[From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]
@ C, '- - I @ @ I' ' - U - - I I I -- -I 5 0 'Ile (7 VL6 L ZLM' L L S --=E) 2H-L XE0 2-Ln.L[.LSm HoEw3s2E 2k.L AP 2 AjawwnS sm@n, 0 @8 C' b@- Ic 00" 0 C) T o O@ 0 D' @6=- 0 L12 %ooq c@o(@ 0 @zo ol V, <; -04 . I 0-T cl ooo 0 o ) 00 0 0 oc;% dp OQ oo 0@"oac" -@C)Q@e -!,o 00 c:o, 0 ODA co@@00' 02 @ - p @ @o 0@ 0. C@ @Q'@ irs, o 9 @16 D FPO' dp '16 ocA%, 0 8 @a 00 t 0 4 To ?o ED,, 'c 0 ;o oo IV12 c 014 7 0 Q"'o 0@% @d'q coo CD'@-Q od'k'@ o' o' npoY 0 0 0 a Lf @90 P" @oo @sc dw @2 ITT 7'y7@ '0@4 t"@@g M . @ L 0 was C@ 0 jaluao (DO 0 U01jewAolul TRIGOM The Research Institute 'of the Gulf of Maine (TRIGOM) is a consortium of academic institution's and reiearch agencies Oedicated to the ad- vancement of marine science andloceanography!through cooperative efforts. TRIGOM provides a variety ofIservices@ to the marine science community through publications, meetings, and sem'ilnars,onisubjects of,common interest. In addition, the Institute se'eks to 'Undertake its own projects which will helo the's6te and region @etter plan for multiple uses of the coast and to manage its natural respurces. ACADEMIC MEMBERSHIP Bates College Bowdoin College Colby College Cornell University Maine Maritime Acad6 MY Nasson College Saint Francis College Southern Maine Vocation6l Technlical Institute University of Maine at Farmington University of Maine at Orono University of Maine at Portland-Gorham @PARC The Public Affairs Research Center was established at Bowdoin College in 1966 to act as foclalipoint for conduc@ting:.studies of economic conditions, community government, regional deve@lopment, and public administration. These activities are financed @through research contracts with government and business organizations, as well as through the assistance of foundation grants and contributions from business firms and individuals. 02 U S DEPARTMENT, OF COMMERCE NOAA COASTAL SERVICES CENTER 22-34 SOUTH HOBSON AVENUE CHARLESTON , SC 29405-2413 A Socio@@Economic and Environmental Inventory of the North Atlantic Region including the Outer Continental Shelf and adjacent waters from Sandy Hook, New'Jersey, to Bay of Fundy EXECUTIVE SUMMARY proPbrtY Of CSC Library, Submitted to Bureau of Land Management, Marine Minerals Division as partial fulfillment of Contract 08550-CT3-8 November 1974 cm The Research Institute of the Gulf of Maine PIN Box 2320 a_ll South Portland, Maine Information in this document is unrestricted to use and may be copied in part or total, provided reference is made to TRIGOM-PARC as authors and BLM as the supporting agency. ABSTRACT A ten,month study by The Research Institute of the Gulf of Maine (TRIGOM) was conducted to gather and inventory the existing environment- al socio-economic data of the coastal zone and adjacent-outer con- tinental shelf (OCS) from Sandy Hook, New Jersey, to Bay of Fundy. These-data were based on the requirements for impact assessments prior to leasing offshore areas for oil, gas, and mineral exploration and pro- duction. The marine boundaries were Hudson Canyon, the 200 meter contour, and the Canadian international line; shoreward, the limit of salt intru- sion was the boundary while some 38 counties were inventoried for socio- economic data. Over 300 persons were contacted or interviewed, 3800 documents reviewed for data by about 40 scientists and consultants. The following list shows the major topics inventoried and presented in the report: Environmental Geological Oceanography and Hydrology Physical Oceanography Chemical Oceanography Meteorological Oceanography Systems Ecology by Habitat Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Benthic Invertebrates, Macrophytes, Fishes, Birds, Mammals Unique and Endangered Environments Rare, Endangered, and Threatened Species Environmental Quality Socio-Economic Demography Petroleum Recreation Transportation Fisheries Land and Water Use Biological data of plants and animals and their environmental relation- ships have been organized according to a functional habitat-system approach rather than by taxonomic categories alone. Ten habitats are presented with about 150 representative key species. Life history profiles for key species are included along with checklists of reported species in each habitat. A series of maps of the areal extent of the habitats was pre- pared. Water and air quality print-outs for all coastal towns and count- ies are included. The report in 3 volumes is about 4900 pages in length with over 700 illustrations and 300 tables. iii PREFACE TO FINAL REPORT The material and data contained in this report have been furnish- ed to the Bureau of Land Management under the terms of Contract 08550- CT3-8. TRIGOM, as contractor,,takes full responsibility for any errors or misstatements which maystill exist:. This inventory was put to- gether from a large.'.number of sources in a ten month period. In an effort of this size, operating on a very tight time schedule, there are likely to be a number of typographical and inadvertent errors. We ask the forebearance of our colleagues and our sponsor in accepting this edition as a working document which,we hope will be used, corrected, and updated in the future. Any suggestions for changes and additions will be welcomed by.TRIGOM.. At the time of submission of this report Appendix D, the biblio- graphy, is still in preparation and.will be included early in 1975 in a separate Book as the last part of Volume Three. 'This part will also include a detailed i,ndex to all chapters. The Staff and Editors at TRIGOM thank the many authors and con- tributors to this study. Edward H..,Shenton,, Program Manager Portland, Maine November 1974 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Volume One: Environmental Inventory Book One: Chapters One, Two and Three Page Chapter 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Background 1-2 1.2 Scope of Work 1-2 1.2.1 Authorization 1-2 1.2.2 Geographical Area Covered 1-2 1.2.3 Topical Coverage 1-3 1.3 Objectives 1-3 1.3.1 Primary Objectives 1-3 1.3.2 Secondary Objectives 1-3 1.4 Methods and Approach 1-7 1.5 Organization of the Report 1-17 Limitations 1-18 1.7 Acknowledgements 1-21 1.8 References 1-25 Chapter 2.0 Regional Overview 2.1 Geology of North Atlantic Region 2-3 2.1.1 Introduction 2-3 2.1.2 Previous Work 2-3 2.1.3 Mainland Geology of New England 2-6 2.1.4 Geologic History 2-11 Paleozoic and Mesozoic .2-11 Tertiary 2-14 Quaternary 2-15 2.1.5 References 2-17 2.2 Climate and Meteorology of North Atlantic 2-21 2.2.1 Climate 2-21 2.2.2 Meteorologic Data 2-23 Temperature 2-23 Precipitation 2-23 Wind 2-26 2.2.3 References 2-27 2.3 Hydrology of the North Atlantic Region 2-27 2.3.1 Surface Water Hydrology 2-27 Hydrologic Divisions 2-27 Runoff and Streamflow Characteristics 2-27 Lakes, Ponds, Reservoirs 2-39 v Chapter 2.0 (Continued) Page 2.3.2 Hydrogeology of the@North.Atlantic Region 2-44 Introduction 2-44 Ground Water in Coastal Plain Deposits 2-44 Ground Water in Glacial Deposits 2-48 Ground Water in Consolidated Rocks 2-48 Summary of Practical Ground Water Developments 2-49 Ground Water/Surface Water Relationships 2-49 2.3.3 Summary of Problems/Confricts 2-53 Water Supply 2-53 Water Quality 2-53 Salt Water Intrusion 2-55 2.3.4 References 2-56 2.4 Biology of the North Atlantic Region 2-56 2.4.1 References 2-64 2.5 Chemical Oceanography of the North Atlantic Region 2-64 2.5.1 Introduction 2-64 2.5.2 Parameters and Units 2-66 2.5.3 Factors Affecting the Parameters Studied 2-67 Nutrients and Dissolved Oxygen 2-67 Suspended Matter 2-69 Trace Metals 2-71 2.5.4 References 2-72 Chapter 3.0 Offshore Region 3.1 Geology of Offshore Provinces 3.1.1 Introduction 3-3 3.1.2 Continental Shelf 3-3 3.1.3 Gulf of Maine 3-3 Bathymetry 3-5 Structure 3-8 3.1.4 Gulf of Maine Shelf 3-10 Bathymetry 3-14 Structure 3-14 3.1.5 Scotian Shelf 3-16 Bathymetry 3-16 Structure 3-17 3.1.6 Ge orges Bank 3-18 Bathymetry 3-18 Structure 3-20 3.1.7 ern New England.Continental Shelf 3-22 Structure 3-24 @3.1.8 Sediments and Sedimentary Processes 3-26 Sediment Size 3-27 Ironing Staining 3-27 vi Chapter 3.0 (Continued) Page Calcium Carbonate Concentrations and Assemblages 3-27 Heavy Minerals 3-34' Light Minerals 3-34 Clay Mineralogy 3-40 Organic Matter 3-40 Sediment Source and Age 3-44 Suspended Matter and Sedimentary Processes 3-47 3.1.9 Economic Aspects 3-51 Petroleum - Fossil Fuels 3-51 Sand and Gravel - Sediments 3-53 Mud 3-55 3.1.10 Environmental Aspects: Hazards'and Impacts 3-55 Seismi.@@ 3-56 Tsunami 3-58 - Hazards and_Impacts for Structures 3-58 Practices 3-66 3.1.11 References 3-67 3.2 Physical Oceanography 3.2.1 Introduction 3-76 3.2.2 Wave Climate 3-76 Additional Wave Data 3-78 3.2.3 Currents Offshore Tidal Measurements @3-83 -O-ffshore Tidal Currents 3-83 3.2.4 Temperature and Salinity 3-83 3.2.5 References 3-148 3.2.6 Physical Oceanography of New England Coastal Waters, Cape Cod, Massachusetts To Sandy Hook, New Jersey 3-150 Introduction 3-150 3.2.7 Wave Climate 3-150 3.2.8 Circulation 3-151 3.2.9. Temperature and Salinity 3-156 3.2.10 References 3-266 3.3 Chemical Oceanography 3.3.1 Gulf of Maine 3-272 3.3.2 Georges Bank 3-286 3.3.3 References 3-290 3.4 The Offshore Weather and Climate 3.4.1 Solar Climate 3-294 3.4.2 Sk@ Cover 3-294 3.4.3 Visibility 3-301 vii Chapter 3.0 (Continued) Page 3.4.4 .Significant Weather 3-301 3.4.5 Air Temperature 3-302 3.4.6 Relative Humidity 3-302 3.4.7 Wind Direction and Speed 3-302 3.4.8 References 3-306 3.5 Biological Oceanography 3.5.1 Plankton-Based Pelagic, Offshore 3-308 Habitat Definition/Description 3-308 Habitat Dynamics 3-308 Effect of Man-Induced Stress 3-312 Biological Components 3-313 References 3-360 3.5.2 Offshore Bottom 3-361 Habitat Definition/Description 3-361 Habitat Dynamics 3-361 Effect of Man-Induced Stress 3-365 Biological Components 3-365 References 3-420 Volume One: Environ mental Inventory Book Two: Chapters Four and Five Chapter 4.0 Major Sounds and Embayments 4.1 Geology of Major Sounds and Embayments 4.1.1 Introduction - Maine to Cape Cod 4-2 4.1.2 Sediment Classification 4-2 4.1.3 Major Estuarine Embayments of the Gulf of Maine 4-9 Passamaquoddy Regions 4-9 .Maine 4-13 Southern Maine Coast 4-19 New Hampshire - Maine Border 4-19 Newburyport, Massachusetts 4-21 Boston, Massachusetts 4-34 4.1.4 Minor Embayments Bordering the Gulf of Maine 4-37 4.1.5 References 4-43 4.1.6 Introduction - tape Cod to Sandy Hook 4-49 Massachusetts 4-49 Rhode Island 4-54 Connecticut New York 4-54 Viii Chapter 4.0 (Continued) Page Other Areas 4-57 4.1.7 References 4-58 4.2 Physical. Oceanography 4.2.1 Introduction to Region North of Cape Cod 4-63 4.2.2 Characteristics of Currents 4-63 Coastal Shelf, 4-63 Inshore 4-66 Major Estuarine Embayments 4-67 4.2.3 Tides 4-70 4.2.4 Fresh Water Input 4-74 General Description of Freshwater Discharge of Major Basins 4-74 Temperature and Salinity_of the Coastal Shelf 4-77 4.2.5 Characteristics of Circulation 4-89 Salt Wedge Estua .ry 4-91 Partially Mixed Estuary 4-91 Vertically Homogeneous Estuary 4-91 Sectionally Homogeneous Estuary 4-92 4.2.6 Misfits and Variations 4-92 4.2.7 Sea Ice Conditions - Eastport to Cape Cod 4-94 4.2.8 References 4-96 4.2.9 Circulation and Currents - Region South of Cape Cod Introduction 4-200 4.2.10 Tides 4-216 4.2.11 Sea Ice Conditions - Cape Cod to New York 4-218 4.2.12 References 4-220 4.3 Chemical Oceanography of Coastal Waters 4.3.1 Areas South of Cape Cod 4-352 Continental Shelf South of Long Island 4-352 4.3.2 New York Bight 4-354 4.3.3 Raritan Bay 4-364 4.3.4 Long Island Sound 4-364 4.3.5 Narragansett Bay 4-370 4.3.6 Massachusetts Bay 4-377 4.3.7 Cape Ann to Cape Elizabeth 4-379 4.3.8 Casco Bay to Eastport 4-395 4.3.9 References 4-406 4.4 Meteorology and Climate 4.4.1 Introduction 4-416 4.4.2 Southern Sub-Region 4-416 Precipitation 4-418 ix Chapter 4.0 (Continued) Page Temperature 4-420 Humidity 4-420 Data from Environmental Im2act Statements 4-420 4.4.3 Northern Sub-Region 4-429 Precipitation 4-436 Temperature 4-436 Data from Environmental Impact Statements 4-436 Storms 4-452 Introduction 4-452 Tropical Cyclones 4-452 4.4.5 References 4-502 4.5 Biological Oceanography 4.5.1 Mussel-Oyster Reefs 4-507 Habitat Definition Description 4-507 Habitat Dynamics 4-507 Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-509 Biological Components 4-510 References 4-541 4.5.2 Worm-Clam.Flats 4-544 Habitat Definition Description 4-544 Habitat Dynamics 4-544 Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-548 Biological Components 4-550 References 4-566 4.5.3 Shallow Salt Pond 4-569 Habitat Definition Description 4-569 Habitat Dynamics 4-569 Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-571 Biological Components 4-573 References 4-595 4.@5.4 Salt Marshes 4-596 Habitat Definition Description 4-596 Habitat Dynamics 4-596 Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-598 Biological Components 4-600 References 4-617 4.5.5 -Plankton-Based Pelagic-Estuarine 4-618 Habitat Definition and Description 4-618 Habitat Dynamics 4-618 Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 4-621 Biological Components 4-622 References 4-624 x Paqe Chapter 5.0 Exposed Shorelines 5.1 Geology of Sand Beaches Maine to Cape Cod 5-4 5.1.1 'Physiography 5-4 Bedrock Land Structure Control 5-4 Submergence and Formation of Second- Order Physiographic Shoreline Features 5-5 Late-Pleistocene Glaciation/Post- FTeistocene Sea Level Changes, Gulf of Maine 5-5 Sources of Sediment 5-12 5.1.2 New England Beaches 5-19 Barrier Beaches 5-19 Pocket Bea-ches 5-24 Standplain Beaches 5-25 Tombolos and Spits 5-25 Beach Erosion-Accretion 5-25 5.1.3 Maine Beaches 5-32 Popham Beaches - Phippsburq 5-32 Old Orchard Beach - Biddeford, 5-33 Saco Bay Sediments - Saco 5-41 Wells-Kennebunk Area -_Ogunquit 5-49 Long Sands/Short Sands Beaches York 5-55 5.1.4 New Hampshire Beaches 5-58 Rye Gravel Beach - Rye 5-58 Hampton/Seabrook Beaches - Hampton, Seabrook 5-61 5.1.5 Massachusetts Beaches 5-64 Salisbury Beach - Salisbury 5-64 Plum Island - Newburyport 5-64 Crane Beach - Ipswich 5-77 Coffin Beach - Essex 5-84 Cape Ann Beaches - Gloucester, Rockport 5-86 Boston Basin Beaches 5-88 White Cliffs to Nobscusset Point Flymouth 5-101 North Dennis Beaches - Dennis 5-107 Brewster, Eastham, Wellfleet Beaches Dennis, Brewster, Eastham, Wellfleet 5-107 Outer Cape Cod Beaches - Provincetown to Monomoy Island 5-113 5.1.6 References 5-140 5.2 Wind and Wave Climate 5-148 5.2.1 Winds 5-148 5..3 Biological Oceanography 5-155 5.3.1 Sa *ndy Shores Habitat 5-155 Habitat Definition/Description 5-155 Habitat Dynamics 5-155 xi Chapter 5.0 (Continued) Page Effect of Man-Induced Stresses 5-158 Biological Components 5-158 References 5-163 5.3.2 Rocky Shores Habitat 5-164 Habitat Definition/Description 5-164 Habitat Dynamics 5-164 Effects of Man-Induced Stresses 5-168 Biological Components 5-169 References 5-179 Volume One: Environmental Inventory Book Three: Chapters Six through Twelve Chapter 6.0 Maritime Strand (Marine-Terrestrial Transition Zone) 6.1 Geology 6-2 6.2 Meteorology and Climatology 6-2 6.3 Hydrology 6-2 6.4 Biology-Maritime Strand Habitat 6-2 6.4.1 Definition 6-2 6.4.2 Habitat Dynamics 6-2 Environmental Conditions 6-2 Natural,Stress 6-3 6.4.3 Effect of Man-Induced Stress 6-4 6.4.4 Biological Components .6-5 General Distribution 6-5 Species Checklist 6-6 6.5 References 6-11 Chapter 7.0 Upland Environments 7.1 General Physiography 7-2 7.1.1 New England Province 7-2 .The New England Uplands 7-2 Seaboard Lowland 7-2 untainous Subregions 7-5 7.1.2 Atlantic Coastal Plain. 7-5 7.2 Geology 7-5 7.3 Meteorology and Climatology 7-5 7.4 Hydrology 7-6 7.5 Soils 7-6, 7.5.1 Regional Overview 7-6 xii Chapter 7.0 (Continued) Page 7.5.2 Soil Surveys and Analyses 7-6 General Discussion 7-6 Availability_of Soil Maps 7-7 7.6 Topography 7-7 7.7 Vegetation 7-7 7.7.1 Introduction 7-7 7.7.2 Forest Associations 7-17 General Discussion 7-17 Forest Cover Types in New England 7-17 Forest Types in New York and New Jersey 7-29 7.8 References 7-53 @Chapter 8.0 Phytoplankton 8.1 Gulf of Maine 8-3 8.1.1 Natural Divisions 8-3 8.1.2 Factors Affecting Composition Of Phytoplankton 8-6 Circulation and Vertical Stability 8-6 Temperature and Salinity 8-7 Dissolved and Suspended Materials 8-7 Light Penetration 8-8 8.1.3 Overview of Phytoplankton 8-10 8.1.4 Historical Perspective 8-11 8.1.5 Discussion by Region 8-13 The Central Basin 8-13 The Bay of Fundy 8-15 North Coastal Region 8-19 Cape Elizabeth to Cape_Ann 8-21 Massachusetts-Bay .8-23 Rye, New Hampshire to Boston Harbor 8-48 Estuarine Waters 8-78 Georges Bank Area 8-91 Southern Nova Scotia 8-95 8.1.6 References 8-97 8.2 South of Cape Cod 8-103 8.2.1 Natural Divisions 8-103 8.2.2 Factors Affecting Composition of Phytoplankton 8-103 Circulation 8-103 Temperature and Salinity 8-103 Dissolved and Suspended Materials 8-104 8.2.3 Overview of Phytoplankton 8-104 xiii Chapter 8.0 (Continued) Page 8.2.4 Discussion by Region 8-106 Coastal Salt Ponds 8-106 Narragansett Bay 8-112 Vineyard Sound 8-113 -Flock Island Sound 8-113 Iong Island Sound 8-115 Raritan Bay and New Jersey 8-118 The Continental Shelf 8-118 8.2.5 References 8-121 8.3 Key Species 8-124 8.3.1 References 8-169 Chapter 9.0 Zooplankton 9.1 Definitions and General Features 9-3 9.1.1 Distribution of Zooplankton in the Study Area 9-3 9.2 Characteristics of the Pelagic Life of Zooplankton 9-7 9.3 Environmental Relationships 9-8 9.3.1 Salinity 9-8 9.3.2 Temperature 9-& 9.3.3 Light 9-10 9.3.4 Transport by Currents 9-10 9.4 Phytoplankton - Zooplankton Relationships 9-13 9.5 Trophic Relationships 9-15 9.6 Quantitative Food Requirements 9-16 9.7 Comparative Tables of Zooplankton Distribution and Abundance in Coastal and Estuarine Waters 9-19 9.8 Dominance Orders of Zooplankton in Various Areas of the Sandy Hook, New Jersey to Bay of Fundy_Region 9-99 9.9 Life History Description of Key Species 9-107 Copepoda 9.9.1 Acartia longiremis 9-109 Acartia tonsa 9-109 Acartia clausi 9-109 9.9.2 Centropages hamatus 9-113 Centropages typicus 9-113 9.9.3 Microsetella norvegica 9-115 9.9.4 Pseudocal-anus minutus 9-117 9.9.5 Calanus finmarchicus 9-120 9.9.6 Yuchaeta norvegica 9-124 9.9.7 Githona similis 9-125 xiv Chapter 9.0 (Continued) Page Tortanus discaudatus 9-128 Euphausiacea 9.9.9 Meganyctiphanes norvegica 9-130 Chaetognatha 9.9.10 Sagitta elegans 9-133 Coelenterata 9.9.11 Aurelia aurita 9-136 Cladocera 9.9.12 Evadne nordmanni 9-139 Ctenophora 9.9.13 Pleurobrachia pileus 9-142 Pteropoda 9.9.14 Limancina retroversa 9-145 9.10 References 9-147 Chapter 10.0 Benthic Invertebrates 10.1 Taxonomic Representation 10-4 10.2 Ecological Groups 10-9 10.3 Distribution and Community Organization 10-10 10.4 Reproduction 10-15 10.5 Abundance and Productivity 10-17 10.6 Ecological Interactions 10-19 10.7 Seasonal and Other Temporal Changes 10-22 10.8 Summary 10-22 10.9 Key Species 10-23 10.9.1 Ampelisca vadorum 10-25 10.9.2 Ampharete acutifrons 10-26 10.9.3 Arbacia punctulata 10-28 10.9.4 Arctica islandica 10-29 10.9.5 Arenicola marina 10-31 10.9.6 Asteria forbesi & A. vulgaris 10-32 10.9.7 Balanus balanoides 10-36 10.9.8 Callinectes sapidus 10-41 10.9.10 Cancer irroratus & C. borealis 10-43 10.9.11 Carcinus maenus 10-46 10.9.12 Ceriantheopsis americanus 10-47 10.9.13 Clymenella torquata 10-48 10.9.14 Corophium volutator 10-51 10.9.15 Crangon septemspinous 10-52 10.9.16 Crasostrea virginica 10-53 10.9.17 Cyathura polita 10-61 10.9.18 Diptera larvae, Aedes solicitans 10-62 Chapter 10.0 (Continued) Page 10.9.19 Echinarachnius parma 10-64 10.9.20 Emerita talpoidea 10-66 10.9.21 Ensis directus 10-68 10.9-22 Gemma qemma 10-69 10.9.23 Glyceria dibranchiata 10-71 10.9-24 Haustorius canadensis 10-73 10.9.25 Homarus americanus 10-75 10.9.26 Hydroides dianthus 10-79 10.9.27 Leptochelia savignyi 10-80 10.9.28 Limulus polyphemus 10-81 10.9.29 Liiiorina littorea 10-82 10.9.30 Macoma balthica 10-84 10.9-31 Melampus bidentatus 10-86 10.9.32 Mercenaria mercenaria 10-87 10.9-33 Metridium dianthus (M. senile) 10-91 10.9-34 Modiolus demissus 10-92 10.9-35 Mya arenaria 10-94 10.9.36 Mytilus edulis 10-98 10.9.37 Nassarius obsoletus 10-101 10.9.38 Nephtys incisa & N. caeca 10-103 10.9-39 Nereis succinea 10-105 10.9.40 Nereis virens 10-106 10.9.41 Nucula annulata & N. proxima 10-109 10.9-42 Ophiura robusta 10-110 10.9.43 Orchestia sp. 10-111 10.9-44 Pagurus longicarpus 10-112 10.9.45 Pandalus borealis 10-114 10.9.46 Pectinaria gouldii 10-116 10.9.47 Placopect magellanicus 10-118 10.9.48 Polinices duplicata & P. heros 10-121 10.9.49 Polydora sp. 10-122 10.9.50 Spisula solidissima 10-125 10.9.51 Streblospio benedicti 10-127 10.9-52 Strongy1ocentrotus droebachiensis 10-129 10.9.53 Tellina aqilis 10-131 10.9.54 Thais lapillus 10-135 10.9-55 Uca sp. 10-138 10.9.56 Urosalpinx cinerea 10-142 10-10 References 10-146 Chapter 11.0 Macrophytes 11.1 General Features 11-2 Chapter 11.0 (Continued) Page 11.2 Distribution of Major Floral Groups 11- 3 11.3 Effects of Man-Induced Stress 11-10 11.4 References 11-12 11.5 Life History Description of Key Species 11-15 11.5.1 Ascophyllum 11-15 11.5.2 Fucus 11-18 11.5.3 Chondrus crispu 11-21 Harvesting Chondrus 11-22 11.5.4 Laminaria 11-27 11.5.5 Zostera marina var. stenophylla 11-32 11.5.6 Ulva lactuca 11-35 11.5.7 Spartina 11-38 11.6 References 11-45 Chapter 12.0 Fishes 12.1 Introduction 12-4 12.2 Zoogeography 12-7 12.2.1 Seasonal Movements and Migrations 12-7 12.2.2 Temperature, Salinity, and Fish Distribution 12-12 12.2.3 Species Composition 12-16 North Coastal Zone 12-16 South Coastal Zone 12-23 Offshore 12-29 12.2.4 Estuaries and Nearshore Areas 12-34 12.3 Reproduction 12-36 12.3.1 Spawning 12-37 12.3.2 Eggs and Larvae 12-38 Species Composition 12-44 Dispersal 12-51 Mortality 12-54 12-3.3 Juveniles 12-54 12.4 Food and Feeding 12-56 12.4.1 Food Resource Division 12-56 12.4.2 Seasonal Aspects 12-61 12.4.3 Migration and Distribution 12-61 12.5 Man-Induced Stress. 12-62 12.5.1 Exploitation Major Fishi.ng Areas 12-65 Principal Fisheries 12-67 Population Dynamics 12-69. xvil Chapter 12.0 (Continued) Page 12.5.2 Pollution 12-70 Three-Way Stress 12-71 12.6 Life History of Key Species 12-74 12-6.-l Squalus acanthias 12-76 12.6.2 jUA erinacea 12-78 12.6.3 Acipenser brevirostrum 12-79 12.6.4 Clupea harengus 12-80 12.6.5 Alosa pseudoharengus 12-84 12.6.6 Brevoortia tyrannus 12-88 12.6.7 Salmo salar 12-90 12.6.8 Osmerus mordax 12-92 12.6.9 Fundulus heteroclitus 12-94 12.6.10 Merluccius bilinearis 12-96 12.6.11 Gadus morhua 12-99 12.6.12 Melanogrammus aeglefinis 12-104 12.6.13 Pollachius virens 12-107 12.6.14 Ur-ophycis chuss 12-109 12.6.15 Paralichthys dentatus 12-111 12.6.16 Limanda ferruginea 12-115 12.6.17 Pseudopleuronectes americanus 12-119 12.6.18 Menidia menidia 12-122 12.6.19 Scomber@scombrus 12-124 12.6.20 Thunnus thynnus 12-127 12.6.21 Peprillus triacanthus 12-130 12.6.22 Pomatomus saltatrix 12-132 12-134 12.6.23 Morone sax@atilis 12.6.24 Stenotomus chrysops 12-135 12.6.25 Sebastes marinus 12-138 12.6.26 Myoxocephalus octodecemspino Isus 12-140 12.6.27 Tautogolabrus adspersus 12-141 12.6.28 Tautoga onitis 12-144 12.6.29 Ammodytes ' sp. 12-147 12.6.30 Macrozoarces a Imericanus 12-148 12.7 References 12-175 .Volume One: Environmental Inventory Book Four: Chapters Thirteen through Sixteen Chapter 13.0 Birds of the North Atlantic Seaboard 13.1 Introduction 13-2 13.2 Reliability of Population Statistics 13-2 13.3 General Picture of Birds of the Area 13-4 13.4 "Key" Species in Area 13-6 13.5 Geographic Features of the Area in Relation to Birds 13-7 xviii Chapter 13.0 (Continued) Page 13.6 Bird Habitats 13-9 13.7 Energy Flow and Food Relationships 13-10 13.8 Migration 13-11 13.9 Breeding Areas,.Concentration Points and Refuges 13-11 13-10 Conclusions 13-12 @13.11 References 13-15 Chapter 14.0 Marine Mammals 14.1 Pinnipeds of the Gulf of Maine 14-3 14.1.1 Introduction 14-3 14.1.2 Life History Descriptions 14-9 Harbor Seal, Phoca vitulina 14-9 Gray Seal, Halichoerus grypus 14-14 Harp Seal, Pagophilus.-6roenlandicus 14-19 Hooded Seal, Cystophora cristata 14-22 Walrus, Odobenus rosmarus rosmarus 14-24 14-1.3 References 14-28 14.2 Cetaceans of the Gulf of Maine .14-38 14-2.1 Introduction 14-38 14.2.2 Life History Descriptions 14-48 Fin Whale, Balaenoptera. physalus physalus 14-48 Minke Whale, Balaenoptera acutorostrata, 14-53 Blue Whale, Balaenoptera musculus 14-56 Sei Whale, Balaenoptera borealis 14-59 Humpback Whale, Megaptera novaengliae 14-63 .Right Whale, Eubalaena glacialis glacialis 14-67 Sperm Whale, Physeter catodon 14-70 Pygmy Sperm Whale, Kogia breviceps 14-75 Bottlenosed Dolphin, Tursiops truncatus 14-76 White-Beaked Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus albirostris 14-77 White-Sided Dolphin, Lagenorhynchus acutus 14-78 Common Dolphin, Delphinus delphis 14-80 Risso's Dolphin Grampus griseus 14-82 Pilot Whale, Gl@bicephala melaena 14-83 Killer Whale, Orcinus orca 14-86 xix Chapter 14.0 (Continued) Page Harbor Porpoise, Phocoena phocoena 14-88 Beluga, Delphinapterus 14-91 Dense-Beaked Whale, Menoplodons densirostris 14-94 True's Beaked Whale, Mesoplodon mirus 14-95 Northern Bottlenosed Whale, Hyperoodon ampullatus 14-95 14.2.3 References 14-97 Chapter 15.0 Unique, Significant, and Endangered Environments 15.1 Introduction 15-2 15.2 Summary of Inventories 15-2 15.3 Listing of Sites 15.4 Wetlands as' an Endangered Environment 15-42 15.4.1 Introduction 15-42 15.4.2 Present Extent of Marine and Inland Wetlands 15-44 15.4.3 Wetlands Modification and Losses 15-44 15.4.4 Legislation Controls on Wetlands Modification 15-50 Maine 15-50 New Hampshire 15-50 Massachusetts 15-50 Rhode Island 15-51 Connecticut 15-51 New York 15-51 New Jersey 15-51 15.5 References 15-52 Attachment 15-1: National Registry of Natural Landmarks 15-54 Attachment 15-2: Conservation Priority Zones 15-95 Chapter 16.0 Rare, Endangered, and Threatened Species 16.1 Introduction 16-2 Table 16-1 Rare, Endangered and Threatened Species in Maine 16-15 Table 16-2 Rare, Endangered and Threatened Species in New Hampshire 16-19 Table 16-3 Rare, Endangered and Threatened Species in Massachusetts 16-24 xx Chapter 16.0 (Continued) Page Table 16-4 Rare, End angered and Threatened Species in Rhode Island 16-32 Table 16-5 Rare, Endangered and Threatened Species in Connecticut 16-35 Table 16-6 Rare, Endangered and Threatened Species in New York 16-38 Table 16-7 Rare, Endangered and Threatened Species in New Jersey 16-41 16.2 References 16-47 Attachment 1: Rare, Endangered and Threatened Vertebrate Species of the Atlantic Coastal Plain and Maine Coast 16-49 Attachment 2: Rare, Endangered, Threatened, and Peripheral Wildlife and Fish of the Maine Coast 16-109 Attachment 3: Addendum to Rare, Endangered, Threatened and Peripheral Wildlife and Fish of the Maine Coast 16-136 Volume One: Environmental Inventory Book Five: Chapter Seventeen Chapter 17.0 Environmental Quality 17.1 Water Quality 17.1.1 Introduction 17-2 17.1.2 Surface Water Classification and Standards 17-2 17.1.3 Existing Water Quality 17-2 Key Determinants of Water Quality 17-3 Water Quality Problem Areas D'verview 17-3 Existing Water Quality Problems: Case Studies 17-4 17.1.4 Sources of Water Pollution 17-30 Non-Point Sources 17-31 17.1.5 References 17-285 17.2 Air Quality 17.2.1 Standards 17-290 17.2.2 Air Quality Control Regions 17-290 xxi Chapter 17.0 (Continued) Page 17.2.3 Ambient Air: Quality Conditions 17-290 17.2.4 Air Pollution Sources 17-291 17.2.5 Air Quality Problem Areas 17-292 17.2.6 References 17-516 17.3 Solid Waste Disposal Introduction 17-518 Methods 17-518 17.3.1 Federal Efforts 17-519 17.3.2 Regional Efforts Mul ti -state 17-519 17-3.3 State Efforts 17-520 Maine 17-520 New Hampshire 17-521 Massachusetts 17-522 Rhode Island 17-524 Connecticut 17-525 New York 17-528 New Jersey 17-529 17.3.4 References 17-536 17.4 Ocean Disposal and Dumping 17.4.1 Brief History of Activities 17-540 17.4.2 Present Laws 17-545 17.4.3 Summary of Selected Recent and 17-548 Ongoing Research 17-4.4 Significance and Value 17-550 17.4.5 References 17-552 Volume Two: Socio-Economic Inventory Chapters Eighteen through Twenty-Seven Chapter 18.0 Introduction 18.1 Purpose of the Study 18-2 18.2 Scope of the Report 18-2 18.2.1 Geographic Area Included in the Study 18-2 18.2.2 Subject Areas 18-5 18.3 Organization of the Report 18-5 Chapter 19.0 Population and Income Characteristics 19.1 Introduction 19-2 19.2 Population Characteristics 19-6 xxii Chapter 19.0 (Continued) Page 19.2.1 Population and Net Migration 19-6 19.2.2 Population Density 19-16 19.2.3 Age Distribution 19-24 19.2.4 Education 19-36 19.3 Labor Force and Employment Characteristics 19-43 19.3.1 Total Labor Force 19-43 19.3.2 Civilian Labor Force and Unemployment 19-51 19.3.3 Composition of the Labor Force: Jobs by Major Industrial Classification 19-59 19.3.4 Major Occupational Groupings of Employed Persons 19-63 19.4 Income Characteristics 19-67 19.4.1 Median Family Income and Percentage of Families Below Low Income Level 19-67 19.4.2 Total Personal Income and Per Capita Income 19-,72 19.4.3 Income by Source 19-79 19.4.4 Earnings by Broad Industrial Sector 19-84 19-4.5 Location Quotients @19-87 19.5 Populati'on, Employment Income and Earnings Data for Bureau of Economic Analys,is (BEA) Economic Areas 19-90 19.6 References 19-102 Chapter 20.0 Overview of Economic Activity 20.1 Introduction 20-3 20.1.1 Gross State Product 20-3 20.1.2 Summary of Indicators 20-4 20.2 Resource Industries 20-4 20.2.1 Agriculture 20-5 20.2.2 Forestry 20-7 Timber Products Output 20-7 Net Volume of Growing Stock 20-9 Ownership- 20-9 20.2.3 Fisheries 20-9 20.2.4 Mining 20-11 20.3 Manufacturing 20-11 20.3.1 Manufacturing by State 20-13 20.3.2 Manufacturing by Industry 20-13 20.4 Service Industries 20-15 20.4.1 Retail Trade 20-15 20.4.2 Wholesale Trade 20-18 20.4.3 Selected Services 20-20 20.4.4 Finance 20-22 xxiii Chapter 20.0 (Continued) Paqe 20.4.-S-- Government 20-24 Federal-Government 20-24 Local Government 20-26 20.5 References 20-28 Statistical Appendix 20-29 Chapter 21.0 Petroleum and Petrochemicals 21.1- Introduction 21-2 21.2 Petroleum 21-2 21.2.1 Consumption of Petroleum Products 21-2 Trends in Consumption by Product and by Major User Category 21-2 21.2.2 Consumption of Substitutable Fuels 21-18 Bituminous Coal and Lignite 21-18 Natural Gas 21-22 Nuclear Power 21-27 Retail Pri-ces of Selected Petroleum Products and Substitutable Fuels 21-33 An Overview of Selected Projections of Petroleum Use 21-35 21.2.3 Production of Oil and Refined Products 21-42 Refinery Activity Within the North Atlantic States 21-42 21.3 Petrochemicals 21-55 21.3.1 Introduction 21-55 21.3.12 Trends in Petrochemical Activity 21-57 Economic and Resource Linkages 21-57 21.4 References 21-85 'Chapter 22.0 Outdoor Recreational Activity 22.1 Purpose of the Study 22-2 22.1.1 introduction 22-2 22.1.2 Measuring the Economic Value of Recreation 22-3 22.2 The Recreation Inventory 22-4 22.2.1 Approach of,the Inventory 22-4 22.2.2 Direct Measures of Recreation Activity 22-6 Sportfishing 22-6 Boating Activity 22-11 Camping 22-16 Beach Activity 22-21 22.2.3 Indirect Measures of Recreation Activity 22-24 Chapter 22.0 (Continued) Page Housing 22-24 Retail Sales of Recreation-Related Businesses 22-40 Amusement and Recreation Services 22-57 Seasonal Ferries 22-65 Scenic Routes and Historic Sites 22-67 Recreational Islands 22-67 22.3 Multiplier Effects of Recreation 22-74 22.4 References 22-77 Appendix Chapter 23.0 Transportation 23.1 Introduction 23-3 23-1.1 Waterborne Commerce 23-3 23.1.2 Port Conditions 23-6 Searsport Harbor 23-6 Portland Harbor 23-7 Portsmouth Harbor 23-7 Port of Boston 23-7 Fall River Harbor 23-7. Providence Harbor 23-8 New London Harbor 23-8 New -R-avenHarbor 23-8 @r-idgeport Harbor 23-8 Port of New York 23-9 23.2 Petroleum Transportation 23-9 23-2.1 Tanker Cargo Movements 23-9 23-2.2 Trips of Tanker Vessels 23-13 23-2.3 Port Facilities for Petroleum 23-14 Proposals for Future Petroleum' Terminals 23-23 23.3 Dry Cargo Transportation 23-23 23-3.1 Dry Cargo Movements 23-23 23.3.2 Trips of Dry Cargo Vessels 23-28 23-3.3 Port Facilities for Dry Cargo 23-29 23-3.4 Other Modes of Cargo Transportation 23-33 Rail Lines 23-33 Highways 23-35 Air Cargo 23-35 23.4 Passenger Transportation. 23-35 23-4.1 Cruise Ships' 23-35 xxv Chapter 23.0 (Continued) Page 23-4.2 Passenger and Vehicular Ferries 23-37 23.4.3 Airlines 23-39 23.4.4 Land Transportation of Passengers 23-41 23.5 References 23-52 Statistical Appendix Chapter 24.0 Other Marine-Related Activities 24.1 Introduction 24-2 24.2 Ship and Boatbuilding and Repair Activity 24-4 @24.3 Sand and Gravel and Other Marine Mineral Resources 24-19 24.4 Electric Power Facilities 24-25 24.5 Marine Research and Education 24-57 24.6 Miscellaneous Marine Services and Activities 24-63 24.6.1 Navy and Coast Guard Facilities 24-63 24.6.2 Water Transportation 24-63 24.6.3 Boatdealer Activity 24-69 24.7 Other Marine-Related Manufacturing 24-69 24.7.1 Pulp,and Paper 24-73 24.7.2 Industrial Chemicals 24-73 24.7.3 Cement and Concrete 24-73 24.8 References 24-87 Chapter 25.0 Fisheries 25.1 Institutional Considerations-Overview of Major Legislation 25-3 25.1.1 International Fisheries Regulations (ICNAF) 25-3 25-1.2 Federal Legislation 25-4 25.1.3 State Legislation 25-5 Maine 25-5 New Hampshire 25-6 Massachusetts 25-7 Rhode Island 25-8 Connecticut 25-8 New York 25-9 25-1.4 Aquaculture 25-10 Legal and Institutional Considerations 25-11 SomeEconomic Considerations 25-12 25.2 Landings of Fish and Shellfish 25-13 25.2.1 Volume and Value of Annual Landings 25-13 xxvi Chapter 25.0 (Continued) Page Total Landings for the United States, the Study Region, and Individual 25-27 States Total LandinLs in States and Counties 25-27 Total Landings of Selected Species by 25-29 States and Counties 25.2.2 Volume and Value of Monthly Readings for Major Species 25-36 25.2.3 Catches in Selected Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Areas 25-41 .25.3 Operating Units of Fishermen 25-41 25.3.1 Operating Units by Gear-type and Fishermen 25-41 Maine 25-41 New Hampshi 25-50 Massachusetts 25-50 Rhode Island 25-50 Connecticut 25-51 New York 25-51 25.3.2 General Characteristics of Fishermen and Vessels 25-51 Socio-Economic Characteristics 25-51 Vessel Characteristics 25-52 25.4 Fish Processing 25-53 25.4.1 Value of Processed Fishery Products 25-53 25.4.2 General Characteristics of Fish Processors 25-53 Number of Plants 25-53 Employment 25-57 25.5 'References 25-57 Chapter 26.0 Land Use 26.1 Overview 26-5 26.1.1 Major River Basins 26-5 26.1.2 Coastal Planning Regions 26-7 Maine 26-9 New Hampshire 26-9 Massachusetts 26-11 Rhode Island 26-11 Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey 26-11-12 26.1.3 Shoreland Zone 26-12 Maine 26-13 New.Hampshire 26-13 xxvi i Chapter 26.0 (Continued) Page Massachusetts 26-13 Rhode Island 26-13 Connecticut, New York and New Jersey 26-14 26.1.4 Shoreline 26-14 Principal, Federal and State Lands 26-17 26.1.5 Real Property Valuation 26-17 26.2 Urban Land Uses 26-19 26.2.1 Coastal Planning Regions 26-19 Residential 26-19 Manufacturing 26-24 Transportation and Utilities 26-24 Retail and Service 26-24 Institutions 26-24 Miscellaneous Urban 26-29 26.2.2 Shoreland Zone 26-29 Residential 26-29 Manufacturing 26-30 Utilities 26-30 Transportation 26-30 Retail and Service 26-31 Institutions 26-31 26.3 Rural Land Uses 26-31 26.3.1 Coastal Planning Regions 26-31 Mining 26-32 Recreation 26-32 Agriculture 26-32 Forest 26-34 Water and Wetlands 26-36 Other Vacant 26-36 26.3.2 Shoreland Zone 26-36 Mining 26-38 Recreation 26-38 Agriculture 26-38 Forest 26-38 Water and Wetlands 26-4 Other Vacant 26-40 26.4 Archaeology and Historic Sites 26-40 26.4.1 Archaeological Sites 26-40 Introducti on 26-40 Regional- Overview 26-41 Summary of Archaeological Research 26-42 and -Legislation 26-59 Potential Conflict 26-60 26.4.2 Historic Sites 26-60 The National Register of Historic Places 26-61 Comprehensive Regional Studies xxviii Chapter, 26.0 (Continued) Page Regional Historic Inventories 26-62 Historical Societies and Agencies 26-62 26.5 Land Use Plans 26-90 26-5.1 North Atlantic Area 26-90 26-5.2 Multi State 216-90 26.5.3 States 26-91 26.5.4 Purpose of Land Use Planning 26-92 Producing Land Use Data Base 26-92 Factors of Industrial Location 26-93 26.6 Land Use Controls 26-.95. 26-6.1 Federal Land Use Controls 26-95 Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972 26-95 Federal Water Pollution Control Acf 26-97 PL92-500, Amend5e-ntsI972 Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 26-98 26-6.2 State Land Use Controfs L26-98 State Environmental Laws 26-100 26.6.3 Municipal Land Use Controls 26-101 26.7 References 26-103 A26-1 Statistical Appendix 26-121 A26-2 State Legislation in Archaeological and Historic Sites 26-155 A26-3 Abstract of Reports and Plans 26-175 A26-4 Abstract of Land Use Controls 26-186 A26-5 Smithsonian Institute Center for Natural Areas Natural Areas Registry 26-229 Chapter 27.0 Environmental Data Gaps and Research Needs 27.1 Introduction 27-2 27.2 Geology: Chapters 3.1, 4.1, 5.1 27-4 Offshore Needs 27-4 Coastal Needs 27-5 Limitations of Beach Data 27-6 Limitations of Estuarine Data 27-8 27.3 Physical Oceanography: Chapters 3.2, 4.2,.5.2 27-9 Offshore 27-9 Inshore 27-10 27.4 Chemical Oceanography: Chapters 3.3, 4.3 27-11 Data Gaps, 27-11 Biologically Active Natural Compounds 27-11 Suspended Matter 27-11 Trace Metals and Organic Pol:lutants 27-12 xxix Chapter 27.0 (Continued) Page 27.5 Meteorology: Chapters 3.4, 4.4 27-13 27.6 Phytoplankton: Chapter 8.0 27-13 27.7 Zooplankton: Chapter 9.0 27-15 27.8 Benthic Invertebrates: Chapter 10.0 27-17 27.9 Fishes:' Chapter 12.0 27-19 27.10 Marine Birds: Chapter 13.0 27-22 27.11 Marine Mammals: Chapter 14.0 27-24 Volume Three: Appendices Book One: Appendices A, B and C Appendix A Additional Data Sources Environmental A.1 Unpublished Data A-3 A.1.1 Well Log Data A-3 A.2 Data Banks A-14 A.2.1 Introduction A-15 Federal Data Banks General A-15 A.2.2 Physical and Chemical Data A-18 Location: National Oceanographic Data Center, Washington, D.-C. A-18 Woods Hol;;-Oceano5raphic Institution (WHOI) A-19 A.2.3 Biological Data A-22 A.2.4 Geological Data A-23 National Geophysical and Solar- 23 Terrestial Data Center (NGSDC) A- NODC A-23 WHOI A-23 A.2.5 Meteorology A-23 National Climatic Center, Asheville (NCC) A-28 Environmental Data Service (NOAA (EDS) A-29 Bendix Commercial Service Corp. A-29 A.2.6 ENDEX-EDBD A-29 A.2.7 Other National Data Banks A-30 State Data Banks A-30 References A-33 Tables A-1 through A-18 A-34 A.3 Environmental Impact Statements A-151 A.3.1 Introduction A-151 A.3.2 Types of Reports and Kind of Data A-151 xxx Appendix B Directory of North Atlantic Inventory Study Contacts Page California Colorado Connecticut Florida Illinois Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Mississippi New Brunswick New Hampshire New Jersey New Hampshire North Carolina Nova Scotia Oklahoma Ontario Oregon Ottawa Pennsylvania Rhode Island Texas Vermont Virginia Washington, D. C. Appendix C On-Going Research C.1 Introduction C-4 C.2 Smithsonian Scientific Information Exchange (SSIE) C-4 C.3 MESA/New York Bight C-4 C.4 New England Cooperative Coastal Research Facility (NECCRF) C-5 C.5 Maine Rivers Bibliography C-6 C.5.1 Introduction C-6 C.5.2 Interest Groups Involved in Maine Rivers C-6 C.5.3 Accessibility of Information C-6 C.5.4 Summary of Major Works by Topic C-9 Ground Water C-10 Surface Water Supply C-10 xxxi Appendix C (Continued) Page Floodplain Management C-10 Surface Water Quality C-11 River Corridor Use and Soils C-12 Biology/Ecology Navigation C-13 Hydroelectric Power C-13 Recreation C-13 Planning C-14 C.5.5 Summary of Major Works by Basin C-14 Androscoggin River Basin C-14 Kennebec River Basin C-15 Penobscot River Basin C-15 Saco River Basin C-15 Presumpscot River Basin C-16 St. Croix River Basin C-16 Piscataqua - Salmon Falls River Basins C-16 Southern Coastal River Basins C-16 Mid Coastal River Basins C-17 Northern Coastal River Basins C-17 Summary C-17 C.5.6 Bibliography - Published and Unpublished Literature C-17 Areawide C-18 Multi-Basin C-44 Northern Coastal River Basins C-46 Mid Coastal River Basins C-49 Southern Coastal River Basins C-56 Androscoggin River Basin C-59 Kennebec River Basin C-65 Penobscot River Basin C-70 Presumpscot River Basin C-77 Saco River Basin C-79 St. Croix River Basin C-81 St. John River Basin C-87 Piscataqua - Salmon Falls River Basins. C-90 On-Going Research C-92 Data Files- C-131 C.6 Directory of the New England Consortium on, Environmental Protection C-159 C.7 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Inventory C-159 C.8 NEWS Study (Northeastern U.S. Water Supply Study) C-173 C.9 New England River Basins Commission Comprehensive Studies C-180 xxxii Appendix C (Continued) Ea2e C.9.1 Southeastern New England Study ,SENE) C-180 C.9.2 Long Island Sound Study (LISS) C-183 C.10 Maine Coastal Plan C-191 C.11 TRIGOM'Directory of Marine Research Facilities and Personnel in Maine C-194 Attachment 1 Appendix C-2 Smithsonian Science Information Exchange Attachment 2 Appendix C-4 New England Coopera- tive Coastal Research Facility Volume Three: Appendices Book Two: Appendices E and F, Appendix E Areal Extent of Marine.Habitats E.1 Introduction E-2 E.1.1 Objective E-2 E.1.2 Approach E-2 E.2 Discussion of Marine Habitat Measurements E-3 E.2.1 Shoreline Length E-3 Total Shoreline - North Atlantic Region E-3 E.2.2 Rocky Shores E-5 E.2.3 Beaches E-6 Beach Surveys Total North Atlantic E-6 E.2.4 Saltmarshes E-7 E.2.5 Worm-Clam Flats E-12 Surveys by State E-13 E.2.6 Shellfish Beds E-15 E.2.7 Mussel-Oyster Reefs E-16 E.2.8 Salt Ponds E-17 E.2.9 Pelagic E-18 Tables E-19 'Figures E-63 E.3 References E-71 Appendix F Contract Work Statement F.1 Bureau of Land Management Contract 08550-073-8 and Report Specifications F-2 Volume Three: Appendices Book Three: Appendix D (Bibliography forthcoming) xxxiii Chapter Introduction Page 1.1 Background 1-2 1.2 Scope of Work 1-2 1.2.1 Authorization 1-2 1.2.2 Geographical'Area Covered 1-2 1.2.3 Topical Coverage 1-3 1.3 Objectives 1-3 1.3.1 Primary Objectives 1-3 1.3.2 Secondary Objectives 1-3 1.4 Methods and Approach 1-7 1.5 Organization of the Report 1-17 1.6 Limitations 1.7 Acknowledgements 1-21 1.8 References 1-25 1.0 INTRODUCTION This report presents the final results of a te'n-month stu dy entitled a SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC COAST AND CONTINENTAL SHELF FROM BAY OF FUNDY TO SANDY HOOK, NEW JERSEY. The Study was conducted jointly by the staff of TRIGOM (The Research Insti- tute of the Gulf of Maine) and PARC (Public Affairs Research Center, Bowdoin College) for the United States Department of Interior, Bureau of Land Management (BLM), Marine Minerals Division, under contract 08550-CT3-8 during the period June 29, 1973 to July 29, 1974. 1.1 BACKGROUND As a nation looking for possible solutions to our need for additional energy sources, attention has been focused on the potential of the Outer Continental Shelves (OCS) off New England and the mid-Atlantic regions. The OCS of the United States has proven to be a prolific supplier of oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico and offshore California. Development of the OCS must be preceded by analyses of potential im- pacts upon the related environments, according to the National Environ- mental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969. To perform such analyses, the ex- isting environmental data together with the various existing economic factors of the areas must be described. The primary purpose of this study has been to gather.available data describing the existing environment of the coastal zone and adjacent continental shelf of the North Atlantic area @(both natural and socio- economic) and present these data in comprehensive descriptions. 1.2 SCOPE OF WORK 1.2.1 AUTHORIZATION The scope of the study was initially defined in a Request for Proposal (RFP BLM 73-2) April 2, 1973, and was amended by the proposal of TRIGOM dated May 30, 1973. 1.2.2 GEOGRAPHICAL AREA COVERED The regional coverage from Sandy Hook, New Jersey, to Bay of Fundy was established with boundaries shown on Figure 1-1. The marine boundaries wer'e loosely defined as the Hudson Canyon on the South, the 200 meter contour along the continental shelf, and an undetermined international boundary between the United States and Canada. The shoreward extent was generally agreed to be the coastal zone or extent of salt water intrusion for marine environmental data, and the coastal counties for socio-economic data. These counties are listed in Table 1-1. 1-2 In the process of conducting the study, these arbitrary boundaries were in some cases varied. 1.2.3 TOPICAL COVERAGE A detailed-outline of the topics to be reviewed and mentioned as agreed in the contract is presented in Appendix F. Table 1-2 contains an abbreviated Tist of 'subject areas reviewed in the report. 1.3 OBJECTIVES 1.3.1 PRIMARY OBJECTIVES The primary objectives of this socio-economic and environmental inventory of the North Atlantic region were:,- � T'o develop a comprehensive.inventory of marine environmental data for the coastal zone and adjacent waters of the outer conti- nental shelf � To conduct astudy of the socio-economic factors operating in the region from Bay of Fundy (Eastport, Maine) to Sandy Hook, New Jersey � To combine these previous steps into a comprehensive compilation for use in preparing impact assessments of the development of offshore energy resources. � To define the gaps and deficiencies that exist in the present information baseline as preliminary to conducting new research and field surveys. 1.3.2 SECO14DARY OBJECTIVES A secondary set of objectives which., 'altered the scope of work and made major demands on the project was added Just prior to contract nego- tiation. This addition was requested to meet the requirements of the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), which included: *Provision of general biological habitat descriptions for the two biographical regions including key species for each one of-lapping the areal extent of these habitats *Provision of a specific list of life history data for all key species .1-3 6e 6e 60 40 40 CANADA M A I N f IWASHIN6TOM 440 4e NOVA ..:i@AIICOCK SCOT I A LINCOLN SAGAD&HO C@@ ..001 i..Z \@Tco z 'VORK 0 41" 40 0 ...... ROCKINGHAM e@ 100* 0 C7 SUFFOLK 0 A. PROVIDENCE sl q0 C -MIDDLESEX /* " A. NEW 4e WEIMPORT 41? 1.0. DUK6 .0, WESTCHESTER PRISTOL ,V9M WKINAX of, I 0D, . 9 Rag" ftsc S,C . ...... .... ESSEX . .......... 15 0 11 UNION NASSAU MILES mucem. ANNE, ....... ... . . 3e 69' A =O-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGIONl FIGUR 1-1 TT:he:]Study, Region Table 1-1 BLM North Atlantic Inventory: List of coastal counties Maine: New York: Washington Suffolk Hancock Nassau Waldo Westchester Knox Rockland Lincoln New York City (5 counties) Sagadahoc Cumberland New Jersey: York Bergen New.Hampshire: Passaic Hudson Strafford Essex Rockingham Union Middlesex Massachusetts: Essex Middlesex Suffolk Worfolk Plymouth Barnstable Nantucket Dukes Bristol Rhode Island: .Newport Bristol Providence Kent Washington Connecticut: New London Middlesex New Haven Fairfield 1-5 Table 1-2 General Topics Inventoried Environmental Inventory Meteorological Oceanography Physical Oceanography Geological Oceanography Chemical Oceanography Biological Oceanography Systems Ecology Plankton-based pelagic Benthos Mussel -Oyster Reefs Worm Clam Flats Salt Ponds Salt Marshes Sandy Shores Rocky Shores Shoreland Strand Terrestrial Phytoplankton Zooplankton Benthic Invertebrates Macrophytes Fishes Birds Mammals Unique and Endangered Environments Rare, Endangered and Threatened Species Environmental Quality Socio-Economic Inventory Demography General Economy Petroleum and Petrochemicals Recreation Transportation Fisheries Other Marine Activities Land and Water Use Urban Rural Archaeological and Historic Sites. Land Use Plans Land and Water Use Controls 1.4 METHODS AND APPROACH This section will describe the methods and approaches used in the com- pilation of the environmental inventory. A similar discussion of the socio-economic inventory follows in,.Chapter 18. A set of tasks was initially developed, organized aro.und four major areas as shown on Figure 1-2. It should be noted that, to a large extent, the tasks were conducted concurrently. TASK 1: DATA COLLECTION (INITIAL) Organize the.program approach conduct a local workshop eReview the I i terature'and data source Conduct, api.lot study 'of Maine eDevelop.:the,oVerall study requirements Approach The intent of the task was todevelop the proper techniques and require- ments for the rest of the program by conducting a pilot study of the state of Maine where we could test avariety of approaches quickly and inexpensively and incorporate these into the larger survey of the entire region. Method The pilot study, however, was diverted by the pressing needs of the CEQ contractor, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,(MIT). An extremely short period of time was available in which to supply speci- fic biological and areal descriptions. As a result, a separate set of interim tasks was established to provide MIT scientists with detailed biological habitat information. These data were presented in two sets .of working papers (TRIGOM 1973a and 1973b). Results of this task largely influenced the subsequent organization and conduct of the re- mainder of the study as will be described in Regional Overview of Biology, Chapter 2.4. TASK 2: DATA COLLECTION (ALL AREAS) *Telephone Survey *Follow-up mailing *.Visits to selected laboratories 1-7 TASK I TASK 2 TASK 3 TASK 4 DATA DATA -DATA SYNT S COLLECTION COLLECTION PROCESSING HESI (INITIAL) (ALL AREAS) AND REPORT Development Re-view of @tudy t wit bLI Requiremen S PARC-URI Data Study on Collection Data Socio-Eco synthesis TRIGOM-PARC As ects and Initiate Organizational pilot Study and Finish Pro'ect meeting with of TRIGOM-URI Processing Fin Sttidv Team Mai e Study on Preparation Rep Envikonmenta. Preparation F Ta@les, Report Z Data Survey Figure.-; and Materials Preliminary Review of and Summaries, Literature etc. Source yateri-al Site Visits and Contact Or' a tj,'d A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE 1-2 Ta Isk Description$ (TRIGOM5 1973a) i-8 ,,Approach A large number of contacts were made in each state at agency, institu-. tional, and federal levels as well as in Washington to identify ways to access data banks, on-going research programs, and bibliographic sources. Methods Telephone/Letter Survey: During the course of the study approximately .230 contacts were,made through a telephone survey to obtain environ- mental data and information about related programs. A separate effort of requesting reports or data sources by mail was also conducted, as well as a r'outine mail follow-up to initial telephone contacts. A .study abstract was included in any written request or follow,up to briefly summarize the BLM program needs. -The reverse side contained a map. An example is shown in Figure 1-3. Field'Visits: In cases when information was too extensive or in an unr compiled form TRIGOM sent data specialists to visit and obtain what was needed. About 95 visits were made between July, 1973, and April., 1974,,by staff and consultants. A complete list of visits, agency/ facility namev and persons contacted can be found in Appendix B. Literature and Research Services: Use was made of the Smithsonian, Science Information Exchange (SSIE) listing service of ongoing research projects. Two searches for all states in the study area pro- duced about 250 notices (Appendix C-2 presents all relevant research notices arranged by state). As a follow-up, cards were sent to each principal investigator listed, requesting information and recent publications. Approximately 15 percent of the req.uests prod.uced replies with papers. However, we, note that replies continue to arrive some five to six months after the initial request. Also used was the National Technical Information Service (NTIS). A listing of all relevant annotated bibliographies received for all topics in the study is presented in Appendix D. A total of 305 were re- ported. Although NTIS has over 300,000 listed citations in their sys- tem since 1964, the rather meager number of 305 appears to be only a @minor portion of the total publications in the open literature and is probably not representative. Similar requests for bibliographic citations or inventory data were made at this time to National Oceanographic.Data Center (NODC), Environ- mental Protection Agency (Headquarters and Region I NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Services; and NOAA's MESA, New York Bight Program, and the U.S. Amy Corps of Engineers. A more complete description of the results and an evaluation of these efforts in relation to this study 71@ i@ iaromh h7atituta opf tha Gulf cof Maine 96 Falmouth Siree, Portland, Maine 041W Figure 1-3 Tel. (207) 773-298 A SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY of the. OUTER CONTINENTAL SHELF AND ADJACENT WATERS A Study by The Research Institute of the Gulf of Maine ABSTRACT Background The.,nation recently has focused its attention.on the.potential sources of clean energy suspected to lie beneath its continental shelves. With the possibility of inadequate supplies of energy, we now are beginning to in- vestigate sources off the New England coast. Prior to leasing and.develop- ing any of these offshore areas we must have sufficient environmental,, social, and economic data to aid in the decision'process. TRIGOK has been awarded a contract by the Bureau of Land Management of the Department of Interior to undertake a one-year study to collect and assemble all relevant data for the North Atlantic outer continental shelf from the Bay of Fundy to Sandy Hook, New,,Jersey. Objectives The study objectives are to develop a comprehensive inventory of marine environmental data and related socio-economic factors for the coastal zone and outer shelf areas. The,inventory will be designed to. aid in gathering data to assess the impact of the development of energy resources and define areas where no relevant data exist. The following list is a summary of the topic areas in which data, pub- lished and unpublished reports,.and ongoing research are sought: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT: Estuaries, tides, waves, hydrography, currents, temperatures, CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY: Oxygen, nutrients, heavy metals, organic pollutants GEOLOGY: Regional, bathymetry, structure ' sediments METEOROLOGY. Atmospheric circulation, climatic elements, air- sea interaction SYSTEM ECOLOGY: Phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthos, fisheries, marine mammals, birds, coastal vegetation UNIQUE AND ENDANGERED ENVIRONMENTS INDUSTRIAL AND COMMERCIAL ACTIVITY: Resource, manufacturing, service industries PETROLEUM INDUSTRY DE140GRAPHY: Population, income and employment, education and job skills LAND AND WATERUSES POLLUTION SOURCES TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS The TRIGOM study team is a three-part group composed of TRIGON staff, the Bowdoin College Public Affairs Research Center, and the'University of Rhode Island. For further information, contact: TRIGOM, Dr. Donald B. Horton or Ned Shenton (207) 773-2981 extension 306; Bowdoin (PARC), Mr. Carl Veazie (207) 725-8731 extension 591r University of Rhode Island, Dr. Saul Sail& (401) 729-6239. Bates College Bowdoin College 0 Colby College 0 Maine Maritime Academy* Nosson College 0 Southern Maine Vocational Technical lattiouto 1-10 College 0 University of Maine at Farmington 0 University of Maine at Orono * University of Maine a! Portlancl-Gorharn Associate Members: Maine Department of Sao and Shore Fisheries 0 Maine Medical Center is given in Appendix A. TASK 3: DATA REDUCTION Assemble initial bibliographies Collate data from field visits *.Assign chapter and topic authors *Develop and organize report outline Approach During this task, we attempted to bring together the first results of the literature collection, the visits to facilities, and other in- puts received. Specific topic areas such as marine geology, chemical oceanography, etc. were assigned to chapter authors. A full list of the topical areas and authors assigned is given in the acknowledgement section, and the subject is discussed further under 1.5 Organization of the Report. In general, our basic approach was to organize the study by natural habitats as defined by Odum et al. (1969) and others, rather than following the conventional topical approach. A second aspect of this task was a redefinition of the report outline. This was necessary as a result of the decision to adopt the habitat versus topical approach, and also as-the specific requirements for impact analysis were defined. (See Methods below). Methods Assigning Chapter Authors: A number of scientists who had recently contributed to the writing of the Coastal and Offshore Inventory of Cape Cod to Cape Hatteras (URI, 1973 and 1974) were retained to either be reviewers or contribute a portion covering the southern extent of the study area. Other professionals within the,study region were contracted for specific chapter treatments.. Coordination of Authors: A considerable effort was required t ,o co- ordinate the efforts of authors whose sections were closely related. TRIGOM staff assumed this responsibility, but were hindered to some extent by the large number of authors situated at some distance from one another throughout the study region. A good interchange of data did result in some cases, an example being among the estuarine dynamics. physical oceanography, and meteorology authors. There was' also a simi- lar exchange of data between the PAkC URI economics group and the marine environmental scientists. Data Retrieval: TRIGOM staff continued to acquire data and supply information to the chapter authors not easily obtained or available in the published literature. Data retrieved from facility visits were reviewed and where necessary,second or thi,rd trips made. Reports were received and accumulated, a bibliography was constructed, arranged by topic area, and periodically distributed to chapter authors. Refinement of Information Needs: To make sure that our topics selected on the proposal and subsequent negotiations were complete and adequate for the anticipated activities both offshore and onshore, we reviewed several current Environment Impact Statements. Among these were several documents by BLM (1973) for the Gulf of Mexico, and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (1973), also in the Gulf of Mexico. From this review, a matrix was developed (Table 1-3) which enabled us to see additional environmental topics that should be emphasized including some of the socio-economic factors. As a result, an adjustment was made to the initial topics to be inventoried, for example, by adding hydrology and water resources data and solid waste considerations. Review of Chapters: Finally, the submitted environmental sections pre- pared by consultants were reviewed for general accuracy, comprehensive- ness, and over-all scientific quality. In many cases, these reviews were made by outside independent consultants. TASK 4: SYNTHESIS OF DATA AND FINAL REPORT 0 Distribute report ou.tline 9 Conduct program review 0 Prepare final report Approach The intent was to develop an outline of topics early in the program and continue to update, improve, and add to it along the way. Toward the completion of the project, we had planned to conduct a one-day review of the program using an advisory board. This review committee would act as a steering body for the final report. Methods The outline of all topics to be inventoried was issued in the fourth month and reviewed and revised monthly so as.to include topics and. information discovered or decided to be of importance to the study. Although it became impossible to conduct a review (a'dvisory board) on the entire study, a one-day review was held of the socio-economic report in April. 1-12 Table 1-3: Data Needs Matrix ACTIVITY DIRECT EFFECTS PARWTO IMPLIED 1. .'Dredging and a.. habitat.loss a. habitat inventory (% loss over time. his .,Spoil Disposal l/ tory of endangered erivironments-i.e.. wetlands) productivity index of habitats b. destruction and loss of resident b. inventory of biota by habitat and notation of biota those species endangered or threatened c. interference with ground water c. water table contnurs and quality, identification quality and quantity of major aquifers d.. salinity intrusion d. estuarine salinity profiles, gw contours e. turbidity e. delineation of bottom sediments; current levels of turbidity and current sources of sedimentation, current 02 profiles f. alteration of natural current and f. definition of present current and wave patterns wave patterns g. contamination of dredged area and g. inventory of sediments - source. origin, age, disposal site with toxic elements sedimentological parameters (texture. heavy in sediments minerals, toxins) 2. Construction ,-of Pipelipes l/ a. disruption of bottom.habitat open a. same-as (a) and (b) above ocean b. turbidity - open ocean b. temporary effect; dependent on type of sediments and current sediment levels c. disruption of drainage systems In c. watershed drainage systems wetlands d. destruction of marsh vegetation d. inventory of unique or endangered vegetation 6. loss of habitat a. inventory, of habitats and ecosystems f. erosion f. topographic contours. soil maps 3. Supertanker a. increased turbulehce. scouring A. channel depths, composition of sediments, existing Operations I/ -and wave generation ca'Using erosion turbidity levels, existing 02 levels and sediment transport. and Increased turbidity b. increased navigation hazard b. level of use by small crafts; incidence of accidents in past c. spillage of oil causing C. 1. damage to beaches, 1. Beach inventory recreation impacts, -level of recreational use mollusc damage, -extent of clam and mussel flats destruction of bird definition of wildlife habitats and species nesting habitat nesting in intertidal zone 2. damage to estuaries and their 2. estuary.inventory - description of ecosystems ecosystems and key species including shellfish and fin- fish larvae 3. damage to marsh vegetation and 3. wetlands inventory - type of plants and soil soil erosion (relative tolerance to oil pollution) 4. destruction of species decreased 4. species diversity indexes - areas already species diversity (toxic effects stressed, areas of high quality. areas margi- to organisms) nally stressed, tolerances of key species. trophic diagrams 5. disruption of feeding or breed- 5. life histories of key species ing or other behaviors of birds and mammals and other key species 6. sublethal damages to organisms 6. life histories of key species (life span productivity, incidence of disease. etc d. oil spillage - nature of damages d. physiography variable according to physiography, hydrography hydrography, weather conditions weather conditions I/Note: Activity &M Ditect Effects information taken from the Corps of Engineers Report on Gulf Coast Deep Water Port Facilities VoLiV, Appeneix F. 1973 1-14 4. Platform a. turbidity a. bottom geology Construction 2/ b. bottom habitat loss b. habitat inventory, species inventory C. new habitat loss c. predictive-analyses 4. visual disruption t. delineation of recreation'areas and 4istance within line of sight e. navigation hazard e. level of shipping and commercial fishing traffic, and routes Drilling 0. turbidity from offshore disposal a. habitat and species inventory Operations 2/ of drilling muds b., loss of bottom habitat from disposal b. habitat and species Inventory of drilling cuttings c., change in salinity in erea around c. life hi stories of species in pelagic and offshore drill rig from disposal of forma- bottom habitat - tolerances to changes in salinity tion waters (brines) d. burden on onshore waste treatment or d. availability of waste disposal sites onshore and disposal systems In areas adjacent offshore (or on offshore disposal areas if available) from solid wastes; and oil or acid contaminated waters 6. Construction Of a. loss of available land (possibly a. land use.inventory (e@spqcially wetlands) Onshore Storage wetlands), Facilities 3/ b. when wetlands filled or drained. b. delineation of aquiler systemsl definition of lowering of water table, release existing stresses o@ water quality; list of of organic nutrients to surrounding species in salt marsh habitat - especially those waters, loss of natural buffer to endangered or threatened wave and wind erosion, possible contamination of groundwater; loss of fish and wildlife habitat 7, Construction of a. increased air and water pollution a. existing air and water quality conditions - needs Refineries and loads of refineries and petrochemical complexes Petr94hemical C-,,mplexes 3/ b. loss of lends b. same as for storage facilities 7. Cant. c. demands on water supply c. water supply capabilities d. demands.on electric power d. power generation sites and capacities d. Construction and A. demands on labor force - both a. labor force statistics Operation of Drill tempora@y and permanent Riqsj Storage Faci.! lities and Refinery b. increased income and tax base, b. total earnings/cu Complexes 3/ overtime INDIRECT OR INDUCED EFFECTS a. demands on housing - increased a. cost of living index for the area; housIng ,ents; increased use of marginal starts/yr units b. demands on municipal services - b. excess capacity of existing services or excess schools. hospitals, garbage collec- demand t1on, sewage treatment. transporta- tion. power, etc. NOTES, 2/ Activities and Direct Effects. taken from BLM Draft Environmental statement, Proposed 1973 OCS Sale No. 32, p. 21 3/ Activities and Direct Effects taken from both Corps and BLIA. reports, and additional sources 1-16 Review of the environmental inventory was conducted on a chapter-by- chapter basis, as described above. Thirty authors were involved in the writing of that volume. 1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE.REPORT This report has been organized to provide inventory type data by topic area and by regional habitat area as well. The guiding philosophy of the study organization and the subsequent'report has been to emphasize systems ecology in the environmental chapters. This approach is dis- cussed in greater detail in the Regional Overview, Chapter 2.4, Biology. In a simplified way, we have attempted to organize the report by major habitats such as Offshore Region, Major Sounds and Embayments, Exposed Shorelines, and so on, rather than by the more traditional scientific discipline (i.e., physical oceanography, geology, biology, etc.). This integrated approach we believe is important in understanding the func- tions and dynamics operative with a distinct re ion, and is based on extensive work in Systems Ecology by Odum (19693 and others. We have, however, added descriptive sections on the major plant and animal groups. Therefore, we have first tried to view the total setting of the study area in the Regional Overview. These sections give a broad background of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biology, and chemical oceanography prior to considering each separate habitat and followin that, each taxonomic group of organisms (e.g., phytoplankton, etc.3 The basic arrangement of the final report is into three volumes. These are the (1) Environmental Inventory and Assessment, (2) Socio-Economic Factors, and (3) Appendices. Within Volume One, there are several books. The Table of Contents of the report shows the major breakdown of chapters and topics. In summary this is: Volume One. Environmental Inventory Book one Chapter 1. Introduction 2. Regional Overview Environmental Systems 3. Offshore Region 4. Major Sounds and Embayments 5. Exposed Shoreline 6. Shoreland Strand 7. Upland Environments Book two Plant-Animal Profiles 8. Phytopl ankton 9. Zooplankton 1-17 10. Benthic Invertebrates 11. Macrophytes 12. Fishes 13. Birds 14. Mammals Other Environmental Aspects 15. Unique,Significant and Endanqered Environments 16. Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Species 17. Env.ironmental Quality ,Volume Two Socio-Economic Inventory Chapter 18. Introduction 19. Demography 20. Economic Overview 21. Petroleum 22. Recreational Activity 23. Transportation 24. Other Marine Activities 25. Fisheries 26. Land and Water Use 27. Summary and Recommendation Volume Three Appendices to Volume One A. Additional Data Sources B. Contacts C.- Ongoing Research D Bi bl iography E: Areal Extent of Habitat F. Contract 1.6 LIMITATIONS In a study such as the present one, which has at once an enormous scope and an all too limited time allowance for preparation, it is only I : understandable that there may be a number of distinct limitations placed both on the contract group and on the resulting product. Briefly, we will try to list the areas in the study where problems in the approach, the results, or the lack of definition make the report less than might be desired. This is not meant to be an excuse for performance or a criticism of anyone's shortcomings; it is merely a statement of fact. LIMITATION NO. 1: UNCERTAINTY OF PURPOSE The present study was for the most part built around the RFP, and initial 1-18 outline proposed by TRIGOM a series of conversations with BLM personnel,. the specific requirements of the CEQ/MIT task. The basic intent was a broad inventory of a large list of diverse topics. There was for. a considerable time some uncertainty at to the purpose of the.inventory, As a result, it was difficult to define what elements of the.study were most critical and which were irrelevant. LIMITATION NO. 2: FOCUS: OVERALL REGION OR SITE SPECIFIC LOCALITY Since there was an uncertainty here too, general direction was given that the socio-economic inventory was to be general with data aggre- gated at the county level, not site specific. The environmental side was directed toward comprehensive treatments rather than vol.uminous aggregations of detailed data, with a proviso to include occasional detailed studies where pertinent. As a result, the report is limited. Whil-e it may aid in the preparation of site specific studies or EIS's., i't is doubtful,since the effort has been to uniformly cover some 6,000 miles of coastline and All the offshore areas, that enough detail exists on which to base a site specific statement. This conclusion will be developed and supported in more detail in Chapter 27, Summary and Recommendations. LIMITATION NO. 3: TIME CONSTRAINTS A period of ten months was allowed to conduct the study. Thts isbardly adequate considering the steps involved: formulating an approach, col- lecting the.data, assembling the pieces, and writing comprehensive sections (some possibly for the first time). It was an uncomfortably short time to attempt such an all-inclusive work. It is reasonable then to say that it is at best a first approximation, and cannot be considered complete, exhaustive, thorough, or the like. Any attempt to.imply that these are all-the pertinent data would be incorrect. This is especially so for the life history data for the "key s'pecies." By stating "no information'l We are saying that no data were readily available within the perio 'd of time allotted or at the particular library used. It is likely that somewhere data may be availabl.e. LIMITATION NO. 4: DATA CONSTRAINTS Certain portions of the data we have collected are the most recent and best available at this time, but very likely will be changed or im- proved within a year or two. Such parameters as air and waterpollution data, land use information, economic factors, and so on, could change significantly and need re-examination. Each element should therefore be examined for its value in future use. In addition, a number of data .1-19 base&(wetiands,inventories, economic evaluations, marine resou.rce an-,. alyses, recreational estimates) are already outdated, some being.at least 10 years-old. In such cases, data must be regarded as indicative only, and serve as example of.the types of data necessary for future considerations. 1-20 1.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The staff at TRIGOM gratefully acknowledges the assistance and cooperation a-f a large number of agencies, groups, and individuals who contributed freely to this study. A complete listin.g of those persons contacted and their affiliations is presented in Appendix B. We are especially in.debted to the contributing authors who gave willingly of their time and particular expertise, and without whom we could not have completed this report. The following are acknowledged and arranged by respective topic areas. Geology South of Cape Cod Dr. John Milliman Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Gulf of Maine Dr. Harold Palmer Severna Park, Maryland Beaches an&Estuaries Mr. Barry Timson Maine Bureau of Geology Physical Oceanography Northern Region Dr. Joseph Graham Maine Department of Marine Resources Southern Region Dr. Barbara Welsh University of Connecticut, Marine Sciences Institute Ms. Janet P. Herring University of Connecticut, Marine Sciences Institute Chemical Oceanography Dr. Ted Loder University of New Hampshi.re Mr. Tom Shevenell University of New Hampshi're Meteorology/Climatology Dr. James Havens University of Rhode Island Mr. Ed Levine University of Rhode Island Dr. David Shaw University of Rhode Island System Ecology Mr. Stanley Chenoweth Boothbay Harbor, Maine, Dr. William Gilbert Colby College Dr. Mary Gilbert Colby College Phytoplankton Dr. Hugh Mulligan University of New Hampshire Ms. Frances DeLara University of New Hampshire looplankton Dr. Donal.d B. Horton TRIGOM Mr. William Johnson UniVersity of,Rhode@Island Mr. Paul Reilly University of Rhode Island Mr. Bruce Rogers University of Rhode Island Benthic Invertebrates. Mr. Alden,Stickney Maine Department of Marine Resources Dr. Peter Larsen 'Maine Department'of Marine Resources Mr. Sheldon Pratt University of Rhode Island 1-21 Macrophytes Dr. Alton Gusta,fson Bowdoin College Dr. Barbara Heavers University of Rhode Island Fishes Mr. Stanley Chenoweth Boothbay Harbor, Maine Birds Dr. Frank Heppner University of Rhode Island Mr. William Townsend Sorrento, Maine Ms. Lisa Gould University of Rhode-Island Marine Mammals Dr. Steve Katona College of the Atlantic Ms. Kate Darling College of the Atlantic Mr. David Richardson Marine Department of Marine Resources Population and Income Dr. Kenneth E. McConnell University of Rhode Island Overview of Economic Mr. Carl E. Veazie Public Affairs Research Activity Trans'por- Center, Bowdoin College tation Petroleum-Petrochem- Dr. Thomas Grigalunas University of Rhode Island icals Other Marine Activities Recreation Dr. James W. McFarland University of Rhode Island Fisheries Economics Dr. Gerald R. Visguillio Connecticut College Land Use Mr*. William MacDonald Winthrop, Maine Maine Rivers Mr. Richard Harvey Scarborough, Maine Water Research Other Contributors: Mrs. Jean Chenoweth, Mr. Herbert Perkins, Ms. Lee and research Perkins, Dr. Robert Knowlton, Mr. Diego Alonso, assistants: Ms. Nora Cippola, Robbin,Hazard, Steve Burke, Steve Reinert. Previewers of environmental chapters were: Drs. Dana Kester, Chris Martin, Michael Pilsen, Bernard McAlice and John Milliman. We also with to express our thanks and appreciation to the following groups and the many individuals, too numerous to list here,.who were especially helpful in our search for environmental information and socio-economic data: 1-22 Federal N-ational Oceanographic Data Center, Washington, D.C. National Marine Fisheries Service, Gloucester, Massachusetts U.S. National Park Service, Washington, D.C. U.S. Geological Survey, Boston, Massachusetts, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Boston & Needham, Massachusetts Smithsonian Center for.Nat.ional Areas, Washington, D.C. State Bureau of Waterways, Maine Department of Transportation Maine Department of Environmental Protection @aine Department of Marine Resources, Boothbay Harbor, Maine Maine Information Display Analysis System Maine State Planning Office Massachusetts Department of Natural Resources, Boston, Massachusetts Rhode Island Department of Natural Resources Rhode Island Division of Fish and Wildlife Connecticut Department of Agriculture, Aquaculture Division, Milford, Conn. Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection New York Department of Environmental Conservation, SUNY,.Stony Brook, N.Y.. New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection Natural Resource Council of Maine, Augusta, Maine Private and Regional Curtis Harris Associates American Geographical Society, New York Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole, Massachusetts Reed & D'Andrea,,South Gardiner, Maine New England National Resources Council New England Regional Commission New England River Basins Commission (NERBC) For a listing of all individuals contacted at these and'other agencies, please consult the Directory of Contacts, Appendix B. The staff of Public Affairs Research Center (PARC) and consultants wish to thank the following individuals: Professors John Gates and Irving Spaulding reviewed and made comments on portions of the socio-economic draft. Professor Curtis Harris provided the baseline socio-economic forecasts for the North Atlantic states and coastal counties. Research assistance was provided by a number of people, including Raymond Coombs, Peter Meyer, Robert Burfor@ and Karen Simas. Valuable typing se@rvices were provided by Mrs. Mary Esty and Mrs. Catherine McFarland. TRIGOM staff Ms. Diane Brackett Data Analyst and ArchAeology 1-23 Mrs. Ruth Brown Administrative Assistant Ms. Barbara Caminiti - Secretary Mr. Terry DeWan - Drawing Coordination and Production Mrs. Nancy Goodspeed - Typist Ms. Shirley Griffin Habitat Mapping, Rare and Endangered Species Ms. Betsy Holloway Assistant Dr. Donald B..Horton - Executive Director of TRIGOM and Zooplankton Ms. Kathy Sage - Water Resources, Pollution Data, Endangered Environments Mr. Edward H. Shenton - Program Manager Ms. Judy Stanhope - Drawing Coordination PARC Staff and Consultants Dr. Thomas A. Grigalunas - Assistant Professor, Resource Economics, University of Rhode Island Mr. William E. MacDonald - Planning Consultant Dr. Kenneth E. McConnell - Assistant Professor, Resource Economics, University of Rhode Island Dr. James W. McFarland - Assistant Professor, Resource Economics, University of Rhode Island Mr. Carl E. Veazie - Director of PARC, Bowdoin College Dr. Gerald R. Visguillio - Assistant Professor of Economics, Connecticut College Ms. Johana Williams - PARC, Bowdoin College Additional typists were: Ms. Dee Ann Lamb University of Rhode Island Ms. Claudia Foret University of New Hampshire Ms. Elizabeth Masciadri 1-24 1.8 REFERENCES Odum, H. T., B. J. Copeland, E. McMahan. 1974. Coastal ecological systems of the United States: a source book for estuarine planning. Conservation Foundation, Washington, D. C. 4 vol. The Research Institute of the Gulf of Maine. 1973a. A socio-economic and environmental inventory of the outer continental shelf and ad- jacent waters, preliminary report, August 15, 1973, for Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Unpublished. TRIGOM, Portland, Maine. 123 pp. 1973b. Preliminary report on general habitats from Sandy Hook, New Jersey, to Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia. OCS Petroleum Study for Council on Environmental Quality and MIT, Part II. .October 1, 1973. Unpublished. TRIGOM, Portland, Maine. 154 pp. University of Rhode Island (URI), Marine Experiment Station, Graduate School of Oceanography. 1973. Coastal and offshore environmental inventory, Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoa.ls, Marine Publications Series,No. 2. URI, Kingston, Rhode Island. 681 pp. 1974. Coastal and offshore environmental inventory, Cape Hatteras to Nantucket Shoals, Complement volume, Marine Publica- tions Series No. 3. URI, Kingston, Rhode Island. 384 pp. U. S. AMY Corps of Enqineers.. 1973. Report on Gulf Coast deep water port facilities, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida. Department of the Army, Lower Mississippi Valley Division, Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, Va. 8 vol. U. S. Bureau of Land Management. 1973. Final environmental statement for a proposed 1973 outer continental shelf oil and.gas general lease sale, offshore Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, OCS sale No. 32. Bureau of Land Management, Washington, D. C.- 5 vol. 1-25 Chapter 27 Environmental Data Gaps and Research Needs Page 27.1 Introduction 27-2 27.2 Geology: Chapters 3.1, 4.1, 5.1 27-4 Offshore Needs 27-4 Coastal Needs 27-5 Limitations of Beach Data 27-6 Limitations of Estuarine Data 27-8 27.3 Physical Oceanography: Chapters 3.2, 4.2, 5.2 27-9 Offshore 27-9 Inshore 27-10 27.4 Chemical Oceanography: Chapters 3.3, 4.3 27-11 Data Gaps 27-11 Biologically Active Natural Compounds 27-11 Suspended Matter 27-11 Trace Metals and Or anic Pollutants 27-12 27.5 Meteorology: Chapters 3.4, 4.4 27-13 27.6 Phytoplankton: Chapter 8.0 27-13 27.7 Zooplankton: Chapter 9.0 27-15 27.8 Benthic Invertebrates: Chapter 10.0 27-17 27.9 Fishes: Chapter 12.0 27-19 27.10 Marine Birds: Chapter 13.0 27-22 27.11 Marine Mammals: Chapter 14.0 27-24 27.0 ENVIRONMENTAL DATA GAPS AND RESEARCH NEEDS 27.1 INTRODUCTION The following suggestions to fill in data gaps by no means imply that all items must be gathered prior to OCS leasing activities. The questions of whether certain data are needed for such leasing decisions are beyond the scope of this study. We have assembled these sections as a brief review of the coverage and adequacy of the data collected in the environmental chapters 2.0 to 17.0. In addition, we asked each chapter or section author to describe future research needs to fill in these gaps or deficiencies as well as to indicate any priorities he believes should be given to this work. Instructions for this task are shown in Figure 27-1, Memo- randurn to All Section Authors. The majority of the data collected and resulting written statementsare fairly general by the very necessity of covering such large coastal and offsnore regions. It is obvious that in many areas more data exist but that the inclusion of these would have been inappropriate for a region- al study of this type, as well as requiring more time than -that avail- able. In other cases there may be no additional data that would be meaningful. As an example we cite the area of physical oceanography. It is a near certainty that no more extensive or detailed current and circulation data exist for the Gulf of Maine or bordering near-shore areas; however, one might be able to assemble vast amounts of tempera- ture data over long periods for scattered areas. It is doubtful that these data would be useful for the present study. So, while we have presented only contours of temperature on a seasonal basis, there would be little value in capturing and presenting any adaitional data from other sources. On the other hand, once a specific site is selected, we m ay wish to ob- tain new temperature data to pen-nit estimates of circulation, discharge, flushing rates, arid so on. What we are concluding then, is that until more specific plans are for- mulated for develooment, with the suspected resulting impacts, we can at best only rew-.-i@iend broad additions to existing data on the basis of our present understanding or lack of understanding of ultimate needs resulting from the intent to develoD the OCS. The following discussion treats the gaps and needs by discipline, since we tend to orient our thinking and research planning in this manner rather than'by the basic orientation of the report into bio-geographic 27-2 MEMORANDUM SENT TO ALL AUTHORS MEMORANDUM TO: 'All Section Authors FROM: E. H. Shenton, TRIGOM SUBJECT: Conclusions of BLM Draft Report: Data Gaps and Deficiencies A final task that we have put off until this stage is attempting to assess any information or data which are missing. We need each author s help in this assessment. The exact wording of our contract stated: "Define the gaps and deficiencies that exist in the present information baseline that is preliminary to conducting field research and new sur- veys, and (provide) "A discussion of environmental information still needed to fully assess the impact of leasing activities and development of energy and other resources in the study area." In assessing what is needed and the uses of our data base, there are @three suggested-purposes to be considered: (1) Environmental impacts resulting from OCS leasing; (2) planning for OCS leasing at a region- al scale and (3) planning feasibility of coastal development. Work Statement: 1. Define areas of coverage where there are data gaps or defi- cient data to meet the above purposes. A brief paragraph should be written on each item with an evaluation of what we now know (i.e., sed- iments, structure, temperature, or whatever the key elements of your report are). 2. List with brief explanation the priorities of research needed in attempting to assess the impact of OCS activities. Don't worry about how data are to be collected, such as sampling rates, frequency, station spacing, money or time needed to conduct a survey. This will come later. We have proposed to BLM to convene a small closed session later this summer to deal with "how it's done." A S(M-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL INVENTORY OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC REGION FIGURE I 27-1 MEMORANDUM SENT TO ALL AUTHORS 27-'3 habitats. The order follows the general order of the report wfiich is: geology, physical oceanography, chemical oceanography, and so on. 27.2.GEOLOGY INCLUDING CHAPTERS 3.1,' 4.1, 5.1 OFFSHORE NEEDS: CHAPTER 3.1 The needs in furthering our geological knowledge of the offshore region from Maine to New Jersey, especially in the Gulf of Maine are two-fold: more complete insights into the structure, stratigraphy and history of the area, and two, better knowledge of the processes which affect the sediments and morphology of the modern shelf. (1) Structure, Stratigraphy, and History. In order to understand this aspect of the Gulf of Maine region better, we need more complete and sophisticated geophysical data. This would include more accu- rate magnetics (preferably aeromagnetics at I to 2 gamma intervals), gravity data (which are sadly lacking over much of this area), and more sophisticiated seismic profiling, such as multichannel data. At present, the available data have been used by Ballard in his thesis (1974), but other data have been kept confidential by petro- leum companies. Aeromagnetic and multichannel seismics at this stage are only becoming possible for oceanographic institutions and universities, and it probably will be at least several years before the equipment can be used extensively and reliably on the U. S. continental margin. On the other hand, the U. S. Geological Survey is presently tooling up for such an operation, and probably will be obtaining this sort of information within the next year or so. Without having stratigraphic control, the interpretation of geo- physical data is at best questionable. Yet, the control used in making the interpretations given in the offshore geology chapter ,is very scattered, consisting of logs from a few scattered offshore drill holes and dredgings from a number of canyons. At least 10 to 20 drill hole sites, spaced over primarily the outer shelf, with others also over areas with potentially thick sedimentary.se- quences (such as the Baltimore Canyon Trough), should-be drilled. Many of these may be drilled in the summer of 1974, if permission is granted the U. S. Geological Survey. Some holes can probably be relatively shallow, but at least some should penetrate several km, and possibly one could extend more than 5 km. (2) Shelf Processes. The need for these.data stems not only from our desire to understand the physical controls upon shelf processes, but also the more applied need to document these areas with res- pect to baseline data, so that the environmental impact of eco- nomic utilization of the offshore area will be understood and pre- di ctable. What effect would an off 'shore structure have upon the Id a 11 spill affect the bottom surrounding bottom? How wou n ol 27-4 sediments? How deep should a pipeline be laid-under'the bottom sediments? How will offshore mining affect both the bottom sedi- ments and the suspended matter regime? These and other questions must be answered before economic exploitation can begin. Most of our insights into shelf processes come from our knowledge of the distribution of sediments and morpho,logical types. But clearly, opposite must also hold: if we want to understand the morphological and sedimento-logical control on the shelf, we must understand the processes. The ideal way to study the processes on the shelf is to study a number of small areas, each of which would be representative of a larger morphologic and sedimentologic unit. For instance, the study of the current, temperature, and suspended regime within several of the Gulf of Maine basins probably could serve as a preliminary model for our understanding of basin pro- cesses. Similarly, the current, hydrography, and small scale mor- phologic changes (such as migration and sand waves) would help in understanding the environments of Georges Bank, Nantucket Shoals, and several other areas that presumably have active bottom en- vironments. Several observations are basic: first, the small scale morphology of the area (in terms of meters or decimeters) throughout the year; this would thus define the stability of the area. Is it stable, in continual motion, or does it move only during.major storms? Second, we would need to monitor the current regime of the area,by emplacing a series of bottom-mounted current meters. Third, the suspended matter and bed-load regime probably could best be measured using recording photographic methods, con- trolled by sporadic sampling of the environments. These measure- ments should be taken at relatively closely spaced intervals (at least once every 6 weeks, or maybe even more frequently) through- out the year, for a minimum of two years. Also needed is a study of the shallow stratigraphy of the area, since this would also allow us better prediction into the effect of offshore structure construction upon the stability of the bottom, as well as measur- ing the distribution of sedimentological properties in the various areas. At @;esent, our sample coverage in most areas is I sample every'259 k Clearly, a much better knowledge of the sediments of any particular area should be gained before economic exploita- tion begins. COASTAL NEEDS: CHAPTER 4.1 The needs for further research.in coastal areas with respect to geology mainly concern the movement of sediment and the impact of man's.activi- ties upon that movement and upon the quality of the sediment itself. We have seen in the major sounds and embayments how the construction of man-made structures can affect the equilibrium of a beach of embayment. As the coastal zone is increasingly utilized, our knowledge should come increasingly from predictive abilities, not from hindsight as it has in 27-5 the past. (1) Sediment Movement. How does sediment move in the nearshore areas? Does it move into estuaries from the sea or does river-deprived sediment pass through the estuaries on its way to the sea? Pre- sumably, the former case appears to hold for most estuaries through- out the east coast, and yet, our observations on the suspended and bed loads of estuaries are extremely poor, particularly during the stormy winter months, when probably much of the transport occurs. Similarly, the operation of sedimentary processes on beaches and ,islands is generally known (see the Reach, Chapter 5.1), but specifically too little is understood. What are the long-term trends of various beaches? What are the sources of sediment and what processes control these parameters? (2) Man's Impact. We have s een that man's activities, from dredging to duck-farming to industrialization to jetty construction have materially affected the coastal zone environment, and yet the pre- dictive studies on such impacts are sadly lacking. In most cases we use actual impact results rather than predictive studies, but by this time the damage has already been done. How much pollution can be put into a coastal area without deterioration of that en- vironment? Obviously, the answer depends upon the specific area (beach, estuary, or whatever), as well as what pollutant which is introduced. Predictive models should be encouraged, and the data needed to construct such models should come from both available data and that gathered from studies mentioned in the preceding. paragraph. LIMITATIONS OF BEACH DATA: CHAPTER 5.1 Geologic processes of numerous small beaches and several larger strands along the New England shoreline have not been studied. These should be given a reconnaissance before offshore oil production activities com- mence. The longest portions of beaches remaining unstudied are the eastern and southeastern shorelines of Cape Cod Bay. Little or no data exist for the eastern beaches; and, although@Nilsson (1972) worked on the inter- tidal swash bar complexes typical of the southeastern areas, only grain- size data and a few profiles are documented. However, Nilsson failed to note the importance of the post-storm accretion processes and the relationships between beach state and swash bar migration rates and character is tics. Chute and Segerstrom (1949) have studied the beaches of the Plymouth- Duxbury, Massachusetts region, but we could not obtain a copy of their work to review. Review of this work, and perhaps further study of these beaches, is critical because of the-location immediately down 27-6 drift of Boston Harbor. The coastline of New Hampshire has'been studied superficially in re- gard to beach processes. Most of these beaches are gravel; the pro- cess of gravel beach behavior is least well understood. In addition, the location close to a potential tanker terminal location in or near the Piscataquis River estuarydemands that these beaches receive con- siderable attention before petroleum product activities begin. Only a few Maine beaches north of Portland have been studied at the present time, although many o@ these beaches are heavily used for public recreation areas. Also, pocket beaches occur in Maine, but.these are too numerous to be studied individually prior to proposed offshore activities. Several representative pocket beaches should be selected and studied, along with the Popham and Reid State Park beaches. Data Lacks with Respect to Oil Pollution of Beaches. Effective removal of spilled petroleum from beaches before extensive weathering and eco- logical damage occurs should be the primary objective of any spill clean-up program. Little or no research concerning the effects of beach processes on efficient removal of oil exists along the New England coastline because of the infrequency of spills, the small size of spills, or the lack of research or observations during spill clean- up. There are several areas of research needed to understand the efficiency of beach clean-up with minimum environmental effects. These areas focus on understanding long and short-term changes in beaches and barrier beaches, processes on gravel and low-energy beaches, time and space relationships between beach sediment sources and delivery to the beach system, and the relationships of offshore bars to the subaerial beach. Present techniques for removal of hydrocarbons from beaches are basi- cally limited to absorption of surface patches or globules to a dis- posable material such as straw. In some cases where clean-up opera- tions have been delayed, oil has saturated the beach sediment to depths up to 15.2 to 20.3 cm (Tamano Spill, Portland Harbor, 1972). Thus, to remove the toxic hy'drocarbons, substantial quantities of beach sedi- ment are also removed. The question arises, what are the effects of removal of large volumes of sediment on various types of beaches? What am- the beach processes which would prevent rapid removal of surface oil before it becomes leached to depths below the beach surface? For answers to these and other similar questions on the effects of oil on beaches more specific research is needed. We know too little about long-term barrier beach processes and equilib- rium in New England. We should investigate short-term drift processes and rates for representative beaches. Inc'luded should be empirical 27-7 studies to predict longshore drift using tracer sands under different wave climate conditions to help us derive predictive equations. Another topic for research is the barrier systems off the beaches. The effects of removal of substantial quantities of sand from the barrier system on the immediate area and the beach system as a whole are not known. What are the rates of beach recuperation? What are the effects of removing sand on the source supply - transport system? Further, what is the response of offshore bars to onshore sand removal? Sand from offshore bars may naturally replace removed sand, but this process may lessen the offshore bars' effectiveness to protect the subaerial beach from storm wave erosion. Coarse-grained beaches (gravel and mixed sand and gravel) respond quicker to climatic variables than do finer sand beaches. The high porosity and permeability of these beaches will.impede surface clean-up and necessitate removal of coated beach sediment. Research is needed to understand the processes of these beaches, their post-storm recovery rates, their relationships to either upland or offshore sediment supply sources, and their role in protecting backbeach areas. Low energy beaches are sheltered from vigorous wave activity and thus are characterized by a sediment-size distribution reflected in their adjacent upland source material. They are generally coarse-grained and protect the base of upland scarps from erosion. Their response to wave climate changes and their role in maintaining upland slope stability should be determined to understand the effects of sediment removal-to recover spilled petroleum. LIMITATIONS OF ESTUARINE DATA While geologic and hydrographic studies have been conducted for most New England estuaries, flushing rates have been determined for very few. Preliminary rates should be determined for those estuaries having river flow data associated with them from hypsographs constructed with the aid of coastal charts. Because there are so many estuaries in Maine, these are perhaps the least studied. The Kennebec River estuary, although one of the major waterways, has probably received little attention. This complex estu- arine basin should be studied hydrologically because of its size, com- plexity, and possible proximity to petroleum handling facilities. Other Maine estuaries lying east of the Penobscot River need further investigation prior to Tocating port facilities associated with off- shore activities. Little is known about the effects of oil spills on the sediments of es- tuaries or even the transport of oil slicks into restricted estuarine 27-8 embayments. Slick transport into coarse-grained estuaries should be simulated to de- termine the extent of possible pollution from spills external to the estuary. Spills from within the estuary should be documented to deter- mine the processes resulting,' as well as the relationship of spi,11 re-. moval rates to determine flushing rates of the ba,sin. The removal of substantial volumes of sediment from co"arse-grained and .fine-grained estuaries may result from oil spills or harbor dredging. Will the removal of this sediment effect the estuaries' substrate else- where in response? Studies of estuarine morphology interrelationships are needed to understand these possible changes. As an example, con- siderable morphological changes have occurred in dredging the coarse- grained estuaries of Wells Harbor, Merrimack River estuary, Scarboro estuary, and the Saco River estuary. Also, these activities have adversely affected neighboring beach sedi- ment supplies. The role of coarse-grained estuarine morphology, sedi- ment transport equilibrium, and inlet dynamics to beach,sediment supply must be studied and better defined. Sedimentation processes in fine-grained.estuaries are poorly understood, not only locally, but on a world-y4ide basis. These processes include the mechanics of flocculation, the relative amounts of suspended sedi- ment derived from fluvial sources versus oceanic sources, and resus- pension and resedimentation Of fine-grained sediments by benthic organ- isms, currents, and waves. Problems of this nature can only be re- solved by long-term research. Related, but of a more immediate short- term consideration, is the relationships plankton organisms to floccu- lation sedimentation to determine the effects of oil.pollution on zoo- plankters, and thereby on estuarine sedimentation. Finally, in needed research on fine-gravel estuaries, the effects of channel or mooring space dredging on sedimentation in estuaries has re- ceived increased attention because of environmental concern. Specific studies should be designed to sufficiently determine dredging effects on estuarine morphology and the possible changes that may result. These should be done well in advance of specific dredge projects con- nected with harbor activities. 27.3 PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHY CHAPTERS 3.2, 4.2, 5.2, OFFSHORE (1) Detailed measurement of temperature, salinity, and currents. We presently have a general understanding of the distribution of these variables but only on a broad and seasonal basis. Large 27-9 gaps in areas and time spans exist. What is needed is more detail over a more continuous period to be able to understand the variable distri- butions within smaller areas and over short periods of time, that is, if we need to be able to come closer to predicting the distribution over short time spans. This requires more detailed measurement of velocity and direction of water movement within segments of circulation. There are extremely few reliable measurements of current transport in the open Gulf of Maine or over Georges Bank. (2) Circulation in Basins. Relatively little work has been done to de-' termine circulation and exchange within the deeper basins of the Gulf of Maine. It is likely that over periods of 20 years that these basins receive and collect considerable accumulations of foreign or toxic materials - brought in from outside sources. The exchange rate and renewal of these basin waters is not well ' known. The periodic, occasional, or only random flushing of these waters should be determined to understand better what may occur if there is either continuous, occasional, or no exchange of waters from the basin sinks. A second part of the circulation task is to develop more predic- tive models of surface currents to simulate the distribution of waterborne products. This modeling should also look into verticle products in the water column in this direction. (3) Wave Height and Prediction of Wave Occurrence. There is relative- ly large gap of wave height data for most of the offshore regions in the study area, although broad extrapolations may be made from the few existing observation points such as light ships and short-term platforms. There is a need for many more long-term data on waves for areas such as Eastern Georges Bank. Wave data relating to effects of scour or motion on pipelines may also re- quire specific site location observations over suitable periods. The gaps in this area are somewhat overlapping with associated meteorological data discussed later. INSHORE (1) Estuarine circulation. We need to examine the process of inshore- river mouth circulation, especially in regard to tidal flows that reinforce or alter the residual currents. Certain wide-mouthed, open estuaries such as Casco Bay and Penobscot Bay already mea- sured in some detail exhibit a variation in comparison with narrow estuaries like the Merrimack or the Sheepscot Rivers. The possible introduction of spilled products into one system may differ from another posing a potential hazard in estuaries that behave so as to readily pass subsurface currents into the estu-. aries. 27-10 (2) Flushing rates. Directly related to the currents that flow into an estuary is the need to describe the flushing rate and how com- pletely are the waters exchanged of any or all the major estu- aries. As mentioned earlier, few of these data are available. 97.4 CHEMICAL OCEANOGRAPHY: CHAPTERS 3.3 and 4.3 DATA GAPS AND DEFICIENCIES There has been a substantial amount of chemical oceanographic informa- tion and data collected in the study area. However,,there are a number of important,parameters for which there are only limited data. Most data available were collected in localized areas with a minimum of supporting chemical and/or hydrographic information to help interpret the operation of the whole system. BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVENATURAL COMPONENTS, The distribution of dissolved oxygen, including both seasonal and spa- tial variations, is well known for most of the areas studied. Gener- ally it is at or near 100 percent saturation. Exceptions are low oxy- gen in deep water or nearshore polluted areas, and high oxygen within plankton blooms. Further studies of the oxygen concentration need not be undertaken except as support data for other chemical.or biological work. Other gases such as nitrogen have been studied very little. , Knowledge of nitrogen concentrations is useful in the study of gas ex- change at the atmosphere-ocean interface and of physical changes, such as heating, cooling, and mixing of water masses. Nutrient concentrations have been measured in most areas within the study region. Most data, however, were collected over a short time span and in localized areas. Only a few annual studies have been com- pleted. If more data are needed, they should be collected as part of a larger systematic program in which hydrographic and biological param- eters are also measured. Collection of more nutrient data is of little utflity unless aimed toward more understanding of the areas involved, such as the entire Gulf of Maine. There is a need for collecting nu- trient data in polluted areas, such as Massachusetts Bay, in order to monitor the excess nutrient input. However, unless this work is coupled with a study of the biological productivity resulting from this nutrient input, the data will be of little use in understanding the effect of man on the natural system. There have been few data col- lected on either total dissolved organic materials (as organic carbon) or on individual, natural organic compounds, such as urea. In seawater, these compounds are found in very low concentrations and are useful in the study organic matter cycling and biological processes. Consequent- ly, study of specific compounds must be coupled with biological studies. SUSPENDED MATTER Suspended matter data are lacking for th.e areas offshore. As above, most of the studies have been conducted in limited areas and lack a systematic approach, both in the spatial and temporal distribution of sample stations. Where particulate matter data have been collected, 27-11 interpretation of the processes which control the suspended matter con- centrations has been limited by the lack of supporting data. Suspended matter data for the coastal area are limited. The problem here is the extreme variability of concentrations observed over the tidal cycle, from day to day, from month to month, and year to year, etc. To amass baseline data under these,conditions is fruitless. What questions nead to be answered concerning suspended matter have been phrased by Meade (1972, p. 259) in a very succinct manner: "Where does suspended matter come from? How far does it travel during a specific event or period of time? Where is it deposited? Once deposited, how long does it stay, put?" Studies of suspended matter conducted to aid Iin planning or assessing impacts should be conducted on two levels: (1) A regional, systematic basel,ine study for the offshore waters. Suspended matter data, such as concentrations, light scattering relationships, organic-inorganic ratios, should be collected with supporting physical, chemical and bio- logical data. (2) Process-oriented studies for the coastal areas are needed to define (a) the sources and the sinks of suspended matter; and (b) the relationships between sediment and the controlling energy con- ditions rimari Jr related to weather conditions. p y TRACE METALS A14D ORGANIC POLLUTA114TS Pesticides and polychlorobiphenyls (PCB) are entirely manufactured by man. Baseline data on these compounds would show the present levels due to man's activities. There are.essentially few data on these com- pounds; only the nearshore areas have been sampled. It would be useful to examine the concentrations of these compounds be- cause of the high population density in the northeast United States, and the large important fishery industry in the region. In addition, these baseline data are necessary to help understand the process of dispersal of these compounds.once introduced into the Gulf of Maine region. Trace metals and some hydrocarbons have natural level concentrations which are enhanced in some areas due to man's activities. It is proba- bly no longer possible to obtain natural level data for many of the trace metals along the coasts. Although it is known that most trace metals injected into the coastal areas end up in sediments of that area, the forms of the metals and processes of transportation and dis- persion are still not well understood. Consequently, measurement of both the' forms of the metals and temporal and spatial distributions must be studied in conjunction with water mass movement and biological parameters. This approach is necessary if processes of T-ra-ce metal dispersion are to be understood. 27-12 Finally, the concentrations, sources,-and composition of natural-level hydrocarbons must be determined for this region, particularly on Georges Bank and in near-shore areas that are possible pipeline or tanker terminals. These levels should be determined prior to the onset of drilling for oil on Georges Bank. Georges Bank is a major fishing area @nd fish-nursery ground. The@physi- cal and chemical oceanographic processes that cause Georges Bank to be such a productive area are not well understood and must be studied. It will be necessary to measure not only the chemical oceanographic param- eters such as dissolved oxygen, nutrients, suspended matter, trace metals and organic pollutants, but to relate these parameters to both physical and biological processes occurring at the same time. A major, multidisciplinary, and probably multi-institutional program will be necessary to collect, evaluate and model the chemical data re- quired to understand the Georges Bank area before the assessment of manis impact can be estimated. 27.5 METEOROLOGY: CHAPTERS 3.4 ana 4.4 The largest gap in the coverage of meteorological data is clearly in the offshore areas. With only a very few on station ships and no plat- forms or buoys, the lack of seasonal and continuous observations is severe. The.need is for more observation, if the goal is to be better short-time predictions. These data are needed for engineering opera- tions, exploratory work, as well as for better understanding of wind- driven surface currents on short-term in event of spilled product. To predict storm tracks we need more hour by hour observations to im- prove forecasts. One suggestion has been to fully instrument All ex- ploratory and permanent drill rigs for more observations. The area needing the greatest number of observations is generally north of Cape Cod and in the Gulf of Maine.where, as we have seen in trying to estimate currents from ships' logs, the number of ships is decreased to the point that calculations are not meaningful. 27.6 PHYTOPLANKTON: CHAPTER 8 Future-phytoplankton studies should include the following five topics: (1) Preparation of a taxonomic kty to the phytoplankton of the region At the preTent -time, Marine Plankton Diatoms of the West Coast of North America Coast by Cupp (1950) is one of the most commonly used guides to the local diatoms. There are many instances where this guide is incomplete, e.g., the omission of Porosira glacialis .and D-tonula confervacae as well as. stylized line drawings and size ranges for organisms which do not suit the Tocal forms. The .27-13 preparation of a taxonomic reference which includes phytomicro- graphs of vegetative and resting cells of the Gulf of Maine is long overdue. (2) Analysis of phytoplankton dynamics in selected coastal waters. Phytoplankton populations have been studied in detail in only a few locations within the Gulf of Maine. More detailed seasonal data are required on the inshore waters, specifically the waters. from Boston, Mass. to Cape Elizabeth, Maine, and along the coast- al waters to the South of Nova Scotia. It is at these two loca- tions that the initiation of the spring bloom within the Gulf of Maine is thought to occur and ultimate-ly spreads to other regions. Factors responsible for the step by step initiation and subsequent development of the spring bloom should be carefully identified. After this stucLv is completed, it should be possible to accurate- ly designate species as indicator organisms of specific water masses. Previous information which had described Chaetoceros socialis and Guinardia flaccida as Georges Bank forms has been subsequently shown to be incorrect and based on inadequate sam- pling of coastal waters. (3) Examination of the role of resting spores and cysts in initiating populations of phytoplankton. We have frequently encountered large numbers of resting spores and cysts at the conclusion of the growing periods for many of the major phytoplankters. Often these are found farther offshore in deeper water than in which the healthy populations were collecte,d. Very seldom are resting spores or cysts found when the blooms of the individual species. are initiated. We need to know at what depths the resting spores and cysts maintain themselves when they arenot a part of the vegetative population within the euphotic zo 'ne. It is also im- portant.to know the role of the resting spores and cysts in the initial development of the population within the water column. Examination of phytoplankton biomass as a constituent of total _particulate matter. Coastal and estuarine environments are often "detrital" systems, regions dominated by particulate or- ganic matter. The contribution of the living phytoplankton to the total particulate organic matter is largest during the spring bloom, yet it composes only a small fraction during the remainder of the year. This fact is important when it is remembered that zooplankton, for the most part, feed on particles in an indiscrim- inate manner. We need more information on the seasonal variabil- ity in the coastal region, in the classification, amount, and origin of particulate,matters. Examination of the role of surface, mid-water and deep water currents in facilitating the development and spread of spring blooms. The currents within the water column of coastal waters 27-14 at distances of 8 km and near-coastal waters, out to 80 km, should be better described. Phytoplankton have a specific pat- tern of development within the Gulf of Maine. The spring bloom spreads to the North from its initial development around Cape Ann in spite of the fact that the surface waters in this,region move to the south. It may be that there is a portion of the water mass moving in a northerly direction and it is this water mass which is causing the spread of spring bloom. The experi- ments conducted by Ketchum (1947) involving the tracing of water mass movements within the Gulf of Maine should be repeated and elaborated on in different portions of the coastal waters of the Gulf of Maine. This information is essential to understanding the timing and sequence of spring bloom. 27.7 ZOOPLANKTON:1 CHAPTER 9.0 (1) Abundance and Distribution. Many more data on zooplankton abun- dance-are available south of Cape Cod than in the Gulf.of Maine. Also, quantitative surveys have been done on inshore areas and estuaries much more frequently than on the continental shelf and slope. Much of the information in the Gulf of Maine was collected in the 1920',s and 1930's with sampling gear no longer in common use. There is a lack of uniformity throughout the area in sam-, pling methods and protocols. There is often considerable uncer- tainty whether the results of one survey can realistically be com- pared with another. There is a general lack of sampling of . nighttime zooplankton. In neritic and estuarine movements, night- time tychoplankton may contribute significantly to the total plankton present in the water column. (2) Environmental Relationships. Although something is known about the vertical migration of some species, much more information is necessary in order to assess quantitatively the ecological sig- nificance of vertical migration. There is little or no information on the reasons why some species are restricted to neritic environments, other species to oceanic waters, while yet other species are apparently able to exist in both. Temperature and salinity relationships are well known for a few species but not for most. The role of dissolved organic matter is. not w'ell understood. In- organic and organically bound minerals excretedfrom zooplankton serve as a nutrient base for phytoplankton growth, but the dynam- ics of this system are not well understood. Dissolved organic substances have been implicated in'phytoplankton-zooplankton dynamics, but the real importance of'their role has not been verified. 27-15 The feeding relationships of zooplankton are not well understood, including the relative importance of organic detritus in the nu- trition of zooplankton. Virtually nothing is known concerning the sensitivity of zooplank- ton species to specific pollutants. (3) Population Dynamics. There is very little information on the natality, mortality, or growth rates of most species. Some popu- lation models have been developed which compare favorably with nature. Further testing of the models for various geographic areas and under various conditions is necessary before they can be,used in a predictive sense. The importance of zooplankton as forage for fish and other predators is known for relatively few species. Ctenophores and other medusae apparently can decimate a local pop- ulation of zooplankters, yet they themselves are not fed on by other organisms. The importance of this apparent "dead end" of a food web is not known. (4) Parasites and Diseases. The role of disease on zooplankton is un- known. Parasites are known to be present on some species, but their importance as mediators of growth or mortality is not known. Priority for Research Although a great amount of basic and applied research is needed to sup- ply the many data gaps and deficiencies, the following high priority research needs to appear to be paramount. Sampling (1) Needed are standard sampling gear and protocols so that quantita- tive surveys can be reliably compared and true population distri- bution and abundance statistics established. (2) Field surveys should be concentrated in areas inadequately sampled in the past and in areas where substantial environmental modifica- tions are anticipated. Experimental Biology (1) Emphasis should be placed on key species which are probably more important to the ecosystem because of their seasonal abundance, ubiquity through the area, or both. Initially, the literature shoul.d be exhaustively searched for specific information on various life history components for each of the key species. Timeconstraints have prevented this search for the purposes of this present environmental survey. 27-16 '(2) Following the literature search, new research should be initiated to supply missing life history elements. Particular attention should be paid to providing environmental tolerances for these species including, but not limited to, the sensitivity of the species to selected pollutants. 27.8 BENTHIC INVERTEBRATES: CHAPTER 10 (1) 'Abundance and Distribution. Quantitative data.are available now for New York Bight (Sandy Hook Laboratory);, Long Island Sound; southern coast of Long Island; Block Island Sound; Narragansett Bay; Buzzards Bay; Cape Cod Bay; Barnstable Harbor, Mass.; Boothbay Harbor, Maine; Georges Bank (NMFS Northeast Fisheries Center, Woods Hole). Qualitative or semi-quantitative data are available for Woods Hole Region, Ipswich Bay, Casco Bay, Mt. Desert Island, and Cobscook Bay. Data are scattered north of Cape Cod. Quantitative surveys are needed in coastal areas from Boston to Eastport, and in basins of Gulf of Maine. Also, quantitative surveys are needed on fish- ing banks other than Georges. (2) Community Structure and Relationships. Descriptive ecology of communities in coastal areas north of Cape Cod are scarce. Vir- tually no quantitative information exists on competition be- tween species; dependence of one species on another is also poorly known. Food habits of bottom feeding fish are fairly well known.- However, food requirements of the invertebrates them- selves are poorly known, especially the quantities consumed and preference, if any, except for a few economically important species. .(3) Population- Dynamics. Ex cept for a few economically important species, or occasional organisms commonly used in experimental biology, little information is available on natality rates, natural mortality, growth rates or life span. (4) Environmental Requirements. Temperature tolerances and prefer- enda, oxygen requirements, effects of siltation, sensitivity to pollutants, salinity tolerances, and similar data are only partly known for important species and virtually unknownfor most others. (5) Behavior.' Reactions to light, currents temperature gradients, .and chemical cues only partly known for a few species; they are virtually unknown for most. 27-17 (6) Reproduction. Spawning seasons and larval development are fairly, wel I known for many species, especially those also found in European waters, since much of the study of these phenomena has been done in Europe. (7) Parasites and Diseases. Parasites are fairly well studied; prac- tically nothing is known of diseases except for oysters. (8) Productivity. A few estimates of bottom productivity have been made, but more are needed, especially in the coastal areas of the Gulf of Maine. Priorities of research neededi (1) Field surveys. Complete quantitative benthic fauna surveys should ITe- _rnade in selected localities in coastal waters between Cape Cod and Eastport. These should include densities of all benthic species, biomass determinations by species, indices of species di- versity, association coefficients, sed*iment analysis, hydrographic measurements, stomach analyses, size distributions, egg counts of gravid individuals, and age determination where possible. Ideally, the surveys should be made twice a year, and should include several bottom types. At least 'two estuarine localities should be studied with transects from fully marine conditions to oliqohaline estuarine conditions. Suggested localities are: Cobscook B_ay, Narraguagus estuary, Penobscot Bay, Casco Bay in Maine; Ipswich Bay and Duxbury Bay in Massachusetts. (2) Experimental biology. Available published and unpublished informa- tion for all of the key species, especially that dealing with en- vironmental requirements should be re-examined thoroughly. Time restrictons have limited the amount of data included in the Key Species Life History data sheets. Much information still needs to be extracted from the literature as well as from foreign pub- lications, obscure and hard-to-find journals, "in-house" publica- tions of various,institutions; other sources would undoubtedly contain much additional data. The life history data sheets should be made as complete as possible. New research should emphasize two major aspects of invertebrate biology: environmental requirements and tolerances, and inter- species dependence. For the first, a protocol should be developed to investigate a few critical factors such as upper lpthal tem- peratures, minimum oxygen requirements, and sensitivity to cer- tain selected categories of pollutants. For the second, feeding, predation and competition should be investigated quantitatively. Obviously, these investigations cannot be made on all species, but they should be done for many of the key'species. A few of the key species for which considerable additional information is 27-18 required are: Arctica islandica Pectinaria gouldii Nephtys incisa Polynices dupicata Nucula proxima Tellina agilis Mytilus edulis Clymenella torquata Corophium vblutator Spisula solidissima Macoma balthica There are., of course, several others that could be included. The above species represent the following categories: Important commercial species which have not had the attention their importance deserves. Species, which thought very common, have not been intensively studied. Important forage organisms. Species of potential value as indicator organisms. 27.9 FISHES: CHAPTER 12 We would estimate that 75 to 80 percent of the literature pertinent to fishes of the Gulf of Maine and 45 to 50 percent of the literature per- tinent to fishes of the mid-Atlantic Bight from Cape Cod to New Jersey were reviewed for the fish chapter. State of Knowledge .It is difficult to.summarize the present state of knowledge of the fishes in the study area without a species-by-species description. The fishes are such a diverse group that most research has been on single species and these have generally been the economically important ones. There- fore, there exists a wide variation in the amount of information avail- able, a considerable amount of life history data accumulated for a few commercially important species, and very little information on a large number of ecologically important ones. Most research has been oriented toward problems associated with com- mercial or sport fishing. There has been very little work done on prob- lems associated with man's contamination of the environment. Probably the two most important gaps in our knowledge that apply to contaminants 27-19 are: (1) Life history data of species needed for baseline information in assessing impacts, and (2)' What the effects of contamination are on the life . . history stages of the important or key fish species. The following is a brief comment on general gaps in knowledge for each of the major subjects in the fish chapter. Zoogeograo.hy. In order to determine the impact of offshore develop- ment activi-ty on the fishes of any particular locality, it is neces- sary to know to what degree these localities are important to the life history of each species. This requires rather precise analysis of the seasonal and areal distribution of at least the more important fishes in the study area. This information does not at present exist in a usable form for most of the fish species. There are three categories in which information is lacking: (1) Distribution data that exists but are scattered through- out the published and unpublished literature. This material needs to be compiled, synthesized, and made available. These data are mostly from offshore ground- fish surveys, small-scale inshore surveys of different types, or studies of individual species. (2) Distribution data that do not exist and require future research. These apply particularly to the pelagic species which are more difficult to sample and the small nearshore and intertidal fishes that are of no particular commercial value. (3) Temperature preferenda for the most important species. This information is either scattered throughout the literature or not available at all. Reproduction. The most sensitive part of the fishes life cycle is re- production. It is probably the most important to understand in terms of the impact of the effects of oil or other toxic material. What is known of the spawning, egg, larval, and juvenile stages of fish varies greatly from species to species, depending to a large extent on its economic importance. For the major species,,the spawning areas and times are at least broadly known, the egg and larval stages described and their general distribution, and times of abundance known. The dis- tribution of juveniles is probably less well documented. The data gaps that have particular significance for oil impact are: (1) The vertical distribution of fish eggs and larvae 27-20 and their vulnerability to oil contamination. (2) The degree to which juvenile fishes are vulnerable to oil contamination in the nearshore area. Food and Feeding. The food of most fishes in the study area is known only in a general way and is available in Bigelow and Schroeder (1953) and Nichols and Breder (1927). There.are also a number of detailed food studies for a few species, primarily groundfish-such as haddock. What is not yet well understood is the predator-prey and predator- predator relationships within a particular community; the degree of. competition and the division of food resources among various community components of fishes; and the major pathways of energy glow through the prey community to the fish community. These relationships are par- ticularly important in considering oil impacts because of the possible movement and accumulation of contaminants in the food chain. Life History Information. The key species descriptions in the fish chapter are not complete. Such areas as physiological responses were not well covered and even for the more important species there are gaps of information'due either to unavailable literature or no information at all. It is safe to say that we do not know enough about any of the fishes to be able to assess the effect of oil and offshore activities on them. The fishes that were treated as key species in the chapter were only a selection of important species and there are many more that should be considered for life history profiles, because they are major components of their particular habitats. A few of the species for which there is a lack of life history information are listed below: Little skate Winter skate Tomcod Fourbeard rockling Alligator fish Threespined stickleback Northern pipefish Sea snail Windowpane flounder Smooth flounder Longhorn sculpin Shorthorn sculpin Sea raven Rock gunnel Snake blenny Radiated shanny 27-21 Wrymouth Wolffish Ocean pout Goosefish Research Priorities The following are general directions in which research could proceed to provide needed baseline information prior to OCS:, (1) To continue compiling life history data on a species by species basis. This includes the addition of new information to the ex- isting key species given in Chapter 12 and the addition of new key species to the profiles. The work would include a more in- tensive literature review and new research in areas where no data existed. Special emphasis for new research would be on new species for which data are lacking. Included would be seasonal and areal distribution temperature preferenda.. (2) To begin field investigations of fishes as part of the biologi- cal community of a particular habitat, particularly habitats that are vulnerable to-oil spills (i.e., worm and clam flats, salt marshes) to determine the relationships betwee.n fish species and between fishes and other organisms of the community food, competition, predation, and major energy pathways that should be studied. 27.10 MARINE BIRDS: CHAPTER 13.0 The thrust of these recommendations is directed at needs for avian re- search in areas directly or indirectly associated with future coastal and offshore developments that might interact with birds. These com- ments are drawn from experience both with the TRIGOM-BLM inventory of the northern Atlantic seaboard, and the American Petroleum Institute commissioned inventory of the mid-Atlantic Bight. If one states that a development is going to have an "impact" on a bird species, one usually means that the development will have some in- fluence on population numbers, and/or the distribution of the species. Since many.bird species have natural fluctuations in the.ir population numbers, we need to: (1) Acquire baseline population data of important species. As a result of the various inventories, we have some idea of the "im- portant" or "key" species of the area. In many cases, very basic information on the life cycles of the animals is either non- existent, or questionable. If it is necessary to judge whether some outside force will have an effect on a population, it is necessary to know the population ecology of the species. Detailed 27-22 studies of fecundity, breeding success, and other elemental population parameters need to be gathered on the important species of the area. Prediction should be the aim of the planner. Since birds live a cyclic existence, it is necessary to know the history of a population to predict future trends. There are some long-term studies, such as the Audubon Count, but they can be attacked on a number of grounds. Therefore, we should: (2) Expand the Audubon Christmas Count, and the Migratory Bird Popu lation Station Breeding Bird Census. These counts should be a source of neutral data from which proponents and opponents,of development can draw their conclusion. A, funding level consonant with the need, and a scientific board of directors (a small group preferably) drawn from industry, conservation, university and government personnel,'as well as having more personnel available to count, and state-of-the-art data processing equipment. Birds play an extremely important ro-le in the coastal and off-. shore ecosystem. The seabirds have a massive influence on the fertile top surface of the sea by dropping guano. Large quanti- ties of energy are therefore transferred from the terrestrial to the marine environment, and vice versa, as birds take food from one area, and drop feces in another. The number of good studies on energy and mineral transfer by birds is tiny. Since, in the worst case analysis, we must 'consider the possibility of a massive bird kill due to some development-associated effect, we must know the ramifications of such an event. Would fish productivity be affected by a kill of neritic fishing birds? How important are birds in the total energy picture of the vital estuaries? Questions like these might be answered by: (3) Studies on energy and mineral flow through birds in important areas. The studies might best be funnelled through universities, since the topic is, happily, of both basic and applied interest, and could provide adequate student studies. The results of these studies.would provide a realistic basis for assessing "impact" of development. (4) More studies are needed on the physical and physiological effects of immersion in, and ingestion of petroleum product . There is already some good work in this area, but the complete study has not been done. There is a need for basic study as well as applied studies. The final recommendation involves consideration not just of the study area, or questions of development, but the whole matter of man-bird relations. Birds are of enormous importance to humans,, and not simply f& aesthetic reasons. Birds have a vital economic 27-23 role in aviation, agriculture, recreation, and many other areas. There is a great need to coordinate the many bits and pieces of avian research that are oriented toward practical ends. Dozens of federal and state agencies have someVning to do with birds, and birds are extremely popular orqanisms for many areas of basic scientific research. There is little coordination between various programs. Since birds are so important in any assess- ment of development, we suggest: (5) A national Applied Ornithology Center be established whose func- tion-would be to provide a clearing house service for those in need of applied ornithology, and those capable of providing same., The ce nter would also act as a data bank, and information re- trieval service for applied ornithology problems. Clients of the service might be corporations or industries with a bird prob- lem, contractors preparing inventories or impact statements, con- servation groups or government. Since there is so much interest in development of the coastal northeast, a center might be started here on a modest basis, and if successful, expanded to a broader national coverage. 27.11 MARINE MAMMALS: CHAPTER 14 The following studies and research programs are recommended to provide reliable research data on all stocks of marine mammals which inhabit Gulf of Maine waters. So little data are available for seals, and particularly cetaceans in New England waters that all research cate- gories deserve immediate funding consideration in a coordinated effort to implement the Marine Mammal Protection Act. Goal of such a program would be: (1) Assessment of marine mammal stocks and the acquisition of reliable data of abundance and trends of each species and the testing of new and innovative census methods. Work toward this goal has just begun in the Gulf of Maine as described previously in Chapter 14. (2) Delineation of all geographic populations for each species includ- ing knowlege ofmigrations. Little is known of the breeding grounds and migrations of gray seals and cetacean species using Gulf of Maine waters. (3) Investigation of ecosystem relations of marine mammals and their environment including: food and feeding methods; whelping habi- tat and description of "nursery areas" for each species; priorities for habitat preservation so that cetacean and pinniped species may escape harassment. Whelping habitat utilized by harbor seals in the Mount Desert and 27-24 Boothbay areas of Maine is fairly well known, but little is known of other coastal areas for this species. (4) Knowledge of population parameters for each species including fecundity, rates of recruitment, and mortality and effects of pop- ulation density on these factors. Reliable data exist for west coast and Canadian harbor seal populations and eastern Atlantic gray seals; less is knowtfor the western Atlantic gray seals. Study of the important remnant gray seal colony at Nantucket is sorely needed to maximize chances for successful breeding of this species in U. S. waters. (5) Investigation of biochemical, physiological, and possible be- havioral effects of oil spills, organochlorides, heavy metals and other contaminants are greatly needed. Considerable data are given in the key species descriptions of reported levels of contaminants found in wild seal populations but little is known of possible impact such contaminants may have upon long-term survival of each species. Incidence of natural diseases and parasites as well as possible man-induced illness in seals and cetaceans as a result to habi- tat deterioration is not known. The presence of seawater emulsions of oil would seem to be noxious and irritati'ng to seals and whales, if not toxic. However, the scant reporting of effects of oil spills on marine mammals on the West Coast would suggest that the mobility of these animals re- moves them from immediate areas of contamination. It seems more likely that food chain concentrations of toxic components of contaminants found by monitoring levels in seal tissues-will continue to serve as evidence of trends in habitat pollution. Work in the Gulf of Maine sampling harbor seal and harbor por- poise populations for tissue burdens of metal and organochlorine residues is being conducted by Canadian workers (Gaskin, et al., 1973, 1973b, 1972, 1971). (6) Preservation of wild habitat is perhaps the most critically im- portant activity to ensure the long-term survival of pinniped and cetacean species. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 pro- vides a refreshing and thought-provoking perception of man's relationship with wild creatures and their habitat. 27-25 o, _0 j 14 I X@,,Or 4 W C5@ Do I'd X 0 R-- M-N-,"k ARI 10 0 Q'o 6,- @@o - E@ C, Ci c Nwo 0 o GAYLORDINO. 2333 INTED IN U.S.A. 0-31 v CP 0 o & ej Q 0 X00 0 -1 09 % % 1, ol, 0 D'@ C)q @j Cc, 0 rr,@ 96 oc, rj Q :),D Op o C@l lllo@ Vo @@; c@ @, I -0"q@ c n 36668 1 41 D6 41