of Plum Island extends south to front the northern quarter of the Plum Island mid-portion. Goldsmith (1969) has observed changes of this bar extension. The bar appears to decrease in height and migrate shoreward under the influence of storm waves, but returns to a height approaching mean sea level and to its apparent equilibrium position of about 180 m from shore during accretion conditions on the subaerial beach (See Figures 5-31 and 5-32). Bo 'th Goldsmith (1969) and Abele (1973)- have observed the formation of an inshore bar along the entire length of Plum Island after storms. The bar consists of sand eroded from the beach and soon migrates onshore to be transformed into ridge sand bodies on the low-tide terrace of the subaerial beach. 5-66 BATHYMETRY OFF MERRIMACK RIVER INLET. MASS. ............. Q .......... W Vo X.M., SCALE OMT" INTERVAL 6 fEET A SOCIO-ECONOMIC; AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Wave-Refraction Diagram-Merrimack Ihlet 5-29 (Hayeset al., 1973) 5-671 CIRCULATION PATTERN BEDFORM DISTRIBUTION MAP MERRIMACK RIVER NLET, MASS. MERRIM R INLET, MASS. A tP WA/E NDUCED TIDAL 2 4 N I N 10 4 4,j Q@t DEPTHS IN M. DEPTHS IN M AT WAN LOW WATER .!'AT WAN Low WATER 2 4 8@ YARDS YARDS 0 500 500 0 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRPRW FIGURE I Bedform Distribution - Circulation Pattern 5-68 1 5-30 Merrimack River Inlet, Mass. (Hayes, et al., 1973) 69-9 (6961. '4q4wSPLO9) PU3 U.A@q4,AON LE-9 j&d 'PueLS1. wnLd - JP8 OJOqSUI aq4 JO UOL4PJ6LW aJOqSUO 38nou N01038 OLLNV'UV H18ON 31-li AO AHOIN3ANI WiN3NNOUAN3 (INV OIV40NO03-CXOOS TIME 0 0- J 0 lb 0 m V r- T rn CA 0- z x 0 0 0 0 0 m XZ m --T" im rm -4 c -4 z 0- 0 m 0 -M (n m r- tn < x 3, rn m 0 Z G) 2, m 31. a 0 Z lob a CA A r x 8 AA oJ 0 z 9 PLA OFFSHORE BAR M LW OFFSHORE BARS NOV. 11,i967 PLUM ISLAND9 MASS. JULY 2,1968 MLW =MEAN LOW WATER OCT28,1968 JAN.29,1969 PLB OFFSHORE BAR MLW NOV. 11,1967 JULY 2,1968 OCT 28,1968 JAN.29,1969 0 10 20 0 500 FEET U 'S @A EAN I MM LW @=ML L A SOCIO-ECONOMC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RE7GIONNI FIGURE Offshore Bar Profile Changes - Plum Island-Northern 5-70, 5-32 1 Offshore Portion (Goldsmith, 1969) 1 1 The beach along this length of the island has been the subject of intensive study by the Coastal Research Group of the University of Massachusetts. Storm and post-storm changes along the shorefront have been mentioned earlier in this report with references to the work of Hayes and Boothroyd (1969) and Abele (1973) See Figure 5-33). The active beach is about 170 m wide along'the entire mid- portion of the island and the dune-beach transition zone is variously characterized by a high foredune scarp, large dune lobes, or blowouts where washovers transport beach sand to the interdune area. The dune morphology of Plum Island has been studied by Larsen (1969). He divides the barrier into six morphological subzones trending parallel to the present shoreline (pp. 356 & 358) (See Figure 5-34): "The zones are: (1) the present beach, with its berm, beach face, and low-tide terrace; (2) a foredune ridge 30 to 35 feet in elevation with gaps formed by blow- outs, slipfaces, and new dunes; (3) an interdune area; (4) a discontinuous backdune ridge, partially stabilized, with elevations.over 50 feet in places; (5) a low-wooded area with small stabilized dunes; and (6) a tidal salt- marsh flat with some windblown sand." The foredune ridge is an erosional remnant of a line of phytogenic dunes, assymetrical in shape with a steep east-facing foredune scarp and a gentle, west-facing slope. The low interdune area displays a strong northwest-southeast lineation defined by the long axes of blowouts due to deflation by northwest winds. Active dune lobes which are building into the northwest sides of depressions; low, rounded phytogenic dunes, and conical erosional dunes are the types of dunes characteristic of the interdune area. The backdune ridge is discontinuous and contains the highest dunes on Plum Island which are actively migrating west into forested areas. The higher dunes are stabilized by bushes and trees. Larsen hypothesizes that where backdunes are absent, washover fans occur. Sand movement in the dunes is mainly accomplished by west, northwest, north, and northeast winds. Northeast winds build up the backdune ridge while northwest winds are responsible for foredune ridge accretion. The presence of buried soil horizons in the dune field suggests dune re-activation which Larsen contends probably occurred during the middle of the 17th Century when early settlers used the island for animal grazing. Beach grain size decreases from about 0.46 mm at the northern end of the Plum Island mid-portion to about 0.30 mm at the southern end. Sorting values average .50 along the entire beach (Hayes, 1969). Dune sands show no discernable increase or decrease of grain size along the island. Median diameter of the dune sands average about 0.37 mm,, in the medium sand range as are the beach sands (Anan, 1971). The southern portion of Plum Island can be subdivided into three sedi- mentation provinces (Farrell, 1969b): (1) a.rock-cored drumlin and BEACH PROCESS VARIABLE MEASUREMENTS 18 FEBRUARY, 1912-20 FEBRUARY 1972 x j 120 20' I- III I BREAKER ANGLE- n U) 0 Go 10, x 0- x w LO!VGESHORE CURRENT LOCIT 0 z 60 -101 350 NEARSHORE BREAKER - HEIGHT- U) w 250- w z 150 w -50 .. . . . . . . . . . .. 11.0 WAVE PER1016- z 0 9.0 U 7.0 50 NW 40 :AVERAGE WIND VLLW%,l IT r,.ool 270* 0 V) x w / \X w 30 1 so* ac Uj NE wo 20 WIND DIRECTION--- 0. 10 30.50 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE- 15 LL 29.50 0 U) w x 20.50 12 6 12 6 12 6 121 6 FEBRUARY 19 FEBRUARY 20 [A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR@aj FIGURE Beach 'Process Variable Measurements - Plum Island 5-72 5-33 1 (Hayes et al., 1973) Norsk r;0ajj VW tione are- areas "e, , dviles F",Lrsk AL 100, a- wtk S-PS C% Ac. don A S@@> BLOCK PIACvft^PA Orr 'FLU,A ISLA140, N%AsSrAcP4Uw&-rr-A- A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I Dune Morphology - Plum Island 5-34 (Larsen, 1969) 5-73 southwest-trending beach; (2) a foreland cusp; and (3) a recurved sand spit and basin. The southern portion of Plum Island terminates at the Bar Head Drumlin. A section of the drumlin (Hartshorn, 1969) reveals that two tills com- prise most of the sediment of the drumlin. The upper till consists of variable sediment typesj but probably is the source for much of the beach and spit sand along this section of Plum Island. The southwest trending beach is about 720 m long. The northeast beach portion lies at the base of the drumlin, is coarse-grained, contains numerous boulders and pebbles eroded from the till, and is relatively narrow. The remain- der of the beach forms the eastern leading edge of a cuspate foreland which is covered by a low, vegetated, dune flat in front of a low dune field. The dune flats are over-washed and bared during northeast storms. The remaining edge of the cuspate foreland is defined by the recurved spit. The spit formed during the winter of 1965-66 and increased in size to form a double hooked spit by 1969. The spit accretion represents a volume accumulation of 281,338 cu m over a four-year period. Farrell (1969) has documented the growth of the spit and concludes that spit growth is a result of the amount of sediment delivered to the spit, beach waves and littoral drift, tidal currents, and tidal range. Spit growth rates are highest during storms and-spring tides. The rate of growth increases approximately in the ratio of 1:2:10x for neap tides, spring tides, and storms, respectively. An accretion cycle of this spit follows the sequence: (1) spit growth by wave refraction and tidal currents into the Parker River Inlet parallel to the Plum Island beach trend; (2) lateral migration of the spit toward the back of Plum Island, forming and engulfing an intertidal, organ'ic mud-filled lagoon; (3) welding of the leading edge of the spit to the back of,Plum Island; and (4) spit heightening and lagoon filling by storm washover and eolian accretion (See Figures 5-35 and 5-36). Sediments on the spit are bimodal indicating deposition by wave and eolian processes. Grain size increases toward the nose of the spit from about 0.25 mm at the spit base to 0.55 mm at the leading edge of the spit. The grain size increase along the spit is due to selective sorting of larger grains by upper flow regime conditions on the spit. Farrell speculates that the cyclical nature of spit accretion at Plum Island is the result of the dynamic equilibrium between the tidal water prism volume of the Parker River estuary and the sedimentation rates in the estuary proper. As the estuary fills with sediment and marsh growth, the tidal volume decreases with an attendant decrease in the cross-section of the inlet channel needed to carry the flow. Spit growth occurs during tidal-prism volume decrease and welds onshore when the channel width increases in response to an increase in tidal volume. Farrell fails to explain, however.,.the cause for periodic tidal-prism increase and decrease. 5-74 BIMONTHLY GROWTH OF SOUTHERN PLUM ISLAND SAND SPiT N 0 50100 200 300ft CONTOUR ON BASIN WATER LEVEL A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRV I FIGURE Sequential Growth of a Recurved Spit Plum Island P 5-35 (Farrell, 1969) 5-75 (696L 'LL@JJPJ) 9C-9 PuPLSI wnLd - 4@dS pOAjnoad-WPJ6PLa @OUaj C, 3unow NO:038 Oll VUV HIHON BHI =10 k8OiN3ANI IViN31NNOHIAN3 GNV OIV40NO03-OIOOS V Z > rn co iff CRANE BEACH, IPSWICH AND ESSEX ESSEX COUNTY Castle Neck is the southernmost barrier island of the Merrimack Embav- ment barrier system. The beach portion of the island is named Crane Beach (See Figure 5-37). The barrier trends southeast for a distance of about 5 km from two rock-cored drumlins, Castle Hill and Steep Hill, which lie just southwest of the end of Plum Island. The drum- lins are separated from the spit of Plum Island by the inlet of the Parker River estuary. The inlet is approximately 650 m wide. Castle Neck barrier encloses the Essex River estuary, the inlet of which exists between the southeast end of Crane Beach and the northwest end of Coffin Beach, the next beach south. Boothroyd (1969) has divided Crane Beac'h into five distinct constructional phase zones on the basis of beach morphology (See Figures 5-38 and 5-39). The five zones are, from north to south along the barrier: (1) a northern ridge zone characterized during accretional stages by 65 meter-wide ridges and a small berm in front of a scarped foredune ridge. This beach zone faces N 200 E and is influenced strongly by the ebb tidal delta of the Parker River estuary; (2) an accretion zone marked by a salient of the beach protruding seaward. This zone exhibits swashbars, a sand flat, and a large berm-r'idge lying over 200 m seaward of the dune line of the barrier. This zone, as well as the first zone, receives sediment from the Parker River ebb tidal delta as waves proceed over the delta toward the beach. Tidal currents generated in the inlet affect this second zone by controlling swash bar orientation; (3) a southern ridge zone characterized by cuspate ridges up to 400 m long and 65 m wide, a small berm, and wide low-tide terrace. This beach from this zone south faces N 450 E and is finer-grained than the first two zones. The foredune backing this beach zone is unscarped and exists just landward of the berm; (4) the Essex delta zone affected by tidal currents generated near the Essex River inlet to the south. Ridges of the southern ridge zone diminish in size and disappear in zone 4 but a complex swashbar-ridge system begins just south of this zone. The low- tide terrace is up to 270 m wide while the berm is of moderate size (1.5 m high) backed by a scarped-foredune; and (5) a swashbar ridge compl*ex strongly affected by the Essex ebb-tidal delta and inlet. This beach zone faces southeast, turning into Essex Bay. Longshore drift is from north to south along the Castle Neck barrier. Sand eroded from the drumlins at the northern end of the barrier and at the southern end of Plum Island and sand transported from the beaches of Plum Island are the probable sources for Crane Beach sediment, but the barrier is more dependent upon rates of erosion, transport, and morphology changes of the Parker River ebb tidal delta, the immediate source of sand for the Crane Beach area. The median diameter of Crane Beach sand ranges from 0.32,mm to 0.22 mm; dune sands average from 0.25 to 0.22 mm (Schalk, 1946). Boothroyd (1969) has noted that an abrupt decrease in grain size occurs at the PLUM ISLAND m PARKER RIVER 8 CRANE BEACH z 0 0 9 ESSEX ESTUARY AREA 14C 0 GREAT(@ NECK m IPSWICH -ESSEX, MASS. 0 R n m IPSWICH z Dp BAY < (D m Q 0 co z (D m z CASTLE CeA cB > HILL 5 C941pz_ SCALE (D CASTLE < NECK 0 1000 5000 FEET co m 0 0 5 C.+ 0 5 12 CL '441 m ESSEX t.0 z N BAY ESSEYA CONSTRUCTIONAL PHASE' MORPHOLOGY ACCRE. N- ZONE@ CRANE BEACK SUMMER 1967 RIDGE: ZONE, SOUTH, D. ESSEX DELTA ZONE RIDGE ZONE; NORTH ---- -- CsB- CBC FEET' FWW: Wll@! URI Cm FIGURE 19@2 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC- AND@ ENNARONMENTAL., INVENTORY'OF,THE- NORTH: ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE. 5-38: Crane Beach 4 Accretional'Zones (Boothroyd, 19'69) ESSEX DELTA ZONE -AREA I CRANE BEACH N ::7,.RIDGE RIPPLED AREA BEACHFACE DUNES BERM PROFILE CBD SCALE: I INCH= 100 FEET 0 1 2 3 4 500 FEET Jw A -.80C10- ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE: NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE J.':Crane Beach-.Individual Constructional Zones-m 5-39a @ -Essex@Delta (Boothroyd, 1969) 5'80 RIDGE ZONE, SOUTH -AREA 2 CRANE BEACH N RIDGE Alt RIDGE BEACHFACE EER@ BEiW DUNES DUNES PROFILE Coc SCALE: I DICN- IDO FEET 0 E 3 4 500 FEET A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TRIFM FIGURE Crane.Beach Individual Constructional,Zones- 5-39b Ridge Zone South (Boothroyd, 1969), ACCRETION ZONE - AREA 3 CRANE BEACH N % % BAR BAR RIDGE LOW TIDE TERRACE RIDGE INASHOVER BEACHFACE 13ERM VEGETATION PROM C88 DUNES SCALE: I MCH - 100 FEET 0 1 2 3 4 Sw FEET A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TW I FIGURE I Crane Beach- Indi vi dual Constructional Zones- 5-39c Accretion Zone (Boothroyd, 1969) 5-82 RIDGE ZONE, NORTH -AREA 4 CRANE BEACH N LOW TIDE TERRACE RIDGE 4V RIDGE 40 RIDGE -lip --- 13ERM PROFILE DUNES ------------ DUNES CBA 1 2 3 4 w A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI07N] FIGURE 5-39d C rane Beach Ridge Zone North (Boothroyd, 1969) 5 83 transition of zone 2 and zone 3. This observed change is probably due to the winnowing of the finer grains from the northern beach by the cumulative effect of waves and tidal currents near the Parker River inlet. The barrier island varies in width from .67 km at either end to 1.25 km. at its mid-section. The large width at the island's center is due to the addition of sand to the barrier at the zone 2, the accretion zone where sand is delivered to the beach from the distal portion of the Parker River ebb-tidal delta. A dune field, of which about 30 percent is unvegetated, covers the rest of the island. Schalk (1946) has briefly described the Ipswich area dunes. Several preserved foredune ridges rim the front edge of the barrier and curve southward around to Essex Bay revealing a southerly progradation of the barrier. Irregular dunes up to 20 m in height mask relict foredune ridges over the rest of the dune field except along the northern portion of the field where Bryan and Nichols (1939) cite evidence for the dunes directly overlying till deposits. COFFIN BEACH, ESSEX - ESSEX COUNTY Coffin Beach is a strandplain shoreline marking the southernmost sandy @beach of the Merrimack Embayment. The ends of the beach bend into the inlets of the Essex River estuary (Essex Bay) to the northwest and into the Annisquam River inlet to the southeast. The beach is approximately 3.7 km long and faces the N 300 E direction. The beach is fine-grained with grain sizes averaging 0.19 mm on the active beach as well as on the 27 m high dunes backing the beach (Schalk, 1946). Grain size trends indicate that Coffin Beach is the southern end of the Merrimack littoral basin; the beach receives most of its sediment from the Plum Island - Castle Neck barriers (See Figure 5-40). Both Castle Neck and Coffin Beach are sheltered from easterly storm waves by Cape Ann, but fully exposed to northeast waves. Extensive storm erosion along the beaches of the southern border of the Merrimack Embay- ment is limited to Boothroyd's (1969) zone 3, the southern ridge zone, where the beach is relatively narrow and the berm a short linear distance from the dune ridge. This lack of erosion is apparently due, in part, to the shield effect of Cape Ann to easterly storm waves, a high rate of sediment supply from the mid-portions of the embayment barriers, and the high dunes backing the active beaches.@which act as natural storm-wave bulkheads. Portions of Crane Beach exposed to easterly storm waves are protected from extensive erosion by the swash bars.associated with the Parker River ebb-tidal delta (Boothroyd, personal communication). Storm waves break and expend their energy on the delta sand body rather than on the subaerial beach. 5-84 -0.9 - 0.0 0- 7 -0.4 L 0.5 - 0.3 MEWAN 02 A11LZ1A0'-r4'R$ o -0 - @14 DUNE 5 0 R T1 N G_ 0.0 _0_ - SKEWNESS I Z SrATfON 3 NflVRI"RS 4 5 6 7 6 9 10 11 Iz 13 14 19 A 8 C -P L V M ISLAN -- IPSWICH BEACH .-CASTLE M@CX COFFINS BEACH 0 1 3 .1 1 1 7 9 1. .1 Af11_CS @ROM "O(Irhl O@ RIV49 a Ilk !_@@O' 7_ -.4 0 3 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC'AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] FIGURE Median Diameter, Sorting and Skewn Iess - Plum Island 5-40 to Coffins Beach (Schalk, 1946) 5-85 CAPE ANN BEACHES, GLOUCESTER & ROCKPORT ESSEX COUNTY The prominent resistant headland of Massachusetts, Cape Ann, is characterized by a rocky strand, but several small beaches occur in indentations along the coastline. The southeast coastline of Cape Ann contains four small beaches which have been studied by Cunningham and Fox (unpublished material) (Figure 5-41). Pebbly Beach is the northernmost beach extending southwesterly from Emerson Point for about 1 km. The beach is dominated by a cobble ridge extending 5.5 m above mean low water. The storm ridge is fronted by a sandy terrace extending below mean low water at the northern end and backed by an isolated.saltmarsh with a large salt panne. Grain-size decreases in a northerly direction along the beach. The southern ridge is composed of cobble particles whereas the northern segments are dominated by particles in the pebble-size range. Medium sand occurs on the low intertidal beach, but decreases in size to mostly fine sand below mean low water. The beach sediments are all well-sorted except at the northern end where pebbles are mixed with sand on the lower beach. The coarseness of the constituent particles controls the steepness of the beach profile.. Beach gradients range from 1:11 at the southern end of Pebbly Beach to 1:22 at the northern end. The source of the beach sediment on Pebbly Beach is a glacial moraine intersecting the coastline at Cape Hedge about 2 km south o-P the beach (Sears, 1905). The cobbles making up the beach ridge are of the same composition and of approximately the same composition variability as the charts com- prising the coarse fraction of the moraine material. Waves approach Pebbly Beach from the south and northeast.-the prevailing and dominant wind directions, respectively, of the Cape Ann area. Cunningham and Fox have constructed wave refraction diagrams for this portion of the Cape Ann coastline and found that 10-second period waves generated during northeast storms refract around Thatcher and Milk Islands to the north and offshore of Pebbly Beach to intersect the beach at a right angle (wave orthogonal orientation) while six-second period waves from the south-southwest strike the beach at an angle generating northerly-transporting long-shore drift (See Figure 5-42a). Cape Hedge Beach extends one km. southwesterly from a small rocky head- land to the south of Pebbly Beach to Cape Hedge. This beach, in general, is identical to Pebbly Beach as it is subject to the same sediment source and wave characteristics. Cape Hedge Beach, however, has a higher storm ridge (6.3 m) and a wider forebeach (0.3 km) because of a larger volume of sand-sized material delivered to it from the glacial.moraine 5-86 CAPE ANNI S m _Z7 X =r (D Al 0 2 MILES source a't Cape Hedge. Long Beach lies South of'Cape Hedge and extends.1.8 km southwest to 'Brier Neck. The beach is a baymouth,barrier enclosing a tidal active lagoon behind it; a small inlet exists at the northern end of the strand. The backbeach is developed and a seawall runs the length of the barrier to protect building structures from wave damage. The beach is composed of medium sand and develops a mature berm and ridge-and-runnel system during the summer months. The beach exhibits gradients of about 1:33 for most of its length. Long Beach is similar to Cape Hedge and Pebbly Beaches in that longshore drift is only set up during wave approach from the south-southwest. Cunningham and Fox indicate that a slight northerly decrease of particle median-diameter along the beach corroborates the net drift direction determined by wave refraction diagrams. Good Harbor Beach is the southern most beach along the south-eastern margin of Cape Ann. The beach is 2.8 km long extending from Brier Neck on the north to Bass Rocks hea.dland to the south. The northern portion of the beach is characterized by a tombolo extending outward from the beach in an easterly direction to Salt Island. The sand com- prising the tombolo spit is fine, whereas the rest of Good Harbor Beach is uniformly medium sand over its entire width (0.8 km,) (See Figure 5-42b). The beach is a baymouth barrier which is prograding in a south-westerly direction to enclose a large, marsh-filled lagoon. A sizable inlet still drains the lagoon behind the barrier (See Figure 5-42c). Beach gradients are gentle along Good Harbor Beach. The average gradient is 1:53 but is steeper at the northern end near Brier Neck and gentler at the beache's southern end. The forebeach exhibits the typical post- storm accretion stages defined on Plum Island. Unlike the three beaches to the north, Good Harbor Beach is oriented at right angle to south-southwest waves. Northeast waves approach the beach at an angle to generate southwesterly littoral currents as evidenced by the southerly progradation of the barrier spit. A slight grain-size decrease from Brier Neck southward also indicates that the net drift direction along this beach is to the southwest. BOSTON BASIN BEACHES, BOSTON ESSEX, MIDDLESEX, SUFFOLK, AND NORFOLK COUNTIES Boston Harbor and the inner portions of Massachusetts Bay exhibit numer- ous submerged drumlins and drumlin remnants (Johnson, 1925). Sub- mergence with subsequent wave erosion of the till-veneered drumlins has formed a complex of spits, tombolos, and beach-rimmed islands. (See Figure 5-43). 5-88 (J f 7 5 ----------- 7 K E y n- 1. THATCHER ISLAND 2. M, I L K I SL ANI D 3. E h! E R S 0 N1 P 0! NT 10 .4. PECGLY -BEACH 5. CAPE HIEDGE BEACH 6. C A p E. H E D G E r L0,',!G B E I", C H b 0 R S. SRIE N' E C K 9. SALT ISLAND MILE 10. GOOD HARBOR BEACH 11. BASS 'ROCKS T=10 SECONDS C; Q /4 T f 0 S E_ C,.- D 3 6 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL, INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGUR Tape Ann Beaches-Wave Refraction Diagrams 5-42a (Cunni ngham & Fox) .5-89 0.5 10 L E S A. TOPCIGRAPH@;,@ 0 5 10 20 25 ELEVATION IN FEET SAND PESSLE CO-28LE B. MEAN GRAIN S17 E =j7777- 3 2 0 -2 Pitt UNITS .. . ....... . ....... WELL SORTED POORLY SCRTED C. STANDARD DEVIATION 0 -35 .5 .71 1.0 2@O PHI U WT S COARSE TAIL FINE T I!- D. SKEWNESS -1.0 1.0 N - N.R 'T IC P--.tTyl" VRT. Ic LED E. KURTO@11,; .67 :9 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION] F GURE I I . I we@ ................... ............... .......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............. ................... SALT ED, S A iN1 D A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION MG FIGURE I Spit Development - Cape Ann Beaches 5-42c (Cunni.ngham & Fox) PAW- I I - I CIO %1. 1. 00 0 B. I I Fathom Line 3 Fathom Line 0 2 ,:; N, Scale of Miles fill % ----------- A SOC40-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RE30N FIGURE Tombolo Physiography Boston Harbor 5-43 (Johnson, 1925) 5-92 Boston Harbor is protected from the open Gulf of Maine by a series of tombolos extending from the margins of the upland toward the center of the outside of Boston Harbor. The Lynn-Nahant Beach and Winthrop Beach tombolos extend south from Lynn and Winthrop to Nahant and Deer Island. Nichols (1949) has studied the evolution of the Winthrop Beach tombolo by historical chart comparisons. Prior to 1936 Deer Island existed as an island with the tip of Winthrop Beach, the spit of Point Shirleys prograding toward the north end of the island and a spit progradi-ng from Deer Island north. The spits were separated by a channel-, Shirley Gut. Continued attack by northeast waves on Winthrop Beach and Deer Isle added material to the spits which joined in 1936, closing Shirley Gut (See Figure 5-44). The beaches are composed of a mixture of sand and gravel with pebble-and cobble-sized materials concentrated near the drumlin headlands and medium-sized sand toward the centers of the tom- bolos. The seaward-facing beaches of the tombolos are generally coarser than their harbor-facing counterparts. Apparently the latter beaches receive refracted and diminished wave energy spectra only capable of transporting sand-sized materials from the eroded scarps of the drumlins (Farquhar, 1967). Both beaches, Lynn-Nahant and Winthrop Beach are extensively developed and the thin tombolos are stabilized by rip-rap protected roads. Revere Beach is an arcuate barrier spit extending north from the northern end of Winthrop Beach. The beach is about 7 km long and is entirely developed with dwellings, commercial buildings, and an amusement center. The beach has prograded across a bay to leave a tidal inlet. The bay has been partially filled by artificial means. Revere Beach consists mostly of fine quartz sand transported from the source at Winthrop Head and Grovers Cliff, drumlin remnants (Trowbridge & Shepard, 1932). The Lynn-Nahant tombolo shields Revere Beach from easterly storm waves so that only diminished refracted and southerly waves affect the Beach. These low-energy waves 'are only capable-of transporting the finer sand particles from the glacial sediments at Winthrop Head. Nantasket Beach encloses the southern portion of Boston Harbor from Massachusetts Bay. The beach is a tombolo complex consisting of a north-northwest trending, 5 km long beach ridge complex from the upland to Little Hill, a drumlin, and a shorter, 2.8 km long "tombolo arm'I extending westerly from Little Hill to Nantasket Hill and Tele- graph Hill, also submerged drumlins. Johnson (1925) has reconstructed the stages of origin of the Nantasket tombolo which exhibits multiple, low beach ridges of varying orientations (See Figures 5-45 a-f). Presently, Nantasket Beach is developed and protectedfrom storm waves by seawalls and exists as a single continuous beach. Prior to recorded history the beach consisted of several arcuate spits between four drum- lins. When spit growth finally incorporated the segregated spits with Atlantic Hill, Hingham, the rate of sediment supply from mainland glacial deposits was increased to aid an unbroken series of bdach ridges 5-93 MEAN HIGH WATER U.S. Coast Survey. ISW ......... Surve Co Y. b@ Harbor and Land m . 898. - - - - Survey. by Public Works Dept. 6f Mass.. 1934. DEER 154AAID pollvr sHIR4EY > ............... .... . ..... Sccde 0 100 200 3qO 4?0 ft . .............. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REC-1,0N] IGURE rSphi rl ey Gut Progressive Channel Closing b 5-44a S it Growth (Nichols, 1949) L NOVEMBER 1936 Shore line at mean high water. Shore line at mean low water . Lowest t 10.6ft./ low water V MU S 'A S u C N 0 C a 0 p y m y S.rve H t s t y b G y 8 f H S H 9 D 1Nr '11,74rY ................ L"west above A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGiON FIGURE I Shirley Gut - After Closure of the Channel -.5794 5-44b (Nichols, 1949) Deer 10aAd PROFILES OF SHIRLEY GUT A Point SNrley f4o '..'M.te HiOA MI.- 19 +5 0 A m.j@ate z V -20 ..... . ...... -25 - LEGEND -30 1934 - Mass. Dept. of Public Works _,x IN, -25 6g - B ton Water Works -35 ............ :1165- Harbor and Land Commission Scale in Feet 30 1861 - Harbor and Land Commission 0 goo 1847- Harbor and Land Commission --- 35 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY.OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RE270-N FIGURE Shirley Gut - Bottom Profiles 5-44c (Nichols, 1949),* 5-95 Q WP L --- ........ L G AL AL Q @ I - N G Q-111", T T Hl SL SL Sk SL St S, all Rb, WL WL W. S Sa AtL AtL H H A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REG107NI TRJ@W I FIGURE 5-96 5-45a/bl Nantasket Beach Progressive Developmen .t (Johnson,19 125 WP .............. . ... wp T G HI Sk Sk '@SL .......... St St WL w S Sa AtL A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF'THE NORTH ATLANTIC @E@GION 1R FIGURE 5-45c/] Nantasket Beach Progressive Development (Johnson, 1925 5-97 WP L .... ...... N G Sk St Sa WE KiuphamHarb- 0) A SOCIO -ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC !@E@GION FIGURE TR,(@ 5-45e/f Nantasket Beach Progressive Development (Johnson,1925 to prograde the length of the segregated beach arcs. Nantasket Beach is composed of fine:sand averaging .20 mm in median diameter (Stetson & Schalk, 1935). The beach probably receives sedi- ment from Little Hill drumlin on the north during northeast storms and from the south at Atlantic Hill during prevailing southerly winds. More than 15 isolated, submerged drumlin islands exist within and out- side of Boston Harbor. Each island is rimmed with coarse-grained beaches of sand, pebbles, and cobbles eroded from the exposed scarps of the drumlin till immediately landward of the beaches. Kaye (1967) indicates that cliff recession of the glacial till by rain wash and mass wasting delivers sediment to the base of the scarps to form talus accumulations. Storm waves rarely directly erode the cliff face, but rework the talus to supply sediment to the beaches. Kaye found that the yearly mean erosion (recession) of drumlin faces is 8 to 15 cm per year on the sheltered cliffs within Boston Harbor, while Corps of Engineer studies in the 1920's indicated that cliff recession averaged 23 cm. per year on the more exposed faces of Winthrop Hill (Johnson, 1925). Erosion of the beaches surrounding,Boston Harbor has been an historical problem of considerabe magnitude (Johnson, 1925) and has continued to the present day (Corps of Engineers, 1971). Urbanization of the drumlin hills has necessitated construction of retaining walls along the scarp bases. Subsequent lack of erosion of the till and delivery of sediment to the beaches has increased erosion along tombolo and spit beaches which rely on the drumlin till sediments as a source of nourishment. Investigations of inner Massachusetts Bay by Trowbridge and Shepard (1932) and Stetson and Schalk (1935) reveal that sand eroded from the beaches and drumlins protecting Boston Harbor by storm waves is trans- ported seaward for a distance of about four to five km. A steady decrease of median diameter from medium sand (.28 mm ) to fine sand (.17 mm ) occurs off the major tombolo beaches. Where the Bay bottom is not interrupted by abrupt bathymetric changes representing ledge or relict glacial sediment o'utcrops, the fine sand extends to depths of 35 m. Seaward of this depth course, relict glacio-fluvial sediments exist as the bottom sediment. Elsewhere the fine sand derived from the beaches stops abruptly at bathymetric highs which act as dams to prevent wave- borne sediment from transport further seaward. Mencher, Copeland, and Payson (1968) have found that sand and gravel-size material surround the inner Harbor Islands up to distances of I km from the shoreline. The sand and gravel is transported to deeper portions of the Harbor by storm waves and tidal currents from the drumlin beaches, Organic-rich silts and clays occur elsewhere over most of the Harbor bottom areas which are over 1 to 1.5 km distant from any drumlin. (See Figure 5-46) 5-99 1. DEER ISLAND 2.LONGISLAND SLAND k 3.SPECTACLE I 4.THOMPSON ISLAND 5. MOON HEAD -4y 3 66.SOUANTUM 7.PEDDOCKS ISLAND B.HULL 9. NUT ISLAND .............. ............. . 3 .............. . ........ ... ....... ;. ...... ... 5 ------ - .....N 8 7 6 .........- SCALE . ......... AA 0 1/2 NAUTICAL MILES ... . ....... LEGEND ......... . .. ........ . XX CARBON CONCENTRATION <5% x &A& CARBON CONCENTRATION 5-10% 9 C ON CONCENTRATION 10-15% ARB ........ CARBON CONCENTRATION > 15% A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN11C REGION TR FIGURE Grain Size Distribution of Rece6t Sediments, in 5-100 5-46 Boston Harbor (Mencher,et al., 1968) WHITE CLIFFS TO NOBSCUSSET POINT AREA, PLYMOUTH, SANDWICH, BARNSTABLE- PLYMPUTH AND BARNSTABLE'COUNTIES The southwestern and southern coast of Cape Cod Bay is a continuous littoral sediment system extending from White Cliffs, Plymouth, to the Barnstable Harbor Inlet (Hobbs, 1972) (See Figure 5-47). East of the Barnstable inlet is a 5 km stretch of coastline which, in itself, is an isolated sediment transport system. Hobbs has defined six shoreline morphological zones within the larger system: White Cliffs.Beach,, Scusset Beach, Town Beach, Springhill. Beach, Scorton Neck, and Sandy Neck (See Figure 5-48). White Cliff's Beach is a strandplain beach lying at the base of a scarp eroded into the Wareham Pitted Outwash Pla'in. White Cliffs is the southern section of the Manomet Point Headland which separates the barrier beaches of the inner Cape shore from Plymouth Bay to the north. The cliff scarp is from 20 m to 30 m high and serves as the source for most of the beach sediment to the south. The southerly drift is driven by waves impinging on the beach from a northeast direction. These waves are generated during northeast storms and times of northwest wi.nds. The prevailing winds of Cape Cod, southwest winds, blow offshore reducing wave heights of northerly waves propagating into Cape Cod Bay. The beaches of White Cliffs are relatively narrow (75 m) with narrow berms. Accretional stages exhibiting ridge-and-runnel formation are absent; an increase in the height and width of the berm marks accretion. Hobbs postulates that the narrowness of the beach is due to the rapid removal of sediment to the south. (See Figure 5-49) Much of the beach is revetted and groins exist along the beach to prevent loss of beach sand by littoral drift. Scusset Beach is a 4 km long barrier island extending from the Sagamore Highlands to the Cape Cod Canal jetty. The beach trends northwest- southeast in an attempt to face the northeast-approaching waves. An intertidal spit at the southern end of the barrier has formed tofurther direct the beach to parallel the northeast waves. Scusset Beach is somewhat narrower than the beaches of White Cliff and an accretion - erosion cycle is marked only by berm growth and retreat. Seawalls extend over much'of the length of the barrier and several groins have been erected to retard beach erosion. The Scusset Barrier encloses a large saltmarsh tract and supports an active dune field. The dunes and intervening blowouts exhibit a strong northeast-southwest lineation, the directions of the dominant and pre- vailing winds. 5-iol lol- rl'y -7 S( A CAPE C D SAY W te --cli ff s Scusset Beach Nossousset Tow pringhill Beach -,'--Po i n-t- Beach,-- Sandy Neck Barnstable Harbor A SOC30-ECONOMC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE W&W Southern Cape Cod (Hobbs 1972) 5-47 9 @0- CAPE COD B AY z SSA Ln 010 a c 00 cr V) 0 (D z to 0 0 cu N x N DA S, NA s IN 3 3 c :3 Ax -f 0 0@ n M LOCATION pRor, ANIF1 r- STATIONS 5 10 0-- M. PROFILE SSA jur.'E C Cy 0 1: 14 . M 05 211 7 . . . . . . F 13 2 11. ME TOIS 'S 'a A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-ncREGiON FIGURE Beach Profiles-White Cliffs-Plymouth 5-49, (Hobbs, 1972) 5 Town Beach is a small barrier extending from the Cape Cod Canal to the mouth of Sandwich Harbor. The beach is narrow (60 m) and sedi- ment deficient because the Canal jetties prevent sand from White Cliffs to be transported to the southern side of the Canal. The beach is extensively developed; seawalls have been built to impede erosion of the backbeach area, groins have been built to slow littoral drift' and the beach is artificially nourished periodically with coarse sand. Springhill Beach extends 4 km, from Sandwich Harbor to Scorton Neck, a slightly seaward protruding headland of Pleistocene kame delta sediment. The beach faces just east of north, is narrow and character- ized by small neap berms after accretional periods. It is backed by a thin dune ridge which acts as a storm barrier to the many summer homes on the beach. .Scorton Neck is about 2 km long and anchors the western end of Sandy Neck. Hobbs indicates that winter storms may cut back the front scarp of the headland but that post-storm accretion is -dominated by shoreward migrating ridges and wide berms. The headland acts as a source of sand for Sandy Neck and allows sediment from the west to bypass to the Sandy Neck spit. The erosion of the scarp has prompted the residents of a small colony on the eastern flank of the headland to erect revetments and several groins to abate sediment removal. Sandy Neck is a 9 km long barrier spit that separates Barnstable Harbor from Cape Cod Bay. Redfield (1965, 1967) has detailed the eastward growth of the spit by documenting the growth of marsh within the harbor. The barrier spit has prograded eastward by 7 periods of spit growth since about 3300 BP. An eighth accretion period is currently active forcing the inlet of Barnstable Harbor further to the east. Hobbs has defined three morphological units characterizing the forebeach area of the barrier: 1) a north-facing 3.5 km section of the spit; 2) a northeast-facing 2 km zone affected by tidal currents generated in the vicinity of the tidal inlet; and 3) a short segment which acts as the channel margin of the inlet. The first zone, the westernmost beach, is characterized by a very wide berm and a continuous ridge-and-runnel system. (See Figure 5-50). The second zone exhibits a steeper, narrower beachface than zone one. A dune scarp exists only a short distance from the berm crest. Ridges characterize a narrow low-tide terrace but are assymetrical in plan with the leading edges of the bulk of the ridge facing toward the inlet. Southeast migrating bedforms on the ridges indicate that flood tidal currents aid littoral drift in transporting sediment from west to east. Protuberances form and migrate along the beachface from west to east toward the inlet. The third zone exhibits a convex-upward profile, only 30 m long, plunging steeply to the inlet channel. Tidal currents gener- ated in the inlet maintain a steep, narrow beachface. 5-105 ON SN3 > PROF'lLc- JUNE - DECEMBER 19G9 0 z al -n G) C) C 0 o lo :13 31 m 0 00 < C7 z -40) (D Z@ z zr,-7 ------- (D 0 -n z ....... 0 M > UZ Sandy Neck is covered by a stabilized dune field with dunes extending to heights of six meters. Southwest winds transport dune sand to the beach by eroding blowouts and forming dune lobes at the leading mar- gin of the field. Northeast and northwest winds blow sand from the beach to the dune field and advance the dunes over the Barnstable marshes. Dune sands are medium-sized sands and decrease in size from west to east (= .40 mm to .31 mm) along the length ofthe dunes. The sediments of the southwestern shoreline of Cape Cod range from medium sand to pebbles. Gravel exists on the back beach along most of the shoreline but decreases,in median diameter from about 60 mm at White Cliffs to about 30 mm at the end of,Sandy Neck. Grain-size trends from west to east demonstrate downdrift fining, improved sorting, and an approach toward a more nearly symmetrical grain-size population distribution indicating a tendency for the sediment to approach a popu- lation of grains at equilibrium with littoral processes active along the inner Cape Cod shoreline. (See Figures 5-51 and 5-52) NORTH DENNIS BEACHES, DENNIS - BARNSTABLE COUNTY East of the Barnstable Harbor inlet is a 5 km stretch of beaches extending to Nobscusset Point, a resistant headland composed of glacial moraine sediment. Nobscusset Heights are directly open to northwest waves generated across the entire fetch of Cape Cod Bay. Wave energy concentrates on Nobscusset Point to erode glacial sediment and transport sand and gra vel along the shore from east to west toward Barnstable Harbor. The beaches are relatively narrow (30 m,) but are fronted by low, sandy tidal flats up to 200 m wide. Most of the sand eroded from the headland is finally transported to the inlet of Barnstable Harbor. Several, recurved spits have formed at the free end of the beaches, curving into the harbor. BREWSTER, EASTHAM, AND WELLFLEET BEACHES, DENNIS, BREWSTER, EASTHAM, AND WELLFLEET - BARNSTABLE COUNTY The southeast shore of Cape Cod Bay is unique.from the rest of the New England strands in that it is characterized by sand tidal flats up to 2 km wide, fronting narrow beaches with diminutive, incipient berms. (See Figure 5-53). For the most part, the narrow beaches are strand- plain beaches lying at the base of an eroded outwash plain (the East- ham outwash plain) along the eastern shore and scarped Pleistocene lake deposits (till?) (Oldale, 1969) along the Brewster shoreline to the south. Nilsson (1972, 1973) defines three zones of intertidal and shallow sub-' tidal sand flats on the basis of type, orientation,and numbers of sand bars exhibited on the flats. 5-107 Size Paterneters of DcIrn Samples Grain-":- I I I S I i I F- aI -1 4 j I II I I A a 1 1. 11 1 1 1 1 F --T--r-1j INCLUSIVE "FAM0 0.25 ui7 0.00 GRAPHIC 0.50 S TAND A R D DEVIATION 0.00 GRAPHIC .1-50 1.00 0. 0 0.0 0 10 15 20 P, 3 110 35 40 sample stotion G r a i n -Sil ze P._xc,m'2-,-.rs olz M P r INCLUSIVE o.5o S K E'ViN E S S0.00 J I f -.C, - L I S 1 VE 0 15 DE v IT I C 11 4 -0.00 c 1iA F--i, 1.50 a 9 1.00 J_j 10 15 20 Z5 3J zz 40 S C.-ilp A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REG71O7N FIGURE Textural Parameters-Berm and Beach Face Sands-S.W. TR 5-51- Cape Cod Bay (Hobbs, 1972) 5-108 601-9 k-6Lb-L - bqqvH.) OZLS LOA.e,.I.! -eaJO- 4 mo .9 Ul aS a.0 4PG@u a 3unolz NOID-38 OW4V-UV HIMON 3Hi =10 A HOIN3ANI IVIN3V4NO81AN3 (INV OIV40NO03-CADOS ITI b 41 C-1 0 FRE 0 uEn CY PERCENT .0 ----------- r-4 to ;u M > pj Q) WMAEET ---------- V@l CIA 10 N. rl!.3TlAlA ca It. r"s? PU FXA- CAPE COD 13AY ----------------- cnot e"'w RIEFEREW-1 UAP FCR INTZR=A@ 4:40 Si:*ITIDAL FECURES Sr- CA@@ COD W aURVAITER cr, vlo cut. r %mc a ------- UVULA - $_ vu4 ft@n wl t t-7 'a evi.010 LTC -It @"E.. V_.Ll Uxs N A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REG7107N] TRIGOM FIGURE Intertidal and Subtidal Features-S.E. Cape Cod Bay 5- 110 PARC 5-53 (Ni.lsson, 1972) The Brewster shoreline, extending 9 km from Nobscusset northeasterly .to Nanskaket Creek, is characterized by convex landward and seaward- shaped swash bars covering the sand flats to a subtidal depth equalling the Cape Cod wave base depth (2-3 m below mean low water). (See Figure 5-54) The swash bars are formed by the action of waves con- tacting bottom and breaking. Multiple swash bars form where waves break, reform, and break again to deposit sediment on the bar. Nilsson (1973) stipulates that multiple bar formation is favored by conditions and processes indigenous to the inner, protected shores of Cape Cod Bay: gentle slopes not exceeding 0.005; sand-sized sediment; a high tidal range (3 m ); and relatively low wave energy (maximum observed waves 1 m high with 4-5 second period induce multiple swash bar form- ation.) The Brewster flats exhibit convex symmetrical or assymmetrical swash bars which are influenced by southwest wind-generated currents and . tidal currents. The horns of the convex or concave bars are oriented facing the east because the currents proceed from west to east along the southern coast. Northwest wind-generated waves erode the Pleistocene deposits to deliver sediment to the tidal flats and beaches. Southwest wind-generated waves, prevalent during the summer, initiate littoral drift in an easterly direction along the Brewster shoreline. During the summer of 1971 Nilsson (1972) observed no horizontal migra- tion of the swash bars, but observed up to I m of vertical growth on the bars. The swash bars are about 1-1.5 m in amplitude and exhibit wave lengths of 60 m. The Eastham shoreline is a north-south oriented strand extending from Nanskaket Creek to the entrance of Wellfleet Harbor. The tidal flats exposed along this 10 km shoreline are somewhat protected from north- west wave attack by Billingsgate Shoal off Wellfleet, but since westerly and southwesterly waves are parallel to the Eastham shore, the net drift direction is from north to south. Up to 30 linear swash bars parallel the shoreline and extend 1.6 km sea- ward from the beaches. The swashbars exhibit an amplitude of from 0.3 to 0.6 m and a wavelength of about 50 m. Seaweeds and othermarine algae are commonly found in the troughs of the bars. Sediment for the beaches and bars is derived from erosion of the,Ea-st- ham bluffs, exposures of outwash sands and gravels during periods of strong northwest winds. The Wellfleet shoreline extends north from Jeremy Point, along a spit, north 5 km to narrow beaches fronting bluffs cut into the Wellfleet Plain deposits. 5-111 ZTT 9 4jo 44dei6odoi jeq 4SPMS-@ L@PJd aaO4S JeaN WE 'UOSSLIN) VS-9 ,Aa;sma.A8 38nou N01038 OUNV-UV H180N.3HI JO A80.LN3ANl IVIN3NNOUIAN36Ny omoNom-o@ioos v rn TJ /* 10 rn ;TJ > /it "A VA ij It South and southeast of Jeremy Point is an extensive shallow shoal shelf, Billingsgate Shoal. Billingsgate Island lies on this shoal surrounded by current-formed bars and sand waves migrating toward Wellfleet Harbor. North of Jeremy Point, offshore from narrow beaches, are .5 km wide sand flats which act as a platform for both parallel and transverse swash bars. Bars parallel to the shore exist on the outer flats, while transverse bars occupy the inner flats. The bar fields are separated.by a featureless zone. The parallel bars are formed by westerly winds, dominant during the winter. Transverse or oblique bars are formed by southwest waves which are dominant in the summer. The sediments of the southeast shore of Cape Cod Bay range from fine to coarse sand. The beach sands range from 0.80 mm to 0.35 mm' in diameter and exhibit sorting values ranging from .35 to .65, well- sorted sands. The sediments of the tidal flats exhibit similar sort- ing values to the beach sands but are finer in size ranging from 0.4 mm to 0.18 mm , medium to fine sand. Finer-sized sand is moved seaward from.the beaches by wave action and current winnowing. The area of the shoreline between Eastham and Brewster, a convergence zone of littoral drift from two directions, is characterized by beach and flat sediment showing size characteristics between the beach and flat sediment of the southern and eastern shores. Sediment sorting is variable at the convergence zone because of.the mixing of fine sand delivered by littoral drift and coarse to medium sand eroded directly .from the upland bluffs. (See Figures 5-55 and 5-56). The Wellfleet shoreline has been subject to extensive erosion by waves and storm surge tides@. Nilsson (1972).studied historical records and charts and estimates that the Wellfleet shoreline has retreated over 100 m in 73 years., Much of this,sediment is transported south to add to the growth of Jeremy Spit. Billingsgate Island has been, reduced in size to an intertidal bar over the seventy Years. .Seismic data collected by Nilsson indicate, that the extensive inter- tidal flats average 10 m in thickness and overlie an irregular sur- face eroded into what probably is glacial till or compact glacial sedi- ment. This surface slopes gqntly toward the center of Cape Cod Bay. OUTER CAPE COD BEACHES, PROVINCETOWN TO MONOMOY ISLAND - BARNSTABLE COUNTY Outer Cape Cod is bordered by 60 km of continuous beach broken only by two inlets. All but 3 km of the beaches@face north, northeast, or east directly into the Gulf of Maine. The remai,ning beach faces west and south into Cape Cod Bay. The outer beaches can be divided into. two separate sediment transport, .zones: a northern section extending from somewhere at the middle of the eastern cliff section between [email protected] and theNaus6t Coast Guard Station to Long Point,@@Provincetown;''and a southern portion, 5_113 GIRA;&M-SIZE DATA S.E. CAPLE COD BAY O-TIDAL FLATS 0-BEACH IVIR 'MENTS ED EN .0% (FE Ll,,.E) A 0 .75 0 0 0 0A 0. 0 0 0cp 00 cc El I 00cr 0 oB 00 cl 1 0 0 0 .50 0 0 0 00 0 0 1 0 80. c1cl) 0Q) 0 0 0 to 0 0 90 0& d@ 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 c3l. 0 0 00 00---, rL 9 0 co z 0 0,5 l'o 1."5 3.0 GRAPHIC M E A ti. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLAN-nc 7RE@Gi FIGURE 5-114 5-5 5 @Grain/Sjze Data-S.E. Cape Cod Bay (Nilsson, 1972) m Ul -n 0 c C5 m @Z' 3.00. (D P1 < 0 ........... 0 0 Fi- 0 RH, ::Yl 0 z 2.00 - 0 (D I En (n cu ---o m DF rt, N 93' + 0 (D 5 I-000 --GR CL 4. P) W (a LQ V) 0.00 2.0 0 DISTANCE km) 0 cn 0 LQ GRAPHIC MEAN VS. DISTANCE @v rn @i@ 6 FROM SHORE F- 0 BREWSTER TIDAL FLATS (D En @-h 0 z R (X extending from the cliff section to Monomoy Point. Littoral sediment transport is to the north and south from the cliff section (Johnson, 1925; Marinden, 1889; Schalk 1939; Zeigler et al, 1959; Zeigler and Tuttle, 1961; Hartshorn et ai,1 1969) (See Figure 5-57). The outer beaches can also be subdivided into three morp hological zones: 1) the Provincelands zone where, for the most part, the beaches are backed by an extensive dune field at Provincetown; 2) the Highlands section where narrow beaches lie at the base of a scarp (7 to 40 m high) eroded into Pleistocene outwash sediment; and 3) the Nauset-Monomoy area characterized by baymouth or spit barrier islands. The Provincelands, or the Provincetown-Hook, has formed as a series of coalescing beaches providing both a source and a base for several generations of parabolic dunes (Messenger, 1958; Hartshorn, et al., 1967). The beaches of the Provincetown Hook are characterized by a concave- upward profile after storms and accretional berms after extended quies- cent periods. An energy gradient exists all around the hook from High- land Light to Long Point. Storm.erosion is greatest at Highland Light and decreases counter-clockwise west around to Long Point. The beaches at Highland are extensively eroded with scarp recession averaging one meter per year (Zeigler et al, 1.959) during easterly and northeast storms. The beach at Race Point is constructional during periods of easterly or northeast waves, but erosional during northerly winds; while New Beach, facing southwest, appears to be accretional at all times of the year. Peaked Hill Bar, an offshore bar, springs from the beach in the vicinity of Highland Light and extends around the Provincetown Hook to Race Point. The offshore bar exists from 300 to 600 m offshore from the beach until it disappears in water of 50 m depths off from Race Point. Zeigler et al.(1959) have also observed complex inshore bars extending from Highland Light to Race Point. The complex bars, called sand waves, are probably analogous to protuberances described by Goldsmith (1972) along Monomoy Island. The sand waves migrate in a northerly and west- erly direction around the Provincetown Hook. Beach recovery after storms is depe-n-d-ent-,upon inshore bar existence immediately offshore. Where bars have been removed by storm erosion, beach recovery is very slow, not reaching a mature stage for up to 4 to 5 months after storm erosion. The sand waves extend onshore to weld to the beach. Where welding occurs, the beach is wide; but inter-protuberance areas exhibit a narrow beach. Storm erosion of the scarp is severe where protuber- ances are-non-existent (See Figures 5-58 and 5-59). Median diameters of beach sediment increase from 0.55 mm. at the northern section of the cliffs to 1.30 mm at Long Point (Schalk, 1939). The increase in median diameter is explained by progressive winnowing offine 5-116 Race Poin The P ghlands NT Long Point T w Cap e Cod Bay Jeremy Point Kingsbury E Beach 0 'Orleans Beach S Sandy Neck D @1-@ N3uset Beach 04 D P r C Y Poponesset Wand Beach Klr)n,[email protected] 0 '5 10 MT-s S@ I @NORTH ON A'SOCIO- ECONOMIC AND 'ENVIRONMENTAL'INVENMRY OF THE ATLANTIC.REGI FIGURE Longshore Drift of Beach Sedim.ent.-C'ape Cod 5-57 (Strahler, 1966). 5 117 YEAR DAY MONTH 0 50 100 ISO 200 250 1957 17 5' 10' 5' 01 '313 25 1 f 810 17:: II= 12L- 17@1 1 2123 .14 -M 27 14 1;3, 1956 0- 30- 1720 NE STORM 10 2@2 .@o J 15 1965 -1 E D N-A-1 13'6 CA DL@ P5 -ADPROX.M.H.W. I 1954 3 017 .. - . 0 NE STORM X. 2!13" 10 1953 0 50, 100 ISO 200 250 5 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR@W I FIGURE I Isopleth Diagram of Profile Chainges-Highlands 5-58 (Zeigler et al., 1959) 5-118 -n Al v STORm -n < STORM 0 C) c: r14 0 CD, M (D (D > 0 0 Go C+ w > m (D > -0 > z -0 c') 0 ORM M X 0 It co > x UD (D m LTI -5 > --im m m 20 90 0 STORM I -n :5 m m 70 z 0 200 FEET SCOUR AND FILL ALONG PROFILE IMAXIMUM) FOR ENTIRE PERIOD T S 0 N 0 M J J A S 0N D F M A M i JA S 0 N D MAMJJAlSlOl I D A j F m 4 ' ' ' ' I F 1953 1954 1955 1956 Lr) I I.- particles from the sediment. The finer-sized particles are moved offshore. This process appears to be somewhat questionable as an energy gradient decreases in this direction. The source of the beach sediment for the Prov 'inceland beaches are the scarps eroded into the Truro Outwash Plain at Highland Light. Zeigler et al., (1959) and Schalk (1939) have observed the uncovering of coarser particles at the toe of beaches after storms. Sediment from buried glacial sediments may also be supplied to the beach from the shallow offshore during severe'storms. The Provincelands is a large dune field composed of three iune ridges, along the outer margin and an irregulardune field on the inner margin (See Figure 5-60). The dunes are parabolicand include both U-shaped and V-shaped forms with the open ends toward the west-north- west wind. The inner dune field is more irregular with complex dunes reaching heights of up to 35 m. The direction of winds that built these large dunes is uncertain. The common occurrence of forms gradational between the complex dune and the parabolic dunes are.formed by west-northwest winds (Hartshorn et al, 1967). Thedune sands range from fine sand at dune crests to coarse sand on interdune deflation surfaces. The scarped Highland section extends south-southeasterly from Highland Light to Nauset Light, a distance of about 15 km. The scarp is eroded into the Truro, Wellfleet, and Eastham plains which serve as the source of sediment for the Provincetown Hook and the barrier islands to the south. Sediment from the scarps is delivered to talus fans at the scarp base by rainwash and mass-wasting. The talus i:s then removed by storm erosion. Cliff recession is variable along the Highland section but is greatest in the center (Marindin, 1889). Ziegler et al.(1959) observed cliff erosion of from 10 to 15 m at Nauset, 4 m at the central part, and 1.3 m from Highland during a storm in April of 1958 (See. Figure 5-61). It is estimated that 648,448 cubic meters of material are supplied to Cape Cod beaches by erosion of the cliffs, one of the highest removal rates recorded (Wiegel, 1964). The beaches along this central zone vary in width from 15 to 50 m depending upon accretional stage. Inshore bars, protuberances, are .common along this zone; and influence rates of erosion and accretion. Up to 10.5 cubic meters of beach material per profile may be removed and returned within two tides along the central beaches.(Zeigler at al (1959). Median grain-sizes decrease from about 0.55 mm at the northern high- lands to 0.30 mm at Nauset Light (Schalk,.1939), but Felsher (1963) contends that this grain-size decrease is non-ekist@nt. 5-120 h/ Iif J A- L,@ :, Is.-, X V/@tt V % A socio-ccoNomic AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF'THE NORTH ATLANTIC 'REGION *rrl'@l 9c I- - I C FIGURE 5 X @5-60 'Dunes of Provincetown (Messenger, 1958) VERTICAL SCALE FEET 20 15 11 MH CUT MHW 10 OC r 14, 1953 MLW 5 A-2 0 c r. 21953 0 F I L L HIGHLAND OCr 27,1953 MLW OC T 30,1953 B ,MHW I L L NOV. 29 1955 NAUSET @-Nov @;@OV8. MLW MHw MHW CUT MLW NAUSET AUG. 8, 1956 AUG. 1956 0 50 100 150 2JO0 2 J50 DISTANCE IN FEET SEAWARD FROM ORIGINS C U @T MHW OCr @F I L H I G H @LA N @D mH @W@ M H @W CUT N S V AU _T A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC @E@GION FIGURE Cut and Fill at Highland and Nauset-Before 5-61 and After Storm Conditions (Zeigler et aI., 5-122 1 The southern zone is one of thin barrier islands and barrier spits. From north to south, three barrier islands characterize the coast- line. Coast Guard Beach is a 4 km long barrier between the open Gulf and Eastham Bay. Nauset Beach extends 12 km from the inlet of Eastham Bay to the Pleasant Bay inlet, while Monomoy Island extends as an isolated barrier spit springing from a point just south of Chatham and extends 10 km into the Atlantic Ocean toward George's Bank. The barrier of Monomoy separates the Gulf of Maine from Nantucket South. Hine (1972) divides the Nauset barrier into two zones, a linear beach and a wider recurved spit beach in proximity to the Pleasant Bay inlet. The linear beach is the northern two-thirds portion of the island. The barrier is thin and has formed by progressive progradation of the barrier in a southerly direction. The beach along this segment of the barrier is about 90 m wide and characteri- zed by neap and spring berms formed by the migration of ridges across a low-tide terrace. The barrier is narrow (0.5 km ) along its northern section. A single dune ridge exists back of the beach, but wider expanses are low vegetated eolian surfaces sitting on arcuate washover fan lobes built into Pleasant Bay (See Figure 5-62). The southern one km section of the Nauset barrier is bulbous in plan, being the result of recurved spit formation and progradation of the barrier (See Figure 5-63). The southern beach portion is about 180 m wide and characterized by rapid sediment deposition. As a result, secondary berm and ridge growth is rapid after storms. Sedimentation is so rapid that berms may develop on ridge crests before ridges migrate shoreward. The lower portion of the beach (foreshore) exhibits current-formed bedforms oriented toward the inlet mouth indicating strong tidal currents generated in the vicinity of the inlet (See Figures 5-64 and 5-65). Schalk (1939) found that grain size increases slightly from 0.3 mm at the northern end of Nauset to 0.4 mm at the end of Nauset Spit. Monomoy Island is a barrier which has undergone dynamic changes over the past century. Goldsmith (1972) has studied the sediment, sedi- mentary environment, physical processes, and historical changes. The island consists of two distinctly different portions. The northern third of the island is less than 40 years old and consists of a narrow, rapidly eroding beach with numerous attached intertidal and subtidal offshore bars; an irregular duneline highly dissected by sluice channels; a wide supratidal blue-green algal flat@; a fringing marsh; and wide intertidal clam flats. The remainder of the island is wider and consists mostly of low dunes. 3 NB-O' I C. i u It-Y oq 12 W LY 0@ \f/ OK \Y z ?Z> td z W (D JN. z NEAP B E rt 0 E p z < 2 J 1) LY 0 5 z (D rt, IN rt, SPRING -E- R Ml (D m wo Ly SEAC4 FACE-. J U LY 71 NE EXPI MAJOR S". - I P F A CE F? HE N'TAT 10 N \% W. ME- 0 100 Fil SA je 1141IC-R SPIT 00 Lu I A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANT11C RE(;',!Oi'%71, IRICai F FIE Na I U uset Recurved Spit Complex and Location of 5-63 Beach Profiles (Hine, 1972) 5-125 'P" I I E 6 SEP N 2@2. NB'3' P DOUBLE RIDGE SYSTEM, AT NO- WITII BEACH FACE AND BERM COMPLEX AT NS-2 N B PROF] LE 5 OCT NB 3 4 0 DEACII FACE AND Cj'PIt'-F!rjrE COMPLEX ESTABLI-SlIED A7 N9 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ArLANTIC REGION FIGUREJ Development of a Bermridge and Double Beach. 5-64 Face-Nauset Beach (Hine, 1972) 5-126 (ZL6T 19UTH) qDvag qasnvN go UoTqlod S9-9 4TdS uaaqqnoS go qu9uidOT9A9G TRT4uanbqS 38now N01038 01-LNV-UV H18ON 3HI -10 kUO.LN3ANI IVIN3NNOUIAN3 GNV OIV40NO03-04008 V 0 U) .0 M > C., 0 0 C= < Oj z cu Pi The northern part has accreted rapidly and responded to the southern progradation of the Pleasant Bay inlet. Large-scale inlet migration occurs in a cycle recurring approximately every 130 years, a time period of increased storm frequency'(See Figures 5-66 qnd 5-67). The rest of the island beaches are narrow, exhibiting erosional or ,berm-constructional profile. Inshore bars oriented at an angle to the coastline characterize the foreshore and migrate in a northerly direction overtime in front of the beach. Protuberances on the beach migrate with the inshore bars, and erosion of the subaerial beach is directed to the areas updrift of the protuberance axes. Offshore bars parallel to the island face are located about 660 m from the beaches (See Figures 5-68 through 5-70). Erosion of the beaches occurs during periods of nonuniform distri- bution of wave energy from long (8-12 sec ) waves of low amplitude generated in the Gulf of Maine during northeast storms. Larger amplitude, long-period waves (height 1.5 m) tend to break on the off- shore bars while shorter waves do not refract sufficiently to produce zones of wave-energy concentration on Monomoy (See Figures 5-71 thro ugh 5-73). Beach sediment size is nearly uniform over the entire length of the front of the island. Average grain size-is about 0.37 mm. Coarser sediments occur at zones where wave energy is concentrated on the downdrift sides of protuberances. Goldsmith attributes the homo- geneity of the sediment to reversing rectlinear tidal currents generated along this portion of the coastline. The reversing currents offset the southerly longshore drift produced by oblique wave approach from the north-northeast (See Figures 5-74 a & b and 5-75). Historically, Monomoy Island has migrated in a westerly direction; a distance of about 1.5 km, over the past three centuries. The migration is aided by accretion of sediment on the western side of the island by marsh and algal mat formation and erosion by wave processes on the eastern side. Migration rates would be higher if the low phytogenic dunes of the island were not well-vegetated, but limited access of the island to the publi'c has assumed their stability. The low dunes are maintained by the prevailing winds of the Cape, south- westerly winds. During the winter months when dune grasses ate dormant, both the beaches and dunes are frozen by intergranular ice. Extensive erosion during northeast storms in the winter is prevented by this phenomenon. 5-128 -n Ul o a) m CHATHAM C) m z 1.:1 0 (D 0 z 0 0 1-41-50 Fj En 0 Pi (D U) ri. < m P- F-I ct rt I W 41*37' 3 FJ- N) Lo rf- 0 Id4s Isss 1902 ISS5 0 2 MILES T. P, ri- I l .. '@p @' @11 * I I tell 1"I fail sill 1940 on$ 1044 10 :10 Typt Oir W-1ve"ENT 5 M1 go" ':C-4 -LAjL fall Mt 1131 fowl 1911 9941 Total annual f"imncy o( Scrth All.ritre t, it is PC mpicat eyelpmr-s, aml a No-rth Atlantle hurricari", I I Ge f I Y moyrnivnt, 6 LnOlvited by yam.= shadinp. FREQUE'NCY OF DAMAGING COASTAL STORMS EASTER,11 UNITED STATES, 1921 1964 If 00- fill- a- It H. 41 41 4) 41 48 It 1) 55 31 SS 0 IL J A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION TR FIGURE Storm Frequency in Monomoy Aiea (Goldsmith, 5-67 1972) 5-130 TCT-S (ZL61 'T44TIUSP-coo) 89-S PUPTSI Koiuouow SGTTJOad 2VU GaOqSJJO 38now N01938 OLLNV-UV Hi8ON 3Hi =10 AEiOiN3ANI IVINWMHAN3 ONV OIV40NO03 - O@Kmv Un cwo ol -Tl -Ti 0 0 0) o co rl 0 0 0 m N M-2 E3AR TOPOGRAP,'-Vi' I I AUG. 1966 PROFILE STAKES M PLANE TABLE @Plf 10 C.1 - 1, Pij.111fI SCALE 0 200 FT. 2 0/ -7 14 AUG. jc,@-38 S Y 1 T R, I C A L ASYM,@,!E TRICAL 2' 10-,@lxruc)c- 8' WAV E LEN G T, i 01MENTATiCiN A%,o -7CALE OF RIPPLES MENTATION PLANIE VEDS ONLY WIND "F C-HRECTION S 45 W R'- ST S N 15 E A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION IRI %P)@ I FIGURE _I Topography and Bedforms-Mono'moy 5-69 (Goldsmith, 1972) 5-132 0 0 0 LU FA SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION Hypothetical Wave Refraction Pattern ;7@ FIGURE 5_70 (Goldsmith, 1972) b-133 Lrl T&IO ZILS.. blkvf'3 P ROM 87-5 1 rT 5r". Ron ai.5. F, TIDIr I.S VIM T Y-Pxtt y P X.1's 21 .00 70-00 40 .0-11 1 C! - n afia.co '70-06 'p n 10 1".. NAUSCT T 0-4), cl -n rf Ln c m m Z' Ji N. X!c- Q 0) 0 I< m U: F- (D (A (D FJ- @-b IT rt, h olp H P-. t-0 0 M V "C' "y F "V- En n (D 0 0 (D -,-a Pro'i -s 0 L.LEI 0 17 Ivy W3@T li.@ 8ATHYN!ETRY-*,;,,:@,%0%t0y CLAI.*3 Am viawry 0 CATHY'-'.CTPY-lk'0lNClA0Y MA'4D mc vTcpt cacs Orypf-w. @EPT)4 Ot fXV003 O.M.-n ArTER COG3 e7t!ON-rA mpTH w rATiv@wl@3,4.0 ."4-470@aSPTOD) ZL-S AOUIOUOW -4 PUOT-4aJOOV PUP UOTSO-Ta 38now N01038 OUMUV HJL80N 3H.L JO kHO-LN3ANI WiN31NNOHIAN3 CNV OINON003-oloos V 17 F@ n- Q U 0 N) Cf) CO 0 - 0 0 C) CZ) 0 0 -q 0 0 rrl CD J > > < G) A@\ FFl CD CO U) 0 =r > 0 C: W 0 ::3 CD 0 It z- 0 oV N1 0 v STI RAND LINE @vi i",@3i"-_?.@AAT 101 N 110111TIHS 2 L LAND 0 50 FT. SEA M-6 1%1-4 M-5. 1968 J- J. A- < S_ 0. N D- 19 63, 8 J_ F- M_ A- M_ J_ A- S. 0. N 1959 D i-970 J_ F- M_ A- M_ J_ A- S. 0 N D 1970 J. 1971 F. A M A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC FIGURE. Mo TR nomoy Island Strand Line Migration 5-73 (Goldsmith, 1972) 5-136 L (ZL6T 'Ll-4TUISPTOD) PUPTSI AOIUOUOW- VVL-S -upaw oTqdpaD-uoTqnqTaqs@rG ZdS uTp "D qo'pa@l 3unow N01038 OLLNV-UV HIHON 31-11 =10 A8OiN3ANI -lVi-N3V4NO8[AN3 (INV OINON003-Mos v PHI 0 pi > PHI > ::2 w C: Zl Cr, 7lu 0 m r- 0 Dl U) 0 ci -u c fil -C ;10 C) > r rri0 (ZL6T 'q4TUISPTOD) *I*W - UOT4PTA9CI Pippup4s D-.qdpaE) allS UTP-To LJO-eag 9ATsnTou.I-uoTqnqTa4sTC[ Elunow NOMU OUNV"UV HlbION 31-11 AO AMOiN3ANI'-IVlN3INN08[AN3 (INV OIVYON003-0rM v PHI "'T z p 1-1 1 Cl) 0 0 CU C In z tl > > > Z r pi r n -AA <- C-LIFr 5 t c -r i o N--m-> \\y % MEDIAN DIAM ETER COE FFJ'-- I E N' SORTING r OF '4 COE FFICI ENT 0 F SKEWNESS ooo 'o@ooo* A SOCIO-ECONOW AND ENVIR ONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC RMION TRIJ01 FIGURE Characteristics of LitL toral Sands Along 5-75 Cod (Schalk, 1939) 5.1.6 REFERENCES Abele, R.W., Jr.,1973. 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New England Division., Corps of Engineers, Waltham, Mass. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1971a. Beach erosion control study: Long Sands Beach, York, Maine: interim report. New England Division, Corps of Engineers, Waltham, Mass. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1971b. National shoreline study: North Atlantic Region, Vol. 1 and 2. No. Atlantic Corps of Engineers, New York. Wiegel, R.L., 1964. Oceanographical engineering: New Jersey, Prentice- Hall, Inc., 532 p. Woodworth, J.B., and Wigglesworth, E., 1934. Geography and geology of the region including Cape Cod, the Elizabeth Islands, Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, No Man's Land, and Block Island: Harvard Coll. Mus. Comp. Zoology Mem., 52:338 pp. 5-147 ,Zeigler, J.M., Hayes, C.R. and Tuttle, S.D., 1959. Beach changes during storms on outer Cape Cod, Massachusetts: Journal. Geology, 67:318-336. Zeigler, J.M. and Tuttle,.S.D., 1961. Beach changes based on daily .measurements of four Cape Cod beaches: Journ. Geology, 69:583- 599. 5.2 WIND AND.WAVE CLIMATE Waves, more than any other phenomenon, control physical processes along exposed coastlines. Inasmuch as waves are caused by wind, a review of the winds that operate in the Gulf of Maine area will serve as a basis of understanding of the wave climate of New England as well as an under- standing of the processes that build, erode and maintain coastal dunes. 5.2.1 WINDS The prevailing winds which affect the New England coastline are the northwest, south-southwesterly and south-southeasterly winds. The northwest winds accompany strong high pressure systems moving into New England and predominate throughout the winter months. Inasmuch as the northwesterly winds are offshore they do not generate waves that .affect beaches except within Cape Cod Bay which faces the northwest; they generally oppose oncoming waves elsewhere along the New England shoreline, and serve to decrease wave heights coming ashore. These winds, however, do affect coastal dune systems. Extended periods of offshore winds, blowing sand from dune fields behind foredune ridges, will initiate accretion of dune lobes from foredune ridges out onto the back-berm area of the beach. Subsequent erosion of the beach during northeast storms, also frequent during the winter months, removes the original.dune sand from the littoral system. Strong northwest winds also enhance mixing in the surface layers of the estuarine water column of those embayments that are aligned northwest- southeast, an alignment typical of estuaries in Maine. South-southwesterly and south-southeasterly winds are generated from flow off established high pressure systems (the Bermuda High) during the summer months. Southwest winds generate waves that affect the western coast of the Cape Cod "forearm" (Nilsson, 1972), the western side of Monomoy Island (Goldsmith, 1972), and the south-central and south- eastern coast of Maine. (See Figure @-76). Data from the National Weather Service Station at Portland, Maine,. indicate that south-southeasterly winds predominate.- (See Fidure 5-77). These southeast winds, apparently peculiar to the southwest coast of Maine, may be the result of interference of the eastern Massachusetts HOURS PER YEAR 12 -4- AVERAGE WIND SPEED MPH -ne w E LEGEND 32-39 :MPH 39-46 MPH GREATER THAN WIND ROSE 46 MPH LOGAN AIRPORT, BOSTON, MASS. OCTOBER 1949-SEPTEMBER 1959 DURATION FOR EACH RANGE OF WIND SPEEDS IS MEASURED OUTWARD FROM TOP OF UNDERLYING BAR GRAPH. PERCENT DURATION PER DEGREE IS THE AVERAGE PERCENT DURATION 013SERVED FOR EACH 16 POINTS OF THE COMPASS DIVIDED BY 22 1/2 DEGREES. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANDENVIRONIVIENTAL'INVENTORY OF THE NORTH AT-LAN11C REGION FIGURE 5-76 Wind Diagram-Boston 5-149 N f t Illy s WIND DIAGRAM PORTLANDo M1 A I NE OCTOBER 1949 SEPTEMBER 1964 INCLUSIVE MIDDLE ROSE AVE. SPEED, M.RH. WINDS > 32 K@H- INNErR, ROSE DURIATIONI/DEGREE n 32 - 38 M.PH. 39-46 KPR OVER 47 KPH. A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION .TR FIGURE 5-77 wind Diagram-Portland, Maine 5-150 landmass to the south to the prevailing air streams, or to the inter- ference of two barometric highs, one south of Cape Cod and one north of Cape Cod in the*Bay of Fundy area. These southeast winds affect littoral drift along the southwestern beaches of Maine. Northeast and east winds are the dominant winds of the Gulf of Maine. These are the winds associated with the familiar "Nor'easter" storms which traverse the Gulf of Maine along the coast from south to north. Wind velocities of 80 to 90 km are common during storms, and, in many instances, strong winds have a fetch equalling the width of the continental shelf; waves generated by these strong east-northeasterly winds strongly affect beach erosion and coastal,damage along the entire New England coast save the protected beaches along the south and southeast margins of Cape Cod Bay. Northeast storms are extra-tropical cyclonic lows. Winds generated around these low-pressure systems are counter-clockwise in orientation. As the low pressure system passes through the Gulf of Maine, the Northeast winds shift to a northerly and then northwesterly direction. Northwest winds then directly oppose waves generated by northeast winds, initiat- ing rapid storm wave abatement (See Figure 5-78). Tropical storms, hurricanes, are generated in the Caribbean Ocean as tropical cyclonic storms with counter-clockwise rotating winds; and move north affecting the Gulf of Maine region as they move onshore in southern New England or offshore before they hit the Canadian Maritimes. Southeasterly winds preceed the passage of the storm center, and, as the center passes over New England, the winds shift through south to a westerly direction. Peak winds accompany passage of the center, coming from the south-southeast as well as the south-southwest. Peak winds may reach 161 km ph velocities. Chute (1946) documented wind velocities of 143 km ph at Hyannis, Massachusetts during the hurricane of 1944. Winds are faster along the right hand side of the storm because they are augmented by the forward movement of the storm. Waves generated during hurricanes have been'responsible for coastal damage exceeding $100 million, but the effectiveness of damaging waves is mostly due to increased water levels accompanying storm centers. Increased levels are caused by extreme barometric pressure lows as well as wind-setup along the coast. Storm sea-levels during hurricanes may exceed normal levels by I to 1.5 m (Redfield and Miller, 1957) or by .5,to 1 m during northeast storms. 5-151 ell 1012 -1008 1004 1000 -184 gag 989 996 I AM FES 19 1000 7 PM 1004 IPM FEB ]a 1008 1012 SURFACE WEATHER MAP 7 AM EST FEBRUARY 19, 1972 to INDICATES TIME AND LOCATION OF LOW PRESSURE CENTER WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION 1020 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IN MILLIBARS A SOCO- ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE Passage of a IBarometric LowThrough Gulf of Mai 5-152 5-78a Feb. 19, 1972 (Abele,,1973) 1003 1004 IC,,W S95 -------- @ 993 994 v L 97o L 7 AM 980 I AM FEB 20 S84 n2 996 100o Zl- 1004 I PM 7 A%1 I AM FEB 19 1008 U 7 PIM 1 P,*,-. FEB 13 S RFACE WEATHER NIAP UF 7 A."A EST FEBRUARY 20, 1972 a INDICATES TIME AND LOCATION OF LOW PRESSURE CENTERS WIND SPEED AND DIRECTION 1000 ATMOSRHERIC PRESSURE IN MILL12ARS ,f A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH AnANTIC REGIONJ GU 1E Passage of a Barometric Low Th .roug'h Gulf of r5' _ 78bj Maine FEB ZQ, 1972 (Abe Ile, 1973) 5-153 5.2.2 REFERENCES Abele, R. W., Jr. 1973. Short-term changes in beach morphology,and concurrent dynamic processes, summer and winter periods, 1971- 1972, Plum Island, Massachusetts: Unpub. M.S. thesis, Univ. of Massachusetts, Amherst. Chute, N.E. 1946. Shoreline changes along the south shore of Cape Cod caused by the hurricane of Sept., 1944, and the storms of Nov. 30, 1944, and January 1, 1945: Washington, D.C., Comm. of Mass., Dept. of Public Words, Geologic Series, Bull. 9. Goldsmith, V. 1972. Coastal processes of a barrier island, Monomoy Island, Massachusetts: Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Mass., 467 pp. Nilsson, H.D. 1972. Coastal and subtidal morphology of eastern Cape. Cod Bay, Massachusetts: M.S. Thesis, Univ. of Mass., 174 pp. Redfield, A.C... and Miller 1957. Water levels accompanying Atlantic Coast hurricanes: In Interaction of sea and atmosphere: 'Meteorological Mon., 2:1-23. 5-154 5.3 BIOLOGICAL OCEANOGRAPHY 5.3.1 SANDY SHORES In this section the biology of the sandy shores habitat is considered. The habitat is defined, its dynamics described, the effect of man- induced stress discussed, its biological components listed and the dis- tribution of the habitat in the study area illustrated. The major components of the habitat are the benthic invertebrates, macrophytes, fishes and birds. For a detailed treatment of the life history and ecology of these taxonomic groups, the reader is referred to chapters -10.0, Benthic Invertebrates, 11.0, Macrophytes, 12.0, Fishes, and 13.0, Birds. HABITAT DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION The exposed, sandy shore habitat includes those areas of unconsolidated sediments ranging from cobbles through shingle to fine sand, found from the intertidal to 20 m depth, and exposed to heavy wave action. This habitat generally occurs.on the open coast, south of Cape Cod. HABITAT DYNAMICS Environmental Conditions By definition, the most important environmental characteristic is the heavy wave action. Sediment composition and beach shape are determined by wave action. The high energy o 'f the.waves, resulting in shifting sediments and constant turbulence, cause the sandy shore to be the most biologically depauperate habitat discussed in this study. Epifauna is essentially nonexistant while the infauna is restricted to a few species specialized to cope with the stressful environment. Microenvironments The high-energy sandy shore is found from the intertidal to 20 m depth so that both intertidal and subtidal environments are found. Within these microenvironments, the sediment is sorted according to the dynamics of wave action (e.g. Hedgpeth, 1957) so that an area of coarse sand may lie adjacent to a pocket of fine sand. The aerobic top layer may be up ,to a meter thick in the upper@intertidal while the lower, anaerobic layer may extend to within 1 cm subtidally (Fenchel and Riedl, 1970). Both sediment composition and oxygen content strongly influence the meiofaunal species composition (Fenchel, 1969). Nutrient Cycles and Food Webs, As in worm@-clam-bottoms, of which the sandy shore is-in reality only a special sub-type, there is,ve.ry little. primary.productivity within the sandy shore habitat. The most.important. energy sources are the detritus 5-155 PRODUCERS ZOOPLANKTON PHYTOPLANKTON SUSPENSION FEEDERS BENTHIC Bivalve molluscs MICROFLORA Spisula, Ensis, Mesodesma Interstitial diatoms crab Emerita `Y MEIOBENT IS Harpacticoids Protozoans Nematodes Ostracods DEPOSIT FEEDERS Bivalve mol lusc Tel lind IMPORT Echinoderm Echinarachinus Polychaete wom Nepthys E- OMNIVO SCAVENGERS Amphipods Haustori us Orchestia PolycF"t, ,,,r, Nereis PREDATOR SCAVENGERS DETRITUS AND DEBRIS.. Gastropods Lunatia q.. ao (wave transported materi Crat;@ Pagurus, Cancer rish Morone, Ammodytes. uvenile fish Birds Plovers. sandpipers DEATH T.* ........... PELAGIC % LARVAE EXPORT ADULT MIGRATIONS A socK)-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRoNmENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC FIGURE 5-79 Food Web-Sandy Shore Community 5-156 and soluble organic compounds washed up by waves and absorbed onto the sand-grains from water percolated through the sand (McIntyre, Munro and Steele, 1970). Since macrofauna are usually not very abundant in this habitat, the major energy flow and nutrient recycling within the sedi- ment is probably through the meiofauna. The meiofaunal food chain outlined in Norm-Clam" bottoms is thus very important here. Species constituting the major groups indicated in that food web will vary according to season and sediment type (Fenchel, 1969). Another food chain is based on the decomposition of the windrows of Zostera, macroalgae.and dead bodies left by the tide. Shorebird populations are a major route of nutrients out of the habitat although they undoubtedly contribute to the nutrient supply through their waste 'products. Seasonal Cycles and Natural Stress Seasonal cycles are marked and often drastic in the sandy shore. In general, winter storms remove much of a beach, transferring the sand offshore or to locations downshore (Hedgpeth, 1957). During the spring and summer the beach increases in width and height, although a severe storm may again temporarily remove part of the beach. In Addition to this wholesale movement of sand, sand is constantly being shifted and sorted. A constant feature of sandy shores is the formation and movement of cusps. Often segments of populations of burrowers may be smothered by a passing cusp (Hedgpeth, 1957). As a consequence of both the seasonal removal and constant shifting of sand, most sandy shore species are active burrowers and have annual life cycles. Population densities are also highly irregular, being dependant on the common annual variations in larval success. .Temperature differences between the surface and several centimeters deep in the sediment become more marked during the summer (Hedgpeth, 1957). Because clean sand does not hold water well during low tides, the upper intertidal is often subject to periodic dessication during summer in addition to the higher temperatures. Such stresses lead to the regular migrations of the infauna, especially the merofauna, both vertically and horizontally (Hummon, 1969; Pollock, 1969, 1970). Relative Productivity Shingle and cobble beaches are essentially abiotic due to the exceed- -ingly unstable and stressful nature of these sediments (Eltringham, 2 1.971). Sand beaches are only-slightly more productive, the 5 g C m- yr-l primary production of an exposed beach in Scotland (Table 1, Worm-Clam bottom).being less productive than a desert (Eltringham, 1971). Biomass of consumers on the same beach rounted to 1.65 gm dry weight/m-2 (1.3 g/m-2 macrofauna + 0.35 g/m microfauna, McIntyre, et al., 1970). When this is compared to, for example,.the.-figure -sfor 5-157 a salt marsh (Table 1 and 3 in "Salt Marsh"), it becomes clear that the sandy shore is the least productive marine habitat discussed. EFFECT OF MAN-INDUCED STRESS One of the most important stresses.on the sandy shore is the construction of groins and jetties perpendicular to'the shoreline. Most sand beaches are renewed annually by sand carried by longshore currents parallel to the beach. Groins and jetties interrupt this flow causing sand to pile up on the up-current side and beaches on the down-current side to vanish from lack of sand (Schuberth, 1972). Examples of this process can be seen all along the coast of southern New England and are exceptionally obvious at the beaches in Falmouth, Massachusetts (pers. obs.). Sandy shores are by nature dynamic habitats'and can exist only in this State. Attempts to "stabilize" them only result in less of the habitat. The National Park Service has recognized this and forbade dune development and construction of jetties both on the Cape Cod and Cape Hatteras National Seashores (Dolan, Godfrey and Odum, 1973). Another man-induced stress of current concernis the effect of oil spills on this habitat. Surveys of exposed sandy beaches in the Santa Barbara Channel after the 1969 oil well blowout, found very little damage due to oil pollution (Straughan, 1,972). Experimental studies in Scotland have, in essence, confirmed this finding. Johnston (1970) found that the microbial rate of oil destruction (at 10 C) in heavily oiled sand was 0.09 g m-2 day-l- These rates continued for several months result- ing in reduction of approximately 10 percent of the oil. The remaining 90 percent was exceedingly resistant of breakdown, but, in fact, did not appear to be "oily" to touch or smell. Similar studies on-sand from a Cape Cod beach (Bloom, 1970) produced similar results and the h' YPO- thesis that 300 days would be required to degrade the oil. In both studies microbial and meiofaunal populations did notseem to be.affected. However, since rate of decomposition depends on amount of oxygen avail- able, burial of oil spills would delay the ultimate breakdown by reducing available oxygen (Johnston,'1970). BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS General Distribution As in all intertidal and shallow water habitats, the sandy shore biota ...are zoned. Unfortunately, relatively little study has been done des cribing these zones,, especially in this study area. At the upper littoral zone, a very high density of talitrid amphipods (beath "fleas" or "hoppers") lives in the detritus left by the retreating tide. The intertidal. area is generally inhabitated by one to a few species of very active burrowers (e.g. Emerita sp (mole crab) or haustorid amphipods). In the subtidal area, very high densities of Spisula solidissima often occur. Depending on conditions, EchinaracTnius Parma. (sand d6l-l a1. r) and Tellina sp. may occur associated with small polychaete 5-158 worms (Hedgpeth, 1957). Study of the zonation and species composition of the meiofauna, probably more important than the macrofauna in energy cycling in this habitat, has only recently begun (Pollock, 1969, 1970; Hummon, 1969, 1971). Fishes The following is a list of fishes normally found in the Sandy Shore habitat within the continental shelf area between Sandy Hook, New Jersey, and the Bay of Fundy. Because of their mobility, the assign- ment of a particular species to a habitat has, in some cases, been somewhAt arbitrary, especially in assigning a particular species to either a pelagic or a demersal habit. In such cases, the criterion has been the extent of the species' impact on a particular habitat, i.e., if a fish species feeds principally on pelagic animals, then it would be considered part of the pelagic community. The scientific names are those published by the American Fisheries Society: A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes, 1970 edition. The species notations in the checklist are defined as follows: I. Geographical distribution and relative abundance A. The geographical distribution includes three categories North - Primarily distributed north and east. of a line from Cape Cod and the Nantucket Shoals through George's Bank. South - Primarily distributed south and west to that line Throughout - Distributed throughout the study area. B. The relative abundance is indicated by the terms: abundant, common, occasional and rare. These are meant to indicate' rough, relative indices and are in no way quantitative measures. In each case they refer to the abundance in the area of primary distribution, i.P., north, south or throughout. II. Depth distribution. The following terms are used to describe the depth or the inshore-offshore, characteristics of the species. Fresh-water Brackish water Nearshore coastline to 1.8 m. Coa@"tai - out to 91 m Offthore - 91 m to the continental slope Basin, - deep basin of the Gulf of Maine BanFs - shallow, offshore bank areas, i.e., George's Bank Oceanic - pelagic fish of open ocean habit. The species marked.*** are considered as "key species" in that they are a primary constituent of the habitat, a commercially important species or a rare or endangered species. The life history of these will be treated in Chapter 12.0, Fishes. 5m159 TABLE 5-1 Checklist of Fishes Sandy Shores Species Geographical Depth Habit Distribution, Distribution Abundance Sharks Sand shark common south nearshore to food-small fish; Odontaspis taurus coastal, 1.83 m shallow sand bars to 183 m. Skates Winter skate common through- nearshore to food-fish, small Raja ocellata out 91 m invertebrates Little skate*** abundant nearshore to food-small fish, Raja erinacea throughout 137 m invertebrates; sandy-pebbly bottom Anchovies Anchovy common south nearshore to food-copepods; Anchoa mitchelli coastal principally mouths of rivers Smelts .Capelin occasional. north coastal food-small inverte- Millotus villosus brates; eastern Maine to Bay of Fundy Killifish Striped killifish abundant nearshore food-small Fundulus*majalis south animals Silversides Silversides*** abundant brackish to food-small crust- Menidia menidia south nearshore aceans, fish eggs, invertebrate larvae, vegetable matter Tidewater silverside common fresh to food-small crust- Menidia beryllina south nearshore aceans, fish eggs, invertebrate larvae. 5-160 Species Geographical Depth Habit Distribution, Distribution Abundance Bluefishes Bluefish*** abundant south coastal to food-fish, Pomatomous saltatrix oceanic squid Temperate basses Striped bass*** abundant nearshore to food-small fish, Morone saxatilis throughout coastal invertebrates Drums Weakfish common south brackish to food-small school- Cynoscion reqalis coastal ing fish, inverte- brates; sandy bottom Northern common south nearshore to food-inverte- kingfish coastal brates, young fish; Menticirrhus hard or sandy saxatilis bottom Silver perch occasional coastal sandy bottom Bairdiella south chrysura Channel bass ocassional south nearshore to food-molluscs, Sciaenops ocellatus coastal crustaceans; sand bottom ,Sand lances sand lances*** abundant coa-stal, food-small Ammodytes sp throughout banks crustaceans; sand bottom Fl ounders Winter flounder*** abundant brackish to food-small Pseudopleuronectes throughout coastal, banks bottom inverte- americanus to 128 m. brates Windowpane common south nearshore to- food-small Scophthalmus aquosus coastal to invertebrates 73 m 5-161 Species Geographical Depth Hab.it Distribution, Distribution Abundance Puffers Northern puffer. common south brackish to food-small Sphaeroides nearshore crustaceans 5-162 REFERENCES Bloom, Stephen, A., 1970. An oil dispersant's effect on the micro- flora of beach sand. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 50:919-924. Dolan, R, Godfrey, P.J., and Odum,. W.E., 1973. Man's impact on the Barrier Islands of North Carolina, Amer. Sci. 61:152@162. Eltringham,S.K., 1971. Life in sand and mud. New York: Crane, Russak and Co., Inc. 218 pp. .Fenchel, T., 1969. The ecology of marine microbenthos. IV. Structure and function of the benthic ecosystem, its chemical and physical factors and the microfauna communities with special reference to the ciliated protozoa. Ophelia, 6:1-182. Fenchel, T., and Riedl, R.J., 1970. The sulfide system: a new biotic community underneath the oxidized layer of marine sand bottoms. Mar. Biol., 7:255-268. Hedgpeth J.W., 1957. Sandy beaches. Chapter 19 In J.W. Hedgpeth, ed.: Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 67. Hummon, W.D.., 1969. Distributional ecology of marine interstitial gastrotricha from Wood's Hole, Massachusetts. Doctoral Thesis, Univ. of Mass. 117 p. , 1971. Biogeography of sand beach Gastrotricha from the Northeastern United States. Biol. Bull.141:390. Johnston, R., 1970. The decomposition of crude oil residues-in sand columns, J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K., 5Q:924-938. McIntyre, A.D., Munro, A.L.S., and Steele, J.H., 1970. Energy flow in a sand ecosystem. pp. 19-31 In J. H. Steele, ed. "Marine Food Chains." Berkeley: Univ. df-California Press. 552 pp. Pollock, L.W., 1969. The,biology of marine Tardigrada at Wood's Hole, Massachusetts. Doctoral Thesi,s, Univ. New Hampshire, 200 p. 1970. Distribution and dynamics of interstitial Tardigrada at Wood's Hole, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Ophelia, 7:145-165. Schuberth, C.J., 1972. Beach erosion: is there a solution? Under- water Nat., 7:4-10. Straughn.,,D., 1972. Biolo.gi,ca.1 effects, of oil pollution in the Santa Barbara.Channel.. pp. 355-3,59 In, M. Ruivo, ed. "Marine Pollution and Sea Life." London: FishinqN&s. (Books) Ltd., 624 pp. 5-16.3 5.3.2 ROCKY SHORES In this section the biology of the rocky shore habitat is considered. The habitat is defined, its dynamics described, the effect of man- induced stress discussed, its biological components listed and the distribution of the habitat in the study area illustrated. The major components of the habitat are the benthic invertebrates, macrophytes, fishes and birds. For a detailed treatment of the life history and ecology of these taxonomic groups the reader is referred to chapters 10.0, Benthic Invertebrates, 11.0, Macrophytes, 12.0, Fishes, and 13.0, Birds. HABITAT DEFINITION/DESCRIPTION The rocky shore habitat includes all shores washed by saline waters from the top of the zone wetted by spray to 20 m depth with a rock substrate ranging from solid outcrops of bedrock to broken boulder beaches. HABITAT DYNAMICS Environmental Conditions and Microenvironments The first, and most obvious, characteristic of rocky shores is that the substrate is solid. Thus, in the region covered by this study, the biota are restricted to epiflora and fauna: no species dwell beneath the surface. Competition for space is consequently uniquely important in this habitat. The second most important enviornmental-characteristic is the nature of the water washing the rock. Differences in salinity and temperature from the open coast to upper estuarine reaches have an important overall effect on the composition of the biota in an area. Much more important on the local level is the nature of the water movement. (The following discussion is abstracted from Lewis, 1968). Two types of water movement are recognized: 1) the horizontal flow of tidal currents and 2) the turbulence and violence of wave action. Areas affected by either breaking waves or strong tidal currents are distinguished by silt-free substrata and, due to the thorough mixing of water masses, an absence of chemical or temperature gradients. On wave-washed shores, probably the most important characteristic limiting the types of species present is the pull or drag of the water on the organism. The violence of such drag eliminates delicate or large species in favor of small or stunted, strongly attached forms. Areas with very turbulent tidal flow share this characteristic and consequently show a similar biota. Where tidal flow is moderate, in contrast, the richest assemblage of forms, especially delicate forms of the Porifera, Hydrozoa, Polyzoa, Bryozoans and Ascidiacea, are found. Lewis postulates that such areas combine the advantages of wave washed coasts with a 5-164 lack of violence, creating optimal conditions for sessile, attached forms. At the end of the spectrum, in sheltered areas lacking currents or waves, the substrate often becomes silt-covered and seasonal or short-term fluctuations in such factors as salinity and turbidity tend to be more severe than in nearby, more "exposed" areas. Other conditions which restrict the type of species that live in sheltered areas include competition for space with the abundant fucoid algae characteristic of such areas and lowered mixing rates reducing the number of larvae coming in contact with the rock surface, reducing the probabil,ity of settlement of many species. Another obvious characteristic of rocky shores is the zonation of plants and animals. The fundamental reasons for this are the grad- ients of exposure int6rtidally and of light penetration subtidally. The upper limit of most species zones in the intertidal is deter- mined by the varying physiological tolerances to dessication and lower level by biological interactions. (For very complete dis- cussion of these factors, see, for example, Lewis, 1964; Stephenson and Stephenson, 1972; Doty, 1957). Subtidally, the algal species are zoned according to their differing efficiencies of utilizing light of various wave lengths, since the deeper the water the less light there is with the shorter wave-lengths being eliminated first. The width and height of these zones are determined by the frequency and height of wave action; the more frequent and higher the waves, the wider and higher on the shore the zones are (Lewis, 1968). In very sheltered areas, zones are markedly reduced and often don't exte'nd even to high tide level. Nutrient Cycles True nutrient cycles don't exist on rocky shores. The biota of rocky shores are usually.dominated by the macroalgae (Fucus, Laminaria), yet only 10 percent of their production is utilized within the habitat. The remaining 90 percent is exported and becomes the basis of food chains in other habitats where imported detritus forms a significant supplement to indigenous primary production (e.g., pelagic, worm and clam flats, sandy shores) (Mann, 1973). Seasonal Cycles Seasonal cycles in environmental conditions occur more markedly the more sheltered the area is. In estuarine areas and salt ponds the rocky shore biota are subjected to all seasonal extremes already dis- cussed under these habitats, compounded in intertidal areas by the bi-monthly cycles of tidal heights (See Natural Stress). Mann (1973) has demonstr ated a seasonal cycle in the rate of primary productivity. Although the macroalgae grow all year round, peaks in 5-165 the growth rate occur during the months of March and April (in Nova Scotia) and the lowest rate is found during September and October., Because the rocky shore biota are dominated by long-lived organisms, seasonal changes in species abundance is not marked. Recruitment of young occurs very irregularly partly because larval success varies from year to year depending on the conditions encountered during their pelagic existence. A second factor is competition for space with already established adult populations. Even in sites cleared of adult populations, re-colonization occurs very slowly, especially for the macroalgae (Lewis, 1968). Food Webs The food web of rocky shores is probably the least complicated of all the marine habitats. This is at least partly due to the fundamentally one-dimensional nature of the substrate. There is no place for nutrients to accumulate becoming available for recycling within the habitat. Thus the food web is solely based on the macroalgae and phytoplankton, their consumers, and the predators of the consumers. Because of this, interactions tend to be simple. As Mann (1973) points out, the key predator on the sea urchin is probably the lobster. The sea 'urchin in turn is the most destructive grazer on the kelp bed. With the present intense fishing pressure on the lobster, the main control on the sea urchin population is removed, allowing it to expand causing destruction of kelp beds. To put it another way, to increase kelp bed production,.fishing pressure on the lobster should be partially released. The increased numbers of lobsters should in turn reduce the sea urchin population. Relative Productivity Mann (1973) found that the primary production of the seaweel zone in St. Margaret's Bay, Nova Scotia, was 1750 g C per m-2 yr- . This worked -out to three times the production of the phytoplankton in the Bay. Such a level of production ranks the seaweed zone as one of the highest areas of primary production in the marine habitat. For com- parison, turtle grass (Thalassia) beds in the Caribbean produced around 600-900 g C m-2 yr-lond in the Atlantic North America ranges from 100 to 900 g C y Natural Stress Intertidal populations are especially vulnerable during low tides to extremes of weather. Times of greatest physiological stress occur when low tide falls during the summer mid-day, winter blizzards, or heavy rainstorms. The organisms thus exposed must be able to withstand high temperatures and dessication, freezing, and sudden, prolonged changes in salinity, respectively. Often such extreme conditions are believed to be the limiting factor in the distribution and zonation of a species 5-166 PRODUCERS ZOOPLANKTON PHYTOPL=ANKTON SUSPENSION FEEDERS MACROPHYTES Sessile coelenterates 6.. Metridium, sponges U1 d worm Hydroides Laminaria Chondus n Fucus Ilivalve molluscs 'llyti l us Ascophyllum Dirracle Epiphytes Ralanus Ascidians GRAZERS Gastropods Littorina, Acmaea Chitons Echinoderms Arbacia Strongylocentrotus 0- DEPOSIT IMPORT FEEDERS On sheltered areas) Gammarid amphipods PREDATORY SCAVENGERS 'n. DETRITUS AND DEBRIS nudibrand (wave transported'material) Crabs Cancer. carcirllyLss Lobster Homarus Echinoderm Asterias PREOAT09Y %A Fish TautqqqL@Jbrus W." DEATH ...... -!*.r-., Pholis myoxocephalus Pollachius Birds Eider duck gull Mamals Seals EXPORT PELAGIC LARVAE ADULT MIGRATIONS A SOCIO-ECONCIMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGI FIGURE L 5-80 1 Food Web Rocky Shore C.o.mImunity 5_167 Other natural stresses include scour from winter ice and storm waves. Whole areas of shore may be periodically denuded especially when a bay frequently freezes during the winter. EFFECT OF MAN-INDUCED STRESS Largely because of their 'accessibility and the obviousness of popu- lation changes, several types of man-induced changes on rocky shores have been well-documented. The effects on rocky shores biota of a spill of Bunker C crude oil in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia, were closely studied. In general, the biota were affected most severely where the oil was particularly heavy. In such areas the fauna completely disappeared. In areas of lighter oiling, effects were more variable. The fauna (Balanus balanoides, Littorina spp.) showed no severe reduction in abundance or-d-i-s-ruption in recruitment. Fucus spiralis, however, was reduced or eliminated and no evidence 6-f -recolonization could be found after two years. The original oiling, however, disappeared fairly rapidly from all rocky shores except in very sheltered areas, leading to the conclusion that clean-up of such spills is not necessary except at heavily oiled sites (Thomas, 1973). The effects of repeated spillages and the use of oil emulsifiers on biota has been studied at South-west Wales (Colwell, Baker and Crapp, 1972). Most littoral species are resistant to toxic oil spills, the major effect,being a mechanical one; snails coated with a heavy layer of oil are most likely to be dislodged by waves. Tests with emulsif- iers revealed that most fauna have a seasonally varying resistance to the toxicity. Most snails respond by withdrawing into their shell (especially Littorines) and are consequently then easily rolled off the shore. When the large populations of grazing snails are thus removed or killed by the emulsifier (e.g., limpets and mussels) the area becomes recolonized by first Enteromorpha and then Fucus vesiculosus. The character of the shore then is completely altered. Borowitzka (1972) studied the effects of an outfall of raw domestic sewage on algal species distribution and diversity. The results of such studies can be applied to any rocky shore because of the worldwide similarity of the rocky shore biota (Stephenson and Stephenson, 1972). In the immediate area of the outfall, animal species and zonation of all species are eliminated. Only immature Enteromorpha and Chaetomorpha ,thrive, species characteristically "pi6_neer" species in denuded areas. Borowitzka discovered that both the distance from the edge of the rock platform and distance from the sewer outfall affect algal species diver- sity. Diversity increases with distance from the outfall and is highest in the lower littoral. 5-168 BIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS General Distribution The following zones generally constitute the basic pattern of intertidal zonation on rocky shores from the upper to lower limits: lichens above spray, blue-green algae and Littorina saxatilis in spray zone, Fucus spp. competing with barnacles (Balanus sp.) in upper area and mussels (Mytilus edulis) in lower areas of fucoid zone, Ascophylum., perhaps another Fucus sp. grading into Chondrus crispus and Ulvua in the lower intertidal and upper sublittoral. The lichen and blue-green zones are especially affected by wave action, becoming more developed the greater the wave action. The fucoid species and Ascophylum *become more developed with greater shelter, while the barnacle and mussel zones predominate in more exposed areas (Lewis,,1968). Other abundant species in this zone are Littorina obtusata, and L. littorea, many amphipods, Thais lapillus, and often Asterias. Subtidally (1-3m depth) Chorda spp. and filamentous browns occur in sheltered areas, often adjacent to sandy shores, and are replaced by Chondrus crispus on exposed shores and Zostera marina on muddy shores. At 3-13m , Laminaria spp. are dominant; L. diqitata occurring in fairly exposed areas and L. longicruris in sheltered sites (4-18 m. depth). Agarum cribosum wifh an understo-ry of Ptilota serrata extends below Laminaria to soft substrates, dominating at 15-20 m depth. In highly exposed sites, Alaria sp. replaces the Laminaria (Mann, 1972). 5-169 Species Checklist The following is a checklist of benthic invertebrates. and fishes These species are considered to be regular inhabitants of the rocky shore habitat. TABLE 5-2 Benthic Invertebrates The following benthic invertebrates are found on rocky shores. The codes for their reported occurrence are: 1. Cape Cod, north and west shore .2. Massachusetts Bay to Cape Ann 3. Cape Ann to Cape Elizabeth 4. Cape Elizabeth to Small Point (Casco Bay) 5. Small Point to Port Clyde 6 * Port Clyde to Isle au Haut (Penobscot Bay) .7 Isle au Haut to Schoodic Peninsular 8: Schoodic Peninsula to Passamaquoddy' Bay 9., Maine coast, location unspecified 10. Georges Bank 5 170 Species Reported Occurrence Phylum Porifera Haliclona oculata .4,5,7,9 Cliona cel@Lta 7sul2hurea) 4,7,9 @rantia ciliata 4,9 Grantia coronata 4 Halichondria panicea 4,7,9 Halisarca sp. Leucosolenia cancellata 4,9 Microciona 7,9 Myxilla incrustans 7,9 Phylum Coelenterata, Class Hydrozoa Bougainvillia superciliaris 2,9 Campanularia flexuosa 2,3,4,6,8,9 Clava leptostyla 3,9 Hybocodon prolifer 2,9 Hydractinia-echinata 2,3,4,8,9,10 0 belia commissuralis 2,8,9 Obelia geniculata 2,4,8,9 -gertularia pumila 2,3,4,8,9 Tubularia crocea 2,4,8,9 -T 8,9 Tubularia arynx Phylum Coelenterata, Class Anthozoa Bunodea (=Bunodactis) stella 9 MJ-ridium senile 3,4,5,7, 9 Tealia crassicornis 4,5,7,9 Phylum Coelenterata, Class Scyphozoa Aurelia aurita Phylum Platyhelminthes, Class Turbellaria Notoplana atomata 4,9 Stylochus ellipticus 9 Phylum Annelida, Class Polychaeta Amphitrite brunnea 7 Eulalia viridis 3,9,10 Fabricia sabella 9 Harmathoe acanellae 7,9,10 Lepidonotus squamatus 3,5,7,9,10 Nereis virens 2,3,4,5,6,,7,8,9 Spirorbis borealis. 5 Spirorbis, spirillum- 40 Phylum Annelida, Class Oligocha,eta Clitellio arenarius Enchytraeus albidus Phylum Nemertea Amphiporus angulatus 4,9 Lineus viridis (=ruber) 4,8,9 Phylum Arthropoda, Subclass Cirripedia Balanus balanoides mid-low intertidal fa-lanus balanus low intertidal-subtidal Balanus crenatus rocks, shells, (subtidal) Balanus eburneus rocks, pilings Balanus improvisus Phylum Arthropoda, Order Mysidacea . @ysis stenolepis in rockweeds, low intertidal -Phylum Arthropoda, Order Isopoda. Jaera marina tide pools, especially upper ones Idotea baltiea Idotea phosphorea Phylum Arthropoda, Order Amphipoda Call,iopius laevuisculus especially in tide pools Melita dentata Tm@-ithoe rubricata Gammarus oceanicus tide pools Leptocheirus pinquis on hydroids, algae Caprella linearis Phylum Arthropoda, Order Decapoda Carcinides maenas Cancer borealis low intertidal-subtidal Cancer irroratus low intertidal-subtidal Homarus americanus Phylum Arthropoda, Class Insecta Anurida maritima tide pools; under rocks, on algae Phylum Mollusca, Class Gastropoda (Prosobranchia) Acmaca testudinalis- 3,5,7,9 Buccinum undatum 3,4,5,7,8 9 Crepidula fornicata Crepidula plana 3,9,10 Lacuna vincta 3,5,7,9 T17-t-torina littorea 3,5,7,8,9 Littorina obtusata 3,5,7,9 T17-t-torina saxatilis 3,5,7,9 Margarites groenlandica Neptunea decemcostata. 3,7,,8,9 Odostomia semiFu-da Thais lapillus 3,5,7,9 Urosalpinx cinerea 9 5-1.72 Phylum Mollusca, Class Gastropoda (Opisthobranchia) Aeolidia papillosa 2,5,7,9 Coryphella rufibranchialis 2,78,9 Onchidoris aspersa 9 Onchidoris fusca Palio lessonii Phylum Mollusca, Class Polyplacophora Ischnochiton ruber 9 Ischnochiton albus 9 Tonicella marmorea Phylum Mollusca, Class Pelecypoda Hiatella arctica 3,5,7,9 Mytilus edulis 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 Petricola pholadiformis 2,3,9 Modiolus modiolus 3,5,7,9 Zirfaea crispata 2 Phylum-Echinoderma, Class Asteroidea. Asterias vulgaris 5,7,9 Asterias forbesi 5,7,9 Crossaster papposus 7,9 Crossaster endeca 7,9 Henricia sanguinolenta 4,5,7,9 Phylum,Echinoderma, Class Ophiuroidea Amphipholis squamata 9 Ophiopholis aculeata 3,4,5,7,9 Phylum Echinoderma, Class Echinoidea Strongylocentrotus droehbachiensis 3,4,5,7,9 Phylum Echinoderma, Class Holothuroidea Cucumaria frondosa 5,7,9 Psolus fabricii 4,7,9 Psolus phantapus 4,7,9 Phylum Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) Bugula turrita 4,9 Crisea eburnea 4,597,9 Electra pilosa 9 Flustrellidra hispida 7,8,9 Gemellaria (=Eucratia) lornicata- 3,4,7,9 5-173 Phylum Chordata, Class Ascidiacea Amaroucium glabrum 4,9 Boltenia echinata .9 Boltenia ovifera 4,5,9 Botryllus schlosseri 3,5,9 Ciona intestinalis 4,9 Didemnum albidum 5,9 Halocynthia pyriformis 9 Perophora viridis- 9 Fishes The following-is a list of fishes normally found in the rocky shores habitat within the continental shelf area between Sandy Hook, New Jersey and the Bay of Fundy. Because of their mobility, the assign- ment of a particular species to a habitat has, in some cases, been somewhat arbitrary, especially in assigning a particular species to either a pelagic' or a demersal habit. In such cases the criteron has been the-extent of the species' impact on a particular habitat, i.e., if a fish species feeds principally on pelagic animals, then it would betonsidered part of the pelagic community. The scientific names are those.published by the American Fisheries Society: A List of Common and Scientific Names of Fishes, 1970 edition. The species notations in the checklist are defined as follows: I. Geographical distribution and relative abundance A. The geographical distribution includes three categories 1. North - Primarily distributed north and east of a line from Cape Cod and the Nantucket Shoals through George s Bank. 2. South - Primarily distributed south and west of that line 3. Throughout Distributed throughout. the study area. B. The relative abundance is indicated by the terms abundant, common, occasional and rare. These are meant to indicate rough, relative indices and are in no way quantitative measures. In each case they refer to the abundance in the area of primary distribution, i.e., north, south, throughout. Il. Depth distribution. The following terms are used to describe the depth or the inshore-offshore characteristics of the species. Fresh Water Brackish water Nearshore - coastline to 18 m Coastal out to 91 m Offshore 91 m to the continental, slope Fasin - deep,basin of the Gulf of Maine Banks - shal 1 ow, of f shore bank areas i. e. George@ Bank Oceanic pelagic fish of open ocean habit 5-174 The species marked are considered as "key species" in that they are a primary constituent of the habitat, a commercially important species, or a rare or endangered species. The life history of these species will be treated in Chapter 12.0, Fishes. 5-175 TABLE 5-3 Checklist of Fishes Rocky Shores Species Geographical Depth Habit Distribution, Distribution Abundance Smelts Rainbow smelt*** abundant brackish to food-small fish Osmerus mordax throughout nearshore crustaceans; spawns brackish Codfishes Pollock*** abundant north coastal, banks food-small fish, Pollachius virens to 183 m. crustaceans Sticklebacks Fourspine common throughout fresh to food-copepods, other stickleback nearshore small crustaceans, Apeltes quadracus fish eggs and fry Threespine abundant throughout fresh to food-copepods, other stickleback nearshore small crustaceans, Gasterosteus aculeatus fish eggs and fry Blackspotted common throughout fresh to food-copepods, other stickleback nearshore small crustaceans, Gasterosteus wheatlandi fish eggs andfry Ninespine common throughout fresh to food-copbpods, other stickleback nearshore small crustaceans, Pungitus pungitus fish eggs and fry Pipefishes Northern pipefish common north brackish to food-copepods, Syngnathus fuscus nearshore to amphipods, fish eggs 31 m. and fry. Lined. seahorse occasional south brackish to food-copepods, Hippocampus erectus nearshore amphipods, fish eggs and fry Temperate basses Striped bass*** abundant nearshore to food-small fish, Morone saxatilis throughout coastal invertebrates 5-176 Scorpionfishes Redfish*** abundant nearshore to food-crustaceans, Sebastes marinus north banks, basins other invertebrates to 732 M. Sculpins Grubby common throughout nearshore to food-scavenger, Myoxocephalus aeneus coastal fish, invertebrates Shorth orn sculpin common north nearshore to food-scavenger, Myoxocephalus scorpius coastal fish, invertebrates Long horn sculpin*** abundant brackish to food-scavenger, Myoxocephalus Ahroughout coastal, banks fish, invertebrates octodecemspinosus to 183 m. Sea raven common nearshore to food-scavenger, Hemitripterus throughout 91 M. fish, invertebrates Lumpfishes Lumpfish common north nearshore to food-crustaceans Cyclopterus lumpus coastal hard bottom Seasnail common north coastal food-crustaceans, Liparis atIanticus banks to 91 m. molluscs; hard bottom Liparis inquilinus common throughout coastal, food-crustaceans, banks 9.1-183 m. molluscs; hard bottom Cunners Cunner*** abundant nearshore to food-omnivorous Tautogolabrus throughout coastal, banks scavenger adspersus to 128 m. Tautog*** abundant south brackish to food-molluscs, other Tautoga onitis coastal to, invertebrates 36.6 m. Gunnels Rock gunnel common north nearshore to food-molluscs, crust- Pholis gunnellus coastal, banks aceans; hard bottom to 183 m. 5-1 77' Prickle.backs Radiated shanny common north nearshore to hard bottom Ulvaria subbifurcata basin to 82.m. Wolffishes Atlantic common north coast, banks to food-molluscs, wolffish 164.7 m. echinoderms, Anarhicus lupus crustaceans; hard bottom Eel pouts Ocean pout*** abundant throughout nearshore to food-molluscs, Macrozoarces americanus coastal, banks crustaceans, basin 3.66 echinoderms 192 m. REFERENCES Borowitzka, M.A., 1972. Intertidal algal species diversity and the effect of pollution. Aust. J. Mar. Freshwater Res., 23:73-84. Cowell., E.B., Baker, J.M., and Crapp, G.B., 1972. The biological effects of oil pollution and oil-cleaning materials on littoral communities, including salt marshes. pp. 359-364. In M. Ruivo, ed, "Marine Pollution and Sea Life." London: Fishi'@g News (books) Ltd. 624 pp. Doty, M.S., 1957. Rocky intertidal surfaces, pp. 535-586 In J.W. Hedgpeth, ed., Geo. Sco. Amer. Mem. 67, Vol. 1. Lewis, J.R., 1964. The ecology of rocky shores. London: English Universities Press. Ltd., 323 pp. 1968. Water movements and their role in rocky shore ecology. Sarsia, 34:13-36. Mann, K.H., 1972. Ecological energetics of the seaweed zone in a marine ,bay on the Atlantic Coast of Canada. I. Zonation and biomass of seaweeds. Mar. Biol., 12:1-10. 1973. Seaweeds: their productivity and strategy for growth. Science, 182:975-981. Stephenson, T.A., and Stephenson, A., 1972. Life between tidemarks on rocky shores. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Co., 425 pp. Thomas, M.L.H., 1973. Effects of Bunker C oil on intertidal and lagoonal biota in Chedabucto Bay, Nova Scotia. J. Fish. Res. Bd., Can., 30:83-90. 5-179 DATE DUE 31 - SL, 4L 44 R." Ill el 01/ @;j f It- vi ........... FF ,:, Y.. 3 6668 14106 4073