    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

                                     National Marine
                                  Pollution Program

                                Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution
                          Research, Development, and Monitoring

                                       Fiscal Years 1988-1992

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                                       U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
                               National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                           Office of the Chief Scientist

                                                        NATIONAL OCEAN POLLUTION POLICY BOARD

                                            Dr. Melvin Peterson, Presiding Officer                            William D. Bettenberg
                                            Chief Scientist, National Oceanic                                 Director, Minerals Management Service
                                               and Atmospheric Administration                                 Department of Interior
                                            Department of Commerce
                                                                                                              Ambassador Edward E. Wolfe
                                            Amor L. Lane, Executive Secretary                                 Deputy Assistant Secretary for Oceans
                                            Director, National Ocean                                            and Fisheries Affairs
                                               Pollution Program Office                                       Department of State
                                            National Oceanic & Atmospheric
                                               Administration                                                 Captain Wayne W. Becker
                                            Department of Commerce                                            Chief, Office of Research
                                                                                                                and Development
                                            Dr. Clare 1. Harris, Deputy Director,                             U.S. Coast Guard
                                            Cooperative State Research Service                                Department of Transportation
                                            Department of Agriculture                                         Dr. William L. Mills
                                            Morgan Rees                                                       Executive Office of the President
                                            Deputy For Policy, Planning, and                                  Council on Environmental Quality
                                               Legislative Affairs
                                            Office of the Assistant Secretary                                 Dr. Courtney Riordan
                                               of the Army (Civil Works)                                      Director, Office of Environmental
                                            Department of Defense                                               Processes & Effects Research
                                                                                                              U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                                            Commander Richard H. Rice, Jr.                                    Dr. W. Stanley Wilson
                                            Director, Environmental                                           Chief, Oceanic Processes Branch
                                               Protection, Safety, and                                        National Aeronautics & Space Admin.
                                               Occupational Health Division
                                            Office of Chief of Naval Operations                               Dr. M. Grant Gross
                                            Department of Defense                                             Director, Divison of Ocean Services
                                            Dr. Helen McCammon                                                National Science Foundation
                                            Director, Ecological Research Div.                                Dr. Janet Dorigan
                                            Department of Energy                                              Office of Science & Technology Policy
                                                                                                              Executive Office of the President
                                            Dr. Ralph R. Reed
                                            Deputy Assistant Secretary                                        David Tomquist
                                               for Health                                                     Budget Examiner
                                            Department of Health & Human Services                             Office of Management and Budget

                                                                       INTERAGENCY TASK FORCE

                     DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE                           DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH                                         ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
                       Charles M. Smith                                     & HUMAN SERVICES                                          AGENCY
                                                                            Robert Scheuplein                                         Sam Williams (RD)
                     DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE                                 James Fouts
                       Douglas A. Wolfe                                                                                               NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND
                       James R. Chambers                                 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR                                   SPACE ADMINISTRATION
                       William F. Graham                                    Don Aurand (MMS)                                          James Yoder
                                                                            J. Larry Ludke (F&WS)
                     DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE                                  Clifford A. Haupt (USGS)
                       David B. Mathis (Army-COE)                                                                                     NATIONAL SCIENCE FOUNDATION
                       Larry Koss (Navy)                                 DEPARTMENT OF STATE                                          Rodger W. Ba  Iier
                                                                            Robert Blumberg
                     DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY                                                                                             COUNCIL ON ENVIRONMENTAL
                       George Saunders                                   DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION                                 QUALITY
                                                                            Anthony L. Rowek
                                                                            (Coast Guard)

                                                                   NATIONAL OCEAN POLLUTION PROGRAM OFFICE

                                                          Amor L. Lane, Director; William G. Conner, Eileen Curry, Edward J. Flynn,
                                                          Laura A. Gabanski, Ann H. Georgilas, Carolyn A. Goodfellow, Sari Kiraly,
                                                                      W. Lawrence Pugh, Wendy Smith, Devorah Zeitlin

                                               National Marine
                 N0AA
                                               Pollution Program

                                    Federal          Plan for Ocean Pollution
                                   Research, Development, and Monitoring:
                                   Fiscal Years 1988-1992

                                                                  Prepared by the
                                            National Ocean Pollution Program Office
                                                                        For the
                                              National Ocean Pollution Policy Board

                                                           US Department of Commerce
                                                                              Center Library
                                                    NOAA    C oasta Services
                                                            2234 South Hobson Avenue
                                                           Charleston, SC 29405-2413
                                                  L

                                                                  September 1988

                                           U.S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
                                           C. William Verity, Secretary

                                           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                                           William E. Evans, Under Secretary

                                           Office of the Chief Scientist
                                           Melvin N. A. Petersen, Chief Scientist

    GC 1211 .S38 1988 c.2

                                      CW

                                             UNITEO STATES OEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE
                                             The Under Secretary for
                                             Oceans and Atmosphere
                                             Washington, O.C. 20230

                                               OEC 3 0 1988.

              Dear Sirs:

              I am pleased to submit the Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution
              Research, Development, and Monitoring: Fiscal Years 1988-1992,
              as required by the.National Ocean Pollution Planning Act of 1978,
              Public Law 95-273 (as amended).

                                               Sincerely,

                                                  liam E.  v ns

              Enclosure

              The President
              President of the Senate
              Speaker of the House of Representatives

                                                                                   Of
            75 Years Stimulating America's Progress 1913-1988  THE ADMINISTRATOR

                                               ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

                    Many people have taken part in the planning, drafting, and review of the Federal Plan
              for Ocean Pollution Research, Develot)ment, and Monitoring: Fiscal Years 1988 - 1992. The
              National Ocean Pollution Policy Board met five times during the year-long effort required to
              produce the Plan. The members of the Board and the Task Force to the Board assisted in
              determining the scope and organization of the Plan. Every department and agency represented
              on the Board also made available technical experts and program managers to assist in
              developing the informational content of the Plan. Finally, the National Ocean Pollution Policy
              Board contributed by reviewing early discussion papers and the final draft of the Plan to
              assure that both national priorities and agency interests were given proper consideration.

                    During the preparation of the Plan, the Board established a working group for each of
              the six goals of the National Program. The members of the six working groups were chosen
              from Federal and state agencies and appropriate nongovernmental sectors. The working group
              members provided information on the technical aspects of the issues and proved to be a fertile
              source of ideas for research recommendations. In excess of 100 people (listed in Appendix A)
              invested considerable time and energy into the deliberations of the working groups. The
              preparation of a quality Federal Plan depended to a large extent on the devotion of the
              working group members.

                    Staff members of the NOAA National Ocean Pollution Program Office served as working
              group leaders and directed the effort of the technical staff from Technical Resources, Inc.
              (TRI) in the drafting of the Plan. NOPPO and TRI staff are listed below with the sections of
              the Plan to which they contributed:

                    Introduction -- Ms. Wendy Smith (NOPPO) and Ms. Eulalie Sullivan (TRI)
                    National Program -- Ms. Wendy Smith (NOPPO) and Mr. George Townsend (TRI)
                    Toxics -- Mr. Larry Pugh (NOPPO) and Dr. Tom Duke (TRI)
                    Nutrients -- Mr. Larry Pugh (NOPPO) and Mr. Joe Greenblott (TRI)
                    Biological Agents -- Ms. Laura Gabanski (NOPPO) and Mr. Isaac Diwan (TRI)
                    Habitat Loss -- Ms. Laura Gabanski (NOPPO) and Mr. Drew Zacherle (TRI)
                    Ecosystem Status -- Ms. Sari Kiraly, Ms. Eileen Curry and Dr. William Conner (NOPPO),
                                         and Dr. Tom Duke (TRI)
                    Human Health -- Ms. Devorah Zeitlin and Mr. Edward Flynn (NOPPO) and
                                      Mr. Ron Brown (TRI)

                    Mr. Drew Zacherle also served as the project manager for TRI. Without Mr. Zacherle's
              patience and tireless efforts, the Federal Plan would not have been produced on schedule.
              Special recognition should be given to Dr. William Conner who played a major role in
              developing the concept and approach used for the Plan and served to coordinate the efforts of
              the NOPPO staff and TRI. Ms. Lizz Goodfellow and Ms. Ann Georgilas also deserve
              recognition for their efficient efforts to coordinate the arrangements for working group
              meetings and the publication of this document.

                                                                 v

                                                      CONTENTS

                                                                                                      Page

                  LIST OF TABLES     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         viii

                  LIST OF FIGURES     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         ix

                  PREFACE    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          xi

                  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY         . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        xiii

                    1. INTRODUCTION       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           I

                   II. THE NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION PROGRAM                    . . . . . . . . . .     11

                  III.  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM             . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       27

                        Goal 1: Understand the Sources, Fates, and Effects of
                            Toxic Materials Entering the Marine Environment as a
                            Result of Human Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        28

                        Goal 2: Understand the Sources, Fates, and Effects  of
                            Nutrients Entering the Marine Environment as a Result
                            of Human Activities  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        62

                        Goal 3: Understand the Sources, Fates, and Effects  on
                            Marine Organisms of Biological Agents That Are Introduced
                            or Influenced by Human Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       95

                        Goal 4: Understand the Effects of Losing or Modifying
                            Marine Habitats as a Result of Human Activities . . . . . . . . . . . .    119

                        Goal 5: Document the Trends in the Status of Marine
                            Ecosystems  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        148

                        Goal 6: Understand the Implications of Marine
                            Pollution to Human Health  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       167

                   IV. PRIORITIES FOR ACTION         . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       203

                  APPENDIX A: WORKING GROUP MEMBERS               . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      A-1

                  APPENDIX B: THE NATIONAL OCEAN POLLUTION
                     PLANNING ACT (Public Law 95-273)       . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      B-1

                                                             vii

                                                         LIST OF TABLES

                        Table                                                                                    Pape

                          A. Estimated FY 1988 Federal Funding for Marine Pollution
                                 Research, Development, and Monitoring     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        xv

                          1. Federal Agencies with Major Legislative Mandates for Marine      and
                                 Great Lakes Pollution Research and Monitoring    . . . . . . . . . . . . .         4

                          2. National Marine Pollution Program Funding Levels:. FY 1984-1989      . . . . . .     14

                          3. Toxic Chemicals of Concern in Marine Environments      . . . . . . . . . . . .       30

                          4. Sublethal Responses to Toxic Pollution at Various Biological Levels of
                                 Organization  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            48

                          5. Examples of Biological Agents, Their Sources, Human Influence, and Impact
                                 on Living Marine Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .             98

                          6. Categorization of Selected Biological Agents by Level of Knowledge     . . . . .    113

                          7. Concentrations of Organic Chemicals in Selected Fish Species    . . . . . . . .     176

                          8. Microorganisms Responsible for Causing Adverse Human Health Effects         . . .   183

                                                                     viii

                                                  LIST OF FIGURES

                  Fip,ure                                                                               PaRe

                     A. Total Funding for the National Marine Pollution Program,
                           FY 1984-FY 1989   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          xvi

                     1. The Planning Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..          7

                     2. Total Funding for the National Marine Pollution
                           Program, FY 1984-FY 198R     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     . . . . . ..    12

                     3. Trends in Funding for the Environmental Protection
                           Agency, FY 1984-FY 1989    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         15

                     4. Trends in Funding for the Department of Energy,
                           FY 1984-FY 1989      . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         15

                     5. Trends in Funding for the National Oceanic
                           and Atmospheric Administration, FY 1984-FY     1989   . . . . . . . . . .      16

                     6. Percentage of Total FY 1988 Funding Provided by Individual
                           Federal Agencies  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .          17

                     7. Concentrations of Toxic Materials in Estuarine Sediments . . . . . . . . . .      32

                     8. Some Possible Effects of Contaminants on Life Cycle
                           Stages of the Winter Flounder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        34

                     9. Total Nitrogen and Phosphorus Loading to Estuaries  . . . . . . . . . . . .       66

                    10. 1985 Annual Composite Distribution of NH4+ and N03-
                           Atmospheric Deposition   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         68

                    11. Simplified Diagram of Nitrogen Cycling in an Estuary   . . . . . . . . . . .      70

                    12. Flow Chart Illustrating Some Hypothetical Trophic
                           Linkages That May Be Significant in the Chesapeake Bay    . . . . . . . .      74

                                                               ix

                                                          PREFACE

                    The National Ocean Pollution Planning Act of 1978 (P.L. 95-273, as amended) calls for
              the establishment of a comprehensive, coordinated, and effective Federal program for ocean
              pollution research, development, and monitoring. As required by the Act, the Department of
              Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), in consultation with
              other agencies, prepares a five-year Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution Research, Develooment.
              and Monitorinp, every three years. This document represents the fourth edition of the Plan
              and covers Fiscal Years 1988-1992. This Plan establishes six goals for the National Marine
              Pollution Program, discusses the extent to which ongoing Federal programs are meeting these
              goals, and provides recommendations for improving the overall effort in marine pollution
              research and monitoring.

                    The National Ocean Pollution Program Office (NOPPO) is assigned responsibility within
              NOAA for updating the five-year Plan and coordinating the implementation of recommendations
              in the Plan. These efforts are conducted in cooperation with the National Ocean Pollution
              Policy Board. NOAA established the interagency Board under the authority of Section 3A of
              the National Ocean Pollution Planning Act. The Board is chaired by NOAA and is composed
              of senior representatives from eleven Federal departments and agencies.

                    This update of the Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution Research, Develol)ment, and
              Monitoring has been prepared by NOPPO with assistance and review of the agencies that
              participate in the National Marine Pollution Program. The Plan is submitted by NOAA to
              Congress with the endorsement of the departments and agencies that are represented on the
              National Ocean Pollution Policy Board.

                                                                 Amor Lane
                                                                 Director,
                                                                 National Ocean Pollution
                                                                     Program Office

                                                                xi

                                             EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

                  The National Marine Pollution Program    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     xiv
                  Goals of the National Program   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      xiv
                  Priorities for Action by the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board  . . . . . . . . xxv

                  The National Marine Pollution Program is the composite of all programs funded by the
             Federal Government that conduct marine pollution research, development, or monitoring
             activities. In FY 1988, the Federal Government expended an estimated $107.2 million for
             marine pollution research and monitoring activities. These activities were funded by 11
             Federal departments and independent agencies and included studies pertaining to pollution in
             coastal areas, estuaries, open oceans, and the Great Lakes. This Plan represents the fourth
             such document in the continuing interagency planning process called for in the National Ocean
             Pollution Planning Act of 1978 (P.L. 95-273), as amended. As required by the Act, a
             comprehensive 5-year Plan for the overall Federal effort is prepared and updated every 3
             years. This Plan identifies national marine pollution needs and problems, describes the
             existing Federal capability for conducting marine pollution research and monitoring, analyzes
             the extent to which existing Federal programs assist in meeting these needs and problems, and
             makes recommendations for improving the National Marine Pollution Program.

                  To assist in identifying the areas of marine pollution research, development, and
             monitoring in most need of scientific information, six broad goals of the National Program
             have been identified. The topics covered under the six goals incorporate issues associated
             with each of the various polluting activities and pollutants of concern. The research and
             monitoring recommendations presented in this plan address the information required to meet'
             these goals.

                  The Plan is presented in four chapters. These are the Introduction, which includes a
             discussion of the interagency planning process; a description of the National Marine Pollution
             Program; a discussion of the goals of the National Program; and the identified "action items"
             for implementation by the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board.

                                                              xiii

                  EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

                                           THE NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION PROGRAM

                        Estimated expenditures for marine pollution research in FY 1988 by the I I Federal
                  agencies and departments that comprise the National Marine Pollution Program are shown in
                  Table A. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                  Administration of the U.S. Department of Commerce, and Minerals Management Service of the
                  U.S. Department of the Interior funded 70% of the marine pollution research and monitoring
                  activities supported by the Federal Government in FY 1988.

                        Since FY 1984, Federal support for marine pollution research has decreased by 12% or
                  $13.9 million ($121.1 million in FY 1984 to $107.2 million in FY 1988) (Figure A). Under the
                  Presidential budget request for FY 1989, Federal marine pollution funding is proposed to
                  decrease by an additional $8.3 million or 8% from current FY 1988 levels to $98.9 million.
                  Most of this decrease reflects the Administration's efforts to eliminate unnecessary programs
                  and programs that have already met their legislated mission.

                        A more detailed discussion of Federal marine pollution funding trends is presented in
                  Chapter II of this Plan, as well as an overview of the marine pollution- related programs of
                  each of the Federal agencies conducting marine pollution research, development, and
                  monitoring activities.

                                                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                        The six goals of the National Marine Pollution Program are discussed in Chapter III of
                  this Plan. For the purposes of this Plan, a goal is considered to be an endpoint relating to
                  our knowledge of the causes and implications of marine pollution that can be addressed or
                  achieved through Federal research, development, and monitoring activities. These goals are
                  listed below:

                  Goal 1:    Toxic Materials. Understand the sources, fates, and effects of toxic materials
                             entering the marine environment as a result of human activities;

                  Goal 2:    Nutrignts. Understand the sources, fates, and effects of nutrients entering the
                             marine environment as a result of human activities;

                  Goal 3:    Biological Agents. Understand the sources, fates, and effects on marine organisms of
                             biological agents that are introduced or influenced by human activities;

                  Goal 4:    Loss or Modification of Marine Habitats. Understand the effects of losing or
                             modifying marine habitats as a result of human activities;

                  Goal 5:    Status of Marine Ecosystems. Document the trends in the status of marine
                             ecosystems; and

                  Goal 6:    Human Health. Understand the implications of marine pollution to human health.

                                                                      xiv

                                                                                       Goals of the National Program

                      Table A. Estimated FY 1988 Federal Funding for Marine Pollution Research,
                                  Development, and Monitoring ($ in thousands)

                      Agency                                                            Estimated
                                                                                        FY 1988 Funding

                      Council on Environmental Quality                                           9

                      Department of Agriculture                                             3,167

                      Department of Commerce
                           National Institute of Standards and Technology                        0
                           National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration                  25,420

                      Department of Defense
                           Corps of Engineers                                               8,500
                           U.S. Navy                                                        1,235

                      Department of Energy                                                  5,767

                      Department of Health and Human Services
                           National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences                486
                           Food and Drug Administration                                     2,959

                      Department of the Interior
                           Minerals Management Service                                     18,000
                           Fish and Wildlife Service                                        4,735
                           U.S. Geological Survey                                           2,783

                      Department of Transportation
                           U.S. Coast Guard                                                 1,744

                      Environmental Protection Agency                                       31,715

                      National Aeronautics and Space Administration                           480

                      National Science Foundation                                             151

                      TOTAL                                                                107,151

                                                                 xv

                EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

                                   $160 -

                                   $140-              $133.4     $126.9
                                           $121.1
                                   $120-
                                                                                       $107.2
                                   $100-                                                          $98.9

                                    $so-

                                    $60-

                                    $40-

                                    $20 -

                                            FY 84      FY 85     FY 86      FY 87      FY 88      FY 89-

                                                                        Year

                                       *FY 1989 estimate based on the Presidential budget.

                            Figure A. Total Funding for the National Marine Pollution Program, FY 1984 - FY 1989.

                      The first four goals of the National Program address specific categories of pollutants or
                physical alterations to the marine environment (i.e., toxic materials, nutrients, biological
                agents, and habitat alterations). The last two goals (related to the status of marine
                ecosystems and human health) integrate the first four goals and permit the Plan to take into
                account all of the various contributions to marine pollution.

                      The marine pollution research, development, and monitoring programs funded by the
                Federal agencies contribute to these six areas of endeavor. To meet these goals, the scope of
                the programs undertaken would include the following: assessing the state of the environment
                (e.g., basic understanding, assessing effects, implementing monitoring systems), developing the
                capability to predict (e.g, impacts of human activities), and developing multipurpose program
                support capabilities (e.g., quality assurance, measurement methodologies).

                      The six goals of the National Marine Pollution Program were developed for the purpose
                of evaluating the effectiveness of the National Program in providing information for managing
                the Nation's marine pollution problems. For each goal, Chapter III of this Plan includes a
                discussion of the goal definition, the Federal role in addressing the goal, management
                questions and information needs related to the goal, and conclusions and recommendations with
                regard to the goal.

                      The recommendations presented in this Plan describe opportunities for the most useful
                and productive research related to each goal. However, specific program and budget decisions
                regarding marine pollution research, development, and monitoring activities will continue to be
                made in the context of the President's overall national domestic priorities and budget policies.
                It is ultimately up to the discretion of individual agencies to accept and implement the
                recommendations offered in this Plan within the context of the Presidential fiscal policies and
                the Federal budget processes.

                                                                     xvi

                                                                                        Goals of the National Program

                   The six goals of the National Program and the opportunities for Federal research,
             development, and monitoring activities related to each goal are presented below. Further
             discussion of these recommendations is presented in each goal section.

                                                      Goal 1:  Toxic Materials

             Conclusions:

                   o   In most coastal regions of the country, we do not   know  the relative contribution of
                       atmospheric inputs and episodic events to chemical contaminant loadings in these
                       areas.

                   o   There is a lack of understanding concerning the processes   that control the routes,
                       rates, and reservoirs of various chemical contaminants released into the marine
                       environment.

                   o   For many toxic substances, very little is known concerning their physical chemistry'
                       and its effect on bioaccumulation.

                   o   Further documentation and understanding of sublethal effects of toxic chemicals is
                       needed, especially with regard to the relationship between the effects on individuals
                       and the integrity of populations of living marine resources.

                   o   There is a general lack of understanding of the interactive effects (synergism,
                       additivity, and antagonism) for many important classes of marine pollutants.

             Recommendations:

             Sources and Loading Rates

                   o   Efforts to determine the level of atmospheric inputs of toxic materials to the Great
                       Lakes should continue. Similar monitoring activities in major estuaries where
                       atmospheric inputs are suspected to be significant would improve our understanding of
                       this area.

                   o Further research would enable the evaluation of loading rates of toxic materials
                       associated with storm events and the importance of the timing of these events with
                       respect to effects on biological activity.

             Transport and Bioavailability

                   o   Research to determine the mechanisms of resuspension and deposition of -sediments and
                       associated chemical contaminants and the kinetics of sorption/desorption should be
                       continued.
                                I

                   o   To be most effective,  programs to evaluate toxic materials in the marine environment
                       should include basic physical chemistry research on interactions with seawater and
                       particulate organics. New and improved techniques for sampling and measurement of

                                                                 xvii

                 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

                           toxic materials in selected marine microenvironments (e.g., surface microlayer) would
                           be useful. The use of partition coefficients to build models of the fate of toxic
                           materials should be expanded.

                       o   More information on the identity, distribution, and rates of formation of
                           biotransformation products and how mutagenic and carcinogenic products are
                           transformed (activated/deactivated) and accumulated by marine organisms would
                           improve our understanding of chronic or latent effects of toxic material on marine
                           organisms.

                  Effects

                       o   Research both to develop and validate sublethal toxicity tests with more chemicals and
                           test organisms and to develop monitoring tools to assist in recognizing the presence
                           and levels of toxicants and possible sublethal effects would improve our ability to
                           identify and manage problems associated with toxic materials.

                       o   Studies to evaluate population changes should focus on defining the significance of
                           multiple responses to toxic contamination. For example, studies to determine the
                           relationship between contaminant concentrations in the sediment and interstitial
                           waters and contaminant content of tissues, activity of detoxification enzymes, seasonal
                           alterations in energy reserves, recruitment of juvenile stages, reproductive condition,
                           and incidence of disease and histopathological conditions would provide useful
                           information.

                       o   It would be useful to acquire more information concerning the toxicities and sublethal
                           effects of additional problem contaminants in order to identify their contribution to
                           environmental stress and their mechanisms of impact. Tests should be conducted with
                           individual and combinations of toxic substances to identify synergistic, antagonistic, or
                           additive effects. Research should also include a determination of the influence of
                           environmental factors, such as salinity and pH, on synergistic, antagonistic, and
                           additive effects.

                                                             Goal 2: Nutrients

                 Conclusions:

                       o   Although there is much information on loadings from point sources of nutrients, there
                           is very little information on the role of groundwater and atmospheric routes of input,
                           and on the role of runoff during episodic events.

                       o   Although phosphorus appears to be the limiting nutrient in most freshwater systems,
                           nutrient limitations in coastal and estuarine systems are not fully understood and may
                           vary from place to place as well as seasonally.

                       o   Evidence exists to suggest that excessive anthropogenic nutrient inputs have altered
                           the trophic structure of some coastal ecosystems.

                                                                   xviii

                                                                                       Goals of the National Program

                     o  The quantitative relationship between allochthonous (external)- and autochthonous
                        (recycled) nutrient sources to eutrophication and hypoxia and anoxia is not well
                        understood.

                     o  Many current analytical methods for nutrients are inadequate, or if adequate, are not
                        widely used.

               Recommendations:

               Sources

                     o  Additional information would allow one to determine the significance of atmospheric
                        and groundwater sources of nutrients in estuaries and coastal areas.

                     o  Research to determine the 'significance of seasonal runoff and aperiodic'storms as
                        sources of nutrients and their role in controlling rates of production in marine
                        ecosystems would generate information to improve our understanding in this area.

                     o  To determine the role of allochthonous (external) versus autochthonous (recycled)
                        nutrient inputs to a water body and the subsequent changes in water quality and
                        ecosystem response would require additional study.

               System Response

                     o  Further research would improve our ability to determine the conditions under which
                        either phosphorus or nitrogen limit primary productivity in coastal, estuarine, and
                        Great Lakes ecosystems.

                     o Additional research would elucidate the nature and degree of trophic structure
                        changes resulting from excessive nutrient'inputs.

               Measurement Methodologies

                     o In order to adequately measure nutrients and their effects on the marine environment,
                        improved analytical methods with more accuracy and precision should be developed.

                                                     Goal 3: Biological Agents

               Conclusions:

                     o  For many outbreaks of disease and mass mortalities of living marine resources, the
                        specific biological agent responsible or the mechanism of impact is not known.

                     o  The basic biological attributes of many biological agents, such as life history,
                        environmental requirements, taxonomy, and persistence in the marine environment, are
                        unknown.

                     o  The importance of natural events and human activities and the environmental
                        conditions necessary for the occurrence of mass mortalities and disease outbreaks in
                        living marine resources are often not understood.

                                                                 xix

               EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

                     o Very little is known concerning the survival and effects of genetically engineered
                         organisms in the marine environment.

               Recommendations:

               Identifying Causative Agents

                     o   In those cases where there are observable events leading to disease outbreaks or mass
                         mortalities (e.g., dolphin beachings) and there is no understanding of the cause, the
                         most useful research would be directed toward identifying the agent responsible.

                     o   If a biological agent is suspected of causing an impact on marine resources, but
                         evidence linking the agent to disease or mortality is lacking, the most valuable studies
                         would assist in determining whether a cause and effect relationship exists.

               Understanding Biological Attributes of Disease-Causing Agents

                     o   In those cases where a biological agent is known to affect marine organisms but
                         knowledge concerning the impact is incomplete, the most useful research would focus
                         on determining the connection between biological agents and natural events or human
                         activities causing the outbreaks, as well as on quantifying the extent of the impact on
                         marine organisms. Such research should address the following issues:

                         - Persistence and transport mechanisms;

                         - Host range and vectors/alternate hosts;

                         -  Host defense mechanisms and virulence of pathogen;

                         -  Role of environmental factors on pathogen interaction; and

                         -  Development of rapid diagnostic techniques.

               Mitigating Effects

                     o   Once the impact of a biological agent on living marine resources is better understood,
                         the highest research priority should be assigned to learning how to avoid or mitigate
                         those impacts. Such research should include a determination of:

                         - Control poi  nts and mechanisms of pathogenicity of the biological agents;

                         -  Population genetics;

                         -  Population dynamics of host and pathogen;

                         -  Host range and response;

                         -  Production of toxins or metabolites; and

                         -  Complex interactions with other pathogens, hosts, or chemical pollutants.

                                                                   xx

                                                                                       Goals of the National Program

                                         Goal 4: Loss or Modification of Marine-Habitats

              Conclusions:

                   o   The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service wetland maps and estimation of wetland loss rates
                       derived from these maps are as much as 10    years out of date and do@ not provide
                       timely information on the status and trends  of habitats in areas of most rapid change.

                   o   Although for the most part we know which     causes, both natural and anthropogenic,
                       result in habitat loss'and modifications, we have not adequately quantified the human
                       activities that are affecting wetlands, nor, in most cases, are we able to accurately
                       predict how natural events or human activities will impact habitats.

                   o   Researchers do not have an adequate understanding of estuarine processes    and their
                       importance to habitat functions.

                   o   Without an adequate understanding of the natural processes and functions of habitats,
                       we cannot accurately determine the effects that human activities will have on habitat
                       quantity and quality, nor can we determine how well mitigation efforts actually
                       replace the functional values of lost habitat.

                   o   A key issue for future habitat research will be to understand the cumulative effects
                       of numerous projects o  'yer time and space on the quantity and quality of marine and
                       estuarine habitats and the ecosystem.

                   o   Adequate information is not available to assess the effects of persistent marine debris
                       on populations of living marine resources.

              Recommendations:

              Status of Habitat Quality

                   o The National Wetland Inventory (NWI) maps for coastal areas undergoing rapid change
                       should be updated as frequently as needed.

                   o   The Federal Government should consider methodologies for the development of high-
                       resolution, geo-referenced digital database systems for critical coastal habitat types.

                   o   Better inventories of selected subtidal and endangered species habitats would provide
                       important information for the management of fisheries, valued species, and
                       environmental quality.

                   o   Ongoing and planned work at the national level to document trends in wetland loss
                       should be continued.

              Causes of Habitat Loss

                   o Analyses to identify and quantify human activities causing physical alterations that
                       result in habitat loss and modification would provide valuable management information.

                                                                 xxi

                 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

                 Natural Processes and Habitat Functions

                       o Research to understand habitat processes and functions as related to living marine
                           resource productivity and the effects of human activities on these processes and
                           functions should be continued.

                 Effects of Habitat Loss

                       o   A better understanding of the long-term effects of specific projects as well as the
                           cumulative effects on a regional basis would improve our ability to manage resources.

                       o   Models to assist in predicting the effects of sea-level rise on marine and estuarine
                           habitats and to predict changes in accretion, erosion, and sedimentation affecting
                           habitat that result from human activities would contribute to the Nation's ability to
                           manage coastal environments in the long term.

                 Effectiveness of Mitigation Measures

                       o Improved approaches would allow us to better assess the effectiveness of mitigation
                           and restoration techniques in terms of the quality of the restored habitat.

                 Marine Debris

                       o   Research to identify and quantify the effects of marine debris on populations of living
                           marine resources and to determine the level of land-based contributions to the marine
                           debris problem would improve our understanding in this area. Monitoring efforts
                           should be conducted to determine the rates of marine debris entanglement and
                           ingestion by wildlife. Techniques should be developed to reduce the impact of fishing
                           gear entanglement and for the handling of ship-generated waste and reduction of land
                           sources of marine debris.

                                                   Goal 5: Status of Marine Ecosystems

                 Conclusions:

                       o   A number of stress responses at the organism and suborganism level show potential
                           for use in marine programs, while others need further development.

                       o   Current indicators of pollution stress at the population, community, and ecosystem
                           levels often cannot adequately distinguish natural fluctuations from pollution effects
                           or determine when observed changes or differences are of concern.

                       o   Results obtained from monitoring studies indicate that it is feasible and useful to
                           document the status and trends of contaminant levels in living and nonliving
                           components of marine ecosystems.

                       o   There are gaps in our knowledge concerning the impact of hydrographic factors (such
                           as freshwater inflow and sediment loading) on marine ecosystems.

                                                                     xxii

                                                                                         Goals of the National Program

               Recommendations:

               Changes in Biological Status

                     o  Work should continue to develop and field test the most promising indicators of
                        pollution stress on individual organisms.

                     o  Basic research and development activities designed to increase the utility of indicators
                        of pollution stress at the population and community level should continue.

               Changes  in Physical and Chemical Factors

                     o  Meas 'urements of contaminant- level trends in water, sediment, and biota should
                        continue to be made. Additional summaries of historical contaminant concentrations
                        should be developed to compare and to interpret recent measurements.

                     o  Information needs have been identified in the following areas concerning the
                        significance to marine and estuarine ecosystems of changes in hydrographical
                        parameters:

                        - Effects of changes in freshwater inflow on secondary productivity;

                        -   Relationship between freshwater inflow and low dissolved- oxygen and pollutant
                            concentrations;

                        -   Effects of land-use changes on sediment loading; and

                        -   Effects of sediment loadings on secondary productivity.

               Coordination

                     o The Federal Government should promote coordination of state and regional programs,
                        develop guidelines for use in standardizing monitoring techniques, and support useful
                        analyses of historical and encountered data.

                                                        Goal 6: Human Health

               Conclusions:

                     o  Existing Federal and state monitoring programs provide limited data on the
                        concentrations of chemical contaminants in edible tissues of commercial and
                        recreational fish species. In addition, it is difficult to set. "acceptable" limits for
                        chemical concentrations in seafood because of uncertainties in our information on
                        toxic response in humans, seafood consumption patterns in the United States, and
                        exposure through other routes. Regulatory programs could be made more effective if
                        these inadequacies were resolved.

                                                                 xxiii

                EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

                     o   Governmental programs, such as the National Shellfish Sanitation Program, have been
                         largely effective in protecting the public from diseases such as hepatitis, cholera, and
                         typhoid, as well as from biotoxin poisoning associated with the consumption of
                         molluscan shellfish. However, sporadic outbreaks of illness, primarily associated with
                         free-living, opportunistic Vibrio species and gastroenteritis -causing viruses still occur.

                     o   Traditionally used microbial water quality indicators do not predict the occurrence of
                         viral pathogens and naturally occurring pathogenic bacteria such as V. vulnificus.

                     o   Current information suggests that exposure to chemical pollutants during swimming
                         and diving and through occupational activities related to seafood do not pose
                         significant risks to human health in the United States at this time.

                     o   Current methods for the removal and inactivation of human pathogens are effective in
                         controlling the input of bacterial pathogens to the marine environment but not for
                         other important pathogens such as the Norwalk-like viruses.

                     o   Seafood consumption adyisories, shellfish bed closures, and beach classifications are
                         issued by state and local governments using largely inconsistent methods. Public
                         responses to such advisories display wide differences in comprehension and compliance.

                Recommendations

                Chemical Contaminants

                     o   More comprehensive information on concentrations of significant contaminants
                         occurring in the major commercial and recreational species would be useful. In
                         addition to increasing temporal and geographical intensity of sampling, monitoring
                         programs would be improved by establishing standard methods for sampling and
                         analysis of seafood.

                     o   Updating information on seafood consumption patterns in the United States, especially
                         for high-risk geographical or cultural populations, would.improve our ability to carry
                         out risk assessments.

                     o   Although progress will be difficult, research should continue in the following areas to
                         increase the understanding of the interactive effects of chemical mixtures on human
                         health:

                         - Concentrations of toxic substances in mixtures;

                         - Toxicity to humans of individual contaminants; and

                         - The influence of environmental processes and interactions on toxic response.

                Pathogens

                     o Research should continue to determine which marine pollution -related pathogens are
                         causing human health effects. Efforts to improve our ability to monitor seafood and
                         water quality for human pathogens should also continue.

                                                                 xxiv

                                                                                               Priorities for Action

                    o  Identification of improved indicators of microbial contamination of seafood and marine
                       water would enhance our capability to manage human health risks. These indicators
                       should be validated on the basis of,statistical data on disease incidence.

                    o  Region-specific studies may be necessary to determine the relative importance of local
                       sources of human pathogens to the marine environment.

              Management Tools

                    o  Studies conducted in selected regions of the country would allow us to more
                       accurately determine the effectiveness of health advisories in reducing human health
                       risks from consumption of contaminated seafood.

                    o  Studies conducted to determine when approved shellfishing areas are safe should focus
                       on viruses and naturally occurring pathogens.

                    o  Additional studies would be helpful in assessing the effectiveness of beach closures in
                       protecting swimmers from diseases caused by pathogens.

              Hazardous Materials

                    o Research efforts should continue to develop comprehensive performance standards for
                       chemical -protective suits worn by personnel during chemical spill clean-up activities,
                       and to design more chemically resistant suits.

                    PRIORITIES FOR ACTION BY THE NATIONAL OCEAN POLLUTION POLICY BOARD

                    In addition to making specific research and monitoring recommendations for achieving
              each of the goals of the National Program, this Plan also presents an "agenda for action" for
              the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board to pursue during the interim between Federal Plans.
              The items presented in the agenda are specific and implementable tasks that the Board can
              initiate on its own through cooperation among member agencies.

                    The "agenda for action" is a new feature not found in previous 5-year Plans. It is
              designed to help assure the Board's continuing involvement in implementing recommendations
              found in the Plan between now and the submission of the next Plan 3 years later. The
              proposed "agenda for action" includes two types of agenda items. The first category comprises
              a specific task, such as a study or report. The second involves the formation of an ad h
                                                                                                   noc
              working group of Federal and outside specialists to develop and implement a strategy for
              filling a specific need.

                    The following items constitute the Board's agenda for action:

                                                          Specific Tasks

              Atmospberic Inputs of Toxic Substances. The Board will conduct and publish a state-of-the-
              art review concerning the sources, routes, and environmental significance of atmospheric
              inputs of selected toxic substances to the marine environment. The study will identify
              societal trends and technological developments that might influence future atmospheric inputs

                                                               xxv

                EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

                and assess the implications of these changes for the next 25 years. The report will also
                include a description of research needs and priorities for improved understanding of this issue.
                The study will be supported jointly by a group of interested Board agencies and directed by
                an ad hoe committee of Federal experts in this area.

                Future of Coastal Areas. The Board will support a strategic assessment of future
                environmental problems in the Nation's coastal areas. The purpose of the study is to predict
                the most important environmental problems that will be faced by estuarine and coastal
                ecosystems over the next 50 years. The study will be conducted under the direction of a
                steering group of Federal, academic, industry, and environmental experts. The study will
                consider population growth and shifts to coastal areas, changes in industrial practices, future
                waste disposal requirements, economic development, technological improvements, and global
                changes in environmental quality and climate.

                Seafood Consumiption Patterns. The Board will support a study to update information on
                seafood consumption patterns in the United States and to identify population sectors
                (geographical, cultural, professional) at high risk from consumption of seafood contaminated
                with toxic substances. The study will evaluate the effectiveness of existing guidelines for
                limiting consumption of contaminated seafood in protecting high-risk sectors of the population.
                The study will also identify high-priority research needs related to this issue. The study will
                be conducted under the direction of the Board.

                Indicators of the Presence of Human Patbo2ens. Estimates of the concentrations of fecal
                coliform bacteria have been traditionally used to indicate the presence of human pathogens in
                coastal waters. However, this indicator is not considered accurate by many experts, especially
                for health risks associated with viral diseases. The Board will support the development of
                improved indicators of human pathogens in the marine environment.

                                                         Ad Hoc Working Groups

                Monitoring EnvirQnmental Quality of Marine Ecosystems. Better information on the status of
                marine ecosystems could be collected to provide an "early warning system" to environmental
                managers. The Board will establish an ad hoc committee of Federal and private scientists and
                program managers to examine the avail@bifiiiy of such information to environmental managers.
                The committee will:

                      o   Establish the objectives of the Federal program in this area and determine appropriate
                          roles at the Federal and state levels of government.

                      o   Propose a systematic strategy for developing a national monitoring capability to meet
                          these objectives. The strategy will incorporate existing national and regional
                          programs, use of encountered data, peer review, and information synthesis and
                          dissemination.

                      o Promote the development of improved indicators of ecosystem status.

                The committee will report to the Board and recommend actions to be taken by the Board.

                                                                    xxvi

                                                                                                   Priorities for Action

             Habitat Loss or Modification. Loss or modification of emergent vegetation and submerged
             aquatic vegetation is a major problem threatening the marine resources of the Nation. The
             Board will establish an ad hoc committee to:

                   o  Assure that National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) habitat maps in areas of rapid habitat
                      loss are updated as frequently as necessary.

                   o  Evaluate the costs, benefits, and approaches for developing a high-resolution, geo-
                      referenced digital database for use in planning and documenting coastal alterations.

                   o  Assure that regional and national trends in habitat loss and modification are
                      adequately documented.

                   o  Support research necessary to develop the capability to predict the effects of sea
                      level rise on coastal habitats.

                   o  Support a state-of-the-art review regarding the effectiveness of mitigation and
                      restoration practices, particularly with regard to quality of habitat.

                   o  Prepare a program development plan for increasing our understanding of habitat
                      functions and processes.

             The committee will report to the Board on a regular basis regarding progress, problems, and
             needs for personnel, resources, or other types.of assistance that might be required.

             Bioloeical Agents. The Board will conduct an evaluation of the Nation's ability to perform
             research on the effects of biological agents on marine organisms. The study will be supported
             by several Board agencies and directed by an ad hoc group of Federal and outside specialists.
             The purpose of the study is to:

                   o Identify and assign priorities to research needs in this area.

                   o  Evalua te the adequacy of existing facilities to conduct secure (P3) biological research.

                   o  Assess capabilities for quick scientific response to investigate episodic events.

                   o  Evaluate the need for a common database to promote sharing of information on the
                      occurrence and effects of biological agents.

                   o  Publish an annual review of the state-of-the-art and tally of the incidence of disease
                      in marine biota.

             The committee will report to the Board and recommend actions to be taken by the Board.

                                                                xxvii

                                                   1. INTRODUCTION

                         Interagency Coordination  . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          I
                         Goals of the National Program.   . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . .         2
                         The Planning Process  . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         6
                         Purpose and Limitations of the Plan   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        8
                         Organization of the Plan  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          8

                         Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           9

                                                  INTERAGENCY COORDINATION

                     The National Ocean Pollution Planning Act (NOPPA) of 1978, P.L. 95-273 (as amended),
               requires the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to prepare a
               "comprehensive 5-year plan for the overall Federal effort in ocean pollution research and
               development and monitoring" and to revise and update the plan every 3 years (Section 4).
               The National Ocean Pollution Program Office (NOPPO) was established by NOAA to execute
               the mandate of Section 4 by providing a focal point for the coordination of Federal efforts in
               marine pollution. Amendments to NOPPA in the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1986
               (P.L. 99-272) established the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board (formerly the Interagency
               Committee on Ocean Pollution Research, bevelopment, and Monitoring) to promote interagency
               participation in the planning process as required under Section 7 of the Act. To meet the
               mandate of Section 4, NOPPO has prepared, in consultation with the Policy Board, this 5-year
               Federal Plan for the National Marine Pollution Program. It is the fourth such document
               produced since Congress passed NOPPA in 1978.

                     One of the primary purposes of NOPPA is "to develop the necessary base of information
               to support, and to provide for, the rational, efficient, and equitable utilization, conservation,
               and development of ocean and coastal resources" [Section 2(b)(2)]. The Act defines ocean and
               coastal resources to include essentially all components and, aspects of the marine and Great
               Lakes environments under Federal jurisdiction. Among the common marine resources of direct
               use to man are:

                INTRODUCTION

                      o Biological resources such as shellfish, finfish, and macroalgae;

                      o Mineral resources of the continental shelf such as petroleum, sand, and gravel;

                      o Drinking water from the Great Lakes;

                      o Aesthetic and recreational resources used for swimming, fishing, and boating;

                      o Resources related to the capacity of the marine environment to accept certain types
                        of disposed wastes without adverse change; and

                      o Maritime shipping and transportation routes.

                      In common usage, the term pollution has assumed a variety of meanings and applications.
                Under NOPPA, ocean pollution is defined as "any short-term or long-term change in the
                marine environment," where changes (usually adverse) are caused by. human activity. The basic
                type of pollution effects in the marine environment that are of concern include:

                      o Negative effects on marine bi.pta at the individual, population, community, or
                        ecosystem levels;

                      o Effects that decrease the continued availability of marine resources for human use
                        (e.g., contamination of fish or drinking water resources in the Great Lakes); and

                      o Negative effects on human health.

                      A variety of human activities contribute to marine pollution and jeopardize the continued
                availability of marine resources. These activities include the disposal of dredged material,
                sewage, and industrial wastes; recovery of oil and gas from the continental shelf; marine
                transportation; and marine mining. Pollution may also be linked to nonpoint sources and
                accidental spills. Physical alterations of marine habitats by human activities are.also
                considered to be marine pollution because they often result in negative effects, such as the
                loss of living marine resources.

                      This document addresses pollution research, development, and monitoring programs in
                coastal waters, estuaries, open oceans, and the Great Lakes. It identifies opportunities for
                future pollution studies.

                                             GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                      The Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution Research, Develooment, and Monitoring: FY 1981-
                1985 (NOAA, 1981) identified the following three broad policies of the Federal Government
                regarding ocean use:

                      o Ocean Resource  'Use Policy    Encourage the use of oceans, estuaries, and Great
                        Lakes as sources of food, water, energy, and minerals and as a maritime medium in
                        such a way that there is no significant adverse impact on human health, productivity,
                        or aesthetic quality.

                                                                  2

                                                                                         Goals of the National Program

                    o  Ocean Waste Dist)osal Policy -- Consider, along with other options, the use of the
                       oceans, estuaries, and Great Lakes as repositories for the disposal of waste material
                       and thermal energy when it is determined that no significant impact to human health,
                       productivity, or aesthetic quality would result.

                    o Ocean Conservation Policy -- Preserve and enhance the productivity and aesthetic
                       quality of the oceans, estuaries, and Great Lakes.

                    Table I lists the primary agencies that perform research and monitoring related to marine
             pollution, and identifies for each agency the major pieces of legislation that assign
             responsibilities for marine pollution research and monitoring. Each of these pieces of
             legislation is grouped within the ocean resource, ocean waste disposal, or ocean conservation
             policy categories, although several of these individual laws give mandates in more than one of
             these areas.

                    The National Marine Pollution Program is the composite of all the marine pollution
             research, development, and monitoring- programs conducted by the Federal 'Government. The
             purpose of the National Program is to provide resource managers and decision-makers with
             scientific information about pollution phenomena needed to implement the three national -
             ocean-use policies. To provide such information about marine pollution, the National Ocean
             Pollution Policy Board identifies the following broad goals for the National Marine Pollution
             Program:

                    1)  Understand the   sources, fates, and effects of  toxic materials entering the marine
                        environment as   a result of human activities;

                    2)  Understand the   sources, fates, and effects of  nutrients entering the'marine
                        environment as   a result of human activities;

                    3)  Understand the sources, fates, and effects@ on   marine organisms of biological agents
                        that are introduced or influenced by human activities;

                    4)  Understand the effects of losing or modifying    marine  habitats as a result of human
                        activities;

                    5)  Document the trends in the status of marine ecosystems; and'

                    6)  Understand the implications of marine pollution to human health.

                    The first four goals of the National Program address specific categories of pollutants or
             physical alterations to the marine environment (i.e., toxic materials, nutrients, biological
             agents, and habitat alterations). The last two goals (related'to the status of marine
             ecosystems and human health) integrate the first four goals and permit the Plan to      take into
             account all of the various contributions to marine pollution.

                    Marine pollution research,  development, and monitoring programs funded by Federal
             agencies may be considered as contributing to these six areas of endeavor. To meet these
             goals, the scope of the programs undertaken may include'the following:

                                                                   3

                 INTRODUCTION

                 Table 1. Federal Agencies with Major Legislative Mandates for Marine and Great
                         Lakes Pollution Research and Monitoring

                            LAWS                                         AGENCIES
                                                EPA NOAA USDA DHHS USCG COE MMS FWS DOE

                 Ocean Resource Use Policy

                 Outer Continental Shelf                                                x
                   Lands Act
                 Deep Seabed Mining Act                 x
                 Federal Non-Nuclear                                                                 x
                   Energy Research &
                   Development Act
                 Atomic Energy Act                                                                   x
                 Fishery Conservation &                 x
                   Management Act
                 Food, Drug & Cosmetic                              x
                   Act
                 Safe Drinking Water Act         x

                 Ocean Waste Disposal Policy
                 Marine Protection,              x      x                  x      x
                   Research &
                   Sanctuaries Act
                 Water Quality Act               x            x             x     x

                 Ocean Conservation Policy

                 Fish & Wildlife                        x                                      x
                   Coordination Act
                 Marine Mammal                          x                                      x
                   Protection Act
                 Endangered Species Act                 x                                      x
                 National Environmental          x      x     x     x       x     x     x      x     x
                   Policy Act

                                                             4

                                                                                           Goals of the National Program

                    a)   Assess the state of the environment

                             Acquire basic understanding;

                             Perform long-term baseline measurements to       establish points of reference (e.g.,
                             look for natural variability);

                             Identify and characterize the pollutants (e.g.,  in -W'ater, -in sediments);

                             Assess pollutant transport and fate. This includes research and development on
                             processes of pollutants and their interactions with the environment;

                             Determine effects on living resources, wetlands and habitats,"and humans; and

                             Implement monitoring systems to obtain temporal and spatial information
                             concerning effects of human activities.

                    b) Develop the capability to estimate or predict

                         -   Pollutant inputs;.

                         -   Pollutant trajectories and fate; and

                         -   Impacts of existing and future activities.

                    c)   Develop multipurpose program support capabilities to assist agency programs and to
                         promote consistency (e.g., quality assurance of chemical -measurements in the marine
                         environment, development of measurement methods).

                    Priorities within these areas will change through time as new pollution problems emerge
              and as information about existing problems is accumulated and judged to be sufficient.
              Evaluation of the existing and planned, Federal effort in each of the six goal areas enumerated
              above is presented in Chapter III of the Plan.

                    The National Marine Pollution Program also adopts the following two management
              objectives: (1) to maximize the effectiveness of Federal marine pollution research,
              development, and monitoring programs by assuring that such programs address national needs
              and problems in a manner that is consistent with the urgency of the need for information, and
              (2) to maximize the efficiency of Federal marine pollution researchi. development, and
              monitoring programs by eliminating or reducing unintentional duplication of effort, making
              maximum use of existing capabilities, and by promoting coordination and cooperation among
              Federal programs through more effective use of available funds, research, personnel, vessels,
              facilities, and equipment. The National Ocean Pollution Policy Board aims to promote both
              management objectives.

                                                                     5

                 INTRODUCTION

                                                      THE PLANNING PROCESS

                       The Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution Research, Development and Monitoring is required
                 by Section 4 of NOPPA to provide several specific types of information:

                       0   Identify national needs and problems relating to ocean pollution;

                       o   Establish priorities in addressing these needs and problems;

                       0   Describe the Federal programs and projects related to marine pollution; and

                       o   Make recommendations for changes in the overall Federal effort in ocean pollution
                           research and monitoring to assure that priority national needs and problems are met
                           by Federal programs during the Plan period.

                        The planning process undertaken during the development of this Plan is shown in
                 Figure 1. In early 1987, NOPPO conducted a national marine pollution priorities study
                 involving 145 individuals from the Federal Executive and Legislative Branches, state and local
                 governments, academia, ocean industries, and environmental interest groups. The priorities
                 identified by this study were emphasized at a national workshop convened in Easton,
                 Maryland, in June 1987. The workshop was divided into five working groups:

                       o Habitat modification and loss;

                       o  Pipeline disposal of municipal wastewater;

                       o  Pipeline disposal of industrial wastes;

                       o  Nonpoint source pollution; and

                       o  Persistent marine debris.

                       The general findings stated that:

                       � The ability to gauge progress toward implementation of a Plan should be improved;

                       � Involvement of the non-Federal sector during Plan preparation should be promoted;
                          and

                       � Synthesis and dissemination of existing data and information should be emphasized.

                       Additional information concerning the findings and recommendations of the workshop are
                 presented in the workshop proceedings (NOAA, 1988).

                       Using the workshop findings and existing Federal ocean policies, NOPPO (with the
                 guidance and approval of the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board) identified the six specific
                 National Program goals stated above. In late 1987 and early 1988, working groups were
                 formed to aid in development of the sections of the Plan that deal with each goal. These
                 groups consisted of Federal representatives and experts from the non-Federal sectors. The
                 members of each of the working groups are identified in Appendix A.

                                                                   6

                                                                                                                             The Planning Process

                                  Goals of National Marine Pollution Program,             1987 Priorities            Description of
                                  1 ) Understand sources, fates, and effects                   Study               Federal Programs
                                      of toxic materials
                                  2)  Understand sources, fates, and effects
                                      of nutrients
                                  3)  Understand sources, fates, and effects
                                      of biological agents
                                  4) Understand effects of losing or                    National Workshop
                                      modifying marine habitats,
                                  5) Document trends in status of marine
                                      ecosystems
                                  6)  Understand implications of marine
                                      pollution to human health

                                                                          WORKING GROUP
                                                                               ANALYSIS

                                       Identify information needs to address program goals

                                       Develop approach by which research and monitoring can satisfy information needs

                                    *  Evaluate relevant ongoing and planned Federal programs:
                                       - to determine how well information needs are being met and
                                       - to identify any duplication of-efforts

                                    * Identify information needs that are not adequately addressed by current Federal programs

                                    * Present recommendations for future research emphasis         'I
                                                                               AGENDA FOR ACTIONN
                                                                               List of specific actions to be taken by the
                                                                               National Ocean Pollution Policy Board
                                                                               - redirect program goals
                                        Review of agency                       - promote interagency coordination
                                        requests for funding                   - eliminate unintentional overlap
                                        to support research                    - reduce/eliminate programs
                                        in the outyear                         - create/enhance programs
                                                                               - support legislative initiatives and changes.
                                                                                  promote quality assurance between agencies
                                                                               - conduct basic research

                              Figure 1. The Planning Process.

                                                                                    7

                   INTRODUCTION

                        Each of the six working groups met twice to assist NOPPO in the drafting of the Plan.
                   The working groups were asked to provide guidance on the state-of-the-art, information needs,
                   and research recommendations pertaining to each of the six topics. The discussions and
                   findings presented in the Plan may have been altered during the official review by the
                   National Ocean Pollution Policy Board; therefore, it should not be assumed that this final
                   version of the Plan necessarily reflects the total consensus of the working groups.

                                               PURPOSE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE PLAN

                        Many Federal departments and agencies are required by law to conduct marine pollution
                   studies, and each must fulfill the requirements of its specific missions and obligations.
                   Programmatic decisions on areas of research emphasis within each agency are made through
                   competition among many priority areas, and research programs must be related to agency
                   missions. The Plan is not intended to override or interfere with the responsibilities and
                   mandates of individual agencies. However, a responsive and efficient Federal program of
                   marine pollution research can be achieved by ensuring that important research areas are not
                   overlooked if they fall between agency jurisdictions, and that related programs are carried out
                   cooperatively and without duplication. As a strategy document, the Plan is not intended to
                   provide a detailed tactical implementation scheme. Ultimately, it is up to the discretion of
                   individual agencies to accept and implement the general mandate of NOPPA by cooperating in
                   a coordinated national effort in marine pollution research and monitoring, and it is up to the
                   individual agencies involved in the National Marine Pollution Program to accept and execute
                   the recommendations offered in the Plan.

                        The Policy Board conducts an annual review of agency appropriation requests as
                   submitted to the Office of Management and Budget (OMB). Each agency involved in the
                   National Marine Pollution Program is required under Section 4 of NOPPA to prepare and
                   submit to the Policy Board, at the same time that its budget is submitted to OMB, information
                   on annual requests for appropriations to support ocean pollution research, development, and
                   monitoring programs. The requests for appropriations are reviewed by the Policy Board, which
                   subsequently submits a report to OMB as the President's agent and then to the Congress
                   concerning how these budget requests assist in attaining the program goals stated in this Plan.
                   Under NOPPA, OMB reviews the requests for appropriations as an integrated, coherent,
                   multiagency request and is to take into account the review of the Board.

                        The conclusions and recommendations of this Plan have been reviewed, discussed, and
                   accepted by the Policy Board. This ensures compatibility between the Plan and the individual
                   mandates of each agency in order to facilitate its implementation. During the interval
                   between editions of the Plan, the National Ocean Pollution Program Office works with the
                   Policy Board agencies to promote implementation of recommendations in selected priority areas.

                                                      ORGANIZATION OF THE PLAN

                        Chapter 11 is an overview of the National Marine Pollution Program; it includes
                   summaries of agency activities and responsibilities and an overview of program expenditures.
                   This chapter also includes a discussion of marine pollution funding trends.

                                                                       8

                                                                                               Organization of the Plan

                    The focus of the Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution Research, Develoment, and
               Monitoring: FY 1988-1992 is in Chapter III. In this chapter is a discussion of the goals of the
               National Marine Pollution Program as cited above. This approach is different from the last
               Plan in which the discussion focused on activities that may cause pollution. The six goals
               take into account the various polluting activities and pollutants of concern. The discussion of
               each goal includes examination of the goal rationale, listing of relevant agency programs,
               identification of research and information gaps, and  recommendations for future research to
               address these gaps.

                    Chapter IV contains an "agenda for action" by    the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board
               during the 3-year interim between the development     of 5-year plans. This agenda will help
               assure that the Plan will be used and will aid in the measurement of progress toward
               achieving the goals set forth in the Plan. The agenda allows for the inclusion of more
               detailed program evaluation and planning and provides specific opportunities for interagency
               and State/Federal coordination.

                                                           Literature Cited

               NOAA. 1981. National Marine Pollution Program Plan - Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution
                    Research, Development, and Monitoring: Fiscal Years 1981-1985. National Marine
                    Pollution Program Office, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S.
                    Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD. 185 pp.

               NOAA. 1988. Proceedings: National Marine Pollution Problems and Needs Workshop, Easton,
                    Maryland. June 9-11, 1987. National Ocean Pollution Program Office, National Oceanic
                    and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD. 53 pp. +
                    Appendices.

                                                                   9

                       11. THE NATIONAL MARINE POLLUTION PROGRAM

                       Ocean Pollution Funding Trends: FY 1984-1989       . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     12
                       Agency Programs     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          16
                           Council on Environmental Quality     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       17
                           U.S. Department of Agriculture   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       18
                           U.S. Department of Commerce      . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       18
                           U.S. Department of Defense     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       21
                           U.S. Department of Energy      . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...       22
                           U.S. Department of Health and Human Services        . . . . . . . . . . . .    22
                           U.S. Department of the Interior  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       23
                           U.S. Department of Transportation     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      24
                           U.S. Environmental Protection Agency    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      25
                           National Aeronautics and Space Administration    . . . . . . . . . . . . .     25
                           National Science Foundation    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       26

                    This chapter presents an overview of the federally funded programs in ocean pollution
              research, development, and monitoring that comprise the. National Marine Pollution Program.
              An analysis of funding trends for the entire National Marine Pollution Program from FY 1984
              through FY 1988 is presented along with the funding requested for FY 1989 in the Presidential
              budget. The chapter includes descriptions of the pollution programs of the 11 Federal
              departments and agencies that conduct marine pollution research, development, or monitoring
              activities.

                 THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                      OCEAN POLLUTION FUNDING TRENDS: FY 1984-1989

                      The following Federal agencies and departments support marine pollution- related research,
                 development, or monitoring activities:

                      Council on Environmental Quality
                      U.S. Department of Agriculture
                      U.S. Department of Commerce
                          National Institute of Standards and Technology
                          National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
                      U.S. Department of Defense
                          U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
                          U.S. Navy
                      U.S. Department of Energy
                      U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
                          Food and Drug Administration
                          National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
                      U.S. Department of the Interior
                          Minerals Management Service
                          U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                          U.S. Geological Survey
                      U.S. Department of Transportation
                          U.S. Coast Guard
                      U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                      National Aeronautics and Space Administration
                      National Science Foundation

                      Between FY 1984 and FY 1988, Federal marine pollution funding decreased by $13.9
                 million or 12% (Figure 2). This reflects the Administration's efforts to eliminate unnecessary
                 and duplicative programs and those programs that have satisfied their legislated mission.

                                       $160-

                                       $140-                   $126.9
                                              $121.1
                                       $120-                              $114.5  $107.2
                                       $100-                                               $98.9

                                      C
                                      2 $80-

                                      2
                                        $60-

                                        $40-

                                        $20-

                                          $0-
                                              FY 84    FY 85    FY 86    FY 87    FY 88     FY 89-
                                              1        1        1         1     1          1
                                                                      Year

                                          *FY 1989 estimate based on the Presidential budget.

                                 Figure 2. Total Funding for the National Marine Pollution Program, FY 1984 - FY 1989.

                                                                    12

                                                                                  Ocean Pollution Funding Trends

             During this 5-year@oeriod, 5 of the 11 Federal departments and agencies involved in marine
             pollution research experienced reductions in pollution funding amounting to $33.0 million; 4
             received increased funding amounting to 16.1 million; 1 (U.S. Department of Agriculture) was
             level funded (although it changed its reporting procedure to include a greater portion of its
             program); and I (Council on Environmental Quality) began reporting a'portion of its program
             for inclusion in the National Marine Pollution Program for the first time (Table 2). Of those
             agencies with increased funding, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) accounted
             for $15.4 million of the increases (Figure 3).

                   Most of the 95% increase in EPA marine pollution funding that occurred between FY'1984
             and FY 1988 ($16.3 to 31.7 million) resulted from the creation and funding of the National
             Estuary Program. In addition, a large portion of this increase resulted from the increased
             funding of Water Quality and Great Lakes research.

                   Other agencies experiencing increases in marine pollution funding between FY 1984 and
             FY 1988 were the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) (<$0.1 million or
             2%), the U.S. Coast Guard ($0.3 million or 22%), and the National Aeronautics and Space .
             Administration (NASA) ($0.3 million or 129%). The DHHS increased spending resulted from a
             slight increase in funding for the Shellfish Sanitation Program. The increase in Coast Guard
             spending resulted from increases in the budget of the Marine Environmental Response Program.
             NASA's increased spending resulted from an increased budget for the Ocean Productivity
             Program for the development and utilization of space-borne technologies. The apparent
             increase of $3.0 million for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) does not reflect an
             actual increase in research level. Starting in FY 1985, the USDA changed its reporting
             procedure to include a greater portion of its program.

                   Between FY 1984 and FY 1988, the U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) marine pollution
             funding decreased more than any other"Federal agency's ($12.7 million or 69%) (Figure 4). All
             but one DOE marine pollution- related program was either reduced in funding during this period
             or eliminated entirely. Funding for the Regional Marine Program increased slightly, while
             funding for the Physiological Ecology Program decreased and the Ocean Thermal Energy
             Conversion Program, Radioecology Program, Strategic Petroleum Reserve Program, Subseabed
             Disposal Program, and Arctic and Offshore Research Program were all zero funded in FY 1988
             or were eliminated between FY 1984 and FY 1988. @

                   Other agencies experiencing reductions in marine pollution funding between FY 1984 and
             FY 1988 included the U.S. Department of the Interior (DOI) ($11.4 million or 31%); U.S.
             Department of Commerce (DOC) ($5.6 million or 18%); U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) ($2.0
             million or 17%); and National Science Foundation ($1.3 million or 89%). Within DOI, the
             Minerals Management Service experienced a $10.7 million (37%j reduction in marine pollution
             funding, and the U.S. Geological Survey experienced a $2.8 million (50%) reduction. The U.S.
             Fish and Wildlife Service of DOI showed an increase in funding during this period due to the
             inclusion of funding for the National Wetlands Inventory beginning in FY 1985. Much of the
             reduction in DOC's marine pollution funding resulted from a decrease in ship support for the
             National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Other NOAA programs experiencing
             decreases in funding between FY 1984 and FY 1988 include the Coastal and Estuarine
             Assessment Program, the ERL Ocean Pollution Program, and the National Fishery Ecology
             Program. In spite of the overall decrease in NOAA marine pollution funding, several NOAA
             programs received increased funding, including. the Strategic Assessment Program and Sea

                                                              13

                    THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                               Table 2., National Marine Pollution Program Funding Levels: FY 1984 - 1989
                                          (funding in thousands of dollars)

                                                                                                                     FY 1989
                                             FY 1984       FY 1985       FY 1986       FY 1987       FY 1988      Presidential
                               Agency       Estimates     Estimates     Estimates      Estimates     Estimates        Budget

                               CEO*                  0            19            11             9            9.-             0

                               USDA**              196        3,400         3,354         3,139         3,167          3,441

                               DOC

                               NIST                  0             0             0             0             0              0

                               NOAA           31,008        39,443         35,859         32,988        25,420         15,597

                               DOD

                               COE            10,135          9,504         8,064         8,996         8,500          9,990

                               Navy             1,600         1,920         1,900         1,575         1,235            720
                               DOE            18,513        18,831         13,650         6,895         5,767          6,127

                               DHHS

                               NIEHS              923         1,277            452          470            486           503

                               FDA              2,470         2,421         1,941         2,491         2,959          2,990

                               DOI

                               MIVIS          28,659        23,024         20,912         19,285        18,000         18,000

                               FWS              2,707         5,132         5,565         5,274         4,735          4,735
                               USGS             5,555         4,997         6,514         2,583         2,783          2,428

                               DOT

                                                1,433         1,080         1,235           975         1,744            990

                               EPA            16,285        20,893         26,615         28,625        31,715         32,815

                               NASA                210           453           483          480            480           510

                               NSF              1,405            970           376          690            151             50

                               TOTAL          121,099       133,364        126,931       114,475       107,151        98,896

                               *Starting in FY 1985, the CEO began reporting a portion of their program for inclusion in the National
                               Marine Pollution Program.

                               "Starting in FY 1985, the USDA changed itsreporting procedure to include a greater portion of itsprogram.
                               The funding increase between FY 1984 and FY 1985 results-from this change and does not necessarily
                               reflect an increase in research level of effort.

                                                                                14

                                                                                                        Ocean Pollution Funding Trends

                                   $40
                                   $35  -                                                            $31.7         $32.8
                                   .$30 -                                              $28.6
                                                                         $26.6
                                   $25  -

                                                          $20.9
                               C
                               0   $20  -
                                            $16.3
                                   $15  -

                                   $10  -

                                   $5   -
                                   $0   1                                           -                        -
                                            FY 84         FY 85          FY 86         FY 87         FY 88         FY 89*

                                                                                Year

                                      *FY 1989 estimate based on the Presidential budget.

                           Figure 3. Trends in Funding for the Environmental Protection Agency, FY 1984-FY 1989.

                                   $25

                                   $20      $18.5         $18.8

                                   $15                                   $13.7

                               0

                                   $10
                                                                                       $6.9          $5.8          -$6.1
                                   $5

                                   $0
                                            FY 84         FY 85          FY 86         FY 87         FY 88         FY 89*

                                                                              Year

                                    *FY 1989 estimate based on the Presidential budget.

                         Figure 4. Trends in Funding for the Department of Energy, FY 1984-FY 1989.

                                                                              15

              THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

              Grant Ocean Pollution Program. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers of DOD received $1.6
              million less (16% decrease) for marine pollution research in FY 1988 than in FY 1984, while
              the U.S. Navy received $0.4 million less (23% decrease).

                  The President's FY 1989 budget request for marine pollution programs is $98.9 million,
              $8.3 million less than the FY 1988 level. Reductions in NOAA's ocean pollution programs
              would account for most of this decrease in funding (Figure 5). Other agencies that would
              experience decreases in funding for marine pollution studies under the proposed FY 1989
              budget include the U.S. Coast Guard ($0.8 million or 43%). Under the proposed FY 1989
              budget, the EPA would receive the largest increase in marine pollution funding ($1.1 million or
              A), and the DOD would receive an additional $1.0 million (10%).

                      $50

                      $40 -           $39.4     $35.9
                                                         $33.0
                              $31
                      $30  -
                    C
                    .2                                             $25.4

                      $20 -
                                                                             $15.6

                      $10 -

                       $0 -  FY 84    FY 85     FY 86    FY 87     FY 88    FY 89

                                                    Year

                        *FY 1989 estimate based on the Presidential budget.

                 Figure 5. Trends in Funding for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
                        FY 1984-FY 1989.

                                             AGENCY PROGRAMS

                   In FY 1988, the Federal Government expended over $107 million for marine pollution
              research, development, and monitoring activities. In FY 1988, EPA was the major supporter of
              marine pollution research, development and monitoring activities ($31.7 million or 30% of the
              total program) followed by DOI ($25.5 million or 24%) and NOAA ($25.4 million or 24%). The
              percentage of total marine pollution funding expended by each of the concerned agencies is
              presented in Figure 6.

                                                      16

                                                                                                                                    Agency Programs

                                                                    U.S. Geological
                                                                      Survey 2%
                                                                                             Minerals Management
                                                                                                 Service 17%

                                U.S. Environmental Protection                                           U.S. Navy 1%
                                       Agency 30%

                                                                                                            U.S. Department of Energy 5%

                                                                                             - - - - - - -  U.S. Coast Guard 2%

                                                                                                            U.S. Army Corps
                                                                                                            of Engineers 8%
                                               Other* 1%
                                           U.S. Departm n
                                                        t
                                           of Agriculture                                               U.S. Fish and
                                                                                                        Wildlife 4%
                                            U.S. Food a  ru
                                            Administrati n

                                                                       National Oceanic and
                                                                  Atmospheric Administration 24%

                                                             Total FY 1988 Funding - $107.1 Million.
                                                            *CEQ, NSF, NIEHS, & NASA each funded
                                                             < 1% of the total. NIST was zero funded.

                          Figur e 6. Percentage of Total FY 1988 Funding Provided by Individual Federal Agencies.

                       The following discussion presents an overview of the major responsibilities and activities
                of the Federal agencies involved in marine pollution research, development, and monitoring.
                Included are discussions of the major marine pollution programs within each agency and
                estimated FY 1988 funding levels of those programs. More detailed information will be
                available in a future edition of the National Marine Pollution Program: Summary of Federal
                Proparams and Proiects.

                                                               Council on Environmental Ouality

                        The Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) is required by the National Environmental
                Policy Act of 1969 to report to Congress annually on the status and condition of the
                environment, the current and foreseeable trends in the quality, management, and utilization of
                the environment, and the effects of environmental trends. In an effort to fulfill this
                                                      a
                                                       3

                                                     nd
                                                      0

                Congressional mandate, CEQ has enjoined other Federal agencies to develop a sourcebook of
                environmental statistics that are indicative of current conditions and historic trends in the

                                                                                    17

                   THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                   quality of the environment of the United States. The FY 1988 marine pollution- related
                   funding provided by CEQ for this effort is approximately $9,000. This amount is augmented by
                   funding from other Federal agencies.

                                                       U.S. Department of Aericulture

                         The overall science mission of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) is to conduct
                   research, development, and education programs on problems related to agriculture production
                   and to the protection of the environment. A portion of the USDA research effort addresses
                   the effects of agricultural and resource development practices on the quality of the marine
                   environment. The overall goals of this research are to aid in the effective management and
                   use of the nation's soil, water, and air resources and on reducing pollutants in receiving
                   streams, lakes, estuaries, and oceans. Research projects of the Agricultural Research Service,
                   Cooperative State Research Service, and Forest Service are included in the National Marine
                   Pollution Program.

                         The USDA expended $3.2 million on marine pollution research, development, and
                   monitoring activities during FY 1988. Starting in FY 1985, the USDA changed its reporting
                   procedure to include a greater portion of its program. The funding increase between FY 1984
                   and FY 1985 results from this change and does not reflect an actual increase in research level
                   of effort. These funds were used to support research examining the effects of soil erosion,
                   agricultural runoff, agricultural waste disposal, sedimentation, nutrients, and pesticides on
                   marine organisms and ecosystems and the transport and transformation of pollutants. The
                   projects are conducted through mechanisms of direct Federal research as well as support of
                   cooperative efforts and grants. All relevant USDA projects have been grouped into the
                   following three areas, which are listed as programs:

                         o  Nonpoint Source Contaminants Program ($2.2 million) -- Conducts research on
                            pollution problems caused by soil erosion, estuarine sedimentation, slope stability in
                            agricultural and forested watersheds, streambank and shoreline stability, organic debris
                            and turbidity, and on-land studies to prevent erosion from occurring.

                         o  Habitat Modification Program ($0.9 million) -- Conducts research on improving the
                            ability to evaluate the effects of watershed development projects on resource
                            conservation, and investigations of landscape and channel modifications on ambient
                            concentrations of sediments and agricultural chemicals in streams.

                         o  Point Source Contaminants Program (less than $0.1 million) -- Conducts studies t    o
                            investigate chemicals in bottom mud originating from dump sites and chemical plants,
                            oil spills, and contaminants from other point sources.

                                                        U.S. Department of Commerce

                                                National Institute of Standards and Technology

                         The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has responsibility for the
                   custody, maintenance, and development of the national standards of measurement and the
                   provision of means and methods for making measurements consistent with those standards.
                   NIST cooperates with other Federal agencies for the development of standard practices and

                                                                       18

              THE NATIONAL PROGRAM                                                                   Agency Programs

              the establishment. of reference bases in support of national programs. Within NIST, the
              Center for.Analytical Chemistry performs research in analytical methods and standard
              reference materials, the provision of quality assurance services, and services to other agenc ies
              of the government. Many of the Center's services are applicable to ocean pollution research
              and monitoring programs. These include measurement of hazardous wastes, organic and
              inorganic species in water, organic and inorganic species in marine organisms and sediments,
              research in sampling, analytical design, and long-term storage of samples. Since all marine
              pollution-related activities, at NIST are carried out on a reimbursable basis, no funding is
              listed in the National Marine Pollution Program for NIST's related activities.

                                         National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

                   The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has legislative
              responsibilities for conducting research on problems caused by polluting activities in  the
              oceans and the Great Lakes. During FY 1988, NOAA funded $25.4 million for marine pollution.-
              research, development, and monitoring studies under the Office of the Chief Scientist, the
              National Ocean Service,the Office. of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research, the National Marine
              Fisheries Services; and the National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service.
              The marine pollution programs of these organizations and their specific research
              responsibilities are as follows:

                    o Office of the Chief Scientist

                       -    National, Marine Pollution Coordination Program ($1.3 million)      Coordinates
                            ocean pollution research, development, and monitoring programs supporied,by       all
                            Federal departments and agencies.

                       -    Estuarine Program Office (0.6 million) -- Facilitates coordination of estuarine
                            activities within NOAA.and other Federal and state agencies.

                    o National Ocean Service

                            Coastal and Estuarine Assessment Program ($5.7 million)       Conducts national and
                            regional studies in representative coastal regions and estuaries to develop
                            improved methods for use by NOAA, other public agencies, and the private sector
                            in assessing the effects of coastal and estuarine use activities throughout the
                            Nation.

                            Strategic Assessments Program ($3.0 million) -- Conducts assessments of multiple
                            ocean resource uses for the Nation and,its major coastal and ocean regions to
                            determine marine resource development strategies, which will result in maximum
                            benefit to the Nation with minimum environmental damage or conflicts among
                            uses.

                            Hazardous Materials Response Program ($2.3 million) -- Develops scientific plans
                            and coordinates scientific input related to spills of hazardous substances occurring
                            in coastal waters, the 197-mile exclusive economic zone, and the Great Lakes.

                                                                  19

                 THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                          -    Deep Seabed Mining Environmental Research Program ($0.4 million) -- Provides
                               scientific information to predict potential adverse impacts from the mining of hard
                               mineral resources in the deep ocean and to enable government decisions to be'
                               made regarding the mining of these resources in an environmentally sound manner.

                          -    National Marine Sanctuaries Program ($0.5 million) -- Promotes and coordinates
                               research to expand the scientific knowledge of marine sanctuaries and to improve
                               management decision-making for the purpose of preserving or restoring their
                               conservation, recreational, ecological, or aesthetic values.

                          -    Ship Support ($1.9 million) -- Provides ship support for NOAA's marine pollution
                               research and monitoring activities.

                       o Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research

                          -    Environmental Research Laboratories Ocean Pollution Studies ($0.8 million)
                               Conducts process-oriented research to improve our understanding of natural
                               oceanic systems and the ecological impacts of human-induced stress on these
                               systems; problem- oriented research is also conducted to develop improved
                               assessment capabilities.

                          -    Environmental Research Laboratories Great Lakes Pollution Studies ($2.3
                               million) -- Conducts process studies to improve our understanding and prediction
                               of the impact of pollutants on the Great Lakes and problem- oriented research to
                               develop improved engineering prediction models.

                          -    Sea Grant Ocean Pollution Studies ($3.2 million) -- Provides funding to selected
                               colleges and universities throughout the Nation to solve pollution problems related
                               to state and local activities in fisheries, recreation, and overall resource
                               management.

                       o National Marine Fisheries Service

                          -    National Fishery Ecology Program ($3.3 million) -- Conducts research directed
                               toward understanding the effects of man-induced and natural changes on the
                               abundance, distribution, and health of living marine resources of commercial and
                               recreational importance and their habitats.

                          -    Microconstituents Program ($0.1 million) -- Conducts studies to determine the
                               kinds and levels of contaminants in the tissues of fishery products of recreational,
                               food, and industrial use.

                       o National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service

                               Marine Pollution Data Support Program (less than $0.1 million) -- Provides a
                               variety of marine pollution data management -related activities, including data
                               identification and acquisition, data processing and quality control, data and
                               information products and services, and project data management support.

                                                                   20

                                                                               Agency Programs

                                         U.S. Dei)artment of Defense

                                        U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

                The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE) has responsibility for conducting studies on the
            environmental effects of water use@ water diversion, and construction projects in the marine
            environment. During FY 1988, COE funded $8.5 million for marine pollution research,
            development, and monitoring studies. The COE's marine pollution projects are divided into
            two major programs: the Environmental Quality Research and Development Program and the
            Navigation Project Environmental Operations and Maintenance Program.

                o  Environmental Quality Research and Development Program ($1.3 million) -- Concerned
                   with the development of techniques and procedures for assessing, evaluating, and
                   controlling the impact of COE and other coastal construction activities on the
                   environment and the maintenance of national water quality standards.

                o  Navigation Project Environmental Operations and Maintenance Program ($7.3
                   million) -- Composed of the Long-Term Monitoring Project and the Long-Term
                   Management Strategy Programs. . The Long-Term Monitoring Project involves: the
                   continued evaluation of nine existing habitat development field sites, low-cost
                   breakwater tests to determine rapid development and survival benefits in marsh
                   development and shoreline stabilization, and dissemination of information on beneficial
                   uses of dredged materials. The principal objective of the Long-Term Management
                   Strategy (LTMS) Program is to provide the field with protocols for developing LTMS's
                   for disposing of dredged materials in an economically and environmentally. sound
                   manner.

                The COE divisions and districts do not normally run research projects, but they do
            conduct all of the operation activities dealing with monitoring and data acquisition and
            interpretation as well as proj ect- specific developmental research. These activities are carried
            out by the following regional division and district offices:

                    - North Atlantic                 - Lower Mississippi River
                    - New England                    - Pacific Ocean
                    -  South Atlantic                -  South Pacific
                    -  North Central                 -  Southwest

                                               U.S. Navy

                The U.S. Navy expended $1.2 million on research, development, and monitoring programs
            related to marine pollution during FY 1988. The marine pollution programs of the Navy are
            carried out within the Environmental Protection Technology Program. The overall goal of the
            program is to develop pollution reduction, abatement, or treatment. techniques and permit the
            Navy to meet present and future environmental regulations. The program involves the
            development of onboard systems for pollution source reduction and control and the
            investigation of environmental aspects of treatment technology. This includes establishment
            and maintenance of a data base on quality and generation rates of all shipboard wastes
            including expended ordnance. The.remainder of the program addresses short- and long-term

                                                   21

                 THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                 environmental effects of antifouling paints applied to ship hulls. This research includes
                 investigations of the environmental fates and effects of synthetic organic compounds released
                 from antifouling paints during drydock removal and routine service.

                                                      U.S. Department of Enenzy

                      The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) plans and'manages Federal energy programs. A
                 major DOE objective is to carry out research and monitoring to ensure that energy programs
                 are consistent with environmental legislation and policies. To fulfill these DOE objectives, a
                 marine research program is conducted to gain an understanding of the effects of energy-
                 related pollutants on the marine environment.

                      During FY 1988, DOE funded $5.8 million in research, development, and monitoring
                 projects related to marine pollution. Current DOE marine pollution research is coordinated
                 under the following programs:

                      o  Regional Marine Program ($5.2 million) -- Supports research on natural phys'ioc'hemical
                         and biological processes to help determine the pathways and fate's of energy-related
                         materials in marine systems and food chains.

                      o  Physiological Ecology Program ($0.6 million) -- Supports studies on genetics and
                         physiology to determine limits of pollution exposure that will allow organisms and
                         ecosystems to exist without adverse ecological perturbations.

                                            U.S. Department of Health and Human Service's

                                                  U.S. Food and Drug Administration

                      The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for the safety of the
                 Nation's foods, cosmetics, drugs, medical devices, biologics, and electronic radiological
                 products. The FDA's Shellfish Sanitation Program, a cooperative Federal- State 7 industry
                 activity, is the agency's only marine pollution- related program. Approximately $3.0 million was
                 expended under this program during FY 1988 for marine pollution research, development, and
                 monitoring. Under the Shellfish Sanitation Program, the agency's Bureau of Foods carries out
                 regulatory and research activities to as'sure that shellfish are.safe for human consumption.
                 Research, technical assistance, and evaluationsare performed on the effectiveness of sanitary
                 practices in the growing, harvesting, processing, and marketing of shellfish.

                                          National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

                      The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) is responsible for the
                 support of research in the areas of the effects of chemical and physical environmental agents
                 on human health. This includes basic research as well as research on the causes of
                 environmentally related diseases and how they develop. While the focus of NIEHS-supported
                 research is primarily on human health, one of its programs supports ocean pollution -related
                 research:

                                                                   22

                                                                                                  Agency Programs

                    o Extramural Program ($0.5 million) -- Supports research on the distribution and
                       alteration of environmental compounds in the marine environment and their
                       accumulation and biological effects in marine biota. Emphasis is placed on
                       understanding known or toxic effects in the human population.

                                                 U.S. Department of the Interior

                                                  Minerals Management Service

                    The Minerals Management Service's (MMS) marine pollution-related research program
              supports one of the mandates of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) Lands Act Amendments of
              1978, which is to provide for the protection of the human, marine, and coastal environments
              concomitant with mineral resource development on the OCS. To meet this goal and to meet
              information and administrative requirements of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969,
              a nationwide OCS Environmental Studies Program was initiated by the Bureau of Land
              Management (now MMS) in 1974 to provide environmental information and analyses on marine
              and coastal ecosystems and to establish benchmark environmental conditions in all OCS areas
              for future identification of alterations caused by OCS activities. The program has since
              evolved from the benchmark environmental characterization approach to the monitoring of
              effects on marine ecosystems as oil and gas development occurs.

                    The OCS Environmental Studies Program is managed in the MMS Washington Office by
              the Branch of Environmental Studies located within the Offshore Environmental Assessments
              Division. Four MMS Regional Offices are responsible for managing environmental 'studies
              within their respective areas of jurisdiction. In FY 1988, MMS funded $18.0 million for marine
              pollution research and monitoring.

                                                  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

                    The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) has general responsibility for perpetuating and
              providing public use and enjoyment of the fish and wildlife resources of the United States.
              Its functions include responsibility for the fish and wildlife. resources and habitats of national
              interest through research, management, and provision of technical assistance to other Federal
              and nongovernment agencies and states. The FWS conducts operations in the entire coastal
              zone, the contiguous lands, and the waters that flow into the zone. Through the Assistant
              Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks, FWS acts as the principal environmental advisor in
              reviewing various departmental policy and opinion documents for energy development programs,
              including those in the coastal zone. Portions of its component programs with inarine
              pollution-related goals, objectives, and activities constitute important factors in the protection,
              conservation, and enhancement of estuarine and coastal fish and wildlife resources and their
              habitats.

                    The FWS funded $4.7 million for marine pollution- related research in FY 1988 under the
              Research and Development Program and the National Wetlands Inventory. The marine
              pollution-related research activities'of these programs are presented below.

                                                               23

                THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       o Research and Development Program ($2.9 million) -- Collects, collates, and interprets
                         diverse information on fish species populations and habitats to provide information,
                         methodology, and materials to assist fishery managers in decisions about the
                         protection, enhancement, and utilization of fishery resources.

                       o National Wetlands Inventory ($1.9 million) -- Prepares a wetland data base in map
                         form, conducts a trends and analysis for wetland change, maintains standardized
                         mapping procedures, correlates known wetland values, and upgrades and makes
                         available the collected information.

                                                        U.S. Geological Survey

                       The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) is responsible for the classification of public lands
                and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national
                domain. Over the years, the USGS's mission has expanded to include topographic mapping and
                hydrologic investigations of water in streams and underground. In compliance with its broad
                mission for earth science research and application, a few marine pollution- related programs are
                conducted by USGS.

                       In FY 1988, the USGS funded $2.8 million for marine pollution- related studies under two
                programs. These programs and their marine pollution- related responsibilities are presented
                below.

                       o Water Resources Division Program ($2,0 million) -- Responsible for providing
                         hydrologic data on surface and groundwater, including the long-term operation of
                         downstream gauges on major rivers and streams (yielding both quantity and quality
                         data) and site-specific investigations of estuarine circulation, geochemistry, and
                         ecology.

                       o Geologic Division Program ($0.8 million) -- Conducts research on the physical and
                         geological processes on the seafloor.

                                                   U.S. Department of Transportation

                                                           U.S. Coast Guard

                       The U.S. Coast Guard funded $1.7 million for research, development, and monitoring
                projects related to marine pollution during FY 1988. The Coast Guard conducts environmental
                research and monitoring related to the effects of spills of polluting materials and other
                transportation- related pollution in the marine environment. The major program coordinating
                these activities is the Marine Environmental Response Program. The major goals and
                responsibilities of this program are as follows:

                       o Marine Environmental Response Program ($1.7 million) -- Supports research on
                         predicting behavior and movements of spilled oil and hazardous substances, as well as
                         developing systems for more precise detection, sampling, identification, and
                         quantification of discharged chemicals.

                                                                   24

                                                                                                  Agency Programs

                  In addition, the Coast Guard is the United States' representative to the
             Intergovernmental Maritime Organization (IMO), which promotes improved safety and pollution
             prevention at sea.

                                             U.S. Environmental Protection Agencl

                  The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) funded $31.7 million for research,
             development, and monitoring programs related to marine pollution during FY 1988. The EPA
             assumes lead responsibility in the Federal Government for identifying, evaluating, and
             controlling environmental pollutants. The purview of EPA includes freshwater, estuarine,
             coastal, and oceanic pollution. Marine pollution research activities range from specific
             mission-oriented endeavors to basic research concerned with achieving a general understanding
             of marine ecosystem structure and function. The major responsibilities of EPA include review
             of permits, setting standards, and overall regulatory activities. The EPA mandate includes the
             following areas of marine pollution research and monitoring:

                  o   Marine Disposal Program ($6.0 million) -- Addresses the short- and long-term
                      environmental effects of the disposal of municipal waste, industrial waste, and low-
                      level radioactive waste in the marine environment.

                  o   Energy-Related Research ($0.2 million) -- Includes environmental studies on the
                      impacts of waste materials produced from offshore oil and gas drilling and production
                      platforms.

                  o   Wate r Quality Research ($8.3 million) -- Relates to establishing limits on substances,
                      such as priority pollutants, toxic substances, pesticides, and carcinogens released into
                      the marine environment.

                  o   Great Lakes Research ($10.2 million) -- Addresses the pollution problems of the Great
                      Lakes. Objectives include research on water quality and eutrophication and
                      monitoring of contaminants and discharges from tributaries and point sources.

                  o   Chesapeake Bay Program ($1.4 million) -- Coordinates pollution research in Chesapeake
                      Bay. These efforts include research on sources, transport, fate, and physical
                      properties of pollutants and on pollution control alternatives and data management.

                  o   National Estuary Program ($5.1 million) -- Designed to develop a comprehensive master
                      environmental plan to protect and restore water quality and living resources in the
                      Nation's estuaries.

                  o   Exploratory Research ($0.5 million) -- Involves long-term research conducted through
                      cooperative agreements with universities. This research provides a link between basic
                      and applied research on fates and effects of marine pollutants.

                                        National Aeronautics and Space Administration

                  The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) does not have any direct
             statutory responsibilities for ocean pollution research, development, and monitoring, but does
             conduct studies indirectly related to marine pollution. Those projects indirectly related to the

                                                               25

                  THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  National Marine Pollution Program fall under two categories. The first includes the
                  development of space-borne techniques and the evaluation and application of these techniques
                  to advance our understanding of the fundamental behavior of the oceans. These elements are
                  conducted by the Earth Science and Applications Division of the Office of Space Science and
                  Applications. The second includes programs that make possible the utilization of proven
                  technologies and methodologies to other government agencies and industries for use in ongoing
                  programs. These efforts are conducted by the Division of Technology Utilization in the Office
                  of External Relations. The following describes the marine pollution-related activities
                  conducted by NASA.

                       o  Ocean Productivity Program ($0.5 million) -- Conducts research to improve the
                          understanding of global oceanic primary productivity and phytoplankton distribution,
                          reasons for observed spatial and temporal variability, how these distributions are
                          influenced by ocean physics and circulation, and the impacts on living marine
                          resources and global carbon and nitrogen cycles.

                                                      National Science Foundation

                       The National Science Foundation (NSF) funded $0.2 million for marine pollution- related
                  research, development, and monitoring during FY 1988. The NSF has the mission to support
                  scientific research to maintain and increase the Nation's ability to advance in scientific and
                  technological areas. The NSF does not itself conduct research but provides funding for
                  scientists in the public sector, mostly in academic institutions.

                       The Division of Ocean Sciences is the principal administrative unit within NSF that
                  supports research relevant to marine pollution. Most of this research can be categorized as
                  basic research, since it is not narrowly focused by mandates or policy. However, many of the
                  findings from NSF-supported basic research make a contribution to other applied studies of
                  marine pollution problems.

                                                                    26

                             111. GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                   The six goals of the National Marine Pollution Program are discussed in this chapter.
             These goals are designed to address the major polluting activities and pollutants of concern in
             the marine environment. The six goals of the National Program are:

             Goal 1: Understand the Sources, Fates, and Effects of Toxic Materials Entering the Marine
             Environment as a,Result of Human Activities

             Goal 2: Understand the Sources, Fates, and Effects of Nutrients Entering the Marine
             Environment as a Result of Human Activities

             Goal 3: Understand the Sources, Fates, and Effects on Marine Organisms of Biological Agents
             that are Introduced or Influenced by Human Activities

             Goal 4: Understand the Effects of Losing or Modifying Marine Habitats as a Result of Human
             Activities

             Goal 5: Document the Trends in the Status of Marine Ecosystems

             Goal 6: Understand the Implications of Marine Pollution to Human Health

                   For each goal of the National Program, this chapter presents a discussion of the goal
             definition, Federal role in addressing the goal, management questions and information needs
             related to the goal, and conclusions and recommendations. Background information is
             presented under the goal definition discussion explaining what the problem is, why it is a
             problem, and where it is a problem. The legislation that mandates the Federal Government to
             address the goal and the Federal programs designed to study the problem are discussed in the
             Federal Role section. Under the management questions and information needs is a discussion
             of the rationale for addressing the management questions, the past and ongoing Federal
             activities that address the related information needs, and research and information gaps
             related to the information needs. Recommendations for future research, development, and
             monitoring activities related to each information need are. presented in italic print.

                                                                27

                        1,

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                             GOAL 1: UNDERSTAND THE SOURCES, FATES, AND EFFECTS OF TOXIC
                                      MATERIALS ENTERING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT AS A
                                                     RESULT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

                  Goal Definition   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .             29

                  Federal Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .              35
                        Federal Legislation and Regulations   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         35
                        Federal Programs   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            36
                  Management Questions and Information Needs      . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .        38
                        Sources and Loading Rates   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           39
                        Transport and Bioavailability  . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .         42

                        Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .             48

                  Conclusions and Recommendations      . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          52

                        Sources and Loading Rates   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           53
                        Transport and Bioavailability  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          53

                        Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .             54

                  Literature Cited  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .             55

                        Nearshore and offshore areas of the marine environment in the United States have been
                  degraded due to the input of toxic materials associated with human activities. Such inputs
                  have resulted in the loss of important commercial and recreational fisheries due to mortality
                  and a variety of sublethal effects. Toxic contamination of fishery resources has led to the
                  closure of fisheries in several nearshore areas of the United States, including the closure of
                  the striped bass fisheries in New York and Rhode Island and the closure of New Bedford
                  Harbor to finfishing and shellfishing. For these reasons, understanding the sources, fates, and
                  effects of toxic materials entering the marine environment as a result of human activities is
                  one of the six goals of the National Marine Pollution Program.

                                                                       28

                                                                                                   Toxic Materials

                                                        Goal Definition

                  Discharges and nonpoint source inputs of toxic materials into marine waters have resulted
             in elevated concentrations of these contaminants in the water column, sediments, and living
             marine resources in all regions of the country. This has raised concern as to the potential
             impacts of toxic materials to marine ecosystems and human health. Of particular concern are
             coastal and estuarine areas which serve as spawning and nursery grounds for many important
             commercial and recreational finfish and shellfish species. These are also the areas where the
             majority of pipeline discharges of wastes occur and which eventually receive toxic materials
             from nonpoint and upstream sources. For purposes of this chapter, toxics, toxicant, toxic
             agent, and toxic compound are defined according to Rand and Petrocelli (1984) as "...material
             capable of producing an adverse response (effect) in a biological system, seriously injuring
             structure or function or producing death." Toxicity must be expressed in terms of
             concentration and duration of exposure (where possible) and in relation to a specific system in
             order to be meaningful to resource managers and others. Pathogens have been excluded from
             this discussion, but are addressed in another section of this Plan.

                  A variety of groups and agencies have identified individual chemicals or groups of
             compounds as potential problems when present in the marine environment. Of these
             compounds, some may be highly toxic while others, perhaps not quite so toxic, may still
             represent a high research priority if major information gaps exist with respect to their
             sources, fates, and effects. Table 3 is a list of pollutants that are known to have an impact
             on marine environments and that may require additional research. Compounds are presented
             by groups in the table since there is considerable overlap within each group in aspects of the
             sources, fates, and effects and, in several instances, their physical/chemical behaviors.

                  Toxic materials enter the marine environment directly by the intentional or unintentional
             release of wastes, either through dumping or pipeline discharges, and from nonpoint sources,
             such as rural and urban runoff and atmospheric deposition. Industrial and municipal plant
             discharges and nonpoint runoff into rivers that subsequently empty into estuaries and coastal
             waters can also contribute significantly to the pollution problems of these areas. Nationally,
             the largest quantities of toxic materials enter the marine environment from municipal and
             industrial pipeline discharges. Industrial discharges are the primary source of many organic
             chemicals and some metals (OTA, 1987); however, many other types of toxic materials are
             introduced from municipal point sources and nonpoint sources. The quantities of toxic
             materials in municipal effluents and sludges depend primarily on the nature of any industrial
             discharges to municipal treatment plants and the degree of treatment used. Rural and urban
             runoff are important contributors of toxic pollutants to marine waters in all parts of the
             country and often include large quantities of oil and grease, some metals, and pesticides
             (including chlorinated hydrocarbons). The atmosphere also plays a major role in the transport
             of some toxics into aquatic systems. Because of substantial reductions in PCB inputs from
             point sources, it is now estimated that over 50% of the PCBs entering the Great Lakes come
             from the atmosphere. PAHs, dioxins, other halogenated hydrocarbons, and metals such as lead,
             cadmium, and mercury also reach aquatic environments through the atmosphere (GLWQB, 1987;
             EPA, 1987; Crecelius, 1982; Yeats and Bewers, 1987).

                  The relative contribution of toxic materials to the environment from each of these
             sources varies from one region of the country to the next. Local and regional contributions
             from these sources are dependent on such factors as:

                                                              29

                   GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                      Table 3. Toxic Chemicals of Concern in Marine Environments

                                  A. Halogenated compounds (excluding pesticides)
                                     1. Brominated dioxins
                                     2. Dioxins
                                     3. Hexach loro benzene
                                     4. PCBs
                                     5. Trichlorobenzene
                                     6. Trichlorophenol

                                  B. Polycyclic compounds
                                     1. Nitrogen-containing heterocyclic compounds
                                     2. PAHs (including benzofurans, benzopyrenes, phenanthrene)

                                  C. Metals
                                     1. Alkylated lead
                                     2. Antimony
                                     3. Arsenic
                                     4. Cadmium
                                     5. Copper
                                     6. Mercury
                                     7. Selenium
                                     8. Tributyltin (and other organotins)

                                  D. Pesticides
                                     1. DDT and metabolites
                                     2. Dieldrin
                                     3. Diflubenzuron (Dimilin)
                                     4. Methoxychlor
                                     5. Mirex
                                     6. Oxygen analogs of organophosphates
                                     7.Toxaphene
                                     8. Molting hormones

                                  E. Others
                                     1. Azo compounds
                                     2. DEHP
                                     3. Diphenyl ethers
                                     4. Terphenyls

                                                                          30

                                                                                                   Toxic Materials

                   o Type of industrial development;

                   o Nature of industrial discharges to municipal sewage treatment plants;

                   o Relative amounts of urban and agricultural runoff,

                   o Extent of combined sewer overflows; and

                   o Climatic factors (OTA, 1987).

                   High concentrations of toxic material in the marine environment have been identified as
             causing problems in all coastal regions of the country. Examples of the concentrations of
             DDT residues, aromatic hydrocarbons, and PCBs in the sediments of selected estuaries along
             the continental U.S. coast are presented in Figure 7. The nature, longevity, and severity of
             the impacts resulting from inputs of toxic materials varies among water bodies and is a
             reflection of the physical characteristics of the water body, the extent and types of disposal
             taking place, and the types and values of marine resources present (OTA, 1987). Some
             examples of severely impacted areas of the country, as evidenced by losses and changes of
             biomass, compromised fish health, or elevated levels of toxic substances, include Puget Sound,
             San Francisco Bay, and southern California on the west coast; portions of the Chesapeake Bay,
             Boston Harbor, New York Bight, Hudson-Raritan Estuary, and Buzzards Bay on the east coast;
             the Mississippi Sound and other areas in the northern Gulf of Mexico; and the Great Lakes.

                   Within Puget Sound, Elliott Bay has been identified as one of the most contaminated
             sites. Elevated concentrations of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, PCBs, and some metals
             have been found in Elliott Bay sediments. Elevated concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbon
             metabolites in fish bile and PCBs in English sole livers were also found in the bay (McCain et
             al., 1988). Relatively high incidences of hepatic neoplasms in English sole and fin erosion in
             English sole and starry flounder have also been reported in Elliott Bay (Malins et al., 1984;
             Wellings et al., 1976; Malins et al., 1982; McCain et al., 1982; 1983). In San Francisco Bay, a
             variety of activities including municipal and industrial discharges@ have severely affected
             conditions in the bay. Organisms in the area have been exposed to elevated concentrations of
             metals, PCBs, DDT, and other toxic materials. Liver lesions (including neoplasms) have been
             detected in one or more fish species from the area. Evidence of impaired reproductive success
             in flatfish species related to pollutant exposure has also been obtained from studies conducted
             in the bay (McCain et al., 1988). In southern California, elevated concentrations of aromatic
             hydrocarbons and DDT have been detected in bottom sediments and in stomach contents and
             livers (for DDT derivatives) in fish, and are suspected of being responsible for various diseases
             (liver lesions and fin erosion) in fish in the area (Malins et al., 1986; 1987; 1988).

                   Toxic organic chemicals and metals enter the Chesapeake Bay from industrial and
             municipal pipelines and agricultural and urban runoff. Contamination of sediments and
             organisms by these pollutants is severe near Baltimore Harbor; other areas of the bay, such as
             the Elizabeth River in Virginia, also show evidence of contamination from toxic materials
             (EPA, 1983). PAHs were the most prominent organic contaminant detected in both the
             Maryland and Virginia portions of the bay. Elevated concentrations of PCBs and some trace
             metals have also been found in Baltimore Harbor sediments. Occurrences of lesions in fish
             have been correlated with concentrations of total PAHs in sediments of the bay (CBP, 1987).
             In Boston Harbor, high concentrations of environmental contaminants (aromatic hydrocarbons
             and PCBs) have been found in bottom sediments and in winter flounder (Zdanowicz et al.,
             1986). Murchelano and Wolke (1985) reported liver neoplasms in 8% of the winter flounder in

                                                               31

                           GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                         Elliott Bay
                                            Commencement Bay @4j
                                       Columbia River Mouth.
                                                                                                                                                                                 Machias Bay
                                                                                                                                                                               Casco Bay
                                                                                                                                                                              Merrimack River
                                                                                                                                                                              Salem Harbor
                                                                                                                                                                              Boston Harbor
                                                                                                                                                                           'Buzzard's Bay
                                                                                                                                                                          Narrangansett Bay
                                                                                                                                                                        West Long Island Sound
                                                                                                                                                                        Raritan Bay
                                       Southampton Shoall                                                                                                              Delaware Bay
                                                Hunter's Point                                                                                                        Lower Chesapeake Bay
                                                   Oakland

                                                                                                                                                                        Pamlice Sound

                                                Santa Monica Bay
                                                Sall Pedro Canyon                                                                                            4- Charleston Harbor
                                                         SealBeach
                                                   San Diego Harborl@

                                                                                                                                                               St. John's River

                                                                                                                                              0

                                                                                                               AROMATIC                               CHLOROBIPHENYLS
                                                                     DDT RESIDUES                         HYDROCARBONS                                         (PCBs)
                                                   Casco Bay                                                                       M 7315
                                            Merrimack River
                                                Salem Harbor                                                                             10,224                                    10534        17,105
                                                Boston Harbor                                       210                                    26,4
                                                Buzzard's Bay                                                                                                                        308
                                            Narragansett Bay
                                 West Long Island Sound                                                                                  8431
                                                   Raritan Bay                               N 31                                  5011                                               444
                                                Delaware Bay
                                   Lower Chesapeake Bay
                                                Pamlico Sound
                                          Charleston Harbor
                                                St. John's River
                                            Apalachicola Bay
                                                   Mobile Bay
                                    Mississippi River Delta
                                          San Diego Harbor                                                                                                                     =0422
                                                   SealBeach                                 027
                                          San Pedro Canyon                                          621
                                          Santa Monica Bay
                                                Hunter's Point
                                                        Oakland
                                        Southampton Shoal
                                    Columbia River Mouth
                                      Commencement Bay
                                                     Elliott Bay                                                                                                                      330
                                                                   0 2 4 6 8 10                          0 10 1P0 1?0, 70, 1100.                     0       100       200       300
                                                                                                               00 00 00 00 0
                                                               (ng/g (ppb) - dry weight)              (ng/g (ppb) - dry weight)                     (ng/g (ppb) - dry weight)

                               Figure 7. Concentrations of Toxic Materials in Estuarine Sediments (NOAA, 1984)

                                                                                                                     32

                                                                                                        Toxic Materials

               the area. A variety of chemical pollutants, including mercury, cadmium, PCBs, DDT and its
               metabolites, and petroleum hydrocarbons, has been found in elevated concentration in
               organisms, sediments, and waters of the New York Bight. High incidences of fin erosion, shell
               disease, and black gill disease have also been reported in fish and shellfish from the area
               (Murchelano, 1982). The Hudson-Raritan Estuary has been subject to serious industrial
               pollution problems during the past 100 years that have contributed to reduced diversity and
               abundance of living marine resources in the area. In addition, several commercially and
               recreationally important fisheries in the estuary have been closed due to chemical
               contamination of fish tissues (e.g., PCB and dioxin contamination) (Panel on Water Quality of
               the Hudson-Raritan Estuary, 1987). The New Bedford area of Buzzards Bay has been
               contaminated by a number of toxic chemicals, including PCBs, which has resulted in a high
               incidence of disease in lobsters and the closure of more than 18,000 acres of its coastal
               waters to fishing (EPA, 1986).

                     In the Mississippi Sound of the Gulf of Mexico, high levels of metals and organic
               chemicals have been found in the Pascagoula River and Biloxi Bay. Levels of chlorinated
               hydrocarbons have been identified as an especially significant problem in the area. Along
               other areas of the northern Gulf of Mexico coast, chlorinated hydrocarbons and other
               chemicals are introduced from the Mississippi and other rivers draining into the Gulf and from
               discharges associated primarily with refineries and the petrochemical industry. Dredging and
               disposal of contaminated sediments may release certain chemical constituents into the water
               column under certain conditions. The impacts of these discharges are usually localized but
               can be serious in highly developed areas such as Galveston Bay (Overstreet, 1987; King and
               Cromartie, 1986).

                     In the Great Lakes, persistent -toxic substances have been identified as one of the major
               environmental issues confronting the region (QLWQB, 1987). Toxic pollutants of primary
               concern in one or more of the lakes include PCBs1 DDT and metabolites, mirex, other organic
               chemicals, and some metals such as mercury and alkylated lead. Elevated concentrations of
               these contaminants have been found in the water, sediments, fish, and waterfowl.

                     Determining whether a toxic contaminant causes an adverse effect on living marine
               resources depends on the interaction of many chemical and biological factors, including
               bioavailability, concentration, length of exposure, and stage in the organism's life cycle.
               Determining the cause and effect relationships in marine biota can be difficult because
               changes can result not only from exposure to toxic materials, but also from natural
               perturbations, fishing, and other human-induced activities (OTA, 1987). Even when the
               presence of a toxic material shows evidence of a correlation with an impact, the ultimate
               source of the material may be unclear, and impacts may not be observed for years after
               exposure.

                     Impacts resulting from exposure to toxic materials have been documented in seabirds,
               marine mammals, and marine finfish and shellfish. Potential sublethal impacts of toxic
               materials on birds and marine mammals include indirect effects, such as altered habitats or
               food supplies, and direct effects from the ingestion of highly contaminated food, which has
               been reported to cause reproductive impairment in waterfowl and sea lions (OTA, 1987). If
               some toxic chemicals are present in sufficient concentrations, they can kill finfish and
               shellfish. One suspected cause of mortality in these instances is the crippling of the
               organism's nervous system. Sublethal impacts on finfish and shellfish include morphological,
               behavioral, physiological, and biochemical changes, and diseases. Fish exposed to elevated
               concentrations of some toxic materials have been shown to eat fewer or different organisms,

                                                                   33

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

               .be less active, and grow more slowly (OTA, 1987). A variety of behavioral changes, such as
                modifications of feeding behavior, burrowing activity, and tail flipping, have been reported as
                responses to toxics by the lobster Homarus americanus (Atema and Stein, 1974; Atema et al.,
                1979). Exposure to toxic chemicals has also been correlated with physiological impairment,
                immune deficiency, fin erosion, cataracts, ulcers, shell disease or erosion, tumors, internal
                lesions, and skeletal abnormalities. Finfish and shellfish species may also be less resistant to
                certain infections or suffer impaired reproduction. Some of these effects may eventually
                result in the organism's death (OTA, 1987). A summary of possible effects in the life cycle of
                a single species is shown for the winter flounder in Figure 8.

                                  GENETIC ABNORMALITIES
                                  AND DEATH OF EARLY EMBRYOS

                                                          ABNORMALITIES (FIN ROT,
                                                          SKELETAL ABNORMALITIES,
                                                          TUMORS) AND GROWTH
                                                          RETARDATION IN JUVENILES

                                                                             ABNORMALITIES AND
                                                                             REPRODUCTIVE FAILURE
                                                                             IN ADULTS

                         DEATH OR ABNORMAL
                         DEVELOPMENT OF
                         LARVAE

                  Figure 8. Some Possible Effects of Contaminants on Life Cycle Stages of the Winter
                            Flounder (from Sindermann et al., 1980).

                     Probably the most important sublethal changes that result from exposure to toxicants are
                those that relate to an organism's growth and survival, thus ifs potential ability to contribute
                to the population gene pool (Capuzzo and Kester, 1987). These authors suggest that
                particularly sensitive responses that may cause population effects include biochemical responses
                that relate to energy metabolism and cell membrane function and those physiological responses
                that influence energy available for growth.

                                                                34

                                                                                                         Toxic Materials

                     Federal and state pollution control programs have resulted in reductions of some
               pollutants in'industrial and municipal discharges, and in many regions of the country the
               situation for some toxic contaminants 1as improved. However, due, to the rapid urban and
               industrial growth that is occurring' in many coastal areas of the country, the number of
               municipal and industrial dischargers is likely to increase. 'In addition, although direct
               discharges of some wastes through- ]pipelines and dumping'are coming under increased control,
               nonpoint sources of toxic chemicals through runoff 'and - atmospheric deposition rem' ain as
               serious problems.

                                                              Federal Role

                     This section discusses the Federal legislation, regulations, and programs  that address the
               issue of sources, fates, and effects of toxic substances in the marine environment. Additional
               discussions of Federal programs. related to specific information needs are presented in the
               management questions section," whi  ch follows this review of the Federal role. More detailed
               information on the Federal programs and projects that address the issue of toxic chemicals in
               the marine environment can be fou-nd.in the National Marine Pollution Program, Summary of
               Federal Programs and Projects (NOAA,      1 987)@

                                                  Federal Legislation and Regulations

                     A number of Federal statutes address the problem of toxics in the    marine environment.
               Those that are most relevant include the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, the Water
               Quality Act, the Coastal Zone Management Act, and the Marine Protection, Research, and
               Sanctuaries Act. These laws and their ensuing regulations are primarily directed towards
               prevention and control of toxics, resource management, and research and monitoring activities.
               Assignment of specific responsibilities to the various agencies within the Federal Government
               is expressed in each piece of legislation and is dependent upon the stated mission of the
               particular agency.

                     The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, also known as the Clean Water Act (CWA),
               establishes provisions for prevention and control of pollutants as well as for research and
               monitoring of toxics in the marine: environment. The EPA is authorized to develop regulations
               designating which compounds are hazardous when discharged into waters and to issue permits
               for the discharge of municipal and industrial wastes when specified criteria are met. In
               addition, EPA is directed to set up a monitoring program to determine harmful effects of
               marine pollutants, and to establish field laboratories for the purpose of conducting research
               into the prevention, reduction, and elimination, of pollution.

                     The Water Quality Act of 1986 amends the CWA and        builds upon its established
               framework of compliance controls and research and monitoring programs.        It establishes special
               treatment requirements for publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) and discontinues the
               permitting of discharges into the New York Bight Apex. The EPA is directed to set up
               research and monitoring stations, including a monitoring station off the California coast,
               designed to study the effects of sewage sludge on the marine environment. The CWA
               amendments also allow for the continuance of the Chesapeake Bay Program in order to
               determine the environmental quality of the bay, coordinate "efforts to improve water quality,
               and to determine the impact of natural and manmade environmental changes on the resources

                                                                   35

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                 of the bay. An estuarine management program is to be established for the purpose of
                 developing comprehensive conservation and management plans which recommend priority
                 corrective actions and compliance schedules addressing point and nonpoint sources of pollution.

                      The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) authorizes the Federal Government to make
                 grants to states for assistance in the development of a management program for water
                 resources, as well as for the acquisition and development of estuarine sanctuaries. The CZMA
                 also entrusts the Federal Government with establishing policy regarding the coastal zone.

                      The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act includes provisions for site
                 designations, permit issuance, and research and monitoring. The Act provides for the
                 initiation of a monitoring program to assess the effects of dumping in ocean and coastal
                 waters and mandates a research program investigating the long-range effects of pollution on
                 the ocean ecosystem.

                      Several other Federal statutes contain provisions relating to toxics in the marine
                 environment. The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act calls for investigations into the impact
                 of domestic sewage sludge and other wastes on wildlife, including a determination of water
                 quality standards for the maintenance of wildlife and an investigation into methods for
                 pollution abatement. The Fishery Conservation and Management Act requires a comprehensive
                 fishery research program, including an analysis of the impact of pollution on fish, wetlands,
                 and estuarine degradation.

                                                            Federal Programs

                      A number of Federal agencies have missions that include understanding the sources,
                 fates, and effects of toxic materials entering the marine environment as a result of human
                 activities. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) under the U.S.
                 Department of Commerce, and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) share the primary
                 responsibility for monitoring and controlling toxics and the marine environment. Other
                 Federal agencies with programs directed toward the abatement of toxic materials include the
                 U.S. Department of Transportation, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Department of Health
                 and Human Services, U.S. Department of Energy, U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Department
                 of Agriculture, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and National Science
                 Foundation.

                      NOAA provides a focus to address the problems of the oceans and atmosphere in a
                 unified manner. An important part of its mission is related to marine pollution and a balanced
                 management of marine resources. Specifically, NOAA is charged with establishing a
                 comprehensive ocean pollution research, development, and monitoring program and with
                 ensuring that the results are disseminated in a timely manner and in a useful form to. the
                 Federal Government. NOAA also directs efforts toward the research of long-range effects of
                 pollution. Its various program functions include living marine resources management and
                 protection, which take into consideration the environmental impacts of resources and
                 development activities and existing and potential ocean pollution conditions of living resources.
                 NOAA also cooperates with other agencies such as EPA and FDA to achieve mission-related
                 goals.

                                                                    36

                                                                                                        Toxic Materials

                    The EPA conducts a number of ocean pollution and Great Lakes research activities that
               include marine disposal research, energy-related research, and water quality research. Ocean
               pollution research is conducted at EPA labs at four locations across the country (Narragansett,
               Newport, Gulf Breeze, and Grosse Isle) and aboard two research vessels (Peter Anderson and
               Roger Simons). The EPA is responsible for regulating waste disposal activities including
               sewage sludge and industrial wastes, discharges through ocean outfalls, and ocean incineration.
               The EPA's water quality research establishes limits on specific substances found in the marine
               environment. Research is carried out on priority pollutants, toxic substances, and pesticides.

                    The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human
               Services conducts regulatory and research activities to assure that seafoods are safe for
               human consumption. The FDA and NOAA conduct considerable joint research under a
               Research Memorandum of Understanding, including research on metal contamination, and the
               FDA was a major participant in the recent study on PCB contamination of bluefish.

                    The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, under the U.S. Department of Defense, monitors how
               the construction, operation, and maintenance of water resources projects impact on the
               environment and water quality standards. The Corps specifically monitors erosion rates and
               the long-term effects of dredging operations, including bioaccumulation and biomagnification.

                    The major research activity conducted by the U.S. Department of the Navy that relates
               to toxics in the marine environment centers on the environmental and health effects of hull
               antifouling systems. The Navy is currently researching the development of a system to
               detoxify organotin hull coatings and paint removal debris. The research includes studies of
               short- and long-term environmental effects of organotin compounds.

                    The Effects of Agricultural Practices Program under the U.S. Department of Agriculture
               (USDA) investigates pollution problems caused by soil erosion; agricultural runoff, agricultural
               waste disposal; offsite and downstream effects of sediment, nutrients, and pesticides; transport
               and transformation of pollutants; and effects on organisms and ecosystems. The USDA funds
               research contracts and grants through cooperation with states and universities. The
               Department is currently sponsoring research investigating diurnal and seasonal patterns in
               streams channelized to promote drainage to improve agricultural production. The research is
               specifically looking at copper, iron, lead, and other metals that may be applicable to estuarine
               pollution.

                    The National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS), under the U.S.
               Department of Health and Human Services, supports marine pollution related research,
               including studies of aquatic organisms from polluted waters as early indicators of pollution and
               studies using aquatic organisms as experimental models for specific diseases.

                    Several other agencies maintain programs that are related to toxics in the marine
               environment. For example, the U.S. Department of the Interior is charged with protecting
               marine organisms while developing mineral resources. The U.S. Department of Transportation
               through the U.S. Coast Guard focuses on reducing the potential for pollution and ensures that
               effective countermeasures and cleanup operations are conducted for accidental discharges.

                                                                   37

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                              Management Ouestions and Information Needs

                       Toxicants introduced into the marine environment enter biogeochemical cycles in
                 operation within the environment and can adversely affect living resources. There are
                 linkages among sources of toxicants, their transport through the system, and their ultimate
                 fate to potential toxic effects within and on the system. Movement, fate, and effects of
                 toxicants in marine ecosystems can be complex because, as toxicants move through the
                 systems, they can impact the biota and adversely alter the system. Conversely, the "system"
                 can alter toxicants through physicochemical and biological actions and render the toxicant
                 more or less toxic. For example, some metals can be methylated, which results in a more
                 toxic form, and some organics can be dechlorinated, which results in a less toxic form.

                       Sources of toxic materials to marine ecosystems include rivers and streams, shoreline
                 erosion, point and nonpoint sources, and atmospheric deposition. We probably know the most
                 about materials entering from rivers and streams (through NPDES and other regulatory
                 mechanisms), and the least about atmospheric deposition. For this reason, atmospheric sources
                 are discussed in some detail under Management Question 1.

                       The transport and fate of toxicants in marine ecosystems are dependent upon factors
                 including biological, chemical, and physical characteristics of the toxicant and the ecosystem.
                 For example, a nonpolar organic toxicant may be readily adsorbed onto particulate and detrital
                 matter, and chelated or complexed metals may be more readily adsorbed than other metal
                 species. Toxicants adsorbed onto deep-layered sediments may become more available for
                 exchange and bioaccumulation when the sediment is resuspended by bioturbation or episodic
                 events such as storm surges that scour the bottom.

                       If one is to predict the impact of a toxicant on marine resources, it is necessary to
                 know as much as possible about the routes by which the toxicant moves through the system,
                 the rates at which it moves, the reservoirs and residence times in them, the transformations
                 of the toxicant, as well as the toxicity of the toxicant to the system or components of the
                 system. Thus, it is important to discuss the sources and loading rates of toxicants, the
                 mechanisms that control their transport and availability, and their effects on organisms and
                 populations.

                       The management questions and information needs discussed in this section focus on these
                 most important aspects of toxic substances in the marine environment. The three management
                 questions listed below represented management information needs related to the goal of
                 understanding the sources, fates, and effects of toxic materials entering the marine
                 environment as a result of human activities.

                 Management Question 1: What are the sources and loading rates of toxic contaminants in the
                 marine environment?

                 Management Question 2: What are the mechanisms that influence exposure patterns and
                 bioavailability of toxic contaminants in the marine environment?

                 Management Question 3: What are the effects of toxic contaminants on marine organisms and
                 populations?

                 This section will include a discussion of the rationale, current efforts, and additional work
                 associated with the information needs for'each management question.

                                                                     38

                                                                                                 Toxic Materials

                                                 Sources and Loading Rates

            Manatzement Ouesiion 1: What are the sources and loading rates of toxic contaminants in the
            marine environment?

            Information Needs

                  Ia. What is thei relative contribution of toxic substances to the marine environment from
                      the atmosphere?

                  lb. What is the relative significance of seasonal activities and stormevents in toxic
                      substance loadings?

            Ia. What is the relative contribution of toxic substances to the marine environment from the
            atmosphere?

                  To develop mass budgets of toxicants entering the environment, we have become
            increasingly aware of the role of the atmosphere in transport of contaminants to the marine
            environment. An overall management program for toxic materials in the marine environment
            must include an evaluation of this source because it can be a predominant transport
            mechanism for some toxic material in some areas.

                  The atmosphere can be a significant source of PAHs, PCBs, some metals such as lead,
            zinc, mercury, and cadmium, as well as other toxic substances in aquatic systems (EPA, 1987;
            GLWQB, 1987; Crecelius, 1982). Atmospheric deposition of some metals has been estimated for
            the Chesapeake Bay (Bieri et al., 1982) and Delaware Bay (Church et al., 1984). While
            measured atmospheric loadings for these metals were not large compared to other sources,
            they were significant, especially in remote areas away from industry and other concentrated
            sources. In some coastal areas, such as the Southern California Bight, measurements show
            that up to one-half of the PAHs and particulate metals entering the water came from direct
            atmospheric deposition. In studies of the New York Bight, mussels and polychaetes appeared
            to contain a hydrocarbon distribution much more indicative of spilled petroleum origin, while
            the sediment contained a mixture of petroleum and pyrogenic source PAHs which may have
            been transported via the atmosphere (Wakeharn and Farrington, 1980; NRC, 1985). In the
            Great Lakes, it has been estimated that greater than 50% of the loading of PCBs to the lakes
            occurs through the atmosphere (GLWQB, 1987). The atmosphere may also be a significant
            source of other toxic materials to the. Great Lakes, such as metals (lead, mercury, cadmium,
            and arsenic) and PAHs.

                  Atmospheric inputs of toxic chemicals are even more significant in open ocean areas that
            are far away from point source discharges and runoff to coastal waters. The significance of
            atmospheric inputs of lead to the surface waters of the oceans is shown in profiles for lead in
            the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Schaule and Patterson, 1983). A larger industrial lead input
            via the atmosphere results in surface water lead values in the Atlantic that are two to three
            times higher than in the Pacific. Crecelius (1982) estimated that 96% of the lead in the
            surface 0-100 meters of the open ocean area is transported via the atmosphere, whereas only
            about 10% of the chromium and nickel delivered to the oceans are carried by the atmosphere.
            Yeats and Bewers (1987) estimate that one-third of dissolved cadmium delivered to the oceans
            is transported via the atmosphere; the remaining two-thirds is carried by rivers. Overall,

                                                              39

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  these authors estimate that about 10% of the total cadmium transport to the oceans
                  (particulate plus dissolved) is via the atmosphere; however, they state that the "...literature is
                  replete with measurements of cadmium in atmospheric precipitation."

                       Current Federal activities addressing the issue of atmospheric deposition of toxic
                  substances to the marine environment are being conducted by EPA, NOAA, and the National
                  Science Foundation (NSF). The EPA Great Lakes Research Office developed GLAD (Great
                  Lakes Atmospheric Deposition Network), a program to determine the loading of metals and
                  nutrients from the atmosphere to the Great Lakes. Samples were also analyzed for trace
                  organics such as PAHs, halogenated hydrocarbons, and organophosphate pesticides. Included in
                  the program is the development of a sampler capable of collecting atmospheric precipitation
                  samples throughout the year. NOAA has supported two programs evaluating atmospheric
                  transport in Wisconsin to determine the volatilization of PAHs and halogenated hydrocarbons
                  to Green Bay. One program is an evaluation of the persistence of these toxics within an
                  aqueous system, while the other is the development of an overall fate assessment model which
                  includes volatilization. Another study supported by NOAA estimated the volatilities of
                  indosulfan, fenvalonite, and other pesticides commonly used in South Carolina. NOAA, under
                  the Marine Ecosystems Analysis New York Bight Project, also supported research investigating
                  major nonpoint source contributions, including atmospheric inputs, to the New York Bight.
                  The NSF funded research related to atmospheric deposition in remote areas of the Pacific
                  Ocean through the SEAREX (Sea-AiT Exchange) project.

                       Up to this point, Federal programs directly addressing atmospheric transport have focused
                  primarily on freshwater (Great Lakes) systems, and this work is far from complete. These
                  efforts should continue until sufficient data are collected and the models are fully developed
                  and verified. Similar programs for the marine environment are needed and should be initiated
                  in several major estuaries. There has yet to be a well -constrained study of the relative
                  amounts of some toxic contaminants, such as PAH, contributed to coastal and open ocean
                  waters of the United States by riverine inputs, sewage effluents, atmospheric inputs, and other
                  sources (Farrington, 1988). If one were to model the overall fate of toxicants in aquatic
                  systems,and develop appropriate abatement procedures, further information on the relative
                  contribution of toxics via the atmosphere and a better understanding of the processes involved
                  would be needed.

                       The collection of additional monitoring data will help quantify atmospheric inputs.
                  Sediment profiles on the continental shelf should be examined for the relative contributions of
                  atmospheric (combustion -derived) and petroleum- derived PAHs. In addition to differences in
                  the chemical fingerprints of the toxicants, carefully chosen transect stations will help to
                  discriminate sources. Direct measurements of PAHs, halogenated hydrocarbons, and cadmium,
                  mercury, and lead should be made in surface seawater and in air samples taken over the ocean
                  downwind from industrial and urban centers and at remote sites to help separate large-scale
                  (global or continental) contaminant Problems from local sources. Measurements of stable lead
                  isotopes in surface seawater should be made to help fingerprint sources. Measurements should
                  also be taken in the sea surface microlayer.

                                                                   40

                                                                                                        Toxic Materials

               lb. What is the relative significance of seasonal activities and storm events in toxic
               substance loading?

                     Agricultural applications of pesticides are practiced intensively during the spring and
               summer months, coincident with the spawning and early life growth of many marine species.
               A number of important resource species such as striped bass, shad, and salmon move up
               estuaries to brackish and freshwater areas to spawn. The proximity of these smaller streams
               to agricultural lands maximizes the exposure of adults and, more importantly, the more
               sensitive eggs and larvae to pesticides in runoff. In addition, excessive runoff due to the
               spring thaw tends to bring higher surficial sediment loads with adsorbed toxics from both
               urban and nonurban sources into the marine environment at critical times.

                     Frequently, mass balance budgets are calculated on an annual basis and loading models
               that predict the routes, rates, and reservoirs of chemicals in the marine environment do not
               account for episodic events. Yet it is known that such events can cause great fluctuations in
               the transport of water and suspended particulates and thereby alter salinity and turbidity,
               factors directly and indirectly affecting marine organisms. For example, a resurgence in DDT
               levels in the livers of sea trout from the Texas Gulf Coast was attributed to a storm event
               that resuspended DDT-laden, sediment and other particulate matter and made the chemical more
               available through the food web to the trout (Butler, - 1988). The transport of dissolved and
               particulate trace metals from the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico is greatly influenced
               by seasonal events as well as by long-term practices (Trefry et al., 1985; 1986). Total
               transport of lead and other potentially toxic metals by the Mississippi River is greatest during
               the high suspended- sediment events of the spring melt. However, highest dissolved lead and
               other trace metal levels are frequently observed during the low-flow, summer period. A study
               was conducted of annual suspended- sediment discharges of three U.S. rivers (Juniata River at
               Newport, Pennsylvania; Delaware River at Trenton, New Jersey; and Eel River at Scotia,
               California) to determine the effects of large storm,events on suspended sediment loads (Meade
               and Parker, 1985). Investigators demonstrated that nearly one-half of a year's sediment (and
               associated contaminants) is usually discharged in 3.65 days, and nearly 90% usually is
               discharged in 36.5 days.

                     Federal programs addressing the issue of seasonal activities and episodic events are being
               conducted under NOAA and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). NOAA supports a
               program to evaluate pesticides in storm runoff to Lake Erie. The USDA is involved in studies
               to model the fate of agricultural chemicals in freshwater and marine systems. These types of
               programs could be expanded to include the Chesapeake Bay, Delaware Bay, the Hudson River
               estuary, and other major estuaries that are known to provide spawning and nursery areas. A
               coordinated program to evaluate loading rates and the timing of these with respect to
               biological activity would provide the most valuable information.

                     Some gaps in our knowledge of seasonal and episodic events include lack of information
               on life-histories of estuarine organisms for specific areas, knowledge of pesticide application
               patterns, and the frequency and, severity of past episodic events for specific marine areas. Of
               particular importance is the effectiveness of differing agricultural practices in reducing the
               amounts of nutrients and toxics in runoff entering aquatic systems. A variety of approaches
               could be beneficial, such as the use of riparian zones and chopping and burning for site
               preparation instead of shearing and winnowing to minimize erosion. Streams can be marked
               before spraying and avoided, or at least a strip on either side of each stream left unsprayed.
               Wet weather can be avoided when chemicals are applied. Comparative data on the
               effectiveness of these methods would be useful.

                                                                   41

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                      Pilot studies involving regional monitoring programs would improve our understanding of
                seasonal phenomena and storms. For example, selected streams in the drainage system of a
                major estuary could be monitored more frequently and the mass loading rates of organic
                chemicals under normal and storm conditions compared. A subset of this study would be to
                compare areas where different agricultural practices are used. The National Marine Fisheries
                Service (NOAA) has reliable information on the timing and nature of spawning habits of most
                resource species. Toxicity data on the chemicals could then be factored into an overall
                assessment model to evaluate risk to marine species. The goal of the assessment is to
                determine whether changes in application practices or the timing of application could make a
                significant difference in protecting marine resources. More information on seasonal patterns
                of particulate and dissolved trace metals as well as the chemical speciation of dissolved metals
                as a function of salinity, organic matter, and suspended-sediment concentration would also
                contribute to our understanding of this area.

                                                      Transport and Bioavailability

                Management Ouestion 2: What are the mechanisms that influence exposure patterns and
                bioavailability of toxic contaminants in the marine environment?

                Inf ormation Needs

                      2a. What factors influence the transport and physical fate of toxic contaminants in the
                          marine environment?

                      2b. How do the physico-chemical forms of toxicants affect bioavailability?

                      2c. How do metabolic processes affect uptake and toxicity of contaminants?

                2a. What factors influence the transport and t)hvsical fate of toxic contaminants in the
                marine environment?

                      The transport and physical fate of toxic contaminants is a function of their physico-
                chemical form and their particle- or biological -reactivity in seawater. Many contaminants of
                biological concern, such as PAHs, PCBs, halogenated hydrocarbons, and some trace metals, are
                very particulate- reactive and are frequently associated with particulate matter, The transport
                of particulate-reactive contaminants within coastal areas usually coincides with sediment
                transport processes.

                      Fine-grained particles, such as montmorillonite clays, provide effective surfaces for
                adsorption of material from seawater. Most of the organic contaminants, such as PAHs, have
                low solubilities in water and readily adsorb to particulate matter. However, dissolved organic
                matter has been postulated to increase the solubility of PAHs in seawater (Boehm and Quinn,
                1973). In addition, changes in pH and salinity have been shown to alter the adsorption and
                availability of organic toxics. It is possible to predict the partitioning behavior of many
                nonpolar compounds, including some PAHs, on a range of sorbants if either the compound's
                water solubility or the sorbant's organic content is known (Karickhoff et al., 1979; Means et
                al., 1979).

                                                                   42

                                                                                                      Toxic Materials

                    The physical fate of trace metals in seawater is directly related to their particle- or
              biological- reactivity. Metals such as lead, iron, and thorium are rapidly removed from
              seawater by particles (Salomons and Forstner, 1984). In contrast, the distribution of cadmium,
              zinc, copper, and nickel are linked to nutrient cycles and are controlled by biological
              processes (Bruland, 1980).

                    The transfer of toxic materials to marine biota and man and their effect on ecological
              systems are often dependent on the availability and persistence of toxicants within sediments
              and transport within benthic ecosystems (Capuzzo and McElroy, 1987). There are many
              examples of the accumulation of contaminants from sediment. Recently, NOAA's Status and
              Trends Program reported a statistically significant relationship between the DDT concentration
              in Atlantic croaker livers and the concentration in sediment (NOAA, 1986). These data
              demonstrate only evidence of a relationship and do not show that the concentrations in the
              liver were a result of concentrations in the sediment.

                    Analytical tests can reveal the presence of contaminants, but these tests do not reveal
              the kinetics of sorption1desorption rates that are necessary to model and predict movement.
              Thus, it would be useful to understand and quantify the processes that control the routes,
              rates, and reservoirs of various contaminants released into the marine environment.
              Mechanisms of resuspension and deposition would need to be determined because these factors
              influence availability and thus toxicity of contaminants. Knowledge of the kinetics of
              sorption1desorption is basic to understanding the movement and effects of toxicants in the
              marine environment.

                    Significant advances have been made during the last decade in studies of trace metals in
              the marine environment (e.g., Bruland, 1980; Yeats and Bewers, 1987). However, we still do
              not have adequate techniques to address the following: partitioning of trace metals between
              dissolved and particulate forms, chemical speciation of selected trace metals in seawater, and
              kinetics of regeneration of trace metals in bottom waters or release from sediments.

              2b. How do the vhysico-chemical forms of toxicants affect bioavai I ability?

                    Toxic contaminants entering the marine environment can be adsorbed onto sediments and
              particulate matter, remain in the water column or volatilize, or be accumulated by the biota.
              Their fate depends to a great degree upon the physical/chemical state of the contaminant.
              For example, Lee (1984) points out that the level to which a compound is accumulated by the
              biota is related to the hydrophobic properties of the compound (octanol-water partition
              coefficient). Most risk assessments of the impact of toxicants on marine organisms require
              knowledge of the fate and bioavailability of the toxicant. Models can be developed to predict
              the fate of certain toxicants, and a fundamental requirement in the development of fate
              models is knowledge of the basic physical chemistry of the compounds in question, i.e.,
              solubility in water; vapor pressure; and partitioning between air and water, soil and water, and
              soil and runoff. Toxic chemicals are exposed to a wide range of environmental conditions
              from their source to their eventual fate in the marine environment. In addition to changes
              between phases, such as from soil to air to water to sediment, there are wide variations in
              parameters such as temperature, pH, salinity, and turbidity. These factors affect both the
              partition coefficient and the bioavailability of toxic material.

                                                                 43

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       Numerous laboratory studies have shown that aquatic organisms can accumulate PAHs,
                 PCBs, and halogenated hydrocarbons from the water column, sediments, and their diets (e.g.,
                 Neff, 1979). However, it is also clear from these studies that the bioavailability of toxic
                 material from different sources is not equivalent. It is not sufficient to know the quantity of
                 a contaminant in the marine environment. Proper management also requires an understanding
                 of the form of the chemical and whether it is bioavailable.

                       Accumulation of dissolved PAHs has been well documented in many species, with
                 bioconcentration factors ranging up to 10,000. However, the relative availability of PAHs from
                 the various sources is not clear. It may be that PAHs sorbed to sediments are only available
                 to organisms after undergoing desorption into the dissolved phase (McElroy et al., 1986).
                 However, there will always be a dynamic exchange between PAHs in the solid and dissolved
                 phase. Altering the concentration in either phase (e.g., by uptake) will initiate redistribution
                 of the PAHs between phases. The presence of organic matter in the water often presents a
                 third phase, colloids, whose influence is not easily measured.

                       The influence of colloidal organic matter in interstitial waters of natural sediments has
                 only recently begun to be investigated. Results of investigations on the influence of
                 interstitial colloids on partitioning of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), similar in many
                 properties to PAHs, have shown that observed distributions of most PCBs in pore waters were
                 consistent with a three-phase, solution-colloid 7 solid, equilibrium partitioning model (Brownawell
                 and Farrington, 1985; 1986).

                       The equilibrium concentrations of a toxicant in any two phases, soil/air, air/water,
                 water/sediment, sediment/interstitial water, can be expressed in terms of partition coefficients
                 (Leo et al., 1971; Means et al., 1979). Only a few of these partition coefficients have been
                 determined. Since it is virtually impossible to monitor the constantly changing concentrations
                 of a toxicant in various phases, partition coefficients for the appropriate phases of problem
                 contaminants should be determined. It should then be possible to monitor the concentration
                 of the chemical in a few key phases, and thus assess potential problems with bioaccumulation.

                       The bioavailability of trace metals is governed primarily by their chemical form. Ray and
                 McLeese (1987) modeled the biological cycling of cadmium by considering three reservoirs of
                 available cadmium: water, suspended particles (including plankton), and sediments. However,
                 bioavailability is clearly not related to total metal loading in any of these reservoirs. It is
                 generally agreed that the ionic form of cadmium in seawater is most bioavailable (Ray and
                 McLeese, 1987); however, we still have inadequate direct measurements on the speciation of
                 potentially toxic metals in seawater.

                       Seasonal variation is a major factor in metals concentration data. Data from
                 Narragansett Bay for the period 1975 to 1978 for a single station (monthly samples) showed
                 2- to 4-fold differences in the metals concentrations. In a review of historical metals data
                 for the New England region, Capuzzo and McElroy (1987) concluded that no long-term
                 temporal trends were definable from the combined data because of changes in methodology,
                 irregular sampling on both temporal and spatial scales, and analytical differences.

                       Certain biological compartments such as surface microlayers, sediment-water interfaces,
                 pore waters, and plant root- water- sediment microenvironments (i.e., roots of Thallasia
                 Lestudinum) can be especially important in relation to bioavailability of pollutants because it
                 appears that pollutants can concentrate in these compartments. There is a need to develop
                 new and innovative methods to measure residues of toxic contaminants in such

                                                                      44

                                                                                                        Toxic Materials

               microenvironments, particularly at. the parts per billion (ppb) and parts per trillion (ppt)
               levels. High-resolution techniques are necessary for these areas of the water column and
               sediments because of the typically high concentrations of toxicants found there and their
               importance to sensitive life history stages of many organisms.

                     Research on the physical chemistry of toxic material with respect to bioaccumulation is
               in a very early stage and. is quite incomplete.. There are many toxicants about which very
               little is known in this regard, and fundamental information is lacking for some of the more
               common chemicals. Programs currently established to evaluate toxic materials in the marine
               environment should include basic physical chemistry, especially the interaction of toxicants
               with seawater and particulate organics. The use of partition coefficients to build models of
               toxicant fate should be expanded and these models should address partitioning under various
               environmental conditions. Because of the large number of problem contaminants, individual
               compounds that are known to be primary causes of toxicity in the marine environment should
               be studied first. Overall fate models should be developed with the appropriate
               physicallchemical determinations made where necessary.

               2c. How do metabolic processes affect ut)take and toxicity of contaminants?

                     Chemical compounds introduced into marine ecosystems become part of the biogeochernical
               cycles in operation within the systems and can affect the biota. Recently, emphasis has been
               placed on the fact that biological activity can significantly affect the structure of the
               chemical compounds. Biotransformations, biologically catalyzed conversions of one chemical to
               another, can play a significant role in the bioaccumulation and toxicity of chemicals, and this
               transformation should be differentiated from purely physical/chemical processes (Lech and
               Vodicnik, 1984). Enzymes are the biological catalyst for biotransformations, and these
               transformations can make a compound more soluble, thus possibly more readily excreted by
               organisms. However, metabolism by microorganisms could alter the solubility of compounds in
               the environment, affecting the associations with particles, hence availability. From an
               ecosystem perspective, biotransformations profoundly affect the fate and availability of
               chemicals in the system. Unfortunately, the rates and products of biotransformations are
               presently defined for relatively few chemicals, primarily a limited number of aromatic
               hydrocarbons.

                     The transformation of chemicals has been studied in tissue preparations and in intact
               marine organisms. Enzymes present in the tissues of most types of organisms catalyze the
               transformation of organic chemicals. This transformation is often initiated by oxidative
               enzymes, termed monoxygenases, that incorporate molecular oxygen into the compound, thereby
               changing its structure and its biological activity. This process is central to the accumulation
               and the toxicity of organic toxicants.

                     Two important groups of monoxygenases are the flavoprotein monoxygenases and the
               cytochrome P-450 monoxygenases. In marine systems the cytochrome P-450 system is better
               known. Cytochrome P-450 is known to initiate the transformation of many aromatic
               hydrocarbons, with some products that are toxic or mutagenic. Cytochrome P-450 systems
               have been reviewed by James and Bend (1980), Stegeman (1981), and Stegeman and Kloepper-
               Sams (1987).

                                                                   45

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                      Enzyme systems such as the cytochrome P-450 dependent mixed-function oxidase (MFO)
                system are responsible for initiating metabolism and detoxification of many organic
                contaminants including pesticides and PAHs. The system detoxifies some contaminants'
                reactive toxic metabolites. The mutagenic potential of PAH is known to arise only after
                metabolic activation (Sims and Grover, 1974; Jerina and Daley, 1974). Additional information
                on the mechanisms of toxic action to various species is needed to evaluate the effects on
                marine species and possible human health risk through consumption of contaminated species,
                especially those containing mutagenic metabolites. Different groups of animals have different
                capacities for metabolism of organic and metallic compounds, which can affect the
                accumulation of these compounds in the organisms. Bivalves appear to have little capacity to
                metabolize PAHs and, therefore, accumulate them rapidly. In one instance, when fish and
                bivalves occupied the same contaminated area, concentrations of PAHs were lower in fish than
                in the bivalves.

                      Organisms also have mechanisms for detoxifying metals. Metallothioneins are cysteine-
                rich proteins that can bind metals, primarily copper, cadmium, zinc, and mercury. Exposure to
                metals induces the synthesis of these proteins, which have a finite capacity for metal-binding.
                When this capacity is exceeded, toxicity can result.

                      Pharmacokinetic models are often used as tools to study metabolic processes and how
                transformed chemicals are bioaccumulated. The kinetics of uptake and release of lipophilic
                organic contaminants and the relationship between body burdens and environmental
                concentrations have generally been described by simple (one-compartment) pharmacokinetic
                models, where partitioning between the environment and the organism is assumed to be steady
                state and the organisms are considered to be a single, homogenous unit (OConnor and Pizza,
                1987). The simple models generally assume that uptake is from the water only and that all
                residues belong to a common pool. But residue dynamics are much more complicated than this
                simple model entails, and empirical data often deviate from predicted values. Certain tissue
                levels may in fact be increasing while overall body burdens are declining (O'Connor and Pizza
                1987). In addition, while some studies have shown that an apparent equilibrium concentration
                of a toxic material in tissues may be achieved fairly rapidly (24 to 48 hours), recent studies
                show that total uptake of contaminants continues to increase over longer periods (months) of
                exposure.

                      Bioconcentration patterns appear to be influenced by chemical properties of specific toxic
                compounds. This is reflected in differing uptake potential of various tissues and varying
                distributions of contaminants among different tissues (Widdows et al., 1982; Neff, 1979; Chiow,
                1985; Farrington et al., 1986). These factors can result in differing rates of uptake and
                depuration in various tissues within the same organism.

                      O'Connor and Pizza (1987) suggested that no published data support the hypothesis that
                PCBs accumulated by fishes are metabolized by or eliminated from tissues with rate constants
                directly comparable to values determined for the whole body compartment. Their experimental
                results suggest that this is not the case. Bioconcentration in marine animals, therefore, may
                best be explained through the use of multicompartment models in which distribution between
                different body compartments is considered and bioconcentration is dependent on relative rates
                of uptake and exchange of toxics between body compartments.

                      Microbial transformations can convert some toxic chemicals into even more toxic
                materials or might make material that is more bioavailable less toxic. Microorganisms such as
                bacteria and fungi can utilize different carbon sources and can oxidize some aromatic

                                                                    46

                                                                                                       Toxic Materials

              hydrocarbons completely to carbon dioxide and water and utilize hydrocarbons as a source of
              energy. Thus, microorganisms can transform chemical compounds found in sediment, water,
              and biota. Many studies have documented this capacity to transform chemicals in the marine
              environment. For example, microbial action in one of three types of sediment presumably
              biotransformed 100% of added trichloroethane (TCE) to cis-1,2 dichloroethane in 24 months
              (Barrio-Lange et al., 1987). Reductive dechlorination of TCE occurred in another study where
              residues of polychlorinated biphenyls in sediment and fish from the Hudson River and other
              locations showed changes in gas chromatographic peak distribution indicative of reductive
              dechlorination (Brown et al., 1987). It appears that several different populations of anaerobic
              bacteria dechlorinated with their own distinctive pattern of PCB congener selectivity. The
              apparent capacity of bacterial action to dechlorinate PCBs has ecological ramifications because
              PCBs in sediments normally are not exposed to solar radiation, and thus are not subject to
              dechlorination by photolysis, the only previously documented transformation process. Also,
              bacteria can transform metal species through methylation, which often results in a more
              readily available compound such as the methylations of mercury to methyl mercury. It is this
              form of the metal that is especially toxic to marine life as well as a hazard to human
              consumers of seafood products.

                    Gaps in our knowledge about the relationships between biotransformation products,
              bioaccumulation, and the models to study these processes include a need for more information
              on identity, distribution, and rates of formation of biotransformation reaction products
              (particularly microbial transformations) as well as the toxicity of these products. To date,
              most biotransformation studies have been conducted in vitro; however, these reactions may or
              may not take place to the same extent in whole or intact organisms. Yet, data on identity of
              metabolites in bile suggest that in vitro metabolites are also formed in vivo. Additional
              research on reactive product metabolites, particularly how potential mutagen and carcinogen
              products are accumulated by marine organisms would improve our understanding in this area.
              This latter need could be addressed through studies to evaluate the presence of metabolites
              bound to DNA andlor protein.

                    Also, a lack of analysis of biolransformation products in most monitoring studies can
              result in erroneous conclusions. For example, residue data from a malathion (organo-
              phosphate pesticide) uptake study showed that neither malathion or its oxidative product,
              malaoxon, were detected, but the hydrolysis products malathion mono- and dicarboxyhic acids
              did appear (Cook and Moore, 1976). Most monitoring programs would not have detected these
              transformed hydrolysis products.

                    The use of multicompartment models for studies of transformation and bioaccumulation is
              in the early stages of development. Research efforts on other organic contaminants and a
              variety of commercially important species would be useful. Most of the work to date has been
              based on short-term studies in which equilibria are presumed to occur within 24 to 48 hours.
              New studies should include long-term evaluation of uptake and release of problem toxic
              compounds to more properly reflect actual environmental exposure. Also, to assess the full
              consequences of exposure of marine organisms to toxic compounds, the multicompartment model
              approach should include studies on the fate of toxicants in critical tissues (Capuzzo and
              Farrington, 1988).

                                                                  47

                       GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                                                               Effects

                       Manamement Ouestion 3: What are the effects of toxic contaminants on marine organisms and
                       populations?

                       Information Needs

                               3a. What are the sublethal effects of toxic materials on marine organisms?

                               3b. What are the implications of toxic effects for populations of marine organisms?

                               3c. How do synergism, antagonism, and additivity among chemical species affect toxic
                                      responses?

                       3a. What are the sublethal effects of toxic materials on marine organisms?

                               Resource managers need to recognize and understand the effects of contaminants on
                       marine resources in order to properly manage the resources. In the past, attempts to
                       determine acceptable levels of toxic materials in the marine environment were based mostly on
                       short-term (acute) lethal toxicity tests (LC50, the concentration of a toxicant that will kill
                       50% of test organisms within a given time, usually 96 hours). These tests of lethality still
                       provide important comparative information and are useful as first-level screening tests in
                       hierarchical testing protocol. However, those interested in managing living resources need
                       information on the impact of toxicants before the plants and animals of interest are killed in
                       order to interdict on behalf of the environment. This requires a knowledge of sublethal
                       effects because organisms may be impaired long before lethality levels are reached. Sublethal
                       responses to toxic pollution may occur at all levels of biological organization, as indicated in
                       Table 4 (Capuzzo and Kester, 1987), and it is important to understand the early warning signs
                       of stress at each level of organization before compensating or adaptive mechanisms fail
                       (Capuzzo, 1981).

                        Table 4. Sublethal Responses to Toxic Pollution at Various Biological Levels of Organization
                                        (Capuzzo and Kester, 1987)

                       Subcellular                     Cellular/Tissue                 Organismic                   Population                      Community

                       Cytochemical and                Cellular                        Physiological                Changes in                      Changes in
                       Biochemical                     and Tissue                      and Behavioral               Population                      Community
                       Responses                       Responses                       Responses                    Structure and                   Structure and
                                                                                                                    Function                        Function

                       Lysosomal latency               Gametogenic cycle               Respiration                  Biomass                         Biomass
                       Enzyme activity                 Nutrient storage                Feeding                      Productivity                    Species abundance
                       Maximum metabolic flux          Deformity                       Excretion                    Age and size structure          Species distribution
                       Energy charge                   Neoplasms and tumors            Growth                       Mortality                       Species diversity
                       Amino acid labels                                               Fecundity                                                    Trophic interactions
                       Blood chemistry                                                 Reproductive effort                                          Energy flow
                       Chromosomal abnormalities                                       Larval viability                                             Spatial variability
                       Metallothioneins                                                Swimming                                                     Temporal variability
                       Mixed function oxygenases

                                                                                                     48

                                                                                                   Toxic Materials

                  Various tests designed to measure sublethal effects at the different biological levels of
             organization are summarized by Phelps et al. (1987) and include tests to measure the adenylate
             energy charge (AEC) in mussels as an indication of the amount of energy available from the
             adenylate pool; sister chromatid exchange (SCE) in polychaete worms as a measure of the
             interchange of DNA replication products between the arms of a chromosome; gill respirometry
             to evaluate the rate of change in the condition of fish and bivalves; "scope - for- growth," a
             physiological index of the amount of energy an organism has available for growth; and various
             tests for survival, growth, and fecundity.

                  Future biomonitoring for responses to toxic materials at the population and community
             levels will require some new techniques which allow measurements of effects in several
             phylogenetic groups. These new techniques should include tools to allow for unambiguous
             identification of effects that cannot be the result of fluctuations in environmental variables.
             Among these responses are proposed studies of the induction and fundamental biochemistry of
             metal-binding proteins, including metallothioneins (Jenkins and Sanders, 1986), the use of
             invertebrate bioindicator species to study these proteins, indicators and activation potential of
             P-450 enzyme complexes, as well as adaptation and validations of short-term genotoxicity tests
             in fish (Means, 1988).

                  Sublethal effects of toxicants on bottom-dwelling organisms are of special interest
             because sediments often act as reservoirs for many toxicants. Recent work at EPA research
             laboratories in Newport, Oregon, and Narragansett, Rhode Island, has resulted in the
             development of a sediment bioassay using the benthic amphipods, Rhexopynius and Ampelisca.
             These tests are 10 days in duration and are more realistic since the animals are placed in
             containers with sediment -- either natural sediment or sediment from contaminated areas. The
             animals burrow into the sediment as they do in the natural situation with all the normal
             interactions between sediment/water/interstitial water operational. The critical value is the
             LC50, but it is also possible to observe sublethal behavioral effects such as the absence of
             burrowing activity. Tests such as the sediment toxicity tests are valuable since the duration
             of the test is longer (10 days vs. the typical 96 hours) and the exposure scenario is more
             natural. The development of even longer term tests with sublethal effects such as the EC50
             (effective concentration) is needed. The EC50 is the concentration of a toxicant required to
             reduce the test criteria (e.g., shell growth, photosynthesis, body length) by 50%.

                  Specific opportunities for productive research include development and validation of
             sublethal toxicity testing procedures with more chemicals and test organisms. Additional
             information on the concentrations of toxicants that managers must become concerned about
             and monitoring tools to recognize these conditions would also be useful.

             3b. What are the imolications of toxic effects for pormlations of marine orpanisms?

                  The range of responses of individual organisms to toxic materials seen in laboratory
             experiments or field populations is extensive. While further documentation and understanding
             of sublethal effects would be useful, the most important information gap which relates to all
             assessment problems is the relationship between effects of toxic materials on individuals (in
             the laboratory or natural populations) and the integrity of populations. This is because it is
             often difficult to extrapolate from impacts on a few test animals to the viability of an entire
             population in the field.

                                                               49

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       The determination of lethal concentrations in laboratory tests can be accomplished with
                  good precision. A wide variety of tests exist and many have been standardized for
                  management purposes. It is not unreasonable to assume that organisms exposed to equivalent
                  concentrations in the natural environment (to those that produced lethality in the laboratory)
                  will not survive, providing the overall exposure and other conditions are similar. Situations
                  like this may occur in the case of a spill of a toxic chemical.

                       Populations chronically exposed to toxicants may evolve increased tolerance to the
                  toxicants. This can be a subtle way of detecting contaminants that are stressing the
                  organisms (Luoma, 1977). The increased tolerance may be present only at certain life history
                  stages, and may be accompanied by reduced fitness of the organisms in other ways. For
                  example, mummichogs (Fundulus heteroclitus) from the highly contaminated Newark Bay estuary
                  have developed increased tolerance to methylmercury, but only during embryonic stages (Weis,
                  et al., 1981a; 1987). This adaptation of the embryo is accompanied by reduced salinity
                  tolerance of eggs, decreased growth, earlier sexual maturity, and decreased longevity of adults
                  as compared to reference populations (Toppin et al., 1987). Thus, an intensive study of the
                  biology of a population may be needed to learn the subtle and long-term impacts of toxicants.

                       Effects such as tumors and other histopathological disorders have been found in demersal
                  fish from a variety of estuaries including Boston Harbor, Massachusetts, the Hudson River
                  Estuary, New York, Southern California, and Puget Sound, Washington. In all cases, there is a
                  variety of pollutants in the system and identification of the cause(s) of the sublethal effects
                  seen is difficult. Some of these same abnormalities have been reproduced in the laboratory
                  with exposure to specific chemicals (e.g., PAHs) found in the contaminated areas. For
                  example, Collier et al. (1986) showed a potential for reproductive toxicity in benthic fish after
                  exposure to organic extracts of contaminated sediment. The contaminated marine sediment
                  contained aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons.

                       Particularly sensitive responses that may show a relationship with population effects
                  include biochemical responses that relate either to energy metabolism and membrane function
                  or to detoxication (such as induction of mixed-function oxygenase activity), and physiological
                  responses such as scope - for- growth or hormonal changes that influence the energy available
                  for growth and reproduction or other aspects of reproductive and developmental processes.
                  These indexes can be integrated by the functional relationship of metabolic function and
                  energy turnover for growth and reproduction. No single index can provide the predictive
                  capability to evaluate population changes, and future studies should be directed at defining the
                  relationship of multiple responses (Capuzzo and Kester, 1987).

                       Recruitment problems that affect the stability of adult populations are complex and far
                  from resolved. Some species produce eggs and larvae in very large numbers, which are
                  dispersed widely (e.g., bivalves such as mussels). In some cases, recruitment to areas where
                  adults are living may actually come from populations in other areas; in these cases it is .
                  difficult to determine the effects of a loss of a percentage of the adults (or even a reduction
                  in the reproductive potential) on the survival of the population as a whole. A better approach
                  might be to monitor certain key species whose reproductive scope is more limited. Many
                  crustacean species such as arnphipods produce a limited number of young which are kept in
                  brood pouches. The dispersal process is also limited in many cases since the brooded larvae
                  settle fairly quickly after release. A sublethal response of some of these species is the
                  premature release of young when exposed to toxics chemicals. Some benthic amphipod species
                  are very important in the food chain; they are major components of the diet of demersal fish
                  such as cod and haddock.

                                                                     50

                                                                                                      Toxic Materials

                   One possible approach to this information need is the use of mesocosm experiments such
              as those conducted at facilities at Narragansett, Rhode Island. Very large flow-through tanks
              contain communities similar to those in the adjacent water of Narragansett Bay. These
              facilities have been used to test the effects of a variety of toxicants such as petroleum
              hydrocarbons and PCBs on communities (Gearing et al., 1979; Wade and Quinn, 1980). One
              experiment showed that the addition of number 2 fuel oil over many months resulted in uptake
              by species and major changes in the composition of the benthos. It should be possible to
              combine results of contaminant exposure to individuals in the laboratory with observed effects
              in mesocosm experiments and produce estimates of the types of sublethal effects (and levels of
              exposure) that will affect the stability of populations in model communities.

                   To determine the implications of toxic effects on populations of marine organisms,
              research should be conducted to relate contaminant content in sediments, interstitial waters,
              and biota to changes in benthic biomass, benthic community structure, and recruitment of
              benthic populations (Capuzzo and Kesler, 1987). Demersal fish and shellfish populations with
              limited or no migratory behavior should be used as models. Concentrations of contaminants in
              the sediments and interstitial waters should be investigated in relationship to contaminant
              content of tissues, activity of detoxification enzymes, seasonal alterations in energy reserves,
              recruitment of juvenile stages, reproductive condition, and the incidence of disease and
              histopathological conditions (Capuzzo and Kesler, 1987).

              3c. How do synergism, antagonism, and additiv   ity among chemical soecies affect toxic
              responses?

                   Because of the proximity to urban and industrial centers, contaminated estuaries almost
              always contain a variety of toxic contaminants, and interactions among these compounds may
              occur. Synergism occurs when the toxicity of two or more compounds in combination is
              greater than the sum of their individual toxicities. Antagonism occurs when the presence of
              two or more compounds together reduces their overall toxicity. Additivity occurs when a
              mixture of chemicals is approximately equivalent to that expected from a summation of known
              toxicities of individual chemicals (an algebraic summation of effects) (Rand and Petrocelli,
              1984). There has been little research on these types of interactions for many of the
              compounds of concern, but there are a few cases where each process has been demonstrated.

                   The presence of other organic contaminants has been found to affect bioaccumulation of
              individual PAHs. Fortner and Sick (1985), in an investigation of accumulation of naphthalene,
              a PCB mixture, and benzo(a)pyrene by oysters found several instances where multiple
              components had antagonistic effects on accumulation. Stein et al. (1984) exposed English sole
              to sediments labelled with 3H-benzo(a)pyrene and IC-Aroclor 1254, both singly and together,
              and found that accumulation of benzo(a)pyrene was enhanced when the fish were exposed to
              both compounds. Parrish et al. (In press) found various ingredients in drilling fluids, including
              lead and a biocide, to be additive in their toxicity to mysids.

                   Methylmercury and cadmium both retard limb regeneration and ecdysis in fiddler crabs,
              and when crabs in 30 ppt salinity seawater are exposed to a mixture of both metals, an
              additive interaction occurs in that the toxic effect of both is greater than each singly. When
              the crabs are subjected to reduced salinity (15 ppt), the effects of cadmium toxicity (singly)
              are enhanced. However, when methylmercury is added to the cadmium solution at 15 ppt
              salinity, the effects of the cadmium are somewhat reduced, indicating an antagonistic
              interaction of the two metals (Weis, 1978). Thus, environmental factors such as salinity,

                                                                 51

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                temperature, and pH must be considered with synergism, additivity, and antagonism of
                chemicals of concern. Indeed, when congenital abnormalities produced in embryos of Fundulus
                heteroclitus by methylmercury were investigated in relation to possible interactions with
                salinity, temperature, cadmium, and zinc, it was found that certain anomalies were reduced
                when cadmium and zinc were present, but reductions in salinity and temperature increased the
                teratogenecity of the methylmercury (Weis et al., 1981b).

                      The Coastal and Estuarine Assessment Program and the National Fishery Ecology Program
                (NOAA) have supported studies in estuarine areas that are contaminated with a variety of
                pollutants. Included are New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts; Long Island Sound; San Francisco
                Bay; and Puget Sound. Studies have involved the effects of toxic compounds on incidence of
                neoplasia in clams, oysters, and muscles; reproductive success in flounder; reproduction,
                growth, and survival in lobsters; and the relationship between sediment- associated chemicals
                and liver neoplasms in English sole and winter flounder. Some of the recent data on
                synergism and antagonism came from these studies.

                      In general, past studies have focused on a few compounds presumed to be the major
                cause of toxicity or sublethal effects seen in their respective environments. These programs
                should continue to identify the relative contribution of the major contaminants to ecological
                stress. Toxicity reduction evaluation methods can be used to determine the physicallchemical
                nature of causative toxicants. By repeating a battery of tests, it is possible to isolate the
                problem chemicals. Confirmation tests can then be conducted with individual and combinations
                of toxic substances to identify any synergistic, antagonistic, or additive effects. Resulting
                data from these laboratory studies can then be related to conditions in the area under study,
                and the information used to direct management practices for toxic material inputs. Some
                effluents are so complex that the best approach is to study the toxicity of the whole effluent
                rather than to attempt to learn the role of each of perhaps hundreds of different chemicals
                and their interactions in the mixture.

                      It is important to identify interactive effects (i.e., synergism, additivity, and antagonism)
                to be able to eventually predict these responses for important classes of marine pollutants.
                But interactive effect is a complex question, considering the vast numbers of pollutants and
                environmental factors to be considered. Much research needs to be accomplished before
                combined toxicities can be predicted based on empirical information.

                                                  Conclusions and Recommendations

                      Discharges and nonpoint source inputs of toxic materials in the coastal environment have
                contributed to the deterioration of some of these areas, and exposure to these materials has
                resulted in adverse effects on living marine resources. Although point source discharges of
                many toxic materials are coming under increased regulatory control, nonpoint sources and
                atmospheric inputs remain as serious problems. The Federal Government has supported a great
                deal of research and monitoring concerning the sources, fates, and effects of toxic materials
                in the marine environment; however, many unanswered questions remain which will require
                continued Federal support to address. The following conclusions relating to the current state
                of knowledge concerning sources, fates, and effects of toxic materials in the marine
                environment have been reached based on the discussion of management questions and the more
                detailed information needs presented in the previous section.

                                                                  52

                                                                                                   Toxic Materials

                  o   In most coastal regions of the country, we do not know the relative contribution of
                      atmospheric inputs and episodic events to chemical contaminant loadings in these
                      areas.

                  o   There is a lack of understanding concerning the processes that control the routes,
                      rates, and reservoirs of various contaminants released into the marine environment.

                  o   For many toxic substances, very little is known concerning their physical chemistry
                      and its effect on bioaccumulation.

                  o   Current understanding of sublethal effects of toxic chemicals is limited, especially
                      with regard to the relationship between effects on individuals and the integrity of
                      populations of living marine resources.

                  o   There is a general lack of understanding of the interactive effects (synergism,
                      addivity, and antagonism) for many important classes of marine pollutants.

                  Based on these conclusions, the following recommendations are made to improve our
             understanding of the sources, fates, and effects of toxic materials in the marine environment.

                                                   Sources and Loading Rates

                  The following information is needed to determine the relative significance of atmospheric
             inputs and episodic events to the chemical contamination of marine environments.

             Atmospheric Inputs. Federal efforts directly related to determining the level of atmospheric
             inputs of toxic contaminants in the aquatic environment have focused primarily on the Great
             Lakes region. These efforts should continue, and similar monitoring activities should be
             conducted in several major estuarine areas of the country where atmospheric inputs are
             suspected to be significant.

             Evisodic Events. Efforts to evaluate both the loading rates of toxic chemicals due to storm
             events and the importance of timing of these events with respect to effects on biological
             activity would provide useful information in this area. This effort would involve more
             frequent monitoring of selected streams in the drainage system of major estuaries. In
             addition, more information concerning seasonal patterns of particulate and dissolved trace
             metals and the chemical speciation of dissolved metals as a function of various hydrographic
             factors, such as salinity, organic matter, and suspended-sediment concentration would improve
             our understanding.

                                                  Transport and Bioavailability

                  The following information needs have been identified in order to determine the factors
             that influence the transport and physical fate of toxic materials in the marine environment
             and to determine how physico -chemical forms and metabolic processes affect the
             bioavailability, uptake, and toxicity of toxic contaminants.

                                                               53

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                 Transport and Physical Fate. Research to determine the mechanisms of resuspension and
                 deposition of sediments and associated chemical contaminants and the kinetics of
                 sorption/desorption would be useful. Such research would be related to trace metal
                 partitioning between dissolved and particulate forms, chemical speciation in seawater, and the
                 kinetics of regeneration in bottom waters or release from sediments.

                 Physico-chemical forms. Our understanding of the physical chemistry of toxic material with
                 respect to bioaccumulation would benefit from further studies. Programs to evaluate toxic
                 materials in the marine environment would include basic physical chemistry research on
                 interactions with seawater and particulate organics. There is a need to develop and
                 strengthen existing sampling and measurement techniques for toxic materials in selected
                 microenvironments. Partition coefficients have been determined for relatively few toxic
                 contaminants. The use of partition coefficients to build models of the fate of toxic material
                 should be expanded.

                 Metabolic processes. Additional studies to obtain more information on the identity,
                 distribution, and rates of formation of biotransformation products and how mutagen and
                 carcinogen products are transformed (activated/inactivated) and accumulated by marine
                 organisms would be of value. Multicompartment models should be developed to include more
                 organic contaminants and commercially important species. Studies to support model
                 development should include long-term evaluations of uptake and release of problem toxics and
                 the fate of toxics in critical tissues. Monitoring studies should also be developed to include
                 analysis of biotransformation products.

                                                                 Effects

                      The following information is needed to help understand the effects of toxic materials on
                 marine organisms and populations.

                 Sublethal Effects. For a better understanding of sublethal effects, research should address the
                 development and validation of sublethal toxicity tests with more chemicals and test organisms.
                 Monitoring tools to assist in recognizing the presence and levels of toxicants and possible
                 sublethal effects in the field would also benefit from further studies.

                 Population Effects. Future research studies to evaluate population changes should focus on
                 defining the relationship of multiple responses to toxic contamination. For example, studies
                 should be conducted to determine the relationship between contaminant concentrations in the
                 sediment and interstitial waters and contaminant content of tissues, activity of detoxification
                 enzymes, seasonal alterations in energy reserves, recruitment of juvenile stages, reproductive
                 condition, and incidence of disease and histopathological conditions (Capuzzo and Kester,
                 1987).

                 Interactive Effects. Much research would need to be conducted before the combined toxicities
                 of toxic materials could be predicted. The toxicities and sublethal effects of more problem
                 contaminants should be determined to identify their contribution to environmental stress and
                 their mechanisms of impact. Tests should be conducted with individual and combinations of
                 toxic substances to identify synergistic-, antagonistic, or additive effects. Research should
                 include a determination of the influence of environmental factors, such as salinity and pH, on
                 synergistic, antagonistic, and additive effects.

                                                                   54

                                                                                                Toxic Materials

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                                                               56

                                                                                                     Toxic Materials

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                  1979. The Rates of Transport and Fates of Petroleum Hydrocarbo      ns in a Controlled    - . .
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                  A.J. Friedman, L.D. Rhodes, D.G. Burrows, W.D. Gronlund, and H.O. Hodgins. 1984.
                  Chemical Pollutants in Sediments and Diseases in Bottom-Dwelling Fish in Puget Sound,
                  Washington. Environ. Sci. Technol. 18:705-713.

                                                                57

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                  Malins, D.C., S.-L. Chan, W.D. Macleod, Jr., B.B. McCain, R.C. Clark, Jr., D.W. Brown, M.S.
                       Myers, and M.M. Krahn. 1986. Results of the 1984-85 National Benthic Surveillance
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                       Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Piscataway, NJ.

                  Malins, D.C., B.B. McCain, D.W. Brown, M.S. Myers, M.M. Krahn, and S.-L. Chan. 1987. Toxic
                       Chemicals, Including Aromatic and Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Their Derivatives, and
                       Liver Lesions in White Croaker (Genvomemus lineatus) from the Vicinity of Los Angeles.
                       Environ. Sci. Technol. 21:765-770.

                  Malins, D.C., B.B. McCain, J.T. Landahl, M.S. Myers, M.M. Krahn, D.W. Brown, S.-L. Chan, and
                       W.T. Roubal. 1988. Neoplastic and Other Diseases in Fish in Relation to Toxic
                       Chemicals: An Overview, pp. 43-67. In Aguatic Toxicology. Toxic Chemicals and Acluatic
                       Life: Research and Management (D.C. Malins and A. Jensen, eds.). Elsevier Science
                       Publishers, Amsterdam.

                  McCain, B.B., M.S. Myers, U. Varanasi, D.W. Brown, L.D. Rhodes, W.D. Gronlund, D.G. Elliot,
                       W.A. Palsson, H.O. Hodgins, and D.C. Malins. 1982. Pathology of Two Species of
                       Flatfish from Urban Estuaries in Puget Sound. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                       Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
                       NOAA/EPA Report EPA-60/7-82-001, 100 pp.

                  McCain, B.B., D.C. Malins, S.-L. Chan, and H.O. Hodgins. 1983. A Multiyear Comparison of
                       Disease Prevalence in English Sole (Parophrys vetulus) from Eight Selected Sites in Puget
                       Sound. A Final Report to Ocean Assessments Division, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                       Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD. 30 pp.

                  McCain, B.B., D.W. Brown, M.K. Krahn, M.S. Myers, R.C. Clark, Jr., S.-L. Chan, and D.C.
                       Malins. 1988. Marine Pollution Problems, North American West Coast, pp. 143-162. In
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                       National Water Summary 1984. U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 2275. U.S.
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                       Related Pollutants and Sediments. In Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (P.W. Jones and
                       P. Lever, eds.). Ann Arbor Sci. Publ., Ann Arbor, MI. 327 pp.

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                       Fishes and Shellfishes: A Perspective for the New York Bight, pp. 327-346. In Ecological
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                 Pseudopleuronectes americanus. Science (Wash.) 228:587-589.

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                 Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 601 pp.

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           Panel on Water Quality of the Hudson-Raritan Estuary. 1987. The Hudson-Raritan: State of
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           Parrish, P.R., J. McCauley, and R.M. Montgomery. In press. Acute Toxicity of Two Generic
                 Drilling Fluids and Six Additives, Alone and in Combination to Mysids (Mysidogsis bahia).
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           Phelps, D.K., C.H. Katz, K.J. Scott, and Bill Reynolds. 1987. Coastal Monitoring: Evaluation
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                        and J.B. Pearce, eds.). Rapp. P.-V. Reun. Con. Int. Explor. Mer. 179:135-151.

                  Stegeman, J.J. 1981. Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Their Metabolism in the Marine
                        Environment, pp. 1-60. In Polvcvclic Hydrocarbons and Cancer (H.V. Gelboin and P.O.P.
                        Ts'O, eds.). Academic Press, New York, NY.

                  Stegeman, J.J. and P.J. Kloepper-Sams. 1987. Cytochrome, P-450 Isozymes and Monoxygenase.
                        Activity in Aquatic Animals. Environ. Health Perspect. 71:87-95.

                  Stein, J.E., T. Hom, and U. Varanasi. 1984. Simultaneous Exposure of English Sole Paroohrys
                        vetulus to Sediment- Associated Xenobiotics: Part 1--Uptake and Disposition of 14C_
                        Polychlorinated Biphenyls and 3H-Benzo(a)pyrene. Mar. Environ. Res. 13:97.

                  Toppin, S.V., M. Heber, J.S. Weis, and P. Weis. 1987. Changes in Reproductive Biology and
                        Life History in Fundulus heteroclitus in a Polluted Environment pp. 171-184. In Pollution
                        Physiolopty of Estuarine Organisms (W. Vernberg, A. Calabrese, F. Thurberg and F.J.
                        Vernberg, eds.). University of South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC.

                  Trefry, J.H., S. Metz, and R.P. Trocine. 1985. A Decline in Transport by the Mississippi
                        River. Science. 230(4724):439-441.

                  Trefry, J.H., T.A. Nelson, R.P. Trocine, S. Metz, and T.W. Vetter. 1986. Trace Metal Fluxes
                        Through the Mississippi River Delta System. Rapp. P.-V. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer.
                        186:277-288.

                  Wade, T.C. and J.G. Quinn. 1980. Incorporation, Distribution and Fate of Saturated Petroleum
                        Hydrocarbons in Sediments from a Controlled Marine Ecosystem. Mar. Environ. Res.
                        3:15-33.

                  Wakeham, S.G. and J.W. Farrington. 1980. Hydrocarbons in Contemporary Aquatic Sediments.
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                  Fiddler Crabs, Uca ougilator, U. nugnax, and U. minax. Mar.,Biol.. 49:119-124.

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                  (Fundulus heteroclitus) embryos from a polluted vs. non-polluted environment. Mar. Biol.
                  65:283-287.

            Weis, J.S., P. Weis, and J.L. Ricci. 1981b., Effects of Cadmium, Zinc, Salinity and Temperature
                  in the Teratogenicity of Methylmercury to the Killifish (Fun-dulus heteroclitus . Rapp. P.-
                  V. Reun. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer. 178:64-70.

            Weis, J.S., M. Renna, S. Vaidya, and P. Weis. 1987. Mercury Tolerance in Killifish: A Stage-
                  Specific Phenomenon, pp. 31-36. In Biolopical Processes and Wastes in the Ocean
                  (J. Capuzzo and D. Kester, eds.). Krieger Publ., Malabar, Fl.

            Wellings, S.R., C.E. Alpers, B.B. McCain, and B.S. Miller. 1976. Fin Erosion Disease of Starry
                  Flounder (Platichthys stellatus and English Sole (Parophrys vetulus
                                                                                     ) in the Estuary of
                  the Duwamish River, Seattle, Washington. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33:2577-2586.

            Widdows, J., T. Bakke, B.L. Bayne, P. Donkin, D.R. Livingstone, D.M. Lowe, M.N. Moore, S.V.
                  Evans, and S.L. Moore. 1982. Response of Mytilus edulis on Exposure to the Water
                  Accommodated Fraction of North Sea Oil. Mar. Biol. 67:15-31.

            Yeats, P.A. and J.M. Bewers. 1987. Evidence for Anthropogenic Modification of Global
                  Transport of Cadmium, pp. 19-34. In Cadmium in the Aguatic Environment (J.O. Nriagu
                  and J.B. Sprague, eds.). John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.

            Zdanowicz, U.S., D.F. Gadbois, and M.W. Newman. 1986. Levels of Organic and Inorganic
                  Contaminants in Sediments and Fish Tissues and Prevalences of Pathological Disorders in
                  Winter Flounder from Estuaries of the Northwest United States, 1984, pp. 1-18. In
                  Oceans '86 Conference Record. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers,
                  Piscataway, NJ.

                                                               61

                   GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                           GOAL 2: UNDERSTAND THE SOURCES, FATES, AND EFFECTS OF NUTRIENTS
                          ENTERING THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT AS A RESULT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

                   Goal Definition  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           63

                        Nutrient Sources   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          64
                        Nutrient Cycling   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          69
                        Effects of Nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          72

                   Federal Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           74

                        Federal Legislation and Regulations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        75
                        Federal Programs   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          76
                   Management Questions and Information Needs     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       77
                        Amounts and Rates of Nutrient Inputs   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        77
                        Effect on Marine Ecosystems   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         81
                        Causes of Hypoxia and Anoxia     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        83
                        Adequacy of Analytical Methods     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        83
                   Conclusions and Recommendations    . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         84

                        Nutrient Sources   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . .          85
                        System Response    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          85
                        Measurement Methodologies     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         86

                   Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           86

                        Excessive anthropogenic nutrient loading to coastal waters is a national concern. A few
                   important areas where nutrient pollution has been identified as a serious problem are the
                   coastal waters off Los Angeles and Louisiana, Boston Harbor, New York Harbor, Buzzards Bay,
                   Long Island Sound, Kaneohe Bay (Hawaii), the Chesapeake Bay, Lake Washington, and the
                   Great Lakes. Degradation of water quality and adverse effects on aquatic and marine biota
                   resulting from anthropogenic nutrient inputs have been well documented. Therefore,
                   understanding the sources, fates, and effects of nutrients entering the marine environment as
                   a result of human activities is one of the six goals of the National Marine Pollution Program.

                                                                      62

                                                                                                              Nutrients

                                                          Goal Definition

                   Nitrogen and phosphorus are the primary anthropogenic nutrient inputs of concern in
             coastal waters. Nitrogen is considered the most important nutrient limiting primary
             productivity in marine and coastal waters, while phosphorus generally limits primary
             productivity in freshwater. Both nitrogen and phosphorus are important in estuarine waters,
             depending on the season, total nutrient loadings, and various physical and chemical conditions
             existing in the estuary. While other nutrients such as silica, carbon, and some trace elements
             may also be important in specific systems and at certain times (Likens, 1972), the following
             discussion only addresses nitrogen and phosphorus.

                   There are two fundamental differences between nutrients and other sources of pollution.
             Unlike toxic and carcinogenic compounds, nutrients represent basic chemical requirements for
             primary producers, i.e., photosynthetic plants and microorganisms, and cause their primary
             harmful effects by stimulating growth to unnatural kinds and amounts. All organisms
             ultimately depend upon primary producers for food. Thus, alterations in the natural
             availability and proportions of nutrients have implications not only for green plants and
             photosynthetic microorganisms, but for entire ecosystems.

                   Excessive nutrient loading can cause accelerated eutrophication, a condition that is
             characterized by excessive primary production as a result of extremely rapid growth and large
             standing crops of phytoplankton. In eutrophic water bodies, the large planktonic biomass
             decreases the distance that light can penetrate through the water column. Reduced light
             penetration has been shown to inhibit photosynthesis in deeper waters of some eutrophic
             estuaries (Pennock, 1986; Pennock and Sharp, 1987), and to affect photosynthetic
             microorganisms as well as submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV), which grows attached to the
             bottom. Declines in SAVs result in the loss of valuable habitats for finfish and shellfish as
             well as decreased oxygen production (Heck and Orth, 1980; Boynton and Heck, 1982; Orth and
             Moore, 1983; Chesapeake Bay Living Resources Task Force, 1987; Christmas and Jordan, 1987).

                   In addition to increased turbidity, a large phytoplankton biomass ultimately can lead to
             oxygen depletion of the water column and sediment as a result of the decomposition of
             organic matter by microorganisms. Degradation of organic matter is a process that consumes
             oxygen. Most of this degradation occurs at the sediment surface, but water column effects
             also can be significant (Kemp et al., 1987; Paerl and Carlton, 1988). Oxygen demand
             associated with breaking down the enormous quantity of organic matter present in eutrophic
             water bodies can be greater than the concentration of oxygen within the water or the rate of
             reaeration. This is especially true for stratified water columns such as those found in many
             estuaries and lakes. Stratified bottom waters have a restricted ability to replenish oxygen
             because there is little benthic photosynthesis (due to light attenuation) and mixing with the
             oxygenated surface waters is restricted. Oxygen concentrations in bottom waters under
             stratified and eutrophic conditions may decline to extremely low values, e.g., less than 3 mg/l
             (hypoxia), or in the extreme case, to zero (anoxia).

                   Eutrophication, hypoxia, and anoxia are not rare phenomena. Today, hypoxia is a
             characteristic feature in 126 of 131 U.S. estuaries and coastal waters for which adequate data
             exist (Whitledge, 1985). In the Great Lakes, of 42 identified locations of concern, 21 locations
             show oxygen depletion associated with eutrophication (GLWQB, 1987). While the greatest
             number of near coastal and estuarine examples of damage to ecological integrity occur in the
             temperate zone, there are several severely eutrophic tropical embayments. Nutrient- stressed
             bays or estuaries occur, for example, in Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.

                                                                 63

                   GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                        There is a vast and growing body of literature addressing sources and effects of
                   nutrients in coastal waters. This chapter is not intended to provide a thorough review of all
                   existing literature on this subject. Here, we attempt to address only those nutrient pollution
                   problem areas that are most important in the context of environmental management. The
                   following discussion of nutrient pollution is divided into three subsections: nutrient source
                   and loading databases; nutrient cycling; and effects of nutrient loading.

                                                              Nutrient Sources

                        Human activities contribute greatly to the quantity of nutrients entering the marine
                   environment. Publicly owned treatment works (POTWs) and industrial dischargers are the main
                   point sources of nutrient loadings. Urban and agricultural runoff and emissions from
                   automobiles and industry are the major nonpoint sources of nutrient inputs to lakes, rivers,
                   and estuaries via surface runoff, groundwater infiltration, and atmospheric deposition.
                   Determination of nutrient loadings requires knowledge of the quantities and timing of nutrient
                   inputs from both point and nonpoint source discharges. As traditional point source inputs of
                   nutrients are controlled, increased attention is being focused on mechanisms of loadings and
                   on monitoring and controlling nonpoint sources of nutrient loadings.

                   Source Databases

                        To protect our coastal waters from excess nutrient inputs, quantitative target nutrient
                   loadings are being established on which discharge regulations and limitations can be based.
                   Accurate and timely data on all significant sources of nutrients entering marine environments
                   are needed to set basin-specific targets for loadings. This entails the separation of natural
                   from societal inputs and the establishment of reliable national and regional databases on
                   source types, mechanisms, quantities, and timing of nutrients entering coastal waters.

                        Source databases initially were used to determine relative contributions of individual
                   sources to overall nutrient loadings and to identify which sources offered the greatest
                   potential for reductions. These databases also may be used to account for total loadings and
                   identify areas of concern, provide input data and refine mathematical models that aid in
                   determining acceptable nutrient loadings, identify both short- and long-term trends in nutrient
                   loadings, evaluate progress toward management goals, and provide direction for management
                   decisions.

                        An example of an operative source database is the International Joint Commission (IJC)
                   Great Lakes Water Quality Board's (GLWQB) procedures for reporting phosphorus data as
                   required by the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1978 between the United States and
                   Canada. Monthly effluent data are reported for every point source discharge in the Great
                   Lakes basin. Tributary loadings are quantified using flow data and estimates provided by the
                   U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) and Water Survey, Environment Canada, and river-mouth
                   sampling generally provided by individual states and the province of Ontario. Atmospheric
                   loading estimates are based on data obtained from stations distributed throughout the lakes
                   and are reported as mass flux per unit area. The EPA database (STORET) and the IJC
                   computer are used for the compilation, analysis, and reporting of both United States and
                   Canadian data. From combined data, load estimates are made, summarized, reported, and
                   compared with target loadings (GLWQB, 1987; Dolan, 1988).

                                                                      64

                                                                                                          Nutrients

             Nonvoint Sources

                   Data representing estimates of nonpoint source nutrient inputs to some lakes and stream
             channels are available. They have been derived from a number of indirect measurements such
             as 1) estimates of nutrient inputs from fertilizer applications to farmland; 2) estimates of
             sediment loss due to erosion calculated using the universal soil-loss equation (or modifications
             thereof), which incorporates the variables of rainfall, soil erodability, slope gradient and
             length, vegetative cover, and erosion control practices employed; and 3) by using nonpoint
             source pollution watershed models. These estimates of nonpoint source nutrient inputs to
             inland water bodies are supported by data that are collected by the USGS National Stream
             Water Quality Accounting Network (NASQAN), the joint EPA and U.S. Fish and Wildlife
             Service (FWS) National Fisheries Survey, and stream monitoring data from a variety of state
             and municipal sources. The Strategic Assessment Branch (SAB) of NOAA is completing a
             comprehensive estimate of point and nonpoint source inputs to United States' coastal waters,
             the National Coastal Discharge Inventory (Basta et al., 1985). These data are based on
             monitored data and watershed models and include 92 estuaries identified in the SAB's National
             Estuarine Inventory (in preparation). Figure 9 shows estimated regional and national loadings
             of nitrogen and phosphorus from point, nonpoint, and upstream sources. As shown in the
             figure, both point and nonpoint source nutrients contribute significantly to the total loadings,
             both on national and regional scales.

                   Establishing accurate databases on nonpoint sources has proved to be a very difficult
             task, particularly for the atmospheric, groundwater, and "unmonitored area" categories.
             Estimates indicate that nonpoint source inputs contribute significantly to the total nutrient
             load of a great number of water bodies. For example, 1985 loading estimates 'for Lake Erie
             indicate that over 83% of total phosphorus entering the lake resulted from nonpoint sources
             (GLWQB, 1987). Nonpoint sources of nitrogen in the Chesapeake Bay range from 62% in dry
             years to 81% in wet years (EPA, 1983). Relative contributions of nonpoint sources of
             phosphorus in the Chesapeake Bay range from 31% of total phosphorus loadings in dry years to
             69% in wet years.

             Atmospheric Deposition

                   Atmospheric deposition may be a significant nonpoint source of phosphorus to marine and
             coastal waters. Preliminary data from the Great Lakes indicate that approximately 10% of the
             total phosphorus loadings to Lake Erie and 30% of the total phosphorus loadings to Lake
             Superior may be due to atmospheric deposition (GLWQB, 1987). In addition, atmospheric
             deposition of phosphorus may represent as much as 10% of the total phosphorus contribution
             of rivers to the oceans (Graham and Duce, 1979; 1981; 1982; Graham et al., 1979). Phosphorus
             in the atmosphere originates from soil particles as a result of erosion by wind, from organic
             matter as a result of biological activity (e.g., spores, fungi, and pollen), from sea spray, and
             from industrial and agricultural emissions.

                   There are also data that indicate a need for concern over atmospheric deposition of
             nitrogen. An Environmental Defense Fund Report estimates that 25% or more of the nitrogen
             reaching coastal waters is from atmospheric deposition (Fisher et al., 1988). Since nitrogen is
             commonly considered to be the nutrient that limits phytoplankton growth in coastal waters
             (Ryther and Dunstan, 1971; Parsons et al., 1977; Mann, 1982), contributions from atmospheric
             sources must be considered when. addressing impacts of nonpoint source loadings. Industrial
             and automobile emissions of sulfates and nitrates combine with atmospheric moisture to form

                                                               65

                          GOALS OF THE NATION-4L PROGRAM

                                                                                                     Regional Totals

                                                                        Nitrogen                                                              Phosphorus
                                           1000000                                                                  150000-
                                                          * Nonpoint                                                             0 Nonpoint
                                                          * Point                                                                Ea Point
                                                          * Upstream
                                                                                                                                 0 Upstream
                                            8000004      ................................... .. ..................                    .......................... ..... ..................
                                                                                                                  C' 120000   . ..........

                                            600000    . .............                                             0
                                                                      ................ .. ..................         90000    . .................................... ..................

                                                                                                                  0
                                       0                                                                          CL
                                            400000    . ...................................
                                                                                                                                      . ..................... .
                                                                                                                     60000
                                                                                                                  0
                                      z
                                                                                                                  a.
                                       12                                                                         V                                     -X-:1-X-:X
                                                                . ....................
                                                                                                                                        . .................
                                            200000-                                                                  30000

                                                            X
                                                                                                                                               X.:
                                                                                    0                                       0                                       M" .4
                                                                                                                                     Z5
                                                                                                                                                           0
                                                             W                      .2                                                                     2)          cc
                                                                                    x          0                                                           x           0
                                                                        fi
                                                             0           0                                                                      0
                                                             z                                                                       z
                                                                                                                                                           75

                                                                          Region                                                                 Region

                                                                                                     National Totals

                                                                          Nitrogen                                                         Phosphorus
                                                          Nonpoint                             Point                           Nonpoint
                                                             (120                              (16%)                              (9%) 'gillillll@

                                                                                            nn.
                                                                                                                                                                          Point
                                                                                                                                                                          (47%)

                                                                                                                                                                 X

                                                                                ..... ..........

                                                                                                                    Upstream
                                                   Upstrea                                                             (44%)
                                                      (72%)

                                                  *Note: upstream sources include all river-borne nutrients entering rivers from sources upstream
                                                  of coastal counties, whether point or nonpoint.

                                 Figure 9. Total Nitrogen and Phosphorus Loading to Estuaries (NOAA, In preparation).

                                                                                                              66

                                                                                                            Nutrients

            dilute sulfuric and nitric acid which then may be deposi .ted as acid rain. In one study, acid
            rain in North Carolina was shown to contain more than twice the concentration of nitrogen as
            nitrite and nitrate found in nonacid rain. Furthermore, acid rain has been shown to stimulate
            marine phytoplankton growth in the laboratory 30-70% more than phytoplankton grown in
            nonacid rain controls (Paerl, 1�85). Atmospheric deposition of nitrogen is greatest along the
            Mid-Atlantic coast where prevailing winds and industrial and automobile emissions interact.
            Figure 10 illustrates the annual atmospheric deposition of ammonium and nitrate in the
            continental United.States during 1985.

            Groundwater and Unmonitored Areas

                  There is very little information on the role of groundwater as a nutrient source*and in
            nutrient processing in the marine environment (EPA, 1994a; Swain, 1988). Research is
            currently being conducted on the human health and environmental implications of nitrate in
            groundwater. Some scientists and managers are concerned that some of the nutrients in
            groundwater eventually are leached into tributaries and rivers and then are delivered to
            coastal waters. However,the processes involved in groundwater nutrient delivery are not well
            understood and quantification of this source cannot currently be done. on a basin-wide scale.

                  Riverine data are essential for calculating nutrient loadings of coastal waters. In the
            Great Lakes and other areas, loadings from tributaries generally are estimated from daily flow
            data and river-mouth sampling. However, many areas are unmonitored due to remoteness and
            sparse populations, while other areas receive only intermittent monitoring for various reasons
            (GLWQB, 1987; Dolan, 1988). As obvious sources of nutrient loadings are reduced, loadings
            from groundwater, unmonitored areas, and other nonpoint sources will become more important
            in management strategy. Although there is a need for better geographic coverage to document
            total nutrient loadings, it often is impractical or too expensive to monitor all sources.
            Therefore, estimates commonly are made by extrapolating data from comparable monitored
            areas.

            Nutrient Models

                  Models that attempt to  simulate complex interactions of nutrient loadings and ecosystem
            responses incorporate appropriate mechanisms and scales depicting natural processes and can
            be useful tools to aid in our understanding of aquatic ecosystems. Model-based predictions
            should be used cautiously and be verified by research and monitoring efforts in developing
            management decisions. The comparison of model-based predictions with data from natural
            systems is often helpful in illuminating important relationships that have not been addressed
            or are incompletely understood (Pilson,. 1984). Conceptual and mathematical nutrient loading
            and effects models are used to identify areas where additional research is needed and to help
            understand and eventually to predict how nutrient loadings affect coastal ecosystems.

                  By contributing to the understanding and prediction of the consequences of nutrient
            loadings and mitigation efforts, models are useful management tools. Nutrient budgets can be
            estimated from basin-specific models that estimate the quantities and timing of all point and
            nonpoint source nutrient loadings into receiving waters. Mathematical models of water and
            ecosystem quality may use such estimates to predict the fat6 and effects of nutrient loadings
            to an ecosystem. A combination of these models can be employed to develop target nutrient
            loadings relative to the assimilative capacity of a basin.

                                                                67

                                   GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                                                                                                   1.0

                                                                                                                                                                                                       1.2

                                                                                            0.4
                                                                                    0.3                                                                                                                   1.0

                                                                 0.
                                                                         0.2                             0.5                                                -                                         1..4
                                                                                                  0.2
                                                                         0.1                                                             3.0                .4.0               1-0
                                                                                                                 0.5

                                                             0.1
                                                                                                         0.8
                                                                                                              0.6

                                                                                                   0.5                                                                                     .1
                                                                                                                                                                          .5
                                                                         0.3              0.3           0.3
                                                                         0.6                                                                                                        1.0
                                                                                                                                                              1.7
                                                                                                                              1.8 2.0                                           1.8
                                                                                                                                                           2     .1 1.3     10
                                                                                                             1.0                           1..         0.7  1.4
                                                                                                                                                                          1.0

                                                                                                                         O.S                      2.                                    0.6
                                                                                                                                        1.5
                                                          1985 Annual                                             q,                  1.7
                                                                                                                                                                                   -O.S
                                                          Ammonium Deposition                                                     1.6
                                                          kg ha-1                                                                                                                               PNL May 1987

                                                                                                                                       3

                                                                                                                          4               7              6                                                     -12
                                                                                                                                                     19
                                                                                            2 2                                                ST2                                                       7
                                                                                      2
                                                                         4                                                                                                                              -10
                                                                         2                               2
                                                                                                                                                                                                          15
                                                                                                                                                                                      20

                                                                                                                  3

                                                                                              4

                                                                                                               4
                                                                                                           3
                                                                                                                4

                                                                                                                                                                                       8
                                                                         2                  2         4-  3                                                9      9
                                                                                                                                                                 9                   7
                                                                            4

                                                                                                                                5                                 7
                                                                                                              4
                                                                                                                                                      9
                                                                                                                    2                                                                      %
                                                          1985 Annual                                                                  7

                                                                                                                                                                                           5
                                                                                                                                     5
                                                          Nitrate        1Deposition
                                                          kg ha-                                                                                                                                 PNL May 1987
                                                     L

                                                      Figure 10. 1985 Annual Composite Distribution of (a) NH4+ and (b) N03-
                                                                               Atmospheric Deposition (NAPAP, 1987)

                                                                                                                                          68

                                                                                                           Nutrients

                   The complexity of aquatic systems often necessitates that nutrient loading and effects
             models attain high levels of sophistication. Data requirements for these models are sometimes
             severe and costly. Models should be developed that require the minimum amount of data
             necessary to address the questions for which the model was developed. Development of
             nutrient loading and effects models requires data on timing, type, mechanisms, and quantities
             of nutrient inputs to a basin. Data about physical and biological characteristics of a basin are
             also essential. In coastal areas where nutrient pollution is sometimes a serious problem,
             systems for regular monitoring, reporting, and synthesis of data are needed, both for nutrient
             inputs and for ambient biotic and abiotic conditions. Such models have been developed for
             Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron (Bierman and Dolan, 19811; Bierman et al., 1984), and for the
             Chesapeake Bay (Fitzpatrick, 1987).

                   Loading models must assess the contribution of both allochthonous (i.e., sources
             originating from outside a system) and autochthonous (i.e., sources originating from within a
             system) nutrient inputs. It is largely accepted that increased allochthonous loadings of
             nutrients can lead to increased primary production (Malone, 1987). However, the quantitative
             relationships between changes in allochthonous inputs to a water body and subsequent changes
             in water quality and ecosystem response parameters are poorly understood and difficult to
             model (Bierman et al., 1984). These difficulties arise in part from the effect of autochthonous
             sources that may represent significant inputs to the total nutrient loadings of a water body.
             In the Chesapeake Bay, for example, recycled nitrogen and phosphorus may account for
             approximately 90% of the total annual supply of these nutrients (Fisher and Doyle, 1987).
             Although management has little control over autochthonous loadings and must concentrate on
             control of anthropogenic sources, an accurate determination of effective target nutrient
             loadings necessitates understanding the relative contribution and effects of all sources of
             nutrient inputs.

                   One method of decreasing or at least bounding uncertainty within reasonable limits is the
             use of nonmathematical models that borrow from both statistical and logical inference methods.
             The outcome prediction from these computerized conceptual models is based on sequences of
             rules being triggered by either a truth test or an action, which leads to an outcome dictated
             by logic and summed algebraicly. By comparing different conditions in combinations, different
             outcomes may be contrasted and each outcome will produce a probability score based on a
             consensus of expert practitioners. These are called "expert systems" (Prager, 1988).

                                                         Nutrient Cycling

                   In a sense, nutrients have no ultimate fate. Nutrients are continuously -cycled and. -
             recycled within the biosphere. The fate of a nutrient depends on the temporal and spatial
             scale considered. When discussing nutrient sources, fates, and effects, it is essential to
             understand that they are interrelated on a global scale. Although a complete discussion of
             nutrient cycling is not within the scope of this chapter, a basic understanding of nitrogen and
             phosphorus cycling is a prerequisite to any discussion of nutrient fates and effects.

             The Nitroeen Cycle

                   The most important nitrogen cycle processes are illustrated in Figure 11. Various forms
             of nitrogen enter aquatic systems from both anthropogenic and natural sources. The most
             abundant natural source of nitrogen is molecular nitrogen (ND, which comprises approximately

                                                                69

                    GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                                                                          Acid ain"

                                         Atmosphere
                                                                        Atmospheric Nitrogen                        Atmospheric
                                                                                                                     Deposition
                                                                                  (N2)
                                                                                              N
                                                      Nitrogen                            Loss
                                                      Fixation                             to
                                                                                      Atmosphere

                                                                                                                 a, Nitrate,
                      Allochthonous                                                                         (NH 3) (N03)
                      Inputs: Ammonia,                                                 ssimilation            organic-N
                                                                                                                (NO),)
                               (NI-13)
                      Nitrite, Nitrate,
                      (N02) (N03)
                      Organic matter                                       Organic Matter
                                                            Sinking         Decomposition
                                                            Organic
                                                             Matter

                                                                                                          Export: Organic-N,
                                                                                    )nia                            (NO,)
                                              Water                                 NH3)                  Ammonia, Nitrate
                                             Column                                                         (NH3)' (N03)
                                                                              Nitrification
                                                                                Nitrate #0
                                                                                    N03)

                                                 Decomposition'
                                                                                                             Sediments
                                                        Burial        Ammonia         Denitrification
                                                         (loss)      Production           (loss)
                                                                                               rr        "A id @Rain-

                 Figure 11. Simplified Diagram of Nitrogen Cycling in an Estuary.

                                                                             70

                                                                                                                Nutrients

              78% of the Earth's atmosphere. 'Only a small number of microorganisms are able to -use this
              vast pool directly for growth and metabolism. The biological process of converting N2 into
              forms that can be used by most organisms is called nitrogen fixation.

                    Some nitrogen available for biotic growth in the marine environment is ammonia liberated
              from decomposing organic matter (Painter, 1970). Depending on environmental conditions, this
              ammonia may be bound to soil or sediment particles, may undergo volatilization (Idelovitch and
              Michail, 1981.),.or may be assimilated directly by bacteria or algae (Painter, 1970; Parry, 1985).
              In aerobic (oxygenated) environments, ammonia can be oxidized to nitrite and nitrate by
              nitrifying bacteria., This process, nitrification, is also important because it consumes oxygen
              and can contribute significantly to oxygen demand of water bodies and sediment (Fenchel and
              Blackburn, 1979). Wezernak and Gannon (1967) found in one study that 3.22 parts oxygen are
              used for the oxidation of I part'ammoriia and that 1.11 parts oxygen are required for the
              oxidation of I part of nitrite to nitrate.

                    Nitrate, like ammonia, may be assimilated directly by some phytoplankton. In addition,
              nitrate can be used by certain microorganisms under anaerobic (oxygen-free) conditions rather
              than oxygen in different energy- producing metabolic pathways. This process, denitrificailon,
              results in reduction of nitrate by stages to molecular nitrogen, which is lost to the
              atmosphere. This reduces the nitrogen available for use by all but a relatively few nitrogen-
              fixing organisms. Denitrification has been shown to occur in suspended particles, sediments,
              anoxic water bodies, and anoxic "microzones" within otherwise aerobic environments
              (Greenblott, 1987; Paerl and Carlton, 1988). Research indicates that denitrification can
              account for losses of 30-50% of the nitrogen inputs to coastal waters, and is therefore a
              major sink or loss in the nitrogen budget.

                    Compl exity of nitrogen cycling makes accurate, quantitative analyses and modeling of
              nitrogen cycling in continuously- flowing environments difficult. Ammonia concentrations are
              affected by all ammonia reactions: nitrification, ammonia uptake, oxidation of organic nitrogen,
              equilibrium, and conversion -of ammonia to organic nitrogen for cell synthesis. Nitrate
              concentrations are affected by nitrification, denitrification, respiratory nitrate reduction, and
              assimilative nitrate reduction. All of these processes are affected by pH, dissolved oxygen,
              temperature, pollution, and stream flow (Ruane and Krenkel, 1978; Remacle and DeLaval, 1978;
              Cooper, 1984).

              The Phosphorus Cycle

                    The phosphorus cycle in aquatic systems is less complicated than the nitrogen cycle
              because inorganic phosphorus is found in relatively few forms. Phosphorus has no major
              volatile phase and is rarely reduced or oxidized under most natural conditions (Brock, 1979).
              In most unpolluted water bodies, the only significant pool of biologically available inorganic
              phosphorus is orthophosphate. Most phosphorus in the water column is organic phosphorus.
              More than 90% of phosphorus in lake water is found as organic phosphate in cellular
              constituents of living matter, or it is adsorbed to inorganic and dead particulate organic
              matter (Wetzel, 19,75). Orthophosphate is generally the preferred form of phosphorus among
              marine phytoplankton. Rapid exchange of phosphorus between seawater and phytoplankton,
              and zooplankton grazing and excretion allows rapid regeneration of phosphorus within
              planktonic food webs. Estimates of phosphorus cycling within the water column indicate that
              allochthonous phosphorus inputs are recycled from 30 to 120 times before being exported to
              the ocean or buried in sediment (Fisher and Doyle, 1987).

                                                                   71

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                      Exchange of phosphorus between sediment and overlying waters is an important
                component of phosphorus cycling. Sediment-water phosphorus exchange (i.e., phosphorus
                regeneration to the water column) is related to several physical, chemical, and biological
                factors associated with mineral-water equilibria, sorption processes, oxygen- dependent chemical
                interactions, and activities of bacteria, fungi, plankton, and invertebrates. Oxygen content at
                the sediment-water interface is the most important feature regulating phosphorus exchange.
                Under anoxic conditions, phosphorus in sediment may move rapidly into overlying water where
                it can be used by phytoplankton (Wetzel, 1975). In the Chesapeake Bay, the rate of
                phosphorus regeneration from sediment increases dramatically when oxygen concentrations in
                overlying water fall below 2 mg/l (Webb and D'Elia, 1980).

                                                         Effects of Nutrients

                      Although increased primary productivity resulting from intentional nutrient inputs has
                been shown to increase fish stocks in some experimental systems, the possible increase of
                fisheries in naturally productive systems is generally considered insignificant when compared
                with deleterious effects of eutrophication (Nixon et al., 1986b). This discussion focuses on
                these effects as they relate directly to health and preservation of living aquatic resources.
                Hypoxia or anoxia and consequent major changes in food web dynamics are the two most
                conspicuous effects of eutrophication in the marine environment.

                Hypoxia and Anoxia

                      Hypoxia and anoxia can affect nutrient cycling, mobilization and production of toxins,
                trophic structures, and can kill organisms directly. Under normal aerobic conditions, nutrients
                and toxins in sediment may be trapped by an oxygenated "microzone" at the sediment-water
                interface. During hypoxic or anoxic conditions this microzone deteriorates, allowing some
                nutrients, such as phosphate (Webb and D'Elia, 1980), ammonia and nitrate (Cerco, 1985 as
                reviewed by Garber, 1987), and sediment-bound contaminants such as Cs, Mn, Co, Zn, and Cd
                (Santschi et al., 1986) to pass freely from the sediment. Hydrogen sulfide (142S) is a toxic gas
                which is produced in both the sediment and the water column by bacteria under anoxic
                conditions. In addition to its direct toxicity, oxidation of H2S consumes oxygen and
                contributes to maintenance of hypoxic or anoxic conditions (Tuttle et al., 1987). Under
                aerobic conditions, sediment acts as a nitrogen sink. Nitrate produced during nitrification in
                the water column is reduced to N2 by bacteria in anoxic sediment. However, nitrification is
                inhibited during low oxygen conditions and the process of nitrogen removal from the water
                column in this manner ceases.

                      Hypoxia or anoxia also can cause stress to organisms through habitat compression (i.e., a
                decrease in the spatial or temporal extent of available habitat required for normal growth and
                reproduction) (Uye et al., 1979; Coutant, 1985; Price et al., 1985). Stress related to habitat
                compression may result in decreased reproductive capability, increased crowding, disease,
                overharvest, and direct mortality. Habitat compression affects several commercially important
                species adversely, including striped bass (Morone saxatilis), American shad (Alosa sapidissima),
                blueback herring (Alosa aestivalis), and adult alewife (Alosa vseudoharengus) (Coutant, 1985;
                Coutant and Benson, 1987).

                                                                  72

                                                                                                              Nutrients

             Troybic Structure Alterations

                   Verity (1987) reviewed how eutrophication may impact an ecosystem by altering species
             distribution and abundance of both primary producers and consumers. Many factors interact
             to drive changes in primary producer and consumer populations. These include supply, relative
             availability, and timing of toxin and nutrient inputs, and various physical characteristics of the
             estuary such as temperature, turbidity, current, and water column stratification (Grassle and
             Grassle, 1984; Sullivan and Ritacco, 1985). Phytoplankton community structure also may be
             altered by differential grazing pressures (Oviatt et al., 1986; Verity, 1987; Paerl, 1988a).

                   Diatoms are thought to provide the primary energy source for traditional food webs that
             support teleosts (i.e., finfish) as top predators (Greve and Parsons, 1977; Gearing et al., 1984;
             Elster and Ohle, 1985). Evidence suggests that eutrophication can cause a shifting in plankton
             populations from larger, "more desirable" diatom- dominated communities to smaller, "less
             desirable" flagellate- and cyanobacterial- dominated communities (Smayda, 1983). Acceptability
             of these smaller species as food by grazers is variable and depends on concentration,
             digestibility, presence of lethal or inhibitory mechanisms, size, and nutritional value (Silver
             and Alldredge, 1981; Johnson et al., 1982). By changing food supply available to herbivorous
             organisms, eutrophication may alter species distribution of higher trophic-level populations
             (Gearing et al., 1984; Grassle and Grassle, 1984; Grassle et al., 1985; Elster and Ohle, 1985;
             Nixon et al., 1986b; Fulton and Paerl, 1987).

                   Alternatively, changes in type and distribution of higher trophic-level herbivores and
             predators can have a cascading effect all the way down the food web to primary producers.
             Predation may limit certain species and affect composition even where essential nutrients are
             not limiting, as in eutrophic waters. For example, increases in abundance of planktivorous
             fish species (e.g., menhaden) may contribute to dominance by nanoplankton (extremely small
             species with a diameter of less than 4 um). This may be the result of selective grazing on
             larger species of phytoplankton (thereby reducing grazing pressure and increasing the
             competitive advantage of small phytoplankton species), and by the release of nutrients that
             support growth of small cells (Verity, 1987).

                   Dominance of phytoplankton communities by inedible or less desirable species may divert
             energy and organic matter from "higher" trophic levels typically dominated by finfish to
             microbial -bacterial food webs (Verity, 1987). Bacterial metabolism probably is enhanced
             indirectly by an overabundance of organic matter available as a result of a large proportion of
             the primary production not being consumed or assimilated by grazers. In addition, bacteria
             provide a major component of the diets of heterotrophic (nonprimary producing) nanoplankton.
             Combined oxygen utilization of heterotrophic bacteria and nanoplankton appear to contribute
             significantly to total oxygen demand and development of anoxia. Figure 12 summarizes the
             most important trophic-level interactions described above.

                   There is no clear and simple answer to the question of how eutrophication affects
             trophic-level structures. Man's activities increase primary productivity from below through
             eutrophication. This induces changes from above like predation, disease, and anoxia. The
             overall effect may be to select for small plankton which support an active microbial food web,
             shunting nutrients away from "traditional" predators (i.e., away from fish as top carnivores).
             This constitutes a mechanism for serious adverse impacts on commercial fisheries. Such an
             ecosystem may favor gelatinous zooplankton (coelenterates and ctenophores) as top carnivores,
             whose low-growth efficiencies make them a virtual trophic cul-de-sac (Verity, 1987).

                                                                  73

                      GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                 Increased                                  Increased                   Reduced Fishing Effort
                                                 Gelatinous                              Marine-Spawning                Collapsed Anadrorro
                                                 Predators                               Piscivorous Fish                  Piscivorous Fish us
                                                                                              _01

                                                                       Anoxia              Increased
                                                                                         Planktivorous
                                                                                              Fish
                                                                                              -0-

                                                                                           Increased                     Reduced
                                                                                         Crustacean                     Crt TstuacZeda--nn-1
                                               EW              - - - - - -               Zooplankton                    Zooplankton I
                             Reduced               Increased      E@             @3         Increased                                   Reduced
                             Oysters             Nanoplankton                            Microplankton

                      Note: Clear arrows define pathways that appear to be strongly influenced by "boftom-up" or source control. Bold arrows show
                             trophic interactions in which "top-down" or sink control appears dominant. Pathways that appear to be less significant are
                             not illustrated for purposes of clarity. Note that most of the changes in stock sizesto the right of the anoxia compartment have
                             been documented, while those to left await confirmation.

                   Figure 12. Flow Chart Illustrating Some Hypothetical Trophic Linkages That May Be Significant
                                  in the Chesapeake Bay (Verity, 1987).

                                                                                   Federal Role

                              This section discusses the Federal legislation, regulations, and programs that address the
                      issue of sources, fates, and effects of nutrients in the marine environment. Additional
                      discussions of Federal programs as related to specific information needs are presented under
                      the management questions that follow this review of the Federal role. More detailed
                      information on the Federal programs and projects that address the issue of nutrients in the
                      marine environment can be found in the National Marine Pollution Program, Summary of
                      Federal Programs and Projects (NOAA, 1987).
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                                                                                            74

                                                                                                               Nutrients

                                                 Federal Legislation and Regulations

                     The Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (MPRSA), also known as
               the Ocean Dumping Act, and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA, as amended)
               are the two primary environmental laws governing the input of sewage treatment and
               industrial wastes to the marine environment. The FWPCA is also the only Federal legislative
               authority relating to the control of nonpoint sources of pollution (including nutrient inputs).

                     The Ocean Dumping Act was enacted, in part, "to regulate ocean dumping of all materials
               and prevent or strictly limit the dumping of any materials that would adversely affect human
               health, welfare, and amenities, the marine environment, ecological systems, or economic
               potentialities." A 1977 amendment to the Act mandated the cessation (after December 31,
               1981) of ocean dumping of sewage sludge that unreasonably degrades the marine environment.
               Under Title I of MPRSA, EPA has the authority to designate and manage dump sites, develop
               criteria to evaluate ocean dumping permit applications, and review, award, and enforce ocean
               dumping permits. Under EPA's ocean dumping regulation, permits are issued in accordance
               with the criteria of 40 CFR Part 227, which include specific limitations on the types and
               quantities of certain materials that may be dumped, an assessment of the need for ocean
               dumping, the availability of alternatives to ocean dumping, and an assessment of the impact of
               the proposed  dumping on aesthetic, recreational, and economic values as well as other uses of
               the ocean.

                     Title 11 of MPRSA specifically mandates research on the disposal of sewage treatment
               wastes in the marine environment. The EPA is authorized to conduct research, investigations,
               experiments,  and studies in order to determine means of developing disposal alternatives, and
               to minimize or end ocean dumping of material that may unreasonably degrade or endanger
               human health or the marine environment. Also under Title II, the National Oceanic and
               Atmospheric Administration is responsible for monitoring and research activities regarding the
               effects of ocean dumping.

                     The FWPCA and amendments (Clean Water Act of 1981 and Water Quality Act of 1987)
               govern the disposal of municipal and industrial waste by pipeline discharge into surface
               waters, including marine waters and the Great Lakes. Section 402 of the Clean Water Act
               establishes the EPA permit program, which limits pollutants that can be discharged to surface
               waters of the United States. Under Section 403(c), EPA established regulations that require
               ocean discharges to meet certain criteria and standards. Discharges that meet the
               requirements of EPA, or approved State -administered programs, are issued National Pollution
               Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permits. Under 301(h), EPA can grant waivers of
               mandatory secondary treatment to publicly owned treatment plants (POTW's) requirements if
               certain conditions are met, including an ongoing monitoring program of the receiving
               environment that includes biota in the vicinity of an outfall and at a suitable reference
               station not under the outfall's influence.

                     The 1987 amendments to FWPCA (the Water Quality Act) include provisions for the.
               management of nonpoint sources of pollution. Section 319 of the Act establishes a national
               policy requiring that controls of nonpoint sources of pollution be developed and implemented
               of.... in an expeditious manner." The Act requires each State to identify waters that cannot
               ,maintain applicable water quality standards without additional action to control nonpoint
               sources of pollution. It also requires States to identify nonpoint sources that significantly
               contribute to pollution in such waters and to describe programs for controlling these sources.

                                                                   75

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                          Federal Programs

                     The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                Administration (NOAA), and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) are the major
                supporters of nutrient research and monitoring in the marine environment. Other agencies
                conducting nutrient- related activities include the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and the
                National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA).

                     Most of EPA's marine nutrient research activities are conducted by the agency's
                Environmental Research Laboratories, the National Estuary Program, and the Chesapeake Bay
                Program. Related activities include research on nutrient loadings in estuaries and the
                assimilative capacity of estuaries for nutrients. In the Chesapeake Bay Program, EPA
                coordinates pollution research, monitoring, and management of the Bay by identifying sources,
                fate, and effects of nutrient pollutants. The EPA also supports nutrient studies in the Great
                Lakes Region. Activities include monitoring of nutrient loadings from the atmosphere and
                nutrient transport from lake tributaries, and evaluations of the effectiveness of agricultural
                conservation practices in reducing nutrient loadings.

                     NOAA's nutrient research and monitoring activities are conducted primarily by the
                National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research
                (OAR), and the National Ocean Service (NOS). NMFS's related research is focused on the
                effects of various nutrient input on marine habitats and fisheries. The agency conducts
                research to determine the extent of environmental degradation caused by various contaminants,
                including nutrients, in estuarine and coastal ocean environments. Included are studies to
                assess the extent and severity of eutrophication and to determine the processes governing
                dissolved oxygen levels in estuaries and coastal waters. NMFS also monitors the sources,
                fates, and effects of nutrient inputs on living marine resources and the occurrence of hypoxic
                conditions at ocean dump sites. Most of OAR's nutrient- related research is funded through
                the Sea Grant Ocean Pollution Program. Related activities supported by the Sea Grant
                Program include research on the transport and cycling of nutrients in estuarine, oceanic, and
                Great Lakes ecosystems; the causes of oxygen depletion that lead to anoxic/hypoxic conditions
                in these ecosystems; and the effects of low-dissolved oxygen on living marine resources and
                their habitats. Effects studied include research into structural and functional alterations of
                planktonic food chains in response to blue-green algae blooms and changes in water quality
                and productivity in nitrogen- enriched coastal ecosystems. The NOS conducts research and
                monitoring activities to determine the potential causes and extent of oxygen depletion in
                coastal waters of the United States. The NOS monitors the levels of dissolved oxygen,
                nutrients, and chlorophyll in the context of eutrophication/hypoxia in coastal waters, and
                evaluates the contribution to oxygen demand from phytoplankton blooms sinking to bottom
                waters and sediments. The Strategic Assessments Branch of NOS is developing a
                comprehensive inventory of pollutant discharges into coastal waters of the United Statesand
                is developing a set of computer programs to maintain the data and to conduct analyses.

                     The USDA conducts research on pollution problems caused by agricultural and forestry
                practices on downstream and estuarine ecosystems. Studies include research related to the
                chemical and physical transport and effects of excess nutrients on the estuarine environment.
                The agency also studies the contamination of groundwater and aquifers from septic system
                drain fields and monitors soil and crop application of chemicals, sludges, manure, and other
                wastes.

                                                                 76

                                                                                                               Nutrients

                    The FWS conducts research to determine the pathways by which nutrients enter estuaries
              and to understand high marsh nutrient cycling. The agency also studies the effects of Great
              Lakes tributary inflow and resuspension of lake sediments on nutrient loading and water
              quality in nearshore waters and adjacent marshlands. NASA performs research to understand
              global oceanic primary productivity and phytoplankton distribution. Related studies address
              the impacts of phytoplankton distribution on living marine resources and global carbon and
              nitrogen cycles.

                                            Manaeement Ouestions and Information Needs

                    Nutrients affect virtually every aspect of the marine environment. Human activities
              contribute nutrient inputs far in excess of the environment's ability to assimilate them.
              Adverse impacts on our coastal waters already have occurred. Implications for future
              reduction of fish and wildlife populations and degradation of water quality must be considered
              seriously. At risk are the commercial, recreational, and aesthetic values of our coastal waters.

                    The following is a list of management questions that highlight the most important and
              least understood aspects of the nutrient problem. Additional data and information on these
              issues would promote more effective management of nutrient inputs to the marine environment.

              Management Question 1: What are the amounts and rates of nutrient addition to the marine
              environment?

              Management Question 2: How do nutrient inputs affect marine ecosystems?

              Management Question 3: What causes hypoxia and anoxia in coastal environments?

              Management Question 4: Are conventional analytical methodologies adequate for nutrient
              research?

              This section includes a discussion of the rationale, current efforts, and opportunities for
              additional work associated with the information needs under each management question.

                                                Amounts and Rates of Nutrient Inputs

              Manaeement Ouestion 1: What are the amounts and rates of nutrient addition to the marine
              environment?

              Information Needs

                    Ia. How much nitrogen and phosphorus enter from the atmosphere and through
                         groundwater?

                    ib. How adequate are current models for estimating nutrient inputs?

                    Ic. What is the significance of seasonal and climatic events to annual nutrient budgets?

                                                                  77

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                Ia. How much nitrogen and nhosnhorus enter from the atmost)here and throupth proundwater?

                      Management of nutrient inputs requires accurate information on sources and magnitudes
                of nutrient loadings into the nation's estuaries. Over the past two decades, considerable
                Federal effort has gone into development of source databases. These databases are used in
                generating nutrient loading data and for the modelling of acceptable levels of nutrient inputs
                to coastal waters. Using these databases, reasonable estimates can be made for nutrients
                delivered from point sources in many estuaries. Data representing nutrient loadings from
                nonpoint sources are much less available and reliable, particularly atmospheric and groundwater
                sources. Ten years ago, atmospheric and groundwater nutrient loadings were considered
                relatively insignificant compared with point source contributions. As point source discharges
                are coming under increased control and better nutrient budgets are made, atmospheric and
                groundwater sources are coming under increased scrutiny.

                      Acid rain contains sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HN03). When nitric acid is
                dissolved in water, it dissociates to yield nitrate (N03_) and the hydrogen ion (H'). Increases
                in nitrate concentrations observed in the Great Lakes may result in part from atmospheric
                deposition in the form of acid rain (GLWQB, 1987). There are also indications that under
                certain conditions, inputs of nitrogen in the form of nitrate from acid rain may contribute
                substantially to the total nitrogen of coastal waters. Studies of atmospheric inputs to the
                near surface waters along the coast of North Carolina demonstrate that impacts of nitrogen
                loading from atmospheric sources (i.e., acid rain) are detectable and may be important in
                shaping the patterns and magnitude of phytoplankton production. Normal rainwater (nonacid
                rain) in North Carolina typically contains 5 to 20 uM N03-/I. During acid rain events much
                higher concentrations, as high as 300 uM N03-/I, have been observed (Paerl, 1987).
                Indications are that during acid rain episodes as much as 30 to 40% of the nitrogen loading
                may be attributed to atmospheric inputs (Paerl, 1988b).

                      Direct funding for research and monitoring of atmospheric loadings currently is provided
                by EPA's Great Lakes Program. Development of sampling and monitoring technology and
                quantification of atmospheric nutrient loadings are being studied for the Great Lakes only.
                There is a paucity of information on atmospheric nutrient loadings to marine systems.

                      There is also very little information on the role of groundwater as a nutrient source and
                in nutrient processing. Groundwater hydrology is a relatively new and imprecise science, and
                since there is no national database on groundwater contamination, it is difficult to estimate
                its relative contribution to nutrient loadings (EPA, 1984a). Groundwater models are based on
                land use and do not account for nutrient processing within soil-aquifer systems. Relevant
                processes include transformations that can actually reduce nutrient concentrations in
                groundwater (e.g., denitrification and assimilation) and processes that contribute to nutrient
                loadings (e.g., nitrogen fixation and mineral dissolution).

                      To develop a thorough understanding of nutrient sources to the marine environment,
                basic research addressing atmospheric and groundwater inputs would need to be initiated or
                expanded where it already exists. This research would focus on developing reliable
                methodologies for determining atmospheric nutrient contributions and budgets to marine
                systems and on assessing relative contributions (both wet and dryfall) as compared with other
                nutrient sources in specific systems and regions.

                                                                    78

                                                                                                         Nutrients

             lb. How adeciuate are current models for estimatinp, nutrient innuts?

                   Freshwater and marine systems are extremely complex. Nutrient loading models must
             attain a high level of sophistication in order to simulate accurately what occurs in these
             systems. For this reason, systems for obtaining and synthesizing data are needed--both of
             nutrient inputs and of ambient environmental conditions. Source databases should be
             developed to identify and quantify conditions of concern and to provide baseline data useful
             for evaluating management decisions, including assessing. the effectiveness of management
             actions.

                   Several databases developed by the Federal agencies and departments have relevance to
             nutrient research, development, and monitoring. Some of these include EPA's STORET,
             National Eutrophication Study Database and Large Lakes Research Laboratory, and Permit
             Compliance System (PCS) developed under the auspices of the National Pollutant Discharge
             Elimination System (NPDES); NOAA's Regional Coastal Information Center Network, and Earth
             Resource Observation System; USGS's National Water Data System and National Water Data
             Exchange; USDA's Agriculture Water Data Laboratory; and DOI's Office of Water Research and
             Technology (EPA, 1984b; NOAA, 1985; Multer and Kemp, 1986). These and other relevant
             databases should be reviewed to determine their applicability to nutrient research and to
             identify overlap and information gaps.

                   Use of nutrient loading models, together with effects models, can aid in understanding
             complex interactions of nutrient loadings and aquatic ecosystems. In addition, such models
             can be useful in developing monitoring strategies by providing insight into which parameters
             are most indicative of changes in the ecosystem. However, mathematical models alone are
             insufficient to address all the complexities of coastal ecosystems. The enormous number of
             variables found in natural coastal ecosystems often frustrates researchers attempting to
             determine causal relationships between nutrient inputs and effects.

                   Because of this, physical models of ecosystems, i.e., meso- and microcosms, are built.
             Physical scale models of ecosystems have- many advantages for researchers, including the
             ability to integrate the uncertainty implicit in simulation over a whole process, such as
             respiration, photosynthesis, or other integrative biological processes of an ecosystem. These
             systems also have very defined physical boundaries and parameters and an ability to simulate
             simplified natural systems at relatively low operating costs (Oviatt et al. 1984; Pilson, 1984).
             An example of an operating mesocosm is the Marine Ecosystems Research Laboratory (MERL),
             which is located at the University of Rhode Island and supported by EPA and others. The
             MERL mesocosms have been used in a variety of research projects, including the study of
             nutrient cycling and effects of eutrophication in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island (Gearing et
             al., 1984; Hobbie and Cole, 1984; Oviatt et al., 1984; Berounsky and Nixon, 1985; Kelly et al.,
             1985; Pilson, 1985; Oviatt et al., 1986; Rudnick and Oviatt, 1986), the effects of nutrients on
             benthic and zooplankton populations (Grassle and Grassle, 1984; Grassle et al., 1985; Sullivan
             and Ritacco, 1985), the fates of pollutants including nutrients (Nixon et al., 1986a), and the
             effects of benthic organisms on nutrient cycling (Doering et al., 1987). This research has
             been valuable in developing and improving mathematical models, testing hypotheses, and
             providing insight into processes occurring in natural systems.

                   Direct funding for the development of models to estimate nutrient loadings into estuaries
             is supported by EPA under its Division. of Groundwater Protection, National Estuary Program
             (Near Coastal Waters Initiative), and Great Lakes Program (working closely with the U.S.-
             Canada International Joint Commission). Also, funding for the development of predictive

                                                               79

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  models is provided by the USDA Nonpoint Source Contaminants Program, the USGS Water
                  Resources Division, the National Science Foundation Global Ocean Flux Program, and the
                  NOAA Strategic Assessment Branch. The EPA and COE are developing a very sophisticated
                  3-dimensional, time-variable eutrophication model for the Chesapeake Bay.

                       Although advances have been made in the development of predictive models, major
                  improvements in the future depend upon availability of better source data estimates in the
                  following areas: atmospheric and groundwater loadings, inputs from areas that are not being
                  monitored, and the quantities of nutrients delivered to coastal waters during episodic and
                  climatic events such as heavy rains and floods. Databases are of little utility if the data can
                  not be converted into useful management information. Better algorithms, improved computer
                  technology, and a better understanding of nutrient behavior in marine ecosystems would allow
                  these data to be used fully.

                  Ic. What is the sipnificance of seasonal and climatic events to annual nutrient budpets?

                        Much of the difference between predicted and actual tributary nutrient loadings is due to
                  the design of tributary monitoring programs and timing of samplings. Predictions of nutrient
                  inputs must account for major episodic events that affect stream flow, such as storm events
                  and spring runoff from snow melt. Inadequate sampling of episodic events in Michigan's
                  Saginaw River resulted in unsatisfactory 1985 loading estimates. "The 1985 estimate and its
                  95% confidence limits are very large (1,532 + 1,917 tons), while the target load for all of
                  Saginaw Bay is 440 tons. These very wide confidence limits stem from lack of event
                  sampling" (GLWQB, 1987). This observation also is supported by the extensive monitoring
                  program of the Potomac River conducted by the Metropolitan Washington Council of
                  Governments and the Maryland Department of the Environment (Curtis, 1987). Nutrient
                  loadings at the Potomac River fall line were estimated as the product of flow rate and sample
                  concentrations. The study, conducted between January 1983 and April 1987, consisted of 76
                  storm composite samples and 115 base flow discrete samples. Results indicated that 70 to 97%
                  of annual nutrient and sediment loads were delivered during storm events. Over 40% of the
                  total phosphorus load and 25% of the total nitrogen load during an 8-year period were
                  delivered during six flood events. Knowledge of relationships between tributary flow and the
                  timing of nutrient loadings is essential to the development of models that predict nutrient
                  loadings from tributary sources accurately.

                        Knowledge of the role of episodic events on deposition rates, fate, and transport of
                  nonpoint source nutrient loadings is incomplete. Methods for obtaining quantitative data on
                  rates and types of nutrient deposition during various atmospheric and climatic events would
                  need to be developed to improve our understanding in this area. This may necessitate
                  modification of traditional monitoring strategies.

                                                                      80

                                                                                                          Nutrients

                                                  Effect on Marine Ecosystems

              Manaizement Ouestion 2: How do nutrient invuts affect marine ecosystems?

              Information Needs

                   2a. Which nutrients limit primary productivity?

                   2b. How do nutrients affect productivity, function, and structure of marine ecosystems?

              2a. Which nutrients limit mimary moductivity?

                   The question of which nutrients limit primary productivity is a central management
              concern. Mitigation policy can be formulated and implemented effectively only when
              environmental responses to changes in nutrient loadings can be predicted accurately. Of the
              macronutrients, phosphorus is the least abundant nutrient in the hydrosphere. Phosphorus is
              considered to be the limiting nutrient in many water bodies (Edmondson, 1972; Fuhs et al., ,
              1972; Maloney et al., 1972; Powers et al., 1972; Schelske and Stoermer, 1972; GLWQB, 1987).
              Phytoplankton require nutrients in a ratio of about 16 nitrogen atoms for each phosphorus
              atom, which corresponds to their relative cellular composition of these elements. This ratio is
              known as the Redfield ratio. Nutrient- limiting environments contain nitrogen and phosphorus
              ratios either higher or lower than the Redfield ratio, depending on which nutrient is in
              shorter supply. Water column nitrogen concentrations are usually more than an order of
              magnitude greater than phosphorus concentrations in freshwater systems. Thus, biological
              demand for nitrogen and phosphorus in these systems will result in depletion of phosphorus
              before nitrogen. Under these conditions, phosphorus is the most effective agent both in
              promoting and in limiting freshwater primary productivity (Wetzel, 1975).

                   Regulatory agencies have used the principle of "phosphate limitation" by restricting the
              use of phosphate detergents and by limiting the allowable concentrations of phosphorus in
              effluents. Trends in water quality data and phytoplankton distribution and biomass
              demonstrate that management of phosphorus loadings has been successful in many freshwater
              bodies, including the Great Lakes (GLWQB, 1987) and Lake Washington, Washington State
              (Edmondson, 1972).

                   Researchers now debate whether nitrogen may be more important than phosphorus in
              controlling primary production in marine and estuarine waters (Smith, 1984; D'Elia, 1987).
              Nitrogen limitations in estuaries depend on factors other than relative concentrations of
              alloclithonous nutrient inputs. Nutrient recycling and benthic-pelagic flux can influence
              greatly the relative amounts of biologically available nutrients. Studies by D'Elia (1987),
              Fisher and Doyle (1987), and Garber (1987) support the hypothesis that nitrogen is the limiting
              nutrient in the Chesapeake Bay. Studies by D'Elia indicate that much of the nitrogen entering
              the estuary is removed from the ecosystem by denitrification (conversion to nitrogen gas),
              while phosphorus is conserved in the ecosystem in the sediment. Fisher and Doyle (1987)
              found that recycling rates of nitrogen and phosphorus differed seasonally in a pattern that
              would support the theory of a phosphorus- limited system during the low-salinity conditions of
              spring and a nitrogen- limited system during higher-salinity summer conditions. Studies by
              Garber (1987) indicate that only a small amount of nitrogen input to the Chesapeake Bay
              becomes trapped in the sediment. Additionally, data on nutrient flux from sediment to

                                                               81

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                 overlaying waters indicate that there is an apparent loss of nitrogen relative to phosphorus in
                 Chesapeake Bay sediments. There is also growing evidence that much of the allochthonous
                 nutrient inputs to an estuary are eventually exported to the ocean (Nixon et al., 1986b).

                      To be able to distinguish among anthropogenic effects of nutrients in the marine
                 environment, a better understanding of nutrient limitation and effects of nutrient inputs on
                 phytoplanklon populations is needed. Specifically, additional research to determine under what
                 conditions phosphorus or nitrogen become the limiting nutrient in coastal, estuarine, and Great
                 Lakes ecosystems is fundamental to this management question.

                 2b. How do nutrients affect vroductivity. function, and structure of marine ecosystems?

                      The response of an ecosystem to nutrient inputs depends on many factors, including the
                 timing, amounts, and kinds of nutrient loadings, and the physical, climatic, and biological
                 characteristics of the system. Excessive nutrient inputs accelerate eutrophication, causing
                 increased phytoplankton blooms and biomass. Eutrophication also results in changes in
                 phytoplankton species composition; in some instances, to "undesirable" or "nuisance" species
                 which have less nutritional value or which are toxic (Gearing et al., 1984; Oviatt et al., 1984;
                 Oviatt et al., 1986; Verity, 1987; Fulton and Paerl, 1987; Paerl, 1988a). High concentrations of
                 nutrients also may exhibit direct toxicity to some organisms (Sullivan and Ritacco, 1985).
                 Alterations in populations of primary producers have ramifications throughout the ecosystem by
                 altering food webs (Grassle and Grassle, 1984; Grassle et al, 1985; Verity, 1987). One
                 consequence of a large, inedible phytoplankton biomass is increased deposition of organic
                 carbon (Rudnick and Oviatt, 1986), which may feed increased bacterial and micro-protozoan
                 populations. Increased oxygen demand is another consequence (Hobbie and Cole, 1984). This
                 microbial food web may shunt organic matter and energy away from commercially important
                 species of fish and shellfish, and may contribute to development and maintenance of hypoxic
                 and anoxic conditions (Verity, 1987).

                      Most current Federal programs that sponsor nutrient research include various aspects of
                 research that address nutrient cycling and nutrient limitations. Research into global nutrient
                 cycling and impacts of nutrients on distribution of phytoplankton is being carried out under
                 NASA's Ocean Productivity Program and the NSF's Global Ocean Flux Program. The FWS is
                 studying nutrient cycling in coastal marshes in its Research and Development Program. Under
                 the USDA's Nonpoint Source Contaminants Program and Habitat Modification Program, the
                 effects of agriculture, forestry, and watershed development activities and nutrient
                 transformation in soils are being studied to understand nutrient dynamics, fates, and
                 transformation. Mesocosm studies conducted by the EPA investigate the effects of nutrient
                 loadings on estuaries. The EPA Great Lakes Program and Chesapeake Bay Program include
                 research on the effects of nutrients on food web dynamics. NOAA's National Marine
                 Sanctuary Program, Great Lakes Pollution Studies Program, National Fishery Ecology Program,
                 and Sea Grant -Ocean Pollution Program are all funding basic research into nutrient dynamics..
                 Both the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' Habitat Quality Program and the U.S. Department of
                 Energy's Regional Marine Program address aspects of nutrient cycling.

                      Evidence has lead many researchers to believe that excessive anthropogenic nutrient
                 inputs have harmed coastal ecosystems by altering the trophic structure. Confirmation of the
                 extent of this problem will require quantitative data on both nutrient inputs and conditions of
                 aquatic biota. The use of physical model ecosystems (e.g., mesocosms and microcosms) can
                 contribute to our understanding of the dynamic relationships among nutrient inputs, primary

                                                                   82

                                                                                                              Nutrients

              producers, and consumers. Extensive field research and monitoring also would be necessary if
              we are to determine the degree to which trophic structures already have changed and to
              determine effective mediation and mitigation procedures for restoring ecosystem health. This
              also will entail determining how reduced nutrient inputs will affect productivity of upper
              trophic-level organisms.

                                                   Causes of Hypoxia and Anoxia

              Manaeement Ouestion 3: What causes hvipoxia and anoxia in coastal environments?

              Information Need

              3a. To what extent, and by what mechanisms, do nutrient innuts contribute to develooment
              and maintenance of hypoxic/anoxic conditions?

                    Important consequences of excessive nutrient loadings to a water body are hypoxia and
              anoxia. Data from mesocosm studies and from the Chesapeake Bay indicate that "increased
              primary productivity and elevated organic loadings of the water column and benthos stimulate
              microbial utilization of most or all of the available oxygen." (Verity, 1987). In the Chesapeake
              Bay, rapid development of hypoxia has been associated with decomposition of phytoplankton
              blooms coupled with increases in temperature and stratification (Magnien, 1987). Hypoxic
              conditions have been observed in a large number of U.S. coastal waters and estuaries
              (Whitledge, 1985). The susceptibility of a water body to hypoxia and anoxia may depend on
              physical characteristics of a basin in addition to anthropogenic nutrient loadings (Whitledge,
              1985).

                    Considerable Federal research and monitoring is being conducted to understand and
              quantify the serious implications of hypoxia and anoxia to living resources. Phere are,
              however, some aspects of the problem where additional information would greatly enhance
              management's ability to mitigate the "greening" of the Nation's estuaries. Although it is
              accepted that allochthonous loadings of nutrients can lead to increased primary productivity,
              the quantitative relationship of allochthonous versus autoch1honous inputs to eutrophication is
              not well understood. More accurate, precise, and applicable information would help to
              determine the role, in primary production, of external nutrient loadings and cycling of
              nutrients in the water column and across the sediment-water interface. The historical basis
              for whether incidences of hypoxia and anoxia have increased over time has not been resolved.
              This issue should be studied and resolved.

                                                  Adequacy of Analytical Methods

              Manaaement Ouestion 4: Are conventional analytical methodologies adequate for nutrient
              research?

              Information Need

              4a. Are available analytical technioues sufficient for addressing nitropen and phosr)horus
              cycling in aciuatic ecosystems?

                                                                  83

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       Analytical methods are chosen to provide good historical comparisons, characterize
                 baseline conditions, determine and predict trends in water quality, develop mathematical models
                 and nutrient budgets, and identify important processes that affect water quality. However, the
                 desire to maintain comparability with historical data and among various programs often
                 institutionalizes "traditional" methods, even when they may be inadequate for addressing
                 research needs. D'Elia et al. (1987) point out that "although comparability is clearly a valid
                 concern, it can be argued that if historical methods are inadequate, then comparability is a
                 moot point." Institutionalization of methodologies may have the additional effect of deterring
                 development and use of more precise, accurate, and economical methods (D'Elia and Sanders,
                 1987; D'Elia et al., 1987). For example, D'Elia et al. (1987) found that direct determination of
                 particulate nitrogen and phosphorus is significantly more precise, accurate, and inexpensive
                 than the EPA-approved method of calculating the difference between whole and filtered water
                 samples. Although the EPA method is sufficient for addressing problems of regulatory
                 compliance with "end-of-pipe" water quality standards (the purpose for which the methods
                 were chosen originally), it is not sufficiently accurate to analyze low concentrations of
                 nutrients found in coastal waters.

                       Many standard methods for analyzing water quality and for measuring phytoplankton
                 populations are inappropriate for research requirements. Often, where better methods exist,
                 they are not widely used. A review of existing analytical procedures for sensitivity indicates
                 that there is a general need for methods that are more accurate and precise. This is
                 particularly true for fractional analysis nutrients, such as carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
                 silicon. Advances in this area would be necessary if we are to improve estimates of elemental
                 standing stocks and budgets. Some review of analytical methods has been sponsored by EPA's
                 Chesapeake Bay Program and Puget Sound Program. Recently, the Scientific and Technical
                 Advisory Committee of the Chesapeake Bay Program (STAC, 1988) addressed this issue by
                 recommending that the "evaluation and analysis of monitoring data and techniques to enable
                 development of cost efficient, cost effective monitoring to support proposed strategies" be
                 made a research priority in 1988. This and similar recommendations, as well as sponsorship of
                 research and development of new and improved analytical methodologies for quantifying trace-
                 level concentrations, would allow more effective research on nutrient cycling in aquatic
                 ecosystems.

                                                     Conclusions and Recommendations

                       Excessive anthropogenic nutrient inputs have resulted in degradation of water quality
                 and adverse effects on living marine resources in waters along all of the coasts of the United
                 States. Anthropogenic nutrient inputs can cause accelerated eutrophication, which in turn can
                 lead to hypoxic and anoxic conditions as well as alter food webs to favor less desirable
                 species at higher trophic levels. Such conditions make these waters unsuitable as habitat for
                 valuable living marine resources. Although much research has already been conducted on
                 nutrient pollution, and several point sources of nutrients have come under increased control,
                 many unanswered questions remain which would require a continued research effort on the
                 part of the Federal Government to address. The following conclusions relating to our current
                 state of knowledge concerning sources, fates, and effects of nutrients in aquatic environments
                 are based on the discussions of management questions and information needs presented in the
                 previous section.

                                                                      84

                                                                                                                          Nutrients

                     o   Although we have much information on loadings from point sources of nutrients, we
                         have very little information on the role of groundwater and atmospheric routes of
                         input, and on the role of runoff during episodic events.

                     o   Although phosphorus appears to be the limiting nutrient in most freshwater systems,
                         nutrient limitations in coastal and estuarine systems are not fully understood and may
                         vary from place to place as well as seasonally.

                     o   Evidence exists to suggest that excessive anthropogenic nutrient inputs have altered
                         the trophic structure of some coastal ecosystems.
                     o   The quantitative relationship between allochthonous: (external) and autochthonous
                         (recycled) nutrient sources to eutrophication and hypoxia and anoxia is not well
                         understood.

                     o   Many current analytical methods for nutrients are inadequate, or if adequate, are not
                         widely used.

                     Based on these conclusions, the following recommendations are made to improve our
               understanding of the sources, fates, and effects of nutrients entering the marine environment
               as a result of human activities.

                                                                Nutrient Sources

                     The following information is needed to improve our understanding of the role               of various
               sources in nutrient loading.

               Atmosipheric and Groundwater Sources. As traditional point sources of nutrients are
               controlled, determining the mechanisms of loadings and quantifying nonpoint sources of
               nutrients need to be emphasized. To this end, additional research would allow us to determine
               the significance of atmospheric and groundwater sources of nutrients in estuaries and coastal
               areas.

               Episodic Events. Research would help to determine the significance of seasonal runoff and
               aperiodic storms as sources of nutrients and their role in controlling the rates of production
               in marine ecosystems. Methods for gathering quantitative data on the rates of nutrient inputs
               during episodic events need to be developed.

               Allochthonous versus Autochthonous Sources. Additional information would allow us to
               determine the role of allochthonous versus autochthonous nutrient inputs to a water body and
               the subsequent changes in water quality and ecosystem response.

                                                                System Response

                     The following work would improve our understanding of system-level response to
               excessive nutrient inputs.

                                                                        85

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                 Limitine Nutrients. Research is needed to determine the conditions under which either
                 phosphorus or nitrogen limit primary productivity in coastal, estuarine, and Great Lakes
                 ecosystems. Studies need to be conducted under various seasonal as well as physical and
                 chemical conditions.

                 System Response to Eu troph i cation. Quantitative data on nutrient inputs and research on
                 biotic response to nutrients are needed to understand the relationship between nutrient inputs,
                 primary producers, and consumers. Such research should be designed to determine the degree
                 of trophic structure changes resulting from excessive nutrient inputs.

                                                      Measurement Methodologies

                       The following work is needed to improve standard methods for conducting water quality
                 analyses and for measuring phytoplankton populations.

                 Analytical Methods. The Federal Government should sponsor research into new and improved
                 analytical methods that are both more accurate and precise for measuring nutrients and their
                 effects in the marine environment.

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                 Marine Ecosystems: A Comparison of Results from Bioassays and Enclosed Experimental
                 Ecosystems. Aquat. Toxicol. 7:205-217.

           Swain, L.A. 1988. U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, VA. Personal Communication.

           Tuttle, J.H., E.E. Rodoz, and C.L. Divan. 1987. Contribution of Sulfur Cycling to Anoxia in
                 Chesapeake Bay, pp. 100-102. In Dissolved Oxygen in the Chesaneake Bay:, Process and
                 Effects. Proceedings of a Seminar on Hyr)oxic and Related Proce@ses in Chesapeake Bay
                 (G.B. Mackiernan, ed.). Maryland Sea Grant Publication, University of Maryland, College
                 Park, MD.

           Uye, S., S. Kasahara, and T. Onbe. 1979. Calanoid Copepod Eggs in Sea-Bottom Muds. IV.
                 Effects of Some Environmental Factors on the Hatching of Resting Eggs. Mar. Biol.
                 51:151-156.

           Verity, P.G. 1987. Factors Driving Changes in the Pelagic Trophic Structure of Estuaries,
                 with Implications for Chesapeake Bay, pp. 35-56. In Perst)ectives on the Chesaveake Bay:
                 Recent Advances in Estuarine Sciences (M.P. Lynch and E.C. Krome, eds.). Chesapeake
                 Bay Program and Chesapeake Research Consortium, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
                 Gloucester Point, VA. CBP/TRS 16/87. CRC Publication No. 127.

           Webb, K.L. and C.F. D'Elia. 1980. Nutrient and Oxygen Redistribution During a Spring Neap
                 Tidal Cycle in a Temperate Estuary. Science. 207:983-985.

                                                           93

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  Wetzel, R.G. 1975. Limnology. Saunders College Publishing/Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
                       743 pp.

                  Wezernak, C.T. and J.J. Gannon. 1967. Oxygen-Nitrogen Relationships in Autotrophic
                       Nitrification. Am. Soc. Microbiol. 15(5):1211-1215.

                  Whitledge, T.E. 1985. Nationwide Review of Oxygen Depletion and Eutrophication in
                       Estuarine and Coastal Waters. Submitted to the Ocean Assessments Division, National
                       Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD.
                       28 pp.

                                                                 94

                                                                                                    Biological Agents

              GOAL 3: UNDERSTAND THE SOURCES, FATES, AND EFFECTS ON MARINE ORGANISMS OF
              BIOLOGICAL AGENTS THAT ARE INTRODUCED OR INFLUENCED BY HUMAN ACTIVITIES

             Goal Definition  . . . . . .. . . . .        I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       96

                   Sources of Biological Agents  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         96
                   Effects of Biological Agents  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         97

             Federal Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          101
                   Federal Legislation and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       101
                   Federal Programs  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         103
             Management Questions and Information Needs     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      104
                   Problems Associated With Biological Agents.   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     104
                   Characteristics. Requirements, and Mechanisms   of Pathogenicity  . . . . . . .   107

                   Sources of Human Influence    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       108
                   Prediction, Control, and Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       110
             Conclusions and Recommendations     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       III

                   Cause Unknown   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         114

                   Biological Agents Suspected   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . .       114
                   Knowledge of Impact Incomplete    . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .      114
                   Mitigation of Impacts  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        114

             Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          115

                   The presence of some biological agents in the marine environment may increase the
             incidence of various diseases among marine organisms, causing decreases in the population size
             or economic value of the affected species. Susceptibility of marine organisms to these
             biological agents may be increased as a result of pollution, and human activities may
             introduce, or induce the proliferation of, biological agents. The resources of concern include
             those that the Federal Government is mandated to protect, conserve, or manage such as
             marine mammals, fish and shellfish stocks, populations of endangered species, and ecologically
             important species or communities. Therefore, understanding the sources, fates, and effects of
             biological agents that are introduced or influenced by human activities is one of the six goals
             of the National Marine Pollution Program. This discussion focuses on microbial agents whose
             presence in the marine environment affects other marine organisms; human health effects are
             considered elsewhere in the Plan.

                                                                95

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                             Goal Definition

                       For the purpose of this Plan, biological agents have been categorized as pathogens of,
                 marine organisms, toxic plankton, and introduced organisms. Known pathogens include
                 bacteria, viruses, protozoans, and fungi. It is the presence and.action,of these agents within
                 the tissues of affected organisms that cause an adverse impact. Toxic plankton are
                 differentiated from pathogens by their mode of action; adverse effects may result through
                 exposure to some toxin that is released by the plankton. Introduced organisms are organisms
                 that do not occur naturally in the specific marine environment in question but have been
                 introduced as a result of human activities. These include nonindigenous species and
                 bioengineered organisms. Introduced species may be either macro- or microorganisms and may
                 become pathogenic or toxic, or compete with indigenous species in their new environment.
                 Macroorganisms may deleteriously affect the ecological balance by competing with indigenous
                 species for resources such as space or nutrients, or through a more direct impact such as
                 predation. The subject of introductions of macroorganisms is too broad to be addressed
                 adequately within the context of this chapter; therefore, the discussion of introduced species
                 will be limited primarily to microorganisms.

                       While the occurrence and action of some biological agents in the marine environment is
                 known to be pollution -related, for others the link to pollution is only suspected, and all are
                 clearly influenced by natural phenomena. Pollution may affect the action of a biological agent
                 in two ways. A pathogen may be introduced or proliferate in the marine environment as a
                 result of human activity. A concurrent increase in the incidence of disease among marine
                 organisms may result from increased exposure to those agents. For example, the numbers of
                 Vibrio anguillarum in the water column and sediment were shown to increase in the vicinity of
                 a discharge of wastewater from a sugar plant (Colwell and Grimes, 1984). Alternately,
                 environmental stresses caused by toxic chemicals in the water, or changes in salinity or
                 temperature,  for example, could increase the susceptibility of organisms to endemic
                 opportunistic pathogens (Colwell and Grimes, 1984). Fin erosion in fish, infections caused by
                 opportunistic Vibrio spp., bacterial hemorrhagic septicemia caused by Aeromonas spp. and
                 Pseudomonas   spp., and protozoan and fungal infestations (Costia necatrix and Savrolegnia spp.)
                 are examples  of secondary fish infections that occur when fish face environmental stresses
                 (O'Connor et al., 1987; Sindermann, 1982; Wedermeyer et al., 1984).

                                                       Sources of Biological Agents

                       Biological agents can enter the marine environment directly as a result of human
                 activities or exist naturally in the water column, sediments, or biota. In addition, some
                 populations of agents may increase from a low level, which is normally sustained in the
                 environment, to a higher level, which may impact other marine organisms. These increases in
                 activity or blooms can be caused by human-induced alterations in environmental conditions.
                 Also, some microbes may persist in the sediment in the form of cysts, becoming active when
                 resuspended or ingested by the appropriate host organism.

                      Direct sources of biological agents resulting from land- or water-based human activities
                 include:

                       o Disposal of domestic, industrial, food preparation, and hospital wastes;

                       o  Runoff from feedlots, agricultural, or urban areas;

                                                                     96

                                                                                                 Biological Agents

                  o Accidental or deliberate inputs from research and educational laboratories;

                  o Application of biological control agents;

                  o  Translocation of species through shipping activities, water ballast, and intentional
                     transplanting;

                  o  Human flora introduction through recreational activities; and

                  o  Introductions associated with aquaculture and aquarium display.

                  Anthropogenic alterations to environmental conditions that may favor the redistribution
            and/or enhanced proliferation of biological agents include the following:

                  o  Environmental disturbances (dredging or shipping) resulting in resuspension and
                     transport of sediments and sludges;

                  o  Changes in the physical environment, e.g., temperature (cooling water discharges),
                     salinity, and turbidity (dredging); and

                  o  Changes in water chemistry through introduction of chemicals, e.g., nitrogen,
                     phosphorus, and micronutrients.

                                                 Effects of Biological Agents

                  Table 5 is a list of examples of biological agents, their sources, human influence,
            resources affected, and impact. Some examples within the three groups of agents are
            discussed below, as well as diseases of unknown etiology and plasmid exchange.

            Pathoizens

                  Pathogenic organisms include but are not limited to bacteria'viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
            The presence of some pathogens may facilitate the action of secondary infections in marine
            organisms. Also, defense mechanisms of environmentally stressed marine organisms may be
            altered to such an extent that resistance to pathogens is lowered. Such interactions are
            exemplified by the increased mortality found among penaeid shrimp infected by baculovirus and
            suffering from environmentally induced stresses, generalized bacterial infections, or fouling
            organisms.

                  Leptospirosis, a disease associated with multiple hemorrhage syndrome in fur seals and
            sea lions, is an example of a disease caused by bacterial agents in the marine environment
            (Vedros et al., 1971; Smith et al., 1977). The causative agent of this disease, Levtosvira spp.,
            is most frequently acquired through the food ch@ain by pups in their first year of pelagic
            existence (Smith et al., 1977). Environmental pollution, particularly the tissue accumulation of
            organochlorine and polychlorinated biphenyl compounds, is believed to increase the
            susceptibility of these animals to disease (Howard, 1984).

                                                              97

                           GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                    Table 5. Examples of Biological Agents, Their Sources, Human influence, and Impact on Living
                                                 Marine Resources

                                    Category & Agent              Source             Human Influence          Resource Affected          Impact

                                    PATHOGENS

                                    a) Bacteria
                                    Edwardsella tarda             unknown            unknown                  fish, marine               Hemmorrhagic disease in fish.
                                                                                                              mammals                    Peritonitis. Opportunistic invader
                                                                                                                                         of sick and injured mammals.
                                                                                                                                         (Coles, et al., 1978)
                                    Salmonella spp.               unknown            unknown                  marine mammals             Juvenile mortality. Gulls aid in
                                                                                                                                         spreading disease (Gilmartin, et
                                                                                                                                         al., 1979)
                                    Staphylococcus aureus         unknown            unknown                  dolphins, pilot            Cerebral abscesses resulting in
                                    Staphylococcus equi           equine                                      whales, and other          strandings (Colgrove and Migaki,
                                                                                                              marine mammals             1976). Brochopneumonia induced
                                                                                                                                         mortalities (Higgins, et al., 1980)
                                    Leptospira spp.               indigenous         unknown                  pinnepeds                  Leptospirosis, multiple hemorrhage
                                                                                                                                         syndrome, strandings, mortality
                                                                                                                                         (Verdos at al., 1971; Smith et al.,
                                                                                                                                         1977)
                                    Vibrio spp                    indigenous         pollution stress         fish, arthropods,          Red sore disease, ulcers, skin
                                                                                     enhances disease         mollusks                   lesions, hemorrhage. Vibriosis
                                                                                                                                         generally affects stressed
                                                                                                                                         organisms (Colwell & Grimes 1984)
                                    Seneckea spp                  indigenous         unknown                  crustaceans                Shell disease, black spot disease.
                                    Pseudomonas spp                                                                                      Disease enhanced by high
                                    Leucothrix spp                                                                                       temperature and crowding
                                    b) Viruses
                                    Adenovirus                    unknown            environmental            fish                       Epithelial hyperplasias (Bloch et
                                                                                     stress enhances                                     al., 1986)
                                                                                     disease
                                    Influenza A                   human              unknown                  marine mammals             strandings, mortalities (Hindshaw
                                                                                                                                         et al., 1986 (Geraci et al., 1982)
                                    Baculoviridae                 unknown            enhanced by              mollusks                   Mortality
                                    Herpesviridae                                    environmental            crustaceans
                                    lridoviridae                  mammalian          enhanced by              mollusks, fish             Mortality associated
                                    Papovaviridae                 unknown            environmental            mollusks                   with neoplasms (Johnson 1984)
                                    Calicivirus                   indigenous         unknown                  pinnipeds                  Premature partultion
                                                                  to Pacific                                  fish

                                    c) Fungi
                                    lchthyophonus spp             indigenous         dredging,                fish                       Mortality
                                    Blastomyces spp               unknown            resuspension,            marine mammals             Dermatitis, systemic infections,
                                    Lagenidium spp                indigenous         stress                   shrimp                     mortality
                                    Fusarium spp                  unknown            shrimp, sharks

                                    TOXIC PLANKTON

                                    Dinoflagellates               indigenous         blooms are               shellfish                  Concentrate in shellfish cause
                                    Raphidophytes                                    enhanced by              fish, and                  mortalities in shellfish, fish,
                                    Prymnesiophytes                                  nutrient inputs          marine mammals             marine mammals. Produce anoxic
                                    Nonflagellated red algae                                                                             conditions resulting in fish kills.
                                    Cyanobacteria

                                    INTRODUCED
                                    ORGANISMS
                                    Mytillecula orientalis        Japan              introduced with          oysters & mollusks         Substantial reduction in shellfish
                                    (Copepod parasite)                               Japanese seed                                       stocks, commercial exploitation
                                                                                     oysters                                             of oyster grounds abandoned
                                    Minchinia nelsoni             unknown            incidence spread         oysters                    Causative agent of MSX.
                                    (protozoan)                                      on East coast with                                  Destruction of many oyster
                                                                                     contaminated                                        grounds.
                                                                                     shipments         '

                                                                                                           98

                                                                                                      Biological Agents

                  Bacteria of the genus Vibrio are ubiquitous in the marine environment. Characteristics of
              fish diseases caused by Vibrio spp. include skin lesions and ulcers. Outbreaks of Vibriosis are
              generally attributable to some form of environmental stress or exposure to metal
              contamination, which increases the susceptibility of the fish to the disease (Colwell and
              Grimes, 1984). A high correlation between the occurrence of V. anguillarum in fish and
              contamination by wastewater discharges has been observed (Larsen et al., 1978). In addition,
              significantly higher concentrations of antibodies to V. anguillarum were observed in flounder
              collected from the New York Bight apex than in flounder from unpolluted coastal waters
              (Robohm et al., 1979).

                    Viruses may affect a variety of marine fish (Bloch et al., 1986) and shellfish (Couch,
              1978). Type A Influenza virus is an example of a human pathogen which has been implicated
              in mortalities of harbour seals and pilot whales (Murphy et al., 1983; Geraci et al., 1982; 1983;
              Hinshaw et al., 1986). Influenza A viruses found in whales in one study were believed to be
              dispersed in seagull feces (Geraci et al., 1983).

                    Human influence on the incidence of fungal diseases of marine organisms is not well
              documented; however, the following are examples of fungi that have impacted living marine
              resources. Blastomyces is a fungus found in dolphins and sea lions. This atypical yeast is an
              opportunistic invader of compromised marine marnmals, and may cause fatal systemic or
              respiratory disease. Members of the genus Ichthypyhonus are the major fungal agents that
              cause dermal disorders in marine finfish. Fungi of the genera Lagenidium and Fusarium are
              responsible for diseases in penaeid shrimp (Couch, 1978).

                    Protozoa represent a group of pathogens that have been responsible for major impacts to
              economically important marine resources. Multinucleated sphere unknown (MSX) is probably
              one of the most devastating epizootic diseases to affect marine resources reported in the
              United States. The organism responsible for MSX outbreaks is the protozoan Hat)losr)oridium
              nelsoni. This disease has devastated the oyster industry on the east coast of the United
              States, causing mortalities of up to 90% of the population in some localities. Severe
              mortalities of oysters were first observed in the Delaware Bay in 1957, and in the lower
              Chesapeake Bay in 1960. MSX was probably spread to Massachusetts with shipments of
              infected oysters from the James River in Virginia (Rosenfield and Kern, 1978). The spread
              and severity of H. nelsoni is related to high salinity, mortalities being observed most often in
              waters of > 15 ppt (Rosenfield and Kern, 1978). Human- influenced alterations in freshwater
              movement in estuaries have contributed to the upstream spread of this disease.

              Toxic Plankton Blooms

                    Toxic plankton cause deleterious effects by releasing toxins into the environment as well
              as by depleting oxygen in waters where blooms occur. Toxic plankton belong to a few groups;
              the majority are dinoflagellates, while the rest are chloromonads (Raphidophytes),
              Prymnesiophytes (nonflagellated red algae), and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) (Taylor, 1985).

                    Toxic plankton blooms have been correlated with freshwater influxes and certain
              temperature regimes (Therriault et al., 1985). Increased frequencies of blooms may be
              associated with growing industrialization and associated nutrient inputs into affected waters
              (MacLean and White, 1985).

                                                                  99

                   GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                         The accumulation of dinoflagellate toxins in bivalves has resulted in the closure of
                   shellfish beds. In addition, toxic plankton blooms have been implicated in fish and marine
                   mammal mortalities. Recently, toxic plankton have destroyed scallop beds in North Carolina
                   and fish populations off the coast of Texas. Blooms of Prymnesium calathiferum have
                   coincided with fish and shellfish mortalities in New Zealand (Chang, 1985). Massive fish
                   mortalities in the Faroe Islands have been caused by Gonvaulax.excavata red tides (Mortensen,
                   1985).

                   Introduced Organisms

                         Introduced organisms do not exist naturally in a specific marine environment or region,
                   but occur as a result of human activities. These organisms include nonindigenous species and
                   bioengineered organisms. Introduced organisms may be pathogens, parasites, toxic plankton,
                   predators, or competitors and thereby exert a negative influence on indigenous populations.

                         The inadvertent introduction of infectious disease-causing agents carried with
                   intentionally introduced species exemplifies the problems caused by the movement of organisms
                   to new areas. The careless transfer of diseased oyster stocks into previously disease-free
                   areas is responsible for adverse impacts on existing biota. For example, the spread of MSX
                   was probably aided by the transfer of infected oysters from the Chesapeake Bay to
                   Massachusetts (Rosenfield and Kern, 1978). In addition, toxic plankton inoculates and other
                   pathogenic organisms have the potential to be introduced with cultures of marine organisms.

                         The introduction of bioengineered organisms has not yet been permitted in the marine
                   environment. However, bioengineered organisms released on land may persist and be
                   transported to the sea. Recent evidence suggests that genetically engineered organisms may
                   persist in the marine environment longer than previously believed (Colwell et al., 1985), and
                   eventually impact living Marine resources.

                         Another concern is the effect that novel, nonbioengineered organisms released in
                   artificially high densities for the control of one species could have on related nontarget
                   species. For example, the possibility exists that a bacterium or virus targeted at insect
                   populations could be transported to the marine environment and infect marine arthropod
                   species such as shrimp, crabs, and lobster (Rosenfield, 1988).

                   Diseases of Unknown Etiolotzy and Plasmid Exchange

                         There are many cases of diseases where the impact on marine resources has been severe,
                   but where the etiology is unknown. The recent increase in the incidence of bottlenose
                   dolphin and whale beachings along the east coast of the United States and the Gulf of St.
                   Lawrence has aroused interest in determining whether human influence is involved in this
                   phenomenon. Biological agents are one of the suspected causes of these beachings.

                         Neoplasms present a serious problem affecting the softshell clam industry. Neoplasms in
                   the clam Mva arenaria were first observed in England by Yevich and Barszcz (1976) and later
                   were found in the clams of the Chesapeake Bay (Farley, 1978). Neoplasms are now present in
                   50 to 60% of the clams sampled in the bay. The occurrence of neoplasms is enhanced when

                                                                          100

                                                                                                      Biological Agents

             clams face natural environmental stresses such as changes in temperature and salinity
             (Sindermann, 1982). A viral etiology is suspectedi but remains unproven (Sindermann, 1982).
             Also, the exact influence of pollution is not known.

                   The coral reef environment has recently been subject to damage of unknown causes. In
             1982, and again in 1987, scleratinian corals in many areas of the Caribbean, Bahamas, and
             Florida were affected by a bleaching disease resulting from loss of zooxanthellae.
             Zooxanthellae are algal cells that exist symbiotically and aid in the biological functions of
             coral tissue. The synchronicity of bleaching events throughout the Caribbean has raised
             concern that some biological agent may be involved in this disease (Roberts, 1988). In 1983,
             mass mortalities of the black sea urchin resulted in the virtual disappearance of this
             ecologically important species from coral reefs in the Caribbean basin. No cause has been
             discovered for this phenomenon (Williams and Williams, 1987).

                   Plasmid exchange is also an area of concern. This process, which involves the transfer
             of genes from one microorganism to another, may confer certain undesirable characteristics to
             a previously benign agent. Plasmid exchange has the potential of creating virulence or
             resistance to antibiotics in microorganisms (McConnell et at., 1979). Plasmid exchange could
             result in the creation of novel forms in a process similar to genetic engineering. The
             development of resistance to antibiotics by certain pathogenic organisms exposed to outflows
             or antibiotic dumps has been demonstrated for bacteria associated with mammals (Flint et al.,
             1987; Wachsmuth et al., 1983). Such novel strains may defy attempts to control their spread
             and mitigate impact on marine resources.

                                                            Federal Role

                   The Federal legislation, regulations, and programs that address the issue of the sources,
             fates, and effects of biological agents in the marine environment are discussed in this section.
             Additional discussions of Federal programs as related to specific information needs are
             presented under the management questions that follow this,review of the Federal role. More
             detailed information on the Federal programs and projects that address the issue of biological
             agents in the marine environment can be found in the National Marine Pollution Program,
             Summary of Federal Programs and Projects (NOAA, 198.7).

                                                Federal Legislation and Regulations

                   The major Federal legislative mandates relating to discharges into marine waters that
             potentially affect or contain biological agents are the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as
             amended (FWPCA, or Clean Water Act), and the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
             Act (MPRSA). These Acts regulate and require research and monitoring to assess impacts
             from such discharges.

                   The FWPCA represents the most comprehensive statute regulating marine pollution.
             Under the FWPCA the term contaminant includes biological substances that may be in the
             material proposed for discharge. The stated goal of the FWPCA is to restore and maintain the
             chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the nation's waters. Section 402 of the Act
             establishes the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Program to control
             point source discharges into the nation's surface waters. Under this program dischargers are
             required to disclose the nature and volume of their discharges, and to restore and maintain

                                                                 101

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  the quality of these waters. The EPA is authorized to specify limitations to be imposed on
                  such dischargers, and requires the dischargers to monitor and report their compliance with the
                  limitations. In addition, under Section 403(c), EPA is required to establish ocean discharge
                  criteria guidelines for determining unreasonable degradation prior to the issuance of permits.
                  Under Section 104 of the FWPCA, EPA is to cooperate with other Federal, state, and local
                  agencies to conduct and promote the coordination of research "...relating to the causes,
                  effects, extent, prevention, reduction, and elimination of pollution..." Section 403 of the Act
                  authorizes EPA to assess the impact of a discharge on both the biological community in the
                  area of the discharge and on surrounding biological communities.

                        The Water Quality Act (1987 amendments to FWPCA) establishes a national program for
                  the control of nonpoint sources of pollution. Under Section 316 of the Act, states are
                  required to identify the sources of nonpoint pollution that significantly contribute to pollution
                  in their waters, and describe their programs for controlling such sources.

                        Title I of the MPRSA provides for the regulation of ocean dumping of municipal and
                  industrial wastes, and dredged material in U.S. waters through the issuance of permits by ZPA
                  and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for dredged material. Ocean dumping permit reviews
                  are based on several criteria including:

                        o   The effect of dumping on human health and welfare;

                        o   The effect of dumping on marine ecosystems, particularly with respect to the transfer,
                            concentration, and dispersion of material and byproducts through biological, physical,
                            and chemical processes; potential changes in marine ecosystem diversity, productivity
                            and stability; aid species and community population dynamics;

                        o   The persistence of the effects of dumping; and

                        o   The appropriate location and method of disposal.

                        Title 11 of the MPRSA establishes a comprehensive monitoring and research program on
                  the effects of ocean dumping and long-term effects of pollution, overfishing, and man-induced
                  changes to the marine environment. This program includes assessment of the environment's
                  capacity to receive materials, and monitoring programs to assess the health of the marine
                  environment.

                        Various legislative mandates have been implemented to manage, protect, and conserve
                  living marine resources and often relate to impacts from marine pollution. Living marine
                  resources considered under these mandates include endangered species, marine mammals, and
                  ecologically and economically important marine species. Biological agents are included under
                  definitions of waste constituents that may endanger living marine resources. The major
                  Federal legislative mandates governing the management, protection, and conservation of living
                  marine resources potentially impacted by biological agents include the Endangered Species Act,
                  Marine Mammal Protection Act, Magnuson Fishery Conservation and Management Act
                  (Magnuson Act), and the Whale Conservation and Protection Study Act. NOAA has been given
                  management and conservation responsibilities under each of these acts, while FWS is
                  responsible for certain species under the Endangered Species Act and the Marine Mammal
                  Protection Act.

                                                                     102

                                                                                                    Biological Agents

                                                        Federal Programs

                  The research funded by the   Federal Government concerning biological agents has
            generally not been directed specifically to effects on marine organisms. Most of this research
            relates to human health concerns; therefore, much of it has not been very effective in
            addressing problem areas associated with the effects of agents.on marine biota.

                  NOAA, EPA, and FDA have funded the majority of Federal research on biological agents.
            Within NOAA, these activities are conducted by the National Marine Fisheries      Service (NMFS);
            the Sea Grant Program of the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research (OAR); and the
            Coastal and Estuarine Assessments Branch, Strategic Assessments Branch, and National Marine
            Sanctuaries Program of the National Ocean Service. These NOAA offices perform studies
            related to biological agents as part of the NOAA mandates to establish a comprehensive and
            continuing. program of monitoring and research with respect to the effects of pollution and to
            manage and protect living marine resources. Studies include monitoring the occurrence of
            pathogens and incidence of tissue lesions and other abnormalities in living marine resources,
            and research into the.causes of diseases and death among marine mammals, finfish, and
            shellfish. The agency develops techniques for determining the fate of sewage discharges and
            for detecting, identifying, and measuring biological agents in the marine environment. NOAA
            also maintains an inventory of the extent and status of shellfish areas in U.S. waters and
            compiles historical health data on estuarine shellfish areas.

                  Much of the research conducted by EPA that is directly related to the potential impacts
            of biological agents on the marine environment is performed at the agency's Environmental
            Research Laboratory in Gulf Breeze, Florida. Research conducted at this facility includes the
            development and laboratory testing of methods and procedures to determine the pathogenicity
            or toxicity of biological control agents to nontarget organisms and the assessment of potential
            ecological risk to the environment associated with the application of genetically engineered
            organisms. The EPA also conducts related research at its other environmental research
            laboratories, such as the Narragansett, Rhode Island laboratory, and supports studies related to
            biological agents through its National Estuary Program.

                  The FDA conducts extensive research on pathogens and other environmental hazards
            associated with fisheries products. While much of the research is oriented toward public
            health concerns, a significant amount deals with the identification of pathogens and
            deleterious materials, mechanisms of pathogenicity, and incidence and levels of contamination
            of estuarine samples with bacterial and viral pathogens, parasites, toxic plankton, and chemical
            hazards. In addition, the FDA maintains three regional laboratories dedicated solely to
            fisheries research and fisheries- related activities.

                  Although it is not a major supporter of studies concerned with the effects of biological
            agents in the marine environment, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) has funded related
            research. Specifically, DOE has investigated the increased susceptibility of marine organisms
            to infectious diseases when stressed by pollutants. The FWS and the U.S. Department of
            Agriculture also conduct some research activities related to biological agents in the marine
            environment.

                                                                103

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                               Management Ouestions and Information Needs

                        Human- influenced or -introduced biological agents and their impact on living marine
                  resources have received relatively little attention in the past as compared to other forms of
                  pollution, such as toxic chemical discharges and nutrient enrichment. In many cases, diseases
                  in populations of marine organisms have been observed that are suspected of being caused by
                  biological agents, but evidence linking the agent to the disease is lacking or incomplete. Four
                  management questions that need to be addressed to achieve the goal of understanding the
                  sources, fates, and effects of biological agents that have been introduced or influenced by
                  human activities in the marine environment are listed below. This section includes a
                  discussion of the rationale, current efforts, and remaining work associated with the
                  information needs for each management question.

                  Management Question 1: What problems are known or suspected to result from human
                  influence on, or introduction of, biological agents in the marine environment?

                  Management Question 2: What are the biological characteristics, environmental requirements,
                  and mechanisms of pathogenicity of the most significant biological agents?

                  Management Question 3: What are the sources and mechanisms of human influence on
                  biological agents in the marine environment?

                  Management Question 4: How can acute and chronic problems associated with biological
                  agents be predicted, controlled, and mitigated?

                                                Problems Associated with Biological Agents

                  Management Ouestion 1: What problems are known or suspected to result from human
                  influence on, or introduction of, biological atzents in the marine environment?

                  Information Needs

                        Ia.  What are the major concerns associated with pathogens?

                        I b. To what extent does pollution cause toxic plankton blooms, and what are the
                             resulting economically important fishery concerns?

                        I c. What are the effects of the introduction of nonindigenous species or bioengineered
                             organisms?

                  Ia. What are the maior concerns associated with imthoizens?

                        Much evidence exists to suggest that human influences on pathogens in the marine
                  environment may present a significant threat to valuable living marine resources. This
                  information has been summarized in the Goal Definition section above.

                        While research efforts sponsored by Federal agencies are primarily concerned with the
                  human health impacts of pathogens in the marine environment, some of these studies may also
                  apply to the effects of pathogens on marine resources. Such studies have been conducted

                                                                     104

                                                                                                 Biological Agents

             through the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) of NOAA, the FWS, and the FDA. The
             role of infectious disease in population dynamics of commercial and recreational marine species
             is the subject of studies by NMFS and FWS. Research conducted by FDA has attempted to
             determine the incidence and pathogenicity of various microbial agents in shellfish, fish, and
             marine water.

                  The effects of some pathogens on living marine resources are known. However, while
             problems caused by pathogens may be apparent, the identification of the specific pathogenic
             organisms involved, the processes that increase their pathogenicity, the host ranges, and
             predictions of outbreaks are not as easily determined. The research necessary to address
             these areas includes the development of rapid, inexpensive, and easy-to-use systems for the
             detection, isolation, characterization, and quantification of pathogens that cause disease among
             marine organisms.

             lb. To what extent does oollution cause toxic Mankton blooms, and what are the resultinp,
             economically imt)ortant fishery concerns?

                  Toxic plankton blooms have been implicated in the closure and destruction of shellfish
             beds, declines in fish populations, and the death of marine mammals. Freshwater influxes and
             certain temperature regimes have been partially correlated with toxic plankton blooms
             (Therriault et al., 1985); however, other factors, including pollution, may be involved. Many
             areas that historically have had little evidence of such blooms have recently shown increasing
             occurrences. This increase has been associated with growing industrialization and nutrient
             inputs into the affected waters (MacLean and White, 1985).

                  The exact mechanisms and factors responsible for toxic plankton blooms have yet to be
             determined. Human health concerns are the motivating factor for addressing problems
             associated with toxic plankton bloom in research projects funded through the Sea Grant Office
             of NOAA. The Florida Department of Natural Resources in cooperation with NOAA supports
             research to determine the life history of Ptvchodis!@us brevis, the factors which trigger red
             tides, and the development of rapid techniques for the determination of dinoflagellate toxins
             in fish and shellfish.

                  Additional problems are the identification of organisms involved, determination of toxicity
             and toxin production by microbial forms, and the range of organisms affected by such toxins.
             The FDA sponsors studies that both address the.problem of toxicity of dinoflagellate toxins to
             humans and attempt to determine the incidence and levels of algal toxins contained in fish
             and shellfish.

                  Major gaps exist in our understanding of the causal mechanisms of toxic plankton blooms.
             While pollution is believed to play a role in such periodic events, the exact mechanisms that
             trigger blooms and the environmental requirements of toxic plankton species are not well
             known. Understanding the factors that cause toxic plankton blooms is a necessary first step
             in the development of measures to control or limit their impact.

                                                              105

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  Ic. What are the effects of the introduction of nonindigenous svecies or bioengineered
                  organisms?

                        A large proportion of the biological agents responsible for adverse effects on marine
                  resources have been artificially introduced, either by accident or intentionally. Not all species
                  introduced to new areas are injurious or harmful to resident biota. The deliberate
                  introductions of some desired species have been beneficial to man. In other cases,
                  introductions of nonindigenous species have caused serious ecological damage. Examples of
                  problems resulting from the movement of species to new areas include introductions of
                  infectious disease-causing agents or toxic plankton organisms along with seed oysters or other
                  species used for aquaculture.

                        Environmental introductions of genetically manipulated animals and microorganisms are
                  commonplace (CEQ, 1985). Such organisms have historically been a major thrust of
                  agricultural developments designed to improve the characteristics of crops and livestock.
                  While there is a vast experience with environmental introductions of genetically engineered
                  organisms such as plants and animals, there has been less experience with the release of
                  genetically engineered microorganisms. Concern has been raised that novel strains of various
                  organisms may some day pose a threat to marine resources. Bioengineered microorganisms can
                  be viewed in the same light as nonindigenous naturally occurring organisms with regard to
                  their introduction into the marine environment. In either case, living marine resources may
                  lack mechanisms of resistance or defense against the effects of the introduced organisms.
                  Such biological agents may proliferate and cause extensive damage to indigenous populations.

                        The Biotechnology Science Coordinating Committee (BSCC) was established by the Federal
                  Government in 1985 to address the issues of research and products of biotechnology by
                  providing a coordinated framework of scientific policy and scientific review. The BSCC has
                  recommended that more intense scientific review be given to organisms that are the product
                  of intergenetic combinations and combinations involving genetic material from pathogenic
                  organisms.

                        Research in subjects concerned with the survival and effects of genetically engineered
                  organisms in the marine environment is still in its infancy. Much of this research is
                  sponsored by EPA's Environmental Research Laboratory in Gulf Breeze, Florida. Projects
                  include the determination of growth potential of bacteria that may be used in genetic
                  engineering, determination of the impact of genetically altered microorganisms on the
                  environment, development of simple laboratory procedures for predicting survival and growth
                  of bacteria in natural environments, and development of methods for detecting and tracking
                  genetically engineered microorganisms in aquatic environments.

                        There appears to be a lack of research associated with introductions of organisms into
                  the marine environment. The NMFS-sponsored studies include a description of species
                  introduced to the United States Pacific and Atlantic Coasts in ballast water from ocean-going
                  vessels, and the histological examination of foreign shellfish imports to the United States.

                          The potential effects of introduction s of nonindigenous species or recombinant forms
                  presents a concern that should be addressed more fully. To accomplish this, each
                  introduction, whether of an organism that is indigenous to other geographical areas or a
                  bioengineered microorganism, should be evaluated on an individual basis prior to its release as

                                                                      106

                                                                                                   Biological Agents

              to its potential effects on existing populations. In addition, further research into the effects
              on nontarget marine biota of persistent nonendemic organisms introduced as pest control
              agents would improve our understanding in this area.

                                 Characteristics, Requirements, and Mechanisms of Pathogenicity

              Manapement Ouestion 2: What are the biological characteristics, environmental requirements,
              and mechanisms of pathoizenicity of the most significant biological agents?

              Information Needs

                   2a. What are the basic biological attributes of biological agents known to adversely
                        affect marine organisms?

                   2b. What are the mechanisms by which biological agents cause disease in marine
                        organisms?

              2a. What are the basic biolopical attributes of biolojaical agents known to adversely affect
              marine orpanisms?

                   To mitigate the effects of biological agents on valuable marine resources, researchers
              must develop an understanding of the biological characteristics and environmental requirements
              of the biological agents that impact these resources. There is a general lack of knowledge of
              basic biology, life cycles, life history, and environmental requirements of the organisms of
              concern.

                   Past studies that address the question of basic attributes of biological agents generally
              have been concerned with those agents that may impact human health. Such studies are being
              conducted by NOAA (OAR and NMFS), EPA, and FDA. The Office of Oceanic and
              Atmospheric Research in NOAA sponsors studies that address the identification and
              characterization of pathogens or toxins produced by biological agents. The NMFS conducts
              and sponsors studies of infectious crustacean diseases and parasites in west coast species,
              histopathological studies of infectious molluscan diseases and parasites, and the immunological
              identification of shellfish pathogens and'life history stages in alternate and reservoir hosts.
              The EPA conducts and sponsors studies that evaluate the occurrence and extent of gene
              transfers, plasmid transmissibility, and mechanisms of dissemination of recombinant DNA in
              aquatic environments. The FDA-sponsored studies include the development of culture systems
              for algal toxin production, chemical and biological definition of dinoflagellate toxins, and
              genetic characterization of Vibrio and Aeromona species.

                   In order to gain a better understanding of the impact of biological agents, basic
              information is needed on the biological attributes of a wide range of such agents found in the
              marine environment. For example, while a causative agent of disease in oysters has been
              identified as H. nelsoni, it has not been successfully cultured it? the laboratory. An
              intermediate Zst -is suspected in this parasite's life history, but none has yet been identified.
              Some basic questions on taxonomy remain to be answered for various groups of pathogenic
              organisms, including Vibrio species, marine fungi, and protozoa. In addition, the pathogenic

                                                                107

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  mechanisms, host ranges, and persistence of a wide variety of organisms that normally inhabit
                  the human intestinal tract or the marine environment are unknown and require further
                  research.

                  2b. What are the mechanisms by which biolopical agents cause disease in marine organisms?

                       Pathogens may be absorbed by marine organisms through contact, ingestion, or
                  transmission via intermediate hosts. A pathogen may then affect the host organism by
                  producing toxins, causing the growth of tumors, disrupting metabolic pathways or reproductive
                  processes, or by causing behavioral alterations. A thorough understanding of the biophysical
                  and biochemical mechanisms of pathogenicity, host specificity, immunity, and means of
                  transmission of the important diseases is necessary prior to attempting to mitigate the impacts
                  that various biological agents may have on marine resources.

                       The subject of pathogenic mechanisms is being addressed in studies sponsored by NMFS
                  and FDA. Shellfish disease resistance and defense mechanisms in marine mollusks, and disease
                  diagnostics and immune responses among Pacific Coast salmonid fish species are being
                  investigated by NMFS scientists. Studies funded by FDA are directed towards human health
                  aspects of the issue, and include the evaluation of the pathogenesis of Aeromonas and Vibrio
                  species and the evaluation of virulence of various pathogens in marine waters.

                       A major factor limiting studies of virulence of invertebrate viruses is the lack of
                  molluscan and crustacean cell and tissue culture systems. The development of in vitro and in
                  vivo cultivation systems for growth of microbial agents could be used for qualitative and
                  quantitative studies of dose response infectivity, disease transmission mechanisms, cell cycle
                  studies, inactivation mechanisms, and for the demonstration of cause and effect relationships.
                  Such systems have been developed for mammalian and insect cells and greatly facilitate this
                  sort of studies.

                                                       Sources of Human Influence

                  Manaaement Ouestion 3: What are the sources and mechanisms of human influence on
                  bioloeical agents in the marine environment?

                  Information Needs

                       3a. What are   the sources of the most significant biological agents?

                       3b. What are   the persistence and transport mechanisms of these agents?

                  3a. What are the sources of the most significant biological agents?

                       Biological agents are released into the marine environment from a variety of terrestrial
                  sources. In addition, human activities such as dredging or sewage discharges may affect
                  population densities of marine microorganisms. Pollution may cause the proliferation of
                  certain pathogenic agents that are normally present at low densities. Knowledge of the types
                  and locations of inputs of biological agents into the marine environment would aid in

                                                                     108

                                                                                                  Biological Agents

              developm ent of an effective control or mitigation strategy. Although potential sources of
              biological agents are known, it is difficult to quantitatively determine the extent to which
              pathogens are being introduced from point and nonpoint sources.

                   Research related to sources of biological agents is being funded by NOAA and FDA.
              Human health concerns have motivated NOAA to initiate a project to determine the basis for
              shellfish harvesting limitations in estuaries around the Nation and to identify sources of
              pollution in those estuaries where harvest limitations are due to pathogens. The NMFS of
              NOAA is sponsoring studies under the Northeast Fisheries Center's Inshore Research Plan to
              determine the relationship between pathogen outbreaks and other sources of organism stress,
              such as contaminants, nutrient overenrichment, and habitat loss. The FDA sponsors studies
              into subjects such as the occurrence of drug and antibiotic resistance in natural flora, the
              potential for transferring resistance to bacterial species that are human pathogens, and the
              drug resistance of human pathogens present in fish, water, and sediment.

                   Studies to identify the sources of biological agents and to quantify the relative and
              absolute amounts of these materials coming from various sources would generate useful
              information. In addition, the development of a global information network and newsletter to
              notify the scientific community of biological invasions of nonindigenous microbial agents or
              macroorganisms into marine ecosystems through man's activities or through natural mechanisms
              would assist in addressing this information gap.

              3b. What are the nersistence and transt)ort mechanisms of these agents?

                   Some biological agents are maintained in an inactive state in the sediment, water column,
              or biological component of the marine environment for months or longer (OTA, 1987). These
              agents may be activated by changes in environmental conditions such as resuspension of
              sediments followed by exposure to suitable hosts or growth substrates, or nutrient inputs. In
              other cases, ubiquitous, normally commensal agents may become virulent to host organisms that
              face environmental stresses. Episodic events such as storms, floods, or hurricanes may
              resuspend pathogen spores or germ cells along with sediment. The relative importance of such
              natural events needs to be evaluated to understand the impact of human activities on the
              system.

                   Some studies related to the persistence and transport of biological agents in the marine
              environment are being conducted by EPA, NOAA, NMFS, and the Florida Department of
              Natural Resources. The fate of new genotypes and the factors that influence the survival of
              recombinant microorganisms are the subjects of studies sponsored by EPA. NOAA's Sea Grant
              Program and Estuarine Program Office address the question of mechanisms of survival and
              transport of enteric viruses and other human pathogens in estuarine environments. The NMFS
              sponsors studies of the clearance of haplosporidia parasites from oysters under controlled
              salinity and temperature and on disease resistance. Related studies conducted at the NMFS
              Northeast Fisheries Center attempt to identify the conditions that favor pathogen productivity
              and movement, intermediate hosts, ranges, and transport media for pathogens. The Florida
              Department of Natural Resources is investigating the persistence and factors that reactivate
              dinoflagellate spores present in water and sediment.

                   The implementation of control or eradication procedures, and the prediction of outbreaks
              of disease among marine organisms, require an understanding of the transport mechanisms and
              persistence of biological agents in the marine environment and in biological systems. It would

                                                               109

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                 be useful to develop an understanding of the fate of agents in the marine environment, and
                 the mode of transport, persistence, and concentration of these organisms or toxins through the
                 food chain. This knowledge will significantly improve the capability to predict the
                 consequences of human activities, and enhance the ability to cope with disease outbreaks.

                                                  Prediction, Control, and Mitigation

                 Mangeement Ouestion 4: How can acute and chronic problems associated with biological
                 aaents be predicted, controlled, and mititzated?

                 Information Needs

                      4a. What contingency plans can be developed to study episodic events?

                      4b. What strategies can be developed for mitigation of effects of biological agents?

                 4a. What continpency Wans can be develot)ed to study er)isodic events?

                      Mass mortalities and disease outbreaks in the marine environment appear as sudden
                 episodic events that have the ability to impact a system before they can be controlled.
                 Recent episodic events have included the bottlenose dolphin beachings off the east coast of
                 the United States in 1987, mass mortalities of sea urchins in the Caribbean Basin in 1983, and
                 coral bleaching incidents in 1982-83 and 1987-88. Mass mortalities of commercially important
                 species such as herring, striped bass, blue crab, menhaden, and king crab have also been
                 reported (Rosenfield, 1988). The conditions that have resulted in such events are not well
                 documented and extremely unpredictable. Information associated with aperiodic events can
                 only be obtained if appropriate contingency plans are developed and responses can be
                 implemented in a timely fashion.

                      Long-term monitoring of problems related to biological agents may aid in the
                 identification of aperiodic events as they occur. An attempt at such monitoring currently
                 proposed by NMFS, includes a registry for marine pathology, and the development of a national
                 shellfish health and protection plan. Related activities conducted by NOAA include the
                 collection and analysis of bottom-feeding fish for diseases under the National Status and
                 Trends Program. In addition, the Florida Department of Natural Resources and NOAA are
                 using satellite imagery techniques in an attempt to predict conditions that result in blooms of
                 red tide.

                      The study of episodic outbreaks such as toxic plankton blooms and marine mammal
                 beachings is needed to learn about the causes of these events and possibly their eventual
                 control. The implementation of a computerized system for cataloging and managing data on
                 disease agents and pathways manifested by geographic location and other factors in fish,
                 shellfish, marine mammals, and other marine organisms in North American marine and estuarine
                 waters, which is associated with a literature search program, would assist in making such data
                 available to the scientific community.

                      A major difficulty in the study of aperiodic events is their lack of predictability.
                 Williams and Williams (1987) suggested the establishment of an alert and communications
                 center for early detection of episodic events. A network of on-call scientists could be

                                                                  110

                                                                                                    Biological Agents

             established to support the functioning of such a center. While early warning, confirmation,
             and expert analysis and documentation will not stop episodic events, this kind of system is
             believed to be a practical step toward determining causes for each event, and providing a
             baseline for the more complicated goals of managing and mitigating the adverse effects of
             biological agents.

             4b. What strategies can be develoved for mitipation of effects of biological apents?

                   The impact of biological agents on marine resources results from two factors: an
             increased pathogenicity on the part of the agent, or a decreased resistance on the part of the
             host. Major problems stem from the intentional or accidental introduction of biological agents
             into a biologically important area. These introductions, which may be novel forms to the
             region, will result in a lack of resistance by the indigenous populations. A second concern is
             the effect of human activities and resulting environmental stresses faced by marine organisms
             in a degraded environment where the increase in numbers of pathogenic organisms is favored
             or where the resistance of existing species to the ubiquitous pathogens is decreased.

                   Basic research may result in the development of measures to mitigate the effects of
             biological agents. While such research in the past generally addressed human health concerns,
             the results of these studies may be applicable to effects of biological agents on marine
             organisms. For example, FDA conducts research on methods for quantification of viruses in
             shellfish, detection of parasites in scallops, and detection and quantification of algal toxins.
             NOAA Sea Grant funds research into the assessment and control of hepatitis A virus
             contamination of shellfish, and pathogens in mangrove oysters.

                   The introduction of pathogenic organisms and species detrimental to the marine
             environment must ultimately be reduced at the source by controlling inputs from land-based
             sources, by properly evaluating species targeted for introduction prior to release, and by
             limiting unintentional inputs of detrimental organisms associated with the species targeted for
             introduction. Such approaches have been implemented at the quarantine facility in Conway,
             Wales, where a central laboratory has been established for the evaluation of the potential
             effects of all organisms prior to their release into the marine environment. All organisms are
             classified according to their potential for pathogenicity and ecological damage. Later
             generations of these laboratory-bred organisms are released only after it has been determined
             that they will not threaten the indigenous biota (Sindermann, 1988).

                   Mitigating the effects of biological agents that are already present in the marine
             environment presents a difficult problem. Reduction or elimination of environmental stresses
             on the biota is necessary. This can only be achieved by reductions of pollutant loadings and
             other environmental stressors. The determination of which factors cause stress responses
             would be a first step in researching the means of combatting this problem.

                                                Conclusions and Recommendations

                   The subject of human- influenced biological agents that affect marine organisms has been
             largely neglected in the past. Most research has been directed toward human health concerns.
             The current base of knowledge on effects of biological agents is primarily observational,
             including observations from monitoring programs and the characterization of sporadic incidents.

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       The following conclusions relating to the current state of knowledge concerning sources,
                 fates, and effects of biological agents in the marine environment are based on the discussion
                 of management questions and information needs presented in the previous section.

                       o  For many outbreaks of disease and mass mortalities of living marine resources, we do
                          not know the specific biological agent responsible or the mechanism of impact. In
                          some cases, biological agents may be introduced to the marine environment as a result
                          of human activities. In other cases, pollution may cause stress in marine organisms,
                          thereby making them more susceptible to infection by biological agents;

                       p  The basic biological attributes of many biological agents, such as life history,
                          environmental requirements, taxonomy, and persistence in the marine environment are
                          unknown;

                       o  The importance of natural events and human activities and the environmental
                          conditions necessary for the occurrence of mass mortalities and disease outbreaks in
                          living marine resources are often not understood; and

                       o, Very little is known concerning the survival and effects of genetically engineered
                          organisms in the marine environment.

                       Research approaches directed towards problems that are caused by biological agents can
                 be divided into four categories based on the current level of knowledge. Each category
                 requires a specific approach to attain most efficiently the necessary level of knowledge
                 concerning the diseases that are suspected or known to be caused by biological agents. These
                 categories of research approach are:

                       1. Observed events where biological agents are suspected, but for which there is no
                          understanding of the cause;

                       2. Biological agents that are suspected to affect marine organisms, but evidence of such
                          an effect is lacking;

                       3. Biological agents known to affect marine organisms, but where the knowledge of the
                          impact is incomplete; and

                       4. Biological agents that are known to affect marine organisms, and where knowledge of
                          the impact is adequate, but whose action cannot yet be mitigated.

                       A conventional procedure for determining the etiology of a bacterial disease is to prove
                 Koch's postulates. These postulates are:

                        1. The pathogen should always be found in animals suffering from the disease, and
                           should not be present in healthy individuals.

                        2. The pathogen must be cultivated in pure culture away from the animal body.

                        3. Such a culture, when inoculated into susceptible animals, should initiate the
                           characteristic disease symptoms.

                                                                   112

                                                                                                                               Biological Agents

                         4. The pathogen should be re-isolated from these experimental animals and cultured
                              again in the laboratory, after which it should still be the same as the original
                              pathogen (Brock, 1979).

                These postulates can be used in conjunction with the research approach recommended for each
                of the four categories that are designed to effectively direct efforts towards problems caused
                by biological agents in the marine environment. Table 6 is a presentation of examples from
                each of the four categories. A discussion of the research needs related to each category is
                presented below.

                                   Table 6. Categorization of Biological Agents by Level of Knowledge

                Category                      Incidents

                1. Observable events          Clam neoplasms, Coral bleaching events, Whale and dolphin beachings, Sea urchin mortalities
                   for which we have no
                   understanding of cause

                                                                        Biological Agents

                                              Bacteria          Virus           Fungi        Protozoa          Toxic              Bioengineered and
                                                                                                               Plankton           Iritroduced Species

                2. Agents suspected           Coliform          Rotavirus       None         Paramoeba         None               Pseudomonas
                   to impact marine           bacteria          Rabdovirus                   perniciosa                           putida
                   organisms, but                               Retrovirus
                   evidence is lacking.

                3. Agents known to            Salmonella spp    Colicivirus     Saproleg-    Hematadinium      Porocentrum        None
                   affect marine animals,                       Microbacteria   Herpes                         niaceae
                   SPA                        SPA
                   but knowledge of
                   impact is incomplete

                4. Known to be an             Vibrio spp.       Influenza A     Ichthyo-     Minchinia         Ptychodiscus       Minchina
                   important agent            aerococcus        Baculovirus     phonus       nelsoni,          brevis,            nelsoni
                   in the marine                                                SPA          Dermocysti-       Protogonvau-
                   environment, but                                                          dium marinus,     lax spp.,
                   unable to mitigate                                                        Paramoeba         Gambierdiscus
                   its impact                                                                pemiciosa         toxicus

                                                                                 113

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                            Cause Unknown

                      In the case of events where the cause of disease or mass mortalities in marine organisms
                 is unknown, research could be directed to fulfill Koch's postulates to identify the causative
                 agent of the disease. Once the identity of the agent is determined, research could be directed
                 at developing more complete knowledge of the impact of the agent on marine resources.

                                                      Biological Agents Suspected

                      As in the case of events where the cause is unknown, if a biological agent is suspected
                 of causing an impact on marine resources but evidence linking disease or mortality to the
                 agent is lacking, research directed at fulfilling Koch's postulates would be most useful. Once
                 such a link is established, research should focus On gaining a better understanding of the
                 impact of the biological agent on living marine resources.

                                                   Knowledge of Impact Incomplete

                      In those cases where a biological agent is known to affect marine organisms but
                 knowledge concerning the impact is incomplete, research on determining the connection
                 between the biological agent and natural events and human activities causing the outbreak, as
                 well as on quantifying the extent of the impact on marine organisms would be most useful.
                 This would include research on the following:

                      o Persistence and transport mechanisms;

                      o   Host range and vectors/alternate hosts;

                      o   Host defense mechanisms and virulence of pathogen;
                      o   Role of environmental factors on pathogen interactions; and

                      o   Development of rapid diagnostic techniques.

                                                         Mitigation of Impacts

                      Once knowledge concerning the impact of a biological agent on living marine resources is
                 adequate, research should be directed toward mitigating those impacts. This would include
                 determination of control points and mechanisms of pathogenicity of these biological agents. In
                 addition, efforts should include basic research into population genetics, population dynamics of
                 host and pathogen, host range and response, the production of toxins or metabolites, and
                 complex interactions with other pathogens, hosts, or chemical pollutants.

                                                                  114

                                                                                          Biological Agents

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             Brock, T.D. 1979. Biology of microorganisms. 3d Ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
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             CEQ. 1985. Environmental Qualit   y. The Sixteenth Annual Report of the Council on
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             Chang, F.H. 1985. Preliminary Toxicity Test of Prymnesiurn calathiferurn n.sp. Isolated from
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             Coles, B.M., R.K. Troud, and S. Sheggeby. 1978. Isolation of Edwardsiella tarda from Three
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             Colgrove G.S. and G. Migaki. 1976. Cerebral Abscess Associated with Stranding in a Dolphin.
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             Colwell R.R. and D.J. Grimes. 1984. Vibrio Diseases of Marine Fish Populations. Helgol.
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             Colwell R.R., P.R. Brayton, D.J. Grimes, D.B. Roszak, S.A. Huq, and L.M. Palmer. 1985. Viable
                   but Non-culturable Vibrio cholerae and Related Pathogens in the Environment:
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             Couch, J.A. 1978. Diseases, Parasites, and Toxic Responses of Commercial Penaeid Shrimps of
                   the Gulf of Mexico and South Atlantic Coasts of North America. Fish. Bull. 76:1-44.

             Farley, C.A. 1978. Viruses and Viruslike Lesions in Marine Mollusks. Mar. Fish. Rev. 40:18-
                   20.

             Flint, H.J., S.H. Duncan, and C.S. Stewart. 1987. Transmissible Antibiotic Resistance in
                   Strains of Escherichia coli Isolated from Bovine Rumen. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 5:47-49.

             Geraci, J.R., D.J. St. Aubin, I.K. Barker, R.G. Webster, V.S. Hinshaw, W.J. Bean, H.L. Ruhneke,
                   J.H. Prescott, G. Early, A.S. Baker, S. Madoff, and R.T. Schooley. 1982. Mass Mortality
                   of Harbour Seals: Pneumonia Associated with Influenza A Virus. Science. 215:1129-1131.

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                Geraci, J.R., D.J. St. Aubin, I.K. Barker, V.S. Hinshaw, R.G. Webster, and H.L. Ruhnke. 1983.
                      Susceptibility of Grey (Halochoerus grypus and Harp (Phoca groenlandica) Seals to the
                      Influenza Virus and Mycoplasma of Epizootic Pneumonia of Harbour Seals (Phoca
                      vitulina). Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 41:151-156.

                Gilmartin, W.G., P.M. Vainik, and V.M. Niell. 1979. Salmonellae in Feral Pinnipeds off the
                      Southern California Coast. J. Wildl. Dis. 15:511-514.

                Higgins, R., R. Claveau, and R. Roy. 1980. Bronchopneurnonia Caused by Strewococcus egui
                      in a North Atlantic Pilot Whale Globicet)hala melaena. J. Wildl. Dis. 16:34-321.

                Hinshaw, V.S., W.J. Bean, J. Geraci, P. Morelli, G. Early, and R.G. Webster. 1986.
                      Characterization of Two Influenza A Viruses from a Pilot Whale. J. Virol. 58:655-656.

                Howard, E.B. 1984. Pathobiology of Marine Mammal Diseases. Volume 1. CRC Press, Boca
                      Raton, FL. 238 pp.

                Johnson, P.T. 1984. Viral Diseases of Marine Invertebrates. Helgol. Meeresunters. 37:65-98.

                Larsen, J.L., N.J. Jensen, and N.D. Christensen. 1978. Water Pollution and the Ulcer
                      Syndrome in the Cod Gadus morhua. Vet. Sci. Commun. 2:207-216.

                MacLean, J.L. and A.W. White. 1985. Toxic Dinoflagellate Blooms in Asia: A growing
                      Concern, pp. 517-520. In Toxic Dinoflagellates. Proceedings of the Third International
                      Conference on Toxic Dinoflapellates, June 8-12, 19M St. Andrews, N.B., Canada (D.M.
                      Anderson, A.W. White, and D.G. Baden, eds.). Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co., New York,
                      NY.

                McConnell, M.M., G.A. Willshaw, H.R. Smith, S.M. Scotland, and B. Rowe. 1979.
                      Transportation and Ampicillin Resistance to an Enterotoxin Plasmid in an Escherichia coli
                      Strain of Human Origin. J. Bacteriol. 139:346-355.

                Mortensen, A.M. 1985. Massive Fish Mortalities in the Faroe Islands Caused by Gonvaulax
                      excavata Red Tide, pp. 163-170. In Toxic Dinoflagellates. Proceedings of the Third
                      International Conference on Toxic Dinoflagellates. June 8-12, 1985, St. Andrews, N.B.,
                      Canada (D.M. Anderson, A.W. White, and D.G. Baden, eds.). Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co.,
                      New York, NY.

                Murphy, B.R., J. Harper, D.L. Sly, W.T. London, N.T. Miller, and R.G. Webster. 1983.
                      Evaluation of the A/Seal/Mass/l/80 Virus in Squirrel Monkeys. Infect. Immun. 42:424-
                      426.

                NOAA. 1987. National Marine Pollution Program. Summary of Federal Programs and
                      Projects, FY 1986 Update. National Ocean Pollution Program Office, National Oceanic
                      and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD.

                                                                116

                                                                                         Biological Agents

             O'Connor, J.S., J.T. Ziskowski, and R.A. Murchelano. 1987. Index of Pollutant-Induced Fish
                   and Shellfish Disease. National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                   Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD. 29 pp.

             OTA. 1987. Water in Marine Environments. Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress.
                   U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. OTA-0-334, 313 pp.

             Roberts, L. 1988. Corals Remain Baffling. Science. 239:256

             Robohm, R.A., C. Brown, and R.A. Murchelano. 1979. Comparison of Antibodies in Marine
                   Fish from Clean and Polluted Waters of the New York Bight: Relative Levels Against 36
                   Bacteria. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 38:248-257.

             Rosenfield, A. 1988. Center for Environmental and Estuarine Studies, University of Maryland,
                   College Park, MD. Personal Communication.

             Rosenfield, A. and F.G. Kern. 1978. Molluscan Imports and the Potential for Introduction of
                   Disease Organisms, pp. 165-189. In Proceedings of a Svmt)osium on Exotic Sgecies in
                   Mariculture. Case Histories of the iat)anese Oyster Crassostrea gigas (Thunberiz), with
                   lmt)lications for Other Fisheries (R. Mann, ed.). MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

             Sindermann, C.J. 1982. Implications of Oil Pollution in Production of Disease in Marine
                   Organisms. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B297:385-399.

             Sindermann, C.J. 1988. Cooperative Biological Laboratory, National Marine Fisheries Service,
                   Oxford, MD. Personal Communication.

             Smith, A.W., R.J. Brown, D.E. Skilling, H.L. Bray, and M.C. Keyes. 1977. Naturally Occurring
                   Leptospirosis in Northern Fur Seals (Callorhinus ursinus              13:144-148.
                                                                           J. Wildl. Dis.

             Taylor, F.J.R. 1985. The Taxonomy and Relationships of Red Tide Flagellates, pp. 11-26. In
                   Toxic Dinoflapellates. Proceedinps of the Third International Conference on Toxic
                   Dinoflap,ellates, June 8-12, 1985, St. Andrews. N.B. Canada (D.M. Anderson, A.W. White,
                   and D.G. Baden, edg.). Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co., New York, NY.

             Therriault, J.C., J. Painchaud, and M. Levasseur. 1985. Factors Controlling the Occurrence of
                   Protoizonvaulax tamarensis and Shellfish Toxicity in the St. Lawrence Estuary.
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                   Dinoflaq,ellates. Proceedinps of the Third International Conference on Toxic
                   Dinoflap,ellates, June 8-12, 1985, St. Andrews, N.B., Canada (D.M. Anderson, A.W. White,
                   and D.G. Baden, eds.). Elsevier Scientific Publ. Co., New York, NY.

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             Wachsmuth, K., J. DeBoy, K. Birkness, D. Sack, and J. Wells. 1983. Genetic Transfer and
                   Antimicrobial Resistance and Enterotoxigenicity Among Escherichia coli Strains.
                   Antimicrob. Agents Chernother. 23:278-283.

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                     GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

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                     and Fish Populations to Environmental Stress. The Problems and Methods of Monitoring,
                     pp. 164-195. In Contaminant Effects on Fisheries (V.W. Cairns, P.V. Hodson, and J.0.
                     Nriagu, eds.). John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY.

                Williams, E.H. and L.B. Williams. 1987. A Caribbean Alert and Communication Center for
                     Major Marine Ecological Disturbances. Presented at the Coral Reef Bleaching Workshop.
                     Sponsored by the NOAA Undersea Research Program. West Indies Laboratory, Teague
                     Bay, St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands.

                Yevich, P.P. and C.A. Barszcz. 1976. Gonadal and hernatopoietic neoplasms in Mva arenaria.
                     Mar. Fish. Rev. 38(10): 42-43.

                                                               118

                                                                                          Habitat Loss or Modification

                            GOAL 4: UNDERSTAND THE EFFECTS OF LOSING OR MODIFYING:
                                 MARINE HABITATS AS A RESULT OF HUMAN ACTIVITIES

              Goal Definition  . ... . . . .. . . . . . .     . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .       120
                   Freshwater Inflow     . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         121
                   Hydrology   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            122
                   Sedimentation    . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           122

                   Sea Level   . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            123

                   Persistent Marine Debris  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          124

              Federal Role   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            125

                   Federal Legislation and Regulations   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       . .  . .125
                   Federal Programs   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           127
              Management Questions and Information Needs        . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       129
                   Status of Habitat Quantity and Quality  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        130
                   Causes of Habitat Loss and Modification      . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       133

                   Short-Term Effects    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          135

                   Long-Term and Cumulative Effects      . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        137
                   Effectiveness of Restoration and Mitigation   Efforts . . . . . . . . . . . . .      139

              Conclusions and Recommendations     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         139
                   Status of Habitat Quantity   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         140

                   Causes of Habitat Loss  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          141

                   Natural Processes and Habitat Function     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       141
                   Mitigation  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            141

                   Marine Debris    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           142

              Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .            142

                   Marine and estuarine habitats are being lost at an alarming rate in many parts of the
              country. These losses are due to the direct and indirect impacts of human activities, as well
              as to natural phenomena. Declines in the quantity and quality of marine habitats is thought
              to reduce production of living marine resources and to diminish other important values of
              habitats. Continued shifts of human populations to coastal areas will increase pressures on
              marine habitats in the f'uture. Therefore, understanding the effects of human activities on
              marine habitats is one of the six goals of the National Marine Pollution Program.

                                                                 119

               GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                      Coal Definition

                    Marine and estuarine habitats perform important functions for all living marine resources.
               Habitats are used by these species for spawning, rearing, feeding, migration, and shelter from
               predators. Populations of living marine resources are frequently limited by the quantity and
               quality of habitat. Numerous studies have demonstrated the possibility of an important
               relationship between yields of commercially valuable fisheries and acres of habitat available to
               the harvested species (Turner, 1977; Deegan and Day, 1984; Herke, 1971; Yakupzack et al.,
               1977; Knudson et al., 1977; Weinstein, 1979; Weinstein and Brooks, 1983; Mock, 1967). As
               habitats continue to be lost or damaged due to human activities, there is concern that a
               decrease in living marine resources will result.

                    Many marine and estuarine habitats, in particular vegetated wetlands (tidal marshes),
               perform other valuable functions to man and the environment. These functions include erosion
               and flood protection, water quality control, and waterfowl and wildlife utilization.

                    Marine and estuarine habitats may be organized into the following groups:

                    o  Emergent vegetated wetlands
                       - marshes
                       - mangroves

                    0  Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV)
                       - seagrasses
                       - other submerged plant communities

                    0  Hard bottoms
                         coral reefs and rocky bottoms
                         rocky shores

                    0  Soft (unconsolidated) bottoms
                       - mud flats
                       - sand/shell beaches
                       - subtidal soft bottoms

                    0  Shellfish beds
                       - oyster reefs
                       - clam beds

                    0  Water column

               Although all of these habitat groups were considered in the development of this chapter, the
               text will focus primarily on emergent vegetated wetlands. This is due to the recognized
               ecological value of wetlands and the rapid rate of their deterioration and loss in many coastal
               areas. Alteration of the water column from the presence of marine debris is also considered
               important and warrants some discussion due to its adverse impacts on marine life and coastal
               communities.

                    The human activities that contribute the most direct impacts to habitat loss and
               modification are those causing physical alterations. These activities will be the focus of this
               section. The effects of chemical contamination on living marine resources and -their habitats

                                                            120

                                                                                           Habitat Loss or Modification

               are considered in other sections of this Plan. Examples of human activities that cause direct
               physical alterations of marine and estuarine habitat include:

                     1. Drainage for crop production, timber production, and mosquito control;

                     2. Dredging and.strearn channelization for navigation channels, flood protection, coastal
                        housing development, and reservoir maintenance;

                     3. Filling for dredged material and other solid waste disposal, roads and
                        highways, and commercial, residential, and industrial development;

                     4. Construction of dikes, dams, levees, and seawalls for flood control, water
                        supply, irrigation, and storm protection;

                     5. Mining of wetland soils for peat, coal, sand, gravel, phosphate, and other
                        materials (Tiner, 1984);

                     6. Extraction of groundwater, oil, gas, and sulphur; and

                     7. Overboard garbage disposal, abandonment of fishing gear, oil rig and drilling platform
                        operations, discharges municipal and industrial wastes, and public littering.

                     Physical alterations may cause habitat loss directly by removal or indirectly by modifying
               natural processes that significantly affect habitat. These natural processes include freshwater
               inflow, hydrology, sedimentation, and sea-level changes. In addition, marine debris is
               considered a physical alteration of the water column that poses a serious threat to the health
               and safety of marine animals. A discussion of the relationship between physical alterations
               and each of the processes is provided in the sections that'follow.

                                                           Freshwater Inf low

                     Diversion of freshwater for agricultural, industrial, and domestic ourposes can have a
               detrimental impact on estuarine habitat by 'upsetting the balance of fresh- and seawater flows.
               Of special concern is the relationship of freshwater flow to estuarine hydrography including
               sedimentation, nutrient dynamics, biotic distributions, primary productivity, food webs, and
               pollutant distribution (Thayer et al., 1985; NOAA, 1987b; Soniat and Boesch, In press).

                     Recruitment of many fish and shellfish species is closely linked to the hydrodynamics of
               estuaries and associated coastal waters, as are the composition and well-being of estuarine
               plant communities. Changes in freshwater flows affect the amount of sediment, nutrients, and
               organic carbon entering the estuary from terrestrial sources. This in turn can affect the
               composition and production of both plant and animal populations present in an estuary (Thayer
               et al., 1985).

                     Alterations in natural estuarine flow patterns and salinity regimes encourage salinization
               of brackish waters and/or rapid influxes of freshwater into upper estuaries. This in turn can
               affect various life history stages and routes of migration as well as feeding habits of certain
               invertebrate and fish species (Thayer et al., 1985; ASLO, In press). Increases in salinity, for
               example, may increase the number of high-salinity predators and diseases of oysters (Soniat
               and Boesch, In press).

                                                                   121

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                                    Hydrology

                        Flood frequency and duration, water depth, and water velocity influence the types of
                  vegetation, soils, and biota present in a marsh (Turner et al., 1984; Zedler and Beare, 1986).
                  Although wetland plants are flood-adapted, they are also sensitive to changes in the
                  hydrologic regime. Hydrologic changes having a major effect on habitat occur as a result of
                  changes in freshwater inputs, direct man-made physical alterations to habitat (such as canal
                  building), and relative changes in sea level.

                        The construction of canals and the associated deposit of dredged sediments in banks of
                  the canals (disposal banks) has become a major influence on hydrology in wetlands. Turner
                  and Cahoon (1987) attributed major changes occurring in south Louisiana wetlands to disposal
                  bank creation, which results in changes in the hydrology of the adjacent marsh. Disposal
                  banks cause increased flood duration and a decrease in the number of flooding and drying
                  cycles due to the impediment of water flow through a marsh. The increased elevation of
                  disposal banks can also result in a decrease in soil moisture and salinity, which allows
                  invasion of the marsh by terrestrial plant species and elimination of marsh species.
                  Additionally, disposal banks can increase waterlogging in an adjacent marsh, resulting in an
                  increase in stress on the marsh, a decrease in its productivity, and eventual deterioration
                  (Turner and Cahoon, 1987).

                        Hydrologic cycles also influence the nitrogen regime in wetland ecosystems by regulating
                  the input of the nutrient into, and out of, the marsh (Turner et al., 1984). Nitrogen is often
                  the primary limiting growth factor for rooted wetland macrophytes (Mendelssohn, 1979), and
                  any changes in the availability of nitrogen could affect plant productivity (Turner et al.,
                  1984).

                                                                  Sedimentation

                        A continuous input of sediments to wetlands is necessary to counteract erosion, the
                  effects of sea-level rise, and natural compaction of deposited sediments. Without sufficient
                  input of new sediments, wetland areas would eventually be converted from one habitat type to
                  another (high marsh to low marsh) and would eventually be completely submerged.
                  Sedimentologic modifications are occurring in many wetland areas as a result of changes in
                  freshwater input (e.g., upstream reservoirs), channel deepening, cutting of navigation canals,
                  levee construction, and agricultural practices. With a decrease in the volume of freshwater
                  flowing into a marsh is an accompanying decrease in the natural inputs of suspended sediments
                  available for trapping by wetland vegetation and marsh accretion (Soniat and Boesch, In
                  press). In addition, levees, channels, and river-control structures act to trap the flow of
                  water and associated sediments and prevent over-bank flow of muds and fine sands during
                  flood conditions (NAS, 1987). As a result, suspended sediments are either deposited onto the
                  continental shelf and not into the marsh (Titus, 1986) or, in the case of river-control
                  structures, trapped upstream. Without an influx of inorganic riverborne sediments, the marsh
                  surface can only accrete vertically by biogenic production, which is often not adequate to
                  keep pace with rising sea levels, and the marsh will eventually be submerged (NAS, 1987).

                        Increased sediment loads can have negative impacts on marine and estuarine habitats.
                  Shoaling as a result of increased sediment loads can decrease the volume of an estuary and
                  could lead to a decrease or change in habitat (ASLO, In press). Erosion of sediments from
                  upland areas (e.g., agricultural lands and construction sites), discharges of dredged material,

                                                                        122

                                                                                          Habitat Loss or Modification

              sloughing of channels, canals, and bayou banks, scouring of shallow bay bottoms, and the
              subsequent movement of displaced sediments can result in the eventual burial of areas
              downstream. This increased sedimentation could affect the fauna and flora in hard bottom and
              soft bottom areas. Oyster cultch materials could also be buried, thereby eliminating the
              bottom's ability to support oyster growth. Increased suspended sediments may also affect
              primary productivity due to its effect on the depth of the photic zone. Filter-feeding
              consumers may also be adversely affected by increased suspended- sediment loads (ASLO, In
              press).

                                                              Sea Level

                    Recent studies conducted by NAS and EPA suggest that the earth's temperature is
              expected to increase several degrees during the next century due to the greenhouse effect.
              The occurrence of such warming would cause a significant increase in the rate of sea-level
              rise around the world (Revelle 1983; Hoffman et al., 1983). Many wetlands have been able to
              keep pace with the relatively slow rise in sea level that has been occurring during the last
              few thousand years; however, if the sea level rises more rapidly than the marsh's ability to
              accrete new sediments, there will be a substantial loss of wetland area (Titus, 1986).

                    In addition to the increase in the volume of water in the world's oceans associated with
              accelerated global warming, subsidence in coastal areas is contributing to the relative rise in
              sea level along some coasts of the United States. Coastal subsidence along the Mississippi
              Delta is occurring at a rate that is five times as high as the average rate of global sea-level
              rise over the past century (Boesch et al., 1983). Large expanses of coastal marshes in
              Louisiana are being flooded permanently by the rising sea level. This is contributing to an
              estimated loss of over 40 square miles of coastal marshes in the region each year (Fruge,
              1982). The causes of subsidence are 1) base downwarping (downward geologic displacement)
              from sedimentary loading, 2) compaction of sediments, and 3) tectonic activities. Compaction
              of sediments is a result of several factors, both natural and manmade. The anthropogenic
              causes include lowering of the water table through extraction of groundwater, petroleum, salt,
              or sulfur and reclamation practices that employ diking, construction of water-control
              structures, and draining of lands for agricultural or urban use (Craig et al., 1979). Effects of
              subsidence in some regions is more severe due to reductions in sediment input.

                    The relative rise in sea level, whether it results from global warming or regional
              subsidence, will have three major types of physical effects on habitat: shoreline retreat,
              increased flooding, and landward movement of salt water. Shorelines will retreat because the
              very low land will be inundated and other land along the shore will erode. Those coastal
              areas not lost to rising sea levels will experience an increase in flooding due to higher storm
              surges, the movement of larger waves farther inland, and increased runoff due to a decrease
              in upland areas' ability to drain as a result of a higher water table. The relative sea-level
              rises will cause salt water to move farther inland, intruding into the groundwater, rivers, and
              estuaries, and may alter the local availability of freshwater and alter ecosystems (Hoffman et
              al., 1983). A change in the sea level itself will result in changes in the patterns of
              sedimentation and marsh accretion, circulation patterns, biochemical cycles, and primary and
              secondary production which, in turn, affect living marine resources (ASLO, In press).

                                                                  123

                   GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                             Persistent Marine Debris

                         An increasing awareness of the problems associated with marine debris, which includes
                   metal items, glass, tar balls, and plastics, has occurred during the past decade. Marine debris
                   comes from a number of sources including fishing vessels, oil rigs and drilling platforms,
                   garbage dumped overboard from ships, plastic manufacturing industries, sewer systems
                   combined with storm runoff, docks and marinas, and public littering. The best estimates, made
                   over a decade ago, indicate the amount of debris generated worldwide by ocean sources was
                   6.4 million metric tons per year in the early 1970's (NAS, 1975). The world's merchant
                   shipping fleet, the major contributor of debris, discharged an estimated 5.6 million metric tons
                   of4e-bris per year (NAS, 1975).

                         Of all types of marine debris, plastics have caused the greatest threat to marine life.
                   Unfortunately, the same properties that make plastics more desirable than other materials,
                   lightweight yet strong and durable, are also the properties that cause problems in the marine
                   environment. Accordingly, this section will address plastic debris. Over 6 billion pounds of
                   plastic resins were produced in the United States by 1960 (SPI, 1986). Plastic sales by weight
                   in the United States in 1984 were estimated at 55,751 million pounds (SPI, 1988). More
                   plastics were produced in 1985 than metal, glass, paper, and leather. The major uses of
                   plastics include transportation, packaging, building and construction, electrical and electronic
                   goods, furniture and furnishings, consumer and institutional supplies, industry, and machinery
                   (CEE, 1987).

                         The majority of plastic materials entering the ocean is fishing gear, packaging materials,
                   convenience items, and raw plastics (Pruter, 1987). Raw plastics, commonly called resin
                   pellets, are the form in which raw or "virgin" plastic is produced and transported for later
                   manufacture into plastic products. The major sources of resin pellets to the marine
                   environment have been plastic manufacturing plants and transportation systems. The
                   concentrations of plastic pellets in river sediments below manufacturing plant outfalls have
                   been found to be as high as 800 pellets per cubic centimeter (CEE, 1987).

                         Whether plastic products and pellets float or sink, they are significant threats to marine
                   mammals, sea birds, turtles, fish, and crustaceans (Laist, 1987). Because plastic products are
                   very durable, they have a long life expectancy in the environment, which increases the
                   possibility of an encounter with marine life. It has been estimated that nondegradable plastics
                   can exist intact up to hundreds of years in seawater (ITFPMD, 1988).

                         The effects of plastics on marine animals occur by ingestion or entanglement. Animals
                   that ingest plastic matter may suffer blocked digestive tracks, damaged stomach linings, or
                   lessened feeding drives (Laist, 1987). Entangled animals may drown, require more energy to
                   swim due to the increased drag, be less able to catch food or escape predators, and suffer
                   serious lacerations and infections.

                         Current data suggests that entanglement may be a more serious problem than ingestion
                   (Laist, 1987). Declining populations of northern fur seals on the Pribilof Islands of Alaska
                   have been associated with mortality caused by entanglement from debris and plastic packing
                   bands originating from the driftnet and trawl fisheries (Fowler, 1987). Approximately 0.4% of
                   the subadult male Pribilof Island fur seal population is currently entangled in debris (Fowler,
                   1988).

                                                                         124

                                                                                      Habitat Loss or Modification

                  The entanglement of sea birds in net fragments, monofilament fishing line, and six-pack
            rings has also been documented (Schrey and Vaulk, 1987; CEE, 1987). Sea turtles are
            commonly entangled in monofilament fishing line, rope, trawl net, gill nets, and plastic sheets
            or bags (CEE, 1987). Significant mortality rates of endangered green turtles off Costa Rica
            have been linked to the ingestion of banana bags (Heneman and CEE, 1987).

                  Ghost fishing, the ability of derelict nets and traps to continue catching finfish and
            shellfish indefinitely, is a major concern of the marine debris problem. In one isolated case,
            99 dead sea birds and over 200 dead salmon were found entangled in a mile-long section of
            derelict gillnet (DeGange and Newby, 1980).

                  Sea birds, turtles, and fish are the most common marine animals that ingest plastics.
            Sea birds are likely to ingest raw plastic pellets that resemble their normal prey: fish eggs or
            larvae (Laist, 1987; CEE, 1987; Fry et al., 1987). An accumulation of ingested pellets can
            cause reduced feeding drives that may lead to malnutrition (Ryan, 1988) or fatal internal
            injuries (CEE, 1987). Pellet ingestion has also been documented in bottom fish such as
            flounder and perch (CEE, 1987). Possibly mistaken for jellyfish or other prey, plastic bags
            and sheeting are commonly ingested by turtles (CEE, 1987; Laist, 1987) along with a variety of
            other debris (CEE, 1987; Carr, 1987) that can block their digestive system and cause death
            (CEE, 1987; Martin, 1987). Humpback, fin, and right whales have been observed trailing
            plastic fishing gear from their mouths at sea (Connor and O'Dell, 1988).

                  Persistent marine debris is also an aesthetic problem in coastal areas of the country.
            Beach wash-ups have not only cost thousands of dollars to clean up, they have also deterred
            tourists and caused substantial economic losses to the coastal industry (CEE, 1987). Financial
            losses have also been suffered by vessel owners due to fouled propellers and clogged cooling
            water intake systems.

                  Persistent marine debris causes problems worldwide; however, the persistent marine debris
            problem for most locations and species is not currently at the crisis stage according to
            information now available (ITFPMD, 1988). However, near-term implementation of programs
            and regulations to reduce the impacts of marine debris could readily prevent numerous and
            unnecessary mortalities of marine life that may otherwise reach crisis proportions in the
            future.

                                                         Feder#] Role

                  This section is a discussion'of the Federal legislation, regulations, and programs that
            address the issue of habitat loss and modification. Additional discussions of Federal programs
            as related to specific information needs are presented under the management questions that
            follow this review of the Federal role. More detailed information on the Federal programs
            and projects that address the issue of habitat alterations can be found in the National Marine
            Pollution Program, Summary of Federal Programs and Projects (NOAA, 1987c).

                                              Federal Legislation and Regulations

                  Section 404 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act) provides the
            major avenue of Federal involvement in controlling the use of wetlands and other marine
            habitats by regulating discharges of dredged or fill material into the waters of the United

                                                              125

                   GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                   States. Under Section 404, persons seeking to conduct such activities must first obtain a
                   permit from the local district office of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (COE). The
                   Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) of the
                   National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) of the
                   U.S. Department of the Interior, and state agencies review these permit applications and
                   provide comments and recommendations on whether permits should be issued and under what
                   conditions. The COE then evaluates the impacts of proposed development activities on
                   wetlands and other marine habitats in light of its regulations and comments received from
                   these agencies. If expected impacts are judged to be significant, the permit application can
                   be denied, or the project can be modified to minimize impacts. If there are no practicable
                   alternatives and the project is in the public interest, mitigation can be required to compensate
                   for the damage caused by the permitted activity. The EPA has the authority under Section
                   404(c) to overrule the use of any disposal site included in a COE permit application if it
                   determines that the expected discharge would have an unacceptable adverse impact on
                   municipal water supplies, shellfish beds and fishery areas (including spawning and brooding
                   areas), wildlife, or recreational areas (40 CFR Part 231).

                         Section 404 only regulates the discharge of dredged or fill materials. Projects involving
                   excavation, drainage, clearing, and flooding of wetlands are not explicitly included. Section 10
                   of the Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 requires permits from the COE for dredging and other
                   activities that could obstruct the navigable waterways of the United States, defined as those
                   waters below the mean high-tide level, including tidal wetlands. Section 10 has served to
                   protect tidal wetlands from activities such as dredging that are not covered by Section 404.

                         The NMFS and the FWS have legislative responsibilities to manage fish and wildlife
                   resources and their habitats. The two agencies have common interests in some marine
                   resources and their habitats in coastal waters, estuarine areas, and waters occupied by
                   anadromous fishes. The responsibilities of NOAA's NMFS include management of marine fish
                   located primarily in the Exclusive Economic Zone; anadromous fish; conservation of certain
                   species of marine mammals (whales, dolphins, seals, and sea lions); and protection of
                   endangered or threatened marine species (including sea turtles when in the water). The
                   responsibilities of the FWS include, but are not restricted to, management of migratory
                   waterfowl,, anadromous fish, endangered species, and resident freshwater fish, and protection
                   of certain species of marine mammals (manatees, polar bears, sea otters, and walruses), and
                   sea turtles when they come ashore.

                         The Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (FWCA) and the National Environmental Policy
                   Act (NEPA) are the major authorities under which NMFS and FWS conduct aquatic habitat
                   conservation activities, although significant additional environmental legislation has been
                   passed since 1970 that gives the two agencies further authority over marine habitats. The
                   FWCA requires interagency consultation to assure that fish and wildlife resources are
                   considered when determining the economic and social concerns of a proposed Federal or
                   federally authorized project that controls, modifies, or develops the Nation's waters. The
                   NMFS and FWS analyze a wide variety of projects under the FWCA, including COE dredge and
                   fill permit applications for U.S. waterways, hydroelectric power project proposals, and other
                   Federal water projects.

                         Additional FWS mandates related to habitat include Sections 401 and 402 of the
                   Emergency Wetland Resources Act of 1986 (P.L. 99-645). Section 401 of the Act requires the
                   Secretary of the Interior to produce detailed wetland maps for the contiguous United States
                   by September 30, 1998, and for Alaska as soon as possible after that date. The Section also

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                                                                                         Habitat Loss or Modification

             requires FWS to update its report on the status and trends of the Nation's wetlands by 1990
             and every 10 years thereafter. Section 402 requires the Secretary of the Interior to submit
             reports to Congress describing the status, condition, and trends of wetlands in the United
             States. These reports are to contain an analysis of the factors responsible for wetlands
             destruction, degradation, protection, and enhancement and an analysis of the direct and
             indirect effects of Federal programs on wetlands.

                   Additional NOAA mandates related to habitat include the Magnuson Fishery Conservation
             and Management Act (P.L. 94-265; Magnuson Act), which requires NMFS to conserve and
             manage U.S. living marine resources, principally within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone,
             although there is concern about management throughout the range of the resources. The.
             Magnuson Act provides for the consideration of living marine resource habitat in the
             development of fishery management plans.

                   The International Convention on the Prevention of Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and
             Other Matter, London, 1972, also known as the London Dumping Convention (LDC), prohibits
             the deliberate disposal into the sea of "persistent plastics and other persistent synthetic
             materials," which include netting and ropes. The definition of dumping, however, excludes
             "the disposal of synthetic debris at sea during the course of normal vessel operations."

                   Annex V of the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
             (MARPOL 73/78) was unanimously. ratified by the U.S. Senate on November 5, 1987 and goes
             into effect on December 31, 1988. The U.S. Coast Guard is currently drafting the regulations
             for implementing the pollution prevention requirements of Annex V. Annex V prohibits ships
             representing the member nations from the "disposal into the sea of all plastics, including but
             not limited to synthetic ropes, synthetic fishing nets and plastic garbage bags" with limited
             exceptions. Under Annex V, synthetic debris, generated as a result of normal vessel
             operations, cannot be discarded at sea as was previously allowed under the LDC.

                   The Marine Plastic Pollution- Research and Control Act of 1987 (P.L. 100-220) amends the
             1980 Act to Prevent Pollution from Ships (APPS, P.L. 96-478) and provides for the
             implementation of Annex V of MARPOL 73/78. It also calls for a research effort to identify
             and reduce the effects of plastic debris in the marine environment and to conduct a public
             outreach/education program on plastics pollution. Title IV, the Driftnet Impact Monitoring,
             Assessment, and Control Act of 1987 (P.L. 100-220) has several provisions, one of which
             requires the Department of Commerce to investigate the feasibility of a driftnet marking,
             registry, and identification system; the use of alternative driftnet materials; a driftnet bounty
             system; and a driftnet vessel tracking system.

                                                         Federal Programs

                   Several Federal agencies conduct research, development, and monitoring activities related
             to the effects of human destruction and modification of marine habitats. The agencies with
             major roles in habitat research include COE, USDA, NOAA, and FWS.

                   Habitat-related research and monitoring is conducted by COE at the Waterways
             Experiment Station (WES) in Vicksburg, Mississippi and at its division laboratories. Most of
             the COE's research activities address the effects of dredged material disposal in aquatic
             systems. Such activities include assessing various disposal techniques through monitoring of
             disposal sites, development of alternative disposal methods, and characterization of biological,

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                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  physical, and chemical characteristics of historical and future disposal sites. WES studies the
                  effects on living marine resources and their habitat of coastal engineering projects, such as
                  beach nourishment, channel deepening, and jetty construction. In addition, WES is developing
                  techniques for using dredged material for habitat creation (oyster reefs, sea grass beds, and
                  other wetland habitats) and for abating shoreline erosion using marsh plants and seagrasses to
                  stabilize sediments and reduce wave energy. WES also conducts research to identify and
                  delineate wetlands and to assess wetland functions and values.

                       NOAA's research and monitoring activities are conducted primarily by the National
                  Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), the Sea Grant Program of the Office of Oceanic and
                  Atmospheric Research (OAR), and the Strategic Assessments Branch of the National Ocean
                  Service (NOS). Other NOAA offices and programs that address habitat issues include the Deep
                  Seabed Mining Environmental Research Program and the National Marine Sanctuaries Program
                  of NOS, and OAR's Environmental Research Laboratories. NOAA conducts studies on wetland
                  functions, such as the habitat utilization and requirements of commercial, recreational, and
                  endangered species and the relationship between plant primary productivity and living marine
                  resource production. The agency conducts research and monitoring to determine the direct
                  and long-term effects of various environmental alterations such as freshwater diversions,
                  dredging, and impoundments, on the spatial distribution and quality of coastal wetlands and
                  their resulting impacts on living marine resources. Both NMFS and OAR are developing and
                  evaluating various techniques for creating and restoring wetland habitats. NOAA is also
                  compiling a database of the areal extent and distribution of coastal wetlands in the United
                  States.

                       The USDA's habitat research is concerned with the effects of agricultural practices on
                  estuarine habitats. Studies include the effects of landscape changes, channelization, and
                  drainage, which result in potential increased sedimentation (through erosion of soils),
                  subsidence, and other physical alterations in habitat. The agency also investigates the
                  relationship between fish abundance, distribution, reproduction, health, and productivity. and
                  the habitat changes resulting from natural and human-induced events.

                       The FWS conducts research on the structure and functions of wetlands with regard to
                  their relationship to waterfowl, fish, and wildlife populations. The agency also evaluates
                  changes in wetland acreage, structure, and function caused by natural processes and human
                  activities and develops and evaluates methods for mitigating the loss or alteration of wetlands.
                  Under the National Wetlands Inventory Program, FWS has developed, and is currently updating,
                  a wetland database (in map form) on the characteristics and extent of the nation's wetlands
                  and deepwater habitats. Based on this database, FWS periodically reports on the status and
                  trends of the nation's wetlands.

                       Other Federal agencies conducting habitat-related studies include the U.S. Geological
                  Survey (USGS) and the Minerals Management Service (MMS) of the U.S. Department of the
                  Interior, and the EPA. The USGS is conducting research designed to understand the
                  geological, oceanographic, and other causes of coastal erosion by means of surveys and other
                  measurements, and is providing information to various Federal and state agencies about the
                  nature, extent, and rate of coastal retreat and land loss. The MMS funds efforts to determine
                  the impacts of Outer Continental Shelf (OCS) oil and gas development on coastal and wetland
                  habitats. The EPA's Environmental Research Laboratory in Corvallis, Oregon is currently
                  conducting research on wetland mitigation, cumulative impacts, and water quality functions of
                  wetlands.

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                                                                                        Habitat Loss or Modification

                   NOAA's Marine Entanglement Research Program (MERP) within NMFS is involved in a
             variety of efforts to address the problems of persistent marine debris. MERP sponsors
             research on the effects of pellets, fishing gear, packing straps, and six-pack rings on marine
             life; funds reviews of technology and processes pertinent to plastic waste management, such as
             degradable plastics and the Marine Refuse Disposal Project in Newport, Oregon; develops
             methods to reduce the ocean disposal of ship-generated garbage; and promotes education/public
             awareness through workshops, conferences, published materials, and educational contractors.

                   The MMS, National Park Service (NPS), and the FWS of the U.S. Department of Interior
             conduct activities concerning persistent marine debris. Educating Gulf of Mexico users about
             the problems of marine debris and strictly controlling persistent solid waste disposal from
             Federal OCS oil and gas facilities are MMS's responsibilities. The NPS aids in the source
             identification of marine debris washed up on beaches and conducts education/awareness
             activities. The FWS researches the effects of plastic debris on wildlife and educates
             fisherman of the threat posed to marine life by discarded plastics (ITFPMD, 1988).

                   Other Federal agencies involved in marine debris include the U.S. Navy, which is
             currently researching and developing methods for the processing and storage of ship-generated
             waste; the EPA, which funds various marine debris projects such as identifying the sources
             and types of floatable matter on New Jersey beaches and sampling the outfall waste stream of
             combined sewer overflow systems to determine their contribution to floatables in the marine
             environment; and the Marine Mammal Commission, which is involved in education/awareness
             programs including annual meetings, workshops, and beach clean-up efforts (ITFPMD, 1988).

                                          Manuentent Ouestions And Information Needs

                   An und  -erstanding of the effects of human destruction and modification of marine habitats
             is needed to support effective management of these habitats and dependent living marine
             resources. Listed below are five management questions that have been developed to identify
             the information that environmental managers and decision makers are likely to need. These
             management questions are modified versions of those presented in the 1985 Federal Plan
             (NOAA, 1985a). During a recent workshop sponsored by the National Ocean Pollution Program
             Office (NOPPO), the management questions presented in the 1985 Plan were reviewed and
             recommendations for their revisions were made (NOAA, 1988). Following the workshop and
             further review by NOPPO and experts in the field of marine habitats, the management
             questions presented below were developed.

             Management Question 1: What is the present status of marine habitat quality and quantity
             and how is the status changing?                                                             I

             Management Question 2: What are the causes, both natural and anthropogenic, of changes in
             the status of marine habitat quality and quantity?

             Management Question 3: What are the short-term effects, direct and indirect, of habitat
             modification caused by human activities?

             Management Question 4: What are the long-term and cumulative effects of habitat
             modifications?

             Management Question 5: How effective are restoration and mitigation?

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                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       This section will evaluate how well we can answer these questions by using existing
                  information., For each management question, the discussion will identify pertinent Federal
                  programs, evaluate the adequacy of existing information for addressing the information needs,
                  and present recommendations on the most important research, development, and monitoring
                  opportunities for improving our understanding in each area.

                                                 Status Of Habitat Quantity And Quality

                  Mangeement Ouestion 1: What is the present status of marine habitat guality and guantity
                  and how is the status chaniting?

                  Information Needs

                       Ia. What are the existing acreages of habitats? How are they changing regionally and
                           nationally?

                       lb. What are the  natural functions, processes, and values of marine habitats?

                       Ic. What are the  habitat requirements of valued living marine resources?

                       Resource managers must have some understanding of the functions of habitat as well as
                  the rates of habitat loss and change to manage living marine resources effectively by
                  predicting the immediate and long-term effects of human activities on habitat (NOAA, 1987a).
                  For most parts of the country, we have not quantified the functional value of estuarine
                  habitats, the quality of the habitats, or their areal extent and rate of loss well enough to
                  measure changes in their status. To minimize the impacts of habitat alterations,-we must first
                  understand the role and value of habitat types, inventory the destruction of habitats, and
                  monitor habitat changes (NOAA, 1987a).

                  Ia. What are the existing acreaptes of habitats? How are they changinp, reptionally and
                  nationally?

                       In 1986, Congress enacted the Emergency Wetland Resources Act in response to the need
                  for effective management of wetland resources. This Act requires the Secretary of the
                  Interior to produce detailed, wetland maps for the contiguous United States by September 30,
                  1998, and for Alaska as soon as possible after that date. The Act also requires FWS to
                  update its report on the status and trends of the Nation's wetlands by 1990 and every 10
                  years thereafter. The mapping of coastal wetlands has been an ongoing effort in the National
                  Wetlands Inventory (NWI) program at FWS. About 93% of the wetlands in the coastal zone of
                  the lower 48 states has been mapped. Other habitat types including submerged aquatic
                  vegetation, rocky shores, reefs, and intertidal soft bottoms are also depicted in NWI maps
                  although they are not covered as completely as the wetlands. The FWS published a report on
                  habitat loss in the conterminous United States between the mid-1950's and mid-1970's (Tiner,
                  1984) and another report that documented habitat loss specifically in five Mid-Atlantic states
                  (Tiner, 1987).

                       Although FWS has completed maps for the majority of the coastal wetlands in the lower
                  48 states, some of these maps (and the wetland. loss rates derived from them) are 10 years
                  old. Many regions of the country are undergoing rapid change (e.g., coastal Texas, the

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                                                                                      Habitat Loss or Modification

             Florida Bay marshes of the Everglades, and the bay margin marshes of the Mississippi River
             Delta), and these regions should be inventoried and mapped as frequently as needed to more
             accurately assess wetland status and trends.

                   NOAA's National Ocean Service, Strategic Assessments Branch (SAB) is preparing
             estimates of the areal extent and distribution of coastal habitat types in the conterminous
             United States (excluding the Great Lakes). The SAB is applying a systematic grid sampling
             procedure to existing NWI habitat maps to identify- 15 different habitat types using a 45-acre
             grid cell size (Alexander and Field, 1986; Alexander et al., 1986). To date, over 2,550 of the
             4,000 NWI maps available in coastal areas of the United States have been grid sampled. 'Grid
             sampling is expected to be completed by the end of 1988.

                   There have been efforts by some states and the FWS to develop high-resolution
             automated databases of habitat types through a process of digitizing NWI maps at a resolution
             of approximately one acre. The utility of high- resolution: and geographically referenced
             databases for resource managers has been evaluated by FWS (Dahl, 1987). Digitizing NWI maps
             would make updating information on the status and trends of habitat types easier and more
             accurate; however, the progress towards digitizing all coastal wetland maps has been hampered
             by the time-consuming and costly nature of the process involved.

                   In addition to wetlands, attempts are being made to inventory other marine and estuarine
             habitat types. For example, in 1984, EPA's Chesapeake Bay Program began to coordinate a
             multiagency effort to record and map submerged aquatic vegetation in the bay. The program
             was jointly funded by the Maryland Department of Natural Resources, the Virginia Council on
             the Environment, the EPA, FWS, and COE (CBP, 1987). In addition, NOAA and FDA, with
             assistance from EPA and FWS, have compiled an inventory of the status of shellfish- growing
             waters in the lower 48 -states (NOAA and FDA, 1985). The National Shellfish Register
             categorizes all shellfish -growing waters into one of five classifications: approved, conditionally
             approved, prohibited, restricted, and nonproductive. The Register also provides data on
             estimated acreage of classified shellfish waters by state.

                   Mapping and inventorying of habitats in those parts of the country undergoing rapid
             change should be conducted as frequently as needed. Also, costs and benefits of developing
             high -resolution, digitized welland databases should be evaluated. In addition to wetlands, more
             complete and detailed inventories of other marine and estuarine habitat types known to be
             important for the production of living marine resources would be'useful. These habitat types
             include shellfish beds, submerged aquatic vegetation, endangered species' habitats, and coral
             reefs (NOAA, 1988).

             lb. What are the natural functions, processes. and values of marine habitats?

                   Several wetland functions, including flood and erosion protection, fisheries habitat, and
             water quality control, have been identified. Physical alterations of wetlands can affect their
             ability to perform these natural functions by reducing the areal extent or quality of these
             habitats.

                   Methods have been developed by various Federal agencies (NOAA, COE, FWS, DOT) to
             assess the relative functional values of wetlands. Of these methods, COE's Wetland Evaluation
             Technique (WET) (Adamus et al., 1987), a revision of a method first developed for the Federal
             Highway Administration of the Department of Transportation (Adamus and Stockwell, 1983), is

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                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  the most widely accepted. All of these methods, however, are limited by the level of
                  understanding of the actual processes taking place in habitats, which vary with habitat type,
                  region of the country, and physical, chemical, and biological conditions. Therefore, better
                  knowledge of these processes is required to improve our capabilities for evaluating change in
                  the functional value of wetlands.

                        A better understanding of estuarine dynarnics and its importance to selected habitat
                  functions would improve the Nation's ability to manage critical habitats and other valued
                  marine resources. Research could be conducted to understand the combination of conditions
                  that produce unique hydrodynamic and biological environments (NOAA, 1987a). Studies in
                  estuaries of different sizes, bathymetrics, climate regimes, and types that consider all major
                  physical and chemical processes as they relate to circulation, mixing, and internal density
                  changes would be useful. There is a need to understand the relative importance of each
                  process, judge which are the most influential for various habitat types, and determine the
                  water quality and biological response.

                  Ic. What are the habitat reQuirements of valued living marine resources?

                        Of all the functions of habitat, its value in supporting commercial and recreational
                  fisheries has received the most attention. Researchers have determined which habitat types
                  appear to be important to living marine resources, but the specifics of how these habitats are
                  used or which aspects of habitats make them valuable for the production of living marine
                  resources are poorly known. For example, high levels of estuarine secondary production
                  appear to be associated with high levels of estuarine plant productivity; however, the
                  relationship between primary and secondary productivity is not well understood (NOAA, 1987b).

                        Studies to assess the habitat requirements of, and use by, selected fisheries species have
                  been or are currently being conducted or funded by NOAA through the OAR and NMFS, as
                  well as through the FWS and COE. The OAR has funded studies to determine the habitat
                  requirements of commercial and recreational species in various regions of the country and to
                  evaluate the functions of habitat in terms of such factors as critical refuge, food resources,
                  and reproduction of economically and ecologically important fishes and macroinvertebrates.
                  The NMFS conducts life history and habitat investigations of important commercial and
                  recreational finfish and shellfish as part of its management of fishery resources in the U.S.
                  Exclusive Economic Zone. The FWS and COE have jointly produced a series of species
                  profiles, which describe the life histories and environmental requirements of many commercial
                  and recreational species along the coasts of the United States. Habitat requirements are
                  known for many economically important species such as the Gulf menhaden, shrimp, and blue
                  fish; however, there are considerable gaps in the technical information for most other species.

                        Knowledge of comparative values of regional habitats to fishery production is important
                  in managing the resources. Methods to quantitatively evaluate the importance of one habitat
                  as opposed to another would be useful. This would require determining the factors that limit
                  the overall success and productivity of the populations of concern and developing predictors of
                  the relative importance of habitats to these populations.

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                                                                                Habitat Loss or Modification

                                        Causes of Habitat Loss and Modification

            Management Question 2: What are the causes, bot.h natural and anthropoizenic, of 6anizes in
            the status of marine habitat guality and guantitv?

            Information Needs

                 2a. What are the human activities (types and number of projects, nationally and
                     regionally) that cause direct physical alterations and changes in freshwater input,
                     hydrology, sedimentologic processes, and relative sea level?

                 2b. What are the natural processes and anthropogenic factors that control accretion,
                     erosion, and sedimentation rates?

                 2c. What will happen to coastal wetlands as a result of sea-level rise?

            2a. What are the human activities (tvves and number of vroiects. nationally and regionally)
            that cause direct r)hvsical alterations and chanpes in freshwater input, hydrology,
            sedimentologic grocesses. and relative sea level?

                 To understand the magnitude of potential short- and long-term as well as cumulative
            impacts of human activities on habitat, we need to identify and quantify those human
            activities that have the most serious impacts on habitat�.. Major attempts by the Federal
            Government to quantify the loss or modification of.habitat and.'to address the causes of
            changes resulting from human activities inclu de studies *conducted or funded by NOAA (NMFS,
            National Ocean Service, and OAR), 'and the Department of the Interior (MMS and FWS). The
            NMFS Southeast Region and Center are developing a system to document their efforts in
            conserving habitat in COE's permitting program. The system uses information collected during
            the COE permitting process, including data on project type, purpose, and location; habitat type
            affected; area proposed to be affected; area NMFS recommended to be conserved -or did not
            object to its being altered; and NMFS' recommended mitigation or compensation (Lindall and
            Thayer, 1982). The Strategic Assessments Branch of NOAA's National Ocean Service has
            compiled shoreline and dredging characteristics for 92 estuaries identified in its National
            Estuarine Inventory (Orlando et at., 1987). The Sea Grant Program is supporting studies to
            quantify the parameters that influence landscape structure and function and to inventory and
            classify impoundments in coastal Louisiana.

                 The MMS has supported a study conducted by Louisiana State University to determine
            how much and in what ways OCS oil and gas development has 'Contributed to wetland loss in
            coastal Louisiana and parts of Texas and Mississippi (Turner and Cahoon, 1987). Finally, the
            FWS has proposed a study for FY 1989 to analyze the effectiveness of the 404 program in
            retarding coastal wetland loss by comparing the pre- and post-404 implementation status of
            wetlands in several estuaries along the coasts of the United States (FWS, 1987). This effort
            will utilize current digital databases and wetlands'maps prepared by FWS and others such as
            states and NOAA, and historical mapping where available. Additional mapping (historical and
            recent) and digitizing will be completed to provide status and trends data.

                 An inventory system for federally permitted activities that affect marine and estuarine
            habitats would help us to document the human activities that are causing loss and modification
            of coastal habitats in the United States. This system could record nationwide coastal habitat

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                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  changes caused by Federal projects, federally permitted projects, and    other authorizations.
                  The accounting system of habitat loss and modification would also consider indirect changes in
                  habitat attributable to alterations in habitat processes caused by, human activities, such as
                  freshwater diversions in upland areas that impact estuarine habitats.

                  2b. What are the natural processes and anthropoptenic factors that control accretion, erosion..
                  and sedimentation rates?

                        Geologic processes are of major importance    in shaping habitats. Identifying the factors,
                  both natural and manmade, that contribute to the    accretion, erosion, and sedimentation rates
                  of coastal habitats is of particular concern. Due to the present worldwide rise in sea level
                  coupled with subsidence which is occurring in many coastal areas, continuous deposition of
                  sediments in coastal wetlands is necessary to allow accretion and to prevent permanent
                  flooding and erosion of coastal areas. As a result of man's activities, sediments are not being
                  introduced in sufficient quantity to keep pace with relative sea-level, ri'se, and some coastal
                  margins are rapidly being eroded. To help prevent further. loss of land, identification and
                  quantification of those processes that affect accretion, erosion,.and sedimentation rates are
                  needed as well as an evaluation of the ways in which future activities may be modified to
                  reduce impacts.

                        Several Federal agencies, including DOI (FWS, MMS,      'and USGS), COE, and USDA, are
                  currently addressing, or have in the past  addressed, various aspects of accretion, erosion, and
                  sedimentation rates in coastal habitats. Within the Department of the Interior, FWS.and MMS
                  have sponsored research addressing the causes and consequences of coastal erosion and
                  subsidence in coastal Louisiana. The USGS has conducted research to understand the
                  geological, oceanographic, and other causes of coastal erosion and to determine the nature,
                  extent, and rate of coastal retreat and land loss. The USDA and cooperating state
                  agricultural experiment stations are conducting research to evaluate the effects of landscape
                  drainage and channei'modification on ambient concentrations of sediments and subsidence and'
                  the influence of sediments being deposited in coastal wetlands and other target areas. For
                  several years, COE has been investigating causes of beach erosion, methods to control erosion
                  through shoreline stabilization, and the physical processes contributing to erosion.

                        Given the current level of knowledge of geologic processes affecting habitat, the
                  development and testing of' conceptual models would help predict changes in accretion,, erosion,
                  and sedimentation that occur as a, result of human activities and natural processes. These
                  models would assist in identifying information gaps. Also, they would allow for comparison of
                  geologic processes in habitats of different parts of the country (e.g., Northeast vs. Chesapeake
                  Bay vs. the Gulf of Mexico) to determine why some habitats are eroding.

                  2c. What will havoen.to coastal wetlands as    a result of sea-level rise?

                        Eustatic sea-le'vel rise is a major process affecting habiitat that is more predictable than
                  changes in the other processes. Studies conducted by the National Academy of Sciences
                  (Revelle, 1983) and EPA (Hoffman et al., 1983) indicate that the current rise in sea level will
                  continue throughout the next century. Hoffman et al. (1983) estimate that sea level could
                  rise by as much as 3 to 4 1/2 feet by the year 2075. This steady rise in sea level, together
                  with subsidence that is occurring along some coastal margins (particularly in the Mississippi
                  Delta), is causing land loss.of intertidal wetlands at a significant rate.

                                                                      134.

                                                  Habitat Loss or Modification
    Several EPA studies have predicted future sea-level rise and the effects it will ahve on
    coastal area (Titus, 1986 and In press, Hoffman et al., 1983; Kana ed at., 1986). In addition
    to the EPA's efforts, some academic research has been conducted with Federal funding from
    NOAA (OAR), NSF, DOI, (FWS and USGS), and COE. For example, Stevenson et al. (1986)
    discuss the ability of marshes to keep pace with sea level through accretion.
     Models to predict impacts of sea-level rise on wetlands such as that developed by the
    EPA for South Carolina (Kana et al., 1986) would help to evaluate the impact of sea-level rise
    for selected coastal wetland regions that are expected tobe most severly affected by sea-
    level rise. These models would be based on more refined assumptions used to predict future
    sea-level rise and the resulting impacts on wetland loss. The expansion of the tidal gauge
    analyses proposed in NOAA's National Climate Change initiative is one way to provide data to
    refine model assumptions.
    Short-Term Effects
    Managemen Question 3: What are the short-term effects, direct and indirect, of habitat
    modification caused by human activities?
    Information Need
    3a. What are the shor-term effects, direct and indirect, of anthropogenic physical alterations
    on habitat quality and quantity?
    3b. What are the short-term effects of debris in the marine environment?
    3a. What are the short-term effects, direct and indirect, of anthropogenic physical alterations
    on habitat quality and quantity?
     Environmental assessment specialists and resource managers must evaluate the impacts of
    human activities that may affect habitat. However, quantitative nad qualitative information is
    generally lacking on the specific environmental effects of various activities themselves or the
    effectiveness of various mitigation options in avoiding or reversing these effects (NOAA,
    185b). When an understanding of habitat functions and characteristics that are altered as a
    result of man's activities is achieved, better prediciton of the effects of habitat loss will be
    possible.
     The problem of determinig the short-term direct and indirect effects of human
    activities on habitat has been addressed by several Federal agencies under their specific
    legislative mandates. These agencies include USDA, NOAA (NMFS, OAR, and the National
    Ocean Service), COE, DOI (MMS and FWS), and EPA. Much has been learned about how
    human activities result in the quantitative loss or modifiacation of habitat, but additional
    research would help to determine how such losses or modifications relut in changes in the
    quality and function of various habitat types. However, without an understanding of the
    natural processes and function fo habitats, a sufficient understanding of the effects that
    human activities will have on habitat quality cannot be attained.

                                 135

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       Case studies could be conducted to improve our understanding of the indirect effects of
                  physical alterations on habitat quality and function. These studies would involve assessments
                  of changes in the processes that affect habitat (hydrology, sedimentation, relative sea-level
                  changes, and freshwater inflow).

                  3b. What are the short-term effects of debris in the marine environment?

                       The most significant short-term effects of debris in the marine environment concern fish
                  and wildlife, coastal communities, and vessels. Unfortunately, adequate information is not
                  presently available to accurately assess the effects in any of these areas. According to the
                  Interagency Task Force on Persistent Marine Debris (ITFPMD, 1988), the existing research
                  information concerning the effects of persistent marine debris on most species of wildlife is
                  inconclusive. Exceptions include the northern fur seal and the Hawaiian monk seal which are
                  frequently entangled (Fowler, 1988). Significantly more information is available on the effects
                  of certain types of persistent marine debris, including nets, six-pack rings, and plastic bags,
                  on individual marine animals such as fish, birds, turtles, and mammals (Fry et al., 1987; Ryan,
                  1988) than is available on the effects of persistent debris on other populations of @marine
                  species. The information available on the economic effects of plastic debris from ocean
                  sources on coastal communities tends to represent individual cases; regional or national cost
                  evaluations are not available (ITFPMD, 1988). The disablement effect of marine debris on
                  vessels, such as the fouling of propellers and the clogging of cooling water intake systems, is
                  a recognized problem; however, comprehensive data is lacking on the frequency of these
                  occurrences (CEE, 1987).

                       Under the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act, the Marine Mammal
                  Protection Act, the Endangered Species Act, and the Magnuson Fishery Conservation and
                  Management Act, NOAA is responsible for protecting, conserving, and managing marine species
                  and their habitat (ITFPMD, 1988). The Federal agencies that play a large role in sponsoring
                  or conducting research on the effects of persistent marine debris are NOAA (under the Marine
                  Entanglement Research Program of NMFS) and FWS. Additional information concerning the
                  research performed under NOAA and FWS is provided in the Federal Programs section of this
                  chapter.

                       In an effort to help reduce the plastic debris problem, the plastics industry has
                  developed degradable, or controlled lifetime, plastics, such as photodegradable six-pack rings,
                  and the Stevens Institute of Technology's Polymer Processing Institute recently received a
                  grant to develop materials for fish traps and pots that will degrade in seawater (ITFPMD,
                  1988). Degradable plastics are also being considered for tampon applicators, styrofoam
                  containers, and balloons (ITFPMD, 1988). The concept of applying the technology of
                  controlled lifetime plastics to fishing &par is also being discussed; however, there is concern
                  over potentially dangerous premature failure. The existence of such technology may be useful
                  for fishing gear items with limited useful lifetimes (ITFPMD, 1988; Andrady, 1988).

                       Degradable plastic products cannot be reused, recycled, or have their heat content
                  recovered. Also, the possibility exists that making disposable items degradable will encourage
                  their improper disposal into the environment.

                       Research and monitoring efforts to identify and quantify the effects of marine debris on
                  populations of fish and wildlife (particularly endangered, threatened, or depleted species),
                  coastal communities, and vessels would improve our understanding in this area (ITFPMD, 1988).

                                                                   136

                                                                                               Habitat Loss or Modification,

             In addition, many scientists and organizations are concerned with the environmental and waste
             management impacts posed by degradable plastics. There is a need to research the
             environmental effects of the byproducts of degradable plastics (ITFPMD, 1988). If these
             effects are determined to be environmentally ac     ceptable, the technologies should be further
             developed and uses of degradable plastics for items such as fishing gear should be applied.

                                                   Long-Term and Cumulative Effects

             Manaimment Ouestion       4: What are the long-term and cumulative effects of habitat
             modif ication?

             Information Needs

                    4a.  What are the long-term effects of individual projects resulting       in habitat modification
                         or loss?

                    4b.  What are the cumulative effects of several projects separated in either time or
                         location, together with natural changes, that result in modification or loss of
                         estuarine or- marine habitat?.

                    4c.  What are  the long-term effects of persistent debris in the marine environment?

                    The  inability of re searchers to predict the long-term and cumulative impacts of habitat
             alterations makes habitat management difficult, especially when there are substantial short-
             term economic benefits associated with the development of these areas. Although a single
             coastal development project that results in modification or loss of marine habitat may not
             have serious immediate environmental repercussions beyond the point of initial impact, many
             such projects in succession over time and over a broad geographic area may have far-reaching
             ecological consequences (NOAA, 1988). Without reasonably accurate information on long-term
             and cumulative impacts of human activities on marine and estuarine habitats, good decisions on
             permitting, mitigation, or management of fisheries and wildlife will be difficult.

             4a. What are the long-term effects of individual r)roiects resulting in habitat modification or
             loss?

                    A number of projects have been initiated by COE, NOAA (NMFS and Sea Grant), and
             FWS to address the long-term impacts of individual projects. These efforts should be
             continued with more work on monitoring previous project sites to assess impacts.
             Environmental impact statements (EIS) include estimates of impacts to habitat that are
             expected to occur as a result of specific COE-permitted activities. The EISs written several
             years ago should be reviewed and studies should be conducted to determine if the projected
             impacts actually occurred and if mitigations used were successful. Additionally, selected
             ongoing projects causing physical alterations should be monitored to assess long-term impacts.

                                                                     137

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  4b. What are the cumulative effects of several proi-ects set)arated in either'time or location,
                  tonther with natural changes. that result in modification or loss of estuarine or marine
                  habitat?

                        Prior to 1984, the Federal Government had not conducted research specifically addressing
                  the cumulative effects of modifications on living marine resources and their habitats, and
                  relatively few studies have directly addressed the issue since that,time. An example of the
                  current research being conducted on cumulative impacts is an EPA-funded study by Louisiana
                  State University. The LSU study, designed to develop a regional approach to cumulative
                  impact assessment, is *specifically concerned''with bottomland hardwood forests in the lower
                  Mississippi Valley (Gosselink et al., In press). -This study investigates the minimum area
                  needed to support living resources and addresses changes in habitat distribution, species
                  composition change, and the effects of habitat or range fragmentation..

                        Research on;cumulative effects of habitat'alterations, including regional or-watershed
                  case studies of-. historical projects., causing physical alterations, -would improve our
                  understanding- of habitat loss -and modification. Additionally, a framework for identifying the
                  limits of acceptable habitat quantity and quality should'be developed for each watershed.

                  4c. What are the long-term    effects of t)ersistent debris in the marine environment?

                        Assessment of the long-term effects of @ marine debris is very difficult, if not impossible',
                  at this time for,several reasons: the severity of the problems associated with persistent
                  marine debris have only come to light during the past decade; the changes in, the environment
                  which will occur following the commencement of MARPOL 73/78 Annex -V cannot be predicted;
                  and applicable technologies that may reduce the overall problem are only now being developed,:,
                  The implementation of'Annex V (which becomes effective on December 31, 1988, one year
                  after its ratification) should substantially reduce the amount of persistent marine debris
                  discharged into the world's oceans and must,be considered as a factor in the long-term
                  analysis along with the potential widespread future application of plastics re-use, recycling,
                  heat recovery, and the use of controlled lifetime plastic products. Annex V and these
                  improved shore-based waste 'management technologies may reduce the persistent marine debris
                  problem sufficiently to eliminate severe- long-term effects such as the extinction of endangered
                  species or continuous economic losses to coastal communities.

                        Research and monitoring of persistent marine debris should continue despite the
                  commencement of MARPOL Annex,V and the use of environmentally acceptable degradable
                  plastics. Studies should be used to evaluate the effectiveness of these mitigation measures in
                  protecting living marine resources, reducing vessel disablement, and lessening the economic
                  losses to coastal communities.

                                                                      138

                                                                                          Habitat Loss or Modification

                                         Effectiveness of Restoration and  Mitigation Ef forts

             Management    Ouestion  5:  How effective  are restoration and mitigation?

             Information  Needs

                   5a.  What has been the  success  of past mitigation, restoration, and creation projects and
                        other management techniques?

                   5b.  What are the  most effective methods and approaches for -mitigation,, restoration.,
                        creation, and other management techniques? How can they J?e improved?

                   Although Federal agencies often   require mitigation or  restoration as part of their
             permitting programs, it is not known whether the new or restored habitat, which was. provided
             to compensate for- the lost habitat, actually replaces the.-functional values of the lost habitat
             (NOAA,- 1987a). Many researchers believe that most,current and historic efforts at,mitigation
             of coastal wetlands or other marine -habitat loss have not been successful; and some    have. even. -
             resulted in additional environmental. damage (NOAA, 1988).. Therefore, knowledge concerning
             the effectiveness, of mitigation and restoration is critical for the effective. management of
             habitats through the permit- mitigation processes (NOAA, 1987a).

                   Past efforts to evaluate mitigation/restoration techniques have been conducted by     COE9
             FWS, EPA, and NOAA (NMFS and,OAR). These efforts have included studies to              determine
             methods for restoring. seagrasses, emergent wetlands,. beach grasses, and other vegetative
             habitat types. They have attempted to evaluate the degree to, which, restored habitats
             function as compared with natural habitats and to identify the necessary -construction
             specifications, factors most critical to the success of projects, and required monitoring
             procedures for evaluating mitigation/restoration projects. In addition to these efforts,   a new
             study is being funded by t  'he MMS Gulf of Mexico Region Office to investigate ways to reduce
             wetland loss, better manage wetlands, and to enhance existing wetlands. ,

                   To evaluate the success of various mitigation techniques in duplicating the natural
             functions of habitat will require additional study. For many habitats, it is possible to create
             a habitat in an engineering sense. For example, adequate information is already available to
             recreate SDartina alterniflora marshes and mangroves, and good progress is being made toward
             understanding how to create seagrass beds. What is as yet unknown, however, is how to
             measure the quality of restored habitat. -Research could be helpful -in determining the -relative
             value of restored habitats, including. sediment development, plant cover, microbial and detrital
             development, faunal utilization, and trophic linkages.

                                                 Conclusions and Recommendations

                   Marine and estuarine habitats are some of our.most valuable natural resources.      These
             habitats are used by living marine resources for food, spawning, rearing, protection from
             predators, and other life history requirements. Habitats provide other valuable functions     to
             humans, including erosion and flood protection, water quality control, and wildlife and
             waterfowl utilization. Rapid coastal development is threatening our valuable marine and
             estuarine habitats. Although considerable research has been conducted in recent years to
             understand the value of habitats and the effects of destroying or modifying them, these issues
             still have not been adequately addressed.

                                                                 139

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                         The following conclusions.c   oncerning our knowledge of human impacts on marine and
                  estuarine habitats are made based on the discussion of management questions. and information
                  needs presented in the previous section. These conclusions focus on.our knowledge of
                  physical alterations of habitat; the effects of chemical contamination on living marine
                  resources and their habitats are discussed in other sections of this Plan.

                         o   The FWS wetland maps and estimation.of wetland loss rates,derived from these maps
                             are as much as 10 years out of date and do not provide timely information on the
                             status and trends of habitats in areas of most rapid change.

                         o   Although for the most part we know which causes, both natural and anthropogenic,
                             result in habitat loss and modifications, we have not adequately quantified the human
                             activities that are affecting wetlands, nor,-in most cases, are we able to accurately
                             predict how natural events or human activities will impact habitats.

                         o   Researchers do not have an. adequate' understanding of estuarine processes and          their
                             importance. to habitat. functions.

                         o   Without an adequate understanding of the natural processes        and functions   of habitats,
                             we cannot accurately determine the effects that human activities will have on habitat
                             quantity and quality, nor can we determine how well mitigation efforts actually
                             replace the functional values of lost, habitat.

                         o   A key-.is,sue1or future habitat, research will   be to understand the cumulative effects
                             of numerous   projects over, time and space on the quantity and quality of marine and
                             estuarine habitats and the ecosystem.

                         o   Adequate information is, not available to assess the effects of persistent marine debris
                             on populations of living marine resources.

                         Based on these conclusions, the following recommendations are made to improve our
                  understanding of the effects of loss     and modifications of marine habitats as a result of human
                  activities.

                                                             Status of Habitat Quantity

                         The following work is needed      to improve inventories of habitat types and to document
                  changes in the status of these habitats.

                  Update NWI Maips. Maps in rapidly changing coastal areas should be updated as frequently as
                  needed.

                  Automated Databases. Several coastal states have digitized NWI maps using high               resolution,
                  geo-referenced systems to develop computer-automated databases that can make map data more
                  flexible and accessible in evaluating, proposed projects and programs.. A study group should
                  consider the costs and benefits of coordinating state efforts to improve compatibility, assisting
                  in the development and use of such digital databases, and providing or maintaining a central
                  repository of, and access to, digital data of coastal habitat types.

                                                                          140

                                                                                            Habitat Loss or Modification

              Inventories of Other  'Habitat Types'. NWI maps are of limited use for some types-of habitats
              other than vegetated wetlands or marshes. Better inventories' of selected subtidal habitats, ' .      . .
              such as shellfish beds, submerged aquatic vegetation, and hard bottoms, and endangered species
              habitats should be made available.

              Document Trends. Ongoing and planned work at the national          level to document trends in
              wetlands loss appear to be adequate and should     be continued.

                                                         Causes of Habitat Loss

                    The following work would provide better information on: the causes of       habitat'loss and
              modification, primarily for emergent and submerged aquaile,vegetatio'm-

              Identification of Causes. National/regional analyses of the human       activities that cause habitat
              loss could provide useful information-. Such analyses could be conducted toAdientify and@.'-
              quantify human activities causing physical alterations that directly: or @indirectly re@ult,,in@
              habitat loss and modification. Such a task would be labor intensive. "A cost/benefit
              assessment of this approach would be the logical first step.

                                               Natural Processes and Habitat Functions

                    The following work would improve our basic understanding of natural processes ':that
              affect habitat functions and values and the *mechanisms by, which-.human activities,'alter these
              functions.

              Link to Livins! Marine Resources. Research to improve our understanding of the         habitat
              processes and functions as related to living marine resource productivity and the effedts:,bf
              human activities on these processes and functions would be useful. Specifically,      we need a
              better, understanding of the long-term effects of specific projects as well as the   cumulative
              effects on a regional basis.
              Effects of Sea-Le@el Rise and Geoloizical Processes. Development of models to         assist in
              predicting the effects of sea-level rise on marine and estuarine habitats would enhance our
              ability to predict these effects. Models could also be developed to predict changes     in geologic
              processes (accretion, erosion, and sedimentation) affecting habitat that result from    human
              activities.

                                                               Mitigation

                    Work in the following area would improve our ability to mitigate      the effects of habitat
              loss.

              Mititzation Assessment. Approaches should- be developed and implemented'for assessing, the
              effectiveness of mitigation and restoration techniques in terms of the quality of the    restored
              habitat.

                                                                   141

                   GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                                 Marine Debris

                         The following work would help to adequately address the problems associated with'
                   persistent marine debris in the marine environment.-;

                   Sources. Research to determine    the level of land-based contributions to  the marine,debris
                   problem would help quantify sources.

                   Effects. Research to identify and quantify the effects of marine debris should focus on
                   populations of fish and wildlife, coastal communities, and vessels. Information is also needed
                   concerning degradable plastics to determine their environmental effects and potential
                   applications.

                   Monitorina.  Monitoring would help to determine     the rates of marine debris entanglement and
                   ingestion by wildlife. Emphasig'should    be placed on endangered or threatened species, vessel
                   disablement, and coastal wash-up events to determine the effectiveness of MARPOL Annex V
                   and degradable plastic products.

                   Develooment. Techniques should     be developed to reduce the    impact of fishing gear
                   entanglement through loss prevention and recovery incentives, recycling, and the use of
                   degradable plastics technology for fish traps and pots. Methods should also be developed for
                   the handling and storage of ship-generated waste and the reduction of land sources of marine@
                   debris.

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                   Adamus, P.R., E.J. Clairain, Jr., D.R. Smith, and R.E. Young. 1987. Wetland Evaluation
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                   Alexander, C.E. and D.W. Field.      1986. Coastal Wetlands: Establishing a National Data Base.
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                  Herke, W.H. 197 1. Use of   Natural and Semi-Impounded, Louisiana Tidal Marshes as Nurseries
                       for Fishes and Crustaceans. Ph.D. Dissertation, LouisianaState University, Baton Rouge,
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                 Titus, J.G. 1986. Greenhouse Effect, Sea Level Rise, and Coastal Zone Management. Coastal
                      Zone Management J. 14(3):147-170.

                 Titus, J.G. (ed.). In Press. Greenhouse Effect, Sea Level Rise, and Coastal Wetlands. U.S.
                      Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 130 pp. + Appendices.

                 Turner, R.E. 1977. Intertidal Vegetation and Commercial Yields of Penaeid Shrimp. Trans.
                      Am. Fish. Soc. 106:411-416.

                 Turner, R.E. and D.R. Cahoon (eds.) 1987. Causes of Wetland Loss in the Coastal Central
                      Gulf of Mexico. Volume II: Technical Narrative. Final Report Submitted to Minerals
                      Management Service, New Orleans, LA. Contract No. 14-12-0001-30252. OCS Study/MMS
                      87-0120, 400 pp.

                                                                 '146

                                                                                     Habitat Loss or Modification

              Turner, R.E., K.L. McKee, W.B. Sikora, J.P. Sikora, I.A. Mendelssohn,. E. Swenson, C. Neill, S.G.
                   Leibowitz, and F. Pedrazini. 1984. 'The Impact. and Mitigation of Man-Made Canals in.
                   Coastal Louisiana. Water Sci. Tech. 16:497-504.

              Weinstein, M.P. 1979. Shallow Marsh Habitats as Primary Nurseries  for Fishes and Shellfish,
                   Cape Fear  River, North Carolina. Fish. Bull. 77:339-357.

              Weinstein, M.P. and 1I.A. Brooks. 1983. - Comparative Ecology of Nekton Residing in a'Tidal
                   Creek and Adjacent Seagrass Meadow: - Community Composition and'Structure. Mar. Ecol.
                   Prog. Ser. 12:15-27.

              Yakupzack, P.M., W.H. Herke, and W.G.   Perry. 1977. Emigration of Juvenile Atlantic. Croaker,
                   Micropop,on undulatus, from a Semi-Impounded Marsh in South Western Louisiana,. Trans.
                   Am. Fish. Soc. 106:538-.544.

              Zedler, J.B. and P.A. Beare. 1986. Temporal variability of salt marsh vegetation: The role of
                   low-salinity gaps and environmental stressi pp. 295-306. In Estuarine Variability (D.A,
                   Wolfe, ed.). Academic Press, New York, NY.

                                                              147

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                             GOAL 5: DOCUMENT THE TRENDS IN THE
                                                  STATUS OF MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

                  Goal Definition  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . .           149

                  Federal Role . . . . . . . . ... . .   I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .       150
                       Federal Legislation and Regulations  . . . . . . . . . . . . .     . . . . . . . . . .    151
                       Federal Programs   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .          152
                  Management Questions and Information Needs     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       153
                       Changes in Biological Status  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . .        153
                       Changes in Physical and Chemical Factors    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       157

                  Conclusions and Recommendations    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      . . . . . . . .    160

                  Literature Cited . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           161

                       Oceanic, coastal marine, and Great Lakes waters support a wealth of living resoures,
                  provide aesthetically pleasing recreational opportunities, and sustain many commercial
                  enterprises. These valuable waters also receive the waste products of human activities
                  through terrestrial run-off, waste discharges into rivers, estuaries and marine ecosystems,
                  and atmospheric deposition. Coastal and estuarine environments are also subject to
                  physical disruptions associated with human activities, which may result in the loss or
                  deterioration of important habitats. Competition for use of these waters will increase as
                  our population continues to shift to the coastal zone. Due to the increasing human
                  activity in coastal areas and demand for marine resources, the capacity to assess
                  conditions and trends in the quality of marine ecosystems and to be aware of early
                  warning signals of unacceptable conditions is important. Therefore, documenting the
                  trends in the status of marine ecosystems is an important goal of the National Marine
                  Pollution Program.

                                                                    148

                                                                                             Status of Marihe Ecosystems

                                                             Goal Definition

                    Under conventional regulatory strategies, attempts are made to manage each use of'the
              marine. environment individually so that conflicts with other valued uses are minimized or
              avoided. Yet, because the cumulative effects of different human activities are difficult to
              foresee, it is not possible to predict with confidence the effects of human activities on the
              marine  environment. However, monitoring environmental conditions and trends within marine
              ecosystems can provide early -warning signals of potential pollution effects and generate
              information needed to avoid or remediate unreasonable or socially unacceptable degradation.
              Unfortunately, at this time there are significant gaps in our understanding of the relationships
              between the condition of marine ecosystems and the parameters that can be measured in
              marine environments. These, uncertainties are further complicated by natural variations in
              time and space for which many components of marine ecosystems are notorious. However,
              these variations do not necessarily prevent detection of pollution effects, as has been
              demonstrated by studies in'many industrialized estuaries of the nation and in the Great Lakes.

                    It is not feasible to discuss conditions and trends in the quality of marine ecosystems
              without defining "monitoring." For the purposes of this goal, "monitoring,., is defined
              according to NOAA (1979): "Monitoring is the continued, systematic time-series observation of
              pre-determined pollutants or pertinent components of the marine ecosystem over a period of
              time sufficient to determine (1) the existing level, (2) trends, and (3) natural variations of ,     -
              measured components." Data obtained through such observations can be used most effectively
              by environmental managers if monitoring programs have specific objectives that provide,the
              managers with the information necessary to make informed decisions. This would require ,
              levels of environmental quality to be pre-defined as "acceptable" or "unacceptable" (Segar and
              Stamm'an, 1986). Two types of monitoring programs are defined by NOAA (1985): monitoring
              inputs and near-field effects of potential sources of pollution (including compliance monitoring),
              and monitoring the general condition of marine resources through indicators of ecosystem or
              resource status. For the purposes of this Plan, the former is considered near-field monitoring
              and the latter far-field monitoring.

                    This goal is concerned with broad, far-field monitoring required to establish present
              conditions of the ecosystem and to.follow long-term trends on a regional scale. This involves
              developing and detecting early warning signs of potential pollution problems and following
              trends to show how the ecosystem's status is changing. Initially, the goal is not to establish
              causes and sources; these would be investigated through more comprehensive diagnostic studies
              after a problem is identified. Research priorities for such diagnostic studies are discussed in
              this Plan under National Marine Pollution Program Goals I through 4.

                    Regulatory compliance monitoring that addresses specific sources, of     pollution is pertinent
              to this goal when it is possible to integrate near-field and far-field activities. Monitoring
              methods that are effective in identifying problem areas around marine discharge and disposal
              sites in fact measure symptoms of poor marine ecosystem status. Symptoms of deterioration in
              status may be more easily recognized and agreed upon within impacted marine ecosystems than
              are far-field measures of ecosystem health (Phelps, 1988).

                    Much data and information have been published in the past regarding the status of
              marine ecosystems obtained by measuring contaminants in specific ecosystem components.
              Data obtained through monitoring waters receiving industrial and domestic effluents
              (compliance monitoring) 'make up a large portion of the database. Some monitoring studies
              document levels of PCBs, DDT, and chlorinated hydrocarbons in fish and invertebrates (NOAA,

                    GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                    1986a). Other databases record levels of metals in benthic biota and fishery organisms. Such
                    historical or "encountered" data are generally helpful in interpreting recent monitoring data.
                    Historical data also can be used to verify environmental models if assumptions and
                    uncertainties are carefully considered.

                          The scope of monitoring diverse aspects of marine ecosystems requires cooperative efforts
                    among Federal, state, and local scientists and managers. A consensus of marine pollution
                    managers from all regions of the United States suggests that the most effective monitoring
                    activities occur at the regional level and national monitoring programs should be the sum of
                    regionally planned programs coordinated at the national level (Segar, 1981). Examples where
                    Federal agencies and programs interface well with regional activities and facilitate the
                    exchange of information include the NOAA, EPA, and Coast Guard Accidental Spills Scientific
                    Response Programs (National Contingency Plan); the NMFS Fishery Centers' regional research
                    program (NOAA, 1986c); EPA's National Estuary Program; and EPA's Regional Offices'
                    interactions concerning discharge permits and compliance monitoring.

                          Selection, testing, and application of various indicators of the quality of marine
                    ecosystems are of the utmost importance in establishing conditions and trends in these
                    ecosystems. Close collaboration between scientists and managers is necessary to ensure          that
                    monitored measures of environmental quality are truly useful for managerial decisions,         and that
                    these interpretations are seen as informative. Numerous studies have developed indices for
                    specific monitoring purposes (Farrington et al. 1983; Phillips and Segar, 1986; and Dames and
                    Moore, 1984). The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) sponsored a workshop to
                    evaluate indices for measuring response of ecological systems and to emphasize indices that
                    could discriminate among natural factors and fishery exploitation (FAO, 1976). The necessity
                    of matching indices of marine environmental quality with management needs was discussed by
                    Wolfe and O'Connor (1986). They also suggested that environmental parameters for
                    establishing trends could be expressed most informatively relative to normal values accounting
                    for variability in measurement. O'Connor et al. (1987) constructed an index to detect above-
                    normal disease prevalence in fish and shellfish that warrants a warning or alarm for
                    management purposes.

                          Monitoring programs are not a panacea in that they cannot "be all things for all peoplell
                    (Farrington et al., 1983; Phelps, 1988). The selection of specific parameters for measurement
                    depends upon the purposes and goals of the particular monitoring program. To be effective in
                    addressing this goal of the National Program, a monitoring program may require measurements
                    of physical and chemical factors correlated with human activities as well as biological
                    responses to human influence (e.g., histopathological disorders). This section is a discussion of
                    the potentialities and limitations associated with the current state-of-the-art in monitoring the
                    status of marine ecosystems and an evaluation of how well Federal programs are addressing
                    this goal.

                                                                     Federal Role

                          Presented below is a discussion of the Federal legislation and programs that address the
                    issue of the status and trends of marine ecosystems. Additional information concerning the
                    Federal programs addressing specific information needs are presented in the discussions of the
                    management questions. More detailed information on the Federal programs and projects that
                    address the issue of marine monitoring can be found in the National Marine Pollution Program,
                    Summary of Federal Programs and Projects (NOAA, 1987c).

                                                                           150

                                                                                      Status of 'Marine Ecosystems

                                              Federal Legislation and Regulations

                   The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (FWPCA) amendments of 1987 (� 320(j)(1))
             mandate that EPA shall coordinate and implement the following through NOAA for one or
             more estuarine zones:

                   (A)  A long-term program of trend assessment monitoring measuring variations in
                        pollutant -concentrations,.- marine ecology, and other physical or biological
                        environment parameters....

                   (B)  A program of ecosystem assessment assisting in the  development of (i) baseline
                        studies which determine the state of estuarine zones and the effects of natural and
                        anthropogenic changes, and (ii) predictive models....

                   (C)  A comprehensive water quality   sampling' program for the continuous monitoring  of
                        nutrients, chlorine, acid precipitation, dissolved oxygen, and potentially toxic
                        pollutants....

                   (D)  A program of research to  identify the movements of nutrients, sediments - and'
                        pollutants through estuarine zones and the impact of nutrients, sediments, and
                        pollutants on water quality, the ecosystem, and designated or potential uses of. the
                        estuarine zones.

             Prior to 1987, the most direct mandate to monitor marine pollution was contained  in the
             earlier version of FWPCA, which states that EPA, in cooperation with other Federal agencies
             shall "establish ... and maintain a water quality surveillance system for the purpose of@
             monitoring the quality of the navigable waters @ . . of the contiguous zone and the,oceans
             . . . "(33 U@.S.C. 1254 (a)(5)). In regulations developed pursuant to the FWPCA, EPA has
             established guidelines for monitoring programs that must be conducted by dischargers releasing
             point source (pipeline) effluents into surface waters. Section 1-315(b)(1) mandates that each
             state prepare a report biennially that shall include a description of the State's water quality.

                   Section 201 of the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) requires
             NOAA, in coordination with EPA and the U.S. Coast Guard, to "initiate a comprehensive and
             continuing program of monitoring and research regarding the effects of the dumping of
             material into ocean waters ... or the Great Lakes . . . " (33 U.S.C. 1441). Section 202 of
             MPRSA (also known as the Ocean Dumping Act) also requires NOAA to conduct a
             "comprehensive and continuing program of research with respect to the possible long-range
             effects of pollution, overfishing, and man-induced changes if! ocean ecosystems" (33 U.S.C.
             1442). Although this mandate callsfor "research," some of the activities required fall within
             the definition of monitoring adopted in the National Ocean Pollution Planning Act, which
             requires NOAA to . . . "establish ... a comprehensive, coordinated, and effective ocean
             pollution research and development and monitoring program" (33 U.S.C. 1704).

                   The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act requires the Minerals Management Service to
             "monitor the human, marine, and coastal environments of such areas or regions (OCS oil and
             gas leasing areas) in a manner designed to provide time-series and data trend information
             which can be used for . . . the purpose of identifying any significant changes in quality and
             productivity of such environments,, for establishing trends in the areas studied and monitored,
             and for designing experiments to identify the causes of such changes" (43, U.S.C. 1346).

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       Remaining mandates related to monitoring of pollution in the ocean and Great Lakes are
                  less direct. For example, the USGS has been given responsibility under several legislative
                  mandates for performing hydrologic investigations of water in streams and underground.

                                                             Federal Programs

                       Several Federal agencies conduct marine monitoring activities. Most, however,    are
                  sponsored by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the U.S.
                  Department of Commerce and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The following
                  discussion is a summary of the types of monitoring activities supported by these agencies.

                       The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the Ocean Assessments Division (OAD)
                  of the National Ocean Service conduct most of the monitoring activities of NOAA. The      OAD's
                  major monitoring effort is the National Status and Trends Program. Under this program, OAD,
                  annually collects bivalve molluscs, bottom-feeding fish, and surface sediments from 200       .-
                  sampling stations along the U.S. coast. These samples are then analyzed for contaminants, as
                  well as histopathological and other disorders in the fish and shellfish. The NMFS monitors
                  and documents the status and long-term changes in fish/shellfish health and environmental
                  quality to generate information for developing and testing hypotheses that relate
                  environmental quality to the health of living marine resources. These monitoring activities   are
                  conducted in selected estuarine and coastal. areas as well as at ocean disposal sites. The
                  NMFS also supports the Microconstituents Program, which monitors contaminant levels in
                  marketplace fish.

                       The EPA's marine monitoring activities are conducted by its Environmental Research
                  Laboratories and through the agency's National Estuary Program. The agency develops
                  monitoring technologies, produces guidance documents for monitoring ocean dumpsites, and
                  provides technical assistance to industry for establishing field monitoring programs. The EPA.
                  develops and verifies chemical and biological methods to determine, the bioaccumulation
                  potential of contaminants in waste to be disposed of in the ocean and to determine the
                  biological significance of contaminant levels in tissue. The EPA also conducts site-specific.
                  assessments of ocean disposal sites, which include surveys of biological, water, and sediment
                  samples followed by assessments of environmental effects that result from use of the sites. In
                  the Great Lakes region, EPA supports an extensive monitoring program. Activities include
                  monitoring of municipal water intakes for water quality and biotic structure and function;
                  atmospheric loadings of metals and nutrients; and sediment, water, and biological samples in
                  various sites throughout the Great Lakes to assess environmental quality. Under its National
                  Estuary Program, the agency funds efforts to characterize current conditions and historical
                  trends of priority problems in specific estuaries.

                       Other Federal agencies that conduct marine pollutio  n monitoring include the Minerals
                  Management Service (MMS), U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), and U.S. Geological Survey
                  (USGS) of the U.S. Department of the Interior; the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of
                  the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
                  (COE) of the U.S. Department of Defense. The MMS's regional offices support monitoring
                  activities to assess potential changes in marine environments that are a result of Outer
                  Continental Shelf oil and gas development and production activities. The FWS annually
                  monitors trends in levels of organochloride pesticides and related compounds in wetland bird
                  species in sites along major North American flyways. The FWS also monitors levels of
                  organochlorine compounds and trace metals found in bottom-feeding and predatory freshwater

                                                                     152

                                                                                         Status of Marine Ecosystems

             fish species, some of which inhabit estuarine waters. The USGS monitors water quality
             parameters including suspended solids, toxic metals, and toxic organics at selected downstream
             sites located at river mouths. The FDA monitors the levels of toxics, contaminants, or
             bacteria in finfish and shellfish to determine the incidence of these pollutants in seafood.
             The COE conducts monitoring activities to evaluate the impacts of various coastal construction
             activities, to provide baseline environmental information on dredged material disposal sites, and
             to provide long-term assessments of the impact of dredged material disposal.

                                          Manatzement Ouestions and Information Needs

                   The most direct measures of ecosystem conditions are biological responses to human
             influence. Examples of biological responses that might be monitored in marine systems include
             mortality rate, population size, reproductive success, developmental abnormalities, metabolic
             activity, changes -in primary and secondary productivity, and changes in community structure.
             In the following discussions, it is assumed that two types of parameters should be considered
             for monitoring efforts to meet these goals: 1) measures of biological response to human'
             influences, and 2) physical and chemical factors of ecol 'ogical significance that are altered as a
             consequence of human activity. The management questions below have been developed to help
             organize the discussion of research and monitoring needs:

             Management Question 1: What      is the status of marine ecosystems as indicated by biological
             responses to human influences? How is the status changing?

             Management Question 2: How are physical and chemical factors that affect biological
             responses changing spatially and temporally?

             This section includes an evaluation of how well marine ecosystem monitoring programs can
             address these management questions and a discussion of the adequacy of existing information.
             Recommendations are made as to the types of research, development, and monitoring work that
             would most effectively improve our information on the environmental status of marine
             ecosystems.

                                                   Changes in Biological Status

             Manaimment Ouestion 1: What is the status of marine ecosystems       as indicated by biolouic
             responses to human influences? How is the status chanizing?

             Information Needs

                   Ia. What are the physiological and biochemical indicators of anthropogenic stress in
                        marine organisms? How are they changing?

                   lb.  How are populations and communities affected by anthropogenic stress?

                                                                153

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  Ia. What are the i)hvsiblogical and biochemical indicators of antbrormenic stress in marine
                  organisms? How are they changing?

                        Physiological characteristics of many estuarine organisms allow them to adapt to the
                  rigors of dynamic environments where there are large fluctuations in temperature, salinity,@and
                  other parameters. Unfortunately, it is often difficult to separate physiological responses to
                  natural stress from effects of pollution stresses, but certain changes within organisms are
                  specific to a pollutant or type'of pollutant. Physiological responses to pollutants include
                  changes in metabolism, body fluids, and tissues. Tissue changes may be in the form of
                  lesions, tumors, and other histopathological manifestations. These physiological and
                  histopathological changes often precede mortality as an overt sign of toxicity (Mehrle and
                  Mayer, 1985; Meyers and Hendricks, 1985). Some promising indicators of pollution stress also
                  are found at the molecular and genetic levels (Dames and Moore, 1984).

                        Several measures of the general response to stress such as "scope-for-growth" (index of
                  the amount of energy an animal requires for growth) (Warren and Davis, 1967), growth
                  inhibition (Sanders and Jenkins, 1984), and stress, protein response, (Tanquay, 1983) have been
                  identified. Also, a number of stressor-specifid responses have been developed such as induced
                  production of certain proteins such- as metallothioneins (metal-binding proteins) and mixed-
                  function oxidases, and accumulation of metals in metallothioneins and very low-molecular-
                  weight ligand'pools (Jenkins wid Sanders, 1986). Such responses to stress show promise as
                  effective indicators of marine pollution. However, these measures, of biological response
                  require furtherAesting and development before they could be used,and integrated with
                  confidence.

                        An important emerging area for research involves work to adapt, calibrate, and validate
                  short-term genotoxicity tests in fish for the assessment of genetic hazards associated with
                  hazardous substances, and to examine the relationship between  environmental exposure,
                  metabolism, and activation of prbmutagens, DNA-binding, and mutational events occurring in
                  somatic cells of 'different biomonitor species. Promising geno toxicity assays have been
                  demonstrated using chromosomal aberration, microniiclei, and sister chromatid exchanges as
                  endpoints. This work has particular ecblogical relevance when it is focused upon early
                  developmental stages of aquatic organisms.

                        Histopathological indicators of disorders in fishes have been used in monitoring studies
                  conducted by NOAA (1986b; 1987d). Observations on Atlantic croakers from seven benthic
                  surveillance sites showed a positive correlation between concentrations of aromatic
                  hydrocarbons in sediments and occurrences of selected histopathological disorders. In other
                  studies, Malins et al. (1984) discuss the relationship between chemical pollutants in sediments
                  and disease of bbttom-dwelling fish in Puget Sound, Washington. Patton and Couch (1984)
                  present hypothetical correlations of lesions and pollution. Couch suggests that kepone in the
                  James River contributed to fish kills by causing scoliosis, a lateral deviation of the spine. An
                  index of pollutant- induced fin'rot disease in winter flounder was developed by O'Connor et al.
                  (1987).

                        The EPA, in cooperation with the COE, employed a comprehensive field program to
                  evaluate methods for determining the effects of dredged material disposal in a marine
                  environment (Phelps et al., 1987). Several physiological measures of mussels Were made
                  including sister chromatid exchange (exchange of chromosome parts known to'increase in
                  frequency in stressed organisms), adenylate energy change (change in the relative energy state

                                                                    154

                                                                                    Status of Marine Ecosystems

            of the cell), metallothionein induction, and growth. Growth was significantly reduced at
            disposal sites when compared to "control areas," and metallothionein levels appeared to be
            elevated at disposal sites, but this difference was not statistically significant.

                  A number of stress responses at the organism and suborganism level have been identified
            and tested as indicators of pollution, Some of these would provide useful information if
            included in a monitoring programat this time; many,show great potential but need fur,ther
            development. To improve our ability to@ identify and'.evaluate pollution stress.ih marine'
            organisms, work should continue to develop and field test the most promising of these
            indicators.

            lb, How are vormlations and communities affected by anthrogogenic stress?

                  Marine ecosystems are complex entities composed of interacting biotic and abiotic
            components. The exposure of ecosystems to stress.is complex and may affect structurat.and
            functional aspects differently. The structure (inanner in which plants and animals. are
            organized wit'hin an, ecosystem) of a, marine ecosystem can be changed, by an'thropogenic
            influence. These changes can be measured throug@ indices such as species diversity, density,
            and richness; relative abundance; and dominance.index (Swartz et al., 1985).. These and.other
            indices of structural change when viewed together reflect in part the.status,of an ecosystem.
            Changes may be based on comparisons with "control" or reference'areas, or determined
            through time trend analysis of a specific sy@stem. Such 'comparisons, however, are limited by
            our understanding of natural'variabiiity in marine ecosystems'.

                  Changes in community structure - have been: used in the past to indicate the status of
            marine ecosystems (Pearson and Rosenberg, 1978; - Gannon et al.,, 1986; Swartz et al.,1985;.
            Phelps et al., 1987). Long-term measurements of population -abundance of infaunal
            invertebrates and fishes I in a mesohalihe 'portion pf the Chesapeake Bay provided valuable
            base-line data on "natural" variations in population abundance (Hines et al., 1987). - A 35-year
            study on the benthic infaunal invertebrate populations in Los A'ngeles-iong. Beach.Harbors
            demonstrated an improvement of ecological conditions as'a result of pollution abatement
            (Reish, 1986). Changes in the structure of benthic infaunal populations associated with a
            seagrass community exposed to drilling fluids containing diesel oil were noted in laboratory
            microcosm studies (Morton et al., 1986; Kelly et al., 1987). Drilling fluids in the micyocosins
            significantly reduced richness indices based on species number and density of individuals.

                  Functional integrity is required for maintenance of any ecosystem. Functional aspects
            include movements and transformations of chemicals and energy which in turn support
            biological communities. Ecosystem productivity is a basic function that maybe used to
            monitor the status of the system. Primary production can determine the amount of living
            tissue an ecosystem can support (Woodwell and Botkin, 1970). Thus, in some instances, it may
            be important to detect.changes in primary production. Several marine studies used primary
            production as an index of the quality of an ecosystem (Smayda, 1984; Fay et al., 1986). The
            rate at which estuarine organisms decomposed plant material was one indication of adverse
            effects of drilling fluids on a seagrass system (Morton et al., 1986). Also, naturally occurring
            bacterial communities may Provide a means for,d0ecting changes, in ecosystem status.
            Singleton et al. (1984 ) found significant, changes in bacterial community composition in,
            surface waters near Puerto Rico due to the introduction of pharmaceutical wastes.

                                                             155

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                        Other indicators can be used to evaluate the impact of stress on an ecosystem and
                  determine the response of the system. Harwell et al. (1987) discussed the impact of stress on
                  an ecosystem and its responses:

                        "In summary, the effect of a stress on an ecosystem is a function of the frequency,
                        duration, and intensity of the stress; its similarity to natural stresses to which the
                        ecosystem has had a history of exposure; the spatial extent of the stress; and the nature
                        of both the stress and the ecosystem. Simple generalities of responses of ecosystems to
                        stresses are not realistic; however, it may be possible to develop a complex paradigm of
                        ecosystem stress-response relationships, aggregated both by ecosystem type and the.
                        nature of the stress."

                  These authors explain that no single parameter will suffice as an indicator of system-level
                  stress responses and that every detectable change does not necessarily indicate a change in
                  the health of the system. However, a change in the state of a system may be more important
                  than the state of the system itself.

                        Although structural and functional measurements can provide resource managers with
                  helpful data, these endpoints have not-been widely.used in monitoring programs. One reason
                  is a lack of basic understanding of what changes in the measurements of structure and
                  function mean in relation to the quality of the ecosystem. There is a gap in information
                  concerning the relationships among specific levels of contaminants in communities, structural
                  effects on the community, and relationships of the changed community to the health of the
                  ecosystem.

                        In order to understand function and structure of marine ecosystems, it is necessary to
                  conduct long-term studies of these ecosystems, One of the difficulties in conducting long-
                  term ecological research is that ecological research (as well as many other research activities)
                  traditionally has been funded for short periods of time. The National Science Foundation's
                  Long-Term Ecological Research Program (LTER) was established to alleviate this situation
                  (Callahan, 1984). This long-term research program is oriented toward question/hypothesis
                  formulation and resolution. The research is not necessarily based on atrophic structural
                  approach but is organized around families of structural and functional attributes. The program
                  is designed so that I I chosen sites represent samples of the ecosystems of the United States.
                  Two of the sites are concerned with the coastal environment. The North Inlet Marsh-
                  Estuarine study in North Inlet, South Carolina examines the biological, chemical, and physical
                  aspects of the system including life histories, patterns of organisms, primary production rates,
                  and physical- chemical measurements of the water column. The Virginia Barrier Island-
                  Estuarine Site on the Delmarva Peninsula encompasses observations on changes in landmass of
                  the islands and marshes, changes in composition of the landscape, biota, and changes in such
                  processes as productivity, decomposition, and sediment deposition.

                        A wide variety of indicators of human influence at the population, community, and
                  ecosystem levels have been developed and tested for marine systems in the past, and the
                  International Joint Commission is currently using lake trout as an indicator of ecosystem
                  status in the Great Lakes. Difficulties associated with these techniques include partitioning
                  natural fluctuations from pollution effects and determining when observed changes or
                  differences are of concern. Despite these limitations, parameters measured at these higher
                  levels of biological organization should be considered for a comprehensive surveillance program
                  to meet this goal of the National Program. Basic research and development activities should
                  be continued to increase the utility of these indicators.

                                                                      156

                                                                                      Status of Marine Ecosystems

                                           Changes in Physical and Chemical Factors

             Management Question 2: How are vhysical and     chemical factors that affect biolop-ical
             responses cbanizin2 snatially and temporally?

             Information Needs
                  2a.   What concentrations of chemical contaminants occur in selected  marine ecosystems
                        components (water, sediment, and biota)? How are these levels   changing?

                  2b.   How are hydrographic factors such as freshwater inflow, dissolved -oxygen
                        concentration, and sediment loadings changing spatially and temporally?

             2a. What concentrations of chemical contaminants. occur in selected marine ecosystems
             components (water, sediment, biota)? How are these levels  changing?

                  The capacity for this country to fully use and manage  living marine resources depends to
             a great extent upon resource managers' knowledge of concentrations of pollutants in the
             water, sediment,-and biota of marine ecosystems; @ changes in these concentrations; and the
             effects of these levels of contaminants on resources and ecosystems in which they occur.
             Managers must be aware of trends in these levels in order. to assess the impact of human
             activity on marine resources. and to develop options for improving the quality of marine
             ecosystems. Information on %concentrations, of contaminants without corresponding information
             on effects severely limits the use of monitoring data. However, for discussion purposes,
             concentrations in components of ecosystems are separated from effects on the ecosystems.
             Persistence, degradation rates, and biogeochernical cycling @of contaminants within the
             sediments, and the flux of those contaminants between sediments, water, and biota are critical
             to understanding the implications of human influences on marine systems (Capuzzo, 1988).
             These topics are discussed in this Plan under National Marine Pollution Program Goal I and
             are beyond the scope of the discussion in this section. For monitoring purposes,
             concentrations of selected contaminants in marine and Great Lakes ecosystems are considered
             as indicators or signals,of possible pollution problems.

                  Concentrations of pollutants in water are usually the primary focus of compliance
             monitoring programs such as those associated with the National Pollution Discharge Elimination
             System (NPDES) permitting system. In this program, permits often are issued on the condition
             of not exceeding specified concentrations of chemicals in receiving waters. Data developed in
             these compliance monitoring programs are sometimes of utility to far-field monitoring
             activities because regulatory limits in water quality permits are usually based on the adverse
             effects of the materials being monitored to sensitive life-stages of marine organisms.
             Chemicals appearing in high concentrations in the near-field can alert managers to potential
             adverse impacts on resources in adjacent or far-field waters or systems. However, many
             chemicals are found in much, higher @ concentrations in sediment and biota than in water-.

                  Contaminant concentrations  in sediments are measured because sediments often serve  as a-
             reservoir for many pollutants and can be a conduit for transferring pollutants associated with
             the sediment to bottom-feeding organisms and, @under certain circumstances, for cycling-
             pollutants back into the.water column. Furthermore, benthic organisms have been found to
             accumulate metals and organics to concentrations many times above levels found in the -
             sediment in which they live (NOAA, 1987d;.Young et al., 1981). This is especially true in low-
             energy depositional areas where sediments are accumulated and deposited over time.-The

                                                              157

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  National Status and Trends Program (NOAA, 1986b; 1987d) provides data on metal and organic
                  contamination of sediment in selected sites, and in some instances, scientists have related
                  contaminant levels in the sediment to levels in biological tissues. Radiometric and chemical
                  analyses can provide a time-integrated record of pollutant deposits where natural strata of
                  sediment deposition are preserved (Bopp et al., 1983; Koide et al., 1973).

                       Biota can concentrate many contaminants above levels found in water and sediment;
                  therefore, concentrations of contaminants in tissues are an important indicator of the
                  occurrence of a contaminant in the ecosystem. Organisms with high contaminant body burdens
                  represent a concentrated exposure medium to higher'trophic levels in the ecosystem.
                  Contamination levels in seafood are of particulafinterest because, should@ the levels exceed
                  limits established by FDA for human consumption, an entire fishery could be adversely
                  affected economically and human health could be threatened (see Goal 6 for a discussion of
                  research needs related to human health). However, the FDA limits do not necessarily address
                  the question of effects on the seafood organism, Unfortunately, because of the vast number
                  and various life-stages of marine organisms, the relationship between contamination levels and
                  effects on contaminated organisms may not be as clear as the seafood -to -people example.
                  Consequently, body-burden data are often of limited use to resource managers, and these data
                  can be extrapolated to effects only when appropriate research information is available.
                  Biological response measurements can be made in conjunction with residue analyses to indicate
                  exposure to contaminants. These response measurements are especially helpful in detecting
                  exposure of organisms to rapidly transformed chemical compounds such as organophosphate
                  pesticides.

                       As indicated in the Federal Programs part of this section, the Federal Government
                  supports monitoring programs to evaluate the levels of contaminants in marine ecosystems.
                  Since 1984, NOAA has conducted the National Status and Trends Program to develop
                  information on the status and trends of environmental quality in marine waters (Ehler and
                  Calder, 1986). The EPA continues a monitoring program to determine contaminant loading in
                  the Chesapeake Bay in cooperation with the states of Maryland and Virginia. In 1984, a 167-
                  station monitoring network was established in the bay to define trends in water and sediment
                  quality (Mountford and Mackiernan, 1987). The USGS also monitors water quality of coastal
                  waters in relation to their stream monitoring programs. Although chiefly a freshwater
                  monitoring program, the FWS's National Fish Monitoring Program includes some estuarine
                  species. The Minerals Management Service's Environmental Studies Program supports
                  monitoring activities to identify and establish trends in changes in the quality of OCS
                  environments resulting from offshore oil and gas activities. Recently, the FDA, NOAA, and
                  TPA cooperated in surveying levels of PCBs in bluefish from the Atlantic coast (NOAA, 1986c).
                  This is an example of a relatively short-term, mission- oriented monitoring program often
                  required of Federal agencies.

                       Many state and local monitoring programs are conducted and supply valuable monitoring
                  data for assessment purposes. For example, the State of Florida is involved in an estuarine
                  monitoring program that encompasses improving reliability of estuarine data, establishing and
                  extending the chemical database, and improving tools for assessing estuarine pollution (Calder,
                  1988). Other examples of local monitoring activities include studies on many bays and
                  estuaries such as the one conducted on variations and -long-term changes in Narragansett Bay
                  in relation to phytoplankton population and nutrient concentration by Smayda (1984). Because
                  so many monitoring programs have already been completed and others are ongoing, there is a
                  need to evaluate and where possible use historical or "encountered" data and to coordinate
                  ongoing and future monitoring activities.

                                                                    158

                                                                                          S tatus of Marine Ecosystems

                  Although much historical data on    residues of chemicals in marine waters, sediment, and
            biota are available, few of these data were collected so that trends could be established.
            NOAA's Status and Trends Program was established as an initial step to correct this short-
            coming. The program is designed to answer such questions as; Are general conditions getting
            better or worse? How do, conditions in different areas compare? Two major field sampling
            projects were established to help obtain answers to these questions. One aspect of the
            program is to acquire relevant data from other sources such as past monitoring programs and
            ongoing regional ones. Data are available from the Status and.Trends Program on
            concentrations of chlorinated pesticides, PAHs, PCBs, and trace metals in marine and estuarine
            fish, bivalves, and sediments (NOAA, 1986a). The Status and Trends Program has two
            components; the Benthic Surveillance Project and Muscle Watch Program. The Benthic
            Surveillance Project provides data on fish pathology and chemical analyse     's of fish livers and
            sediment from 50 sites. The Muscle Watch Program provides data on chemical.and histological
            analyses of marine molluscs from 150 sites (NOAA, 1987d).

                  Results obtained from monitoring studies indicate that it is feasible and useful to
            document status and trends of contaminant levels in living and nonliving components of marine
            ecosystems. Measurements of contaminants in water, sediment, and biota should be made only
            to the extent that they contribute information needed for environmental decision making.
            Additional summaries of historical contaminant concentrations will generally be necessary       to
            interpret recent measurements. Both sets of activities would require -aggressive coordination
            of significant monitoring programs sponsored by Federal, state, and local governments.

            2b. How are hydropraphic factors such      as freshwater inflow. dissolved oxygen concentratim.
            and sediment loading changinp spatially    and temt)orally?

                  Hydrographic factors are of fundamental importance to the functioning of estuarine and
            coastal ecosystems. For example, the recruitment of many fish and shellfish stocks is closely
            linked to the hydrodynamics of estuaries and associated coastal waters. Changes in
            hydrographic conditions can result in changes in the production, composition, and abundance
            of phytoplankton, and reduction in the abundance and extent of desirable rooted aquatic
            vegetation. Thesechanges can be associated with decreased dissolved oxygen and light
            penetration. Such alterations can be detrimental to the production of estuarine-dependent
            organisms through shifts in food resources and changes in the availability of suitable habitat
            (NOAA, 1987b).

                  The quality and quantity of freshwater inflow into a coastal area or estuary can greatly
            impact biogeochemical cycles within the zone. Water laden with nutrients, sediments, and
            toxicants can influence biological and hydrographical regimes. Decreases in flow can cause
            saltwater intrusion that can result in changes in circulatory patterns and can alter circulation
            to the point of shifting conditions normally found at the outlet of an estuary to positions
            nearer the river input. Conversely, increases in flow can shift conditions in the opposite
            direction toward the inlet. Altered salinity can affect the distribution and composition of
            phytoplankton (Soniat and Boesch, In press). Increases in salinity can cause osmotic
            regulation problems for those species that must prevent dilution of their cell content.
            Decreases'in salinity are tolerated by only the eurylialine forms. The impact of freshwater
            inflow on fish populations in Faka Union Bay was studied by the National Marine Fisheries
            Service (Beaufort Laboratory, 1984). When compared with fish from similar, unimpacted marine
            areas, Faka Bay fish were less abundant.    Invertebrate communities, including shrimp and
            crabs, showed lowered overall abundance.

                                                                 159

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       In a nationwide study conducted for NOAA, hypoxic areas were identified in 126 of 131
                  coastal and estuarine waters for which adequate data exist (Whitledge, 1985). In the Great
                  Lakes, of 42 identified locations of concern, 21 showed oxygen depletion associated with
                  eutrophication (GLWQB, 1987). Major losses of coastal and estuarine living space during the
                  productive summer months by hypoxic/anoxic conditions have been implicated in losses of
                  major fisheries such as striped bass. Coutant (1987) suggested that anoxia in nutrient-
                  enriched estuaries has had detrimental consequences for the ability of striped bass to
                  reproduce. There is also evidence to suggest that severe hypoxic conditions result in mass
                  mortalities among shellfish and some bottom-dwelling finfish species, which can result in loss
                  of fish catch and increased ecological stress by the decay of the affected' fish population
                  (NOAA, . 1987a).

                       Changes in suspended sediment loads have occurred in many areas of the country as a
                  result of changes in freshwater input, dredging and other coastal construction activities, and
                  agricultural practices. Increased sediment loads can have negative impacts on marine and
                  estuarine habitats through shoaling, which can decrease the volume of an estuary and result in
                  a decrease or change in habitat (such as the burial of oyster cultch materials). Increased
                  ,suspended sediments may also affect primary productivity due to its effect on light
                  attenuation. In a study of the Delaware Estuary, Pennock (1985) found an inverse relationship
                 -between suspended sediment loads and chlorophyll concentrations. The author -concluded that
                  the,predominant physical factor regulating phytoplankton biomass was suspended -sediment
                  .concentration.

                      ,. Data on basic hydrographic factors such as freshwater inflow and sediment loadings are
                  generally already available for major estuarine and coastal systems; or could be collected at a
                  relatively low cost. Although there are gaps in our knowledge concerning the impact of
                  hydrographic factors on marine ecosystems, inclusion of certain hydrographic factors in a
                  surveillance monitoring program would provide useful information. Major changes in these
                  factors could signal impending threats to valued resources and indicate that further
                  investigation would be prudent. More basic research in the following areas would be
                  especially valuable in judging the significance of changes in hydrographic parameters: effects
                  of changes in freshwater inflow on secondary productivity, relationships between freshwater
                  inflow and low dissolved- oxygen and pollutant concentrations, effects of land-use changes on
                  sediment loadings, and effects of sediment loadings on secondary productivity.

                                                    Conclusions and Recommendations

                        An explicit mandate has been developed by Congress for the collection of fundamental
                  information on the status of marine ecosystems with respect to pollution effects. The
                  technological capability exists to perform such monitoring, and ongoing Federal programs have
                  made progress toward satisfying this mandate. A national program to fully address this
                  mandate should take advantage of historical data and include a coordination and
                  standardization component to promote the most effective use of ongoing state and local
                  sampling programs. Federal monitoring efforts should be designed onl@ to provide needed
                  information that is not available from other sources. Although a general framework or
                  strategy for such a program would be best developed at the national level, evaluations of
                  ecosystem status would need to be adapted to each region so that the special attributes and
                  problems of the region could be considered. In designing a program to monitor the status of

                                                                    160

                                                                                     Status of Marine Ecosystems

             marine -ecosystems, parameters from four categories should be considered. Listed below is a
             synopsis of the potential and limitations of parameters in each category as well as suggestions
             for research and development work that would increase the utility of these indicators.

             Organism Resiponses. A number of indicators of pollution stress on individual organisms (e.g.',
             "scope -for- growth," growth inhibition, stress protein response) show potential for use in
             marine monitoring programs, while others need further development. Work should continue to
             develop and field test the most promising of these indicators.

             Population and Community Resiponses. Indicators of pollution stress at the population and
             community levels have been developed for marine systems (e.g., species diversity, density, and
             richness; relative abundance; and productivity). However, these techniques often cannot
             adequately distinguish between natural changes and pollution effects or determine when
             observed changes are significant. Basic research and development activities designed to
             increase the utility of these indicators should continue.

             Concentrations of Contaminants. Measurements of contaminant -level trends in water,
             sediment,,and biota provide resource managers and decision makers with useful and necessary
             information. Having these measurements may provide clues to the cause of any adverse
             biological effect. Summaries of historical contaminant concentrations should be developed to
             compare to rec@nt measurements.

             Hydrographic Factors. Data on hydrographic factors are generally available for many coastal
             areas and can be incorporated as part of monitoring programs. Additional research is needed
             in the following areas to provide necessary information concerning the significance of changes
             in hydrographical parameters:

                  o   Effects of changes in freshwater inflow on secondary productivity;

                  o   Relationship between freshwater inflow and low dissolved -oxygen and pollutant
                      concentrations;

                  o   Effects of land-use changes on sediment loading; and

                  o   Effects of sediment loadings on secondary productivity.

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             Butler, P.A. 1973. Residues in Fish Wildlife and Estuaries. Pestic. Monitor. J. 6(4):238-362.

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                       Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD. 81 pp.

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                       and Shellfish Disease. National Ocean Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                       Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD. 29 pp.

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                                                              166

                                                                                        Implications to Human Health

                                       GOAL 6: UNDERSTAND THE IMPLICATIONS OF
                                           MARINE POLLUTION TO HUMAN HEALTH

              Goal Definition   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          168

              Federal Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .           171

                    Federal Legislation and Regulations  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       171
                    Federal Programs  . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          172
              Management Questions and Information Needs     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       174

                    Concerns Associated with Chemical Contaminants     . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     175

                    Concerns Associated with Pathogens   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       181
                    Effectiveness of Management Tools    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .       188
                    Concerns Associated with Spills of Hazardous Materials   . . . . . . . . . . .     190

              Conclusions and Recommendations     . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .        191

                    Chemical Contaminants    . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         192

                    Pathogens   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          193
                    Management Tools   . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         193

                    Hazardous Materials  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .         194

              Literature Cited  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .          194

                    Human health concerns related to marine pollution center on toxic substances and
              pathogenic microorganisms that are introduced into marine ecosystems as a result of human
              activities. Typical routes of human exposure include consumption of seafood and swimming.
              Although acute toxic responses have not been reported to result from consumption of chemical
              contaminants in U.S. seafood, synthetic organic compounds and metals have been found in
              marine species harvested for human consumption from some areas. In addition, seafood may
              contain pathogenic microorganisms as a result of harvesting seafood from sewage -contaminated
              areas, from certain human pathogens that occur naturally in the marine environment, or from
              contamination that occurs during improper processing or shipping of seafood products.
              Governmental programs, such as the National Shellfish Sanitation Program, have been effective
              in protecting the public from major outbreaks of disease. Important public health concerns
              related to marine pollution remain to be addressed, including sporadic outbreaks of
              gastroenteritis caused by viruses and any latent effects that may result from chronic exposure
              over long periods of time to chemical contaminants in seafood. Therefore, understanding the
              implications of marine pollution to human health is one of the six goals to the National
              Marine Pollution Program.

                                                                 167

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                                                            Goal Definition

                      A number of pollutants have been identified in the marine environment that can cause
                adverse human health effects. Although the presence of these agents in the marine
                environment does not alone constitute a public health risk, some health risk may result if
                human exposure exceeds threshold levels of these agents. Adverse health effects from these
                substances arise from either the toxicity or pathogenicity of the agent and the extent to
                which the population is exposed. A goal of the National Marine Pollution Program is to
                understand better the relationship between exposure of humans to pollutants in the marine
                environment and the risk of developing an adverse health effect. To address this goal, it
                would be logical to characterize the toxicity, pathogenicity, and human exposure to marine
                pollutants. The management questions in this section are structured around the information
                needs related to these topics. Also addressed in this section are the current efforts to
                generate the needed information and recommendations to fill the important existing data gaps.

                      The pollutants of concern with regard to human health effects that are discussed in this
                section of the Plan can be broadly grouped into two categories: chemical contaminants and
                human pathogens. Substances in these categories are of concern because they (1) are known
                to be present in the marine environment, (2) have the potential to come into contact with
                human populations, and (3) are known to cause various adverse effects such as birth defects,
                cancer, liver disease, neurological disorders, and infectious diseases.

                      Not all seafood-borne illnesses result from marine pollution. For example, disease
                outbreaks associated with fish include ciguatera, scombroid poisoning, and botulism (NRC,
                1985). Ciguatera and scombroid poisoning were the first and second most frequently reported
                diseases associated with eating fish in the United States between 1977 and 1981 (Bryan, 1980;
                CDC, 1981; 1983). Ciguatoxin is a naturally occurring substance manufactured by certain
                dinoflagellate species (Bagnis et al., 1980) and transferred to fish through the food chain
                (Brown and Dorn, 1977). Scombroid poisoning results from eating fish which have become
                toxic as a result of microbial decomposition of histidine to histamine during improper handling
                and storage (NRC, 1985). Outbreaks associated with Clostridium botulinum are usually the
                result of faulty processing or storage practices.

                      Exposure to the biotoxins released from naturally occurring dinoflagellate species other
                than ciguatera represents a less frequent hazard to human health. Intensive blooms of
                dinoflagellates are known as red tides. The dinoflagellate Protogonvaulux tamarensis is
                responsible for producing paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) in exposed human populations
                along the New England Atlantic coast. Protogonvaulux cantenella is the organism responsible
                for cases of PSP on the Pacific coast (Steidinger, 1983). PSP, which has not been clearly
                linked to marine pollution, is one of the most toxic forms of food poisoning. Severe and
                often fatal human intoxications following ingestion of contaminated bivalve mollusks have
                occurred sporadically in widely scattered areas around the world (Ray, 1971). Statistically,
                PSP does not constitute a major public health concern in the United States, due in large part
                to successful state monitoring programs, although infrequent incidents have been reported
                along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts (CDC, 1983). Shellfish involved most frequently are
                mussels, clams (hard and soft-shelled), butter clams, and scallops (NRC, 1985). The
                dinoflagellate Ptychodiscus brevis is responsible for producing neurotoxic shellfish poisoning
                (NSP) in consumers of shellfish taken along the seacoast of North Carolina, South Carolina,
                Florida, and Texas. While it can kill fish and some invertebrates, P. brevis toxins accumulate
                in oysters and clams without harming them (Steidinger, 1983). These toxins can produce acute
                neurological effects in humans if sufficient quantities of shellfish meats are consumed.

                                                                  168

                                                                                       Implications to Human Health

                    Several Vibrio species that pose risks to human health occur naturally in the marine
              environment. Endemic Vibrio species associated with contamination of shellfish include V.
              varahnemolyticus and V. vulnificus. Consumption of seafood contaminated with V.
              parahaemolyticus has been associated with outbreaks of gastroenteritis, while consumption of
              V. vulnif i cus -contaminated shellfish can result in primary septicemia (blood poisoning) in
              patients with liver disorders and in diabetic and immunocompromised individuals (Tacket et al.,
              1984; Blake, 1979; NRC, 1985).

                    The initial step in determining which pollutants in the marine environment are likely to
              cause an adverse effect is to examine the association between disease incidence and human
              exposure. The association between exposure to human pathogens, either through ingestion of
              contaminated seafood or by swimming in contaminated water; and the development of human
              illness has been established for someagents. This association has been perhaps best
              established for exposure to enteric pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. Diseases such as
              hepatitis, gastroenteritis, and cholera are known to be caused by water- and seafood-borne
              pathogens. These pathogens can enter the marine environment through such practices as the
              discharge of raw sewage or wastewater effluent from sewage treatment plants and the dumping
              of sewage sludge. Pathogens may also enter the marine environment from nonpoint sources,
              such as agricultural or stormwater runoff, or through the illegal practice of ocean disposal of
              infectious wastes.

                    Human health effects resulting from exposure to toxic chemicals in the marine
              environment are less well known than the effects resulting from exposure to pathogens.
              Human health effects of toxic chemicals may be elicited as acute or sublethal responses. For
              example, populations of Minamata and Niigata, Japan, developed acute neurological disorders
              after consuming methylmercury- contaminated seafood (D'Itri and D'Itri, 1977). Sublethal
              effects were reported by Fein et al. (1984) in newborns whose mothers consumed large
              amounts of PCB -contaminated fish.

                    Metals other than mercury, including lead, cadmium, and arsenic, pesticides, halogenated
              compounds (such as dioxins), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzopyrenes) are
              also present in the marine environment and have the potential to cause adverse human health
              effects. Although the effects of these compounds on different organ systems in man and/or
              animals are known, it is difficult to establish with certainty the degree of hazard posed by
              their presence in seafood. This is due to a lack of information on the exact levels present,
              exposure duration, and, in the case of metals, the form in which they exist (e.g., inorganic vs.
              organic, oxidation states).

                    Toxic compounds enter the marine environment from a variety of sources. For example,
              a major source of cadmium is the discharge of industrial and municipal wastewater into
              estuarine waters. Pesticides, in contrast, are introduced into the marine environment largely
              from nonpoint sources, such as agricultural or stormwater runoff. Although mercury can enter
              the aquatic environment from industrial discharges or surface runoff, natural sources of'
              mercury contribute most significantly to the levels found in the open ocean (OTA, 1987).

                    Once an indication of the relative hazard posed by a marine pollutant has been
              established, the next step is to characterize the degree to which particular populations are
              exposed to that agent. This involves quantifying the levels of contaminants in seafood,
              identifying the populations exposed to the toxic agent, and estimating the duration and nature
              of human exposure.

                                                                 169

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       Existing analytical methodologies allow for the detection and quantification of chemical
                 contaminants in seafood at very low levels. This increased analytical sensitivity permits the
                 detection of some compounds in seafood or marine waters at the part per trillion (ppt) level
                 or lower; however, these results need to be integrated with exposure and toxicity data to
                 develop a meaningful characterization of the risk of consuming contaminated seafood or of
                 swimming in contaminated water.

                       Identifying the populations likely to be exposed to marine pollutants, and estimating the
                 duration and frequency of exposure require accurate seafood consumption data. However, the
                 wide range of national seafood consumption values c    'urrently available to regulatory agencies is
                 a recognized source of uncertainty in assessing the human health risks posed by marine
                 pollutants. For consumption data to be useful, they should be based on measurements from
                 regional surveys of high-risk subpopulations in areas where problems exist. They should also
                 be specific to certain seafood species, such as previously underutilized varieties. Any
                 characterization of the degree to which populations are exposed to contaminants through
                 consumption of seafood requires knowledge of the source of the contaminated seafood. This
                 section focuses on seafood harvested in U.S. waters. However, much of the seafood consumed
                 in this country is imported, and assessments of the risk to human health from consuming these
                 seafood species must take into account the contribution of imported products to U.S. seafood
                 consumption.

                       An important goal of this section is to review the existing seafood consumption data and
                 address the need for updating this information. In addition to the risks associated with
                 exposure to marine pollutants via consumption of contaminated seafood, other means of
                 exposure to marine pollutants, such as occupational handling of seafood and swimming in
                 contaminated water, are also considered in this section. However, since the pollutants being
                 discussed are not unique to the marine environment, other sources of exposure, such as
                 nonseafood dietary components, drinking water, and the ambient atmosphere contribute to the
                 total body burden of these compounds.

                       Several methods have recently been developed to assess the human health risks from
                 exposure to marine pollutants (EPA, 1987b; Brown et al., 1988; Friberg, 1988). Risk assessment
                 is an important tool for evaluating human health concerns. The procedure takes into account
                 toxicity and exposure information to provide a scientific framework for making policy
                 decisions and taking regulatory actions. While information on human toxic responses is
                 particularly valuable, typically such data either do not exist or are inadequate. Because of
                 these uncertainties, the risk assessment approach is based on a quantitative calculation of the
                 probabilities of an adverse health effect resulting from human exposure to a toxic agent.

                       The toxicity and exposure information gained in these risk assessment analyses can be
                 used to support a number of management options. These include identifying and ranking
                 polluted marine areas, developing environmental criteria, closing shellfish beds or bathing
                 beaches, and issuing public health advisories. The effectiveness of these management tools is
                 largely a result of the degree to which the population perceives the risk to be significant and
                 the ability of the regulating agencies to communicate the risks. One goal of this section is to
                 examine the effectiveness of these management tools in protecting human health.

                       Finally, recognizing the unique exposure to marine pollutants that emergency response
                 workers often encounter, the measures necessary to protect these workers from adverse health
                 effects will be examined in this section.

                                                                      170

                                                                                          Implications to Human Health

                                                              Federal Role

                    This section discusses the Federal legislation, regulations, and programs that address the
               implications of marine pollution to human health. Additional discussions of Federal programs
               related to specific information needs are presented under the management questions that
               follow this review of the Federal role. More detailed information on the Federal programs
               and projects that address the issue of human health and marine pollution can be found in the
               National Marine Pollution Program, Summary of Federal Programs and Projects (NOAA, 1987).

                                                  Federal Legislation and Regulations

                    The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is responsible for the safety of the
               nation's foods, including seafood. Under the authority of the Federal Food, Drug and
               Cosmetic Act (FFDCA), the FDA assures that regulated products are safe for use by
               consumers. The,FFDCA authorizes the FDA to conduct assessments of the safety of
               ingredients in fdods. The key element of the FFDCA, and the source of FDA's main tools for
               enforcement, is the prohibition of the "adulteration" of foods. The FDA, under Section 406 of
               the FFDCA, can prescribe the level of contaminant that, under Section 402     'will render a food
               adulterated and, therefore, will initiate enforcement action based on scientific data. The
               establishment of action levels (informal judgments about the level of a food contaminant to
               which consumers may be safely exposed) or tolerances (regulations having the force of law)
               are the regulatory procedures employed by FDA (or EPA, in the case of pesticides under the
               Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act) to control environmental contaminants in
               food.

                    The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, also known as the Clean Water Act (CWA),
               contains a stated goal that, where obtainable, all waters of the United States should be
               returned to "fishable, swimmable" status. This is achieved through two basic goals: (1) to
               reach a level of water quality that "provides for the protection and propagation of fish,
               shellfish, and wildlife" and "for recreation in and on the water," and (2) to eliminate the
               discharge of pollutants into U.S. waters. The National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
               (NPDES) mandated under Section 401 of the Act regulates, through a permit system, the
               discharge of pollutants into waters. Section 304 of the CWA requires EPA to periodically
               update water quality criteria to reflect the latest scientific knowledge on the effects of the
               individual pollutants on public,health and welfare, aquatic life, and recreation. Section'303 of
               the Act provides that water quality standards be developed for all surface waters. Section 311
               prohibits the discharge of "harmful quantities" of oil into navigable waters. Section 403 of
               the Act requires EPA to establish criteria for the discharge of hazardous pollutants into the
               territorial sea, the waters of the contiguous zone, and the oceans. Approximately 300
               substances have been designated by the EPA as hazardous. The EPA is responsible, under
               Section 405 of the Act, for regulating the disposal of sewage sludge by pipeline, and Section
               301(h) provides EPA with the authority, under certain conditions, to issue permits waiving
               secondary treatment of sewage effluents from publicly owned treatment facilities discharging
               into marine waters. Section 208 of the CWA calls for state agencies to develop and implement
               nonpoint source pollution control and management plans, with EPA approval and limited
               oversight.

                                                                   171

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                      The Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act (MPRSA) provides for the
                regulation of ocean dumping. Title I of the Act identifies EPA as being responsible for
                issuing permits for the ocean dumping of any material (except dredged material). Ocean
                dumping permit reviews are based on several criteria including the economic, aesthetic, and
                recreational effects of such dumping on public health and welfare. Title II establishes a
                comprehensive monitoring and research program on the effects of ocean dumping and long-
                term effects of pollution, overfishing, and man-induced changes to the marine environment.
                This long-term program includes monitoring programs to assess the health of the marine
                environment.

                      The EPA specifically regulates toxic substances that may enter the marine environment,
                and thus affect human health, with four mandates. The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
                assigns to EPA the responsibility for regulating hazardous chemical substances and mixtures in
                Section 6 of the Act. Section 10 of TSCA identifies EPA as the agency responsible for
                obtaining adequate data on health and environmental implications of potentially toxic
                substances. Under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA), the EPA
                has the responsibility for pesticide registration and classification based on health hazards and
                environmental effects. FIFRA also requires EPA to conduct research and monitoring programs
                to assist in the control and use of pesticides and to expand protection of the public health
                and the environment. The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) requires EPA to
                promulgate regulations establishing standards for transportation of hazardous waste, and for
                ownership and operation of hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities. The
                Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) provides
                Federal funding to respond to the release of hazardous substances into the air, land, or water.
                Under CERCLA, the National Contingency Plan (NCP), which provides a method for ranking
                waste sites for inventory and cleanup, also contains oil spill response provisions in conjunction
                with the CWA.

                      The Fish and Wildlife Act (FWA) contains a congressional declaration of policy to the
                effect that fish and wildlife resources make a material contribution to the national economy
                and food supply. Among other things, the Act transferred to the Secretary of Interior, and
                subsequently to the Department of Commerce, certain functions previously assigned to the
                Secretary of Agriculture pertaining to seafoods. In addition to the transfers of functions with
                respect to fishery products, Section 741 of the Act identifies a need for government assistance
                to industry in promoting fair trade standards and health and sanitation standards.

                                                             Federal Programs

                      Although this is the first Federal Plan for Ocean Pollution Research, Development, and
                Monitoring to include a separate section on the human health effects of marine pollution,
                previous Federal Plans have addressed research activities pertaining to human health as a high
                priority. However, since this is the first Plan to review human health effects research
                separately, it is difficult to provide an assessment of the Federal level of effort for research
                and monitoring projects related to the human health effects of marine pollutants. This is due
                to the fact that much human health effects research is conducted outside the bounds of the
                National Marine Pollution Program. Nevertheless, several Federal programs have been
                identified that relate generally to human health effects from marine pollution.

                                                                     172

                                                                                        Implications to Human Health

                  The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NbAA) of the U.S. Department of
             Commerce, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and National Institute of Environmental
             Health Sciences (NIEHS) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), and
             the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) are major supporters of research concerning,
             the implications of marine pollution to human health. The U.S. Coast Guard also conducts
             activities related to this issue.

                   NOAA's human health-related activities are conducted by the National Marine Fisheries
             Service (NMFS), the National Ocean Service (NOS), and the Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric
             Research (OAR). The NMFS's related research is designed to evaluate the public health
             significance of contaminants occurring in finfish and shellfish@' The agency conducts studies of
             the levels of various contaminants (PCBs, pathogens, petroleum hydrocarbon residues, and
             others) in fish and shellfish, develops methods for extracting and assaying contaminants in
             marine tissues, evaluates the potential use of improved indicators of fecal contamination, and
             evaluates the effectiveness of depuration in eliminating bacterial and viral contaminants in
             shellfish. The NMFS's Model Seafood Surveillance Program was created to design a program
             of certification and surveillance to improve the inspection of seafood by focusing on the
             monitoring of necessary critical control points in food operations. The NMFS also transfers
             new technology and information to state and Federal public health agencies. The NOS
             activities include research to identify accurate indicators of disease risk to consumers of raw
             shellfish and to isolate the organism responsible for causing diarrhetic shellfish poisoning in
             shellfish to determine its optimum growth conditions. Through its National Status and Trends
             Program's Benthic Surveillance Project, NOS collects bottom-feeding fishes in selected areas
             and analyzes their livers for toxic metals, organic chemicals, and metabolites of aromatic
             hydrocarbons. The National Status and Trends Program also monitors contaminants in some
             molluscan shellfish. Through its Quality of Shellfish-Growing Waters Project, the NOS
             conducts assessments of the trends in classification of shellfish-growing waters in selected
             estuaries and identifies the pollutants affecting these waters. The NOS is also comparing the
             utility of various chemical tracers of sewage. The NMFS and NOS (in cooperation with FDA,
             EPA, and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) have developed the National Shellfish Register,
             an inventory of the status of shellfish-growing waters as classified by state shellfish
             sanitation control agencies. The NOS, in conjunction with the U.S. Coast Guard, has
             developed CAMEO (Computer-Aided Management of Emergency Operations), a microcomputer-
             based system intended for use in accidental coastal oil spills, chemical spills, and other
             emergency response activities. The Hazardous Materials (HAZMAT) Response Branch has used
             CAMEO to analyze spill situations, determine effective counter measures, and estimate the
             scope of potential down-wind hazard zones. Within OAR, the Sea Grant Program funds studies
             to determine the depuration of shellfish contaminated with environmental pollutants and the
             persistence of chemical contaminant residues in fish tissue; identifies the origin of fecal
             coliforms in coastal waters; and assesses the potential hazards of diving in polluted waters.
             The Sea Grant Program and NMFS fund research related to the development of methods to
             permit rapid identification of pathogens and to identify new representative indicators of fecal,
             coliform in the marine environment.

                   The FDA develops methods for detecting, quantifying, and     ,identifying contaminants in
             shellfish and estuarine waters. The FDA also supports the National Shellfish Sanitation
             Program (NSSP), a cooperative state/Federal/industry program for the sanitary control of the
             shellfish industry. As part of the NSSP, FDA provides technical assistance to states in
             studying specific pollution problems; provides data to establish closure levels for shellfish
             harvesting; conducts applied research on various contaminants to assist in developing standards
             and criteria; and evaluates the effectiveness of state shellfish sanitary control programs. The

                                                                 173

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  NIEHS supports five Marine and Freshwater Biomedical Science Centers, which assess the use
                  of aquatic species as models for studying mechanisms of toxicity with relevance to humans.
                  The agency also uses aquatic species in studies of metabolic fate and distribution of
                  contaminants in tissues.

                        The EPA is funding a joint project with Great Lakes states and the FDA to determine
                  the potential human exposure to contaminants from Great Lakes seafood. The agency is also
                  conducting research in collaboration with the National Cancer Institute to study environmental
                  cancer through the use of aquatic species as models for identifying environmental problems
                  and providing better understanding of the risks associated with exposure to environmental
                  carcinogens. In addition, EPA is producing data and information on the relative efficacy of
                  fish species as carcinogen/teratogen assay subjects in comparison to present mammalian test
                  species.

                        The U.S. Coast Guard's related activities include the identification and characterization
                  of operational requirements for hazardous chemical response personnel/marine inspectors and
                  the development of hazardous chemical protective ensembles, including totally encapsulated
                  suits to protect against a full range of chemicals.

                        These Federal agency programs relate only to those activities directly involved in
                  investigating the human health effects of marine pollutants, or in protecting public health by
                  limiting exposure to these toxic agents. Since most of the marine pollutants of concern are
                  not unique  to the marine environment, the toxic or human health effects of these substances
                  are broadly addressed in a number of other Federal agency programs that do not deal
                  specifically with marine-related activities. Therefore, Federal agencies are involved in
                  addressing these concerns to a greater degree than may be represented by this discussion of
                  programs. For example, toxicity testing and human health effects research are conducted by a
                  wide range of Federal agencies, institutes, and programs including the National Toxicology
                  Program, the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, the National Cancer Institute,
                  and others. The research programs conducted or sponsored by these groups address questions
                  fundamental to determining the toxicity of marine pollutants and the mechanisms by which
                  these agents act. Several of these research efforts will be explored in greater detail in the
                  discussions pertaining to each management question.

                                               Management QueStions and Information Needs

                        An understanding of the adverse human health effects that may result from exposure to
                  contaminants in the marine environment is important for managing these problems. Listed
                  below are four management questions that need to be addressed to achieve this goal.

                  Management Question 1: What are the human health concerns associated with exposure to
                  chemical contaminants   in the marine environment?

                  Management Question     2: What are the human health concerns associated with pathogenic
                  microorganisms in the marine environment?

                  Management Question     3: Have management tools been effective in protecting     human health?

                  Management Question     4: What are the human health concerns associated with     spills of
                  hazardous materials in  the marine environment?

                                                                      174

                                                                                     Implications to Human Health

                   This section will include a discussion of the rationale, current efforts, and information
              needs remaining for each management question.

                                        Concerns Associated with Chemical Contaminants

              Manaeement Ouestion 1: What are the human health concerns associated with exposure to
              chemical contaminants in the marine environment?

              Information Needs

                   Ia.  What concentrations of potentially toxic chemical substances are occurring in
                        important commercial and recreational species?

                   lb.  What are the seafood consumption patterns in the United States?

                   Ic.  Does the interaction of mixtures of toxic chemicals pose significant added risks to
                        human health?

                   Id.  What risks result from exposure of seafood handlers to seafood raw material?

                   le.  What risks result from direct exposure(s) to chemical contaminants in the marine
                        environment?

              Ia. What concentrations of t)otentially toxic chemical substances are occurring in imnortant
              commercial and recreational species?

                   Various pollutants are discharged into U.S. waters in large quantities. Among these are
              metals and organic chemicals. However, only a limited number and variety of aquatic species
              and chemical pollutants are routinely monitored. Coastal states monitor contaminant levels in
              seafood to assist in determining when and where advisories should be issued against the
              consumption by humans of certain types of seafood. State monitoring data for selected
              species and contaminants are presented in Table 7. These data were selected to illustrate
              possible problem situations with respect to human health for a variety of species,
              contaminants, and regions, and are not intended to be representative of conditions in estuaries
              around the United States. State monitoring programs do not use consistent methods for
              sample collection and preparation and chemical analysis, thereby limiting the ability to make
              comparisons.

                   It would be impractical and financially prohibitive to sample all fish and shellfish for
              chemical contaminants. Therefore, one must select appropriate target species and
              contaminants of concern. To provide guidance, the FDA has developed sampling designs for
              the collection of seafood products from the marketplace (FDA, 1986). One approach would be
              to determine the species that represented the greatest percentage of the catch of commercial
              and recreational fishermen and analyze the edible tissues of those species. In the past, this
              approach has been taken for the NOAA survey of marine fish in Puget Sound (Malins et al.,
              1980) and the New York Bight (MacLeod et al., 1981), as well as the FDA Market Basket
              survey. Alternatively, one could select an indicator species that is thought to represent a
              special concern due to the ability of that species to bioaccumulate potentially toxic

                                                               175

                         GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                             Table 7. Concentrations of Organic Chemicals in Selected Fish Species (from NOAA,
                                            In Preparation)*

                             Chemical              Fish                Tissue              Location                    Average             FDA
                             Contaminant                               Type                                            Tissue              Action
                                                                                                                       Level (ppm)         Level (ppm)

                             Chlorda4              gizzard             whole fish          Chesapeake Bay              0.6a                0.3
                                                   shad                                    and Tributaries, MD

                             DDT                   white               fillet              Palos Verdes                7.6b                5.0
                                                   croaker                                 Peninsula, CA

                             HCB                   sea trout           edible              Bayou D'Inde,               0.11C               Not
                                                                       composite           Gulf Coast, LA                                  established
                             Naphthalene           bottom fish         fillet              Puget Sound,' WA            0.5d                Not
                             (PAH)                                                                                                         established

                             PCB                   striped             composite           Lower Hudson                4.Oe                2.0
                                                   bass                                    River, NY
                             PCB                   striped             fillet              Narragansett                4. Of               2.0
                                                   bass                                    Bay

                             aMaryland Department of the Environment,         1987.
                             bCalifornia Department of Health Services,      1988.
                             cLouisiana Department of Environmental Quality, 1987.
                             dPuget Sound Fish Catch & Consumption Survey, 1984.
                             "New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Fish and Wildlife Health Advice, 1987.
                             r Rhode Island Department of Health, 1987.

                             *These data were selected to illustrate the potential for human health effects and may not be representative of contaminants in other
                             species or sample sites or at other times.

                         substances, or due to a higher rate of consumption of this species by individuals in a specific
                         geographical area. This was the approach taken by NOAA (1986), in conjunction with the
                         FDA and EPA, in their extensive survey of PCBs in Atlantic coast bluefish.

                                  NOAA's National Marine Fisheries Service has an ongoing program to determine the kinds
                         and levels of contaminants in the tissues of fishery products of recreational, food, and
                         industrial use. The program focuses on the ultimate impact of chemical contaminants and
                         pathogens in the marine -environment on human health. Three types of information are
                         evaluated in an attempt to accurately determine the public health significance of contaminants
                         in fish. They are: (1) the identification and measurement of contaminants of public health
                         significance in fish and shellfish; (2) determination of the chemical form and potential for
                         interactions, among the contaminants; and (3) evaluation of consumption patterns for fishery
                         products in the United States. Information generated by the program is used by various
                         agencies and groups responsible for consumer safety, resource management decisions, and the
                         harvesting and utilization of national marine resources.

                                                                                                          176

                                                                                   Implications to Human Health

                   Current Federal monitoring programs include the NOAA National Status and Trends
             (NS&T) Program and EPA's Mussel Watch Program. Although the NS&T Program is not
             concerned directly with human health, two program elements (the Benthic Surveillance Project
             and the Mussel Watch Project) provide useful data regarding contaminant levels of
             environmental pollutants. NOAA's Mussel Watch Project includes annual sampling of mussels
             and oysters from 150 coastal and estuarine sites along the U.S. Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific
             coastlines. Organisms and sediments have been analyzed for selected PAHs, synthetic
             chlorinated compounds, PCB congeners, and trace metals.

                   The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has estimated the exposure of U.S. citizens to
             chemical contaminants in their food through Total Diet Studies (also known as the Market
             Basket Program) since the early 1960's for adults, and since 1974 for infants and toddlers
             (Gartrell et al., 1986). In these studies, samples representing the annual average diet are
             analyzed for selected pesticides and industrial chemicals. The Total Diet Studies include a
             seafood component. Overall, however, relatively little of the fish caught and sold in this
             country is screened for chemical contaminants.@ A study by Capuzzo et al.. (1987) reports that
             FDA tested less than 0.001 percent of the fish consumed in-the United States in 1982 for
             chemical contaminants.

                   Although most of our seafood is safe for human consumption, available information on
             chemic -al contaminant concentrations in marine species suggests that risks to human health
             could result from consumption of fish and shellfish from U.S. coastal waters. These risks
             would occur at different levels for different areas, species, and contaminants. Surveillance
             activity for the assessment of microconstituents in- seafood in this country is piecemeal and
             unorganized at best. It occurs at Federal, state, and local levels, but the extent of activity
             at each of these levels varies tremendously. At the Feder'al level, the ability of the FDA and
             NMFS to conduct this type of work is limited.  This is due to limitations in available
             resources that can be committed to this activity. These limitations include the lack of
             scientific and compliance personnel, equipment, and up-to-date surveys of seafood consumption
             and microconstituent levels in seafood. Improved routine monitoring of contaminant
             concentrations in commercial and recreational species will be needed before human health risks
             associated with consumption of seafood can be assessed effectively.

                   Programs for monitoring concentrations of contaminants in seafood could be improved in
             the following ways:

                   o  Intensify monitoring. Existing Federal and state programs provide limited data on the
                      concentrations of chemical contaminants in edible tissues of commercial and
                      recreational fish species. Frequency. of sampling is too limited on both temporal and
                      spatial scales. Existing Federal programs such as the NS&T Program are not designed
                      to manage human health risks and, although they serve other important needs, do@not
                      provide sufficient information for protecting human health.

                   0  Standardize methods. Sampling and analysis protocols should be established by the
                      Federal Government as to critical factors such as which tissues to assay, specimen
                      size (or age) class, sex and reproductive condition, sampling season, number of
                      replicates, and methods of chemical analysis (EPA, 1987b). Standard protocols are
                      especially important because much of this monitoring is conducted individually by the
                      states.

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                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                  lb. What are the seafood consummion t)atterns in the United States?

                       Data on seafood consumption patterns in the United States are available on an average
                  basis for the U.S. population. Standard values for seafood consumption rates have usually
                  been based on previous analyses of dietary patterns of the U.S. population (EPA, 1980; SRI,
                  1980). The NMFS seafood consumption study of 1973-1974 reported that the average U.S. per
                  capita daily consumption of seafood was 18.7 grams, which could be subdivided into 6.5 grams
                  of estuarine fish and shellfish, 2.0 grams of freshwater fish, 2.8 grams of marine fish, and the
                  remaining 7.4 grams being primarily tuna and some unclassified imported fish.

                       The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) accumulates fish consumption data
                  by surveying customers and by collecting market data. The USDA Nationwide Food
                  Consumption Surveys for individuals reported average fish consumption rates of 12 grams per
                  day in 1977-1978 and 5, 11, and 21 grams per day in 1985 for children, women, and men,
                  respectively. The USDA agricultural market survey data indicate a per capita intake of all
                  fish (marine and freshwater) in 1983 of 18.4 grams per day, similar to that estimated by NMFS
                  market data for per capita fish and shellfish consumption in 1986.

                       A figure of 6.5 grams per day for consumption of commercially and recreationally
                  harvested fish and shellfish from estuarine and fresh waters was used by EPA (1980) to
                  develop water quality criteria based on human health guidelines. This value is an average per
                  capita consumption rate for the U.S. population based on the data of SRI (1980).

                       The EPA Office of Pesticide Programs (OPP) has examined the various surveys and
                  market data available and concluded that the 1977-1978 USDA Nationwide Food Consumption
                  Survey is the most reliable database for this information, based on sample size and data
                  collection methods. Data from this survey were employed to develop the EPA Tolerance
                  Assessment System (TAS), which breaks down seafood consumption data by age group for the
                  U.S. population.

                       Data available on fish and shellfish consumption in the United States are neither
                  comprehensive nor current. The question of consumption rates in certain geographic or
                  cultural subpopulations is a major source of uncertainty. Average daily seafood consumption
                  rates do not adequately describe the dietary patterns of certain sectors of the U.S. population.
                  For example, Finch (1973) estimated that 0.1% of the U.S. population consumes 165 grams per
                  day of commercially harvested fish and shellfish. More recently, Pao et al. (1982), estimated
                  that 5% of the U.S. population consumes in excess of 128 grams per day of fish and shellfish.
                  High rates of consumption tend to be correlated with geographic and cultural patterns. Thus,
                  Humphrey (1976) reported that Great Lakes sport fishermen consumed an average of 31 grams
                  per day of fish from Lake Michigan alone; one individual was reported to consume 10 times
                  this amount. In another example of very high fish consumption, Marsh et al. (1974) described
                  a group of fishermen in American Samoa that consumed up to 250 grams of fish per day.

                       Current and more specific information (e.g., surveys) on the consumption of fish and
                  shellfish in this country, including quantitative intake, species, geographic origin, and methods
                  of preparation would greatly improve our ability to estimate risks to human health associated
                  with consumption of seafood. The consumption data presently in use were collected at least a
                  decade ago and their applicability to estimating the current consumption of seafood in'this
                  country is questionable. Methodologies for collecting data on fish consumption, as well as
                  approaches for using limited data to estimate intake, should be improved. The surveys should
                  include information on seafood consumption, not only on a national level, but also on a

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                                                                                            Implications to Human Health

               regional level because the consumption of seafood is determined to a great extent by regional
               factors (e.g., availability and access to fishery resources). These surveys should collect
               information on high-risk sectors of the population, as well as the average consumption in each
               region.

               Ic. Does the interaction of mixtures of toxic chemicals pose significant added risks to human
               health?

                     Humans are rarely exposed to single chemicals in the marine environment. Direct and
               indirect exposures to naturally occurring and synthetic materials are often to mixtures of
               chemicals from a variety of sources. Until very recently, tests designed to detect adverse
               health effects as a result of exposure to,chemical mixtures have been rudimentary in nature.
               Such tests have reflected insensitive analytical methods and the inherent complexities in.
               testing chemical mixtures, lack of adequate toxicity information on individual compounds and
               mixtures, and difficulties in satisfactory interpretations of the results. Consequently, limited
               information is now available to evaluate health effects associated with exposure to mixtures of
               chemicals in the marine environment.

                     Environmental transport, mobility, and distribution are important processes in
               understanding the toxicity of both individual pollutants and mixtures of chemicals.
               Physicochernical characteristics such as water solubility, lipid solubility, partitioning  behavior,
               vapor pressure, and chemical stability are critical properties that can significantly influence
               the behavior of a chemical in a system and impact the nature and degree of a toxic'endpoint.
               Transformations of environmental pollutants may occur via chemical, biological, geological, and
               physical (e.g., photolysis) reactions. Transport and circulation, adsorption to suspended-
               sediment particles, degradation by soil microorganisms, and deposition in ultimate sinks such       as
               deep ocean sediments illustrate a complex chain of processes undergone by chemicals and
               mixtures of chemicals when they are released in the environment. These environmental
               processes may change parent compounds into more toxic, less toxic, or nontoxic species before
               chemical interactions occur. These topics are addressed in greater detail in the toxic
               materials section of this chapter.

                     Early studies often failed to account for potentially significant chemical interactions
               taking place between individual constituents in.a chemical mixture. Although the toxicity           of a
               mixture has sometimes been approximated by adding the toxicities of the individual
               constituents (assuming they can be identified and there are toxicity data available), significant
               interactions such as synergism, additivity, or antagonism can occur. These interactions may
               preclude the accurate determination of the carcinogenic potency, acute lethality, or chronic
               toxicity of a mixture by simply adding the toxicities of the constituents.

                     Synergistic interactions between chemicals at high doses are known to produce effects
               that are greater than the additive effects of the individual chemicals. Uncertainty still exists
               concerning the significance of interactions at low doses of chemical mixtures, such as those
               typically found in contaminated seafood. Investigators are using'new technologies to address
               the problems of testing and characterizing complex mixtures of environmental pollutants (both
               toxicologically and chemically) (Fouts, 1988; McKinney, 1988; Safe, 1988; Vanderslice et al.,
               1988; Albert et al., 1983). Safe (1988) has focused on the development and validation of in
               vitro enzyme assays in rat cells for quantifying individual toxic halogenated aryl hydrocarbons
               and their mixtures. Albert et al. (1983) and Lewtas (1985) used a method known as relative
               (comparative) potency to evaluate risks to human health caused by chemical mixtures. This

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                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                approach is based on the assumption that for similar but not necessarily definable complex
                mixtures, a measure of relative potency based on data from in vitro tests can be correlated in
                a constant fashion with.relative potency from an in vivo bioassay.

                      Research on chemical mixtures has been conducted by several Federal agencies. A
                workshop assembled by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1984) developed early
                approaches for risk assessment methods of multiple chemical exposures. Principles developed
                by this group were incorporated into the EPA Guidelines for the Health Risk Assessment of
                Chemical Mixtures (EPA, 1986b). The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) has recently issued
                a publication that addresses the toxicity and adverse health effects of complex chemical
                mixtures (NAS, 1987). In addition to the NAS, the World Health Organization (WHO) has also
                recently published information on adverse health effects associated with chemical mixtures.

                      The National Toxicology Program (NTP) and the NIEHS are also actively investigating
                how mixtures of compounds found in the marine environment may adversely affect human
                health. The NTP has initiated an empirical study of the toxicity of well-defined chemical
                mixtures to rodents (Yung and Rauckman, 1987); additional parameters to be investigated are
                the frequency of synergism or antagonism, and development of mechanistic approaches for
                studying chemical interactions. To gain insights into the potential for toxicity to humans of
                chemical mixtures via dietary exposures, the NIEHS will sponsor a conference in the fall of
                1988. Specifically, the meeting will address the question of whether the consumption of
                aquatic food organisms may convey carcinogens to human consumers in amounts or forms
                sufficient to increase their cancer risk.

                      Despite such progress, the EPA concluded that it is still very difficult to predict
                synergistic or antagonistic effects of most chemical mixtures (EPA, 1987b). The approach used
                most frequently for multichernical risk assessments is the additive risk model (also known as
                the response- additive model) (EPA, 1987b). Numerical estimates obtained using this model have
                been useful in terms of relative comparisons (e.g., among fishing areas or among fishery
                species). However, current risk estimates for chemical mixtures should be regarded only as
                rough measures of actual risk.

                      The current state of the art in mixture toxicology does not allow us to accurately
                predict the interactive effects of chemical mixtures that may result from the consumption of
                contaminated seafood (EPA, 1986a). Due to limitations in availability of data and in the
                ethodology to assess these risks, disagreement exists as to the significance of exposure to
                chemical mixtures in evaluating human health risks. To resolve these disagreements, advances
                would be needed in at least the following areas:

                      �  Improved ability to determine concentrations of toxic substances in mixtures;

                      �  More complete understanding of the toxicity to humans of individual substances; and

                      �  Understanding of the effects of interactions among groups of toxic substances and
                         how these interactions influence toxic response.

                Although progress will be difficult, it is recommended that research be continued on
                understanding toxicity of mixtures along with other basic toxicological questions.

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                                                                                        Implications to Human Health

             Id. What risks result from exr)osure of seafood handlers to seafood raw material?

                   Although workers in the canned    and cured seafood industries are  among those with the
             highest incidence of occupational skin  disease, these problems appear to be the result of
             bacterial infections of abrasions and cuts caused by spines, fins, and bones of fish and are not
             the result of handling chemically contaminated seafood. In addition, results of two
             epidemiological studies of seafood handlers suggest that the development of many adverse
             health effects in this population. originate from exposure to water, noise, cold, dampness, or to
             ergonomic factors leading to musculoskeletal. stress and discomfort (NIOSH, 1986).

                   No evidence exists to indicate that occupational exposure to chemically contaminated
             seafood is a health concern. Therefore, no high-priority research needs have been identified
             in this area.

             le. What risks result from direct exposure(s) to chemical contaniinants in the marine
             environment?

                   Direct human exposure to toxic compounds in the marine environment could also occur
             through swimming or diving in polluted waters. Little information, however, exists on the
             adverse health effects that result from this route of exposure. The New Jersey Department of
             Environmental Protection (NJDEP) has initiated one of the few studies concerning the public
             health effects of direct discharges of pollutants into the ocean. This study focused on a
             pharmaceutical firm in New Jersey that has discharged treated wastewater into the Atlantic
             Ocean since 1966. As of 1987, this plant was discharging 4 to 5 million gallons of wastewater
             per day into the ocean from a pipe that extends 3,500 feet out to sea from the shoreline.
             From their initial studies, NJDEP concluded that the discharge from this plant did not pose a
             measurable health risk to persons swimming on the nearby beaches .(EPA, 1987a).

                   Existing information indicates that exposure to chemical contaminants during swimming
             and diving do not pose a serious or widespread threat to human health. Although little
             attention has been paid to examining the risks associated with exposure to toxic chemicals at
             marine bathing beaches or to the joint effects of pathogens and chemicals on swimmers, no
             high-priority research needs have been identified in this area.

                                                Concerns Associated with Pathogens

             Management Ouestion 2: What are the human health concerns associated'witb patholzenic
             microorizanisms in the marine en-vironment?

             Information Needs

                   2a. What microorganisms in the marine environment are currently causing adverse human
                        health effects?

                   2b.  How effective are traditional indicators at predicting actual risks associated with
                        exposure to microorganisms?

                   2c.  What human activities contribute most significantly to the numbers of human
                        pathogens entering the marine environment?

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                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                       2d. Are present disinfection techniques adequate for controlling the introduction of
                            pathogens into the marine environment?

                  2a. What microorpanisms in the marine environment are currently causing adverse human
                  health effects?

                       Human pathogens found in the marine environment include viruses, bacteria, protozoa,
                  and fungi. Surface runoff and sanitary wastes discharged directly or indirectly (via rivers)
                  into the marine environment may contain microorganisms that are capable of causing adverse
                  human health effects. Other microorganisms capable of causing human diseases occur naturally
                  in the marine environment and are not a result of polluting activities. In the United States,
                  viruses and bacteria are the most important human pathogens, both in terms of the number of
                  organisms released to the environment and in the severity of the diseases they cause (OTA,
                  1987). People can be exposed to pathogens either directly from ocean water or indirectly
                  through ingestion of contaminated seafood. Both pathways may be significant since as few as
                  10 to 100 bacteria are capable of inducing disease under the appropriate conditions (OTA,
                  1987); additionally, many pathogens can reproduce in wastes, contaminated media, and infected
                  organisms.

                       Closures of shellfishing grounds because of contamination with sewage-derived
                  microorganisms have largely eliminated outbreaks of serious shellfish-borne, bacterial diseases
                  in the United States, including epidemics of typhoid and cholera. In addition, control
                  technologies being used in this country have been or should be adequate for reducing the risk
                  of water-related, pollution-associated bacterial diseases to an acceptable level. However,
                  questions remain as to the effectiveness of control techniques in limiting water-borne viral
                  disease.

                       Table 8 provides examples of pathogenic organisms known to cause adverse human health
                  effects. In many cases, additional information regarding the ecology, epidemiology, and
                  pathogenicity of these species is needed to more fully confirm their association with causes of
                  human illness.

                       Viral agents, notably the Norwalk-like viruses and hepatitis A, contained in raw or
                  partially cooked molluscan shellfish that have been harvested or held in waters polluted with
                  sewage may cause illness in humans. The Norwalk-like viruses have been increasingly shown
                  to be the etiological agents responsible for acute gastroenteritis outbreaks that have resulted
                  from consumption of contaminated seafood and swimming in contaminated waters (Kaplan et
                  al., 1982). Since 1970, several reports have linked hepatitis A to consumption of raw or
                  partially cooked molluscan shellfish (Feingold, 1973; CDC, 1979b; 1982; Guidon and Pierach,
                  1973; Ohara et al., 1983).

                       Sewage-derived bacterial agents associated with contaminated molluscan shellfish can also
                  cause human illness. However, these agents, which include the bacteria responsible for
                  typhoid and cholera, are adequately controlled using existing sewage treatment and shellfish
                  management techniques and do not appear to be a serious human health problem at this time.

                       Research is being conducted by NOAA investigators to detect and quantify pathogens in
                  marine water and shellfish. These projects include a study by the NOAA/NMFS Charleston
                  Laboratory to develop and evaluate methods for extracting and assaying enteric viruses such
                  as hepatitis A virus and Norwalk virus from molluscan shellfish. NOAA-sponsored research is

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                                                                                                                                   Implications to Human Health

                                         Table 8. Microorganisms Responsible for Causing Adverse Human
                                                                                Health Effects*

                                                                 Pathogenic                       Seafood
                                            Disease              Organism                         Source                   Reference

                                            Hepatitis            Hepatitis A virus                Raw oysters              Roos(1956)
                                                                                                  Steamed clams            Bryan and Huff
                                                                                                                           (1973)
                                                                                                  Steamed and raw          Feingold (1973)
                                                                                                  clams
                                                                                                  Raw clams                CDC (1982)
                                                                                                  Raw oysters              Ohara et al.
                                                                                                                           (1983)
                                                                                                  Oysters                  Portnoy et al.
                                                                                                                           (1975)
                                                                                                  Cockles                  O'Mahony et al.
                                                                                                                           (1983)
                                                                                                  Raw molluscan            Koff et al.
                                                                                                  Shellfish                (1967)
                                                                 Non-A and non-B                  Raw molluscan            Alter et al.
                                                                 hepatitis virus                  Shellfish                (1982)
                                            Gastroenteritis      Aerornonas hyqro-                Shellfish                Holmberg and
                                                                 philia and Plestomonas                                    Farmer (1984)
                                                                 shigelloides
                                                                 Vibrio mimicus                   Raw oysters              Shandera et al. (1983)
                                                                 Vibrio parahaern-                Clams and snails         Roland (1979)
                                                                 olyticus
                                                                                                  Raw oysters              Nolan et al.
                                                                                                                           (1984)
                                                                                                  Crab                     Dadisman et al.
                                                                                                                           (1973)
                                                                                                  Shrimp                   Baker et al.
                                                                                                                           (1974)
                                                                                                  Lobster                  Baker(1974)
                                                                 Vibrio vulnificus                Raw oysters              Brady and
                                                                                                                           Concannon(1984)
                                                                                                                           Pollak et al.
                                                                                                                           (1983)
                                                                 Vibrio cholera                   Raw oysters              CDC (1980)
                                                                 0 group                          boiled shrimp,
                                                                                                  boiled crab
                                                                 Vibrio cholera                   Raw oysters              Wilson et al.
                                                                 Non-0 group 1                                             (1981)
                                                                                                                           Morris et al.
                                                                                                                           (1981)
                                                                                                                           CDC (109a)
                                                                 Norwalk virus                    Raw oysters              Linco and
                                                                                                                           Grohmann (1980)
                                                                                                                           Mu hy et al.
                                                                                                                           (1 99g)
                                                                                                                           Guinn et al.
                                                                                                                           (1982)
                                                                                                  Raw clams                CDC (1982)
                                                                 Small round struc-               Raw oysters              Gill et al.
                                                                 tured virus                                               (1983)
                                                                 Campylobacter jejuni             Raw clams                Griffin et al.
                                                                                                                           (1983)

                                            Includes naturally occurring microorganisms as well as microorganisms associated with pollution.

                                                                                                183

                 GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                 being conducted at the Baylor College of Medicine to evaluate the merits of a new A-ELISA
                 test for detection of hepatitis A virus in the estuarine environment and to determine the
                 extent of hepatitis and rotavirus occurrence in polluted waters. A serological test for
                 identification of species of Vibrio is under development by the Louisiana Sea Grant College
                 Program. At the University of Maryland, an epidemiological study of the microbiological
                 hazards associated with diving in polluted waters is currently being conducted. These
                 researchers are also studying the feasibility of adapting rapid serological techniques for use in
                 a field hazards test kit for divers.

                       In addition to sponsoring research activities in this area, the Federal Government is also
                 involved in several inspection programs designed to protect the population from the hazards of
                 consuming pathogen-contaminated seafood. The National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS)
                 conducts inspections of fish and shellfish to check for "wholesomeness," safety, and labeling.
                 Participation by the seafood industry in this program is voluntary, and inspections are
                 provided at the request of the processor. Another voluntary inspection program, the National
                 Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP) has been established as a joint effort between the FDA,
                 state agencies, and the shellfish industry to set forth guidelines for the management of state
                 shellfish programs. Under this program, the FDA has the primary responsibility for the
                 development of the NSSP Manual of Operations to be used by individual states. These
                 guidelines contain the criteria and standards for the sanitation of shellf ish- growing areas and
                 the sanitation of the harvesting and processing of shellfish. In 1982, the Interstate Shellfish
                 Sanitation Conference (ISSC) was formed to strengthen the NSSP. Two years later, FDA
                 entered into a Memorandum of Understanding with the ISSC and reaffirmed the voluntary
                 cooperative relationship with both the states and the shellfish industry. The purpose of the
                 ISSC is to provide a formal structure wherein regulatory authorities could establish updated
                 guidelines and procedures for the uniform control of shellfish sanitation guidelines.

                       As discussed above, some human health problems associated with the ingestion of seafood
                 are not linked to marine pollution. However, a number of microorganisms, particularly viruses,
                 that are associated with marine pollution have been shown to cause various human diseases
                 such as hepatitis and gastroenteritis, primarily when molluscan products are eaten raw,
                 partially cooked, mishandled, or misprepared. It is difficult to estimate the frequency with
                 which marine pollution causes human disease in the United States. Many cases go unreported.
                 Research in this area should be continued to improve our understanding of which pollution-
                 related pathogens are causing human health problems and to improve our ability to screen and
                 monitor seafood and water quality for human pathogens.

                 2b. How effective are traditional indicators at vredicting actual risks associated with exnosure
                 to microorganis   ?

                       Concentrations of coliform bacteria, expressed as Most Probable Number (MPN) per 100
                 milliliters, have been employed for decades as a component of microbiological standards to
                 monitor the quality of waters for swimming and shellfish harvesting (OTA, 1987; DHEW, 1965).
                 Although currently used microbial indicators have been effective in protecting the U.S.
                 population from shellfish-mediated epidemics, existing water quality standards have been
                 questioned as true indicators of the overall potential for human disease. The indicators and
                 standards have not been related to disease through epidemiological studies, and although
                 indicators used reflect the presence of fecal wastes, they are not specific to humans, nor to
                 two common causes of disease: viral pathogens and free-living, opportunistic pathogens such as

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                                                                                     Implications to Human Health

             V. vulnificus (Ronk, 1988). This problem is exemplified by instances of the ingestion of
             molluscan shellfish harvested from waters classified as acceptable by the traditional indicators
             that have resulted in sporadic outbreaks of viral disease (Portnoy et al., 1975).

                  Fecal coliform bacteria are also thought to be inadequate for predicting the risks
             associated with direct exposures to pathogens in the marine environment. In a study of New
             York beaches, Cabelli et al. (1979) presented evidence that there are measurable health effects
             associated with swimming in sewage-polluted waters, and that, in some cases, these effects
             were observed even in waters that were in compliance with existing recreational water quality
             guidelines and standards. Cabelli et al. (1982) expanded these studies to additional beaches in
             Louisiana and Massachusetts. Of the indicators quantified, the density of enterococci was
             highly correlated with the incidence of gastrointestinal symptoms (GI) among swimmers at both
             locations. Additionally, they reported that swimming- associated GI symptoms were poorly
             correlated with fecal coliform densities, the -indicator used most in Federal and state
             standards.

                  Fecal coliforms generally are not pathogenic, and do not survive as well in the marine
             environment compared to at least one type of bacterial pathogen (Rhodes and Kator, 1983).
             Although existing standards employ bacteria as indicators of contamination, viruses are being
             recognized as major etiologic agents for swimming- or seafood consumption -associated disease.
             Morse et al. (.1986) reported the role of the Norwalk virus in outbreaks of shellfish- associated
             gastroenteritis. Previous studies (Gerba et al., 1979; Portnoy et al., 1975) have illustrated the
             failure, of bacterial indicators to demonstrate the presence of enteroviruses in marine waters.

                  Some bacteria (including certain human pathogens) in the marine environment may remain
             in a dormant state and retain their viability for extended periods of time (e.g., months to
             years). For example, Vibrio cholerae (Colwell et al., 1985), Camvvlobacter itigni (Rollins and
             Colwell, 1986), and Salmonella enteritidis (Roszak et al., 1984) may exist in such a viable but
             nonculturable state in the marine environment. In the dormant state, the presence of these
             organisms cannot be detected using standard microbial assays. However, these pathogens may
             be "reactivated" within a suitable host organism (Colwell et al., 1985). Thus, the apparent
             lack of human pathogens in the open ocean and near-shore coastal waters may simply reflect
             an inability.to detect these apparently viable, but nonculturable microorganisms (Grimes, 1986).
             Recently developed monoclonal antibody and gene probe techniques permit the detection and
             quantification of both culturable and nonculturable microorganisms. Since these methods have
             the ability to detect nonculturable organisms, they may serve as more precise techniques for
             monitoring microbiological water quality.

                  The Federal Government has addressed some of the inadequacies of current
             microbiological standards for water quality, and has initiated research programs and regulatory
             actions. Based largely on the work of Cabelli and others (Cabelli et al., 1979; 1982; Miescier
             and Cabelli, 1982), the EPA has adopted enterococci as an indicator of microbiological water
             quality for recreational marine waters. Since 1985, NOAA and EPA have collaborated on an
             epidemiological investigation to study the health effects associated with shellfish consumption.
             The association between gastrointestinal illness in individuals who eat raw shellfish and the
             quality of shellfish- harvesting waters is being examined in this study. Also, a clinical feeding
             trial is currently being conducted in which the health of volunteers is monitored after eating
             raw oysters harvested from either an area that is affected by treated sewage effluent but still
             meets the current standard for shellfish- harvesting waters (Dufour, 1987). Additionally, the

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                   GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                   National Collaborative Shellfish Pollution Indicator Study has been proposed as a fouryear
                   effort to evaluate the current relationship between indicators of human enteric pathogens and
                   the incidence of shellfish-borne disease.

                        Traditional indicators of microbial contaminants appear to be inadequate for predicting
                   human health risks associated with both consuming molluscan shellfish and swimming in waters
                   that contain sewage- associated viruses, naturally occurring bacteria, and, occasionally, sewage-
                   associated bacteria. The need exists to identify microbial indicators specific for human fecal
                   wastes that survive wastewater treatment, disinfection, and residence in marine waters and
                   that are effective in predicting the presence of viral pathogens. An effective approach to
                   identifying appropriate indicators. may include the implementation of a battery of tests. The
                   feasibility of using-new methodologies such as monoclonal antibody and gene probe techniques
                   should be compared to existing methods such as the fecal coliform Most Probable Number
                   (MPN) to determine the most useful methods.

                   2c. What human activities contribute most significantly to the numbers of human vathoptens
                   enterin?, the marine environment?

                        Discharges of raw sewage, dumping of sewage sludge, failing septic tanks, and wastewater
                   effluent from sewage treatment plants represent the primary sources of some human pathogens
                   to the marine environment (OTA, 1987). Pathogens may also enter the environment from
                   nonpoint sources such as agricultural or stormwater runoff, or they may occur naturally in the
                   marine environment. The illegal practice of ocean dumping of infectious wastes represents an
                   episodic, but regionally significant, source of human pathogens in marine environments. The
                   risk of exposure to these pathogens may be especially important in coastal areas near sites
                   where hospital wastes have been illegally dumped. Efforts to classify shellfish- growing areas
                   may be confounded by the presence of fecal wastes from domestic and wild, warm-blooded
                   animals (e.g, cattle, dogs), which would be included in fecal coliform indicator measurements.
                   Nonhuman fecal wastes, however, would not be expected to pose risks equivalent to that of
                   human fecal wastes, because pathogens of concern, such as Norwalk-like and hepatitis A
                   viruses, are not present in lower animal wastes.

                        NOAA researchers have examined the relative contribution of various point and nonpoint
                   sources of marine pollution to the total pollution burden, and their effects on the quality of
                   shellfish -growing waters in the Gulf of Mexico. NOAA-sponsored research is being conducted
                   to determine the origin of fecal contamination found in the Mississippi Sound of the Gulf of
                   Mexico. This work represents an initial effort to determine which human and nonhuman
                   activities contribute most to the numbers of pathogens entering the marine environment.
                   Also, by characterizing the relative contribution of point versus nonpoint sources of marine
                   pollution, investigators could begin to determine if a relationship exists between manmade
                   sources of pollution and the numbers of naturally occurring microorganisms in the marine
                   environment.

                        The human activities that contribute most significantly to pathogens entering the marine
                   environment have been identified. When needed for management purposes, region-specific
                   studies may be necessary to determine the relative importance of local sources.

                                                                       186

                                                                                        Implications to Human Health

             2d. Are present disinfection techniques adequate for controlling the introduction of pathogens
             into the marine environment?

                   Chlorination is the most commonly used disinfection technique in the United States (OTA,
             1987). Traditionally viewed as an effective and economical mechanism to reduce the
             concentrations of pathogens in municipal effluents and sewage sludge, a growing body of
             evidence suggests that present methods and technologies vary in their effectiveness depending
             upon the particular type of pathogen. Conventional treatment processes (e.g., chlorination,
             thermal inactivation, anaerobic digestion, liming) can destroy some of the microorganisms
             present in municipal wastewaters (OTA, 1987). The effectiveness of the process depends on
             the techniques employed, the operating conditions, and the organism in question. Waterborne
             pathogens have a wide range of susceptibility to disinfection techniques. Miescier and Cabelli
             (1982) noted that viruses are relatively resistant to chlorination. Bacterial populations can be
             reduced about 15-fold through primary and secondary treatment and additional dilution can be
             achieved when the effluent is discharged into receiving waters. The degree of effectiveness
             of these processes against bacteria is generally high but they are not particularly effective
             against viruses and parasites such as protozoan cysts (Miescier and Cabelli, 1982; OTA, 1987).

                   Federal standards do not exist for disinfection procedures, such as disinfectant
             concentration and contact times. Consequently, these practices vary widely among different
             sewage treatment plants (Hoff and Akin, 1986). Although chlorination can be highly effective
             against bacteria (98%-99% destruction), other microorganisms such as viruses are more resistant
             and may survive treatment and eventually enter the marine environment. Higher disinfectant
             concentrations and longer contact times might be recommended against potentially resistant
             species. However, this practice raises the additional concern of increasing the levels of
             chlorinated byproducts in the environment. Of particular concern are low- molecular- weight
             halogenated hydrocarbons such as chloroform, bromodichloromethane, and
             dibromochloromethane. The extent and significance of occurrence of known and suspected
             carcinogens (e.g., trihalomethanes) was the principal objective of an early nationwide survey of
             organic chemicals in drinking water conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA,
             1975). Additional research has focused on determining the mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and
             target organ toxicity (renal, reproductive, and endocrine system) effects of disinfectants an&
             disinfectant byproducts (NIEHS, 1986). However, a number of uncertainties exist with regard
             to the human health risk exposure to these compounds; therefore, research is still needed to
             determine the effects of disinfectants and disinfectant byproducts on human health.

                   A variety of disinfection treatment techniques have been proposed as alternatives to
             chlorination. These include use of ozone (ozonation), ultraviolet (uv) light, and gamma
             radiation treatment (OTA, 1987). Ozonation has been widely used in Europe to purify drinking
             water (Engineering News Record, 1985; SAIC, 1986) although it has been -used infrequently in
             the United States for drinking water or municipal wastewater treatment. These techniques are
             difficult and expensive to apply, and therefore chlorination may be the only remaining
             practical means of disinfection in most locations.

                   Septic waste systems are commonly used for domestic sewage treatment in many coastal
             communities adjacent to shellfish- growing areas. These systems commonly fail, or are subject
             to improper or faulty operation owing to poor soil drainage characteristics, seasonally high
             water tables, or owner bypass/modifications. The degree of disinfection provided by such
             marginal systems should be evaluated as potential contributors to nonpoint source pollution in
             impacted shellfish -growing areas.

                                                                 187

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                        Alternative treatment systems and methods need to be developed that are highly effective
                  against these pathogens where present treatment processes have a limited impact. Studies on
                  the effectiveness and environmental implications of alternative treatment processes would be
                  valuable, especially concerning the effectiveness against the release of hepatitis A and
                  Norwalk viruses.

                                                    Effectiveness of Management Tools

                  Management Ouestion 3: Have manaimment tools been effective in iprotectina human health?

                  Information Needs

                        3a. Have public health advisories reduced risks associated with consumption of
                             contaminated seafood?

                        3b. Have shellfish bed closures reduced consumption of contaminated shellfish?

                        3c.  Have beach closures or restrictions prevented recreational exposure?

                  3a. Have   1)ublic health advisories reduced risks associated with consumntion of contaminated
                  seafood?

                        The  FDA has the lead responsibility for establishing and enforcing allowable levels of
                  toxic substances in interstate commerce seafood under �408 and �409 of the Federal Food,
                  Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). Section 406 of the FFDCA gives FDA the authority to set
                  limits for chemical contaminants in fish and shellfish below which enforcement action will not
                  be taken. These action and tolerance levels set by FDA for seafood are based on health risks
                  associated with the average national seafood consumption estimates. The FDA has established
                  action or tolerance levels for 11 organic contaminants and one metal. State and local
                  environmental agencies and health departments are responsible for protecting consumers from
                  the risks of consuming seafood products that are harvested locally. The public health advisory
                  is one type of management tool available to regulators to warn the public of high levels of
                  toxic substances in seafood. In many cases, state and local agencies rely on Federal
                  guidelines concerning concentrations of contaminants that are considered unsafe for human
                  consumption.

                        In an ongoing NOAA-sponsored study, public health advisories issued by the coastal and
                  Great Lake states concerning the consumption of contaminated finfish have been surveyed; a
                  nationwide database of advisory locations, fish species, and contaminants is being compiled;
                  and state policies and public information regarding human health advisories are being analyzed.
                  This information will be useful in analyzing the effectiveness of state and Federal programs in
                  addressing health risks of consuming contaminated fish and identifying the fish species and
                  contaminants that have been most closely linked with adverse health effects (Zeitlin, 1987).

                        The effectiveness of health advisories in altering public behavior is a potentially
                  significant factor to be considered in establishing Federal action and tolerance levels. A
                  limited number of studies have been conducted to determine the extent to which individual
                  public health advisories influence fishing and seafood consumption behavior in the public.
                  Belton and colleagues (1986), from the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection,

                                                                     188

                                                                                           Implications to Human Health

              examined the effectiveness of public health advisories issued by the State of New Jersey in
              reducing the consumption of contaminated seafood. Surveys and interviews of urban fisherman
              revealed that many of them were not aware of the advisories, and that some had either
              misinterpreted the guidance or chosen to ignore it.

                    The public perception of risk and the ability   of the regulatory agency to communicate
              that risk plays a large role in determining the effectiveness of the public health advisory.
              Jones et al. (1987) were able to characterize the comprehension of, and compliance with, a
              fish- consumption advisory aimed at reducing PCI3 intake by sport fishermen in Wisconsin. An
              initial survey of these fishermen conducted by questionnaire revealed that approximately three-
              fourths of the survey respondents were familiar with the fish consumption advisory, yet only
              57% of the original respondents had changed their fishing or fish consumption habits as a
              result of the advisory.

                    Although the FDA has established limits for some of the important marine contaminants,
              many others remain unregulated. For example, regulatory limits have not been set for
              contaminants such as dioxin, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, nonchlorinated pesticides,
              dibenzofurans, petroleum hydrocarbons, cadmium, lead, and arsenic. Based on the relative lack
              of action or tolerance levels for important seafood contaminants, it would be useful to
              establish safe limits for more of the potentially toxic and carcinogenic substances found in
              seafoods.

                    Although only a few studies have been conducted in this area, indications are that the
              issuance of advisories is only partially successful in influencing human behavior. However, the
              development of guidelines based on risk assessment and the issuing of health advisories is still
              considered the most effective means of getting people to reduce or cease consumption of
              contaminated seafood. Similar studies to those of Belton et al. (1986) and Jones et al. (1987)
              should be conducted in other sites around the country to make this management tool more
              effective in protecting human health.

              3b. Have shellfish bed closures reduced consumt)tion of contaminated shellfish?

                    Since 1966, data have been compiled periodically by FDA and NOAA on classifications by
              states of coastal and estuarine waters with regard to suitability,for shellfishing activities.
              Individual state agencies classify shellfish -growing waters into the following categories:
              -approved, conditionally approved, restricted, prohibited, or nonproductive. These designations
              are based primarily on the location of industrial and municipal waste discharges and
              measurements of indicators for the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in the water
              column. Data on shellfish area classifications are compiled in the National Shellfish Register
              of Classified Estuarine Waters (FDA and NOAA, 1985).

                    Public health management agencies at the state and local levels can take a direct role in
              limiting human exposure to contaminants in the marine environment by closing shellfish beds
              to harvesting. Enforcement of these actions is generally the responsibility of state and local
              law enforcement agencies. Signs and maps may be posted in the affected areas        and legal
              notices can be published to alert persons harvesting shellfish or bathing in restricted areas
              (FDA and NOAA, 1985).

                                                                   189

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                      Although through the National Shellfish Sanitation Program serious enteric diseases such
                as hepatitis, cholera, and typhoid have been largely eliminated, it is still unclear whether
                closures are effective and efficient, especially for viral-induced types of gastroenteritis.
                Enforcement efforts are limited by manpower and budget considerations at the state level.
                More information would be needed.to determine whether approved areas are safe, particularly
                in relation to the presence of free-living bacteria such as V. vulnificus, which may be
                unassociated with fecal contamination; and whether consumption of molluscan shellfish from
                restricted or prohibited areas results in a quantifiable risk to human health.

                3c. Have beach closures or restrictions prevented recreational ext)osure?

                      One measure of the effectiveness of beach closures is the determination of disease
                incidence among bathers at restricted beaches. Beach closures are issued by state and local
                governments and are typically based on water quality criteria developed by the Federal
                Government. As indicated earlier, Cabelli et al " (1979) observed that symptom rates among
                swimmers at New York City beaches that were rated either "barely acceptable" or "relatively
                unpolluted" by a graduated pollution index were higher than those of nonswimmers at the same
                beaches.

                      It appears that classification of swimming beaches may not be totally effective in
                preventing the occurrence of swimming- related disease. Additional studies would need to be
                conducted at other sites to further characterize the effectiveness of beach closures based on
                Federal water quality criteria.

                                        Concerns Associated with Spills of Hazardous Materials

                Manaizement Ouestion 4: What are the human health concerns associated with st)ills of
                hazardous materials in the marine environment?

                Information Needs

                      4a.  What hazardous materials have been released into the marine environment as a result
                           of accidental release/discharge?

                      4b.  What health hazard(s) are encountered by workers involved in emergency
                           response/cleanup actionO

                      4c.  What are the health hazards to the general public as a result of exposures to toxic
                           substances accidentally released into the marine environment?

                      Spil Is of hazardous or toxic materials into the marine environment may pose an immediate
                health risk to the general public as well as to workers involved in emergency response/cleanup
                efforts. Several Federal agencies are mandated to respond to incidents involving chemical
                discharges into the marine waters of the United States. The Coast Guard assumes primary
                Federal responsibility for the cleanup of hazardous materials spilled into the marine
                environment. To accomplish this mission, the Coast Guard has established a National Strike
                Force to respond to oil or chemical spills (Stull, 1987a). In addition to its actual response
                activities, the Coast Guard is also involved in the development and maintenance of information
                systems to document which hazardous materials have been released into inland or coastal

                                                                   190

                                                                                          Implications to Human Health

             waterways as a result of accidental discharges., The Pollution Incident Reporting System
             (PIRS) is a database of information on all spills of hazardous materials, oil, and other
             pollutants that have been reported to the Coast Guard since 1973. It contains information on
             dates, location, type, cause, source, and quantity of the spill, as well as the resources affected
             by the spill, the cleanup activities taken to mitigate the spill, and any penalty action taken
             against the polluter. This information is used for analysis and management purposes to allow
             the Coast Guard to identify those compounds that may represent the greatest hazard to the
             marine environment and to focus its response activities and R&D efforts on those compounds
             that are spilled most frequently. The PIRS is a dynamic system that is updated by
             approximately 1,000 records monthly.

                   The Coast Guard has also established the Chemical Hazard Response Information System
             (CHRIS), which provides a description of the hazards associated with over 1,000 chemicals and
             the appropriate response techniques for dealing with spills of these compounds. The CHRIS
             has four components: Condensed Guide to Chemical Hazards containing first aid information;
             Hazardous Chemical Data Manual describing the chemical, physical, and biological properties
             associated with each hazardous substance and measures to be taken in an emergency; Hazard
             Assessment Handbook, which is a series of formulas that simulate spill incidents; and the
             Response Methods Handbook containing techniques for cleaning up spills.

                   In addition to the development and maintenance of information systems, the Coast Guard
             has implemented an active program to develop and test chemical- protective clothing worn by
             personnel during chemical spill clean-up activities (Stull, 1987a; 1987b). Swope (1987) has
             prepared a summary of ongoing and planned Federal research on chemical- protective clothing
             and equipment performed or sponsored by the Coast Guard and other agencies such as NIOSH,
             OSHA, and EPA. Research needs in this area currently include developing comprehensive
             performance standards for chemical-protective suits and designing even more chemically
             resistant suits (Stull, 1987a). Current efforts by the U.S. Coast Guard to address these needs
             should continue.

                   Although the general public may also be at risk from exposure to accidental spills of
             hazardous materials in the marine environment, the risk is most often manifested through
             ingestion of contaminated seafood or direct exposure through swimming. These issues have
             been addressed in the previous management questions.

                                                 Conclusions and Recommendations

                   A number of toxic substances and human pathogens have been identified in the marine
             environment that have the potential to cause adverse human health effects. Although the
             presence of these agents in the marine environment does not alone constitute a public health
             risk, it does suggest that some potential health risk may be present if humans are exposed to
             these agents. The likelihood of developing adverse health effects from these substances is a
             result of the toxicity or pathogenicity of the agent and the extent to which the population is
             exposed.

                   The following conclusions concerning human health implications of marine pollution are
             based on the discussions of the management questions and information needs presented in the
             previous section.

                                                                  191

                  GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                         o Existing Federal and state monitoring programs provide limited data on the
                           concentrations of chemical contaminants in edible tissues of commercial and
                           recreational fish species. In addition, it is difficult to set "acceptable" limits for
                           chemical concentrations in seafood because of uncertainties in our information on
                           toxic response in humans, seafood consumption patterns in the United States, and
                           exposure through other routes. Regulatory programs could be made more effective if
                           these inadequacies were resolved.

                         o Governmental programs, such as the National Shellfish Sanitation Program, have been
                           largely effective in protecting the public from enteric diseases such as hepatitis,
                           cholera, and typhoid, as well as from biotoxin poisoning associated with the
                           consumption of molluscan shellfish. However, sporadic outbreaks of illness, primarily
                           associated with free-living, opportunistic Vibrio species and gastroenteritis -causing
                           viruses still occur.

                         o Traditionally used microbial water quality indicators do not predict the occurrence of
                           viral pathogens and naturally occurring pathogenic bacteria such as V. vulnificus.

                         o Current information suggests that exposure to chemical pollutants during swimming
                           and diving and through occupational activities related to seafood do not pose
                           significant risks to human health in the United States at this time.

                         o Current methods for the removal and inactivation of human pathogens are effective in
                           controlling the input of enteric bacteria to the marine environment but not for other
                           important pathogens such as the Norwalk-like viruses.

                         o Seafood consumption advisories, shellfish bed closures, and beach classifications are
                           issued by state and local governments using largely inconsistent methods and
                           guidelines. Public responses to such advisories display wide differences in
                           comprehension and compliance

                         Based on these conclusions, the following recommendations are made to improve our
                  understanding of the implications of marine pollution to human health.

                                                          Chemical Contaminants

                         The following work would allow improved understanding of the human health concerns
                  associated with exposure to chemical contaminants in the marine environment.

                  Concentrations in Commercial and Recreational Fisheries. More comprehensive information on
                  concentrations of contaminants occurring in the major commercial and recreational species
                  would improve our ability to manage public health risks. In addition to increasing temporal
                  and geographical intensity of sampling, monitoring programs could be improved by establishing
                  standard methods for sampling and analysis of seafood.

                  Seafood Consumption Patterns. Existing data on seafood consumption patterns do not
                  adequately describe the dietary patterns of the relevant populations. Studies of seafood
                  consumption patterns to update information and to focus on high-risk geographical or cultural
                  populations would improve our ability to assess public health risks associated with consuming
                  seafood.

                                                                     192

                                                                                       Implications to Human Health

              Mixtures of Toxic Chemicals. It is difficult to predict the synergistic and antagonistic effects
              of most chemical mixtures. Although progress will be difficult, research should be continued
              in the following areas to increase the understanding of interactive effects of chemical
              mixtures on human health:

                    o Concentrations of toxic substances in mixtures;

                    o Toxicity to humans of individual contaminants; and

                    o The influence of environmental processes and interactions on toxic response.

                                                             Pathogens

                    The following work is needed to address the human health concerns associated with
              pathogenic microorganisms in the marine environment.

              Microorganisms Causing Human Diseases. A number of sewage -associated pathogens in the
              marine environment are known or suspected to cause human diseases. Some pathogens are
              known to cause human disease but the link to the marine environment has not been
              established. Still other disease-causing microorganisms occur naturally in the marine
              environment or are introduced to seafood during improper handling, storage, or preparation.
              Research should continue to determine which marine pollution- related pathogens are causing
              human health effects. Efforts to improve our ability to monitor seafood and water quality for
              human pathogens should also continue.

              Indicators. Traditionally used microbial water quality indicators do not predict the occurrence
              of viral pathogens and naturally occurring pathogenic bacteria such as V. vulnificus. Improved
              indicators need to be identified and validated on the basis of health risk data.

              Sources. The major human activities that contribute human pathogens to the marine
              environment are known. Region-specific studies may be necessary to determine the relative
              importance of local sources.

                                                         Management Tools

                    The following work needs to be performed to determine the effectiveness of health
              advisories, shellfish bed closures, and beach closures in protecting human health.

              Health Advisories. Current information indicates that health advisories are only partially
              effective in reducing the human health risk from consumption of contaminated seafood.
              However, this finding is based on relatively few studies. Studies similar to those of Belton et
              al. (1986) and Jones et al. (1987) conducted in other regions of the country would help to
              more accurately determine the effectiveness of health advisories.

              Shellfish Bed Closures. Shellfish bed classification has been effective in protecting human
              health when NSSP microbiological standards and criteria for shellfish- growing areas have been
              used in proper context with other classification criteria (Hunt, 1979). Shellfish bed closures

                                                                193

                GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                also have been effective with regard to marine biotoxins such as PSP and NSP. However,
                research would help to determine when approved shellfish areas are safe with respect to
                viruses and naturally occurring pathogens such as V. vulnificus.

                Beach Closures. Additional studies are needed to assess the effectiveness of beach closures in
                protecting public health.

                                                        Hazardous Materials

                      The following work would help to determine the human health concerns associated with
                spills of hazardous materials in the marine environment.

                Chemically Resistant Suits. Research needs include the development of comprehensive
                performance standards for chemical- protective suits worn by personnel during chemical spill
                clean-up activities, and the design of more chemically resistant suits. Current efforts by the
                U.S. Coast Guard to address these needs should continue.

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             Griffin, M.R., E. Dalley, M. Fitzpatrick, and S.H. Austin. 1983. Camr)vlobact.er Gastroenteritis
                  Associated with Raw Clams. J. Med. Soc. N.J. 80:607a-609.

             Grimes, D.J. 1996. Human Health Impacts of Waste Constituents, Pathogens and Antibiotic-
                  and Heavy Metal-Resistant Bacteria. Prepared for Office of Technology Assessment, U.S.
                  Congress, College Park, MD.

             Guidon, L. and C.A. Pierach. 1973. Infections Hepatitis After Ingestion of Raw Clams. Minn.
                  Med. 56:15-19.

             Guinn R.A., H.T. Janowski, S. Lier, E.C. Prather, and H.B. Greenberg. 1982. Norwalk Virus
                  Gastroenteritis Following Raw Oyster Ingestion. Am. J. Epidemiol. 115:348-351.

             Hoff, J.C. and E.W. Akin. 1986. Microbial Resistance to Disinfectants: Mechanisms and
                  Significance. Environ. Health Perspect. 69:7-14.

             Holmberg, S.D. and J.J. Farmer 111. 1984. Aeromonas hydror)hila and Plesiomonas shigelloides
                  as Causes of Intestinal Infections. Rev. Infect. Dis. 6:633-639.

             Humphrey, H.E.B., H.A. Price, and M.L. Budd. 1976. Evaluation of Changes of the Level of
                  Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB) in Human Tissue. Final Report of FDA Contract No.
                  223-73-2209. Michigan Department of Public Health, Lansing, MI.

             Hunt, D.A. 1979. Microbiological Standards for Shellfish Growing Waters--Past and Future
                  Utilization.' Proc. Natl. Shellfisheries Assoc. 69:142-146.

             Jones, V.B., H.A. Anderson, L.P. Hanrahan, and L.J. Olson. 1987. Sport Fish Consumption and
                  Body Burden Levels of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: A Study of Wisconsin Anglers. Section
                  on Environmental Health, Wisconsin Division of Heath, Madison, WI. 17 pp.
                  (Unpublished).

             Kaplan, J.E., R.A. Goodman, L.B. Schonberger, E.C. Lippy, and G.W. Gary. 1982.
                  Gastroenteritis Due to Norwalk Virus: An Outbreak Association with a Municipal Water
                  System. J. Infect. Dis. 146:190-197.

                                                             197

                     GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                Koff, R.S., G.F. Grady, T.C. Chalmers, J.W. Mosley, and B.L. Swartz. 1967. Viral Hepatitis in
                     a Group of Boston Hospitals. III. Importance of Exposure to Shellfish in a Nonepidemic
                     Period. N. Engl. J. Med. 276:703-710.

                Lewtas, J. 1985. Development of a Comparative Potency Method for Cancer Risk Assessment
                     of Complex Mixtures Using Short-Term In Vivo and In Vitro Bioassays. Toxicol. Indus.
                     Health. 1:193-203.

                Linco, S.J. and G.S. Grohmann. 1980. The Darwin Outbreak of Oyster- Associated Viral
                     Gastroenteritis. Med. J. Aust. 1:211-213.

                MacLeod, W.D., L.S. Ramos, A.J. Friedman, D.G. Burrows, P.G. Prohaska, D.L. Fisher, and D.W.
                     Brown. 198 1. Analysis of Residual Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Aromatic Hydrocarbons
                     and Related Compounds in Selected Sources, Sinks, and Biota of New York Bight.
                     National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Boulder,
                     CO. NOAA Tech. Mem. OMPA-6.

                Malins, D.C., B.B. McCain, D.W. Brown, A.K. Sparks, and H.O. Hodgins. 1980. Chemical
                     Contaminants and Biological Abnormalities in Central and Southern Puget Sound.
                     National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce,
                     Boulder, CO. NOAA Tech. Mem. OMPA-2, 186 pp + appendicies.

                Marsh, D.O., M.D. Turner, J.C. Smith, J.W. Choe, and T.W. Clarkson. 1974. Methylmercury in
                     Human Populations Eating Large Quantities of Marine Fish. I. Northern Peru. In
                     Proceedings of the Ist International Mercury Congress, Barcelona (Cited in Tollefson and
                     Cordle, 1986).

                McKinney, J. 1988. National Institutes of Health, Washington, D.C. Personal Communication.

                Miescier, J.J. and V.J. Cabelli. 1982. Enterococci and Other Microbial Indicators in Municipal
                     Wastewater Effluents. J. Water Pollut. Control Fed. 54(12): 1599-1606.

                Morris, J.G., Jr., R. Wilson, B.R. Davis, I.K. Washsmuth, C.F. Riddle, G. Wathen, R.A. Pollard,
                     and P.A. Blake. 1981. Non-O Group I Vibrio cholerae Gastroenteritis in the United
                     States. Ann. Intern. Med. 94:656-658.

                Morse, D.I., Guzewich, J.J., et al. 1986. Widespread Outbreaks of Clam- and Oyster-
                     Associated Gastroenteritis. N. Engl. J. Med. 314:678-681.

                Murphy, A.M., G.S. Grohmann, P.J. Christopher, W.A. Lopez, and R.H. Millsom. 1979. An
                     Australia-wide Outbreak of Gastroenteritis from Oysters Caused by Norwalk Virus. Med.
                     J. Aust. 2:329-333.

                NAS. 1987. Complex Mixtures. National Academy of Sciences, National Academy Press,
                     Washington, D.C. 227 pp.

                NIEHS. 1986. Drinking Water Disinfectants. National Institute of Environmental Health
                     Sciences. Environ. Health Perspect. 69:312.

                                                                 198

                                                                          Implications to Human Health

             NIOSH. 1986. Health Hazard Evaluation Report No. HETA-83-251-1685, Point Adams Packing
                  Company, Hammond, OR. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
                  Cincinnati, OH.

             NOAA. 1986. Report on 1984-1986 Federal Survey of PCBs in Atlantic Coast Bluefish.
                  National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. 179 pp.

             NOAA. 1987. National Marine Pollution Program, Summary of Federal Programs and Projects,
                  FY 1986 Update. National Ocean Pollution Program Office, National Oceanic and
                  Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce, Rockville, MD.

             NOAA. In preparation. Fish Consumption Advisory Project. National Ocean Pollution
                  Program Office. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of
                  Commerce, Rockville, MD.

             Nolan, C.M., J. Ballard, C.A. Kaysner, J.L. Lilja, L.P. Williams, Jr., and F.C. Tenover. 1984.
                  Vibrio varahaemolyticus Gastroenteritis: An Outbreak Associated with Raw Oysters in
                  the Pacific Northwest. Diagn. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2:119-126.

             NRC. 1985. An Evaluation of the Role of Microbiological Criteria for Foods and Food
                  Ingredients. Subcommittee on Microbiological Criteria, Committee on Food Protection,
                  Food and Nutrition Board. National Research Council, National Academy Press,
                  Washington, D.C. 436 pp.

             Ohara, H., H. Naruto, W. Watanabe, and I. Ebisawa. 1983. An Outbreak of Hepatitis A Caused
                  by Consumption of Raw Oysters. J. Hyg. Camb. 91:163-165.

             O'Mahony, M.C., C.D. Gooch, D.A. Smyth, A.J. Thrussell, C.L.R. Bartlett, and N.D. Noah. 1983.
                  Epidemic Hepatitis A from Cockles. Lancet i: 518-520.

             OTA. 1987. Wastes in Marine Environments. Office of Technology Assessment, U.S.
                  Congress. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. OTA 0-334, 313 pp.

             Pao, E.M., K.H. Fleming, P.M. Guenther, and F.J. Nickle. 1982. Foods Commonly Eaten by
                  Individuals: Amount per Day and per Eating Occasion. Home Economics Records Report
                  No. 44. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

             Pollak, S.J., E.F. Parrish 111, T.J. Barrett, R. Dretler, and J.G. Morris, Jr. 1983. Vibrio
                  vulnificus septicemia. Arch. Intern. Med. 143:837-838.

             Portnoy, B.L., P.A. Mackawiak, C.T. Caraway, J.A. Walker, T.W. McKinley, and C.A. Klein, Jr.
                  1975. Oyster- Associated Hepatitis- -Failure of Shellfish Certification Programs to Prevent
                  Outbreaks. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 233(10):1065-1068.

             Ray, S.M. 1971. Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning: A Status Report, pp. 171-200. In Current
                  Tot)ics in Comvarative Pathobiolog . Volume I (T.C. Cheng, ed.). Academic Press, New
                  York, NY.

             Rhodes, M.W. and Kator, H.I. 1983. In Situ Survival of Enteric Bacteria in Estuarine
                  Environments. Virginia Water Resources Research Center, Virginia Polytechnic Institutes
                  and State University, Blacksburg, VA. Bulletin 140.

                                                          199

                      GOALS OF THE NATIONAL PROGRAM

                Roland, F.P. 1979. Isolated Cases of Vibrio 1)arahaemolyticus Gastroenteritis. J. Am. Med.
                      Assoc. 241:2504.

                Rollins, D.M. and R.R. Colwell. 1986. Viable but Nonculturable Stage of Camnylobacter jejuni
                      and Its Role in Survival in the Natural Aquatic Environment. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.
                      52:531-538.

                Ronk, R.J. 1988. Emerging Trends: Vibrio vulnificus. J. Assoc. Food and Drug Officials.
                      52:7-11.

                Roos, B. 1956. Hepatitis Epidemic Transmitted by Oysters. Sven. Lak-Tidning. 53:989-1003
                      (Cited in Morse et al., 1986).

                Roszak, D.B., D.J. Grimes, and R.R. Colwell. 1984. Viable but Non-recoverable Stage of
                      Salmonella enteritidis in Aquatic Systems. Can. J. Microbiol. 30:334-338.

                Safe, S. 1988. Development and Validation of Ln 3LjLrg Assays for Toxic Halogenated
                      Aromatic Mixtures. In Proceedinps, International Svmt)osium on Chemical Mixtures: Risk
                      Assessment and Manapement. June 7-9, 1988, Cincinnati, Ohio.

                SAIC. 1986. Overview of Sewage Sludge and Effluent Management. Prepared by Science
                      Application International Corporation for Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress,
                      Washington, DC.

                Shandera, W.X., J. M. Johnston, B.R. Davis, and P.A. Blake. 1983. Disease from Infection with
                      Vibrio mimicus, a Newly Recognized Vibrio Species. Ann. Intern. Med. 99:169-171.

                SRI. 1980. Seafood Consumption Data Analysis. Final Report. Prepared for Office of Water
                      Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. SRI
                      International, Menlo Park, CA. 44 pp.                                    I

                Steidinger, K.A. 1983. A Reevaluation of Toxic Dinoflagellate Biology and Ecology. Prog.
                      Phycol. Res. 2:148-188 (Cited in Pierce, 1987).

                Stull, J.0. 1987a. Protective Suits for Chemical Spill Response: Chemical Response Suits
                      Developed by the U.S. Coast Guard Have Been Successful Meeting the Field Protection
                      Needs of Response Personnel. Chem. Eng. Progress. Nov.:34-39.

                Stull, J.0. 1987b. Considerations for Design and Selection of Chemical- Protective Clothing.
                      J. Hazard. Materials. 14:165-189.

                Swope, A.D. 1987. Federal Research on Chemical Protective Clothing and Equipment. A
                      Summary of Federal Programs. U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. Report No.
                      MOU-CPCE-1-87, 63 pp.

                Tacket, C.O., F. Brenner, and P.A. Blake. 1984. Clinical Features and an Epidemiological
                      Study of Vibrio vulnificus Infections. J. Infect. Dis. 149:558-561.

                                                                 200

                                                                             Implications to Human Health

             Vanderslice, R.R., E.V. Ohanian, J. Orme, and C. Sonich Mullin. 1988. Using Synergistic
                   Effects in Risk Assessment of Drinking Water Contaminants. In Proceedings,
                   International Symposium on Chemical Mixtures: Risk Assessment and Management, June
                   7-9. 1988, Cincinnati, Ohio.

             Wilson, R., S. Lieb, A. Roberts, S. Stryker, H. Janowski, R. Gunn, B. Davis, C.F. Riddle, T.
                   Barrett, J.G. Morris, Jr., and P.A. Blake. 1981. Non-0 Group I Vibrio cholerae
                   Gastroenteritis Associated with Eating Raw Oysters. Am. J. Epidemiol. 114(2):293-298.

             Yung, R.S.H. and E.J. Rauckman. 1987. Toxicological Studies of Chemical Mixtures of
                   Environmental Concern at the National Toxicology Program: Health Effects of
                   Groundwater Contaminants. Toxicology. 47:15-34.

             Zeitlin, D. 1987. Study Starts on Fish Consumption Advisories: Public Health Risks of Toxic
                   Contaminants Found in Fish. Press Release. National Marine Pollution Program Office.
                   National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce,
                   Rockville, MD.

                                                             201

                                          IV. PRIORITIES FOR ACTION

                    The purpose of this section is to present the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board's
              Agenda for Action during the interim between Plans. The action items are consistent with the
              needs and priorities identified in the discussions of individual goals. The action items listed
              are specific and implementable tasks so that, after some time has passed, we may determine
              whether the tasks have been accomplished.

                    Two categories of action items are listed below. The first category comprises a specific
              task, such as a study or report. The second involves the formation of an ad hoc working
              group or standing committee of agency specialists to develop a strategy for filling a specific
              need or to promote the startup and guide the conduct of multiple tasks. The Agenda for
              Action by the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board includes the following:

                    o  Support Specific Tasks

                       --Atmospheric Inputs of Toxic Substances
                       --Future of Coastal Areas
                       --Seafood Consumption Patterns
                       --Indicators of the Presence of Human Pathogens

                    o  Establish Ad Hoc Working Groups

                       --Monitoring Environmental Quality of Marine Ecosystems
                       --Habitat Loss and Modification
                       --Biological Agents

              Each of these tasks is described below.

                                                        SPECIFIC TASKS

              Atmospheric Inputs of Toxic Substances. The Board will conduct and publish a state-of-the-
              art review concerning the sources, routes,-and environmental significance of atmospheric
              inputs of selected toxic substances to the marine environment. The study will identify
              societal trends and technological developments that might influence future atmospheric inputs
              and assess the implications of these changes using a 25-year planning horizon. The report
              will also include a description of research needs and priorities for improved understanding of
              these issues. The study will be supported jointly by a group of interested Board agencies and
              directed by an ad hoc committee of Federal experts in this area.

                                                                203

                  PRIORITIES FOR ACTION

                  Future of Coastal Areas. The Board will support a strategic assessment of future
                  environmental problems in the Nation's coastal areas. The purpose of the study is to predict
                  the most important environmental problems that will be faced by estuarine and coastal
                  ecosystems over the next 50 years. The study will be conducted under the direction of a
                  steering group of Federal, academic, industry, and environmental experts. The study will
                  consider population growth and shifts to coastal areas, changes in industrial practices, future
                  waste disposal requirements,.economic development, technological improvements, and global
                  changes in environmental quality and climate.

                  Seafood Consumption Patterns. The Board will support a study to update information on
                  seafood consumption patterns in the United States and to identify population sectors
                  (geographical, cultural, professional) at high risk from consumption of seafood contaminated
                  with toxic substances. The study will evaluate the effectiveness of existing guidelines. for
                  limiting consumption of contaminated seafood in protecting high-risk sectors of the population.
                  The study will also identify high-priority research needs related to this issue. The study will
                  be conducted under the direction of the Board.

                  Indicators of the Presence of Human Patho2ens. Estimates of the concentrations of fecal
                  coliform bacteria have been traditionally used to indicate the presence of human pathogens in
                  coastal waters. However, this indicator is not considered by many experts to be accurate,
                  especially for health risks associated with viral diseases. The Board will support the
                  development of improved indicators of human pathogens in the marine environment.

                                                       AD HOC WORKING GROUPS

                  Monitoriniz Environmental Ouality of Marine Ecosystems., The Board will establish an ad hoc
                  committee of Federal and private scientists and program managers to develop and examine the
                  adequacy of information on the status of marine ecosystems. The committee will:

                           Establish the objectives of the Federal program in this area and determine appropriate
                           roles at Federal and state levels of government.

                           Propose a systematic strategy for developing a national monitoring capability to meet
                           these objectives. The strategy will incorporate existing national and regional
                           programs, use of encountered data, peer review, and information synthesis and
                           dissemination.

                           Promote the development of improved indicators of ecosystem status.

                  The committee will report to the Board and recommend actions to be taken by       the Board.

                  Habitat Loss and Modification. Loss and modification of emergent vegetation       and submerged
                  aquatic vegetation is a major problem threatening the marine resources of the Nation. The
                  Board will establish an ad hoc committee to promote the following:

                           Assure that National Wetlands Inventory (NWI) habitat maps in areas of rapid habitat
                           loss are updated as frequently as necessary.

                           Evaluate the costs, benefits, and approaches for developing a high-resolution digital
                           database for use in planning and documenting coastal alterations.

                                                                     204

                                                                                              Ad Hoe Working Groups

                        Assure that regional and national trends in habitat loss and modification are
                        adequately documented.

                        Support research necessary to develop the capability to predict the effects of sea-
                        level rise on coastal habitats.,

                        Support a state-of-the-art review regarding the effectiveness of mitigation and
                        restoration practices, particularly with regard to quality of habitat.

                        Prepare a program development plan for increasing our understanding of habitat
                        functions and processes.

              The committee will report to the Board on a regular basis regarding progress, problems, and
              needs for personnel, resources, or other types of assistance that might be required.

              Bioloizical Aizents. The Board will conduct an evaluation of the Nation's ability to perform
              research on the effects of biological agents on marine organisms. The study will be supported
              by several Board agencies and directed by an ad hoc group of Federal and outside specialists.
              The purpose of the study is to:

                        Identify and, assign priorities to research needs in this area.

                        Evaluate the adequacy of existing facilities to conduct secure (P3) biological research.

                        Assess capabilities for quick scientific response to investigate episodic events.

                        Evaluate the need for a common database to promote sharing of information on the
                        occurrence and effects of biological agents.
                        Publish an annual review of the state-of-the-art and tally of the incidence of disease
                        in marine biota.

              The committee will report to the Board and recommend actions to be taken by the Board.

                                                                 205

                           APPENDIX A: WORKING GROUP MEMBERS

                   During the development of this Federal Plan, six working groups were formed, and
             members were asked to provide guidance and information concerning the state-of-the-art,
             information needs, and research and monitoring recommendations pertaining to each of the six
             goal sections. The following list includes the names and affiliations of the members of each
             working group. The list also includes reviewers of the various goal sections who may not
             have been working group members. It should be noted that the discussions and
             recommendations presented in the goal sections may have been altered during official review
             by the National Ocean Pollution Policy Board. Therefore, it should not be assumed that this
             final version of the Plan necessarily reflects the consensus of the working groups. Staff
             members of the National Ocean Pollution Program Office (NOPPO) served as working group
             leaders and are listed with the respective groups.

                                                         Toxic Materials

                                    Group Leader:    W. Lawrence Pugh
                                                     NOAA, National Ocean Pollution Program Office
                                                     Rockwall Bldg., Rm 610
                                                     11400 Rockville Pike
                                                     Rockville, MD 20852

             Joseph Bishop                                             Jack Edmundson
             NOAA, Estuarine Programs Office                           U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
             Universal Bldg., South, Rm. 415                           Div. of Env. Contaminants
             1825 Connecticut Ave., NW                                 1000 N. Glebe Rd.
             Washington, DC 20235                                      Arlington, VA 22201

             Judy Capuzzo                                              John Farrington
             Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution                      University of Massachusetts at Boston
             Challenger Drive, Rm 213                                  Harbor Campus
             Woods Hole, MA 02543                                      Morrissey Blvd  ',
                                                                       Boston, MA 02125

                                                               A-1

                 APPENDIX A

                 Daniel Farrow                                             C.R. Lee
                 NOAA, Strategic Assessments Branch                        U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
                 Rockwall Bldg., Rm 666                                    Waterways Experiment Station
                 11400 Rockville Pike                                      P.O. Box 631
                 Rockville, MD 20852                                       Vicksburg, MS 39180-0631

                 Nick Fendinger                                            Mike Morrissette
                 U.S. Dept. of Agriculture                                 U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters
                 Agriculture Research Service                              Marine Technical & Hazardous Materials
                 Env. Chemical Lab.                                          Div.
                 Beltsville, MD 20705                                      2 100 Second St., SW
                                                                           Washington, DC 20593-0001
                 Mary Gessner
                 NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service                   Terri Paluszkiewicz
                 Universal Bldg., South, Rm 810                            U.S. Dept. of the Interior
                 1825 Connecticut Ave., NW                                 Minerals Management Service
                 Washington, DC 20235                                      Branch of Env. Modeling
                                                                           18th and C Sts., NW
                 Michael Harass                                            Washington, DC 20240
                 U.S. Food & Drug Administration
                 Env. Impact Section                                       Albert Pohland
                 200 C St., SW                                             U.S. Food & Drug Administration
                 Washington, DC 20204                                      Div. of Contaminants Chemistry
                                                                           200 C St., SW
                 Wayne Hollingsworth                                       Washington, DC 20204
                 U.S. Coast Guard Headquarters
                 Office of Marine Safety                                   John Pritchard
                 2100 Second St., SW                                       National Institute of Env. Health Sciences
                 Washington, DC 20593-001                                  Lab. of Pharmacology
                                                                           Bldg. 19, Rm 1901B
                 George Hoskin                                             Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
                 U.S. Food & Drug Administration
                 200 C St., SW                                             David Rathke
                 Washington, DC 20204                                      Great Lakes Regional Office
                                                                           International Joint Commission
                 Clarence Johnson                                          100 Ouellette Ave.
                 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service                            8th Floor
                 Matomic Bldg., Rm 513                                     Windsor, Ontario N9A6T3
                 1717 H St., NW
                 Washington, DC 20240                                      Aaron Rosenfield
                                                                           National Oceanic and Atmospheric
                 Alex Lardis                                                 Administration
                 U.S. Navy                                                 University of Maryland
                 David Taylor Research Center                              Center for Env. and Estuarine Studies
                 Annapolis, MD 21402                                       P.O. Box 775
                                                                           Cambridge, MD 21613
                 Richard Latimer
                 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                 South Ferry Rd.
                 Narragansett, RI 02882

                                                                   A-2

                                                                                         Working Group Members

             George Saunders                                          John Trefrey
             U.S. Dept. of Energy                                     Dept. of Oceanography and Ocean
             Ecological Research Div.                                   Engineering
             ER-75, Rm E-239, Mail Stop E201                          Florida Institute of Technology'
             Washington, DC 20545                                     Melbourne, FL 32901

             Carl Sinderman                                           Gordon Wallace
             NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service                  University of Massachusetts at Boston
             Cooperative Biological Lab                               Harbor Campus, Rm. 58
             Oxford, MD 04270                                         Morrissey Boulevard
                                                                      Boston, MA 02125
             John Stegeman
             Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution                     Judith Weiss
             Challenger Drive                                         Rutgers University
             Woods Hole, MA 02543                                     Dept. of Biological Sciences
                                                                      Newark, NJ 07102
             Ben Thomas
             Shell Development Company
             P.O. Box 4320
             Houston, TX 77210

                                                           Nutrients

                                    Group Leader:   W. Lawrence Pugh
                                                    NOAA, National Ocean Pollution Program Office
                                                    Rockwall Bldg., Rm 610
                                                    11400 Rockville Pike
                                                    Rockville, MD 20852

             Charles Alexander                                        Chris D'Elia
             NOAA, Strategic Assessments Branch                       Div. of Ocean Sciences
             Rockwall Building, Rm 615                                National Science Foundation
             11400 Rockville Pike                                     1800 G St., Rm 609
             Rockville, MD 20852                                      Washington, DC 20550

             Rodger Baier                                             David Dolon
             National Science Foundation                              Great Lakes Regional Office
             1800 G St., NW, Rm 611                                   International Joint Commission
             Washington, DC 20550                                     P.O. Box 32869
                                                                      Detroit, MI 48232-2869
             Stan Chanesman
             NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service                  Thomas Fisher
             Universal Bldg. South, Rm 810                            Horn Point Lab.
             1825 Connecticut Ave. NW                                 University of Maryland
             Washington, DC 20235                                     Cambridge, MD 21613

                                                             A-3

                 APPENDIX A

                 Art Hurme                                                  Kent S. Price
                 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, CECW-D                       University of Delaware
                 20 Massachusetts Ave., NW                                  College of Marine Studies
                 Washington, DC 20314-1000                                  700 Pilottown Rd.
                                                                            Lewes, DE 19958
                 Gail Mackiernan
                 University of Maryland Sea Grant College                   John Pritchard
                 H.J. Patterson Hall, Rm 1224                               National Institute of Env. Health Sciences
                 College Park, MD 20742                                     P.O. Box 12233
                                                                            Lab. of Pharmacology
                 Kent Mountford                                             Bldg. 19, Rm 1901B
                 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency                       Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
                 Chesapeake Bay Program
                 410 Severn Ave.                                            Berlie L. Schmidt
                 Annapolis, MD    21403                                     U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
                                                                            Cooperative State Research
                 Hans Paerl                                                   Service/NRFSS
                 University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill                   Justin Smith Morrill Bldg., Rm 121
                 Institute of Marine Sciences                               15th St. & Independence Ave., SW
                 3407 Arendell St.                                          Washington, DC 20251
                 Morehead City, NC 28557
                 I                                                          James Yoder
                 Jan Prager                                                 National Aeronautics & Space
                 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency                         Administration
                 South Ferry Rd.                                            Oceanic Processes Branch (EEC)
                 Narragansett, RI 02882                                     Earth Science & Applications Div.
                                                                            600 Independence Ave., SW
                                                                            Rm 227B
                                                                            Washington, DC 20546

                                                            Biolop.ical Ments

                                        Group Leader:    Laura Gabanski
                                                         NOAA, National Ocean Pollution Program Office
                                                         Rockwall Bldg., Rm 610
                                                         11400 Rockville Pike
                                                         Rockville, MD 20852

                 Jack Edmundson                                             Shay Fout
                 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service                               Div. of Microbiology
                 Div. of Env. Contaminants                                  Center for Food Safety and Applied
                 1000 N. Glebe Rd.                                            Nutrition
                 Arlington, VA 22201                                        U.S. Food & Drug Administration
                                                                            Mail Code HFF-235
                                                                            200 C St., SW
                                                                            Washington, DC 20204

                                                                   A-4

                                                                                            Working Group Menibers

               Doug Gunnison                                            Aaron Rosenfield
               U.S. Army Corps of Engineers                             National Oceanic and Atmospheric
               Waterways Experiment Station                               Administration
               P.O. Box 631                                             University of Maryland
               Vicksburg, MS 39180-0631                                 Center for Env. and Estuarine Studies
                                                                        P.O. Box 775
               Sherwood Hall                                            Cambridge, MD 21613
               U.S. Food & Drug Administration
               Div. of Chemical Contaminants
                                                                        Carl Sindermen
               Mail Code HFF-423                                        NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service
               200 C St., SW                                            Cooperative Biological Lab.
               Washington, DC '20204                                    Oxford, MD 04270

               Fred Kern                                                Mark Sobsey
               NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service                  University of North Carolina.
               Cooperative Biological Lab.,                               at Chapel Hill
               Oxford, MD 04270                                         C.B. 7400, Rosenau Hall
                                                                        Chapel Hill, NC 27559
               Morris Levin
               U.S. Environmental Protection Agency                     Michael Stoskopf
               Office of Env. Processes and Effects                     National Aquarium
                 Research                                               Pier 3
               401 M St., SW, Rm. 682                                   501 E. Pratt St.
               Washington, DC 20460                                     Baltimore, MD 21202

               Beth Milleman                                            Harris White
               Coastal Alliance
                                                                        NOAA, Coastal and Estuarine Assessments
               1536 16th St., NW                                         Branch
               Washington, DC 20036                                     Rockwall Bldg., Rm 645
                                                                        11400 Rockville Pike
               John Pritchard                                           Rockville, MD 20852
               National Institute of Env. Health Sciences
               P.O. Box 12233
               Lab. of Pharmacology
               Bldg. 19, Rm 190 1 B
               Research Triangle Park, NC 27709

                                                               A-5

                  APPENDIX A

                                                                  Habitat

                                        Group Leader:     Laura Gabanski
                                                          NOAA, National Ocean Pollution Program Office
                                                          Rockwall Bldg., Rm 610
                                                          11400 Rockville Pike
                                                          Rockville, MD 20852

                  Donald Boesch                                              Mary Gessner
                  Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium                   NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service
                  Chauvin, LA 70344                                          1825 Connecticut Ave., NW
                                                                             Washington, DC 20235
                  John Catena
                  The Oceanic Society                                        Alex Lardis
                  1536 Sixteenth St., NW                                     U.S. Navy
                  Washington, DC 20036                                       David Taylor Research Center
                                                                             Annapolis, MD 21402
                  Charles Coutant
                  Env. Sciences Div.                                         Bill Sipple
                  Oak Ridge National Lab.                                    U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                  Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6038                                   Office of Wetlands Protection
                                                                             401 M St., SW
                  John Day                                                   Washington, DC 20460
                  Louisiana State University
                  Center for Wetland Resources                               Nancy Sweeney
                  Coastal Ecology Institute                                  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                  Baton Rouge, LA 70803                                      Div. of Endangered Species and Habitat
                                                                               Conservation
                  Jack Edmundson                                             1000 N. Glebe Rd., Suite 500
                  U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service                               Arlington, VA 22201
                  Div. of Env. Contaminants
                  1000 N. Glebe Rd.                                          James Thomas
                  Arlington, VA 22201                                        NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service
                                                                             Universal Bldg., South, Rm 810
                  Don Field                                                  1825 Connecticut Ave., NW
                  NOAA, Strategic Assessments Branch                         Washington, DC 20235
                  Rockwall Bldg., Rm 661
                  11400 Rockville Pike                                       Larry Thomas
                  Rockville, MD 20852                                        U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
                                                                             Div. of Endangered Species and Habitat
                  Marion Fischel                                               Conservation
                  Shell Oil Company                                          1000 N. Glebe Rd., Suite 500
                  One Shell Plaza                                            Arlington, VA 22201
                  P.O. Box 4320
                  Houston, TX 77210                                          Robert Tucker
                                                                             Assistant Director of Env. Research
                                                                             New Jersey Dept. of Env. Protection
                                                                             Trenton, NJ 08625

                                                                    A-6

                                                                                               Working Group Members

               Gerald Welsh                                                Douglas Wolfe
               U.S. Dept. of Agriculture                                   NOAA, Ocean Assessments Div.
               Soil Conservation Service SES/ECS                           Rockwall Bldg., Rm 656
               South Bldg., Rm 6142                                        11400 Rockville Pike
               12th and Independence Ave., SW                              Rockville, MD 20852
               Washington, DC 20013
                                                                           Tom Wright
               Bill Wilen                                                  U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
               U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service                                Waterways Experiment Station
               National Wetlands Inventory                                 P.O. 631
               1000 N. Glebe Rd., Rm 500                                   Vicksburg, MS 39180-0631
               Arlington, VA 22201

                                                           Ecosystem Status

                                       Group Leaders:    Sari Kiraly
                                                         NOAA, National Ocean Pollution Program Office
                                                         Rockwall Bldg., Rm 610
                                                         11400 Rockville Pike
                                                         Rockville, MD 20852

                                                         William G. Conner
                                                         NOAA, National Ocean Pollution Program Office
                                                         Rockwall Bldg., Rm 610
                                                         11400 Rockville Pike
                                                         Rockville, MD    20852

               Neal Armstrong                                              Jack Edmundson
               Dept. of Civil Engineering                                  U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
               The University of Texas                                     Div. of Env. Contaminants
               Austin, TX 78712                                            1000 N. Glebe Rd.
                                                                           Arlington, VA 22201
               Fred Calder
               Coastal Zone Management Section                             Dave Farrell
               Florida Dept. of Env. Regulation                            U.S. Dept. of Agriculture
               2600 Blair Stone Rd.                                        Bldg., 005, Rm 201
               Tallahassee, FL 32301-8241                                  BARC - West
                                                                           Beltsville, MD 20705
               James R. Chambers
               NOAA, Office of Resource Investigations                     Mark Harwell
               Universal Bldg., Rm 810                                     Ecosystems Research Center
               1825 Connecticut Ave., NW                                   Hollister Hall
               Washington, DC 20235                                        Cornell University
                                                                           Ithaca, NY 14853
               Celia Chen
               Marine Board                                                Art Hurme
               National Academy of Sciences                                U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, CECW-D
               2101 Constitution Ave.                                      20 Massachusetts Ave., NW
               Washington, DC 20418                                        Washington, DC 20314-1000

                                                                  A-7

                  APPENDIX A

                  Jack Kelly                                                   Don Phelps
                  Ecosystems Research Center                                   U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                  Corson Hall                                                  South Ferry Rd
                  Cornell University                                           Narragansett, RI 02882
                  Ithaca, NY 14853
                                                                               Andy Robertson
                  Gerd Kleineberg                                              NOAA, Ocean Assessments Div.
                  U.S. Coast Guard                                             Rockwall Bldg., Rm 652
                  Chief, Chemistry Branch                                      11400 Rockville Pike
                  Research and Development Center                              Rockville, MD 20852
                  Avery Point
                  Croton, CT 06340-6096                                        George Sanders
                                                                               U.S. Dept. of Energy
                  Jay Means                                                    ER-75, Rm. E-239
                  Institute for Env. Studies                                   Mail Stop E201
                  42 Atkinson Hall                                             Washington, DC 20545
                  Louisiana State University
                  Baton Rouge, LA 70803                                        Doug Segar
                                                                               Senior Research Scientist
                  Bob Middleton                                                Tiburon Center for Env. Studies
                  DOI, Minerals Management Service                             7609 Potrero Ave.
                  12203 Sunrise Valley Drive                                   El Cerrito, CA 94530
                  MS 644
                  Reston, VA 22091                                             Bob Zeller
                                                                               U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                  Joel O'Conner                                                Office of Marine & Estuarine Protection
                  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency                         401 M St., SW
                  26 Federal Plaza, Rm. 805                                    Washington, DC 20460
                  New York, NY 1007-0090

                                                                 Human Health

                                          Group Leaders:     Devorah Zeitlin
                                          NOAA, National Ocean Pollution Program Office
                                          Rockwall Bldg., Rm 610
                                          11400 Rockville Pike
                                          Rockville, MD 20852

                                          Edward Flynn
                                          NOAA, National Ocean Pollution Program Office
                                          Rockwall Bldg., Rm 610
                                          11400 Rockville Pike
                                          Rockville, MD 20852

                                                                      A-8

                                                                                             Working Group Members

             Victor Cabelli                                             Betty Hackley
             University of Rhode Island                                 NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service
             Dept. of Microbiology                                      Universal Bldg., Rm 814
             Kingston, RI 02881                                         1825 Connecticut Ave., NW
                                                                        Washington, DC 20235
             Rita Colwell
             University of Maryland                                     Clarence Johnson
             Dept. of Microbiology                                      U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
             College Park, MD 20742                                     Region 8 Office of Research Support
                                                                        Matomic Bldg., Rm 527
             Clyde Dawe                                                 18th and C Sts., NW
             Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution                       Washington, DC 20240
             59 School St.
             Woods Hole, MA 02543                                       Howard Kator
                                                                        Virginia Institute of Marine Science
             Tom Dillon                                                 Gloucester Point, VA 23062
             U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
             Waterways Experiment Station                               David Kleffman
             P.O. Box 631                                               U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
             Vicksburg, MS 39180-0631                                   Health Research, RD-683
                                                                        401 M St., SW
             Fred Felleman                                              Washington, DC 20460
             Center for Env. Education
             1725 DeSales St., NW                                       Ronald Landy
             Suite 500                                                  U.S. Food and Drug Administration
             Washington, DC 20036                                       Center for Veterinary Medicine
                                                                        HFV 222, Rm 7B45
             James Fouts                                                5600 Fishers Lane
             National Institute of Env. Health                          Rockville, MD 20857
               Sciences
             Mail Drop A-203                                            Dorothy Leonard
             P.O. Box 12233                                             NOAA, Strategic Assessments Branch
             III Alexander Drive                                        Rockwall Bldg., Rm 600
             Research Triangle Park, NC 27709                           11400 Rockville Pike
                                                                        Rockville, MD 20852
             Mary Jo Garreis
             Maryland Dept. of the Env.                                 Trent Lewis
             Div. of Standards & Certification                          U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
             P.O. Box 13387                                             Div. of Toxicology and Microbiology
             201 West Preston Street                                    26 W. Martin Luther King Drive
             Baltimore, MD 21201                                        Cincinnati, OH 45268

             E. Spencer Garrett                                         Eric May
             NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service                    NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service
             P.O. Drawer 1207                                           South Morris Street Extension
             Pascagoula, MS 39568-1207                                  Oxford, MD 21654

                                                                A-9

                  APPENDIX A

                  James McKinney                                             Robert Scheuplein
                  National Institutes of Health                              U.S. Food and Drug Administration
                  National Institute of Env. Health Sciences                 Office of Toxicological Sciences, HFF-101
                  P.O. Box 12233                                             Center for Food Safety for Applied
                  Research Triangle Park, NC 27711                             Nutrition
                                                                             200 C St., SW, Rm 5022
                  Malcolm Meaburn                                            Washington, DC 20204
                  NOAA, National Marine Fisheries Service
                  P.O. Box 12607                                             Will Stelle
                  Charleston, SC 29412                                       Counsel, House Merchant Marine &
                                                                               Fisheries Committee
                  Bill Morgan                                                Fish and Wildlife Subcommittee
                  W.F. Morgan & Sons, Inc.                                   House Office Bldg., Annex 11, Rm 543
                  Box 241, Route 632                                         Washington, DC 20515
                  Weems, VA 22576
                                                                             Richard Thompson
                  Joel O'Conner                                              Division of Shellfish Sanitation Control
                  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency                       Texas State Dept. of Health
                  26 Federal Plaza, Rm 805                                   1100 W. 49th St.
                  New York, NY 10007-0090                                    Austin, TX 78754

                  Vincent Olivieri                                           Harris H. White
                  John Hopkins University                                    NOAA, Ocean Assessments Div.
                  Dept. of Geography & Env. Engineering                      Rockwall Bldg., Rm 645
                  G.W.C. Whiting School of Engineering                       11400 Rockville Pike
                  109 Ames Hall                                              Rockville, MD 20852
                  Baltimore, MD 21218

                                                                    A  10

                                 APPENDIX B: THE. NATIONAL OCEAN POLLUTION
                                                                            PLANNING ACT
                                                                          (Pu'blic Law 95-273)

                                CHAPTER 31-OCEAN POLLUTION                                          Sec.
                                                                                                    1703.     Comprehensive Federal Plan relating to ocean pol-
                                RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT                                                        lution.
                                  AND MONITORING PLANNING                                                           (3) Policy recommendations.
                                                                                                                    (4) Plan review.
                                                                                                              (c)   Plan period.
                                                                                                              (d)   Budgeting.
                          Sec.                                                                      .1704.    Comprehensive ocean pollution program in the
                          1701.   Findings and purposes.                                                        Administration.
                          1702.   Definitions.                                                                (a) Establishment of program.
                          1702a.  National Ocean Pollution Program Office and Poli-                           (b) Content of the program.
                                     cy Board.                                                      1705.     Financial assistance.
                                  (a) Program Office.                                                         (a)   Grants and contracts.
                                  (b) Policy Board.                                                           (b)   Applications for assistance.
                          1703.   Comprehensive Federal Plan relating to ocean pol-                           (c)   Existing programs.
                                     lution.                                                                  (d)   Action by Administrator.
                                                                                                              (e)   Records.
                                  (a) Lead agency for Plan.                                         1706.     Interagency cooperation,
                                  (b)   Content of Plan.                                            1707.     Dissemination of information on ocean and Great
                                        (1) Assessment        and   ordering of national                      @ Lakes pollution research activities.
                                              needs and problems.                                   1708.     Effect on other laws.
                                        (2)   Existing Federal capability.                          1709.     Authorization of appropriations.

                                                                                    Related Provisions

                          See, also, Water Pollution Prevention and Control, 33 U.S. CA. � 1251 et seq., ante; Ocean Dumping,
                          33 US. CA. � 1401 et seq., ante; Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 33 US. CA. � 1901 et seq., post;
                                                   and Water Resources Research, 42 US.C.A. � 10301 et seq., post.
                                               Library References                                        (3) Man will increasingly be forced to rely on
                            Health and Environment (8-25.7(3).                                         ocean and coastal resources as other resources
                            U.S. Health and Environment � 106.                                         are depleted.        Our ability to protect, preserve,
                                        WESTLAW Electronic Research                                    develop, and utilize these ocean and coastal re-
                            See WESTLAW guide following the Explanation pages of this                  sources is directly related to our understanding of
                          pamphlet.                                                                    the effects which ocean pollution has upon such
                                                                                                       resources.
                          � 1701. Findings and purposes [NOPPA                                           (4) Numerous departments, agencies, and in-
                                            � 21                                                       strumentalities of the Federal Government spon-
                            (a) The Congress finds and declares the follow-                            sor, support, or fund activities relating to ocean
                          ing:                                                                         pollution research and development and monitor-
                                (1) Man's activities in the marine environment                         ing. However, such activities are often uncoordi-
                            can have a profound short-term and long-term                               nated and can result in unnecessary duplication.
                            impact on such environment and greatly affect                                (5) Better planning and more effective use of
                            ocean and coastal resources therein.                                       available funds, personnel, vessels, facilities, and
                                (2) There is a need to establish a comprehensive                       equipment is the key to effective Federal action
                            Federal plan for ocean pollution research and                              regarding ocean pollution research and develop-
                            development and monitoring, with particular at-                            ment and monitoring.
                            tention, being given to the inputs, fates, and ef-                         (6) Numerous Federal agencies have initiated and
                            fects of pollutants in the marine environment.                          supported research projects to study, enhance,

                                                                                                B-1

                          APPENDIX B

                                manage, preserve, protect, or restore the resources                        (2) The term "Administrator" means the Ad-
                                of the Great Lakes, the Chesapeake Bay, Puget                           ministrator of the Administration.
                                Sound, and other estuaries of national significance.                       (3) The term "Board" means the National
                                  (7) Various research projects relating to the                         Ocean Pollution Policy Board established under
                                Great Lakes, the Chesapeake Bay, Puget Sound,                           section 1702a(b) of this title.
                                and other estuaries of national significance, includ-                      (4) The term "Director" means the Director of
                                ing those conducted at the college and university                       the Office of Science and Technology Policy in the
                                level and those conducted at the State and local                        Executive Office of the President.
                                governmental level, can be more effectively coordi-
                                nated in order to obtain maximum benefits.                                 (5) The term "marine environment" means the
                                  W It is therefore the purpose of the Congress in                      coastal zone (as defined in section 1453(l) of title
                                this chapter-                                                           16); the seabed, subsoil, and waters of the territo-
                                                                                                        rial sea of the United States; the waters of any
                                     (1) to establish a comprehensive 5-year plan for                   zone over which the United States asserts exclu-
                                  Federal ocean pollution research and development                      sive fishery management authority; the waters of
                                  and monitoring programs in order to provide plan-                     the high seas; and the seabed and subsoil of and
                                  ning for, coordination of, and dissemination of                       beyond the Outer Continental Shelf.
                                  information with respect to such programs within                         (6) The term "ocean and coastal resource" has
                                  the Federal Government;                                               the same meaning as is given such term in section
                                     (2) to develop the necessary base of informa-                      1122(7) of this title.
                                  tion to support, and to provide for, the rational,                       (7) The term "ocean pollution" means any
                                  efficient, and equitable utilization, conservation,                   short-term or long-term change in the marine
                                  and development of ocean and coastal resources;                       environment.
                                     (3) to provide for the effective coordination of                      (8) The term "Office" means the National
                                  research conducted to support the preservation                        Ocean Pollution Program Office established un-
                                  and protection of the environmental quality of the                    der section 1702a(a) of this title.
                                  Great Lakes, the Chesapeake Bay, Puget Sound,                       (May 8, 1978, Pub.L. 95--273, � 3, 92 Stat. 228; April 7,
                                  and other estuaries of national significance, and                   1986, Pub.L. 99-272, Title VI, � 6072(l), 100 Stat. 133.)
                                  to encourage the use of such research in determi-
                                  nations that affect the environmental quality of                    � 1702a. National Ocean Pollution Pro-
                                  the Great Lakes, the Chesapeake Bay, Puget                                              gram Office and Policy Board
                                  Sound, and other estuaries of national signifi-                                         [NOPPA � 3A]
                                  cance; and
                                     (4) to designate the National Oceanic and At-                    (a) Program Office
                                  mospheric Administration as the lead Federal                          (1) The Administrator shall establish within the
                                  agency for preparing the plan referred to in para-                  Administration the National Ocean Pollution Pro-
                                  graph (1) and to require the Administration to                      gram Office.
                                  carry out a comprehensive program of ocean pol-                       (2) The Office shall-
                                  lution research and development and monitoring                           (A) serve as the lead entity responsible for
                                  under the plan.                                                       administering the program established under see-
                                (May 8, 1978, Pub.L. 95-273, � 2, 92 Stat. 228; April 7
                                1986, Pub.L. 99-272, Title VI, � 6071, 100 Stat. 133.)                  tion 1703 of this title;
                                                         Short Title                                       (13) be headed by a director who shall-
                                  Section 1 of Pub.L. 95-273, May 8, 1978, 92 Stat. 228, as                   0) be appointed by the Administrator,
                                amendcd Pub.L. 96-255, � 3, May 30, 1980, 94 Stat. 420, provided:
                                "That this Act [enacting this chapter] may be cited as the 'National          0i) serve as the Chair of the Board, and
                                Ocean Pollution Planning Act of 1978'."                                       (iii) be the spokesperson for the program;
                                � 1702. Definitions (NOPPA � 31                                            (C) serve as the staff for the Board and its
                                                                                                        supporting committees and working groups; and
                                  As used in this chapter, unless the context other-                       (D) review each department and agency budget
                                wise requires-                                                          request transmitted under section 1703(d) of this
                                     (1) The term "Administration" means the Na-                        title and submit an analysis of the requests to the
                                  tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.                        Board for its review.

                                                                                                  B-2

                                                                                                 The National Ocean Pollution Planning Act

                    The analysis described in subparagraph (D) shall                    (1) Assessment and ordering of national needs and
                    include an analysis of how each departmental or                            problems
                    agency budget request relates to the priorities and                    The PI  .an shall-
                    goals of the Plan established under section 1703 of
                    this title.                                                              (A) identify those national needs and prob-
                    (b) Policy Board                                                       lems, which relate to specific aspects of ocean
                       (1) The Administrator, with the cooperation of                      pollution (including, but not limited to, the ef-
                    the Federal departments and agencies referred to in                    fects of ocean pollution on the economic, social,
                    section 1706 of this title, shall establish a National                 and environmental values of ocean and coastal
                    Ocean Pollution Policy Board consisting of repre-                      resources), which exist and will arise during the
                    sentatives of those departments and agencies.                          Plan period;
                       (2) The Board shall-                                                  (B) establish the priority, based upon the
                                                                                           value and cost of information which can be
                         (A) be responsible for coordinated planning                       obtained from specific ocean pollution research
                       and progress review for the program established                     and development and monitoring programs and
                       under section 1703 of this title; ,                                 projects, in which such needs should be met,
                         (B) review all department and agency budget                       and such problems should be solved, during the
                       requests transmitted to it under section 1703(d) of                 Plan period; and
                       this title and submit a report to the Office of                       (C) contain, if pursuant to the preparation of
                       Management and Budget and to the Congress                           any revision of the Plan required under subsec-
                       concerning those budget requests;                                   tion (a) of this section it is determined that any
                         (C) establish and maintain such interagency                       national need or problem or priority set forth in
                       groups as the Board determines to be necessary                      the preceding version of the Plan should be
                       to carry out its activities; and                                    changed, a detailed explanation of the reasons
                         (D) consult with and seek the advice of users                     for the change.
                       and producers of ocean pollution data, informa-                  (2) Existing Federal capability
                       tion, and services to guide the Board's efforts,                    The Plan shall contain-
                       keeping the Director and the Congress advised of
                       such consultations.                                                   (A) a detailed listing of all existing Federal
                    (Pub.L. 95-273, � 3A, as added April 7, 1986, Pub.L.                   programs relating to ocean pollution research
                    99-272, Iltle VI, � 6072(2), 100 Stat. 133.)                           and development and monitoring (including, but
                    � 1703. Comprehensive Federal Plan re-                                 not limited to, general research on marine eco-
                                     lating to ocean pollution [NOP-                       systems, including the Great Lakes, the Chesa-
                                     PA � 41                                               peake Bay, Puget Sound, and other estuaries of
                                                                                           national significance,) which listing shall in-
                    (a) Lead agency for Plan                                               clude, with respect to each such program-
                       The Administrator, in consultation         with the Di-                  0) a catalogue of the Federal personnel,
                    rector and other appropriate Federal         officials hav-              facilities, vessels and other equipment cur-
                    ing authority over ocean pollution           research and                rently assigned to, or used for, the program,
                    development and monitoring programs, shall pre-                          and
                    pare, in accordance with this section, a comprehen-                         0i) a detailed description of the existing
                    sive 5-year plan (hereinafter in this chapter referred                   goals and costs of the program, including,
                    to as the "Plan") for the overall Federal effort in                      but not limited to,'a categorical breakdown of
                    ocean pollution research and development and moni-                       the funds currently being expended, and
                    toring. The Plan shall be prepared and submitted                         planned to be expended, to conduct the pro-
                    to Congress and the President on or before Febru-                        gram; and
                    ary 15, 1979, and a revision of the plan shall be                        (B) an analysis of the extent to which each
                    prepared and so submitted       .by September 15 every                 such program, if continued on the basis and at
                    three years after 1979.
                                                                                           the funding level described pursuant to subpar-
                    W Content of Plan                                                      agraph (A)(ii), will assist in meeting the priori-
                       The Plan shall contain, but need not be limited to,                 ties set forth pursuant to paragraph (1)(B) dur-
                    the following elements:                                                ing the Plan period.

                                                                                   B-3

                         APPENDIX B

                                (3) Policy recommendations                                      (d) Budgeting
                                  If it is determined, as aresult of the analysis                  Each Federal      agency and department included
                                required to be made under paragraph (2)(B), that                under the Plan       shall prepare and submit to the
                                the priorities set forth pursuant to paragraph                  Office of Management and Budget, the Office, and
                                (1)(B) will not be adequately met during the Plan               the Board on or before the date of submission of
                                period using the existing Federal capability de-                departmental requests for appropriations to the Of-
                                scribed pursuant to paragraph (2)(A), the Plan                  fice of Management and Budget, an annual request
                                shall contain those recommendations for changes                 for appropriations to carry out the activities of that
                                in the overall Federal effort in ocean pollution                agency or department under the Plan during the
                                research and development and.monitoring which                   subsequent fiscal year. The Office of Management
                                would ensure that those priorities are adequately               and Budget shall review the request for appropria-
                                met during the Plan period. Such recommenda-                    tions as an integrated, coherent, and multiagency
                                tions may include, but need not be limited to-                  request, taking into account the review by the
                                    (A) ch   .anges in the goals to be achieved under           Board of those requests under section 1702a(b) of
                                  various existing Federal ocean pollution re-                  this title.
                                                                                                (May 8, 1978, Pub.L. 95-273, � 4, 92 Stat. 229; May 30,
                                  search and development and monitoring pro-                    1980, Pub.L. 96-255, � 2, 94 Stat. 420; Dec. 21, 1982,
                                  grams;                                                        Pub.L. 97-375, Title 11, � 202(c), 96 Stat. 1822; April 7,
                                    (B) suggested increases and decreases in the                1986, Pub.L. 99-272, Title V1, � 6073, 100 Stat. 134.)
                                  funding for any such existing program consist-                                      Cross References
                                  ent with the extent to which such program                     Comprehensive ocean pollution program, content of, see section
                                  contributes to the meeting of such priorities;                      1704 of this title.
                                    (C) specific proposals for interagency cooper-              Grants and contracts for research, development, and monitoring
                                  ation in cases in which the pooling of the re-                      projects or activities, see section 1705 of this title.
                                  sources of two or more Federal departments,                   � 1704. Comprehensive ocean pollution
                                  agencies, or instrumentalities under existing                                  program in the Administration
                                  programs could further efforts to meet such                                    [NOPPA � 51
                                  priorities or would eliminate duplication of ef-              (a) Establishment of program
                                  fort; and
                                                                                                   The Administrator shall establish within the Ad-
                                    (D) suggested legislation to establish new                  ministration a comprehensive, coordinated, and ef-
                                  Federal programs considered to be necessary if                fective ocean pollution research and development
                                  such priorities are to be met.                                and monitoring program. The Administrator shall
                                (4) Plan review                                                 carry out all projects and activities under the pro-
                                  The Plan shall contain a description of actions               gram in a manner consistent with the Plan.
                                taken by the Administrator and the Director for                 (b) Content of the program
                                the purpose of ensuring interagency coordination
                                and cooperation in (A) the carrying out of Federal                 The program required to be established under
                                ocean pollution research and development and                    subsection (a) of this section shall include, but not
                                monitoring programs; and (B) eliminating unnec-                 be limited to-
                                essary duplication of effort among such pro-                         (1) all projects and activities relating to o        cean
                                grams.                                                             pollution research and development and monitor-
                             (c) Plan period                                                       ing for which the Administrator has responsibility
                                                                                                   under provisions of law (including, but not limited
                                For purposes of this section, the term "Plan peri-                 to, title II of the Marine Protection, Research, and
                             od" means-                                                            Sanctuaries Act of 1972 (33 U.S.C. 1441-1444))
                                  (1) with respect to the Plan as required to be                   other than paragraph (2);
                                submitted on February 15, 1979, the period of 5                      (2) such projects and activities addressed to the
                                fiscal years beginning on October 1, 1978; and                     priorities set forth in the Plan pursuant to section
                                  (2) with respect to each revision of the Plan,                   1703(b)(1)(B) of this title that can be appropriately
                                the period of 5 fiscal years beginning on October                  conducted within the Administration; and
                                1 of the year before the year in which the revision                  (3) the provision of financial assistance under
                                is required to be prepared under subsection (a) of                 section 1705 of this title.
                                this section.                                                   (May 8, 1978, Pub.L. 95--273, � 5, 92 Stat. 230.)

                                                                                             B-4

                                                                                             The National Ocean Pollution Planning Act

                      � 1705. Financial assistance [NOPPA � 61                      the project or activity in connection with which such
                      (a) Grants and contracts                                      assistance was given or used, the amount of that
                                                                                    portion of the cost of the project or activity which
                        The Administrator may provide financial assist-             was supplied by other' sources, and such other
                      ance in the form of grants or contracts for research          records as will facilitate an effective audit. Such
                      and development and monitoring projects or activi-            records shall be maintained for three years after the
                      ties which are needed to meet priorities set forth in         completion of such project or activity. The Admin-
                      the Plan pursuant to section 1703(b)(1)(B) of this            istrator and the Comptroller General of the United
                      title, if such priorities are not being adequately            States, or an .y of their duly authorized representa-
                      addressed by any Federal department, agency, or               tives, shall have access, for the purpose of audit and
                      instrumentality.                                              examination, to any books, documents, papers, and
                      (b) Applications for assistance                               records of receipts which, in the opinion of the
                        Any person, including institutions     of higher edu-       Administrator or of the Comptroller General, may
                      cation and departments, agencies, and instrumental-           be related or pertinent to such financial assistance.
                      ities of the Federal Government or of any State or            (May 8, 1978, Pub.L. 95-273, � 6, 92 Stat. 231.)
                      political subdivision thereof, may apply for financial                           Cross References
                      assistance under this section for the conduct of
                      projects and activities described in subsection (a) of        Comprehensive ocean pollution program, content of, see section
                                                                                         1704 of this title.
                      this section, and, in addition, specific proposals may
                      be invited. Each application for financial assistance         � 1706. interagency cooperation [NOPPA
                      shall be made in writing in such form and manner,                            � 71
                      and contain such information, as the Administrator              The head of each department, agency, or other
                      may require. The Administrator may enter into                 instrumentality of the Federal Government which is
                      contracts under this section without regard to sec-           engaged in or concerned with, or which has authori-
                      tion 5 of title 41.                                           ty over, programs relating to ocean pollution re-
                      (c) Existing programs                                         search and development and monitoring-
                        The projects and activities supported by grants or              (1). shall cooperate with the Administrator in
                      contracts made or entered into under this section               carrying out the purposes of this chapter;
                      shall, to the maximum extent practicable, be admin-               (2) may, upon written request,from the Admin-
                      istered through existing Federal programs (includ-              istrator or Director, make available to the Admin-
                      ing, but not limited to, the National Sea Grant                 istrator or Director, on a reimbursable basis or
                      Program) concerned with ocean pollution research                otherwise, such personnel (with their consent and
                      and development and monitoring.                                 without prejudice to their position and rating),
                      (d) Action by Administrator                                     services, or facilities as may be necessary to
                        The Administrator shall act upon each application             assist the Administrator or the Director to
                      for a grant or contract under this section within six           achieve the purposes of this chapter; and
                      months after the date on which all required infor-                (3) shall, upon a written request from the Ad-
                      mation is received by the Administrator from the                ministrator or Director, furnish such data or oth-
                      applicant. Each grant made or contract entered                  er information as the Administrator or Director
                      into under this section shall be subject to such                deems necessary to fulfill the purposes of this
                      terms and conditions as the Secretary deems neces-              chapter.
                      sary in order to protect the interests of the United          (May 8, 1978, Pub.L. 95-273, � 7, 92 Stat. 232.)
                      States. The total amount paid pursuant to any such
                      grant or contract may, in the discretion of the               � 1707. Dissemination of information on
                      Administrator, be up to 100 percent of the total cost                        ocean and Great Lakes pollu-
                      of the project or activity involved.                                         tion research activities [NOPPA
                      (e) Records                                                                  � 81
                        Each recipient of financial assistance under this             (a) The Administrator shall ensure that the re-
                      section shall keep such records as the Administrator          sults, findings, and information regarding ocean
                      shall prescribe, including records which fully dis-           pollution research and development and monitoring
                      close the amount and disposition by such recipient            programs conducted or sponsored by the Federal
                      of the proceeds of such assistance, the total cost of         Government be disseminated in a timely manner,

                                                                                 B-5

                     APPENDIX B

                         and in useful forms, to relevant departments, agen-           under any law, to undertake research and develop-
                         cies, and instrumentalities of the Federal Govern-            ment and monitoring relating to ocean pollution.
                         ment, and to other persons having an interest in              (May 8, 1978, Pub.L. 95-273, � 9, 92 Stat. 232.)
                         ocean pollution research and development and moni-
                         toring.                                                       � 1709. Authorization of appropriations
                           (b) The Administrator shall ensure that the find-                           [NOPPA � 101
                         ings and information regarding ocean pollution re-              There are authorized to be appropriated to the
                         search activities associated with the Great Lakes             Administration for the purposes of carrying out this
                         identified pursuant to section 1703(b) of this title be       chapter not to exceed $5,000,000 for the fiscal year
                         disseminated in a timely manner and in useful                 ending September 30, 1979, not to exceed $4,300,000
                         forms to relevant departments of the Federal                  for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1980, not to
                         Government, State governments, and other persons              exceed $3,000,000 for the fiscal year ending Septem-
                         with an interest in such information.                         ber 30, 1981, not to exceed $4,000,000 for the fiscal
                         (May 8, 1978, Pub-L. 95-273, � 8, 92 Stat. 232; April 7,      year ending September 30, 1982, and not to exceed
                         1986, Pub.L. 99-272, Title V1, � 6074, 100 Stat. 135.)        $8,571,000 for fiscal year 1986, and not to exceed
                         � 1708. Effect on other laws [NOPPA �11                       $3,732,000 for fiscal year 19S7.
                                                                                       (May 8, 1978, Pub.L. 95-273, � 10, 92 Stat. 232; June 4,
                            Nothing in this chapter shall be construed to              1979, Pub.L. 96-17, 93 Stat. 34; May 30, 1980, Pub.L.
                         amend, restrict, or otherwise alter the authority of          96-255, � 1, 94 Stat. 420; April 7, 1986, Pub.L. 99-272,
                         any Federal department, agency, or instrumentality,           Title V1, � 6075, 99 Stat. 135.)

                                              Reprinted with permission from Federal Environmental
                                              Laws 1988 Copyright C 1988 by West Publishing Co.

                                                                                    B-6

                                                                                     U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1989- 2 4 2 - 3 1 2  0 4 0 0 6

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