    [From the U.S. Government Printing Office, www.gpo.gov]

                  Pol 1U* tion Im acts from
                             creationa I Boati ng:
                       A Bibliography and Summary Review

                          C,

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                                                    ;j

                         4W

                                                                        Andrew S. Milliken and Virginia Lee
                                                            P
                    Re

      GC1 085
      .M55
      1990

                                        This publication is sponsored by NOAA Office of Sea Grant, U.S.
                                        Department of Commerce, under Grant #NA89AA-D-SG-082.
                                        The U.S. Government is authorized to produce and distribute re-
                                        prints for governmental purposes notwithstanding any copyright
                                        notation that may appear hereon.

                                        Additional copies of this publication are available from: Rhode
                                        Island Sea Grant Publications, University of Rhode Island Bay
                                        Campus, Narragansett, RI 02882-1197. Order PI 134.

                                        National Sea Grant Depository Publication #RIU-G-90-002. Loan
                                        copies available from the National Sea Grant Depository, Pell
                                        Library Building, University of Rhode Island Bay Campus, Narra-
                                        gansett, RI 02882-1197.

                                        Rhode Island Sea Grant. January 1990.

                                        Coverphoto: Rhode Island Department of Economic Development.

                             A 1@@,
                            Ire,_%ak @A, Sea Grant is a national program dedicated to promoting the wise use and development
                               GR       of marine resourcesfor the public benefit.

               CONTENTS

                   ii PREFACE

                   1 LITERATURE REVIEW

                          1  Boat Sewage
                             Biological oxygen demand
                             Pathogens
                          5  Boat Engine Pollution
                             Sources
                             Fate
                             Effects

                          6  Antifouling Paints
                             Copper
                             Tributyltin

                          7  Plastic Debris
                             Sources
                             Effects
                             Regulations

                   9 BIBLIOGRAPHY

                         10  General

                         11  Boat Sewage
                         14  Boat Engine Pollution
                         15  Antifouling Paints

                         17  Plastic Debris

                  20 APPENDIX I
                          Microbial, Infectious, and Biotoxigenic Diseases Transmitted by the Recreational
                          and Shellfish-borne Routes

                  22 APPENDIX H
                          Policies and Formulas for Determining Allowable Numbers of Boats
                                                  fto"rty of CSC Library

                                    1US Department of Commerce
     y')
                                    NOAA Coastal Serviccs center Library
                                    2234 South 1'ob-,;o-.; Avcnue
                                    Ckkarleston, SC 29405-2413

                                                                      Preface

                                        Recreational boating has increased tremendously in the last decade.
                                     Along with this growth has come the potential for an enormous increase
                                     in boating-associated pollutants. It has become essential to understand
                                     how pollution from recreational boats affects coastal-zone water quality
                                     so that responsible decisions can be made concerning the regulation of
                                     recreational boating.
                                        The following brief literature review and selected bibliography focus
                                     on four of the major pollution problems associated with the use of recrea-
                                     tional boats: (1) boat sewage, (2) boat engine pollution, (3) antifouling
                                     paints, and (4) plastic debris.
                                        We hope that this synopsis and bibliography will prove useful for
                                     stimulating discussion and for developing policy regarding recreational
                                     boating on our coastal waters.

                                                                 Acknowledgments
                                        Special appreciation is extended to Tom Brillat for his substantial
                                     contributions to the section on plastic debris and for reviewing the manu-
                                     script, and to Malcolm Spaulding for helpful review comments. We also
                                     wish to thank Eleanor Ely of the Rhode Island Sea Grant Information and
                                     Education Office for her extensive efforts in editing and layout.

                                     Andrew S. Milliken
                                     Graduate School of Oceanography
                                     The University of Rhode Island

                                     Virginia Lee
                                     Coastal Resources Center
                                     The University of Rhode Island

                                                         LITERATURE REVIEW

                    BOATSEWAGE                                               exacerbated because the peak of the boating season
                                                                             coincides with the highest water temperatures and
                      Although federal law (Federal Water Pollution          thus the lowest solubilities of oxygen in seawater
                    Control Act, Section 312) requires recreational          and the highest rates of metabolism of marine
                    boats to be equipped with approved marine sanita-        organisms.
                    tion devices, boats still discharge treated waste           For any given water body, it is possible to
                    legally and untreated waste illegally into coastal       predict the impact of BOD loading by boats by
                    waters (see Table 1 for a description of marine          estimating the amount of BOD discharged from
                    sanitation device specifications). The discharge of      recreational boats into the water, the volume of the
                    these sanitary wastes from boats may impact water        water body, the flushing rate, and the ambient
                    quality by (1) locally increasing biological oxygen      dissolved oxygen. The estimated boat BOD loading
                    demand and (2) introducing microbial pathogens           can then be combined with sediment oxygen
                    into the environment (U.S. EPA, 1985).                   demand to provide an estimate of the totaloxygen
                                                                             depletion in the water body. An example of an
                    Biological oxygen demand                                 equation used to determine an oxygen mass balance
                       Biological oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure           over one tidal cycle is provided in the EPA's
                    of the dissolved oxygen required to decompose the        Coastal Marinas Assessment Handbook (U.S. EPA,
                    organic matter in the water by aerobic processes.        1985).
                    When the loading of organic matter increases, the
                    BOD increases, and there is a consequent reduction       Pathogens
                    in the dissolved oxygen available for respiration by        A potentially serious problem resulting from the
                    aquatic organisms (U.S. EPA, 1985). Although the         discharge of sewage from recreational boats is the
                    volume of wastewater discharged from recreational        introduction of disease-carrying microorganisms
                    boats is small, the organics in this wastewater are      from fecal matter into the coastal environment. A
                    concentrated, and therefore the BOD (1700 - 3500         review of the public health impacts of coastal
                    milligrams/liter [mg/11) is much higher than that of     pollution is provided by Cabelli et al. (1983) and
                    raw municipal sewage (110 - 400 mg/1) or treated         summarized in Appendix 1. Humans are put at risk
                    municipal sewage (5 - 100 mg/1) (JRB Associates,         either by swimming in polluted waters or by eating
                    1981). Sewage discharged from recreational boats         shellfish (raw or partially cooked) taken from
                    will thus increase the BOD in the vicinity of the        polluted waters. The major disease-carrying agents
                    boats. When this occurs in poorly flushed water          are bacteria and viruses, and the most common
                    bodies, the dissolved oxygen concentrations of the       serious ailment is acute gastroenteritis. Other water-
                    water may decrease. Cardwell (198 1), for example,       borne diseases that can be attributed to sewage
                    noted significant decreases in dissolved oxygen in       pollution include hepatitis, typhoid, and cholera.
                    several northwestern U.S. marinas in the late               The indicators used to detect sewage pollution
                    summer and early fall. Nixon et al. (1973) found         are not the pathogens themselves but, rather,
                    lower dissolved oxygen levels in a developed             coliform bacteria. These bacteria are always present
                    marina area than in an adjacent undeveloped bay of       in the human intestinal tract and are thus considered
                    similar size. They attributed these low dissolved        reliable indicators of the presence of human waste
                    oxygen levels, however, to the secondary effects of      (U.S. EPA, 1985). However, there is quite a bit of
                    abundant fouling communities on marina pilings           uncertainty as to how well coliform bacteria predict
                    and docks and to sediment respiration rather than to     the presence of pathogens and how safe the stan-
                    boat discharges directly. In temperate regions, the      dards for shellfishing and swimming areas are
                    effect of boat sewage on dissolved oxygen levels is      (Cabelli et al., 1983; U.S. Congress, OTA, 1987).

                    2

                    Table 1. Water Quality Specifications for Marine Sanitation Device Dischargesa
                       MSD type            Coliform count   b                   Solids                        Description

                         Ic                <1000/100 ml                   No visible floating                 Flow-through
                                                                         solids (<10% of total               device meeting
                                                                         suspended solids dis-               stated standards
                                                                               charged)

                         11                 <200/100 ml                   <150 ing total sus-                 Flow-through
                                                                           pended solids per                 device meeting
                                                                           liter of discharge                stated standards

                         III                   None                              None                         Holding tank
                    aCoast Guard Regulations on Marine Sanitation Devices, as amended through 3 February 1983.
                    bRepresents the arithmefic mean of the fecal coliform bacteria in 38 of 40 samples when tested in accordance with 40
                    CFR, Part 136.
                    CMust have been installed prior to January 30, 1980.
                    Adaptedfrom: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1985. Coastal Marinas Assessment Handbook. Region IV
                    EPA, Atlanta, Georgia.

                    The coliform indicators were originally developed       include Ingrain (1953), Udell (1960), Lear and
                    for use with large treated sewage discharges and        Schminke (1967), Smith (1972), and Fisher et al.
                    may not accurately predict pathogenic pollution         (1987). Some studies, on the other hand, fQund no
                    from the small quantities of fresh fecal matter         correlation between boat densities and coliform
                    discharged from recreational boats. For measuring       levels (Seabloom, 1969), or found that background
                    sewage pollution from boats, fecal coliform is          fecal coliform levels, especially from overland
                    thought to be a more accurate indicator than total      stormwater runoff, exceeded that caused by the boats
                    coliform (U.S. Dept. H.E.W., 1972).                     (Mack, unpubl.; Nixon et al., 1973; Faust, 1978).
                     While there have been no studies directly linking         There have been several attempts to predict the
                    the discharge of boat sewage to disease incidence,      amount of fecal coliform bacteria produced by a
                    numerous studies have found elevated levels of          given number of boats or, conversely, the volume
                    fecal coliform bacteria where there are concentra-      of water needed to accommodate a given number of
                    tions of recreational boats (U.S. Dept. of Interior,    boats without exceeding safe bacteria levels. Furfari
                    1967). Cassin et al. (1971) found that coliform         (1968) estimated that about 1.4 x 10cubic meters
                    levels increased in the water column and in shell-      (37 million gallons) of water was needed per boat
                    fish in direct relation to the number of boats in       in order to keep fecal coliform concentrations
                    three of four recreational areas they sampled on        below the recommended level for shellfishing areas
                    Long Island, New York. Furfari and Verber (1969)        of 14 fecal coliforms/100 milliliters (ml). Faust
                    found elevated levels of fecal coliform bacteria        (1982) took into account bacterial survival times
                    during and just after weekends when boats were          (see below) and estimated that between 1.0 x 105
                    anchored in Potter Cove, Rhode Island. Faust (1982)     and 2.2 x 105 cubic meters (26 to 58 million gal-
                    found a positive correlation between the number of      lons) of water was required per boat. The U.S. Food
                    boats and the level of fecal coliform bacteria in an    and Dnig Administration (FDA) used a value of 1.4
                    arm of Chesapeake Bay. Other studies that found         x I W cubic meters of water per boat and con-
                    elevated indicator bacteria levels in boating areas     structed a table predicting total coliform counts

                                                                                                                                     3

                   from surface area, depth, and number of boats (U.S.        sediments, or attach to particles and then settle,
                   Dept. H.E.W., 1972).                                       exhibit longer survival times than those that are
                      Once enteric (intestinal tract) microorganisms          found in the overlying water. This is significant
                   enter the water, the primary means by which they           when considering the resuspension of sediment,
                   are removed are dilution, die-off, and sedimenta-          either by natural causes such as rainfall or bottom
                   tion. The amount of dilution of microorganisms in a        currents or by manmade causes such as dredging or
                   marina or harbor depends upon the volume of water          propeller wash. It is also significant when consider-
                   (surface area and depth of the water body), the            ing the filtering of sediment by shellfish.
                   amount of flushing of the water body, and the
                   background concentrations of bacteria or viruses.          Criteria for shellfishing areas. An issue that has
                   Tidal exchange, freshwater inflow, and wind                received a great deal of attention is the potential
                   influence the pattern and rate of flushing. In the         pollution of shellfishing areas by recreational boats.
                   absence of freshwater inflow, tidal flushing is not        Each coastal state regulates its own shellfish
                   consistent throughout a water body but is generally        sanitation program under the voluntary National
                   greatest near the tidal connection and weakest at the      Shellfish Sanitation Program (NSSP). States use
                   head of the water body (Collias, 1976; Kator et al.,       various approaches to achieve compliance with the
                   1982). Tidal flushing depends on tidal stage as            NSSP standard of 14 fecal coliforms/100 ml of
                   well, with greatest flushing generally at the flood        water for the taking of shellfish. Some states close
                   stage (Brandsma et al., 1973). The greater the             all marinas to shellfishing and set standard buffer
                   flushing rate, the greater the dilution and the lower      zones around marinas, while others use formulas
                   the concentration of bacteria. An example of a             based on surveys and local environmental informa-
                   dilution equation is provided in the EPA's Coastal         tion to determine closure areas (U.S. Dept. H.E.W.,
                   Marinas Assessment Handbook (U.S. EPA, 1985).              1972; South Carolina Dept. of Health and Environ-
                      The survival time of enteric microorganisms in          mental Control, 1985; Maryland Dept. of the
                   seawater has been studied extensively. Reviews of          Environment, 1987).
                   the early literature are provided by Greenberg                The basic formula used for determining the
                   (1956) and Mitchell (1968). Microorganisms,                number of allowable boats in a shellfishing area as
                   including fecal coliform bacteria, have a shorter          developed by the FDA for the NSSP (U.S. Dept.
                   survival time in seawater than can be explained by         H.E.W., 1988b) is:
                   dilution and sedimentation alone (Ketchum et al.,
                   1952). Both biological and physical factors affect            fecal coliforms (MPN*)/100 ml = (N x F x E)[V,
                   the survival rate. Important factors include tempera-      where:
                   ture, salinity, sunlight, microbial toxins, inorganic
                   toxins (including salts), nutrient limitation, and                 N    number of boats
                   predation (Carlucci and Pramer, 1959). Several                     F    fecal coliforms/person
                   authors also found that the survival rate of bacteria              E    population equivalent/boat
                   in the water column is extended by the addition of                 V    volume of dilution water available
                   sewage (Metcalf and Stiles, 1965; Won and Ross,
                   1973) and by the addition of fine-grained sediment            The underlying assumptions of this formula and
                   (Faust et al., 1975). The die-off of bacteria in-          its parameters are: a 100% boat-occupancy rate,
                   creases proportionally with increasing temperature         100% overboard discharge of sewage, a population
                   (Faust et al., 1975). Consequently, bacterial sur-         of 2 persons per boat, complete mixing in and
                   vival rate is shortest in warm summer temperatures.        around the marina, no bacterial die-off or growth,
                      The final means by which microorganisms are             and no other sources of fecal coliforms. An analysis
                   removed from the water is sedimentation. Several           of these assumptions is provided in Table 2. The
                   authors have shown that bacteria (Gerba and
                   McLeod, 1976) and viruses (Gerba and Schaiberger,          *Note: MPN, or most probable number, is a simple
                   1975; Smith et al., 1978) that sink directly into the      statistical testfor estimating bacterial densities.

                     Table 2. Analysis of Assumptions in the NSSP Formula

                       100% occupancy rate: Occupancy rate, which can be defined either as the percentage of total
                         boats occupied on a particular day or as the percent of the boating season a boat is occupied,
                         seldom approaches 50% (Eldredge, unpubl.; Maryland Dept. of Environment, 1987). Eldredge
                         (1988) found occupancy rates (defined as percentage of occupied boats on a given day) ranging
                         from 27% to 51% and averaging 38% in Narragansett Bay harbors on two high-use weekends.
                         The occupancy rate for a particular area can be determined by direct survey. In the absence of
                         any survey data, a conservative estimate of 50% is more realistic than 100%.

                       100% overboard discharge: This is a very difficult variable to determine or estimate. It depends
                         on the percentage of boats that have heads on board and what type of heads they have, the
                         degree of compliance with marine sanitation device regulations, the availability of pumpout
                         facilities (Tanski, 1988), and the amount of use of onshore restrooms (Chmura and Ross, 1978).
                         Surveys should be conducted to determine more accurately the percentage of overboard dis-
                         charge. Alternatively, this percentage may be estimated by looking at the adequacy of onshore
                         facilities and the types of boats in the marina or harbor. In the absence of survey data, an esti-
                         matc of 50% for the failure rate of marine sanitation devices appears to be reasonable (South
                         Carolina, 1985).

                       Persons per boat: This variable depends upon the length and type of boat. If no specific informa-
                         tion is available, the FDA value of 2 appears to be a reasonable estimate.

                       Fecal coliforms per person: The generally accepted figure is 2 billion fecal coliforms per capita
                         per day (Geldreich, 1966).

                       Complete mixing in and around the marina: Mixing depends upon variables such as tides, river
                         input, the shape of the basin, and the location of the marina within the basin. Hydrographic
                         studies are needed to determine these parameters. Tidal and river flushing rate should be in-
                         cluded in the determination of dilution capacity of a marina.

                       No bacterial die-off or growth: As indicated above, fecal coliform survival in the water column
                         depends on many features but appears to be strongly correlated with temperature and salinity. If
                         possible, a decay rate of bacteria under the local conditions should be determined. If not, one
                         could measure the average temperature and salinity in a marina or harbor area during the
                         boating season and predict the die-off of fecal coliform bacteria using the relationship devel-
                         oped by Faust et al. (1975) or by using the decay coefficient cited by the U.S. EPA (1978). The
                         role of sediments as a source of surviving bacteria needs further consideration. In the absence of
                         local data or estimates, one should assume no die-off or growth.

                       No other sources of fecal coliform: There are likely to be background levels of fecal coliform
                         from overland runoff and point sources in most marina and harbor areas. If this background
                         level is greater than the standard (14 FC/100 ml), then the area would be closed to shellfishing
                         regardless of boating use. If the background level is greater than zero but less than the standard
                         then the background level should be incorporated into the equation.

                                                                                                                                  5

                   marina policy adopted by the Interstate Shellfish          Kuzminski, 1973a). While petroleum may disap-
                   Sanitation Conference in 1986 (Interstate Shellfish        pear rapidly from the water column, the portion that
                   Sanitation Conference, 1986) and the revised NSSP          reaches the sediment may persist for several years
                   manual of operations (U.S. Dept. H.E.W., 1988)             (Olsen et al., 1982). Lead compounds from gasoline
                   both use this formula but recommend the use of all         additives tend to sink to the bottom sediments
                   available information to account for regional              (Chmura and Ross, 1978).
                   differences. The ISSC marina policy and the
                   methods used by some states for determir-dng boat          Effects
                   concentrations and buffer zones are described in             The most obvious effects of pollutants from
                   Appendix 11.                                               marine engines include odor, an off taste in fish,
                                                                              and toxic effects on marine organisms. Estimates
                                                                              vary as to the exact thresholds of these effects.
                   BOAT ENGINE POLLUTION                                      English et al. (1963), using engines with no scaven-
                                                                              ger devices, found an odor threshold at I part per
                      Though there have been numerous studies on the          million (ppm) (1 gallon fuel bumed per million
                   fate and effect of oil spills in the marine environ-       gallons water) and noticeable fish tainting at 8 ppm.
                   ment (see, for example, National Academy of                An Environmental Protection Agency/Boating
                   Sciences, 1975), there have been relatively few            Industry of America study (U.S. EPA, 1974) noted
                   reports on the impact of boat engine pollution.            an odor threshold at 3 ppm and off taste at 110
                                                                              ppm. Outboard motor exhaust water in high con-
                   Sources                                                    centrations can exhibit toxic effects on various
                      Reports on boat engine pollution have focused           species of fish and wildlife (Jackivicz and
                   on the effect of two-cycle outboard engines.               Kuzminski, 1973b). The nature and degree of these
                   Because two-cycle engines accomplish fuel intake           effects varies by species (Nixon et al., 1973). For
                   and exhaust in the same cycle, they tend to release        example, Clark et al. (1974) found that gill tissue
                   unburned fuel along with the exhaust gases. Older          damage in mussels occurred more quickly than in
                   engines (manufactured prior to about 1972) drain           oysters because the oysters were able to close their
                   excess fuel from the crankcase directly into the           shells and exclude hydrocarbons while the mussels
                   water while newer engines have scavenger devices           were not.
                   to recycle this lost fuel. Two-cycle engines also             Although normal levels of outboard motor usage
                   have lubricant oil mixed in with the fuel, and this        have not been shown to have a toxic effect on
                   oil is released into the water along with the un-          aquatic communities, toxic effects have been
                   bumed fuel. There are over 100 hydrocarbon                 demonstrated from sustained low concentrations of
                   compounds in gasoline, as well as additives such as        petroleum in estuaries. In experimental mesocosms,
                   lead, while lubricant oils contain elements such as        sustained concentrations of 0.1 ppm of No. 2 fuel
                   zinc, sulfur, and phosphorus (Jackivicz and                oil in the water column caused reductions in
                   Kuzminski, 1973b). Another important source of             zooplankton, while sustained concentrations of 500
                   petroleum from recreational boats is the discharge         ppm had severe, long-lasting effects on benthic
                   of oily bilge water.                                       organisms (Olsen et al., 1982). Table 3 indicates the
                                                                              concentrations of hydrocarbons considered toxic to
                   Fate                                                       marine organisms. Concentrations in excess of
                      Once discharged into the water, petroleum               these toxic levels occur in the water column and
                   hydrocarbons may remain suspended in the water             sediment in many urbanized estuaries, and elevated
                   column, concentrate at the surface, or settle to the       hydrocarbon levels also occur in marina sediments
                   bottom. Many of these hydrocarbon compounds                (Voudrias, 1981). Petroleum hydrocarbon pollution
                   will not persist for very long because of their            from boats may thus contribute to already toxic
                   immiscibility, volatility, or biodegradability, or         concentrations of hydrocarbons in the water column
                   because of the effects of weathering (Jackivicz and        and sediment and increase long-term effects.

                    6

                    Table 3. Estimated Toxic Concentrations of Soluble Aromatic Fractions of Petroleum Hydrocarbons
                      for Marine Organismsa

                      Class of organisms                                    Toxic concentration (ppm)

                      Larvae (all species)                                       0.1-1.0
                      Swimming crustaceans                                        1-10
                      Bottom-dwelling crustaceans                                 1-10
                      Other bottom-dwelling organisms (worms, etc.)               1-10
                      Snails                                                      1-100

                      Finfish                                                     5-50

                      Bivalves                                                    5-50

                      Flora                                                       10-100
                    aUnited Nations, 1982.
                    Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1985. Coastal Marinas Assessment Handbook. Region IV EPA,
                    Atlanta, Georgia.

                    ANTIFOULING PAINTS                                       Tributyllin
                                                                                Tributyltins (TBTs) are a class of organic tins
                      Antifouling paints are used on ship hulls to pre-      that have been used recently as the biocides in anti-
                    vent fouling by marine organisms. The problem is         fouling paints. There are two classes of TBT paints:
                    that active ingredients in these paints may also have    conventional (also called free association), which
                    toxic effects on nontarget organisms. Copper and         leach continuously from the painted surface, and
                    organotin compounds are the most common active           copolymer, which are released at a controlled,
                    ingredients in antifouling paints. Other toxic com-      slower rate. Due to the rapid leaching of TBT from
                    pounds, such as mercury, arsenic, and polychlori-        boat hulls into the water, elevated levels of TBT
                    nated biphenols (PCBs), are no longer used due to        and its breakdown products have been found in the
                    their toxicity (Bellinger and Benham, 1978).             water, in sediment, and in organisms where there
                                                                             are concentrations of recreational boats. Recrea-
                    Copper                                                   tional boats were the main users of TBT paints until
                      Elevated copper concentrations have been found         recently. A 1987 survey found that 97% of TBT use
                    in the environment in the vicinity of shipyards          was on boats of 65 feet or less and that 93% of this
                    where hull scraping and painting occur. Young et         use was on recreational boats (Lucas and Williams,
                    al. (1979) found high levels of copper in the water      1987). Recent regulations now limit TBT use (see
                    and in mussels in the vicinity of shipyards in           below).
                    southern California. Bellinger and Benham (1978)
                    found elevated levels in the sediments in the            Fate. Unlike copper, TBT in seawater degrades
                    vicinity of dry docks in England. They considered        quickly. Estimates of the half-life of TBT in sea-
                    the risk from the metals to be minimal while vessels     water range from 3.5 to 15 days (Seligman et al.,
                    are at sea, due to the high dilution capacity of the     1986; Hinga et al., 1987). TBT is removed from the
                    ocean. Nixon et al. (1973) found higher concentra-       water column by adsorption to lipids and particulate
                    tions of copper in macroalgae, fouling communi-          matter, metabolism by plants and animals, and
                    ties, and sediments in a marina than in an adjacent      photolysis (Cardwell and Sheldon, 1986). Within
                    undeveloped bay.                                         the water column, the primary means of degrada-

                                                                                                                                     7

                   tion in the presence of light appears to be debutyla-      and Bleil, 1988). At least 13 states in the United
                   tion by planktonic algae, especially diatoms, while        States have also enacted their own legislation (e.g.,
                   in the absence of light, degradation is primarily by       Rhode Island Tributlytin Antifoulant Paint Control
                   bacteria (Champ and Bleil, 1988). Due to its               Act of 1988).
                   lipophilic properties, TBT tends to concentrate in
                   the surface microlayer, where it has been found at
                   up to 27 times the subsurface concentrations               PLASTIC DEBRIS
                   (Cleary and Stebbing, 1987). Once TBT adsorbs to
                   particulates and sinks into the sediment it tends to         The production and use of plastics has increased
                   concentrate and degrade slowly (Stang and Selig-           dramatically over the past few decades. Two of the
                   man, 1987; Espourteille, 1988).                            qualities that make plastic so popular - its light
                                                                              weight and its durability - also make it a marine
                   Effects. TBT has been reported to cause acute and          pollution problem. Plastic that is discarded into the
                   chronic toxicity to marine organisms, especially           ocean tends to float, persist, and accumulate.
                   bivalves and small crustaceans such as copepod             Marine plastic debris can be found anywhere in the
                   zooplankton. Significant declines in oyster and            world oceans (Dahlberg and Day, 1985; Pruter,
                   clam populations occurred in areas where there             1987; Wilbur, 1987) and in large quantities on the
                   were concentrations of boats using TBT paints, and         world's beaches (Merrell, 1980; Hays and Cormans,
                   these populations recovered quickly after TBTs             1974; Pruter, 1987).
                   were banned (Alzieu, 1986; Laughlin and Linddn,
                   1987). Bivalves are especially susceptible because         Sources
                   of their limited ability to metabolize the compound           Although the majority of marine plastic debris is
                   and because they are found in nearly anoxic sedi-          thought to come from commercial fishing, ship-
                   ments that lack the bacterial species necessary to         ping, and industry, recreational boating also con-
                   degrade TBT (Espourteille, 1988). Sublethal effects        tributes to the problem. In some coastal areas and
                   have been noted for a variety of fish species. A           harbors, in fact, the majority of plastic debris
                   review of the laboratory and field studies on the          appears to come from recreational boaters (Cundell,
                   toxicity of organotins is provided by Champ and            1973; Steinhauer et al., in prep.). An estimated 16
                   Bleil (1988).                                              million recreational boaters use the nation's coastal
                      High levels of bioaccumulation of TBT have              areas (Cottingham, 1988), and, according to a 1975
                   been reported. Bacteria and phytoplankton bioaccu-         study (National Academy of Sciences, 1975),
                   mulate TBT at concentrations of 600 to 30,000              discard over 100,000 tons of garbage annually. A
                   times the exposure concentration, while bioaccu-           large part of this garbage is plastic, including
                   mulation levels as high as 4,000 have been reported        plastic bags, six-pack holders, and monofilament
                   for bivalves (Cardwell and Sheldon, 1986). Despite         fishing line.
                   the high bioaccumulation rate by shellfish, there are
                   no indications that consumption of contaminated            Effects
                   shellfish by humans is of concern.                            Since plastics float and persist, they tend to be
                                                                              concentrated by ocean currents along coastal areas.
                   Regulation. Tributyltin antifouling paints are now         This results in closure of beaches due to pollution
                   restricted in the United States by the Organotin           (Swanson and Zimmer, in prep.), damage to boats
                   Antifouling Paint Control Act of 1988. This act            (Takehama, in prep.) and great hann to marine life
                   bans the use of organotin paints on all boats of less      (Laist, 1987). Although difficult to quantify, entan-
                   than 25 meters, except for those with aluminum             glement in and ingestion of plastics by marine
                   hulls, and limits the use of antifouling paints on         mammals, seabirds, marine turtles, and fish may be
                   other vessels to those paints that are certified by the    quite significant. Entanglement can cause drowning,
                   U.S. EPA as releasing less than 4 micrograms per           starvation, strangulation, and increased vulnerability
                   square centimeter per day into the water (Champ            to predation. These effects may be responsible for

                   8

                   significant declines in the populations of certain
                   species, such as northern fur seals (Fowler, 1985).
                   Ingestion of plastic items, such as pellets and bags,
                   by animals that mistake the debris for prey can
                   cause starvation due to blockage of the intestine,
                   ulceration of the stomach, and toxic effects. Of
                   special concern are effects on endangered species
                   of sea turtles (Balazs, 1985). In addition to affect-
                   ing marine life at sea, plastic debris washing up on
                   beaches may have detrimental effects on nesting
                   seabird colonies (Gochfeld, 1973).

                   Regulations
                     The Marine Plastic Pollution Research and
                   Control Act (MPPRCA) of 1987 is a national law
                   implementing Annex V of the International Con-
                   vention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships
                   (known as MARPOL). The MPPRCA prohibits the
                   dumping of plastics at sea and restricts dumping            ADON'T TEACH YOUR 100
                   other ship-generated garbage in the navigable
                   waters of the U.S. and the open ocean. The Annex                          TO SWIM!
                   V provisions of this law apply to all watercraft in-
                   cluding the smallest recreational vessels. The law      Drawing courtesy of the Marine Refuse Disposal Project,
                   went into effect on December 31, 1988, and is           Port offewport, Oregon.
                   enforced by the Coast Guard. In addition to limiting
                   dumping, these regulations require all marinas to
                   have adequate facilities for the disposal of garbage.
                   With these regulations in force, the problem of
                   plastic debris pollution from boats should be
                   drastically reduced.

                                                                                                                                                 9

                                                                     BIBLIOGRAPHY

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                     New Harbor, Block Island, Rhode Island, July 4th weekend, 1988. Photograph by Wilkins Studio, Wakefield, RI.

                     10

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                   14

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                      fishing vessels caused by marine debris based on
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                      Second International Conference on Marine Debris,
                      2-7 April, 1989, Honolulu, HL

                                                                                                   APPENDIX I

                                        Microbial, Infectious, and Biotoxigenic Diseases Transmitted by the Recreational and Shellfish-borne Routes
                                                                                                             Route of                                     Source of the agenta
                                                                                                         transmission    a                 Human       Animal
                              Agent                                   Disease                            Rec.       Shell.                   feces        feces       Sewage          Water

                    Bacteria
                    Salmnella sp.                            Typhoid and paratyphoidb                     +              +                    +              +              +
                                                               fevers, salmonellosis
                    Shigella sp.               C             Bacillary dysentery             d            +              -                    + m             m             +             n
                    Pseudomonas aeruginosa                   Otitis externa, skin infections              +              -                    + M            +M             +           + n
                    Aeromonas hydrophilac                    Infected wounds   e                          +              -                    +              +              +           +
                    Vibrio vulnificus                        Infected wounds                              +              -                                                  -           +
                    Vibrio parahaemolyticus                  Gastroententis  f                                           +                    +M                            +0          +n
                    Vibrio cholerae (01)                     Cholerag                                                    +                    +0                            +0
                    Non-01 V. cholerae                       Cholera-like disease                                        +                    +M                            +0          +
                    Leptospira sp.c                          Leptospirosis (Weil's disease)               +                                   +M,P,o         +P             -
                    Campylobacter sp.                        Gastroenteritis                                             +h                   +M             +              +0
                    Clostridium btlinwn                      Food poisoning (botulism)"J                                 +                                   +              -           +
                    various species                          Gastroenteritis                              ?              +                    +q             +q             +q          +q
                    Mycobacteriwn marinum                    Infected wounds                              +                                                                             +

                    Viruses
                    Hepatitis A                              Infectious hepatitis                         +              +                    +                             +
                    Norwalk-like                             Acute, infectious non-                       +              +                    +                             +
                                                                                                                         9                    +                             +
                    Human rotavirus                            bacterial gastroenteritis                  +
                    Adenovirus, types 3 and 4                Pharyngo-conjunctival feverc                 +T             -                    +                             +
                    Coxsackievirus                           Picurodynia, others                          +S             -                    +                             +

                    Protozo
                    Naegleria sp. (pathogenic)               Primary amoebic                              +              -                                   9t             +           +
                                                               meningoencephalitis
                    Bird shistosomes                         Swimmer's and clam digger's itch             +              -                                   +

                    Algae
                    Gonyaulax sp.                            Paralytic shellfish poisoning                u              +v                                                             +

                   Notes:
                   aWater = multiplies in environmental waters; Rec. = recreational (swimming); Shell.  shellfish consumption; Animal    lower animals. All agents in human
                   feces also assumed to be present in sewage.
                   bRare for recreational route; none for shellfish route since 1959.
                   CPrimarily in fresh water.
                   dPrimarily from hot tubs and whirlpool baths.
                   eLess frequently by V. parahaemolyticus and V. alginolyticus strains.
                   fSpecific toxigenic strains.
                   gOnly since 1973 by 0-1 strains.
                   hOnly two shellfish-borne outbreaks.
                   iToxin in food.
                   jProblem in food processing.
                   kPossibly caused by enteropathogenic E. coli and A. hydrophila, Yersinia enterocolitica, and the protozoan Giardia lamblia; much less frequent than viral gastroen-
                   teritis.
                   Inferred from prospective epidemiological bathing beach study.
                   mOther source more important.
                   nDensity probably influenced by nutrient loading.
                   0Not a significant source in U.S.
                   PUrine not feces.
                   qVaries with potential agent.
                   rCharacteristically associated with use of swimming pools, not natural water bodies.
                   sTwo questionable outbreaks in fresh water.
                   tSW from birds suggested.
                   UUpper respiratory symptoms from other less toxigenic dinoflagellates, Prorocentrum sp.
                   vShellfish poisoning is also due to other dinoflagellates with different toxins.

                   In addition, there are a number of other pollution-associated agents that could cause swimming or shellfish-associated disease, although there is no evidence that they
                   have done so. They include the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella, and Clostridium perfringens; most of the enteroviruses; amoebae such as Entamoeba
                   histolytica; and a number of exotic multicellular parasites.

                   Source: Cabelli, VJ., Levin, M.A., and Dufour, A.P. 1983. Public health consequenc6 of coastal and estuarine pollutions: Infectious diseases. In: Myers, E.P., and
                   Harding, E.T., eds. Ocean disposal of municipal wastewater: Impacts on the coastal environment. MIT Sea Grant (MITSG 83-33), Cambridge, MA.

                    22

                                                                     APPENDIX 11

                                   Policies and Formulas for Determining Allowable Numbers of Boats

                                                   Part 1. Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference
                                                                      Marina Policy

                         In accordance with the recommendation of the National Shellfish Sanitation Program that marinas be con-
                    sidered as potential sources of pollution in shellfish growing waters, the Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Confer-
                    ence adopts the following policy with respect to marina facilities, docking facilities, and other mooring areas.
                    Definition: A marina is any structure (docks, ramps, floating docks, etc.) which is utilized for docking, storing
                    or otherwise mooring vessels and usually but not necessarily providing services to vessels such as repairing,
                    fueling, security, etc.
                    1 .  The Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference recognizes that biological and chemical contamination
                         associated with marine facilities may be of public health significance and may result in loss of safe
                         shellfish growing areas.
                    2.   The potential for contamination in the immediate vicinity of a marina will require a prohibited, restricted
                         or conditionally approved classification of that area within the marina proper for the harvesting of shell-
                         fish.
                    3.   If waters adjacent to the marina are impacted, additional closed areas (Prohibited, Restricted, or Condition-
                         ally Approved) beyond the marina proper will be required. The Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference
                         obligates itself to the development of scientific practices for:
                         A.    Determining the need for additional closed areas beyond the marina proper;
                         B.    Developing uniform techniques for establishment of closed areas based on any or all of the follow-
                               ing factors: Dilution, dispersion, die-off or residence time, hydrography, marina design, and marina
                               usage.
                    4.   The ISSC recommends the use of dilution analysis for marina closure determinations. The dilution
                         analysis should incorporate the following assumptions:
                         A.    An occupancy rate of the marina.
                         B.    An assumed rate of boats which will discharge untreated waste.
                         C.    The rates assumed in A and 13, due to significant regional differences, will be determined by the
                               State Shellfish Control Agency in each state. 'Me basis of the assumptions will be documented and
                               should reflect a reliable worse case condition.
                         D.    2 x 109 fecal coliforms per person per day.
                         E.    2 persons per boat.
                         F.    Wastes are completely mixed in and around the marina.
                         0.    The area to be closed is based on a theoretical calculated value of 14 fecal coliforms per 100 ml
                               water.
                         H.    The area to be closed is based on the volume of water in the vicinity of the marina.

                    Comments
                    � Other places where boats are moored or docked will be considered by the State Shellfish Authority or on a
                         case-by-case basis with respect to sanitary significance relative to actual or potential contamination.
                    � There are significant regional differences in all factors that affect marina pollution loading. Sufficient
                         flexibility must be allowed to account for those differences.

                                                                                                                                  23

                   � Research is needed to improve the predicted pollution loading under different hydrographic conditions and to
                         quantify the public health risks (from microbial and chemical contaminants) of consuming shellfish
                         harvested in and around marinas.
                   � Best Professional Judgement of qualified shellfish sanitarians must be applied to determining adequate
                         restrictions on harvesting in and around marinas.
                   � It is recommended that following marina or docking facility construction, buffer zone sizing be established
                         using the best technology available to the State Shellfish Control Agency. Implied is that the State Shell-
                         fish Control Agency strive to develop the best available technology.
                   Reprintedfi,om: Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference. 1986. Marina Policy. Adopted atfourth Interstate
                         Shellfish Sanitation Conference, 1986.

                                               Part 2. State of Maryland Marina Assessment Model
                   Methodology
                         Using the ISSC's dilution analysis, a 13% occupancy rate and a volume of dilution water based on 900
                   square feet of surface area per boat slip, the fecal coliform concentration within a marina proper can be calcu-
                   lated. Once the concentration within the marina proper is known, the distance beyond the marina necessary to
                   provide a sufficient volume of dilution water to meet a theoretical calculated value of 14 fecal coliforms per 100
                   ml water can be determined.
                         Calculations predicting fecal coliforin concentrations beyond the marina are predicated on:
                   I .   An average depth of 8.5 feet in the area outside the marina.
                   2.    The volume of available dilution water outside the marina is equivalent to (x - y) x 8.5 feet, where:
                           x = surface area within the region formed by a semicircle extending 'Y' distance beyond the marina's
                           outer perimeter,
                           y = surface area of the marina proper as shown below.

                                                                            Z

                                                                            Y             X

                   3.    During the ebbing tide, the total number of fecal coliform bacteria contained in a volume of water equiva-
                         lent to the top one foot (tidal prism) of the marina proper is evenly dispersed in the water beyond the
                         marina proper.

                   Discussion
                         While simplistic in its assumptions, the methodology used in this assessment model represents a realistic
                   approach in that the coliforin bacteria in a body of water at the marina are diluted first within the marina
                   confines and then the total number of fecal coliform. organisms contained within the volume of water equivalent
                   to the tidal prism (one foot) is dispersed in the area outside the marina on the subsequent tide.
                         Not considered in this assessment are other influencing factors which individually or collectively may
                   result in an increase or decrease of fecal coliform loading in and around a marina. These factors include:
                   I .   bacteria die-off rates
                   2.    flushing rates/time of travel

                   24

                   3.   freshwater inflow

                   4.   wind conditions
                   5.   turbidity
                   6.   salinity
                   7.   water temperature
                   8.   background levels of bacteria
                   9.   time of year
                   10.  shoreline contour/bottom contour
                        Most of these factors would contribute to additional decreases in fecal coliform concentration and sur-
                   vival. Therefore, the model is conservative.

                   Conclusion
                        The presence of a marina may increase the fecal coliform concentration in water. However, increased
                   fecal coliform levels appear significant only within the marina proper. Impact on the bacteriological quality of
                   water immediately surrounding a marina is marginal and rapidly becomes non-detectable as the distance from
                   the marina increases.
                        Based on the information and the dilution calculation presented in this paper, Maryland has determined
                   that to adequately protect the public from consumption of potentially contaminated shellfish in the vicinity of a
                   marina, the following buffer zone sizes be established:

                                    Marina Size                            Buffer Zone Size
                                         slips)                           (feet beyond marina)
                                        1-50                                       100

                                       51-100                                      150

                                        >100                                       200

                   Reprintedfrom: Maryland Department of the Environment. 1987. Marina assessment modelfor predicting
                   bacterial loading. Annapolis, MD.

                                                        Part 3. State of South Carolina
                                                 Procedures for Buffer Zone Determinations
                                                        Marina Boat Docking Facility
                        The following factors affect water quality impacts of boat docking/marina facilities and the potential for
                   contamination of shellfish from such facilities.
                   I .  Site characteristics (size, shape, topography, geography, and hydrography).
                   2.   Number and size of boats.
                   3.   Usage of boats.
                   4.   Types of docking (resident, community, lease, transit, etc.).
                   5.   Facilities and services available at each docking area (gas, oil, repairs, food, water, supplies, pumpouts,
                        etc.).
                   6.   Types of waste disposal equipment on boats.
                   7.   The existing background water quality conditions.
                        These factors will be given consideration in determining the necessity of a buffer zone around marinas
                   and/or docking facilities in open Class SA waters. It is extremely difficult to establish specific criteria for these;

                                                                                                                                       25

                   therefore, professional judgement must often be applied in reaching a determination as to the necessity of a
                   buffer zone. If, after a careful review of the above factors, the Shellfish Section deems that a buffer zone is
                   necessary, the following procedures will be applied in determining the size of the buffer zone:
                   I .   In the absence of a site specific hydrographic study, a 1000-foot buffer zone will be required around the
                         facility. The point of measurement will be a 1000-foot radius in all directions from all points of the boat
                         docking facility.
                   2.    An applicant may request a reduced buffer zone if a site specific hydrographic study, which is acceptable
                         to the agency, is presented by the applicant and this study indicates that such action is warranted. The
                         hydrographic study must include worse case conditions for dynamic diluting flow and worse case condi-
                         tions for static volumes for any and all tide cycles including low slack tide and high slack tide. 'Me
                         evaluation will include all inter-relationships of hydrographic factors and coliform bacteria.
                         The applicant must consult with the Shellfish Section on his study plans before initiation of a study.
                   3.    When hydrographic studies are used to calculate dilutions and dispersions of fecal coliform, the following
                         assumptions and/or criteria will be used:
                         A.    There will be 50% boat occupancy assumed at the facility.
                         B.    Two (2) people will occupy each boat.
                         C.    Marine Sanitation Device (MSD) malfunction rate:
                               1.   If the boat docking facility allows only boats with MSD Type III heads (no discharge), the
                                    malfunction rate = 10%.
                               2.   If the boat docking facility allows any other boats with MSD types 1, 111, and III, the malfunc-
                                    tion rate = 50%.
                         D.    Fecal bacterial loading rate per person/day = 2.0 x 10' (Geldreich, 1966) using a 12-hour tidal cycle
                               day.
                         E.    All discharges are instantaneous and evenly dispersed.
                         F.    Background water quality data will be used in determining actual buffer zone lines.
                   4.    In determining the size of the buffer zones, the Shellfish Section will calculate expected fecal coliforin
                         concentrations at given distances from the docking facility. These predicted concentrations will be
                         compared to the standard of 14/100 ml and an actual buffer zone line will then be drawn.
                   5.    It will be necessary to protect the shoreline adjacent to the boat docking facilities to prevent contamination
                         from floating and settleable solid matter associated with human waste. This floating matter is easily
                         influenced by tidal currents and wind direction. To ensure this protection, buffer zones may be extended
                         beyond the calculated distance necessary for diluting the waste. This extension will extend to the immedi-
                         ate shoreline unless an acceptable alternative means of shoreline protection is provided to ensure that the
                         potentially contaminating solid fecal matter does not reach the shellfish beds located near the shoreline in
                         the vicinity of the docking site.
                         This provides protection at low slack tide and high slack tide with prevailing wind conditions that might
                         push waste to shore. After low and high slack tide conditions, the dynamic tidal current diluting flow then
                         removes this waste and dilutes it according to measured flows and concentrations as established by the
                         hydrographic study.
                         If a complete evaluation indicates that a buffer zone smaller than 1000 feet provides adequate public
                   health protection, the Shellfish Section will reduce the buffer zone appropriately. Similarly, if the hydrographic
                   survey indicates that a 1000-foot buffer zone is not adequate to protect public health, the size of the buffer zone
                   will be expanded beyond the 1000-foot radius. It will be mandatory that the following conditions are accepted,
                   incorporated and enforced as a part of all certifications or permits.
                   I .   Pumpout facilities for boat sanitary waste are provided.

                       26

                       2.   Enforcement procedures are required for those berthing facilities that allow MSD Type III pLly.
                       3.   A monitoring program will be designed by the agency and implemented to measure conditions in and
                            around the docking facility for parameters affecting the classification of shellfish areas. The applicant
                            must bear sampling and laboratory costs. These include:
                            A.   Fecal and total coliforin in the water.

                            B.   Fecal and total coliform in shellfish meats.
                            C.   Temperature.
                            D.   Salinity.
                            E.   Heavy metals.
                            The sample stations shall include but not necessarily be limited to inside the zone, outside the zone, and
                       along the zone line.
                            The time of sampling, the placement of sampling stations and the frequency of sampling will be estab-
                       lished by the Department.
                            If monitoring results reveal that the established buffer zone is inadequate, the Shellfish Section will
                       increase the size as necessary to protect the public health.
                       Reprintedfrom: South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control, Shellfish Division. 1985.
                       Technical procedures for buffer zone determinations around boat docking facilities. Columbia, SC.

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